initial commit of ebook 30073HEADmain

46 files changed, 56093 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/30073-0.txt b/30073-0.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9cf59e8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-0.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7445 @@
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30073 ***
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+  are listed at the end of the text. Due to space constraints, italics
+  denoting underscores were not used in the tables.
+
+
+                          THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
+
+      A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+                              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+                           VOLUME VIII slice III
+
+                           Destructor to Diameter
+
+
+
+
+DESTRUCTOR (_continued from volume 8, slice 2, page 0108._)
+  ... in main flues, &c. (g) The chimney draught must be assisted with
+  forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of 1½ in. to 2 in.
+  under grates by water-gauge. (h) Where a destructor is required to
+  work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its
+  efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view
+  in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary
+  consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace
+  so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the temperature of
+  the gases is reduced before the organic matter has been thoroughly
+  burned. (i) Where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a
+  large percentage of CO_{2} should be sought in the furnaces with as
+  little excess of air as possible, and the flue gases should be
+  utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates, and the feed-water
+  to the boilers. (j) Ample boiler capacity and hot-water storage
+  feed-tanks should be included in the design where steam-power is
+  required.
+
+  [Sidenote: Cost.]
+
+  As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few
+  trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends, amongst
+  other things, upon the difficulty of preparing the site, upon the
+  nature of the foundations required, the height of the chimney-shaft,
+  the length of the inclined or approach roadway, and the varying prices
+  of labour and materials in different localities. As an example may be
+  mentioned the case of Bristol, where, in 1892, the total cost of
+  constructing a 16-cell Fryer destructor was £11,418, of which £2909
+  was expended on foundations, and £1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost
+  of the destructor proper, buildings and approach road was therefore
+  £6820, or about £426 per cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in
+  destructors depends mainly upon--(a) The price of labour in the
+  locality, and the number of "shifts" or changes of workmen per day;
+  (b) the type of furnace adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be
+  consumed; (d) the interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The
+  cost of burning ton for ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces,
+  including labour and repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion
+  destructors. The average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four
+  different towns throughout England, exclusive of interest on the cost
+  of the works, is 1s. 1½d. per ton burned; the minimum cost is 6d. per
+  ton at Bradford, and the maximum cost 2s. 10d. per ton at Battersea.
+  At Shoreditch the cost per ton for the year ending on the 25th of
+  March 1899, including labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &c. (but
+  exclusive of interest on cost of works), was 2s. 6.9d. The quantity of
+  refuse burned per cell per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up
+  to 20 tons. The ordinary low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft.
+  grate area, burns about 20 lb. of refuse per square foot of grate
+  area per hour, or between 5 and 6 tons per cell per 24 hours. The
+  Meldrum destructor furnaces at Rochdale burn as much as 66 lb. per
+  square foot of grate area per hour, and the Beaman and Deas destructor
+  at Llandudno 71.7 lb. per square foot per hour. The amount, however,
+  always depends materially on the care observed in stoking, the nature
+  of the material, the frequency of removal of clinker, and on the
+  question whether the whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is
+  thoroughly cremated.
+
+  [Sidenote: Residues:]
+
+  The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from
+  22 to 37% of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30% is a very usual
+  amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists of about 8% of straw,
+  paper, shavings, &c., the residue contains about 29% clinker, 2.7%
+  fine ash, .5% flue dust, and .6% old tins, making a total residue of
+  32.8%. As the residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the
+  total bulk of the refuse dealt with, it is a question of the utmost
+  importance that some profitable, or at least inexpensive, means should
+  be devised for its regular disposal. Among other purposes, it has been
+  used for bottoming for macadamized roads, for the manufacture of
+  concrete, for making paving slabs, for forming suburban footpaths or
+  cinder footwalks, and for the manufacture of mortar. The last is a
+  very general, and in many places profitable, mode of disposal. An
+  entirely new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of good
+  well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion with the construction
+  of bacteria beds for sewage disposal, and in many districts its value
+  has, by this means, become greatly enhanced.
+
+  [Sidenote: Forced draught.]
+
+  Through defects in the design and management of many of the early
+  destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these have,
+  to some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute.
+  Although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this
+  respect, that is by no means the case with the modern improved type of
+  high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great
+  prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of
+  a refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to
+  the inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and worked, will
+  give rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the midst of a
+  populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect cremation of the refuse
+  and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential. This is
+  supplied either as air draught delivered from a rapidly revolving fan,
+  or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall steam jet or the Meldrum blower.
+  With a forced blast less air is required to obtain complete combustion
+  than by chimney draught. The forced draught grate requires little more
+  than the quantity theoretically necessary, while with chimney draught
+  more than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied. With
+  forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is attained, and if it
+  is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter the furnaces
+  during stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of pressure in
+  the cells during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to
+  prevent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The forced draught
+  pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The efficiency of the
+  combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the
+  "Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the
+  proportion of CO_{2} passing away in the waste gases; the higher the
+  percentage of CO_{2} the more efficient the furnace, provided there is
+  no formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete
+  combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO_{2} for refuse burning is
+  about 20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting
+  secondary air over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the
+  air-pressure in the ash-pit, an amount approximating to this
+  percentage may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly
+  worked. If the proportion of free oxygen (i.e. excess of air) is
+  large, more air is passed through the furnace than is required for
+  complete combustion, and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste
+  of heat. The position of the econometer in testing should be as near
+  the furnace as possible, as there may be considerable air leakage
+  through the brickwork of the flues.
+
+  The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the inlet
+  air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of which
+  is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue.
+
+  [Sidenote: Calorific value.]
+
+  The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and gases
+  perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature varying
+  from 1250° to 2000° F., and the maintenance of such temperatures has
+  very naturally suggested the possibility of utilizing this heat-energy
+  for the production of steam-power. Experience shows that a
+  considerable amount of energy may be derived from steam-raising
+  destructor stations, amply justifying a reasonable increase of
+  expenditure on plant and labour. The actual calorific value of the
+  refuse material necessarily varies, but, as a general average, with
+  suitably designed and properly managed plant, an evaporation of 1 lb.
+  of water per pound of refuse burned is a result which may be readily
+  attained, and affords a basis of calculation which engineers may
+  safely adopt in practice. Many destructor steam-raising plants,
+  however, give considerably higher results, evaporations approaching 2
+  lb. of water per pound of refuse being often met with under
+  favourable conditions.
+
+  From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the
+  calorific value of unscreened house refuse varies from 1 to 2 lb. of
+  water evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion
+  depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with.
+  Taking the evaporative power of coal at 10 lb. of water per pound of
+  coal, this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from {1/10} to
+  {1/5} that of coal; or, with coal at 20s. per ton, refuse has a
+  commercial value of from 2s. to 4s. per ton. In London the quantity of
+  house refuse amounts to about 1¼ million tons per annum, which is
+  equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be
+  burned in furnaces giving an evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound
+  of refuse, it would yield a total power annually of about 138 million
+  brake horse-power hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 20s. per ton
+  for this amount of power even when calculated upon the very low
+  estimate of 2 lb.[1] of coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at
+  over £123,000. On the same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town,
+  with, say, a population of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5
+  cwt. per head per annum, would afford 112 indicated horse-power per
+  ton burned, and the total indicated horse-power hours per annum would
+  be
+
+       70,000 × 5 cwt.
+       --------------- × 112 = 1,960,000 I.H.P. hours annually.
+              20
+
+  If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the
+  electrical horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of
+  90%)
+
+       1,960,000 × 90
+       -------------- = 1,764,000 E.H.P. hours per annum;
+            100
+
+  and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be
+
+                 1,764,000 × 746 = 1,315,944,000.
+
+  Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give
+  1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power
+  lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have
+
+   1,184,349,600 watt-hours
+   ------------------------ = 39,478,320 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum;
+           30 watts
+
+               39,478,320
+  that is, ----------------- = 563 8-c.p. lamp hours per annum per
+           70,000 population           head of population.
+
+  Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20% on
+  three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would be 478
+  8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population: i.e. if the
+  power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it would supply
+  electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of the
+  population for about 1{1/3} hours for every night of the year.
+
+  [Sidenote: Difficulties.]
+
+  In actual practice, when the electric energy is for the purposes of
+  lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the
+  thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want of adequate
+  means of storage either of the thermal or of the electric energy. A
+  destructor station usually yields a fairly definite amount of thermal
+  energy uniformly throughout the 24 hours, while the consumption of
+  electric-lighting current is extremely irregular, the maximum demand
+  being about four times the mean demand. The period during which the
+  demand exceeds the mean is comparatively short, and does not exceed
+  about 6 hours out of the 24, while for a portion of the time the
+  demand may not exceed {1/20}th of the maximum. This difficulty, at
+  first regarded as somewhat grave, is substantially minimized by the
+  provision of ample boiler capacity, or by the introduction of feed
+  thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during
+  the hours of light load (say 18 out of the 24), so that at the time of
+  maximum load the boiler may be filled directly from these vessels,
+  which work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler.
+  Further, the difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at
+  stations where there is a fair day load which practically ceases at
+  about the hour when the illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing
+  the demand upon both destructor and electric plant throughout the 24
+  hours. This arises in cases where current is consumed during the day
+  for motors, fans, lifts, electric tramways, and other like purposes,
+  and, as the employment of electric energy for these services is
+  rapidly becoming general, no difficulty need be anticipated in the
+  successful working of combined destructor and electric plants where
+  these conditions prevail. The more uniform the electrical demand
+  becomes, the more fully may the power from a destructor station be
+  utilized.
+
+  In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse
+  destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with
+  various other classes of power-using undertakings, including tramways,
+  water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and
+  clinker-crushing works and others; and the increasingly large sums
+  which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this
+  character is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value of
+  such combinations where these several classes of work must be carried
+  on.
+
+  For further information on the subject, reference should be made to
+  William H. Maxwell, _Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with an
+  exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants_ (London, 1899), with
+  a special _Supplement_ embodying later results (London, 1905).
+
+  See also the _Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal
+  and County Engineers_, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214
+  and xxv. p. 138; also the _Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
+  Engineers_, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413,
+  cxxxviii. p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp.
+  369 and 498, cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300.           (W. H. MA.)
+
+[1] With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4 lb. of coal per
+brake horse-power per hour is a very usual performance.
+
+
+DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN, 3rd BARON (1835-1895), English
+poet, eldest son of George Fleming Leicester (afterwards Warren), 2nd
+Baron De Tabley, was born on the 26th of April 1835. He was educated at
+Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with
+second classes in classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn
+of 1858 he went to Turkey as unpaid attaché to Lord Stratford de
+Redcliffe, and two years later was called to the bar. He became an
+officer in the Cheshire Yeomanry, and unsuccessfully contested
+Mid-Cheshire in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in
+1871 he removed to London, where he became a close friend of Tennyson
+for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the title in 1887 he
+was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a recluse. It was not till
+1892 that he returned to London life, and enjoyed a sort of renaissance
+of reputation and friendship. During the later years of his life Lord De
+Tabley made many new friends, besides reopening old associations, and he
+almost seemed to be gathering around him a small literary company when
+his health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde, in
+his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire.
+Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a poet,
+De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at one time an
+authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels; published _A Guide to the
+Study of Book Plates_ (1880); and the fruit of his careful researches in
+botany was printed posthumously in his elaborate _Flora of Cheshire_
+(1899). Poetry, however, was his first and last passion, and to that he
+devoted the best energies of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards
+poetry came from his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a
+close companionship during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as
+Tennyson lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees.
+Fortescue was killed by falling from the mast of Lord Drogheda's yacht
+in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De Tabley into deep
+depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley issued four little volumes
+of pseudonymous verse (by G. F. Preston), in the production of which he
+had been greatly stimulated by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he
+assumed a pseudonym--his _Praeterita_ (1863) bearing the name of William
+Lancaster. In the next year he published _Eclogues and Monodramas_,
+followed in 1865 by _Studies in Verse_. These volumes all displayed
+technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was not till the
+publication of _Philoctetes_ in 1866 that De Tabley met with any wide
+recognition. _Philoctetes_ bore the initials "M.A.," which, to the
+author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning Matthew Arnold. He at once
+disclosed his identity, and received the congratulations of his friends,
+among whom were Tennyson, Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published
+_Orestes_, in 1870 _Rehearsals_ and in 1873 _Searching the Net_. These
+last two bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat
+disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876 _The Soldier
+of Fortune_, a drama on which he had bestowed much careful labour,
+proved a complete failure, he retired altogether from the literary
+arena. It was not until 1893 that he was persuaded to return, and the
+immediate success in that year of his _Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical_,
+encouraged him to publish a second series in 1895, the year of his
+death. The genuine interest with which these volumes were welcomed did
+much to lighten the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life.
+His posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics of De
+Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style, derived from
+close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and colour. His passion
+for detail was both a strength and a weakness: it lent a loving fidelity
+to his description of natural objects, but it sometimes involved him in
+a loss of simple effect from over-elaboration of treatment. He was
+always a student of the classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration
+directly from them. He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a
+brother poet well said, "still climbed the clear cold altitudes of
+song." His ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally
+ice-bound at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and
+bright, vivid outlines.
+
+  See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his _Critical Kit-Kats_ (1896).
+                                                                (A. WA.)
+
+
+DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE ÉDOUARD (1848- ), French painter, was born in
+Paris on the 5th of October 1848. After working as a pupil of
+Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the Salon of 1867, a picture
+representing "A Corner of Meissonier's Studio." Military life was from
+the first a principal attraction to the young painter, and he gained his
+reputation by depicting the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail
+truthfully rendered. He exhibited "A Halt" (1868); "Soldiers at rest,
+during the Manoeuvres at the Camp of Saint Maur" (1869); "Engagement
+between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814" (1870). The war of
+1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which gained him
+repeated successes. Among his more important pictures may be named "The
+Conquerors" (1872); "The Retreat" (1873); "The Charge of the 9th
+Regiment of Cuirassiers in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870"
+(1874); "The Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A
+Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877); "Bonaparte in
+Egypt" (1878); the "Inauguration of the New Opera House"--a
+water-colour; the "Defence of Champigny by Faron's Division" (1879). He
+also worked with Alphonse de Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In
+1884 he exhibited at the Salon the "Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic
+study, and "The Dream" (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille recorded
+other events in the military history of his country: the "Sortie of the
+Garrison of Huningue" (now in the Luxemburg), the "Vincendon Brigade,"
+and "Bizerte," reminiscences of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit
+to Russia, Detaille exhibited "The Cossacks of the Ataman" and "The
+Hereditary Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other
+important works are: "Victims to Duty," "The Prince of Wales and the
+Duke of Connaught" and "Pasteur's Funeral." In his picture of "Châlons,
+9th October 1896," exhibited in the Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the
+emperor and empress of Russia at a review, with M. Félix Faure. Detaille
+became a member of the French Institute in 1898.
+
+   See Marius Vachon, _Detaille_ (Paris, 1898); Frédéric Masson,
+  _Édouard Detaille and his work_ (Paris and London, 1891); J. Claretie,
+  _Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains_ (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy,
+  _Les Jeunes peintres militaires_ (Paris, 1878).
+
+
+DETAINER (from _detain_, Lat. _detinere_), in law, the act of keeping a
+person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a person's goods, or
+other real or personal property. A writ of detainer was a form for the
+beginning of a personal action against a person already lodged within
+the walls of a prison; it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838.
+
+
+DETERMINANT, in mathematics, a function which presents itself in the
+solution of a system of simple equations.
+
+1. Considering the equations
+
+                   ax  + by  + cz  = d,
+                   a'x + b'y + c'z = d',
+                   a"x + b"y + c"z = d",
+
+and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross
+multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in such a
+manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient of y becomes =
+0, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = 0; the factors in question
+are b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c (values which, as at once seen,
+have the desired property); we thus obtain an equation which contains on
+the left-hand side only a multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a
+constant term; the coefficient of x has the value
+
+          a(b'c" - b"c') + a'(b"c - bc") + a"(bc' - b'c),
+
+and this function, represented in the form
+
+                         |a,  b,  c |,
+                         |a', b', c'|
+                         |a", b", c"|
+
+is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 3², it is
+called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed that the
+resulting equation is
+
+                |a,  b,  c | x = |d,  b,  c |
+                |a', b', c'|     |d', b', c'|
+                |a", b", c"|     |d", b", c"|
+
+where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function with d,
+d', d" in place of a, a', a" respectively, and is of course also a
+determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c
+used in the process are themselves the determinants of the second order
+
+                |b', c'|, |b", c"|, |b,  c |.
+                |b", c"|  |b,  c |  |b', c'|
+
+We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation of the
+determinants of the orders 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., each from the preceding one,
+viz. we have
+
+  |a|      = a,
+
+  |a,  b | = a|b'| - a'|b|.
+  |a', b'|
+
+  |a,  b,  c | = a|b', c'| + a'|b", c"| + a"|b,  c |,
+  |a', b', c'|    |b", c"|     |b , c |     |b', c'|
+  |a", b", c"|
+
+  |a,   b  , c  , d  | = a|b',  c',  d' | - a'|b" , c" , d" | +
+  |a',  b' , c' , d' |    |b",  c",  d" |     |b"', c"', d"'|
+  |a",  b" , c" , d" |    |b"', c"', d"'|     |b  , c  , d  |
+  |a"', b"', c"', d"'|
+
+                      + a"|b"', c"', d"'| - a"'|b , c,  d |,
+                          |b  , c  , d  |      |b', c', d'|
+                          |b' , c' , d' |      |b", c", d"|
+
+and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd order, but
+alternately + and - for a determinant of an even order.
+
+2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results:--
+
+A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3...n products which
+can be formed with n elements out of n² elements arranged in the form of
+a square, no two of the n elements being in the same line or in the same
+column, and each such product having the coefficient ± unity.
+
+The products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible
+manner the columns (or the lines) of the determinant, and then taking
+for the factors the n elements in the dexter diagonal. And we thence
+derive the rule for the signs, viz. considering the primitive
+arrangement of the columns as positive, then an arrangement obtained
+therefrom by a single interchange (inversion, or derangement) of two
+columns is regarded as negative; and so in general an arrangement is
+positive or negative according as it is derived from the primitive
+arrangement by an even or an odd number of interchanges. [This implies
+the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive
+arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even number of
+interchanges,--a theorem the verification of which may be easily
+obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular case of the general
+one), an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number
+of interchanges.] And this being so, each product has the sign belonging
+to the corresponding arrangement of the columns; in particular, a
+determinant contains with the sign + the product of the elements in its
+dexter diagonal. It is to be observed that the rule gives as many
+positive as negative arrangements, the number of each being = ½ 1.2...n.
+
+The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving to the
+columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers 1, 2, 3 ... n, to
+obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement we take, as often as
+a lower number succeeds a higher one, the sign -, and, compounding
+together all these minus signs, obtain the proper sign, + or - as the
+case may be.
+
+Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123, 231, 312
+are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the developed expression
+of the foregoing determinant of the third order is
+
+           = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c.
+
+3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function[1] of the
+elements of each column thereof, and also a linear function of the
+elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the determinant retains
+the same value, only its sign being altered, when any two columns are
+interchanged, or when any two lines are interchanged; more generally,
+when the columns are permuted in any manner, or when the lines are
+permuted in any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with
+the sign + or - according as the new arrangement (considered as derived
+from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative according to the
+foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that, if two columns are
+identical, or if two lines are identical, the value of the determinant
+is = 0. It may be added, that if the lines are converted into columns,
+and the columns into lines, in such a way as to leave the dexter
+diagonal unaltered, the value of the determinant is unaltered; the
+determinant is in this case said to be _transposed_.
+
+4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of the n²
+elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or say, for
+shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only the sign is
+altered when any two columns are interchanged; these properties
+completely determine the function, except as to a common factor which
+may multiply all the terms. If, to get rid of this arbitrary common
+factor, we assume that the product of the elements in the dexter
+diagonal has the coefficient +1, we have a complete definition of the
+determinant, and it is interesting to show how from these properties,
+assumed for the definition of the determinant, it at once appears that
+the determinant is a function serving for the solution of a system of
+linear equations. Observe that the properties show at once that if any
+column is = 0 (that is, if the elements in the column are each = 0),
+then the determinant is = 0; and further, that if any two columns are
+identical, then the determinant is = 0.
+
+5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the
+beginning of this article, consider the determinant
+
+                 |ax  + by  + cz  - d , b , c |;
+                 |a'x + b'y + c'z - d', b', c'|
+                 |a"x + b"y + c"z - d", b", c"|
+
+it appears that this is
+
+  = x|a , b , c | + y|b , b , c | + z|c , b , c | - |d , b , c |;
+     |a', b', c'|    |b', b', c'|    |c', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+     |a", b", c"|    |b", b", c"|    |c", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+viz. the second and third terms each vanishing, it is
+
+                = x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c |.
+                   |a', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+                   |a", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the
+original determinant is = 0, and therefore the determinant itself is = 0;
+that is, the linear equations give
+
+                x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c | = 0;
+                 |a', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+                 |a", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+which is the result obtained above.
+
+We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there is a
+more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the new
+equation
+
+            [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z = [delta];
+
+a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have
+
+           |[alpha], [beta], [gamma], [delta]| = 0;
+           |   a   ,    b  ,    c   , d      |
+           |   a'  ,    b' ,    c'  , d'     |
+           |   a"  ,    b" ,    c"  , d"     |
+
+or, as this may be written,
+
+     |[alpha], [beta], [gamma]    | - [delta]| a , b , c | = 0:
+     |   a   ,   b   ,    c   , d |          | a', b', c'|
+     |   a'  ,   b'  ,    c'  , d'|          | a", b", c"|
+     |   a"  ,   b"  ,    c"  , d"|          |           |
+
+which, considering [delta] as standing herein for its value [alpha]x +
+[beta]y + [gamma]z, is a consequence of the original equations only: we
+have thus an expression for [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z, an arbitrary
+linear function of the unknown quantities x, y, z; and by comparing the
+coefficients of [alpha], [beta], [gamma] on the two sides respectively,
+we have the values of x, y, z; in fact, these quantities, each
+multiplied by
+
+                      |a , b , c |,
+                      |a', b', c'|
+                      |a", b", c"|
+
+are in the first instance obtained in the forms
+
+       |1             |, |    1         |, |        1     |;
+       |a , b , c , d |  |a , b , c , d |  |a , b , c , d |
+       |a', b', c', d'|  |a', b', c', d'|  |a', b', c', d'|
+       |a", b", c", d"|  |a", b", c", d"|  |a", b", c", d"|
+
+but these are
+
+         = |b , c , d |, - |c , d , a |, |d , a , b |,
+           |b', c', d'|    |c', d', a'|  |d', a', b'|
+           |b", c", d"|    |c", d", a"|  |d", a", b"|
+
+or, what is the same thing,
+
+         = |b , c , d |, |c , a , d |, |a , b , d |
+           |b', c', d'|  |c', a', d'|  |a', b', d'|
+           |b", c", d"|  |c", a", d"|  |a", b", d"|
+
+respectively.
+
+6. _Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order._--The theorem
+is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition of a
+determinant. It is most simply expressed thus--
+
+              ([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"),
+                     ([beta],[beta]',[beta]"),
+                           ([gamma],[gamma]',[gamma]")
+              +---------------------------------------+
+  (a , b , c )|          "       "       "            | =
+  (a', b', c')|          "       "       "            |
+  (a", b", c")|          "       "       "            |
+
+                        = |a , b , c |. |[alpha] , [beta] , [gamma] |,
+                          |a', b', c'|  |[alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'|
+                          |a", b", c"|  |[alpha]", [beta]", [gamma]"|
+
+where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant, the
+terms of the first line being (a, b, c)([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"),
+that is, a[alpha] + b[alpha]' + c[alpha]", (a, b, c)([beta], [beta]',
+[beta]"), that is, a[beta] + b[beta]' + c[beta]", (a, b, c)([gamma],
+[gamma]', [gamma]"), that is a[gamma] + b[gamma]' + c[gamma]"; and
+similarly the terms in the second and third lines are the life functions
+with (a', b', c') and (a", b", c") respectively.
+
+There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns; the
+result would hold good if on the left-hand side we had written ([alpha],
+[beta], [gamma]), ([alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'), ([alpha]", [beta]",
+[gamma]"), or what is the same thing, if on the right-hand side we had
+transposed the second determinant; and either of these changes would, it
+might be thought, increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason
+which need not be explained,[2] the form actually adopted is the
+preferable one.
+
+To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant on the
+left-hand side, _qua_ linear function of its columns, may be broken up
+into a sum of (3³ =) 27 determinants, each of which is either of some
+such form as
+
+         = [alpha][beta][gamma]'|a , a , b |,
+                                |a', a', b'|
+                                |a", a", b"|
+
+
+where the term [alpha][beta][gamma]' is not a term of the
+[alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant, and its coefficient (as a determinant
+with two identical columns) vanishes; or else it is of a form such as
+
+         = [alpha][beta]'[gamma]"|a , b , c |,
+                                 |a', b', c'|
+                                 |a", b", c"|
+
+that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the
+abc-determinant last written down; the sum of all other factors ±
+[alpha][beta]'[gamma]" is the [alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant of the
+formula; and the final result then is, that the determinant on the
+left-hand side is equal to the product on the right-hand side of the
+formula.
+
+7. _Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary
+Determinants._--Consider, for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth
+order, 5 = 2 + 3, and let the top two lines be
+
+                        a , b , c , d , e
+                        a', b', c', d', e'
+
+then, if we consider how these elements enter into the determinant, it
+is at once seen that they enter only through the determinants of the
+second order |a , b |, &c., which can be formed by selecting any two
+             |a', b'|
+columns at pleasure. Moreover, representing the remaining three lines by
+
+                   a" , b" , c" , d" , e"
+                   a"', b"', c"', d"', e"'
+                   a"", b"", c"", d"", e""
+
+it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant
+formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant of the
+third order formed with the complementary three columns of the second
+set; and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a
+sum of all the products of the form
+
+                 = |a , b |  |c" , d" , e" |,
+                   |a', b"|  |c"', d"', e"'|
+                             |c"", d"", e""|
+
+the sign ± being in each case such that the sign of the term ±
+ab'c"d'"e"" obtained from the diagonal elements of the component
+determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the determinant of
+the fifth order; for the product written down the sign is obviously +.
+
+Observe that for a determinant of the n-th order, taking the
+decomposition to be 1 + (n - 1), we fall back upon the equations given
+at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a determinant.
+
+8. Any determinant |a , b | formed out of the elements of the original
+                   |a', b'|
+determinant, by selecting the lines and columns at pleasure, is termed a
+_minor_ of the original determinant; and when the number of lines and
+columns, or order of the determinant, is n-1, then such determinant is
+called a _first minor_; the number of the first minors is = n², the
+first minors, in fact, corresponding to the several elements of the
+determinant--that is, the coefficient therein of any term whatever is
+the corresponding first minor. The first minors, each divided by the
+determinant itself, form a system of elements _inverse_ to the elements
+of the determinant.
+
+A determinant is _symmetrical_ when every two elements symmetrically
+situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal to each other; if
+they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum of the two elements be
+= 0), this relation not extending to the diagonal elements themselves,
+which remain arbitrary, then the determinant is _skew_; but if the
+relation does extend to the diagonal terms (that is, if these are each =
+0), then the determinant is _skew symmetrical_; thus the determinants
+
+  |a, h, g|; |    a ,     [nu],  - [mu]|; |     0,      [nu],  - [mu]|
+  |h, b, f|  |- [nu],        b,[lambda]|  |- [nu],         0,[lambda]|
+  |g, f, c|  |  [mu],-[lambda],      c |  |  [mu],- [lambda],       0|
+
+are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical:
+
+The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments, and
+applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of mathematics. For
+further developments of the theory of determinants see ALGEBRAIC FORMS.
+                                                                (A. CA.)
+
+  9. _History._--These functions were originally known as "resultants,"
+  a name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but now replaced by
+  the title "determinants," a name first applied to certain forms of
+  them by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the theory of determinants
+  is to be found in the writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693),
+  who incidentally discovered certain properties when reducing the
+  eliminant of a system of linear equations. Gabriel Cramer, in a note
+  to his _Analyse des lignes courbes algébriques_ (1750), gave the rule
+  which establishes the sign of a product as _plus_ or _minus_ according
+  as the number of displacements from the typical form has been even or
+  odd. Determinants were also employed by Étienne Bezout in 1764, but
+  the first connected account of these functions was published in 1772
+  by Charles Auguste Vandermonde. Laplace developed a theorem of
+  Vandermonde for the expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph
+  Louis Lagrange, in his memoir on _Pyramids_, used determinants of the
+  third order, and proved that the square of a determinant was also a
+  determinant. Although he obtained results now identified with
+  determinants, Lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically.
+  In 1801 Gauss published his _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_, which,
+  although written in an obscure form, gave a new impetus to
+  investigations on this and kindred subjects. To Gauss is due the
+  establishment of the important theorem, that the product of two
+  determinants both of the second and third orders is a determinant. The
+  formulation of the general theory is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy,
+  whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries made in the
+  following decades by Hoëné-Wronski and J. Binet in France, Carl Gustav
+  Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur Cayley in
+  England. Jacobi's researches were published in _Crelle's Journal_
+  (1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and enriched by
+  new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacobi is
+  indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The far-reaching
+  discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the most important
+  developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new fields were opened up,
+  and have been diligently explored by many mathematicians.
+  Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley; axisymmetric-determinants by
+  Jacobi, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester and O. Hesse, and centro-symmetric
+  determinants by W. R. F. Scott and G. Zehfuss. Continuants have been
+  discussed by Sylvester; alternants by Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H.
+  Nagelbach and G. Garbieri; circulants by E. Catalan, W. Spottiswoode
+  and J. W. L. Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B. Christoffel and G.
+  Frobenius. Determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been
+  studied by V. von Zeipel; the expression of definite integrals as
+  determinants by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the expression of
+  continued fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V. Nachreiner, S.
+  Günther and E. Fürstenau. (See T. Muir, _Theory of Determinants_,
+  1906).
+
+[1] The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest
+sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is that
+the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a', a", ... of any
+column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa + A'a' + A"a" + ...
+without any term independent of a, a', a" ...
+
+[2] The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for the
+multiplication of two matrices.
+
+
+DETERMINISM (Lat. _determinare_, to prescribe or limit), in ethics, the
+name given to the theory that all moral choice, so called, is the
+determined or necessary result of psychological and other conditions. It
+is opposed to the various doctrines of Free-Will, known as voluntarism,
+libertarianism, indeterminism, and is from the ethical standpoint more
+or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism. There are various degrees
+of determinism. It may be held that every action is causally connected
+not only externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also
+internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if we could
+know exactly all these conditions, we should be able to forecast with
+mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue. In this
+theory the agent cannot be held responsible for his action in any sense.
+It is the extreme antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the
+doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative
+courses (the _liberum arbitrium indifferentiae_). Since, however, the
+evidence of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the
+individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself as
+being free within certain limitations to make his own choice of
+alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that there may be
+in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes
+solely an element of freedom. This view is corroborated by the
+phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent feels that he ought to, and
+could, have chosen a different course of action. These two kinds of
+determinism are sometimes distinguished as "hard" and "soft"
+determinism. The controversy between determinism and libertarianism
+hinges largely on the significance of the word "motive"; indeed in no
+other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by
+purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How far, and in
+what sense, can action which is determined by motives be said to be
+free? For a long time the advocates of free-will, in their eagerness to
+preserve moral responsibility, went so far as to deny all motives as
+influencing moral action. Such a contention, however, clearly defeats
+its own object by reducing all action to chance. On the other hand, the
+scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the
+distinction between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives,
+character and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product
+of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does it
+become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in his motives
+and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards outward surroundings,
+in his appetites and aversions, inherited tendency and environment have
+been found to play a very large part; indeed many thinkers hold that the
+whole of a man's development, mental as well as physical, is determined
+by external conditions.
+
+In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed,
+but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament assumes
+throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been argued by
+theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge, coupled with
+that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily implies that all
+human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world. Such an
+inference is, however, clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of
+sin, repentance and the atonement, as also with that of eternal reward
+and punishment, which postulates a real measure of human responsibility.
+
+For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles, WILL,
+PREDESTINATION (for the theological problems), ETHICS.
+
+
+DETINUE (O. Fr. _detenue_, from _detenir_, to hold back), in law, an
+action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property in goods
+seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and refuses to
+redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue, the
+judgment is that he recover the chattel or, if it cannot be had, its
+value, which is assessed by the judge and jury, and also certain damages
+for detaining the same. An order for the restitution of the specific
+goods may be enforced by a special writ of execution, called a writ of
+delivery. (See CONTRACT; TROVER.)
+
+
+DETMOLD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of
+Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the Teutoburger
+Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Altenbeken line of the Prussian
+state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164. The residential château of the
+princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550), in the Renaissance style, is an
+imposing building, lying with its pretty gardens nearly in the centre of
+the town; whilst at the entrance to the large park on the south is the
+New Palace (1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house.
+Detmold possesses a natural history museum, theatre, high school,
+library, the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876)
+was born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe
+(1801-1836), also a native, died. The leading industries are
+linen-weaving, tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of
+marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town is the
+Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's colossal statue of Hermann or
+Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold (Thiatmelli) was in 783
+the scene of a conflict between the Saxons and the troops of
+Charlemagne.
+
+
+DETROIT, the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite Windsor, Canada, about 4 m.
+W. from the outlet of Lake St Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop.
+(1880) 116,340; (1890) 205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were
+foreign-born and 4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the
+foreign-born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German Poles,
+25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians, 6347 were
+English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by the Michigan Central,
+the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the
+Père Marquette, the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo &
+Ironton and the Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2 m. to 3
+m., and the other 6 m. from the centre of the city, connect the factory
+districts with the main railway lines. Trains are ferried across the
+river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to Cleveland,
+Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important places between,
+and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also the S. terminus for
+several lines to more remote lake ports, and electric lines extend from
+here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac, Jackson, Toledo and Grand Rapids.
+
+The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase from 29 sq.
+m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in proportion to its
+population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of the
+United States. Baltimore, for example, had in 1904 nearly 70% more
+inhabitants (estimated), while its area at that time was a little less
+and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter less than that of Detroit. The ground
+within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is
+quite level, but rises gradually from the river bank, which is only a
+few feet in height. The Detroit river, along which the city extends for
+about 10 m., is here ½ m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its current is
+quite rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth it has a
+width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of islands,
+which during the summer are popular resorts. The city has a 3 m.
+frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the Detroit, with a 16 ft.
+channel. Before the fire by which the city was destroyed in 1805, the
+streets were only 12 ft. wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty. But
+when the rebuilding began, several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide
+were--through the influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one
+of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the
+city of Washington--made to radiate from two central points. From a half
+circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues 120 ft. and 200 ft.
+wide. About ¼ m. toward the river from this was established another
+focal point called the Campus Martius, 600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at
+which commence radiating or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide.
+Running north from the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand
+Circus is Woodward Avenue, 120 ft. wide, dividing the present city, as
+it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the river is
+Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these avenues is the
+principal retail street along its lower portion, and is a residence
+avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the principal wholesale street
+at the lower end, and a fine residence avenue E. of this. Many of the
+other residence streets are 80 ft. wide. The setting of shade trees was
+early encouraged, and large elms and maples abound. The intersections of
+the diagonal streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as
+well as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly
+with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much used, and
+kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other American cities of
+equal size are the streets and avenues kept so clean. The Grand
+Boulevard, 150 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 12 m. in length, has been
+constructed around the city except along the river front. A very large
+proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit own their homes: there are no
+large congested tenement-house districts; and many streets in various
+parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often
+having a garden plot in front.
+
+Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871), overlooking
+the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in three storeys; the
+flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of 200 ft. On the
+four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures, each
+14 ft. in height, to represent Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and
+on the same level with these is a clock weighing 7670 lb--one of the
+largest in the world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and
+Sailors' monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892)
+and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four corners in each of three
+sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures
+representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry and Artillery,
+also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History; the figure by which the
+monument is surmounted was designed to symbolize Michigan. A larger and
+more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county
+court house, facing Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a
+gilded dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely
+decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest architectural
+beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine Byzantine interior, St
+John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue Baptist and the First
+Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue, and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of
+Mary, both Roman Catholic. The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson
+Avenue, contains some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese
+collections, the Scripps' collection of old masters, other valuable
+paintings, and a small library; free lectures on art are given here
+through the winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908,
+including one of the best collections of state and town histories in the
+country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and relating
+principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the public. The
+city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The principal ones are the
+Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monument on the Campus Martius, and a
+statue of Mayor Pingree in West Grand Circus Park.
+
+The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about 1200
+acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in the river
+at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having an area of more
+than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of 4½ acres, with its trees,
+flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant resting place in the busiest
+quarter of the city. Six miles farther out on Woodward Avenue is Palmer
+Park of about 140 acres, given to the city in 1894 and named in honour
+of the donor. Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the city, and
+there are various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are Elmwood
+(Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining in the E.
+part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in the N. part of the
+city.
+
+_Charity and Education._--Among the charitable institutions are the
+general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's); the Detroit Emergency,
+the Children's Free and the United States Marine hospitals; St Luke's
+hospital, church home, and orphanage; the House of Providence (a
+maternity hospital and infant asylum); the Woman's hospital and
+foundling's home; the Home for convalescent children, &c. In 1894 the
+mayor, Hazen Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of
+preparing, through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant
+land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other
+vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor
+commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the unemployed,
+and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan served an
+admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression, and was
+copied in other cities; it was abandoned when, with the renewal of
+industrial activity, the necessity for it ceased. The leading penal
+institution of the city is the Detroit House of Correction, noted for
+its efficient reformatory work; the inmates are employed ten hours a
+day, chiefly in making furniture. The house of correction pays the city
+a profit of $35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in
+addition to those of the general public school system, include several
+parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and commercial colleges;
+Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877; the Detroit College of
+Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan College of Medicine and Surgery,
+opened in 1888; the Detroit College of law, founded in 1891, and a city
+normal school.
+
+_Commerce._--Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and
+shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous traffic
+between the upper and lower lakes passes through the Detroit river. In
+1907 the number of vessels recorded was 34,149, with registered tonnage
+of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons of freight, valued at
+$697,311,302. This includes vessels which delivered part or all of their
+cargo at Detroit. The largest item in the freights is iron ore on
+vessels bound down. The next is coal on vessels up bound. Grain and
+lumber are the next largest items. Detroit is a port of entry, and its
+foreign commerce, chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The
+city's exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in
+1909. The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,100,659 in 1909.
+
+As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total number of
+manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with a product for the
+year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there were 2847 establishments with
+a product for the year valued at $100,892,838; or an increase of 30.4%
+in the decade. In 1900 the establishments under the factory system,
+omitting the hand trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and
+produced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments under the
+factory system numbered 1363 and the product had increased 45.7% to
+$128,761,658. In the district subsequently annexed the product in 1904
+was about $12,000,000, making a total of $140,000,000. The output for
+1906 was estimated at $180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905
+visited 1721 factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected
+1790 factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in the
+country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the value of its
+product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In 1906 the city had
+twenty automobile factories, with an output of 11,000 cars, valued at
+$12,000,000. Detroit is probably the largest manufacturer in the country
+of freight cars, stoves, pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash
+and similar alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships,
+paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods, furniture, boots
+and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt liquors and fur goods; and
+slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry.
+
+The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought into one
+association the members of three former bodies, making a compact
+organization with civic as well as commercial aims. The board has
+brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of
+the city and many of the professional men. Their united efforts have
+brought many new industries to the city, have improved industrial
+conditions, and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal
+administration. Other business organizations are the Board of Trade,
+devoted to the grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers'
+Association, which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between
+employer and employed, the Builders' & Traders' Exchange, and the Credit
+Men's Association.
+
+_Administration._--Although the city received its first charter in 1806,
+and another in 1815, the real power rested in the hands of the governor
+and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters of 1824 and 1827
+centred the government in a council and made the list of elective
+officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised in 1857 and again in 1859
+and the present charter dates from 1883. Under this charter only three
+administrative officers are elected,--the mayor, the city clerk and the
+city treasurer,--elections being biennial. The administration of the
+city departments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one
+commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and boulevards,
+police and public works departments. The four members of the health
+board are nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate.
+The school board is an independent body, consisting of one elected
+member from each ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has
+the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common
+council. In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other
+principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor and confirmed
+by the council, are controller, corporation counsel, board of three
+assessors, fire commission (four members), public lighting commission
+(six members), water commission (five members), poor commission (four
+members), and inspectors of the house of correction (four in number).
+The members of the public library commission, six in number, are elected
+by the board of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next
+fiscal year are furnished by the different departments to the controller
+in February. He transmits them to the common council with his
+recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to consider them.
+It may reduce or increase the amounts asked, and may add new items. The
+budget then goes to the board of estimates, which has a month for its
+consideration. This body consists of two members elected from each ward
+and five elected at large. The mayor and heads of departments are
+advisory members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the board
+of estimates can hold no other office and they have no appointing power,
+the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political
+motives and influences. They may reduce or cut out any estimates
+submitted, but cannot increase any or add new ones. No bonds can be
+issued without the assent of the board of estimates. The budget is
+apportioned among twelve committees which have almost invariably given
+close and conscientious examination to the actual needs of the
+departments. A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing
+the service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations.
+Prudent management under this system has placed the city in the highest
+rank financially. Its debt limit is 2% on the assessed valuation, and
+even that low maximum is not often reached. The debt in 1907 was only
+about $5,500,000, a smaller _per capita_ debt than that of any other
+city of over 100,000 inhabitants in the country; the assessed valuation
+was $330,000,000; the city tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of
+assessed valuation. Both the council and the estimators are hampered in
+their work by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries
+and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the
+legislature, which has also determined many affairs of a purely
+administrative character.
+
+Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership. On account
+of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private company, the city
+bought the water-works as long ago as 1836. The works have been twice
+moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the
+city. In 1907 there were six engines in the works with a pumping
+capacity of 152,000,000 gallons daily. The daily average of water used
+during the preceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water is pumped
+from Lake St Clair and is of exceptional purity. The city began its own
+public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the river near
+the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public buildings, but
+makes no provision for commercial business. The lighting is excellent,
+and the cost is probably less than could be obtained from a private
+company. The street lighting is done partly from pole and arm lights,
+but largely from steel towers from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with
+strong reflected lights at the top. The city also owns two portable
+asphalt plants, and thus makes a saving in the cost of street repairing
+and resurfacing. With a view of effecting the reduction of street car
+fares to three cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for
+purchasing or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme
+Court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as the
+constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal
+improvement, the state could not empower a municipality to do so.
+Certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question of
+municipal ownership of the railways.
+
+_History._--Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet de la Mothe
+Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the importance of the place
+as a strategic point for determining the control of the fur trade and
+the possession of the North-west and had received assistance from the
+French government soon after Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the
+secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged
+the English government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac
+arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at once built
+a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now Jefferson Avenue
+and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and named it Fort Pontchartrain
+in honour of the French colonial minister. Indians at once came to the
+place in large numbers, but they soon complained of the high price of
+French goods; there was serious contention between Cadillac and the
+French Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had been
+granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the Jesuits. After
+the several parties had begun to complain to the home government the
+monopoly of the fur trade was transferred to Cadillac and he was
+exhorted to cease quarrelling with the Jesuits. Although the
+inhabitants then increased to 200 or more, dissatisfaction with the
+paternal rule of the founder increased until 1710, when he was made
+governor of Louisiana. The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn;
+by the second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and
+for several years following the population was greatly reduced and the
+post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the Mississippi
+country was opened, the population once more increased, and again in
+1748, when the settlement of the Ohio Valley began, the governor-general
+of Canada offered special inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit,
+with the result that the population was soon more than 1000 and the
+cultivation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however, the
+place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers and an
+English element was introduced into the population which up to this time
+had been almost exclusively French. Three years later, during the
+conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly escaped capture and then
+suffered from a siege lasting from the 9th of May until the 12th of
+October. Under English rule it continued from this time on as a military
+post with its population usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new
+fort was built and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of
+Independence the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions
+to ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which
+concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United States in
+1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the 11th of January
+1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794. It was then named Fort
+Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated as a town and received its
+present name. In 1805 all except one or two buildings were destroyed by
+fire. General William Hull (1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American
+Independence, governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander
+of the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to hear
+immediately of the declaration of war between the United States and
+Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped by Lake Erie. He
+made from Detroit on the 12th of July an awkward and futile advance into
+Canada, which, if more vigorous, might have resulted in the capture of
+Malden and the establishment of American troops in Canada, and then
+retired to his fortifications. On the 16th of August 1812, without any
+resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the city
+to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards attempted to
+justify himself by criticism of the War Department in general and in
+particular of General Henry Dearborn's armistice with Prevost, which had
+not included in its terms Hull, whom Dearborn had been sent out to
+reinforce.[1] After Perry's victory on the 14th of September on Lake
+Erie, Detroit on the 29th of September was again occupied by the forces
+of the United States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since
+then its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of
+Michigan from 1805 to 1847.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Silas Farmer, _The History of Detroit and Michigan_
+  (Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and "Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P.
+  Powell's _Historic Towns of the Western States_ (New York and London,
+  1901); D. F. Wilcox, "Municipal Government in Michigan and Ohio," in
+  _Columbia University Studies_ (New York, 1896); C. M. Burton,
+  _"Cadillac's Village" or Detroit under Cadillac_ (Detroit, 1896);
+  Francis Parkman, _A Half Century of Conflict_ (Boston, 1897); and _The
+  Conspiracy of Pontiac_ (Boston, 1898); and the annual _Reports_ of the
+  Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.).
+
+[1] Hull was tried at Albany in 1814 by court martial, General Dearborn
+presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and
+unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president
+remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution.
+
+
+DETTINGEN, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Main,
+and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg railway, 10 m. N.W. of
+Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the
+27th of June 1743, when the English, Hanoverians and Austrians (the
+"Pragmatic army"), 42,000 men under the command of George II. of
+England, routed the numerically superior French forces under the duc de
+Noailles. It was in memory of this victory that Handel composed his
+_Dettingen Te Deum_.
+
+
+DEUCALION, in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of Phthia in
+Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the mythical ancestor
+of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved to destroy all mankind by a
+flood, Deucalion constructed a boat or ark, in which, after drifting
+nine days and nights, he landed on Mount Parnassus (according to others,
+Othrys, Aetna or Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and
+inquired how to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind
+them the "bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the
+hillside. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by
+Pyrrha, women.
+
+  See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 243-415; Apollonius Rhodius
+  iii. 1085 ff.; H. Usener, _Die Sintflutsagen_ (1899).
+
+
+DEUCE (a corruption of the Fr. _deux_, two), a term applied to the "two"
+of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used in tennis when
+both sides have each scored three points in a game, or five games in a
+set; to win the game or set two points or games must then be won
+consecutively. The earliest instances in English of the use of the slang
+expression "the deuce," in exclamations and the like, date from the
+middle of the 17th century. The meaning was similar to that of "plague"
+or "mischief" in such phrases as "plague on you," "mischief take you"
+and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for "the devil" is
+later. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the most probable
+derivation is from a Low German _das daus_, i.e. the "deuce" in dice,
+the lowest and therefore the most unlucky throw. The personification,
+with a consequent change of gender, to _der daus_, came later. The word
+has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic
+mythology.
+
+
+DEUS, JOÃO DE (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet of his
+generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in the province of
+Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating in the faculty of law at
+the university of Coimbra, he did not proceed to his degree but settled
+in the city, dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses,
+which circulated among professors and undergraduates in manuscript
+copies. In the volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he
+practised a rigorous self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855,
+and the first of his poems to appear in a separate form was _La Lata_,
+in 1860. In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor
+of _O Bejense_, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo, and
+four years later he edited the _Folha do Sul_. As the pungent satirical
+verses entitled _Eleições_ prove, he was not an ardent politician, and,
+though he was returned as Liberal deputy for the constituency of Silves
+in 1869, he acted independently of all political parties and promptly
+resigned his mandate. The renunciation implied in the act, which cut him
+off from all advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of
+his lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend
+José Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series of
+poems, _Flores do campo_, which is supplemented by the _Ramo de flores_
+(1869). This is João de Deus's masterpiece. _Pires de Marmalada_ (1869)
+is an improvisation of no great merit. The four theatrical
+pieces--_Amemos o nosso proximo_, _Ser apresentado_, _Ensaio de
+Casamento_, and _A Viúva inconsolavel_--are prose translations from
+Méry, cleverly done, but not worth the doing. _Horacio e Lydia_ (1872),
+a translation from Ronsard, is a good example of artifice in
+manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure, the Portuguese
+couplet. As an indication of a strong spiritual reaction three prose
+fragments (1873)--_Anna, Mãe de Maria_, _A Virgem Maria_ and _A Mulher
+do Levita de Ephrain_--translated from Darboy's _Femmes de la Bible_,
+are full of significance. The _Folhas soltas_ (1876) is a collection of
+verse in the manner of _Flores do campo_, brilliantly effective and
+exquisitely refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his
+attention to educational problems, and in his _Cartilha maternal_ (1876)
+first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzi and
+Fröbel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate was a
+misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational mission absorbed
+João de Deus completely, and is responsible for numerous controversial
+letters, for a translation of Théodore-Henri Barrau's treatise, _Des
+devoirs des enfants envers leurs parents_, for a prosodic dictionary
+and for many other publications of no literary value. A copy of verses
+in Antonio Vieira's _Grinalda de Maria_ (1877), the _Loas á Virgem_
+(1878) and the _Proverbios de Salomão_ are evidence of a complete return
+to orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a lamentable error of
+judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled _Cryptinas_ have
+been inserted in the completest edition of João de Deus's poems--_Campo
+de Flores_ (Lisbon, 1893). He died at Lisbon on the 11th of January
+1896, was accorded a public funeral and was buried in the National
+Pantheon, the Jeronymite church at Belem, where repose the remains of
+Camoens, Herculano and Garrett. His scattered minor prose writings and
+correspondence have been posthumously published by Dr Theophilo Braga
+(Lisbon, 1898).
+
+Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has been more
+widely read, more profoundly admired than João de Deus; yet no poet in
+any country has been more indifferent to public opinion and more
+deliberately careless of personal fame. He is not responsible for any
+single edition of his poems, which were put together by pious but
+ill-informed enthusiasts, who ascribed to him verses that he had not
+written; he kept no copies of his compositions, seldom troubled to write
+them himself, and was content for the most part to dictate them to
+others. He has no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is
+limited in theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch,
+often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced
+accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise a set of
+proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And yet, though
+he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though he wrote nothing at
+all comparable in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of _Os
+Lusiadas_, the popular instinct which links his name with that of his
+great predecessor is eminently just. For Camoens was his model; not the
+Camoens of the epic, but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets,
+where the passion of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has
+noted five stages of development in João de Deus's artistic life--the
+imitative, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout
+phases. Under each of these divisions is included much that is of
+extreme interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through
+the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly probable
+that _Caturras_ and _Gaspar_, pieces as witty as anything in Bocage but
+free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always interest literary
+students. But it is as the singer of love that João de Deus will delight
+posterity as he delighted his own generation. The elegiac music of
+_Rachel_ and of _Marina_, the melancholy of _Adeus_ and of _Remoinho_,
+the tenderness and sincerity of _Meu casta lirio_, of _Lagrima celeste_,
+of _Descalça_ and a score more songs are distinguished by the large,
+vital simplicity which withstands time. It is precisely in the quality
+of unstudied simplicity that João de Deus is incomparably strong. The
+temptations to a display of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a
+Portuguese poet; he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has
+before him the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an
+instrument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is João de
+Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge in idle ornament.
+His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweetness and of reverent
+purity; yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental,
+and, though he has not the strength for a long fight, emotion has seldom
+been set to more delicate music. Had he included among his other gifts
+the gift of selection, had he continued the poetic discipline of his
+youth instead of dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he
+performed it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man,
+there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen.
+
+  See also Maxime Formont, _Le Mouvement poétique contemporain en
+  Portugal_ (Lyon, 1892).                                (J. F.-K.)
+
+
+DEUTERONOMY, the name of one of the books of the Old Testament. This
+book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal criticism, orthodox
+scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its Mosaic authorship
+reduced it to the level of a pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at
+last triumphed over tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of
+Deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive,
+however, to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion
+regarding the composition and date of his book has passed.
+
+In the 17th century the characteristics which so clearly mark off
+Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch were frankly
+recognized, but the most advanced critics of that age were inclined to
+pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five. In the
+beginning of the 19th century de Wette startled the religious world by
+declaring that Deuteronomy, so far from being Mosaic, was not known till
+the time of Josiah. This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever
+since, this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical
+criticism. The only other single chapter of the Bible which is
+responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in
+critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy years
+after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen inferred that
+Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and therefore could not
+have been in existence in his day; for had Leviticus been the recognized
+Law-book of his nation Ezekiel could not have represented as a
+degradation the very position which that Law-book described as a special
+honour conferred on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so
+far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than
+Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much later stratum,
+and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic.
+
+The title "Deuteronomy" is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of
+the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered "and he shall write out for
+himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really means "and he [the king]
+shall write out for himself a copy of this law," where there is not the
+slightest suggestion that the author intended to describe "this law"
+delivered on the plains of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to
+the first code given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the
+phrase "this law" is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater difficulty
+than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew word for
+"copy." How much does "this law" include? It was long supposed to mean
+the whole of our present Deuteronomy; indeed, it is on that supposition
+that the traditional view of the Mosaic authorship is based. But the
+context alone can determine the question; and that is often so ambiguous
+that a sure inference is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that
+nowhere need "this law" mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably
+means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little that
+it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered stones set
+up beside an altar.
+
+Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a
+long process of development. The fact that it is legislative as well as
+hortatory is enough to prove this, for most of the laws it contains are
+found elsewhere in the Pentateuch, sometimes in less developed,
+sometimes in more developed forms, a fact which is conclusive proof of
+prolonged historical development. According to the all-pervading law of
+evolution, the less complex form must have preceded the more complex.
+Still, the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as
+easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable for its
+copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious feeling.
+
+The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot have been so
+large as our present book, for not only could it be read at a single
+sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one day. On the day it was
+found, Shaphan first read it himself, and then went to the king and read
+it aloud to him. But perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is
+that it was read publicly to the assembled people immediately before
+they, as well as their king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a
+word is said as to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by
+such a great multitude, being long or difficult.
+
+The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.),
+which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression made
+upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been produced by
+the legislative part alone. The king must have listened to the curses as
+well as the blessings in chap, xxviii., and no doubt also to the
+exhortations in chaps. v.-xi. Hence we may conclude that the original
+book consisted of a central mass of religious, civil and social laws,
+preceded by a hortatory introduction and followed by an effective
+peroration. The book read to Josiah must therefore have comprised most
+of what is found in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But
+something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present
+form, for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43
+(where the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52,
+there are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally
+acknowledged to be post-exilic.
+
+The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now
+have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv. 44, more
+historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more hortatory than
+historical. These may at first have been prefixed to separate editions
+of the legislative portion, but were eventually combined. Then, before D
+was united to P, five appendices of very various dates and embracing
+poetry as well as prose, were added so as to give a fuller account of
+the last days of Moses and thus lead up to the narrative of his death
+with which the book closes. (1) Chap. xxvii., where the elders of Israel
+are introduced for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. 1)
+and then the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer
+to laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this
+chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the laws
+codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The second
+appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us the farewell
+address of Moses and is certainly later than D. Moses is represented as
+speaking not with any hope of preventing Israel's apostasy but because
+he knows that the people will eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a
+point of view very different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap.
+xxxii. That this didactic poem must have been written late in the
+nation's history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7:
+"Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many generations." Such
+words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of Moses. It must have
+been composed in a time of natural gloom and depression, after Yahweh's
+anger had been provoked by "a very froward generation," certainly not
+before the Assyrian Empire had loomed up against the political horizon,
+aggressive and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the
+time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses, chap, xxxiii.
+The first line proves that this poem is not by D, who speaks invariably
+of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation depicted is in striking contrast
+with that of the Song. Everything is bright because of promises
+fulfilled, and the future bids fair to be brighter still. Bruston
+maintains with reason that the Blessing, strictly so called, consists
+only of vv. 6-25, and has been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the
+goodness of Jehovah to his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv.
+1-5, 26-29). The special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and
+Manasseh) in vv. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the
+time of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II. (5)
+The account of Moses' death, chap. xxxiv. This appendix, containing, as
+it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even Deuteronomy was not put
+into its present form until after the exile.
+
+From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the Covenant (Ex.
+xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E, the prophetic
+narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not quite clear whether D
+knew E as an independent work, or after its combination with J, the
+somewhat earlier prophetic narrative of the Southern kingdom, the
+combined form of which is now indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel
+certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that D quotes always from
+E and never from J, for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as
+readily be ascribed to J as to E, cf. Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut.
+x. 14 and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written
+certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J.
+
+In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas, whereas in
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere manifest. Hence this
+school of thought arose between the age of Isaiah and that of Jeremiah;
+but how long D itself may have been in existence before it was read in
+622 to Josiah cannot be determined with certainty. Many argue that D was
+written immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put
+into the temple for the purpose of being "found." This theory gives some
+plausibility to the charge that the book is a pious fraud. But the
+narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference. The more natural
+explanation is that it was written not in the early years of Josiah's
+reign, and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office, but
+some time during the long reign of Manasseh, probably when his policy
+was most reactionary and when he favoured the worship of the "host of
+heaven" and set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This
+explains why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed
+it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity should
+arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he actually foresaw
+how favourable that opportunity would prove, and that, as soon as
+discovered, his work would be promulgated as law by the king and
+willingly accepted by the people. The author believed that everything he
+wrote was in full accordance with the mind of Moses, and would
+contribute to the national weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and
+therefore he did not scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is
+not to be expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact
+year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is enough to
+determine with something like probability the century or half-century
+which best fits its historical data; and these appear to point to the
+reign of Manasseh.
+
+Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the historical
+résumés JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even verses being
+copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points out in his careful
+analysis, there are only three facts in D which are not also found in
+JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number of souls that went down
+into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark being made of acacia wood. But even
+these may have been in J or E originally, and left out when JE was
+combined with P. Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory
+parts of D between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural
+when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular; but as a
+similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally
+acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue seems anything but
+trustworthy, depending as it does on the presence or absence of a single
+Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it frequently does, in the division of
+verses which otherwise seem to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The
+inference as to diversity of authorship is much more conclusive when
+difference of standpoint can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii.
+2. The first two passages represent Moses as addressing the generation
+that was alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to
+those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later; and it
+may well be that the one author may, in the historical and hortatory
+parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other the 2nd singular;
+without the further inference being justified that every law in which
+the 2nd singular is used must be assigned to the latter, and every law
+in which the 2nd plural occurs must be due to the former.
+
+The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding characteristics,
+is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation towards which events had
+long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9 shows that even the zeal of Josiah
+could not carry out the instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's
+acceptance of D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the
+religion of Judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its
+adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them. D
+requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols, but
+of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas (stone pillars) often set
+up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21). These reforms made too heavy
+demands upon the people, as was proved by the reaction which set in at
+Josiah's death. Indeed the country people would look on the destruction
+of the high places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and
+would consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his
+sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of Jerusalem and
+the exile of the people would appear to those who had obeyed D's
+instructions as a well-merited punishment for national apostasy.
+
+Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each individual
+Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the declaration of
+the individual's duty towards God immediately follows the emphatic
+intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity. "Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our
+God, Yahweh is one: and thou shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thine
+heart and with all thy soul and with all thy strength" (vi. 4, 5).
+
+In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should never be
+forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy ever pronounced on
+any scripture was pronounced by Christ himself, when he said "on these
+words hang all the law and the prophets," and it is also well to
+remember that when tempted in the wilderness he repelled each suggestion
+of the Tempter by a quotation from Deuteronomy.
+
+Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the influence of
+the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and despite the spirit of love
+which breathes so strongly throughout the book, especially for the poor,
+the widow and the fatherless, the stranger and the homeless Levite
+(xxiv. 10-22), and the humanity shown towards both beasts and birds
+(xxii. 1, 4, 6 f., xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to
+explain the intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance
+characteristic of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as
+his own soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's
+pitiless order to that man is "Thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand
+shall be first upon him to put him to death." From this single instance
+we see not only how far mankind has travelled along the path of
+religious toleration since Deuteronomy was written, but also how very
+far the criticism implied in Christ's method of dealing with what "was
+said to them of old time" may be legitimately carried. (J. A. P.*)
+
+
+DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873), German oriental scholar,
+was born on the 28th of October 1829, at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of
+Jewish extraction. On reaching his sixteenth year he began his studies
+at the university of Berlin, paying special attention to theology and
+the Talmud. He also mastered the English language and studied English
+literature. In 1855 Deutsch was appointed assistant in the library of
+the British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and contributed no
+less than 190 papers to _Chambers's Encyclopaedia_, in addition to
+essays in Kitto's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries, and articles in
+periodicals. In October 1867 his article on "The Talmud," published in
+the _Quarterly Review_, made him known. It was translated into French,
+German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch and Danish. He died at Alexandria on the
+12th of May 1873.
+
+  His _Literary Remains_, edited by Lady Strangford, were published in
+  1874, consisting of nineteen papers on such subjects as "The Talmud,"
+  "Islam," "Semitic Culture," "Egypt, Ancient and Modern," "Semitic
+  Languages," "The Targums," "The Samaritan Pentateuch," and "Arabic
+  Poetry."
+
+
+DEUTSCHKRONE, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, between the two
+lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 m. N.W. of Schneidemühl, a railway junction
+60 m. north of Posen. Pop. (1905) 7282. It is the seat of the public
+offices for the district, possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
+church, a synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuit
+college, and has manufactures of machinery, woollens, tiles, brandy and
+beer.
+
+
+DEUTZ (anc. _Divitio_), formerly an independent town of Germany, in the
+Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to
+Cologne, with which it has been incorporated since 1888. It contains the
+church of St Heribert, built in the 17th century, cavalry barracks,
+artillery magazines, and gas, porcelain, machine and carriage factories.
+It has a handsome railway station on the banks of the Rhine, negotiating
+the local traffic with Elberfeld and Königswinter. The fortifications of
+the town form part of the defences of Cologne. To the east is the
+manufacturing suburb of Kalk.
+
+The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine monastery by
+Heribert, archbishop of Cologne. Permission to fortify the town was in
+1230 granted to the citizens by the archbishop of Cologne, between whom
+and the counts of Berg it was in 1240 divided. It was burnt in 1376,
+1445 and 1583; and in 1678, after the peace of Nijmwegen, the
+fortifications were dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed
+in 1888.
+
+
+DEUX-SÈVRES, an inland department of western France, formed in 1790
+mainly of the three districts of Poitou, Thouarsais, Gâtine and
+Niortais, added to a small portion of Saintonge and a still smaller
+portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 339,466. It is bounded
+N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne, S.E. by Charente, S. by
+Charente-Inférieure and W. by Vendée. The department takes its name from
+two rivers--the Sèvre of Niort which traverses the southern portion, and
+the Sèvre of Nantes (an affluent of the Loire) which drains the
+north-west. There are three regions--the Gâtine, occupying the north and
+centre of the department, the Plaine in the south and the
+Marais,--distinguished by their geological character and their general
+physical appearance. The Gâtine, formed of primitive rocks (granite and
+schists), is the continuation of the "Bocage" of Vendée and
+Maine-et-Loire. Its surface is irregular and covered with hedges and
+clumps of wood or forests. The systematic application of lime has much
+improved the soil, which is naturally poor. The Plaine, resting on
+oolite limestone, is treeless but fertile. The Marais, a low-lying
+district in the extreme south-west, consists of alluvial clays which also
+are extremely productive when properly drained. The highest points,
+several of which exceed 700 ft., are found in a line of hills which
+begins in the centre of the department, to the south of Parthenay, and
+stretches north-west into the neighbouring department of Vendée. It
+divides the region drained by the Sèvre Nantaise and the Thouet (both
+affluents of the Loire) in the north from the basins of the Sèvre
+Niortaise and the Charente in the south. The climate is mild, the annual
+temperature at Niort being 54° Fahr., and the rainfall nearly 25 in. The
+winters are colder in the Gâtine, the summers warmer in the Plaine.
+
+Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sèvres, which is primarily an
+agricultural department, consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the
+main cereals. Potatoes and mangold-wurzels are the chief root-crops.
+Niort is a centre for the growing Of vegetables (onions, asparagus,
+artichokes, &c.) and of angelica. Considerable quantities of beetroot
+are raised to supply the distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp, rape and
+flax are also cultivated. Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of
+Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the south. The
+department is well known for the Parthenay breed of cattle and the
+Poitou breed of horses; and the mules reared in the southern
+arrondissements are much sought after both in France and in Spain. The
+system of co-operative dairying is practised in some localities. The
+apple-trees of the Gâtine and the walnut-trees of the Plaine bring a
+good return. Coal is mined, and the department produces building-stone
+and lime. A leading industry is the manufacture of textiles (serges,
+druggets, linen, handkerchiefs, flannels, swan-skins and knitted goods).
+Tanning and leather-dressing are carried on at Niort and other places,
+and gloves are made at Niort. Wool and cotton spinning, hat and shoe
+making, distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also
+main industries. The department exports cattle and sheep to Paris and
+Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and its industrial
+products.
+
+The Sèvre Niortaise and its tributary the Mignon furnish 19 m. of
+navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouest-État railway.
+It contains a large proportion of Protestants, especially in the
+south-east. The four arrondissements are Niort, Bressuire, Melle and
+Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and the communes 356. Deux-Sèvres is
+part of the region of the IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the
+académie (educational circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its
+court of appeal.
+
+Niort (the capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent, Thouars
+and Oiron are the principal places in the department. Several other
+towns contain features of interest. Among these are Airvault, where
+there is a church of the 12th and 14th centuries which once belonged to
+the abbey of St Pierre, and an ancient bridge built by the monks;
+Celles-sur-Belle, where there is an old church rebuilt by Louis XI., and
+again in the 17th century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a fine
+Romanesque church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of the
+most ancient abbeys of Gaul.
+
+
+DEVA (Sanskrit "heavenly"), in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, spirits of
+the light and air, and minor deities generally beneficent. In Persian
+mythology, however, the word is used for evil spirits or demons.
+According to Zoroaster the devas were created by Ahriman.
+
+
+DEVA (mod. _Chester_), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain on the Dee.
+It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and held probably till the
+end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison was the Legio XX. Valeria
+Victrix, with which another legion (II. Adjutrix) was associated for a
+few years, about A.D. 75-85. It never developed, like many Roman
+legionary fortresses, into a town, but remained military throughout.
+Parts of its north and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate)
+and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area.
+
+  See F. J. Haverfield, _Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester_
+  (Chester, 1900), Introduction.
+
+
+DEVADATTA, the son of Suklodana, who was younger brother to the father
+of the Buddha (_Mah[=a]vastu_, iii. 76). Both he and his brother
+[=A]nanda, who were considerably younger than the Buddha, joined the
+brotherhood in the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry. Four other
+cousins of theirs, chiefs of the S[=a]kiya clan, and a barber named
+Up[=a]li, were admitted to the order at the same time; and at their own
+request the barber was admitted first, so that as their senior in the
+order he should take precedence of them (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 228). All
+the others continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years
+afterwards, having gained over the crown prince of Magadha,
+Aj[=a]tasattu, to his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting of
+the order, that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the leadership
+to him, Devadatta (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 238; _J[=a]taka_, i. 142). This
+proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition to have
+successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his aged father
+and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death of the
+Buddha (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 241-250; _J[=a]taka_, vi. 131), shortly
+afterwards, relying upon the feeling of the people in favour of
+asceticism, he brought forward four propositions for ascetic rules to be
+imposed on the order. These being refused, he appealed to the people,
+started an order of his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's
+community to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the
+success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be referred
+to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the _Anguttara_ (see _Dialogues
+of the Buddha_ i. 222), for Devadatta's family name was Gotama. But his
+community was certainly still in existence in the 4th century A.D., for
+it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien, the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's
+translation, p. 62). And it possibly lasted till the 7th century, for
+Hsüan Tsang mentions that in a monastery in Bengal the monks then
+followed a certain regulation of Devadatta's (T. Watters, _On Yuan
+Chwang_, ii. 191). There is no mention in the canon as to how or when
+Devadatta died; but the commentary on the _J[=a]taka_, written in the
+5th century A.D., has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by
+the earth near S[=a]vatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha
+(_J[=a]taka_, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to both
+the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and T. Watters,
+_On Yuan Chwang_, i. 390). It is a striking example of the way in which
+such legends grow, that it is only the latest of these authorities,
+Hsüan Tsang, who says that, though ostensibly approaching the Buddha
+with a view to reconciliation, Devadatta had concealed poison in his
+nail with the object of murdering the Buddha.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Vinaya Texts_, translated by Rhys Davids and H.
+  Oldenberg (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); _The J[=a]taka_, edited by V.
+  Fausböll (7 vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_
+  (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushell, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905); _Fa Hian_,
+  translated by J. Legge (Oxford, 1886); _Mah[=a]vastu_ (ed. Tenant, 3
+  vols., Paris, 1882-1897).                               (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+DEVAPRAYAG (DEOPRAYAG), a village in Tehri State of the United
+Provinces, India. It is situated at the spot where the rivers Alaknanda
+and Bhagirathi unite and form the Ganges, and as one of the five sacred
+confluences in the hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout
+Hindus. Devaprayag stands at an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a
+hill which rises above it 800 ft. On a terrace in the upper part of the
+village is the temple of Raghunath, built of huge uncemented stones,
+pyramidical in form and capped by a white cupola.
+
+
+DEVENS, CHARLES (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist, was born in
+Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 4th of April 1820. He graduated at
+Harvard College in 1838, and at the Harvard law school in 1840, and was
+admitted to the bar in Franklin county, Mass., where he practised from
+1841 to 1849. In the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the state senate,
+and from 1849 to 1853 was United States marshal for Massachusetts, in
+which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the fugitive slave,
+Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained to do, much against
+his personal desire; and subsequently he attempted in vain to purchase
+Sims's freedom, and many years later appointed him to a position in the
+department of justice at Washington. Devens practised law at Worcester
+from 1853 until 1861, and throughout the Civil War served in the Federal
+army, becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier-general
+of volunteers in April 1862. At the battle of Ball's Bluff (1861) he was
+severely wounded; he was again wounded at Fair Oaks (1862) and at
+Chancellorsville (1863), where he commanded a division. He later
+distinguished himself at Cold Harbor, and commanded a division in
+Grant's final campaign in Virginia (1864-65), his troops being the first
+to occupy Richmond after its fall. Breveted major-general in 1865, he
+remained in the army for a year as commander of the military district of
+Charleston, South Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetts superior
+court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate justice of the supreme
+court of the state from 1873 to 1877, and again from 1881 to 1891. From
+1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet
+of President Hayes. He died at Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January
+1891.
+
+  See his _Orations and Addresses_, with a memoir by John Codman Ropes
+  (Boston, 1891).
+
+
+DEVENTER, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the right bank
+of the Ysel, at the confluence of the Schipbeek, and a junction station
+10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also connected by steam tramway S.E.
+with Brokulo. Pop. (1900) 26,212. Deventer is a neat and prosperous town
+situated in the midst of prettily wooded environs, and containing many
+curious old buildings. There are three churches of special interest: the
+Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies the site
+of an older structure of which the 11th-century crypt remains; the Roman
+Catholic Broederkerk, or Brothers' Church, containing among its relics
+three ancient gospels said to have been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin),
+the English apostle of the Frisians and Westphalians (d. c. 773); and
+the Bergkerk, dedicated in 1206, which has two late Romanesque towers.
+The town hall (1693) contains a remarkable painting of the town council
+by Terburg. In the fine square called the Brink is the old weigh-house,
+now a school (gymnasium), built in 1528, with a large external staircase
+(1644). The gymnasium is descended from the Latin school of which the
+celebrated Alexander Hegius was master in the third quarter of the 15th
+century, when the young Erasmus was sent to it, and at which Adrian
+Floreizoon, afterwards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil
+about the same time. Another famous educational institution was the
+"Athenaeum" or high school, founded in 1630, at which Henri Renery (d.
+1639) taught philosophy, while Johann Friedrich Gronov (Gronovius)
+(1611-1671) taught rhetoric and history in the middle of the same
+century. The "Athenaeum" disappeared in 1876. In modern times Deventer
+possessed a famous teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch
+translator of Shakespeare. The town library, also called the library of
+the Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and _incunabula_, and a 13th-century
+copy of _Reynard the Fox_. The archives of the town are of considerable
+value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade, Deventer has important
+iron foundries and carpet factories (the royal manufactory of Smyrna
+carpets being especially famous); while cotton-printing, rope-making and
+the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on. A public official
+is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread
+known as "_Deventer Koek_," which has a reputation throughout Holland.
+In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of Deventer, some
+14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870.
+
+In the 14th century Deventer was the centre of the famous religious and
+educational movement associated with the name of GERHARD GROOT (q.v.),
+who was a native of the town (see BROTHERS OF COMMON LIFE).
+
+
+DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1902), Irish poet and critic, was born at
+Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the 10th of January 1814, being the
+third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt (1788-1846). In 1832 his father
+dropped the final name by royal licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet.
+Wordsworth called his sonnets the "most perfect of the age." These and
+his drama, _Mary Tudor_, were published by his son in 1875 and 1884.
+Aubrey de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his
+twenty-eighth year published _The Waldenses_, which he followed up in
+the next year by _The Search after Proserpine_. Thenceforward he was
+continually engaged, till his death on the 20th of January 1902, in the
+production of poetry and criticism. His best-known works are: in verse,
+_The Sisters_ (1861); _The Infant Bridal_ (1864); _Irish Odes_ (1869);
+_Legends of St Patrick_ (1872); and _Legends of the Saxon Saints_
+(1879); and in prose, _Essays chiefly on Poetry_ (1887); and _Essays
+chiefly Literary and Ethical_ (1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume
+of travel-sketches, and two dramas in verse, _Alexander the Great_
+(1874); and _St Thomas of Canterbury_ (1876); both of which, though they
+contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic
+spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry are "high
+seriousness" and a fine religious enthusiasm. His research in questions
+of faith led him to the Roman Church; and in many of his poems, notably
+in the volume of sonnets called _St Peter's Chains_ (1888), he made rich
+additions to devotional verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose
+calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his
+affection for Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and
+weight to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will
+be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study of
+Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many
+followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers; but
+after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on "Celtic Literature," nothing
+perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival than Aubrey de Vere's tender
+insight into the Irish character, and his stirring reproductions of the
+early Irish epic poetry.
+
+  A volume of _Selections_ from his poems was edited in 1894 (New York
+  and London) by G. E. Woodberry.
+
+
+DEVICE, a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also a pattern or
+design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem, often combined with a
+motto or legend. "Device" and its doublet "devise" come from the two Old
+French forms _devis_ and _devise_ of the Latin _divisa_, things divided,
+from _dividere_, to separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out,
+apportion. "Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term
+for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention restricted
+to a disposition of real property, the term "bequest" being used of
+personalty (see WILL). This use is directly due to the Medieval Latin
+meaning of _dividere_ = _testamento disponere_. In its verbal form,
+"devise" is used not only in the legal sense, but also in the sense of
+to plan, arrange, scheme.
+
+
+DEVIL (Gr. [Greek: diabolos], "slanderer," from [Greek: diaballein], to
+slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the supreme
+spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used for minor evil
+spirits in much the same sense as "demon." From the various
+characteristics associated with this idea, the term has come to be
+applied by analogy in many different senses. From the idea of evil as
+degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure, the term is applied to
+persons in evil plight, or of slight consideration. In English legal
+phraseology "devil" and "devilling" are used of barristers who act as
+substitutes for others. Any remuneration which the legal "devil" may
+receive is purely a matter of private arrangement between them. In the
+chancery division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of
+one half of the fee which the client pays; "in the king's bench division
+remuneration for 'devilling' of briefs or assisting in drafting and
+opinions is not common" (see _Annual Practice_, 1907, p. 717). In a
+similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by
+a literary hack or "devil." The term "printer's devil" for the errand
+boy in a printing office probably combines this idea with that of his
+being black with ink. The common notions of the devil as black,
+ill-favoured, malicious, destructive and the like, have occasioned the
+application of the term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the
+devil-fish, the coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth
+or separating wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or
+fried. In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the
+word, as used in mythology and religion.
+
+The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all
+phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good or evil, produce
+pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction in the character of
+these agencies is gradually recognized; the agents of good become gods,
+those of evil, demons. A tendency towards the simplification and
+organization of the evil as of the good forces, leads towards belief in
+outstanding leaders among the forces of evil. When the divine is most
+completely conceived as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and
+over against God stands Satan, or the devil.
+
+Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian monotheism that
+this belief in the devil has been most fully developed, yet there are
+approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In Babylonian mythology
+"the old serpent goddess 'the lady Nina' was transformed into the
+embodiment of all that was hostile to the powers of heaven" (Sayce's
+_Hibbert Lectures_, p. 283), and was confounded with the dragon Tiamat,
+"a terrible monster, reappearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab
+and Leviathan, the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man"
+(Tennant's _The Fall and Original Sin_, p. 43), and according to Gunkel
+(_Schöpfung und Chaos_, p. 383) "the original of the 'old serpent' of
+Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with an army of
+monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat of the luminous
+gods. While the Greek mythology described the Titans as "enchained once
+for all in their dark dungeons" yet Prometheus' threat remained to
+disturb the tranquillity of the Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology
+the army of darkness is led by Hel, the personification of twilight,
+sunk to the goddess who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and
+Loki, originally the god of fire, but afterwards "looked upon as the
+father of the evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her
+adornments, who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the
+death of Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts,
+Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver the
+celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the caverns of the
+clouds. In the _Trimurti_, Brahm[=a] (the impersonal) is manifested as
+Brahm[=a] (the personal creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Siva (the
+destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the belief in the god of Vedic times
+Rudra, who is represented as "the wild hunter who storms over the earth
+with his bands, and lays low with arrows the men who displease him"
+(Chantepie de la Saussaye's _Religionsgeschichte_, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p.
+25). The evil character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali
+(the black) is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The
+opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in Zoroastrianism.
+Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is Ahriman, the source of all
+evil; and the opposition runs through the whole universe (D'Alviella's
+_Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 158-164).
+
+The conception of _Satan_ (Heb. [Hebrew: Satan], the adversary, Gr.
+[Greek: Satanas], or [Greek: Satan], 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the
+post-exilic period of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of
+the influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots
+in much older beliefs. An "evil spirit" possesses Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 14),
+but it is "from the Lord." The same agency produces discord between
+Abimelech and the Shechemites (Judges ix. 23). "A lying spirit in the
+mouth of all his prophets" as Yahweh's messenger entices Ahab to his
+doom (1 Kings xxii. 22). Growing human corruption is traced to the
+fleshy union of angels and women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil,
+whether as misfortune or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (1 Sam.
+xviii. 10; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1; 1 Kings xxii. 20; Isa. vi. 10, lxiii. 17).
+After the Exile there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence
+by the introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all
+evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of God and
+man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands as the adversary
+of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by Yahweh for desiring that
+Jerusalem should be further punished. In the book of Job he presents
+himself before the Lord among the sons of God (ii. 1), yet he is
+represented both as accuser and tempter. He disbelieves in Job's
+integrity, and desires him to be so tried that he may fall into sin.
+While, according to 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, God himself tests David in regard to
+the numbering of the people, according to 1 Chron. xxi. 1 it is Satan
+who tempts him.
+
+The development of the conception continued in later Judaism, which was
+probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism. It is doubtful,
+however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book of Tobit is the same as
+the A[=e]shma Da[=e]wa of the Bundahesh. He is the evil spirit who slew
+the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8), and the name probably means
+"Destroyer." In the book of Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a
+rival kingdom of evil, but here are also mentioned Satans, who are
+distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function,
+to tempt, to accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly
+(Ecclesiasticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii.
+(Wisdom ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom
+lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14); Gen. iii. is probably
+referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, "a serpent speaking with the
+words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert wisdom." The _Book of
+the Secrets of Enoch_ not only identifies Satan with the Serpent, but
+also describes his revolt against God, and expulsion from heaven. In the
+Jewish _Targums_ Sammael, "the highest angel that stands before God's
+throne, caused the serpent to seduce the woman"; he coalesces with
+Satan, and has inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is
+ascribed to a union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's
+standing before God he is greatly feared.
+
+This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced in the
+New Testament. Satan is the [Greek: diabolos] (Matt. xiii. 39; John
+xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10), slanderer or accuser,
+the [Greek: peirazôn] (Matt. iv. 3; 1 Thess. iii. 5), the tempter, the
+[Greek: ponêros] (Matt. v. 37; John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil
+one, and the [Greek: echthros] (Matt. xiii. 39), the enemy. He is
+apparently identified with Beelzebub (or Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26,
+27. Jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons belonging to a
+kingdom of evil under the leadership of Satan "the prince of demons"
+(Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in demonic possessions it is his
+function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 11, vi. 7; Luke x. 17-20). But he
+himself conquers Satan in resisting his temptations (Matt. iv. 1-11).
+Simon is warned against him, and Judas yields to him as tempter (Luke
+xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's cures are represented as a triumph
+over Satan (Luke x. 18). This Jewish doctrine is found in Paul's letters
+also. Satan rules over a world of evil, supernatural agencies, whose
+dwelling is in the lower heavens (Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince
+of the power of the air" (ii. 2). He is the tempter (1 Thess. iii. 5; 1
+Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x. 10), to whom the offender is to be
+handed over for bodily destruction (v. 5), identified with the serpent
+(Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and probably with Beliar or Belial (vi.
+15); and the surrender of man to him brought death into the world (Rom.
+v. 17). Paul's own "stake in the flesh" is Satan's messenger (2 Cor.
+xii. 7). According to Hebrews Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by
+dying (ii. 14). Revelation describes the war in heaven between God with
+his angels and Satan or the dragon, the "old serpent," the deceiver of
+the whole world (xii. 9), with his hosts of darkness. After the
+overthrow of the Beast and the kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned
+in the bottomless pit a thousand years (xx. 2). Again loosed to deceive
+the nations, he is finally cast into the lake of fire and brimstone (xx.
+10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2 Peter ii. 4). In John's Gospel and Epistles
+Satan is opposed to Christ. Sinner and murderer from the beginning (1
+John iii. 8) and liar by nature (John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin
+(viii. 34), causes death (verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30),
+but has no power over Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. 11; 1
+John v. 18). He will be destroyed by Christ with all his works (John
+xvi. 33; 1 John iii. 8).
+
+In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic Age "the
+present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon, was just as
+generally presupposed as man's need of redemption, which was regarded as
+a result of that dominion. The tenacity of this belief may be explained
+among other things by the living impression of the polytheism that
+surrounded the communities on every side. By means of this assumption
+too, humanity seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for
+redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range"
+(Harnack's _History of Dogma_, i. p. 181). While Christ's First Advent
+delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow would be
+completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics held that "the present
+world sprang from a fall of man, or from an undertaking hostile to God,
+and is, therefore, the product of an evil or intermediate being" (p.
+257). Some taught that while the future had been assigned by God to
+Christ, the devil had received the present age (p. 309). The fathers
+traced all doctrines not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and
+the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil
+transforming himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes
+Satan's fall to "pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation"; and
+traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in resisting his
+temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline passages, represents
+the death of Christ "as a ransom paid to the 'apostasy' for men who had
+fallen into captivity" (ii. 290). He does not admit that Satan has any
+lawful claim on man, or that God practised a deceit on him, as later
+fathers taught. This theory of the _atonement_ was formulated by Origen.
+"By his successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God
+offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped, as
+Christ overcame both him and death" (p. 367). It was held by Gregory of
+Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase _pia fraus_, Augustine, Leo I., and
+Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst form. "The humanity of Christ
+was the bait; the fish, the devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging
+on the invisible hook, Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the
+relation of the work of Christ to Satan retires into the background,
+Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view.
+It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the Lombard
+asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard represents man's
+bondage to Satan "as righteously permitted as a just retribution for
+sin," he being "the executioner of the divine justice." Another theory
+of Origen's found less acceptance. The devil, as a being resulting from
+God's will, cannot always remain a devil. The possibility of his
+redemption, however, was in the 5th century branded as a heresy. Persian
+dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the doctrine
+of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy views of
+Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to this
+influence. Mani taught that Satan with his demons, sprung from the
+kingdom of darkness, attacked the realm of light, the earth, defeated
+man sent against him by the God of light, but was overthrown by the God
+of light, who then delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). "During the
+middle ages," says Tulloch, "the belief in the devil was
+absorbing--saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant
+conflict with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the
+13th to the 15th century, passed into Protestantism. Luther was always
+conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan. "As I found he was
+about to begin again," says Luther, "I gathered together my books, and
+got into bed. Another time in the night I heard him above my cell
+walking on the cloister, but as I knew it was the devil I paid no
+attention to him and went to sleep." He held that this world will pass
+away with its pleasures, as there can be no real improvement in it, for
+the devil continues in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii.
+191). I. A. Dorner (_Christian Doctrine_, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant
+doctrine as follows:--"He is brought into relation with natural
+sinfulness, and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to
+him. The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery to
+Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the
+extra-Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and by his
+word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating anything is
+also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting substances is
+conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judgment that his power is
+wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered up to eternal punishment."
+This belief in the devil was specially strong in Scotland among both
+clergy and laity in the 17th century. "The devil was always and
+literally at hand," says Buckle, "he was haunting them, speaking to
+them, and tempting them. Go where they would he was there."
+
+In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on
+this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of demonic possession, and
+held that Christ in his language accommodated himself to the views of
+the sick whom he was seeking to cure. Kant regarded the devil as a
+personification of the radical evil in man. Daub in his _Judas
+Ishcarioth_ argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute evil, and
+the absolute evil as real must be in a person. Schelling regarded the
+devil as, not a person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the
+freedom of man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the
+common belief. "The problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in
+Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self-knowledge." Dorner has
+formulated a theory which explains the development of the conception of
+Satan in the Holy Scriptures as in correspondence with an evolution in
+the character of Satan. "Satan appears in Scripture under four leading
+characters:--first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to
+decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts
+criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine, which
+brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he is described,
+especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of God and man." He
+supposes "a change in Satan in the course of the history of the divine
+revelation, in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn
+enemy of God and man, especially in the New Testament times, in which,
+on the other hand, his power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues
+that "the world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits
+breaches everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance" (pp. 99, 102).
+H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. "The evil
+principle," he says, "has in itself no personality, but attains a
+progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no individual
+personality, save only in individual creatures, who in an especial
+manner make themselves its organs; but among these is one creature in
+whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and
+head of the kingdom of evil" (_Dogmatics_, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no
+place in his constructive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but
+recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another
+constitutes a kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E.
+Garvie, _The Ritschlian Theology_, p. 304). Kaftan affirms that a
+"doctrine about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as
+faith can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the
+dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left to the
+immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will on account of
+the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would be arrogant to wish
+to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the thought that Satan also
+stands under the commission of the Almighty God, and that no one must
+suppose that by leading back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get
+rid of his own guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith"
+(_Dogmatik_, p. 348). In the book entitled _Evil and Evolution_ there is
+"an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient
+mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil is best
+explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan, who in the
+process of evolution interferes with the divine designs, an interference
+which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible.
+Satan is, however, held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom
+been estranged from, and opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be
+conquered by moral means. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic
+possession maintains that "the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son
+of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession" (p.
+150), and argues that, as "the Incarnation indicated the establishment
+of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took place "a counter
+movement among the powers of darkness," of which "genuine demonic
+possession was one of the manifestations" (p. 249).
+
+Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently affirmed
+that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an essential
+article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an indispensable
+element of Christian experience. On the one hand science has so
+explained many of the processes of outer nature and of the inner life of
+man as to leave no room for Satanic agency. On the other hand the modern
+view of the inspiration of the Scriptures does not necessitate the
+acceptance of the doctrine of the Scriptures on this subject as finally
+and absolutely authoritative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter
+may be accounted for as either an accommodation to the views of those
+with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the limitation
+of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the Incarnation, for it
+cannot be contended that as revealer of God and redeemer of men it was
+imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in
+this respect. The possibility of the existence of evil spirits,
+organized under one leader Satan to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be
+denied; the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may,
+however, be doubted; the necessity of any such belief for Christian
+thought and life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also DEMONOLOGY;
+POSSESSION.)                                                (A. E. G.*)
+
+
+DEVIZES, a market town and municipal borough in the Devizes
+parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by S. of London
+by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6532. Its castle was built on
+a tongue of land flanked by two deep ravines, and behind this the town
+grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its
+main streets, in which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate
+from the market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord
+Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town on the N.,
+passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-nine locks. St
+John's church, one of the most interesting in Wiltshire, is cruciform,
+with a massive central tower, based upon two round and two pointed
+arches. It was originally Norman of the 12th century, and the chancel
+arch and low vaulted chancel, in this style, are very fine. In the
+interior several ancient monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are
+preserved, besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich
+ceilings of oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly
+Norman, but was rebuilt in the 15th and again in the 19th century. Its
+lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof, and the
+south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves its Norman mouldings.
+The woollen industries of Devizes have lost their prosperity; but there
+is a large grain trade, with engineering works, breweries, and
+manufactures of silk, snuff, tobacco and agricultural implements. The
+town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors.
+Area, 906 acres.
+
+Devizes (_Divisis_, _la Devise_, _De Vies_) does not appear in any
+historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the
+construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger, bishop of
+Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important political centre,
+and led to its speedy development. After the disgrace of Roger in 1139
+the castle was seized by the Crown; in the 14th century it formed part
+of the dowry of the queens of England, and figured prominently in
+history until its capture and demolition by Cromwell in the Civil War of
+the 17th century. Devizes became a borough by prescription, and the
+first charter from Matilda, confirmed by successive later sovereigns,
+merely grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of
+undisturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause conferring on the town the
+liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II. instituted a coroner. A gild
+merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward II. and Edward III., and in
+1614 was divided into the three companies of drapers, mercers and
+leathersellers. The present governing charters were issued by James I.
+and Charles I., the latter being little more than a confirmation of the
+former, which instituted a common council consisting of a mayor, a town
+clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses. These charters were surrendered
+to Charles II., and a new one was conferred by James II., but abandoned
+three years later in favour of the original grant. Devizes returned two
+members to parliament from 1295, until deprived of one member by the
+Representation of the People Act of 1867, and of the other by the
+Redistribution Act of 1885. The woollen manufacture was the staple
+industry of the town from the reign of Edward III. until the middle of
+the 18th century, when complaints as to the decay of trade began to be
+prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth the market was held on Monday, and
+there were two annual fairs at the feasts of the Purification of the
+Virgin and the Decollation of John the Baptist. The market was
+transferred to Thursday in the next reign, and the fairs in the 18th
+century had become seven in number.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Wiltshire_; _History of Devizes_ (Devizes,
+  1859).
+
+
+DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68), the name applied to the war which arose
+out of Louis XIV.'s claims to certain Spanish territories in right of
+his wife Maria Theresa, upon whom the ownership was alleged to have
+"devolved." (See, for the military operations, DUTCH WARS.) The war was
+ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668.
+
+
+DEVON, EARLS OF. From the family of De Redvers (De Ripuariis; Riviers),
+who had been earls of Devon from about 1100, this title passed to Hugh
+de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340), the representative of a prominent family in
+the county (see Gibbon's "digression" in chap. lxi. of the _Decline and
+Fall_, ed. Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay
+(1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of Towton.
+It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward Courtenay (d. 1509), whose
+son Sir William (d. 1511) married Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too
+great proximity to the throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry
+(c. 1498-1539) was restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in
+1525 was created marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of
+William Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture
+on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son Edward
+(1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant in the Courtenay
+family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the
+House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon was restored to the peerage,
+still being held by the head of the Courtenays. The earlier earls of
+Devon were referred to occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the
+former variant has prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the
+earldom and dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND
+DUKES OF, and also the article COURTENAY).
+
+
+DEVONIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name applied to series of stratified
+fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed during the Devonian
+period, that is, in the interval of time between the close of the
+Silurian period and the beginning of the Carboniferous; it includes the
+marine Devonian and an estuarine Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The
+name "Devonian" was introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A.
+Sedgwick to describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W.
+Lonsdale had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be
+intermediate between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two
+workers also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the
+continent, where already several others, F. Roemer, H. E. Beyrich, &c.,
+were endeavouring to elucidate the succession of strata in this portion
+of the "Transition Series." The labours of these earlier workers,
+including in addition to those already mentioned, the brothers F. and G.
+von Sandberger, A. Dumont, J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de
+Verneuil and H. von Dechen, although somewhat modified by later
+students, formed the foundation upon which the modern classification of
+the Devonian rocks is based.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution of Devonian Rocks]
+
+                   _Stratigraphy of the Devonian Facies._
+
+  Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall that
+  the Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central Europe
+  that the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and here, too,
+  their geological position was first indicated by the founders of the
+  system, Sedgwick and Murchison.
+
+  _Continental Europe._--Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the
+  centre of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south of
+  Belgium across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best known from
+  the picturesque gorges which have been cut through them by the Rhine
+  below Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves. They reappear from under
+  younger formations in Brittany, in the Harz and Thuringia, and are
+  exposed in Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, North Moravia and eastern
+  Galicia. The principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical
+  areas are indicated in Table I.
+
+  This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata,
+  is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet
+  represents the _Stringocephalus_ limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards
+  into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical
+  modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general
+  palaeontological characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony,
+  Silesia, the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have
+  been detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of
+  the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods,
+  lamellibranchs and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of
+  the Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales,
+  limestones and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but
+  containing ores of silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other
+  metals, may be referable to the Devonian system.
+
+  In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of a
+  vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional
+  seams of limestone, and in particular with one thick central
+  calcareous zone. These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by
+  numerous broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (_Phacops_,
+  _Homalonotus_, &c.) which, though generically like those of the
+  Silurian system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous
+  zone abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous
+  brachiopods. In the highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods
+  (_Clymenia_) occurs in some of the limestones, while the shales are
+  crowded with a small but characteristic ostracod crustacean
+  (_Cypridina_). Here and there traces of fishes have been found, more
+  especially in the Eifel, but seldom in such a state of preservation as
+  to warrant their being assigned to any definite place in the
+  zoological scale. Subsequently, however, E. Beyrich has described from
+  Gerolstein in the Eifel an undoubted species of _Pterichthys_, which,
+  as it cannot be certainly identified with any known form, he names _P.
+  Rhenanus_. A _Coccosteus_ has been described by F. A. Roemer from the
+  Harz, and still later one has been cited from Bicken near Herborn by
+  V. Koenen; but, as Beyrich points out, there may be some doubt as to
+  whether the latter is not a _Pterichthys_. A _Ctenacanthus_, seemingly
+  undistinguishable from the _C. Bohemicus_ of Barrande's Étage G, has
+  also been obtained from the Lower Devonian "Nereitenschichten" of
+  Thuringia. The characteristic _Holoptychius nobilissimus_ has been
+  detected in the Psammite de Condroz, which in Belgium forms a
+  characteristic sandy portion of the Upper Devonian rocks. These are
+  interesting facts, as helping to link the Devonian and Old Red
+  Sandstone types together. But they are as yet too few and unsupported
+  to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations between these
+  types.
+
+  It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red
+  Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones
+  and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the
+  fish-bearing sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was
+  shown in the great work _Russia and the Ural Mountains_ by Murchison,
+  De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper
+  Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent of
+  surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development arises
+  not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal character
+  of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described elsewhere, they
+  remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they were
+  originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they present but
+  a meagre representative of the massive Devonian greywacke and
+  limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Yet vast
+  though the area is over which they form the surface rock, it is
+  probably only a small portion of their total extent; for they are
+  found turned up from under the newer formations along the flank of the
+  Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread continuously across
+  the whole breadth of Russia in Europe. Though almost everywhere
+  undisturbed, they afford evidence of some terrestrial oscillation
+  between the time of their formation and that of the Silurian rocks on
+  which they rest, for they are found gradually to overlap Upper and
+  Lower Silurian formations.
+
+                                  TABLE I.
+
+       +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+       |             |                   |                              | Brittany and |                 |                 |
+       |  Stages.    |     Ardennes.     |           Rhineland.         |   Normandy.  |    Bohemia.     |      Harz.      |
+     / +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+    |  |             | Limestone of      | Cypridina slates.            | Slates of    |                 | Cypridina       |
+ U  |  |             |  Etroeungt.       | Pön sandstone (Sauerland).   |  Rostellec.  |                 |  slates.        |
+ P  |  | Famennien   | Psammites of      | Crumbly limestone (Kramen-   |              |                 | Clymenia        |
+ P  |  | (Clymenia   |  Condroz (sandy   |  zelkalk) with Clymenia.     |              |                 |  limestone and  |
+ E  |  |  beds).     |  series).         | Neheim slates in Sauerland,  |              |                 |  limestone of   |
+ R  |  |             | Slates of Famenne |  and diabases, tuffs, &c.,   |              |                 |  Altenau.       |
+    |  |             |  (shaly series).  |  in Dillmulde, &c.           |              |                 |                 |
+ D /   +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+ E \   |             | Slates of         | Adorf limestone of Waldeck   | Limestone of |                 | Iberg limestone |
+ V  |  |             |  Matagne.         |  and shales with Goniatites  |  Cop-Choux   |                 |  and Winterberg |
+ O  |  | Frasnien    | Limestones, marls |  (Eifel and Aix) =           |  and green   |                 |  limestone;     |
+ N  |  |(Intumesce-  |  and shale of     |  Budesheimer shales.         |  slates of   |                 |  also Adorf     |
+ I  |  | cens beds). |  Frasne, and      | Marls, limestone and dolomite|  Travuliors. |                 |  limestone and  |
+ A  |  |             |  red marble of    |  with Rhynchonella cuboides  |              |                 |  shales         |
+ N  |  |             |  Flanders.        |  (Flinz in part).            |              |                 |  (Budesheim).   |
+ .  |  |             |                   | Iberg limestone of Dillmulde.|              |                 |                 |
+     \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+     / |             | Limestone of      | Stringocephalus limestone,   |Limestones    | H_{2} (of       | Stringocephalus |
+ M  |  |             |  Givet.           |  ironstone of Brilon and     | of Chalonnes,|  Barrande) dark |  shales with    |
+ I  |  |  Givérien   |                   |  Lahnmulde.                  | Montjean and |  plant-bearing  |  Flaser and     |
+ D  |  |(Stringocep- |                   | Upper Lenne shales, crinoidal| l'Ecochère.  |  shales.        |  Knollenkalk.   |
+ D  |  | halus beds).|                   |  limestone of Eifel, red     |              |                 | Wissenbach      |
+ L  |  |             |                   |  sandstones of Aix.          |              |                 |  slates.        |
+ E  |  |             |                   | Tuffs and diabases of Brilon |              | H_{1}.          |                 |
+    |  |             |                   |  and Lahnmulde.              |              |                 |                 |
+ D /   |             |                   | Red conglomerate of Aix.     |              |                 |                 |
+ E \   +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+ V  |  |             | Calceola slates   | Calceola beds, Wissenbach    | Slates of    | G_{3} Cephalo-  | Calceola beds.  |
+ O  |  |             |  and limestones   |  slates, Lower Lenne beds,   |  Porsguen,   |  pod limestone. | Nereite slates, |
+ N  |  | Eifélien    |  of  Couvin.      |  Güntroder limestone and     |  greywacke   | G_{2} Tentacu-  |  slates of      |
+ I  |  |  (Calceola  | Greywacke  with   |  clay slate of Lahnmulde,    |  of Fret.    |  lite limestone.|  Wieda and      |
+ A  |  |   beds).    |  Spirifer         |  Dillmulde, Wildungen,       |              | G_{3} Knollen-  |  limestones of  |
+ N  |  |             |  cultrijugatus.   |  Griefenstein limestone,     |              |  kalk and       |  Hasselfeld.    |
+ .  |  |             |                   |  Ballersbach limestone.      |              |  mottled Mnenian|                 |
+     \ |             |                   |                              |              |  limestone.     |                 |
+       +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+     / | Coblentzien |Greywacke of       | Upper Coblentz slates.       | Limestones   |                 | Haupt quartzite |
+ L  |  |             |  Hierges.         | Red sandstone of Eifel,      |  of Erbray,  |                 |  (of Lossen) =  |
+ O  |  |             |Shales and conglom-|  Coblentz quartzite, lower   |  Brulon, Viré|                 |  Rammelsberg    |
+ W  |  |             | erate of Burnot   |  Coblentz slates.            |  and Néhou,  |                 |  slates, Schal- |
+ E  |  |             | with quartzite,   | Hunsrück and Siegener        |  greywacke   |                 |  lker slates =  |
+ R  |  |             | of Bierlé and     |  greywacke and slates.       |  of Faou,    |                 |  Kahleberg      |
+    |  |             | red  slates of    | Taunus quartzite and         |  sandstone   |                 |  sandstone.     |
+ D  |  |             | Vireux, greywacke |  greywacke.                  |  of Gahard.  | F-{2} of        | Hercynian slates|
+ E /   |             | of Montigny,      |                              |              |  Barrande.      |  and lime-      |
+ V \   |             | sandstone of Anor.|                              |              | White Konjeprus |  stones.        |
+ O  |  +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+  Limestone with |                 |
+ N  |  | Gédinnien   |Slates of St Hubert| Slates of Gédinne.           | Slates and   |  Hercynian      |                 |
+ I  |  |             | and Fooz, slates  |                              |  quartzites  |  fauna.         |                 |
+ A  |  |             | of Mondrepuits,   |                              |  of Plou-    |                 |                 |
+ N  |  |             | arkose of Weis-   |                              |  gastel.     |                 |                 |
+ .  |  |             | mes, conglomerate |                              |              |                 |                 |
+    |  |             | of Fèpin.         |                              |              |                 |                 |
+     \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+
+  The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact,
+  first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite
+  within themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red
+  Sandstone types. In some districts they consist largely of limestones,
+  in others of red sandstones and marls. In the former they present
+  molluscs and other marine organisms of known Devonian species; in the
+  latter they afford remains of fishes, some of which are specifically
+  identical with those of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The
+  distribution of these two palaeontological types in Russia is traced
+  by Murchison to the lithological characters of the rocks, and
+  consequent original diversities of physical conditions, rather than to
+  differences of age. Indeed cases occur where in the same band of rock
+  Devonian shells and Old Red Sandstone fishes lie commingled. In the
+  belt of the formation which extends southwards from Archangel and the
+  White Sea, the strata consist of sands and marls, and contain only
+  fish remains. Traced through the Baltic provinces, they are found to
+  pass into red and green marls, clays, thin limestones and sandstones,
+  with beds of gypsum. In some of the calcareous bands such fossils
+  occur as _Orthis striatula_, _Spiriferina prisca_, _Leptaena
+  productoides_, _Spirifer calcaratus_, _Spirorbis omphaloides_ and
+  _Orthoceras subfusiforme_. In the higher beds _Holoptychius_ and other
+  well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone occur. Followed still
+  farther to the south, as far as the watershed between Orel and
+  Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red colour and sandy
+  character, and become thin-bedded yellow limestones, and dolomites
+  with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt deposits are indicated
+  by occasional saline springs. It is evident that the geographical
+  conditions of the Russian area during the Devonian period must have
+  closely resembled those of the Rhine basin and central England during
+  the Triassic period. The Russian Devonian rocks have been classified
+  in Table II. There is an unquestionable passage of the uppermost
+  Devonian rocks of Russia into the base of the Carboniferous system.
+
+                               TABLE II.
+
+       +---------------------------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+       |     North-West Russia.          | Central Russia. |  Petchoraland.   |       Ural Region.          |
+     / +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+ U  |  | Red sandstone | Limestones with | Limestones with | Domanik slates   | Cypridina slates, Clymenia  |
+ P  |  |  (Old Red).   |  Spirifer       |  Arca oreliana. |  and limestones  |  limestones (Famennien).    |
+ P <   |               |  Verneuili and  | Limestones with |  with Sp.        | Limestones with Gephyoceras |
+ E  |  |               |  Sp. Archiaci.  |  Sp. Verneuili  |  Verneuili.      |  intumescens and            |
+ R  |  |               |                 |  and Sp.        |                  |  Rhynchonella cuboides      |
+    |  |               |                 |  Archiaci.      |                  |  (Frasnien).                |
+     \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+ M   / |    Dolomites and limestones     |            Marl with               | Limestones and slates with  |
+ I  |  |             with                |        Spirifer Anossofi           |  Sp. Anossofi (Givétien).   |
+ D <   |       Spirifer Anossofi.        |           and corals.              | Limestones and slates with  |
+ D  |  |                                                                      |  Pentamerus baschkiricus    |
+ L  |  |                      Lower sandstone (Old Red).                      |  (Eifélien).                |
+ E   \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+     / |                                 |                 |                  | Limestones and slates of    |
+ L  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  the Yuresan and Ufa rivers,|
+ O  |  |            Absent.              |                 |                  |  slate and quartzite,       |
+ W <   |                                 |                 |                  |  marble of Byclaya and      |
+ E  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  of Bogoslovsk, phyllitic   |
+ R  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  schists and quartzite.     |
+     \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+
+  The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very
+  different from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name
+  "Hercynian" has been applied, and the correlation of the strata has
+  been a source of prolonged discussion among continental geologists. A
+  similar fauna appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia, in Brittany
+  (limestone of Erbray) and in the Urals. The Upper Devonian of the Harz
+  passes up into the Culm.
+
+  In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is
+  represented by _Clymenia_ limestone and _Cypridina_ slates with Adorf
+  limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The
+  middle division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaculite and
+  Nereite shales and limestones below. The upper part of the Lower
+  Devonian, the sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably upon
+  Silurian rocks. In the Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones, the
+  equivalents of the Iberg limestone, which attain an enormous
+  thickness; these are underlain by coral limestones with fossils
+  similar to those of the Konjeprus limestone of Bohemia; below these
+  are shales and nodular limestones with goniatites. The Devonian rocks
+  of Poland are sandy in the lower, and more calcareous in the upper
+  parts. They are of interest because while the upper portions agree
+  closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top of the Coblentzien
+  upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red Sandstone fishes
+  (_Coccosteus_, &c.) are found. In France Devonian rocks are found well
+  developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table, also in Normandy and
+  Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the middle and upper divisions
+  are known. In south France in the neighbourhood of Cabrières, about
+  Montpellier and in the Montagne Noire, all three divisions are found
+  in a highly calcareous condition. Devonian rocks are recognized,
+  though frequently much metamorphosed, on both the northern and
+  southern flanks of the Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they
+  are extensively developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft.
+  thick, all three divisions and most of the central European
+  subdivisions are present. In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of
+  Spain bear a marked resemblance to those of Brittany.
+
+  _Asia._--From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have been
+  traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai Mountains
+  they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age with a fauna
+  possessing Hercynian features. The same features are observed in the
+  Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan. Well-developed
+  quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of Yarkand and
+  Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are widespread in China.
+  Upper Devonian rocks are recorded from Persia, and from the Hindu Kush
+  on the right bank of the Chitral river.
+
+  _England._--In England the original Devonian rocks are developed in
+  Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire these rocks
+  consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south Devon there
+  are, in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and intercalations
+  of lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the stratigraphy in this
+  region is a difficult matter, partly on account of the absence of good
+  exposures with fossils, and partly through the disturbed condition of
+  the rocks. The system has been subdivided as shown in Table III.
+
+                                   TABLE III.
+
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+          |    North Devon and West     |                               |
+          |          Somerset.          |         South Devon.          |
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+        / | Pilton group. Grits, slates | Ashburton slates.             |
+   U   |  |  and thin limestones.       | Livaton slates.               |
+   P   |  | Baggy group. Sandstones     | Red and green Entomis slates  |
+   P  <   |  and slates.                |  (Famennien).                 |
+   E   |  | Pickwell Down group.        | Red and grey slates with      |
+   R   |  |  Dark slates and grits.     |  tuffs.                       |
+   .   |  | Morte slates (?).           | Chudleigh goniatite limestone |
+        \ |                             |  Petherwyn beds (Frasnien).   |
+   M      +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   I    / | Ilfracombe slates with      | Torquay and Plymouth          |
+   D   |  |  lenticles of limestone.    |  limestones and Ashprington   |
+   D  <   | Combe Martin grits and      |  volcanic series. (Givétien   |
+   L   |  |  slates.                    |  and Eifélien.)               |
+   E   |  |                             | Slates and limestones of      |
+   .    \ |                             |  Hope's Nose.                 |
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   L    / | Hangman grits and slates.   | Looe beds (Cornwall).         |
+   O   |  | Lynton group, grits and     | Meadfoot, Cockington and      |
+   W  <   |  calcareous slates.         |  Warberry series of slates    |
+   E   |  | Foreland grits and slates.  |  and greywackes. (Coblentzien |
+   R   |  |                             |  and Gédinnien.)              |
+   .    \ +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+  The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the Rhenish
+  and south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the Devonian rocks
+  pass upward without break into the Culm.
+
+  _North America._--In North America the Devonian rocks are extensively
+  developed; they have been studied most closely in the New York region,
+  where they are classified according to Table IV.
+
+  The classification below is not capable of application over the states
+  generally and further details are required from many of the regions
+  where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but everywhere the broad
+  threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland the following
+  arrangement has been adopted--(1) Helderberg = Coeymans; (2) Oriskany;
+  (3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings = Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire
+  = Catskill in part. In the interior the Helderbergian is missing and
+  the system commences with (1) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton,
+  (4) Portage (and Genesee), (5) Chemung.
+
+  The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the
+  continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and in Canada
+  (Gaspé, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal); an Appalachian belt,
+  and a lower Mississippian region. The series as a whole is mainly
+  calcareous (2000 ft. in Gaspé), and thins out towards the west. The
+  fauna has Hercynian affinities. The Oriskany formation consists
+  largely of coarse sandstones; it is thin in New York, but in Maryland
+  and Virginia it is several hundred feet thick. It is more widespread
+  than the underlying Helderbergian. The Lower Devonian appears to be
+  thick in northern Maine and in Gaspé, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia,
+  but neither the palaeontology nor the stratigraphy has been completely
+  worked out.
+
+  In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base, Esopus
+  and Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the
+  Appalachian region; but the Onondaga limestones are much more
+  extensive. The Erian series is often described as the Hamilton series
+  outside the New York district, where the _Marcellus_ shales are
+  grouped together with the Hamilton shales, and numerous local
+  subdivisions are included, as in Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The
+  rocks are mostly shales or slates, but limestones predominate in the
+  western development. In Pennsylvania the Hamilton series is from 1500
+  ft. to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more calcareous western extension it
+  is much thinner. The _Marcellus_ shales are bituminous in places.
+
+  The Senecan series is composed of shallow-water deposits; the Tully
+  limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a layer
+  of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The bituminous
+  Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.); 25 ft. on Lake
+  Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage formation reach 1000
+  ft. to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the Chautauquan series the
+  Chemung formation is not always clearly separable from the Portage
+  beds, it is a sandstone and conglomerate formation which reaches its
+  maximum thickness (8000 ft.) in Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly
+  towards the west. In the Catskill region the Upper Devonian has an Old
+  Red facies--red shales and sandstones with a freshwater and brackish
+  fauna.
+
+                                     TABLE IV.
+
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+         |               |                               |  Probable   |
+         |  Groups.      |    Formations.                |  European   |
+         |               |                               | Equivalent. |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+       / | Chautauquan.  | Chemung beds with Catskill    | Famennien.  |
+  U   |  |               |  as a local facies.           |             |
+  P   |  |               |                               |             |
+  P  <   |             ( | Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca  | Frasnien.   |
+  E   |  |             ( |  and Oneonta shales as local  |             |
+  R   |  | Senecan.    < |  facies).                     |             |
+  .   |  |             ( | Genesee shales.               |             |
+       \ |             ( | Tully limestone.              |             |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+  M    / | Erian.      ( | Hamilton shale.               | Givétien.   |
+  I   |  |             ( | Marcellus shale.              |             |
+  D   |  |               |                               |             |
+  D  <   |             ( | Onondaga (Corniferous)        | Eifélien.   |
+  L   |  | Ulsterian.  ( |   limestone.                  |             |
+  E   |  |             < | Schoharie grit.               |             |
+  .    \ |             ( | Esopus grit (Caudagalli grit).|             |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+  L    / | Oriskanian.   | Oriskany sandstone.           | Coblentzien.|
+  O   |  |               |                               |             |
+  W   |  |             ( | Kingston beds.                | Gédinnien.  |
+  E  <   |Helderbe-    ( | Becraft limestone.            |             |
+  R   |  |   rgian.    < | New Scotland beds.            |             |
+  .   |  |             ( | Coeymans limestone.           |             |
+       \ +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+
+  Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short
+  distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated
+  Devonian rocks in many parts of the continent. In the Great Plains
+  this system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado,
+  Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona; Devonian rocks
+  occur between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains, in the Arbuckle
+  Mountains of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the western interior limestones
+  predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are found at Eureka, Nevada,
+  beneath 2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific coast metamorphism of the
+  rocks is common, and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them.
+
+  In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern
+  region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along the
+  course of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence they
+  stretch out into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much that is
+  now classed as Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil evidence to be
+  Carboniferous.
+
+  _South America, Africa, Australia, &c._--In South America the Devonian
+  is well developed; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and the
+  Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about the junction
+  of the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has affinities with
+  the Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied to the South
+  American Devonian is that of South Africa, where they are represented
+  by the Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In Australia we find Lower
+  Devonian consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks;
+  and a Middle division with coral limestones in Victoria, New South
+  Wales and Queensland; an Upper division has also been observed. In New
+  Zealand the Devonian is well exposed in the Reefton mining field; and
+  it has been suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may
+  belong to this system.
+
+           _Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies._
+
+  The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald Geikie,
+  "consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down
+  conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off
+  in the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while
+  they are separated from each other by an unconformability." The Old
+  Red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated
+  lakes or lagoons, approximately parallel to one another, with a
+  general alignment in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas of deposit
+  Sir A. Geikie has assigned convenient distinctive names.
+
+  In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a
+  pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative of a
+  prolonged interval of erosion. In the central valley between the base
+  of the Highlands and the southern uplands lay "Lake Caledonia." Here
+  the lower division is made up of some 20,000 ft. of shallow-water
+  deposits, reddish-brown, yellow and grey sandstones and conglomerates,
+  with occasional "cornstones," and thin limestones. The grey flagstones
+  with shales are almost confined to Forfarshire, and are known as the
+  "Arbroath flags." Interbedded volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites,
+  diabases, with agglomerates and tuffs constitute an important feature,
+  and attain a thickness of 6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A
+  line of old volcanic vents may be traced in a direction roughly
+  parallel to the trend of the great central valley. On the northern
+  side of the Highlands was "Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than
+  the foregoing lake, though its boundaries are not determinable. It lay
+  over Moray Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended
+  from Caithness to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even
+  have stretched across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in
+  Sognefjord and Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some
+  parts of northern Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the
+  Caithness flags, dark grey and bituminous, which, with the red
+  sandstones and conglomerates at their base, probably attain a
+  thickness of 16,000 ft. The somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led
+  Murchison to class the flags as Middle Devonian. In the Shetland
+  Islands contemporaneous volcanic rocks have been observed. Over the
+  west of Argyllshire lay "Lake Lorne"; here the volcanic rocks
+  predominate, they are intercalated with shallow-water deposits. A
+  similar set of rocks occupy the Cheviot district.
+
+  The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in
+  Shropshire and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales,
+  sandstones and marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few fossils,
+  and no break has yet been found in the series. In Scotland this series
+  was deposited in basins which correspond only partially with those of
+  the earlier period. They are well developed in central Scotland over
+  the lowlands bordering the Moray Firth. Interbedded lavas and tuffs
+  are found in the island of Hoy. An interesting feature of this series
+  is the occurrence of great crowds of fossil fishes in some localities,
+  notably at Dura Den in Fife. In the north of England this series rests
+  unconformably upon the Lower Old Red and the Silurian.
+
+  Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmorland, and
+  also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey, a brecciated
+  conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit
+  in places, has often been classed with the Old Red Sandstone, but in
+  parts, at least, it is more likely to belong to the base of the
+  Carboniferous system. In Ireland the lower division appears to be
+  represented by the Dingle beds and Glengariff grits, while the Kerry
+  rocks and the Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the equivalents of the upper
+  division. Rocks of Old Red type, both lower and upper, are found in
+  Spitzbergen and in Bear Island. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the
+  Old Red facies is extensively developed. The Gaspé sandstones have
+  been estimated at 7036 ft. thick. In parts of western Russia Old Red
+  Sandstone fossils are found in beds intercalated with others
+  containing marine fauna of the Devonian facies.
+
+              _Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas._
+
+  The two types of sediment formed during this period--the _marine_
+  Devonian and the _lagoonal_ Old Red Sandstone--representing as they do
+  two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical
+  condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubtless
+  at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off no
+  less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have
+  records; but this period is the earliest in which these variations of
+  environment are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break
+  between the older Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous above
+  is not strongly marked; and in certain areas a very close relationship
+  can be shown to exist between the older Devonian and the former, and
+  the younger Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless, taken as a whole,
+  the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality.
+
+  The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are presented by
+  corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant individually and
+  varied in form; and they are so distinctive of the period that no
+  Devonian species has yet been found either in the Silurian or in the
+  Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present day, and
+  contributed to the formation of limestone masses in Devonshire, on the
+  continent of Europe and in North America. Rugose and tabulate forms
+  prevailed; among the former the cyathophyllids (_Cyathophyllum_) were
+  important, _Phillipsastraea_, _Zaphrentis_, _Acervularia_ and the
+  curious _Calceola_ (_sandalina_), an operculate genus which has given
+  palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis, for it has been
+  regarded as a pelecypod (hippurite) and a brachiopod. The tabulate
+  corals were represented by _Favosites_, _Michelinia_, _Pleurodictyum_,
+  _Fistulipora_, _Pachypora_ and others. _Heliolites_ and _Plasmopora_
+  represent the alcyonarians. Stromatoporoids were important reef
+  builders. A well-known fossil is _Receptaculites_, a genus to which it
+  has been difficult to assign a definite place; it has been thought to
+  be a sponge, it may be a calcareous alga, or a curious representative
+  of the foraminifera.
+
+  In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their
+  development: they compose three-quarters of the known fauna, and more
+  than 1100 species have been described. Changes were taking place from
+  the beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera;
+  several Silurian forms dropped out, and new types were coming in. A
+  noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the
+  genus _Spirifer_, other spiriferids were _Ambocoelia_, _Uncites_,
+  _Verneuilia_. Orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance, while
+  the productids (_Productella_, _Chonetes_, _Strophalosia_) were
+  increasing. The strophomenids were still flourishing, represented by
+  the genera _Leptaena_, _Stropheodonta_, _Kayserella_, and others. The
+  ancient _Lingula_, along with _Crania_ and _Orbiculoidea_, occur among
+  the inarticulate forms. Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is
+  _Atrypa reticularis_. The athyrids were very numerous (_Athyris_,
+  _Retzia_, _Merista_, _Meristella_, _Kayserina_, &c.); and the
+  rhynchonellids were well represented by _Pugnax_, _Hypothyris_, and
+  several other genera. The important group of terebratulids appears in
+  this system; amongst them _Stringocephalus_ is an eminently
+  characteristic Devonian brachiopod; others are _Dielasma_,
+  _Cryptonella_, _Rensselaeria_ and _Oriskania_.
+
+  The pelecypod molluscs were represented by _Pterinea_, abundant in the
+  lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by
+  _Cucullella_, _Buchiola_ and _Curtonotus_ in the upper members of the
+  system. Other genera are _Actinodesma_, _Cardiola_, _Nucula_,
+  _Megalodon_, _Aviculopecten_, &c. Gasteropods were becoming more
+  important, but the simple capulid forms prevailed: _Platyceras_
+  (_Capulus_), _Straparollus_, _Pleurotomaria_, _Murchisonia_,
+  _Macrocheilina_, _Euomphalus_. Among the pteropods, _Tentaculites_ was
+  very abundant in some quarters; others were _Conularia_ and
+  _Styliolina_. In the Devonian period the cephalopods began to make a
+  distinct advance in numbers, and in development. The goniatites appear
+  with the genera _Anarcestes_, _Agoniatites_, _Tornoceras_, _Bactrites_
+  and others; and in the upper strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the
+  later ammonoids, began to take definite shape. While several new
+  nautiloids (_Homaloceras_, _Ryticeras_, &c.) made their appearance
+  several of the older genera still lived on (_Orthoceras_,
+  _Poterioceras_, _Actinoceras_).
+
+  Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian sea, though
+  they were relatively scarce in others; they include the genera
+  _Melocrinus_, _Haplocrinus_, _Cupressocrinus_, _Calceocrinus_ and
+  _Eleuthrocrinus_. The cystideans were falling off (_Proteocystis_,
+  _Tiaracrinus_), but blastoids were in the ascendant (_Nucleocrinus_,
+  _Codaster_, &c.). Both brittle-stars, _Ophiura_, _Palaeophiura_,
+  _Eugaster_, and true starfishes, _Palaeaster_, _Aspidosoma_, were
+  present, as well as urchins (_Lepidocentrus_).
+
+  When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct
+  assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly
+  lacustrine or lagoonal with a eurypteridian facies. The trilobites had
+  already begun to decline in importance, and as happens not
+  infrequently with degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to
+  develop strange eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their
+  genera. A number of Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period,
+  and some gradually developed into new and distinctive forms; such were
+  _Proëtus_, _Harpes_, _Cheirurus_, _Bronteus_ and others. Distinct
+  species of _Phacops_ mark the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively,
+  while the genus _Dalmania_ (_Odontochile_) was represented by species
+  with an almost world-wide range. The Ostracod _Entomis_ (_Cypridina_)
+  was extremely abundant in places--_Cypridinen-Schiefer_--while the
+  true _Cypridina_ was also present along with _Beyrichia_,
+  _Leperditia_, &c. The Phyllocarids, _Echinocaris_, _Eleuthrocaris_,
+  _Tropidocaris_, are common in the United States. It is in the Old Red
+  Sandstone that the eurypterids are best preserved; foremost among
+  these was _Pterygotus_; _P. anglicus_ has been found in Scotland with
+  a length of nearly 6 ft.; _Eurypterus_, _Slimonia_, _Stylonurus_ were
+  other genera.
+
+  Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and
+  neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder believed he
+  had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a stridulating organ
+  was present. A species of _Ephemera_, allied to the modern may-fly,
+  had a spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the Scottish Old Red
+  Sandstone myriapods, _Kampecaris_ and _Archidesmus_, have been
+  described; they are somewhat simpler than more recent forms, each
+  segment being separate, and supplied with only one pair of walking
+  legs. Spiders and scorpions also lived upon the land.
+
+  The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red strata,
+  coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed by some of the
+  forms, has caused the period to be described as the "age of fishes."
+  As in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above, we find one
+  assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater or brackish
+  conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine
+  Devonian; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there
+  seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of
+  living in either environment, whatever may have been the real
+  condition of the Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious
+  ostracoderms, a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the
+  characteristics of fishes, but more probably belonging to a distinct
+  class of organisms, which appears to link the vertebrates with the
+  arthropods. They had come into existence late in Silurian times; but
+  it is in the Old Red strata that their remains are most fully
+  preserved. They were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of
+  Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada, and are represented by
+  such forms as _Pteraspis_, _Cephalaspis_, _Cyathaspis_, _Tremataspis_,
+  _Bothriolepis_ and _Pterichthys_.
+
+  In the lower members of the Old Red series _Dipterus_, and in the
+  upper members _Phaneropleuron_, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes;
+  and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious
+  forms still survive in the African _Protopterus_, the Australian
+  _Ceratodus_ and the South American _Lepidosiren_,--all freshwater
+  fishes. Distantly related to the lung-fishes were the singular
+  arthrodirans, a group possessing the unusual faculty of moving the
+  head in a vertical plane. These comprise the wide-ranging _Coccosteus_
+  with _Homosteus_ and _Dinichthys_, the largest fish of the period. The
+  latter probably reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with
+  exceedingly powerful jaws provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were
+  fairly prominent denizens of the sea; some were armed with cutting
+  teeth, others with crushing dental plates; and although they were on
+  the whole marine fishes, they were evidently able to live in fresher
+  waters, like some of their modern representatives, for their remains,
+  mostly teeth and large dermal spines, are found both in the Devonian
+  and Old Red rocks. _Mesacanthus_, _Diplacanthus_, _Climatius_,
+  _Cheiracanthus_ are characteristic genera. The crossopterygians,
+  ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of the fins, were represented
+  by _Holoptychius_ and _Glyptopomus_ in the Upper Old Red, and by such
+  genera as _Diplopterus_, _Osteolepis_, _Gyroptychius_ in the lower
+  division. The _Polypterus_ of the Nile and _Calamoichthys_ of South
+  Africa are the modern exemplars of this group. _Cheirolepis_, found in
+  the Old Red of Scotland and Canada, is the only Devonian
+  representative of the actinopterygian fishes. The cyclostome fishes
+  have, so far, been discovered only in Scotland, in the tiny
+  _Palaeospondylus_. Amphibian remains have been found in the Devonian
+  of Belgium; and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the
+  same class (_Thinopus antiquus_) have been described by Professor
+  Marsh from the Chemung formation of Pennsylvania.
+
+  _Plant Life._--In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone we
+  find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In
+  some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they
+  form thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently flourished
+  around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains were
+  buried along with the other forms of life. Lycopods and ferns were the
+  predominant types; and it is important to notice that both groups were
+  already highly developed. The ferns include the genera _Sphenopteris_,
+  _Megalopteris_, _Archaeopteris_, _Neuropteris_. Among the Lycopods are
+  _Lycopodites_, _Psilophyton_, _Lepidodendron_. Modern horsetails are
+  represented by _Calamocladus_, _Asterocalamites_, _Annularia_. Of
+  great interest are the genera _Cordaites_, _Araucarioxylon_, &c.,
+  which were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the Coniferae and
+  the Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure markings, aquatic
+  plants are not so well represented as might have been expected;
+  _Parka_, a common fossil, has been regarded as a water plant with a
+  creeping stem and two kinds of sporangia in sessile sporocarps.
+
+_Physical Conditions, &c._--Perhaps the most striking fact that is
+brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils is the
+gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took place quietly
+in every quarter of the globe shortly after the beginning of the period.
+While in most places the Lower Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian
+formations in a perfectly conformable manner, the Middle and Upper
+divisions, on account of this encroachment of the sea, rest
+unconformably upon the older rocks, the Lower division being
+unrepresented. This is true over the greater part of South America, so
+far as our limited knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North
+America, in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central
+Europe. Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the
+coast lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The
+known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas; no
+abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has pointed out the
+probability of a Eurasian sea province extending through Europe towards
+the east, across north and central Asia towards Manitoba in Canada, and
+an American sea province embracing the United States, South America and
+South Africa. At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land
+area caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before the
+beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe to eastern
+Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red Sandstone was formed.
+
+In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence of three
+zones of deposition: (1) A northern, Old Red, region, including Great
+Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and Spitzbergen; here the land was
+close at hand; great brackish lagoons prevailed, which communicated more
+or less directly with the open sea. In European Russia, during its
+general advance, the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas, only
+to be driven off again, during pauses in the relative subsidence of the
+land, when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more established
+the lagoonal conditions. These alternating phases were frequently
+repeated. (2) A middle region, covering Devonshire and Cornwall, the
+Ardennes, the northern part of the lower Rhenish mountains, and the
+upper Harz to the Polish Mittelgebirge; here we find evidence of a
+shallow sea, clastic deposits and a sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern
+region reaching from Brittany to the south of the Rhenish mountains,
+lower Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here was a deeper sea with a more
+pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind that the above-mentioned regions
+are intended to refer to the time when the extension of the Devonian sea
+was near its maximum. In the case of North America it has been shown
+that in early and middle Devonian time more or less distinct faunas
+invaded the continent from five different centres, viz. the Helderberg,
+the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern Hamilton and the north-western
+Hamilton; these reached the interior approximately in the order given.
+
+Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas had
+mingled one with another and a more generalized life assemblage had been
+evolved, we find many forms with a very wide range, indicating great
+uniformity of conditions. Thus we find identical species of brachiopods
+inhabiting the Devonian seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany,
+Russia, southern Asia and China; such are, _Hypothyris_ (_Rhynchonella_)
+_cuboides_, _Spirifer disjunctus_ and others. The fauna of the
+_Calceola_ shales can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and
+Siberia; the _Stringocephalus_ limestones are represented in Belgium,
+England, the Urals and Canada; and the (_Gephyroceras_) _intumescens_
+shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba.
+
+The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no violent crustal
+movements seem to have taken place, and while some changes of level
+occurred towards its close in Great Britain, Bohemia and Russia,
+generally the passage from Devonian to Carboniferous conditions was
+quite gradual. In later periods these rocks have suffered considerable
+movement and metamorphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and
+in the Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over
+the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly
+widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period. In the
+Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness (6000 ft.) of
+igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates
+and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle
+division. In west central Europe volcanic rocks are found at many
+horizons, the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs,
+_schalstein_. Felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the Middle Devonian of
+Australia. Contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the
+American Devonian, but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to
+be some.
+
+There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it is
+interesting to observe that local glacial conditions _may_ have existed
+in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated
+boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other hand, the
+prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm
+temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas.
+
+The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some importance: in many
+of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead, copper, iron are
+exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in New Zealand, gold veins
+occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is found in China and a little coal in
+Germany, while the Upper Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of
+western Pennsylvania and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle
+division is oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central
+Tennessee, and in England the marls of the "Old Red" are employed for
+brick-making.
+
+  REFERENCES.--The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is very
+  extensive; important papers have been contributed by the following
+  geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Béclard, E. W. Benecke, L.
+  Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W. Dawson, A.
+  Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Frech, J. Fournet, Sir A.
+  Geikie, G. Gürich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch, A. von
+  Koenen, Hugh Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de Rouville, C.
+  Schuchert, T. Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E. Ussher, P. N.
+  Wenjukoff, G. F. Whidborne, J. F. Whiteaves and H. S. Williams.
+  Sedgwick and Murchison's original description appeared in the _Trans.
+  Geol. Soc._ (2nd series, vol. v., 1839). Good general accounts will be
+  found in Sir A. Geikie's _Text-Book of Geology_ (vol. ii., 4th ed.,
+  1903), in E. Kayser's _Lehrbuch der Geologie_ (vol. ii., 2nd ed.,
+  1902), and, for North America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's _Geology_
+  (vol. ii., 1906). See the _Index to the Geological Magazine_
+  (1864-1903), and in subsequent annual volumes; _Geological Literature
+  added to the Geological Society's Library_ (London), annually since
+  1893; and the _Neues Jahrbuch für Min., Geologie und Paläontologie_
+  (Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The U.S. Geological Survey publishes at
+  intervals a _Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, &c._,
+  and this (e.g. Bulletin 301,--the _Bibliog. and Index_ for 1901-1905)
+  contains numerous references for the Devonian system in North America.
+                                                              (J. A. H.)
+
+
+DEVONPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Devonshire,
+England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and Plymouth, the seat of one of
+the royal dockyards, and an important naval and military station. Pop.
+(1901) 70,437. It is situated immediately above the N.W. angle of
+Plymouth Sound, occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse
+Pool on the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great
+Western and the London & South Western railways. The town proper was
+formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch excavated out of the
+limestone, but these are in great part demolished. Adjoining Devonport
+are East Stonehouse (an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice
+Town, the two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected in
+1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is distinguished by
+a Doric portico; while near it are the public library, in Egyptian
+style, and a conspicuous Doric column built of Devonshire granite. This
+monument, which is 100 ft. high, was raised in commemoration of the
+naming of the town in 1824. Other institutions are the Naval Engineering
+College, Keyham (1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899,
+the majority of the students being connected with the dockyard; the
+naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and the naval and
+military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was formerly defended by a
+battery (now a naval signalling station), stands the military residence,
+or Government House, occupied by the commander of the Plymouth Coast
+Defences; and near at hand is the principal naval residence, the naval
+commander-in-chief's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the
+Hamoaze to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in
+the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devonport, however,
+is the royal dockyard, originally established by William III. in 1689
+and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock. It is situated within the old
+town boundary and contains four docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham
+steamyard, situated higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and
+connected with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further
+extensions were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as
+Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard comprised two
+basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the southern 7 acres in area,
+and three docks, having floor-lengths of 295, 347 and 413 ft., together
+with iron and brass foundries, machinery shops, engineer students' shop,
+&c. The new extensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 21st of
+February 1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in
+front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of 77 acres of
+mudflats lying below high-water mark. The scheme presented three leading
+features--a tidal basin, a group of three graving docks with entrance
+lock, and a large enclosed basin with a coaling depôt at the north end.
+The tidal basin, close to the old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long
+with a mean width of 590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth
+being 32 ft. at low water of spring tides. It affords access to two
+graving docks, one with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20½ ft. of water
+over the sill, and the other with a length of 741 ft. and 32 ft. of
+water over the sill. Each of these can be subdivided by means of an
+intermediate caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an entrance to
+the closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the closed
+basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock. The
+closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft. long,
+measures 1550 ft. by 1000 ft. and has an area of 35½ acres, with a depth
+of 32 ft. at low-water springs; it has a direct entrance from the
+Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The foundations of the walls are carried
+down to the rock, which in some places lies covered with mud 100 ft. or
+more below coping level. Compressed air is used to work the sliding
+caissons which close the entrances of the docks and closed basin. A
+ropery at Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy.
+
+By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a parliamentary
+borough including East Stonehouse and returning two members. The ground
+on which it stands is for the most part the property of the St Aubyn
+family (Barons St Levan), whose steward holds a court leet and a court
+baron annually. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and
+forty-eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres.
+
+
+DEVONPORT, EAST and WEST, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, situated on
+both sides of the mouth of the river Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of
+Hobart. Pop. (1901), East Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is
+regular communication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it
+ranks as the third port in Tasmania. A celebrated regatta is held on the
+Mersey annually on New Year's day.
+
+
+DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Devonshire title, now in the
+Cavendish family, had previously been held by Charles Blount
+(1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson of the 4th Lord Mountjoy
+(d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he was created earl of Devonshire in
+1603 for his services in Ireland, where he became famous in subduing the
+rebellion between 1600 and 1603; but the title became extinct at his
+death. In the Cavendish line the 1st earl of Devonshire was William (d.
+1626), second son of Sir William Cavendish (q.v.), and of Elizabeth
+Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury. He was
+created earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was succeeded by
+William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by his son William
+(1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of the original members of
+the Royal Society, who married a daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury.
+
+WILLIAM CAVENDISH, 1st duke of Devonshire (1640-1707), English
+statesman, eldest son of the earl of Devonshire last mentioned, was born
+on the 25th of January 1640. After completing his education he made the
+tour of Europe according to the custom of young men of his rank, being
+accompanied on his travels by Dr Killigrew. On his return he obtained,
+in 1661, a seat in parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became
+conspicuous as one of the most determined and daring opponents of the
+general policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee
+appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord treasurer
+Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for Derby, and made a privy councillor
+by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from the board with his friend Lord
+Russell, when he found that the Roman Catholic interest uniformly
+prevailed. He carried up to the House of Lords the articles of
+impeachment against Lord Chief-Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and
+illegal proceedings in the court of King's bench; and when the king
+declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of
+York, afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons that a bill
+might be brought in for the association of all his majesty's Protestant
+subjects. He also openly denounced the king's counsellors, and voted for
+an address to remove them. He appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his
+trial, at a time when it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice
+than a witness. After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof
+of his attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell in
+the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his escape.
+In November 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father.
+He opposed arbitrary government under James II. with the same
+consistency and high spirit as during the previous reign. He was
+withdrawn from public life for a time, however, in consequence of a
+hasty and imprudent act of which his enemies knew how to avail
+themselves. Fancying that he had received an insulting look in the
+presence chamber from Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance
+at court the king encouraged, he immediately avenged the affront by
+challenging the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking
+him with his cane. This offence was punished by a fine of £30,000, which
+was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely fortune. Not
+being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's bench, from which he
+was released only on signing a bond for the whole amount. This was
+afterwards cancelled by King William. After his discharge the earl went
+for a time to Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of
+a new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by Verrio,
+Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again brought him into
+prominence. He was one of the seven who signed the original paper
+inviting the prince of Orange from Holland, and was the first nobleman
+who appeared in arms to receive him at his landing. He received the
+order of the Garter on the occasion of the coronation, and was made lord
+high steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William on
+his visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington and duke of
+Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on the same day on which the
+head of the house of Russell was created duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote
+Macaulay, "the two great houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long
+been closely connected by friendship and by marriage, by common
+opinions, common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same
+day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to confer."
+His last public service was assisting to conclude the union with
+Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son, the marquis of
+Hartington, had been appointed among the commissioners by Queen Anne. He
+died on the 18th of August 1707, and ordered the following inscription
+to be put on his monument:-
+
+                          Willielmus Dux Devon,
+                   Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus,
+                      Inimicus et Invisus Tyrannis.
+
+He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of Ormonde, and he
+was succeeded by his eldest son William as 2nd duke, and by the latter's
+son William as 3rd duke (viceroy of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's
+son William (1720-1764) succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the
+daughter and heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and Cork, who
+brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and from
+November 1756 to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly in order that
+Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of Newcastle, should be in
+power. His son William (1748-1811), 5th duke, is memorable as the
+husband of the beautiful Georgiana Spencer, duchess of Devonshire
+(1757-1806), and of the intellectual Elizabeth Foster, duchess of
+Devonshire (1758-1824), both of whom Gainsborough painted. His son
+William, 6th duke (1790-1858), who died unmarried, was sent on a special
+mission to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and
+became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was he who
+employed Sir Joseph Paxton at Chatsworth. The title passed in 1858 to
+his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of Burlington, as 7th duke, a
+man who, without playing a prominent part in public affairs, exercised
+great influence, not only by his position but by his distinguished
+abilities. At Cambridge in 1829 he was second wrangler, first Smith's
+prizeman, and eighth classic, and subsequently he became chancellor of
+the university.
+
+SPENCER COMPTON CAVENDISH, 8th duke (1833-1908), born on the 23rd of
+July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke (then earl of Burlington) and his
+wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord
+Cavendish, as he then was, took his degree at Trinity College,
+Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to the special mission to Russia for
+the new tsar's accession; and in 1857 he was returned to parliament as
+Liberal member for North Lancashire. At the opening of the new
+parliament of 1859 the marquis of Hartington (as he had now become)
+moved the amendment to the address which overthrew the government of
+Lord Derby. In 1863 he became first a lord of the admiralty, and then
+under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the Russell-Gladstone
+administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he entered it as war
+secretary. He retired with his colleagues in July 1866; but upon Mr
+Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he became postmaster-general, an
+office which he exchanged in 1871 for that of secretary for Ireland.
+When Mr Gladstone, after his defeat and resignation in 1874, temporarily
+withdrew from the leadership of the Liberal party in January 1875, Lord
+Hartington was chosen Liberal leader in the House of Commons, Lord
+Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W. E. Forster, who had taken a
+much more prominent part in public life, was the only other possible
+nominee, but he declined to stand. Lord Hartington's rank no doubt told
+in his favour, and Mr Forster's education bill had offended the
+Nonconformist members, who would probably have withheld their support.
+Lord Hartington's prudent management in difficult circumstances laid his
+followers under great obligations, since not only was the opposite party
+in the ascendant, but his own former chief was indulging in the freedom
+of independence. After the complete defeat of the Conservatives in the
+general election of 1880, a large proportion of the party would have
+rejoiced if Lord Hartington could have taken the Premiership instead of
+Mr Gladstone, and the queen, in strict conformity with constitutional
+usage (though Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have had
+the preference), sent for him as leader of the Opposition. Mr Gladstone,
+however, was clearly master of the situation: no cabinet could be formed
+without him, nor could he reasonably be expected to accept a subordinate
+post. Lord Hartington, therefore, gracefully abdicated the leadership,
+and became secretary of state for India, from which office, in December
+1882, he passed to the war office. His administration was memorable for
+the expeditions of General Gordon and Lord Wolseley to Khartum, and a
+considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly
+responsible for the "betrayal of Gordon." His lethargic manner, apart
+from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in their
+minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government
+acted "too late"; but Gladstone and Lord Granville were no less
+responsible than he. In June 1885 he resigned along with his colleagues,
+and in December was elected for the Rossendale Division of Lancashire,
+created by the new reform bill. Immediately afterwards the great
+political opportunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr
+Gladstone's conversion to home rule for Ireland. Lord Hartington's
+refusal to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the
+chief of the new Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and
+influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved the
+first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera house, and
+also, in the House of Commons, moved the rejection of Mr Gladstone's
+Bill on the second reading. During the memorable electoral contest which
+followed, no election excited more interest than Lord Hartington's for
+the Rossendale division, where he was returned by a majority of nearly
+1500 votes. In the new parliament he held a position much resembling
+that which Sir Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the
+leader of a small, compact party, the standing and ability of whose
+members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally esteemed
+and trusted beyond any other man in the country, yet in his own opinion
+forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's offers to serve under him
+as prime minister (both after the general election, and again when Lord
+Randolph Churchill resigned) were declined, and Lord Hartington
+continued to discharge the delicate duties of the leader of a middle
+party with no less judgment than he had shown when leading the Liberals
+during the interregnum of 1875-1880. It was not until 1895, when the
+differences between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become
+almost obliterated by changed circumstances, and the habit of acting
+together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the death of
+his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's third ministry
+as president of the council. The duke thus was the nominal
+representative of education in the cabinet at a time when educational
+questions were rapidly becoming of great importance; and his own
+technical knowledge of this difficult and intricate question being
+admittedly superficial, a good deal of criticism from time to time
+resulted. He had however by this time an established position in public
+life, and a reputation for weight of character, which procured for him
+universal respect and confidence, and exempted him from bitter attack,
+even from his most determined political opponents. Wealth and rank
+combined with character to place him in a measure above party; and his
+succession to his father as chancellor of the university of Cambridge in
+1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the country. In the same year
+he had married the widow of the 7th duke of Manchester.
+
+He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council till
+the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on account of differences with
+Mr BALFOUR (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards free trade. As Mr
+Chamberlain had retired from the cabinet, and the duke had not thought
+it necessary to join Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in resigning a
+fortnight earlier, the defection was unanticipated and was sharply
+criticized by Mr Balfour, who, in the rearrangement of his ministry, had
+only just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish, to
+be secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the conclusion
+that while he himself was substantially a free-trader,[1] Mr Balfour did
+not mean the same thing by the term. He necessarily became the leader of
+the Free Trade Unionists who were neither Balfourites nor
+Chamberlainites, and his weight was thrown into the scale against any
+association of Unionism with the constructive policy of tariff reform,
+which he identified with sheer Protection. A struggle at once began
+within the Liberal Unionist organization between those who followed the
+duke and those who followed Mr CHAMBERLAIN (q.v.); but the latter were
+in the majority and a reorganization in the Liberal Unionist Association
+took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a separate
+body. The duke then became president of the new organizations, the
+Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist Free Trade Club. In the
+subsequent developments the duke played a dignified but somewhat silent
+part, and the Unionist rout in 1906 was not unaffected by his open
+hostility to any taint of compromise with the tariff reform movement.
+But in the autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of
+cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and
+spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on the
+24th of March 1908.
+
+The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial magnate,
+and an Englishman with thoroughly national tastes for sport, his weighty
+and disinterested character made him a statesman of the first rank in
+his time, in spite of the absence of showy or brilliant qualities. He
+had no self-seeking ambitions, and on three occasions preferred not to
+become prime minister. Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he
+was not an orator, nor "clever"; and he lacked all subtlety of
+intellect; but he was conspicuous for solidity of mind and
+straightforwardness of action, and for conscientious application as an
+administrator, whether in his public or private life. The fact that he
+once yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly quoted as
+characteristic; but he combined a great fund of common sense and
+knowledge of the average opinion with a patriotic sense of duty towards
+the state. Throughout his career he remained an old-fashioned Liberal,
+or rather Whig, of a type which in his later years was becoming
+gradually more and more rare.
+
+There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as 9th duke by
+his nephew VICTOR CHRISTIAN CAVENDISH (b. 1868), who had been Liberal
+Unionist member for West Derbyshire since 1891, and was treasurer of the
+household (1900 to 1903) and financial secretary to the treasury (1903
+to 1905); in 1892 he married a daughter of the marquess of Lansdowne, by
+whom he had two sons.                                          (H. CH.)
+
+[1] His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: "I believe that
+our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advantageous
+to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on
+which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any
+departure from it, for sufficient reasons."
+
+
+DEVONSHIRE (DEVON), a south-western county of England, bounded N.W. and
+N. by the Bristol Channel, N.E. by Somerset and Dorset, S.E. and S. by
+the English Channel, and W. by Cornwall. The area, 2604.9 sq. m., is
+exceeded only by those of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English
+counties. Nearly the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly. The
+county contains the highest land in England south of Derbyshire
+(excepting points on the south Welsh border); and the scenery, much
+varied, is in most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad
+uplands of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend
+into North Devon, and are still the haunt of red deer, and of the small
+hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dartmoor, the
+streams are rich in trout. Dartmoor, the principal physical feature of
+the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of moorland which rises in the
+southern part. Its highest point, 2039 ft., is found in the
+north-western portion. Its rough wastes contrast finely with the wild
+but wooded region which immediately surrounds the granite of which it is
+composed, and with the rich cultivated country lying beyond. Especially
+noteworthy in this fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful district
+of apple orchards, lying between the Erme and the Dart; the rich
+meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale of Exeter; and the red rocks
+near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a characteristic charm to the
+Devonshire landscape are the number of picturesque old cottages roofed
+with thatch; and the deep lanes, sunk below the common level of the
+ground, bordered by tall hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs.
+The north and south coasts of the county differ much in character, but
+both have grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by any in England
+or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of colour.
+As a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers flow seaward
+are densely wooded, and the country immediately inland is of great
+beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which constitutes the boundary between
+Devon and Cornwall, and flows into the English Channel, after forming in
+its estuary the harbours of Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers
+rise on Dartmoor. These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling
+into the English Channel, and the Taw flowing north towards Bideford
+Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives part of
+its waters from Dartmoor through the Okement, but itself rises in the
+angle of high land near Hartland point on the north coast, and makes a
+wide sweep southward. The lesser Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme
+and the Vealm, all running south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in
+Somersetshire; but the main part of its course is through Devonshire
+(where it gives name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the
+English Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the Creedy and the
+Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south, and
+the Axe, for part of its course, divides the counties of Devon and
+Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow; while the rivers
+of Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid course.
+
+  _Geology._--The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks in
+  Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a series of slates, grits and
+  greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian
+  cherts as at Codden Hill; beds of "culm," an impure variety of coal,
+  are found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at
+  Bampton, Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western
+  boundary. North and south of the Culm an older series of slates, grits
+  and limestones appears; it was considered so characteristic of the
+  county that it was called the DEVONIAN SYSTEM (q.v.), the marine
+  equivalent of the Old Red Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It lies
+  in the form of a trough with its axis running east and west. In the
+  central hollow the Culm reposes, while the northern and southern rims
+  rise to the surface respectively north of the latitude of Barnstaple
+  and South Molton and south of the latitude of Tavistock. These
+  Devonian rocks have been subdivided into upper, middle and lower
+  divisions, but the stratigraphy is difficult to follow as the beds
+  have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of contorted strata may be
+  seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in the south, at Bolt
+  Head and Start Point they have undergone severe metamorphism.
+  Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but in the south
+  important masses occur, in the middle and at the base of the upper
+  subdivisions, about Plymouth, Torquay, Brixham and between Newton
+  Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these limestones, which are
+  largely quarried and when polished are known as Devonshire marbles.
+
+  On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set
+  of rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently
+  towards the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of the
+  younger rocks is a series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and
+  marls which are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some geologists
+  have been classed as Permian. These red rocks are beautifully exposed
+  on the coast by Dawlish and Teignmouth, and they extend inland,
+  producing a red soil, past Exeter and Tiverton. A long narrow strip of
+  the same formation reaches out westward on the top of the Culm as far
+  as Jacobstow. Farther east, the Bunter pebble beds are represented by
+  the well-known pebble deposit of Budleigh Salterton, whence they are
+  traceable inland towards Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper
+  marls and sandstones, well exposed at Sidmouth, where the upper
+  Greensand plateau is clearly seen to overlie them. The Greensand
+  covers all the high ground northward from Sidmouth as far as the
+  Blackdown Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the Chalk is seen, and at
+  the latter place is a famous landslip on the coast, caused by the
+  springs which issue from the Greensand below the Chalk. The Lower
+  Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was formerly in
+  considerable demand. At the extreme east of the county, Rhaetic and
+  Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a "bone" bed bearing
+  the remains of saurians and fish.
+
+  Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm and
+  Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times and subsequently exposed
+  by denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity are abundant in
+  the masses of diabase, dolerite, &c., at Bradford and Trusham, south
+  of Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington. Perhaps the most
+  interesting is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent Tor near Tavistock.
+  An Eocene deposit, the product of the denudation of the Dartmoor
+  Hills, lies in a small basin at Bovey Tracey (see BOVEY BEDS); it
+  yields beds of lignite and valuable clays.
+
+  Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near
+  Torquay and at other points, and a submerged forest lies in the bay
+  south of the same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian
+  limestone at Kent's Hole near Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are famous
+  for the remains of extinct mammals; bones of the elephant, rhinoceros,
+  bear and hyaena have been found as well as flint implements of early
+  man.
+
+  _Minerals._--Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near the
+  north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been worked on Dartmoor (in stream
+  works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much worked before the
+  end of the 18th century. Tin occurs in the granite of Dartmoor, and
+  along its borders, but rather where the Devonian than where the
+  Carboniferous rocks border the granite. It is found most plentifully
+  in the district which surrounds Tavistock, which, for tin and other
+  ores, is in effect the great mining district of the county. Here,
+  about 4 m. from Tavistock, are the Devon Great Consols mines, which
+  from 1843 to 1871 were among the richest copper mines in the world,
+  and by far the largest and most profitable in the kingdom. The divided
+  profits during this period amounted to £1,192,960. But the mining
+  interests of Devonshire are affected by the same causes, and in the
+  same way, as those of Cornwall. The quantity of ore has greatly
+  diminished, and the cost of raising it from the deep mines prevents
+  competition with foreign markets. In many mines tin underlies the
+  general depth of the copper, and is worked when the latter has been
+  exhausted. The mineral products of the Tavistock district are various,
+  and besides tin and copper, ores of zinc and iron are largely
+  distributed. Great quantities of refined arsenic have been produced at
+  the Devon Great Consols mine, by elimination from the iron pyrites
+  contained in the various lodes. Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood
+  of Exeter, in the valley of the Teign and in N. Devon; but the most
+  profitable mines, which are shallow, are, like those of tin and
+  copper, in the Tavistock district.
+
+  The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles,
+  building stones, slates and potters' clay. Among building stones, the
+  granite of Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried near
+  Princetown, near Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor and
+  elsewhere. The annual export is considerable. Hard traps, which occur
+  in many places, are also much used, as are the limestones of
+  Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The Roborough stone, used from an early
+  period in Devonshire churches, is found near Tavistock, and is a hard,
+  porphyritic elvan, taking a fine polish. Excellent roofing slates
+  occur in the Devonian series round the southern part of Dartmoor. The
+  chief quarries are near Ashburton and Plymouth (Cann quarry). Potters'
+  clay is worked at King's Teignton, whence it is largely exported; at
+  Bovey Tracey; and at Watcombe near Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of
+  the finest quality. China clay or kaolin is found on the southern side
+  of Dartmoor, at Lee Moor, and near Trowlesworthy. There is a large
+  deposit of umber close to Ashburton.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate varies greatly in different
+parts of the county, but everywhere it is more humid than that of the
+eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The mean annual temperature
+somewhat exceeds that of the midlands, but the average summer heat is
+rather less than that of the southern counties to the east. The air of
+the Dartmoor highlands is sharp and bracing. Mists are frequent, and
+snow often lies long. On the south coast frost is little known, and many
+half hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles, geraniums and
+heliotropes, live through the winter without protection. The climate of
+Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places on this coast is
+very equable, the mean temperature in January being 43.6° at Plymouth.
+The north coast, exposed to the storms and swell of the Atlantic, is
+more bracing; although there also, in the more sheltered nooks (as at
+Combe Martin), myrtles of great size and age flower freely, and produce
+their annual crop of berries.
+
+Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county is under
+cultivation; the cultivated area falling a little below the average of
+the English counties. There are, however, about 160,000 acres of hill
+pasture in addition to the area in permanent pasture, which is more than
+one-half that of the cultivated area. The Devon breed of cattle is well
+adapted both for fattening and for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept
+in great numbers on the hill pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief
+cattle-farming and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for
+two products of the dairy--the clotted cream to which it gives its name,
+and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats occupy about three times
+the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk of the acreage under green
+crops is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangold. Orchards occupy a
+large acreage, and consist chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every farm
+maintaining one for the manufacture of cider.
+
+_Fisheries._--Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable than those
+of Cornwall, large quantities of the pilchard and herrings caught in
+Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much of the fishing is carried on
+within the three-mile limit; and it may be asserted that trawling is the
+main feature of the Devonshire industry, whereas seining and driving
+characterize that of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice,
+soles, turbot, shrimps, lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with,
+besides herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After
+Plymouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are
+lesser stations in every bay and estuary.
+
+_Other Industries._--The principal industrial works in the county are
+the various Government establishments at Plymouth and Devonport. Among
+other industries may be noted the lace-works at Tiverton; the
+manufacture of pillow-lace for which Honiton and its neighbourhood has
+long been famous; and the potteries and terra-cotta works of Bovey
+Tracey and Watcombe. Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh
+and Ashburton, and boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is
+employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &c., in the great
+prison of Dartmoor.
+
+_Communications._--The main line of the Great Western railway, entering
+the county in the east from Taunton, runs to Exeter, skirts the coast as
+far as Teignmouth, and continues a short distance inland by Newton Abbot
+to Plymouth, after which it crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great
+bridge to Saltash in Cornwall. Branches serve Torquay and other seaside
+resorts of the south coast; and among other branches are those from
+Taunton to Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to Tavistock and
+Launceston. The main line of the London & South-Western railway between
+Exeter and Plymouth skirts the north and west of Dartmoor by Okehampton
+and Tavistock. A branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple, Ilfracombe,
+Bideford and Torrington, while the Lynton & Barnstaple and the Bideford,
+Westward Ho & Appledore lines serve the districts indicated by their
+names. The branch line to Princetown from the Plymouth-Tavistock line of
+the Great Western company in part follows the line of a very early
+railway--that constructed to connect Plymouth with the Dartmoor prison
+in 1819-1825, which was worked with horse cars. The only waterways of
+any importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to Gunnislake (3 m.
+S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal, noteworthy as one of the
+oldest in England, for it was originally cut in the reign of Elizabeth.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891 of 631,808, and 1901 of
+661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168 acres. The
+county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Barnstaple (pop.
+14,137), Bideford (8754), Dartmouth (6579), Devonport, a county borough
+(70,437), Exeter, a city and county borough (47,185), Torrington,
+officially Great Torrington (3241), Honiton (3271), Okehampton (2569),
+Plymouth, a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848), Tiverton
+(10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (4035). The other urban districts are
+Ashburton (2628), Bampton (1657), Brixham (8092), Buckfastleigh (2520),
+Budleigh Salterton (1883), Crediton (3974), Dawlish (4003), East
+Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485), Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy
+(1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivybridge (1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton
+(1641), Newton Abbot (12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495),
+Paignton (8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201),
+Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The county is in the western
+circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one court of quarter
+sessions, and is divided into twenty-four petty sessional divisions. The
+boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford, Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth, South
+Molton, and Tiverton have separate commissions of the peace and courts
+of quarter sessions, and those of Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay
+and Totnes have commissions of the peace only. There are 461 civil
+parishes. Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of
+small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro; and there are 516
+ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
+county. The parliamentary divisions are the Eastern or Honiton,
+North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North-western or
+Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes, Torquay, and Mid
+or Ashburton, each returning one member; and the county also contains
+the parliamentary boroughs of Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two
+members, and that of Exeter, returning one member.
+
+_History._--The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun some time
+before the 8th century, for in 700 there existed at Exeter a famous
+Saxon school. By this time, however, the Saxons had become Christians,
+and established their supremacy, not by destructive inroads, but by a
+gradual process of colonization, settling among the native Welsh and
+allowing them to hold lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of
+the district which is now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must
+have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter, remained
+partly Welsh until the time of Æthelstan. At the beginning of the 9th
+century Wessex was divided into definite _pagi_, probably corresponding
+to the later shires, and the Saxon Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name
+in 823, when a battle was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the
+people of Devonshire at Camelford. During the Danish invasions of the
+9th century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In 851 the
+invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of Devon, and in 878,
+when the Danes under Hubba were harrying the coast with a squadron of
+twenty-three ships, they were again defeated with great slaughter by the
+fyrd. The modern hundreds of Devonshire correspond in position very
+nearly with those given in the Domesday Survey, though the names have in
+many cases been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places
+of meeting. The hundred of Bampton formerly included estates west of the
+Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge. Ten of the modern
+hundreds have been formed by the union of two or more Domesday hundreds,
+while the Domesday hundred of Liston has had the new hundred of
+Tavistock severed from it since 1114. Many of the hundreds were
+separated by tracts of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire
+contained a vast extent, until in 1204 the inhabitants paid 5000 marks
+to have the county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor
+and Exmoor.
+
+Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric of
+Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached to the newly created
+diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund constituted
+Devonshire a separate diocese, and placed the see at Crediton. About
+1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall were united, and in 1049
+the see was fixed at Exeter. The archdeaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple
+and Totnes are all mentioned in the 12th century and formerly comprised
+twenty-four deaneries. The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and
+Ottery have been created since the 16th century, while those of
+Tamerton, Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre have been abolished,
+bringing the present number to twenty-three.
+
+At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an active hostility
+to Harold, and the easy submission which it rendered to the Conqueror
+accounts for the exceptionally large number of Englishmen who are found
+retaining lands after the Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman
+barons were known as honours, chief among them being Plympton,
+Okehampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of Plympton was
+bestowed in the 12th century on the Redvers family, together with the
+earldom of Devon; in the 13th century it passed to the Courtenay family,
+who had already become possessed of the honour of Okehampton, and who in
+1335 obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in the
+14th century on the Holland family, which became extinct in the reign of
+Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh, who was born at
+Budleigh, had long held considerable estates in the county.
+
+Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being at first
+hereditary, but afterwards held for one year only. In 1320 complaint was
+made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in the hands of the great
+lords, who did not appoint a sufficiency of bailiffs for their proper
+government. The miners of Devon had independent courts, known as
+stannary courts, for the regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary
+towns being Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient
+miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor.
+
+The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen by Baldwin
+de Redvers, and in the 14th and 15th centuries the French made frequent
+attacks on the Devonshire coast, being repulsed in 1404 by the people of
+Dartmouth. In the Wars of the Roses the county was much divided, and
+frequent skirmishes took place between the earl of Devon and Lord
+Bonville, the respective champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist
+parties. Great disturbances in the county followed the Reformation of
+the 16th century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say mass at
+Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county as a
+whole favoured the parliament, but the prevailing desire was for peace,
+and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities in Devonshire and
+Cornwall was agreed upon. Skirmishes, however, continued until the
+capture of Dartmouth and Exeter in 1646 put an end to the struggle. In
+1688 the prince of Orange landed at Torbay and was entertained for
+several days at Ford and at Exeter.
+
+The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time immemorial, and in the
+14th century mines of tin, copper, lead, gold and silver are mentioned.
+Agriculturally the county was always poor, and before the
+disafforestation rendered especially so through the ravages committed by
+the herds of wild deer. At the time of the Domesday Survey the salt
+industry was important, and there were ninety-nine mills in the county
+and thirteen fisheries. From an early period the chief manufacture was
+that of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manufacture
+of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire. About 1505
+Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an improved method of spinning
+into the county, and cider-making is mentioned in the 16th century. In
+1680 the lace industry was already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St
+Mary, and flax, hemp and malt were largely produced in the 17th and 18th
+centuries.
+
+Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295
+Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock, Torrington and Totnes were also
+represented. In 1831 the county with its boroughs returned a total of
+twenty-six members, but under the Reform Act of 1832 it returned four
+members in two divisions, and with ten boroughs was represented by a
+total of eighteen members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six
+members in three divisions, and four of the boroughs were disfranchised,
+making a total of seventeen members.
+
+_Antiquities._--In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich as
+Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest interest, the
+most peculiar of which are the long parallel alignments of upright
+stones, which, on a small scale, resemble those of Carnac in Brittany.
+On Dartmoor the lines are invariably straight, and are found in direct
+connexion with cairns, and with circles which are probably sepulchral.
+These stone avenues are very numerous. Of the so-called sacred circles
+the best examples are the "Longstones" on Scorhill Down, and the "Grey
+Wethers" under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest cromlech is the
+"Spinster's Rock" at Drewsteignton, a three-pillared cromlech which may
+well be compared with those of Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or
+single upright stones; a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of
+the Teign, near the Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit
+of nearly every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on
+Heltor, above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably evident that these
+have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite, and
+that the dolmen in the Teign is due to the action of the river. Clusters
+of hut foundations, circular, and formed of rude granite blocks, are
+frequent; the best example of such a primitive village is at Batworthy,
+near Chagford; the type resembles that of East Cornwall. Walled
+enclosures, or pounds, occur in many places; Grimspound is the most
+remarkable. Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor
+in many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of great slabs of
+granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor. Scattered
+over the county are numerous large hill castles and camps,--all
+earthworks, and all apparently of the British period. Roman relics have
+been found from time to time at Exeter (_Isca Damnoniorum_), the only
+large Roman station in the county.
+
+The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period, dating
+from the middle of the 14th to the end of the 15th century. Exeter
+cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except the Norman
+towers) being very beautiful Decorated work. The special features of
+Devonshire churches, however, are the richly carved pulpits and chancel
+screens of wood, in which this county exceeded every other in England,
+with the exception of Norfolk and Suffolk. The designs are rich and
+varied, and the skill displayed often very great. Granite crosses are
+frequent, the finest and earliest being that of Coplestone, near
+Crediton. Monastic remains are scanty; the principal are those at Tor,
+Buckfast, Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings the
+houses of Wear Gilford, Bradley and Dartington of the 15th century;
+Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan), and Forde (Jacobean),
+deserve notice. The ruined castles of Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter,
+with its vast British earthworks, Berry Pomeroy (Henry III., with ruins
+of a large Tudor mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 15th
+century), are all interesting and picturesque.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--T. Westcote, _Survey of Devon_, written about 1630, and
+  first printed in 1845; J. Prince, _Worthies of Devon_ (Exeter, 1701);
+  Sir W. Pole, _Collections towards a History of the County of Devon_
+  (London, 1791); R. Polwhele, _History of Devonshire_ (3 vols. Exeter,
+  1797, 1798-1800); T. Moore, _History of Devon from the Earliest Period
+  to the Present Time_ (vols, i., ii., London, 1829-1831); G. Oliver,
+  _Historic Collections relating to the Monasteries in Devon_ (Exeter,
+  1820); D. and S. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_ (vol. vi., London, 1822);
+  _Ecclesiastical Antiquities in Devon_ (Exeter, 1844); Mrs Bray,
+  _Traditions of Devonshire_, in a series of letters to Robert Southey
+  (London, 1838); G. C. Boase, _Devonshire Bibliography_ (London, 1883);
+  Sir W. R. Drake, _Devonshire Notes and Notelets_ (London, 1888); S.
+  Hewett, _Peasant Speech of Devon_ (London, 1892); R. N. Worth,
+  _History of Devonshire_ (London, 1886, new edition, 1895); C. Worthy,
+  _Devonshire Parishes_ (Exeter, 1887); _Devonshire Wills_ (London,
+  1896); _Victoria County History, Devonshire_.
+
+
+DEVRIENT, the name of a family of German actors.
+
+LUDWIG DEVRIENT (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the 15th of December
+1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He was apprenticed to an
+upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employment, joined a travelling
+theatrical company, and made his first appearance on the stage at Gera
+in 1804 as the messenger in Schiller's _Braut von Messina_. By the
+interest of Count Brühl, he appeared at Rudolstadt as Franz Moor in
+Schiller's _Räuber_, so successfully that he obtained a permanent
+engagement at the ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played until 1809.
+He then received a call to Breslau, where he remained for six years. So
+brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of Shakespeare's
+plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation; yet that great
+artist was generous enough to recommend the young actor as his only
+possible successor. On Iffland's death Devrient was summoned to Berlin,
+where he was for fifteen years the popular idol. He died there on the
+30th of December 1832. Ludwig Devrient was equally great in comedy and
+tragedy. Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard II. were
+among his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his _Reminiscences_ has given a
+graphic picture of him and the "demoniac fascination" of his acting.
+
+  See Z. Funck, _Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und
+  Devrients_ (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in _Devrient-Novellen_ (3rd ed.,
+  Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel _Devrient und Hoffmann_
+  (Berlin, 1873), and Eduard Devrient's _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1861).
+
+Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother, a
+merchant, were also connected with the stage. KARL AUGUST DEVRIENT
+(1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the 5th of April 1797. After being for
+a short time in business, he entered a cavalry regiment as volunteer and
+fought at Waterloo. He then joined the stage, making his first
+appearance on the stage in 1819 at Brunswick. In 1821 he received an
+engagement at the court theatre in Dresden, where, in 1823, he married
+Wilhelmine Schröder (see SCHRÖDER-DEVRIENT). In 1835 he joined the
+company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His best parts were
+Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the 5th of April 1872. His brother
+PHILIPP EDUARD DEVRIENT (1801-1877), born at Berlin on the 11th of
+August 1801, was for a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to
+theatrical management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director of the court
+theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began a thorough
+reorganization of the theatre, and in the course of seventeen years of
+assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high position, but enriched
+its repertory by many noteworthy librettos, among which _Die Gunst des
+Augenblicks_ and _Verirrungen_ are the best known. But his chief work is
+his history of the German stage--_Geschichte der deutschen
+Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1848-1874). He died on the 4th of October
+1877. A complete edition of his works--_Dramatische und dramaturgische
+Schriften_--was published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873).
+
+The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of Ludwig Devrient
+was GUSTAV EMIL DEVRIENT (1803-1872), born in Berlin on the 4th of
+September 1803. He made his first appearance on the stage in 1821, at
+Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's _Jungfrau von Orleans_. After a short
+engagement in Leipzig, he received in 1829 a call to Hamburg, but after
+two years accepted a permanent appointment at the court theatre in
+Dresden, to which he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief
+characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play), Marquis
+Posa (in Schiller's _Don Carlos_), and Goethe's Torquato Tasso. He acted
+several times in London, where his Hamlet was considered finer than
+Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on the 7th of August 1872.
+
+OTTO DEVRIENT (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on the 3rd of
+October 1838, was the son of Philipp Eduard Devrient. He joined the
+stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively in Stuttgart, Berlin
+and Leipzig, until he received a fixed appointment at Karlsruhe, in
+1863. In 1873 he became stage manager at Weimar, where he gained great
+praise for his _mise en scène_ of Goethe's _Faust_. After being manager
+of the theatres in Mannheim and Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in
+1883 he was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884
+he was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and in
+1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died at Stettin on the
+23rd of June 1894.
+
+
+DEW. The word "dew" (O.E. _deaw_; cf. Ger. _Tau_) is a very ancient one
+and its meaning must therefore be defined on historical principles.
+According to the _New English Dictionary_, it means "the moisture
+deposited in minute drops upon any cool surface by condensation of the
+vapour of the atmosphere; formed after a hot day, during or towards
+night and plentiful in the early morning." Huxley in his _Physiography_
+makes the addition "without production of mist." The formation of mist
+is not necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it necessarily
+prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead of
+water it is called hoarfrost. The researches of Aitken suggest that the
+words "by condensation of the vapour in the atmosphere" might be omitted
+from the definition. He has given reasons for believing that the large
+dewdrops on the leaves of plants, the most characteristic of all the
+phenomena of dew, are to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by
+the exuding of drops of water from the plant through the pores of the
+leaves themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases is the
+continuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the
+leaves with water from the soil. The process is set up in full vigour in
+the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions at the surface of
+the leaf in the hot sun, and continued after the sun has gone.
+
+On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illustrating the
+formation of dew is the production of a deposit of moisture, in minute
+drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass or polished metal vessel by
+the cooling of a liquid contained in the vessel. If the liquid is water,
+it can be cooled by pieces of ice; if volatile like ether, by bubbling
+air through it. No deposit is formed by this process until the
+temperature is reduced to a point which, from that circumstance, has
+received a special name, although it depends upon the state of the air
+round the vessel. So generally accepted is the physical analogy between
+the natural formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner
+described, that the point below which the temperature of a surface must
+be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known as the "dew-point."
+
+In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at which, _by
+being cooled without change of pressure_, the air becomes saturated with
+water vapour, not on account of any increase of supply of that compound,
+but by the diminution of the capacity of the air for holding it in the
+gaseous condition. Thus, when the dew-point temperature has been
+determined, the pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere at the time
+of the deposit is given by reference to a table of saturation pressures
+of water vapour at different temperatures. As it is a well-established
+proposition that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not
+vary while the air is being cooled without change of its total external
+pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the pressure of
+water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced. Thus the artificial
+formation of dew and consequent determination of the dew-point is a
+recognized method of measuring the pressure, and thence the amount of
+water vapour in the atmosphere. The dew-point method is indeed in some
+ways a fundamental method of hygrometry.
+
+The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the question of
+the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse. So long as the
+dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter, but when the
+dew-point begins to approach the normal temperature of the human body
+the atmosphere becomes insupportable.
+
+The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists practically in
+determining the process or processes by which leaves, blades of grass,
+stones, and other objects in the open air upon which dew may be
+observed, become cooled "below the dew-point."
+
+Formerly, from the time of Aristotle at least, dew was supposed to
+"fall." That view of the process was not extinct at the time of
+Wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without reproach. To
+Dr Charles Wells of London belongs the credit of bringing to a focus the
+ideas which originated with the study of radiation at the beginning of
+the 19th century, and which are expressed by saying that the cooling
+necessary to produce dew on exposed surfaces is to be attributed to the
+radiation from the surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an account of the
+theory of automatic cooling by radiation, which has found a place in all
+text-books of physics, in his first _Essay on Dew_ published in 1818.
+The theory is supported in that and in a second essay by a number of
+well-planned observations, and the essays are indeed models of
+scientific method. The process of the formation of dew as represented by
+Wells is a simple one. It starts from the point of view that all bodies
+are constantly radiating heat, and cool automatically unless they
+receive a corresponding amount of heat from other bodies by radiation or
+conduction. Good radiators, which are at the same time bad conductors of
+heat, such as blades of grass, lose heat rapidly on a clear night by
+radiation to the sky and become cooled below the dew-point of the
+atmosphere.
+
+The question was very fully studied by Melloni and others, but little
+more was added to the explanation given by Wells until 1885, when John
+Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question whether the water of
+dewdrops on plants or stones came from the air or the earth, and
+described a number of experiments to show that under the conditions of
+observation in Scotland, it was the earth from which the moisture was
+probably obtained, either by the operation of the vascular system of
+plants in the formation of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and
+subsequent condensation in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some
+controversy was excited by the publication of Aitken's views, and it is
+interesting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which
+is of general application in meteorological questions, namely, that the
+physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological
+phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that is
+necessary to produce dew, nor even radiation from a body which does not
+conduct heat. The body must be surrounded by an atmosphere so fully
+supplied with moisture that the dew-point can be passed by the cooling
+due to radiation. Thus the conditions favourable for the formation of
+dew are (1) a good radiating surface, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) a
+clear sky, (4) thermal insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm
+moist ground or some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in
+the surface layers of air.
+
+Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in considering the
+supply of moisture we must take into consideration the ground as well as
+the air and concern ourselves with the temperature of both. Of the five
+conditions mentioned, the first four may be considered necessary, but
+the fifth is very important for securing a copious deposit. It can
+hardly be maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply
+of water by evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a supply is
+forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited process of
+condensation which deprives the air of its moisture and is therefore
+soon terminable, we have the process of distillation which goes on as
+long as conditions are maintained. This distinction is of some practical
+importance for it indicates the protecting power of wet soil in favour
+of young plants as against night frost. If distillation between the
+ground and the leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot
+fall much below the original dew-point because the supply of water for
+condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of heat by
+radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of water from the
+atmosphere, without renewal of the supply, the dew-point will gradually
+get lower as the moisture is deposited and the process of cooling will
+go on.
+
+In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large changes
+taking place within a small range of level. It is with the layer a few
+inches thick on either side of the surface that we are principally
+concerned, and for an adequate comprehension of the conditions close
+consideration is required. To illustrate this point reference may be
+made to figs. 1 and 2, which represent the condition of affairs at 10.40
+P.M. on about the 20th of October 1885, according to observations by
+Aitken. Vertical distances represent heights in feet, while the
+temperatures of the air and the dew-point are represented by horizontal
+distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of the
+diagram. The line marked 0 is the ground level itself, a rather
+indefinite quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical
+distance represented is from 4 ft. above ground to 1 ft. below ground,
+and the special phenomena which we are considering take place in the
+layer which represents the rapid transition between the temperature of
+the ground 3 in. below the surface and that of the air a few inches
+above ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+The point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and
+dry-bulb curve will cut. If they cut above the surface, mist will
+result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be formed. Below the
+surface, it may be assumed that the air is saturated with moisture and
+any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by
+distillation. It may be remarked, by the way, that such distillation
+between soil layers of different temperatures must be productive of the
+transference of large quantities of water between different levels in
+the soil either upward or downward according to the time of year.
+
+These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and moisture of
+the ground in the phenomena which have been considered. From the surface
+there is a continual loss of heat going on by radiation and a continual
+supply of warmth and moisture from below. But while the heat can escape,
+the moisture cannot. Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as
+it approaches the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the
+effect of the moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach.
+In the case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the
+left to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well
+shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to the same
+point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if there were so
+copious a condensation from the atmosphere as actually to make the air
+drier at the surface than up above. In diagram 1, for soil, the effect
+on air temperature and moisture is shown; the two lines converge to cut
+at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground
+line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the
+surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature
+gradient.
+
+The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical countries,
+is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by gutters and spouts,
+but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total
+rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the
+Loango coast at 3 mm., but the estimate seems a high one. Measurements
+go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate
+annual deposit of dew is 1 in. to 1.5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1.2
+in. at Munich (Wollny), 0.3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1.6 in. at
+Tenbury, Worcestershire (Badgley).
+
+With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that of the
+maintenance of "dew ponds" is intimately associated. The name is given
+to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the
+south of England and elsewhere. Some of these ponds are very ancient, as
+the title of a work on _Neolithic Dewponds_ by A. J. and G. Hubbard
+indicates. Their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend
+upon dew and not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of
+water supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been
+discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence seems to
+be against the view that dew deposits make any important contribution to
+the supply of water. The construction of dew ponds is, however, still
+practised on traditional lines, and it is said that a new dew pond has
+first to be filled artificially. It does not come into existence by the
+gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For _Dew_, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells
+  (London, 1818), also "An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella (London,
+  1866), Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni, _Pogg. Ann._
+  lxxi. pp. 416, 424 and lxxiii. p. 467; Jamin, "Compléments à la
+  théorie de la rosée," _Journal de physique_, viii. p. 41; J. Aitken,
+  on "Dew," _Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh_, xxxiii., part i. 2, and
+  "Nature," vol. xxxiii. p. 256; C. Tomlinson, "Remarks on a new Theory
+  of Dew," _Phil. Mag._ (1886), 5th series, vol. 21, p. 483 and vol. 22,
+  p. 270; Russell, _Nature_, vol 47, p. 210; also _Met. Zeit._ (1893),
+  p. 390; Homén, _Bodenphysikalische und meteorologische Beobachtungen_
+  (Berlin, 1894), iii.; _Taubildung_, p. 88, &c.; Rubenson, "Die
+  Temperatur-und Feuchtigkeitsverhältnisse in den unteren Luftschichten
+  bei der Taubildung," _Met. Zeit._ xi. (1876), p. 65; H. E. Hamberg,
+  "Température et humidité de l'air à différentes hauteurs à Upsal,"
+  _Soc. R. des sciences d'Upsal_ (1876); review in _Met. Zeit._ xii.
+  (1877), p. 105.
+
+  For _Dew Ponds_, see Stephen Hales, _Statical Essays_, vol. i.,
+  experiment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731); Gilbert White,
+  _Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne_, letter xxix. (London,
+  1789); Dr C. Wells, _An Essay on Dew_ (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866);
+  Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, "Prize Essay on Water Supply," _Journ. Roy.
+  Agric. Soc._, 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and
+  Symons, "Evaporation from the Surface of Water," _Brit. Assoc. Rep._
+  (1869), sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, "Hydrogeology: One of the
+  Developments of Modern Practical Geology," _Trans. Inst. Surveyors_,
+  vol. ix. pp. 153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise
+  on Dew Ponds" (London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural History of
+  Isolated Ponds," _Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society_,
+  vol. v. pp. 272-286 (1892); Professor G. S. Brady, _On the Nature and
+  Origin of Freshwater Faunas_ (1899); Professor L. C. Miall, "Dew
+  Ponds," _Reports of the British Association_ (Bradford Meeting, 1900),
+  pp. 579-585; A. J. and G. Hubbard, "Neolithic Dewponds and
+  Cattle-Ways" (London, 1904, 1907).                         (W. N. S.)
+
+
+DEWAN or DIWAN, an Oriental term for finance minister. The word is
+derived from the Arabian _diwan_, and is commonly used in India to
+denote a minister of the Mogul government, or in modern days the prime
+minister of a native state. It was in the former sense that the grant of
+the _dewanny_ to the East India Company in 1765 became the foundation of
+the British empire in India.
+
+
+DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist and physicist, was born at
+Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the 20th of September 1842. He was
+educated at Dollar Academy and Edinburgh University, being at the latter
+first a pupil, and afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then
+professor of chemistry; he also studied under Kekulé at Ghent. In 1875
+he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy
+at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and in 1877 he succeeded
+Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of chemistry in the Royal
+Institution, London. He was president of the Chemical Society in 1897,
+and of the British Association in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission
+on London Water Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee on
+Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir Frederick Abel.
+His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his earlier papers, some
+deal with questions of organic chemistry, others with Graham's
+hydrogenium and its physical constants, others with high temperatures,
+e.g. the temperature of the sun and of the electric spark, others again
+with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc. With
+Professor J. G. M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the
+physiological action of light, and examined the changes which take place
+in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With
+Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he began in
+1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later of which
+were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous
+constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid of low
+temperatures; and he was joined by Professor J. A. Fleming, of
+University College, London, in the investigation of the electrical
+behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures. His name is
+most widely known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the
+so-called permanent gases and his researches at temperatures approaching
+the zero of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry
+dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the "Latent Heat
+of Liquid Gases" before the British Association. In 1878 he devoted a
+Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to the then recent work
+of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and exhibited for the first time in
+Great Britain the working of the Cailletet apparatus. Six years later,
+in the same place, he described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and
+K. S. Olszewski, and illustrated for the first time in public the
+liquefaction of oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed
+for optical projection so that the actions taking place might be visible
+to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which the
+liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling
+agent, and he showed its employment for this purpose in connexion with
+some researches on meteorites; about the same time he also obtained
+oxygen in the solid state. By 1891 he had designed and erected at the
+Royal Institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint,
+and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and
+liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea
+occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of
+liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the
+influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to preserve
+the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to keep them so
+free from ebullition that examination of their optical properties
+becomes possible. He next experimented with a high-pressure hydrogen jet
+by which low temperatures were realized through the Thomson-Joule
+effect, and the successful results thus obtained led him to build at the
+Royal Institution the large refrigerating machine by which in 1898
+hydrogen was for the first time collected in the liquid state, its
+solidification following in 1899. Later he investigated the
+gas-absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and
+applied them to the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see
+LIQUID GASES). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford medal upon
+him for his work in the production of low temperatures, and in 1899 he
+became the first recipient of the Hodgkins gold medal of the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, for his contributions to our knowledge of the
+nature and properties of atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first
+British subject to receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of
+Sciences, and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal
+of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904, and in 1908
+he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of Arts.
+
+
+DEWAS, two native states of India, in the Malwa Political Charge of
+Central India, founded in the first half of the 18th century by two
+brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into Malwa with the peshwa, Baji
+Rao, in 1728. Their descendants are known as the senior and junior
+branches of the family, and since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as
+a separate state, though the lands belonging to each are so intimately
+entangled, that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the
+main street are under different administrations and have different
+arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch has an
+area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the area of the
+junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904.
+
+
+DEWBERRY, _Rubus caesius_, a trailing plant, allied to the bramble, of
+the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods, hedges and the
+borders of fields in England and other countries of Europe. The leaves
+have three leaflets, are hairy beneath, and of a dusky green; the
+flowers which appear in June and July are white, or pale rose-coloured.
+The fruit is large, and closely embraced by the calyx, and consists of a
+few drupules, which are black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an
+agreeable acid taste.
+
+
+DEW-CLAW, the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the "false hoof" of
+the deer, sometimes also called the "nails." In dogs the dew-claw is the
+rudimentary toe or hallux (corresponding to the big toe in man) hanging
+loosely attached to the skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg.
+The origin of the word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested
+that, while the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw
+merely brushes the dew from the grass.
+
+
+D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, Bart. (1602-1650), English antiquarian, eldest son
+of Paul D'Ewes of Milden, Suffolk, and of Cecilia, daughter and heir of
+Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born on the 18th
+of December 1602, and educated at the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds,
+and at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to the Middle
+Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623, when he immediately
+began his collections of material and his studies in history and
+antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne, daughter and heir of Sir William
+Clopton, of Luton's Hall in Suffolk, through whom he obtained a large
+addition to his already considerable fortune. On the 6th of December he
+was knighted. He took an active part as a strong Puritan and member of
+the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary government
+in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member for Sudbury.
+On the 15th of July he was created a baronet by the king, but
+nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out, and
+in 1643 took the Covenant. He was one of the members expelled by Pride's
+Purge in 1648, and died on the 18th of April 1650. He had married
+secondly Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley
+in Derbyshire, by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and
+title, the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731.
+D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious scope, no less
+than the whole history of England based on original documents. But
+though excelling as a collector of materials, and as a laborious,
+conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had little power of
+generalization or construction, and died without publishing anything
+except an uninteresting tract, _The Primitive Practice for Preserving
+Truth_ (1645), and some speeches. His _Journals of all the Parliaments
+during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth_, however, a valuable work, was
+published in 1682. His large collections, including transcripts from
+ancient records, many of the originals of which are now dispersed or
+destroyed, are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His
+unprinted Diaries from 1621-1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable
+for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only authority
+for incidents and speeches during that period, and are amusing from the
+glimpses the diarist affords of his own character, his good estimation
+of himself and his little jealousies; some are in a cipher and some in
+Latin.
+
+  Extracts from his _Autobiography and Correspondence_ from the MSS. in
+  the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell-Phillips in 1845,
+  by Hearne in the appendix to his _Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II._
+  (1729), and in the _Bibliotheca topographica Britannica_, No. xv. vol.
+  vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, _College Life in the Time
+  of James I._ (1851). His Diaries have been extensively drawn upon by
+  Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his _Studies of the Great
+  Rebellion_. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the Harleian
+  Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts.
+
+
+DE WET, CHRISTIAN (1854- ), Boer general and politician, was born on the
+7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop, Smithfield district (Orange Free
+State), and later resided at Dewetsdorp. He served in the first
+Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81 as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he
+lived on his farm, becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took
+part in the earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a
+commandant and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the
+west. His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near
+Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg a little
+later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and more as the most
+formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla warfare. Sometimes
+severely handled by the British, sometimes escaping only by the
+narrowest margin of safety from the columns which attempted to surround
+him, and falling upon and annihilating isolated British posts, De Wet
+continued to the end of the war his successful career, striking heavily
+where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to
+bay. He took an active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at
+the conclusion of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer
+generals. While in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a
+modification of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote
+an account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in
+November 1902 under the title _Three Years' War_. In November, 1907 he
+was elected a member of the first parliament of the Orange River Colony
+and was appointed minister of agriculture. In 1908-9 he was a delegate
+to the Closer Union Convention.
+
+
+DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT (1780-1849), German theologian, was
+born on the 12th of January 1780, at Ulla, near Weimar, where his father
+was pastor. He was sent to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height
+of its literary glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with
+Johann Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In 1799
+he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal teachers
+being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Paulus, from the latter of whom he
+derived his tendency to free critical inquiry. Both in methods and in
+results, however, he occupied an almost solitary position among German
+theologians. Having taken his doctor's degree, he became _privat-docent_
+at Jena; in 1807 professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came
+under the influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was
+transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded university of
+Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was,
+however, dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written
+a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the murderer
+of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the
+university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving
+him of the chair, but banishing him from the Prussian kingdom. He
+retired for a time to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the
+preparation of his edition of Luther, and in writing the romance
+_Theodor oder die Weihe des Zweiflers_ (Berlin, 1822), in which he
+describes the education of an evangelical pastor. During this period he
+made his first essay in preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of
+very popular gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the
+university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before.
+Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party,
+De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and
+among the people generally. He was admitted a citizen, and became rector
+of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength,
+particularly in the theological faculty. He died on the 16th of June
+1849.
+
+De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as "the epoch-making
+opener of the historical criticism of the Pentateuch." He prepared the
+way for the Supplement-theory. But he also made valuable contributions
+to other branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic
+faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled _Die Entsagung_
+(Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied
+ecclesiastical music and architecture. As a Biblical critic he is
+sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer
+says (_Development of Theology_, p. 102), he "occupied as free a
+position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the
+creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the
+religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with a
+more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the connexion of the
+present life of the church with the past." His works are marked by
+exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness.
+Accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress
+of criticism.
+
+  The most important of his works are:--_Beiträge zur Einleitung in das
+  Alte Testament_ (2 vols., 1806-1807); _Kommentar über die Psalmen_
+  (1811), which has passed through several editions, and is still
+  regarded as of high authority; _Lehrbuch der hebräisch-jüdischen
+  Archäologie_ (1814); _Über Religion und Theologie_ (1815); a work of
+  great importance as showing its author's general theological position;
+  _Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik_ (1813-1816); _Lehrbuch der
+  historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel_ (1817); _Christliche
+  Sittenlehre_ (1819-1821); _Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1826);
+  _Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das
+  Leben_ (1827); _Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens_ (1846); and
+  _Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament_ (1836-1848).
+  De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825-1828).
+
+   See K. R. Hagenbach in _Herzog's Realencyklopädie_; G. C. F. Lücke's
+  _W. M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung_ (1850); and D.
+  Schenkel's _W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie für
+  unsere Zeit_ (1849). Rudolf Stähelin, _De Wette nach seiner theol.
+  Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung_ (1880); F. Lichtenberger, _History of
+  German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889); Otto Pfleiderer,
+  _Development of Theology_ (1890), pp. 97 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, _Founders
+  of the Old Testament Criticism_, pp. 31 ff.
+
+
+DEWEY, DAVIS RICH (1858- ), American economist and statistician, was
+born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th of April 1858. He was
+educated at the university of Vermont and at Johns Hopkins University,
+and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was chairman of the state
+board on the question of the unemployed (1895), member of the
+Massachusetts commission on public, charitable and reformatory interests
+(1897), special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of
+a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an excellent
+_Syllabus on Political History since 1815_ (1887), a _Financial History
+of the U.S._ (1902), and _National Problems_ (1907).
+
+
+DEWEY, GEORGE (1837- ), American naval officer, was born at Montpelier,
+Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837. He studied at Norwich University,
+then at Norwich, Vermont, and graduated at the United States Naval
+Academy in 1858. He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in
+the Civil War served on the steamsloop "Mississippi" (1861-1863) during
+Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862, and at
+Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting below
+Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865 served on the
+steam-gunboat "Agawam" with the North Atlantic blockading squadron and
+took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January
+1865. In March 1865 he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the
+European squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States
+Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the "Narragansett" in
+1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned commander in 1872; was
+light-house inspector in 1876-1877; and was secretary of the light-house
+board in 1877-1882. In 1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief
+of the bureau of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of
+the light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board of
+inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of commodore in
+February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned, at his own request, to
+sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In April 1898, while with his
+fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by cable that war had begun between
+the United States and Spain, and was ordered to "capture or destroy the
+Spanish fleet" then in Philippine waters. On the 1st of May he
+overwhelmingly defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in
+Manila Bay, a victory won without the loss of a man on the American
+ships (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). Congress, in a joint resolution,
+tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and men
+under his command, and authorized "the secretary of the navy to present
+a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey, and cause to be struck
+bronze medals commemorating the battle of Manila Bay, and to distribute
+such medals to the officers and men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron
+of the United States." He was promoted rear-admiral on the 10th of May
+1898. On the 18th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the
+city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders from his
+government to maintain control, Dewey received the rank of admiral
+(March 3, 1899)--that title, formerly borne only by Farragut and Porter,
+having been revived by act of Congress (March 2, 1899),--and returned
+home, arriving in New York City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he
+received a great ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman
+Philippine Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible
+Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president of the
+Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority report on a
+few details.
+
+
+DEWEY, MELVIL (1851- ), American librarian, was born at Adams Center,
+New York, on the 10th of December 1851. He graduated in 1874 at Amherst
+College, where he was assistant librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he
+removed to Boston, where he founded and became editor of _The Library
+Journal_, which became an influential factor in the development of
+libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration. He was
+also one of the founders of the American Library Association, of which
+he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president in 1891 and 1893. In
+1883 he became librarian of Columbia College, and in the following year
+founded there the School of Library Economy, the first institution for
+the instruction of librarians ever organized. This school, which was
+very successful, was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was
+re-established as the State Library School under his direction; from
+1888 to 1906 he was director of the New York State Library and from 1888
+to 1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York,
+completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of the most
+efficient in America, and establishing the system of state travelling
+libraries and picture collections. His "Decimal System of
+Classification" for library cataloguing, first proposed in 1876, is
+extensively used.
+
+
+DEWING, THOMAS WILMER (1851- ), American figure painter, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1851. He was a pupil of Jules
+Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to 1879; was elected a full member of the
+National Academy of Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten
+American Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition
+(1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis (1904). His
+decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and finish. Among his
+portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White and of his own wife. Mrs
+Dewing (b, 1855), _née_ Maria Oakey, a figure and flower painter, was a
+pupil of John La Farge in New York, and of Couture in Paris.
+
+
+DE WINT, PETER (1784-1849), English landscape painter, of Dutch
+extraction, son of an English physician, was born at Stone,
+Staffordshire, on the 21st of January 1784. He studied art in London,
+and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In 1812 he became a member of
+the Society of Painters in Watercolours, where he exhibited largely for
+many years, as well as at the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of
+William Hilton, R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. De
+Wint's life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he
+ranks as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his
+pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+
+DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was born at Kampen,
+and in 1761 entered the naval service at the age of twelve years. He
+distinguished himself by his zeal and courage, and at the revolution of
+1787 he had reached the rank of lieutenant. The overthrow of the
+"patriot" party forced him to fly for his safety to France. Here he
+threw himself heart and soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took
+part under Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and
+was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When Pichegru in
+1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the French army to his
+native country. The states-general now utilized the experience he had
+gained as a naval officer by giving him the post of adjunct-general for
+the reorganization of the Dutch navy. In 1796 he was appointed
+vice-admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts
+to strengthen it and improve its condition, and on the 11th of October
+1797 he ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British fleet
+under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the Dutch were
+defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner. He remained in
+England until December, when he was liberated by exchange. His conduct
+in the battle of Camperdown was declared by a court-martial to have
+nobly maintained the honour of the Dutch flag.
+
+From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador to the French
+republic, and was then once more appointed commander of the fleet. He
+was sent with a strong squadron to the Mediterranean to repress the
+Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a treaty of peace with the Tripolitan
+government. He enjoyed the confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of
+Holland, and, after the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French
+empire, in an equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was
+created marshal and count of Huessen, and given the command of the armed
+forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the grand cross of the
+Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector-general of the northern
+coasts, and in 1811 he placed him at the head of the fleet he had
+collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards De Winter was seized with
+illness and compelled to betake himself to Paris, where he died on the
+2nd of June 1812. He had a splendid public funeral and was buried in the
+Pantheon. His heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the Nicolaas
+Kerk at Kampen.
+
+
+DE WITT, CORNELIUS (1623-1672), brother of JOHN DE WITT (q.v.), was born
+at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgomaster of Dort and member of the
+states of Holland and West Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the
+important post of _ruwaard_ or governor of the land of Putten and
+bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater
+brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout his career
+with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by the
+states of Holland to accompany Admiral de Ruyter in his famous
+expedition to Chatham. Cornelius de Witt on this occasion distinguished
+himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De
+Ruyter in 1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at
+Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled by
+illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that the
+Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother were the
+objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account of his imprisonment,
+trial and death, is given below.
+
+
+DE WITT, JOHN (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at Dort, on the
+24th of September 1625. He was a member of one of the old burgher-regent
+families of his native town. His father, Jacob de Witt, was six times
+burgomaster of Dort, and for many years sat as a representative of the
+town in the states of Holland. He was a strenuous adherent of the
+republican or oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the
+princes of the house of Orange, who represented the federal principle
+and had the support of the masses of the people. John was educated at
+Leiden, and early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in
+mathematics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother
+Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on his
+return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate. In 1650 he
+was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which made him the leader
+and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of Holland. In this
+same year the states of Holland found themselves engaged in a struggle
+for provincial supremacy, on the question of the disbanding of troops,
+with the youthful prince of Orange, William II. William, with the
+support of the states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders
+of the states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle;
+among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William, at the
+moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction. He left only a
+posthumous child, afterwards William III. of Orange, and the principles
+advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed, and the authority of the states of
+Holland became predominant in the republic.
+
+At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence, sagacity
+and business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of Dort that
+on the 23rd of July 1653 he was appointed to the office of grand
+pensionary (_Raadpensionaris_) of Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He
+was re-elected in 1658, 1663 and 1668, and held office until his death
+in 1672. During this period of nineteen years the general conduct of
+public affairs and administration, and especially of foreign affairs,
+such was the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was
+largely placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to the
+brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been caused by the
+keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states. The Dutch were
+unprepared, and suffered severely through the loss of their carrying
+trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about peace as soon as possible.
+The first demands of Cromwell were impossible, for they aimed at the
+absorption of the two republics into a single state, but at last in the
+autumn of 1654 peace was concluded, by which the Dutch made large
+concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to English ships in
+the narrow seas. The treaty included a secret article, which the
+states-general refused to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in
+inducing the states of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of
+Holland pledged themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a
+captain-general of the union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called,
+was aimed at the young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the
+Stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was
+personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his
+ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that he
+prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter.
+
+The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently successful.
+He restored the finances of the state, and extended its commercial
+supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he sustained Denmark against
+Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an advantageous peace with Portugal. The
+accession of Charles II. to the English throne led to the rescinding of
+the Act of Seclusion; nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the
+prince of Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This
+led to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to a
+renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial rights, and
+war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and courage displayed by the
+grand pensionary during the course of this fiercely contested naval
+struggle could scarcely have been surpassed. He himself on more than one
+occasion went to sea with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came
+in contact by the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action
+and inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an
+organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship
+of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty of peace signed at
+Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of _uti possidetis_, were so
+honourable to the United Provinces. A still greater triumph of
+diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the Triple Alliance (January 17,
+1668) between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden, which checked the
+attempt of Louis XIV. to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in
+the name of his wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was
+but temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take vengeance
+for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III. was growing to
+manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout the country spared no
+efforts to undermine the authority of De Witt, and secure for the young
+prince of Orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors.
+
+In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded the United
+Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically no resistance was
+possible. The unanimous voice of the people called William III. to the
+head of affairs, and there were violent demonstrations against John de
+Witt. His brother Cornelius was (July 24) arrested on a charge of
+conspiring against the prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt
+resigned the post of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with
+such distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the 19th of
+August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banishment. He
+was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother came to visit him in
+the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this collected outside, and finally
+burst into the prison, seized the two brothers and literally tore them
+to pieces. Their mangled remains were hung up by the feet to a
+lamp-post. Thus perished, by the savage act of an infuriated mob, one of
+the greatest statesmen of his age.
+
+John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influential
+burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two sons and three
+daughters.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Geddes, _History of the Administration of John de
+  Witt_, (vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefèvre-Pontalis, _Jean de
+  Witt, grand pensionnaire de Hollande_ (2 vols., Paris, 1884); P.
+  Simons, _Johan de Witt en zijn tijd_ (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842);
+  W. C. Knottenbelt, _Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt_
+  (Amsterdam, 1862); _J. de Witt, Brieven ... gewisselt tusschen den
+  Heer Johan de Witt ... ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d.
+  Vereen. Nederlanden so in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken,
+  Poolen, enz. 1652-69_ (6 vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); _Brieven ...
+  1650-1657 (1658) eerste deel bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W.
+  Kernkamp_ (Amsterdam, 1906).
+
+
+DEWLAP (from the O.E. _læppa_, a lappet, or hanging fold; the first
+syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explanation that the word
+means "the fold which brushes the dew" is not borne out, according to
+the _New English Dictionary_, by the equivalent words such as the
+Danish _doglaeb_, in Scandinavian languages), the loose fold of skin
+hanging from the neck of cattle, also applied to similar folds in the
+necks of other animals and fowls, as the dog, turkey, &c. The American
+practice of branding cattle by making a cut in the neck is known as a
+"dewlap brand." The skin of the neck in human beings often becomes
+pendulous with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by the same
+name.
+
+
+DEWSBURY, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the
+West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of
+Leeds, on the Great Northern, London & North-Western, and Lancashire &
+Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 28,060. The parish church of All Saints
+was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the 18th century;
+the portions still preserved of the original structure are mainly Early
+English. The chief industries are the making of blankets, carpets,
+druggets and worsted yarn; and there are iron foundries and machinery
+works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary borough
+includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and returns one
+member. The municipal borough, incorporated in 1862, is under a mayor, 6
+aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1471 acres. Paulinus, first
+archbishop of York, about the year 627 preached in the district of
+Dewsbury, where Edwin, king of Northumbria, whom he converted to
+Christianity, had a royal mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are
+remains of a Cistercian convent of the 12th century, in an extensive
+park, where tradition relates that Robin Hood died and was buried.
+
+
+DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek historian,
+statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian family
+of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon basileus and eponymus in
+Athens. When the Heruli overran Greece and captured Athens (269),
+Dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of
+patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up
+in his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording his
+services, has been preserved (_Corpus Inscrr. Atticarum_, iii. No. 716).
+It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to his military
+achievements. Photius (_cod._ 82) mentions three historical works by
+Dexippus, of which considerable fragments remain: (1) [Greek: Ta met'
+Alexandron], an epitome of a similarly named work by Arrian; (2) [Greek:
+Skuthika], a history of the wars of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians)
+in the 3rd century; (3) [Greek: Chronikê historia], a chronological
+history from the earliest times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270),
+frequently referred to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work
+was continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks very
+highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a level with
+Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments (C. W.
+Müller, _F.H.G._ iii. 666-687).
+
+
+DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821-1890), American clergyman and author, was
+born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the 13th of August 1821. He
+graduated at Yale in 1840 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in
+1844; was pastor of a Congregational church in Manchester, New
+Hampshire, in 1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational
+church, Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the _Congregationalist_
+in 1851-1866, of the _Congregational Quarterly_ in 1859-1866, and of the
+_Congregationalist_, with which the _Recorder_ was merged, from 1867
+until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the 13th of November 1890. He
+was an authority on the history of Congregationalism and was lecturer on
+that subject at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879; he left
+his fine library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among
+his works are: _Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is, How it
+works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church Government, and
+its consequent Demands_ (1865), _The Church Polity of the Puritans the
+Polity of the New Testament_ (1870), _As to Roger Williams and His
+"Banishment" from the Massachusetts Colony_ (1876), _Congregationalism
+of the Last Three Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature_ (1880), his
+most important work, _A Handbook of Congregationalism_ (1880), _The True
+Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptist"_ (1881), _Common Sense as to
+Woman Suffrage_ (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets bearing on early
+church history in New England, especially Baptist controversies. His
+_The England and Holland of the Pilgrims_ was completed by his son,
+Morton Dexter (b. 1846), and published in 1905.
+
+
+DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747-1806), American merchant, remarkable for his
+eccentricities, was born at Malden, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of
+February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities
+of the depreciated continental currency, which was ultimately redeemed
+by the Federal government at par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter
+and built extraordinary houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New
+Hampshire. He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior
+pictures, besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal
+statues carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of himself was
+included in the collection, and had for an inscription "I am the first
+in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest philosopher in the
+Western World." He wrote a book entitled _Pickle for the Knowing Ones_.
+It was wholly without punctuation marks, and as this aroused comment, he
+published a second edition, at the end of which was a page displaying
+nothing but commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to
+"peper and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping
+enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried out in
+a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the 26th of October
+1806.
+
+
+DEXTRINE (BRITISH GUM, STARCH GUM, LEIOCOME), (C_{6}H_{10}O_{5})_{x}, a
+substance produced from starch by the action of dilute acids, or by
+roasting it at a temperature between 170° and 240° C. It is manufactured
+by spraying starch with 2% nitric acid, drying in air, and then heating
+to about 110°. Different modifications are known, e.g. amylodextrine,
+erythrodextrine and achroodextrine. Its name has reference to its
+powerful dextrorotatory action on polarized light. Pure dextrine is an
+insipid, odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is sometimes
+yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves in water
+and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated from its
+solutions as the hydrated compound, C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}.H_{2}O. Diastase
+converts it eventually into maltose, C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}; and by boiling
+with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is transformed
+into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}. It does not
+ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce Fehling's solution.
+If heated with strong nitric acid it gives oxalic, and not mucic acid.
+Dextrine much resembles gum arabic, for which it is generally
+substituted. It is employed for sizing paper, for stiffening cotton
+goods, and for thickening colours in calico printing, also in the making
+of lozenges, adhesive stamps and labels, and surgical bandages.
+
+  See Otto Lueger, _Lexikon der gesamten Technik_.
+
+
+DEY (an adaptation of the Turk, d[=a]î, a maternal uncle), an
+honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men,
+and appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their
+commanding officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries
+became in the 17th century rulers of that country (see ALGERIA:
+HISTORY). From the middle of the 16th century to the end of the
+17th century the ruler of Tunisia was also called dey, a title
+frequently used during the same period by the sovereigns of
+Tripoli.
+
+
+DHAMMAP[=A]LA, the name of one of the early disciples of the Buddha, and
+therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by Buddhist
+novices on their entering the brotherhood. The most famous of the
+Bhikshus so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half
+of the 5th century A.D. at the Badara Tittha Vih[=a]ra, near the east
+coast of India, just a little south of where Madras now stands. It is to
+him we owe the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books,
+consisting almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on the
+Netti, perhaps the oldest P[=a]li work outside the canon. Extracts from
+the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven others, have
+been published by the P[=a]li Text Society. These works show great
+learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But as Dhammap[=a]la
+confines himself rigidly either to questions of the meaning of words,
+or to discussions of the ethical import of his texts, very little can be
+gathered from his writings of value for the social history of his time.
+For the right interpretation of the difficult texts on which he
+comments, they are indispensable. Though in all probability a Tamil by
+birth, he declares, in the opening lines of those of his works that have
+been edited, that he followed the tradition of the Great Minster at
+Anur[=a]dhapura in Ceylon, and the works themselves confirm this in
+every respect. Hsüan Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint
+story of a Dhammap[=a]la of K[=a]nchipura (the modern Konjevaram). He
+was a son of a high official, and betrothed to a daughter of the king,
+but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast, entered the order, and
+attained to reverence and distinction. It is most likely that this
+story, whether legendary or not (and Hsüan Tsang heard the story at
+K[=a]nchipura nearly two centuries after the date of Dhammap[=a]la),
+referred to this author. But it may also refer, as Hsüan Tsang refers
+it, to another author of the same name. Other unpublished works, besides
+those mentioned above, have been ascribed to Dhammap[=a]la, but it is
+very doubtful whether they are really by him.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_ (ed. Rhys Davids and
+  Bushell, London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in _Zeitschrift der
+  deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_ (1898), pp. 97 foll.; _Netti_
+  (ed. E. Hardy, London, P[=a]li Text Society, 1902), especially the
+  Introduction, passim; _Therî G[=a]th[=a] Commentary_, _Peta Vatthu
+  Commentary_, and _Vim[=a]na Vatthu Commentary_, all three published by
+  the P[=a]li Text Society.                              (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+DHANIS, FRANCIS, BARON (1861-1909), Belgian administrator, was born in
+London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen years of his life at
+Greenock, where he received his early education. He was the son of a
+Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady named Maher. The name Dhanis is
+supposed to be a variation of D'Anvers. Having completed his education
+at the École Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment
+of grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he
+reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the Congo,
+and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well in founding new
+stations north of the Congo that, when the government decided to put an
+end to the Arab domination on the Upper Congo, he was selected to
+command the chief expedition sent against the slave dealers. The
+campaign began in April 1892, and it was not brought to a successful
+conclusion till January 1894. The story of this war has been told in
+detail by Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book _The Fall of
+the Congo Arabs_. The principal achievements of the campaign were the
+captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at Nyangwe,
+Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis was raised to the rank
+of baron, and in 1895 was made vice-governor of the Congo State. In 1896
+he took command of an expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely
+composed of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted, and
+who had been irritated by the execution of some of their chiefs for
+indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and murdered many of
+their white officers. Dhanis found himself confronted with a more
+formidable adversary than even the Arabs in these well-armed and
+half-disciplined mercenaries. During two years (1897-1898) he was
+constantly engaged in a life-and-death struggle with them. Eventually he
+succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous
+soldiers. Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less
+striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both think that
+the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in
+bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899 Baron Dhanis returned to
+Belgium with the honorary rank of vice governor-general. He died on the
+14th of November 1909.
+
+
+DHAR, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency, Central India. It
+includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories, and has an area of 1775 sq.
+m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta. The founder of the present ruling
+family was Anand Rao Punwar, a descendant of the great Paramara clan of
+Rajputs who from the 9th to the 13th century, when they were driven out
+by the Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar. In
+1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the peshwa, the
+victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the
+family which seven centuries before had been expelled from this very
+city and country. Towards the close of the 18th and in the early part of
+the 19th century, the state was subject to a series of spoliations by
+Sindia and Holkar, and was only preserved from destruction by the
+talents and courage of the adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a
+treaty of 1819 Dhar passed under British protection, and bound itself to
+act in subordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion
+in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar, then a
+minor, with the exception of the detached district of Bairusia, which
+was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand Rao, who received the personal
+title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in 1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded
+by Udaji Rao Punwar. In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state
+includes the ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of
+Malwa.
+
+THE TOWN OF DHAR is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901)
+17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees surrounded by
+barren hills, and possesses, besides its old walls, many interesting
+buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan, some of them containing records of a
+great historical importance. The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built
+by Dilawar Khan in 1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives
+its name from an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at
+the beginning of the 13th century in commemoration of a victory, and
+bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town
+of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft. high, is now
+overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an enclosure containing four
+tombs, the most notable being that of Shaikh Kamal Maulvi
+(Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous 13th-century Mussulman saint
+Nizam-ud-din Auliya.[1] The mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built
+out of Hindu remains in the 14th or 15th century: its name is derived
+from the slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit
+grammar, with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the
+town stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to have
+been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the 14th century. It
+contains the palace of the raja. Of modern institutions may be mentioned
+the high school, public library, hospital, and the chapel, school and
+hospital of the Canadian Presbyterian mission. There is also a
+government opium depot for the payment of duty, the town being a
+considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain.
+
+  The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari (the
+  city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the capital
+  of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who transferred his
+  headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th century.
+  During the rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous throughout
+  India as a centre of culture and learning; but, after suffering
+  various vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the Mussulmans at
+  the beginning of the 14th century. At the close of the century Dilawar
+  Khan, the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been appointed governor
+  in 1399, practically established his independence, his son Hoshang
+  Shah being the first Mahommedan king of Malwa. Under this dynasty Dhar
+  was second in importance to the capital Mandu. Subsequently, in the
+  time of Akbar, Dhar fell under the dominion of the Moguls, in whose
+  hands it remained till 1730, when it was conquered by the Mahrattas.
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908).
+
+[1] Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near Delhi,
+was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret society of
+Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed to have been the
+founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special reverence for his
+memory.
+
+
+DHARAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Surat political agency
+division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The population in 1901
+was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during the decade; the estimated
+gross revenue is £25,412; and the tribute £600. Its chief is a Sesodia
+Rajput. The state has been surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay
+system. It contains one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272
+villages. Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very
+unhealthy, is capable of cultivation; the rest is covered with rocky
+hills, forest and brushwood.
+
+
+DHARMSALA, a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab, India, situated
+on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of Kangra town, at an elevation
+of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971. The scenery of Dharmsala is of
+peculiar grandeur. The spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with
+oak and other trees; behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain
+tower towards the jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half
+the year; while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra
+valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the Kangra
+district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the centre of a
+European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied by Gurkha
+regiments. The station was destroyed by the earthquake of April 1905, in
+which 1625 persons, including 25 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha
+garrison, perished (_Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1908).
+
+
+DHARWAR, a town and district of British India, in the southern division
+of Bombay. The town has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. The
+population in 1901 was 31,279. It has several ginning factories and a
+cotton-mill; two high schools, one maintained by the Government and the
+other by the Basel German Mission.
+
+The DISTRICT OF DHARWAR has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the north and
+north-east are great plains of black soil, favourable to cotton-growing;
+in the south and west are successive ranges of low hills, with flat
+fertile valleys between them. The whole district lies high and has no
+large rivers.
+
+In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of 6% in the
+decade. The most influential classes of the community are Brahmans and
+Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968, or 46% of the Hindu population;
+they worship the symbol of Siva, and males and females both carry this
+emblem about their person in a silver case. The principal crops are
+millets, pulse and cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and
+Gadag, junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the
+district in several directions.
+
+The early history of the territory comprised within the district of
+Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription
+slabs and memorial stones which abound there. From these it is clear
+that the country fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties
+that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of the Chalukyan dynasty, whether
+temples or inscriptions, being especially abundant. In the 14th century
+the district was first overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was
+annexed to the newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an
+official of which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built
+the fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of
+Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years practically
+independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573 the fort was captured
+by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was annexed to his dominions. In
+1685 the fort was taken by the emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the
+break-up of the Mogul empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of
+Poona. In 1764 the province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in
+1778 captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the
+Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817, Dharwar was
+incorporated with the territory of the East India Company.
+
+
+DHOLPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area
+of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country, without any special
+manufactures. All along the bank of the river Chambal the country is
+deeply intersected by ravines; low ranges of hills in the western
+portion of the state supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and
+easily-worked red sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was
+270,973, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The estimated revenue
+is £83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway from
+Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely from drought.
+In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief amounted to £8190.
+
+The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,310. The
+present town, which dates from the 16th century, stands somewhat to the
+north of the site of the older Hindu town built, it is supposed, in the
+11th century by the Tonwar Rajput Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named
+after him Dholdera or Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the
+town may be mentioned the fortified _sarai_ built in the reign of Akbar,
+within which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one of
+his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is growing in
+importance as a centre of trade.
+
+Little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of
+Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the Tonwar
+Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th to the 12th century.
+In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in 1501 the fort of Dholpur was
+taken by the Mahommedans under Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred
+to a Mussulman governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort
+was captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed under the
+sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the province of Agra.
+During the dissensions which followed the death of Aurangzeb in 1707,
+Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria obtained possession of Dholpur, and his
+family retained it till 1761, after which it was taken successively by
+the Jat raja, Suraj Mal of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by
+Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored to Sindhia
+by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence of new arrangements
+was again occupied by the British. Finally, in 1806, the territories of
+Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat
+Singh, ancestor of the present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his
+state of Gohad, which was ceded to Sindhia.
+
+The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia Jats, who
+are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo-Scythian wave of
+invasion which swept over northern India about A.D. 100. An ancestor of
+the family appears to have held certain territories at Bamraoli near
+Agra c. 1195. His descendant in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished
+himself in an expedition against the freebooters of the Deccan, was
+rewarded by the sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the
+title of _rana_. In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces
+against Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion
+of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories then in
+his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected from invasion
+by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently withdrawn, the rana having
+been guilty of treachery, and in 1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing
+the fortress of Gwalior, and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the
+whole of Gohad. In 1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by
+the British government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the
+rana agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of
+Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief binding
+himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the paramount power, and
+to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the British
+government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana of Dholpur, was
+succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh, who showed great loyalty
+during the Mutiny of 1857, was created a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869.
+He was succeeded in 1873 by his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the
+C.B. and frontier medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in
+1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883).
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908) and authorities there
+  given.
+
+
+DHOW, the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the Arabian
+Sea. The language to which the word belongs is unknown. According to the
+_New English Dictionary_ the place of origin may be the Persian Gulf,
+assuming that the word is identical with the tava mentioned by
+Athanasius Nikitin (_India in the 15th Century_, Hakluyt Society, 1858).
+Though the word is used generally of any craft along the East African
+coast, it is usually applied to the vessel of about 150 to 200 tons
+burden with a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows
+generally have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous
+length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is
+carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels employed in
+the slave trade from the east coast of Africa.
+
+
+DHRANGADRA, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay,
+situated in the north of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area is 1156
+sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The estimated gross revenue is £38,000 and
+the tribute £3000. A state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to
+the town of Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in
+1898. Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor; the
+manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand-mills. The chief
+town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of 14,770.
+
+The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with the
+predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala Rajputs,
+who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in the 8th century. Raj
+Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji (b. 1837), who succeeded his father
+in 1869, was distinguished for the enlightened character of his
+administration, especially in the matter of establishing schools and
+internal communications. He was created a K.C.S.I in 1877. He died in
+1900, and was succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b.
+1872).
+
+
+DHULEEP SINGH (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born in February
+1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the 18th of September 1843, under
+the regency of his mother the rani Jindan, a woman of great capacity and
+strong will, but extremely inimical to the British. He was acknowledged
+by Ranjit Singh and recognized by the British government. After six
+years of peace the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were
+defeated in four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore,
+the capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but it
+was administered to a great extent by the British government in his
+name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the British,
+and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite of the valour of the
+Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat, and in March 1849 Dhuleep
+Singh was deposed, a pension of £40,000 a year being granted to him and
+his dependants. He became a Christian and elected to live in England. On
+coming of age he made an arrangement with the British government by
+which his income was reduced to £25,000 in consideration of advances for
+the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at Elvedon in Suffolk.
+While passing through Alexandria in 1864 he met Miss Bamba Müller, the
+daughter of a German merchant who had married an Abyssinian. The
+maharaja had been interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he
+met Miss Müller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching.
+She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were the
+issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the maharaja
+married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady, Miss Ada Douglas
+Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja was passionately fond of
+sport, and his shooting parties were celebrated, while he himself became
+a _persona grata_ in English society. The result, however, was financial
+difficulty, and in 1882 he appealed to the government for assistance,
+making various claims based upon the alleged possession of private
+estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor diamond
+to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, whereupon he started for
+India, after drawing up a proclamation to his former subjects. But as it
+was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the Punjab, he remained for
+some time as a guest at the residency at Aden, and was allowed to
+receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity,
+which actually took place within the residency itself. As the climate
+began to affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and
+returned to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his
+claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but when that
+expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where he lived for the
+rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the Indian government.
+His death from an attack of apoplexy took place at Paris on the 22nd of
+October 1893. The maharaja's eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay
+Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges,
+Cambridge. In 1888 he obtained a commission in the 1st Royal Dragoon
+Guards. In 1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the
+earl of Coventry.                                              (G.F.B.)
+
+
+DHULIA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of West
+Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the Panjhra river.
+Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds,
+and weaving of cotton. A railway connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the
+main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.
+
+
+DIABASE, in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite. It
+was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks of this group
+differed from their Tertiary and Recent representatives in certain
+essential respects, but this is now admitted to be untenable, and the
+differences are known to be merely the result of the longer exposure to
+decomposition, pressure and shearing, which the older rocks have
+experienced. Their olivine tends to become serpentinized; their augite
+changes to chlorite and uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation
+of zeolites, calcite, sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green
+colour (from the development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence
+the older name of "greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them
+become somewhat schistose from pressure ("greenstone-schists,"
+meta-diabase, &c.). Although the original definition of the group can no
+longer be justified, the name is so well established in current usage
+that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and dolerite are
+employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of rocks.
+
+  The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz.
+  olivine, augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities
+  of hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite.
+
+  There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine;
+  quartz-diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende
+  diabases (or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is
+  characteristic of another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially
+  those which contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the
+  intersertal dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases,
+  hypersthene-diabases and the rocks which have been described as
+  tholeites. Porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites,
+  some of which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant
+  fine-grained or partly glassy ground-mass (_diabas-mandelstein_,
+  amygdaloidal diabase). The somewhat ill-defined spilites are regarded
+  by many as modifications of diabase-porphyrite. In the intersertal and
+  porphyrite diabases, fresh or devitrified glassy base is not
+  infrequent. It is especially conspicuous in some tholeites
+  (hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks consist of
+  augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a brown,
+  vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte
+  (sordawilite, &c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite
+  sills and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites
+  of grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green
+  augite (variolites).
+
+  To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the
+  diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary dolerites. In
+  the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more common than in the
+  newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous
+  habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in most cases secondary
+  after pyroxene, and is then known as uralite; often it forms
+  pseudomorphs which retain the shape of the original augite. Where
+  diabases have been crushed or sheared, hornblende readily develops at
+  the expense of pyroxene, sometimes replacing it completely. In the
+  later stages of alteration the amphibole becomes compact and well
+  crystallized; the rocks consist of green hornblende and plagioclase
+  felspar, and are then generally known as epidiorites or amphibolites.
+  At the same time a schistose structure is produced. But transition
+  forms are very common, having more or less of the augite remaining,
+  surrounded by newly formed hornblende which at first is rather fibrous
+  and tends to spread outwards through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite
+  also is abundant both in sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it
+  calcite may make its appearance, or the lime set free from the augite
+  may combine with the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to
+  form incrustations or borders of sphene around the original crystals
+  of ilmenite. Epidote is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which
+  results from the decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the
+  pyroxenes. Many diabases, especially those of the teschenite
+  sub-group, are filled with zeolites.
+
+  Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts
+  of the globe. Popular names for them are "whinstone," "greenstone,"
+  "toadstone" and "trap." They form excellent road-mending stones and
+  are much quarried for this purpose, being tough, durable and resistant
+  to wear, so long as they are not extremely decomposed. Many of them
+  are to be preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle.
+  The quality of the Cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly
+  improved by a smaller amount of recrystallization where they have been
+  heated by contact with intrusive masses of granite. (J. S. F.)
+
+
+DIABETES (from Gr. [Greek: dia], through, and [Greek: bainein], to
+pass), a constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive
+discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described, viz.
+Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only increased
+in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less amount of
+sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the urine is simply
+increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal ingredient. This latter,
+however, must be distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular
+kidney, lardaceous disease of the kidney, and also occurring in certain
+cases of hysteria.
+
+_Diabetes mellitus_ is the disease to which the term is most commonly
+applied, and is by far the more serious and important ailment. It is one
+of the diseases due to altered metabolism (see METABOLIC DISEASES). It
+is markedly hereditary, much more prevalent in towns and especially
+modern city life than in more primitive rustic communities, and most
+common among the Jews. The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually
+considered one cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour
+its occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so often
+met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself.
+No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of
+life. It attacks males twice as frequently as females, and fair more
+frequently than dark people.
+
+The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the patient may
+suffer for a length of time before he thinks it necessary to apply for
+medical aid. The first symptoms which attract attention are failure of
+strength, and emaciation, along with great thirst and an increased
+amount and frequent passage of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2
+to 3 pints in the 24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or
+even more. It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than
+normal urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific
+gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable
+irritation of the urinary passages.
+
+By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic
+urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar,
+while the amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by
+certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar passed may vary from
+a few ounces to two or more pounds per diem, and it is found to be
+markedly increased after saccharine or starchy food has been taken.
+Sugar may also be found in the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all
+the excretions of persons suffering from this disease. One of the most
+distressing symptoms is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly
+seeking to allay, the quantity of liquid consumed being in general
+enormous, and there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious
+appetite. The mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may
+be evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the general
+health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and more emaciated.
+He suffers from increasing muscular weakness, the temperature of his
+body is lowered, and the skin is dry and harsh. There is often a
+peculiar flush on the face, not limited to the malar eminences, but
+extending up to the roots of the hair. The teeth are loosened or decay,
+there is a tendency to bleeding from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms,
+constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There
+is in general great mental depression or irritability.
+
+Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of
+young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be rapid. The
+complications of the disease are many and serious. It may cause impaired
+vision by weakening the muscles of accommodation, or by lessening the
+sensitiveness of the retina to light. Also cataract is very common. Skin
+affections of all kinds may occur and prove very intractable. Boils,
+carbuncles, cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life
+advances, though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women.
+Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and gangrene
+of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis in the latter
+disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney diseases and heart
+failure due to fatty heart are all of common occurrence. Also patients
+seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric fever, though the
+attack usually runs a mild course. The sugar temporarily disappears
+during the fever. But the most serious complication of all is known as
+diabetic coma, which is very commonly the final cause of death. The
+onset is often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a
+rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either
+constipation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal
+pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true coma,
+though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The patient suffers
+from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath and skin have a sweet
+ethereal odour. The condition may last from twenty-four hours to three
+days, but is almost invariably the precursor of death.
+
+Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being exceedingly
+rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25% of phthisis or pneumonia, and
+the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral haemorrhage, gangrene, &c.
+The most favourable cases are those in which the patient is advanced in
+years, those in which it is associated with obesity or gout, and where
+the social conditions are favourable. A few cures have been recorded in
+which the disease supervened after some acute illness. The unfavourable
+cases are those in which there is a family history of the disease and in
+which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be done by appropriate
+treatment to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to prolong life.
+
+There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that of
+drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by the
+idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition between very
+wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has
+been proved beyond question that certain kinds of food have a powerful
+influence in aggravating the disease, more particularly those consisting
+largely of saccharine and starchy matter; and it may be stated generally
+that the various methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as
+far as possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is
+recommended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous
+foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be avoided;
+while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream, cheese, eggs,
+butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be taken with advantage.
+As a substitute for ordinary bread, which most persons find it difficult
+to do without for any length of time, bran bread, gluten bread and
+almond biscuits. A patient must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to
+a carbohydrate-free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable
+to bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite gradually,
+one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of the diet,
+whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully
+noted meanwhile. The treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes, sugar
+and fruit, and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by
+some diabetic substitute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to
+its lowest point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount
+of carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect on the
+glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be worked out
+experimentally for each individual patient. But in every case, if
+drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma supervene, all restrictions
+must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate freely allowed. The question of
+alcohol is one which must be largely determined by the previous history
+of the patient, but a small quantity will help to make up the
+deficiencies of a diet poor in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky,
+and Hollands gin, are usually free from sugar, and some of the light
+Bordeaux wines contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given
+as cream, fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless,
+but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and endive
+yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to 1½ ozs. daily without
+increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked or raw, are
+allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form. The question of
+milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid
+diet, allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended.
+Thirst is relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria. But
+hypodermic injections of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva, and
+thus relieve the dryness of the mouth. Constipation appears to increase
+the thirst, and must always be carefully guarded against. The best
+remedies are the aperient mineral waters.
+
+Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes, but few of
+them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy. Opium is often
+found of great service, its administration being followed by marked
+amelioration in all the symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar
+action. In the severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of
+little or no use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin
+hydrochloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more
+power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium and
+aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the sugar
+excretion without counterbalancing bad effects.
+
+In _diabetes insipidus_ there is constant thirst and an excessive flow
+of urine, which, however, is not found to contain any abnormal
+constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to those of
+diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked, the disease
+being in general very slow in its progress. In some cases the health
+appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely a direct cause of death,
+but from its debilitating effects may predispose to serious and fatal
+complications. It is best treated by tonics and generous diet. Valerian
+has been found beneficial, the powdered root being given in 5-grain
+doses.
+
+
+DIABOLO, a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones
+joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught by means of a
+cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game appears originally to
+have come from China, where a top (_Kouengen_), made of two hollow
+pierced cylinders of metal or wood, joined by a rod--and often of
+immense size,--was made by rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was
+used by pedlars to attract customers. From China it was introduced by
+missionaries to Europe; and a form of the game, known as "the devil on
+two sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the end of
+the 18th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with improvements in
+it. But its principal vogue was in France in 1812, where the top was
+called "le diable." Amusing old prints exist (see _Fry's Magazine_,
+March and December 1907), depicting examples of the popular craze in
+France at the time. The _diable_ of those days resembled a globular
+wooden dumb-bell with a short waist, and the sonorous hum when
+spinning--the _bruit du diable_--was a pronounced feature. At intervals
+during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a
+top of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that
+the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer, Gustave
+Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game, had
+experimented for some time with new forms of top with a view to bringing
+it again into popularity; and having devised the double-cone shape, and
+added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends
+of the double-cone, with other improvements, he named it "diabolo." The
+use of celluloid in preference to metal or wood as its material appears
+to have been due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by
+the inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and catching
+the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions, both as an
+exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in "diabolo tennis" and other
+ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and the chief French
+seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906, its vogue spread in
+1907 so that in France and England it became the fashionable "rage"
+among both children and adults.
+
+The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor C. V. Boys in
+the _Proc. Phys. Soc._ (London), Nov. 1907.
+
+
+DIACONICON, in the Greek Church, the name given to a chamber on the
+south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils, vessels, &c.,
+of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II. (565-574), owing to
+a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and protheses were located in
+apses at the east end of the aisles. Before that time there was only one
+apse. In the churches in central Syria of slightly earlier date, the
+diaconicon is rectangular, the side apses at Kalat-Seman having been
+added at a later date.
+
+
+DIADOCHI (Gr. [Greek: diadechesthai], to receive from another), i.e.
+"Successors," the name given to the Macedonian generals who fought for
+the empire of Alexander after his death in 323 B.C. The name includes
+Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, Antipater and his son
+Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into
+which the Macedonian empire was divided under these rulers are known as
+Hellenistic. The chief were Asia Minor and Syria under the SELEUCID
+DYNASTY (q.v.), Egypt under the PTOLEMIES (q.v.), Macedonia under the
+successors of Antigonus Gonatas, PERGAMUM (q.v.) under the Attalid
+dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were merged in the Roman empire. (See
+MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.)
+
+
+DIAGONAL (Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: gônia], a corner), in
+geometry, a line joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a
+rectilinear figure.
+
+
+DIAGORAS, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist, flourished
+in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious in his youth and a
+writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became an atheist because a great
+wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods. In consequence of his
+blasphemous speeches, and especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he
+was condemned to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head
+(Aristoph. _Clouds_, 830; _Birds_, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth,
+where he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called
+[Greek Phrygioi logoi] or [Greek: Apopyrgizontes], in which he probably
+attacked the Phrygian divinities.
+
+
+DIAGRAM (Gr. [Greek: diagramma], from [Greek: diagraphein], to mark out
+by lines), a figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical relations
+between the parts of the figure illustrate relations between other
+objects. They may be classed according to the manner in which they are
+intended to be used, and also according to the kind of analogy which we
+recognize between the diagram and the thing represented. The diagrams in
+mathematical treatises are intended to help the reader to follow the
+mathematical reasoning. The construction of the figure is defined in
+words so that even if no figure were drawn the reader could draw one for
+himself. The diagram is a good one if those features which form the
+subject of the proposition are clearly represented.
+
+Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way--namely, for
+purposes of measurement. The plans and designs drawn by architects and
+engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by
+measuring certain distances on the diagram. For such purposes it is
+essential that the drawing be as accurate as possible. We therefore
+class diagrams as diagrams of illustration, which merely suggest certain
+relations to the mind of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale,
+from which measurements are intended to be made. There are some diagrams
+or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of no importance,
+provided their connexions are properly shown. Of this kind are the
+diagrams of electrical connexions, and those belonging to that
+department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis,
+periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness.
+
+_Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic._--Diagrams may
+also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which no symbols
+are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular
+points of the diagrams, and mixed diagrams, in which certain magnitudes
+are represented, not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by
+symbols, such as numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the
+height of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by
+marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on
+the map. There is another method in which a line called a contour line
+is drawn through all the places in the map whose height above the sea is
+a certain number of feet, and the number of feet is written at some
+point or points of this line. By the use of a series of contour lines,
+the height of a great number of places can be indicated on a map by
+means of a small number of written symbols. Still this method is not a
+purely graphical method, but a partly symbolical method of expressing
+the third dimension of objects on a diagram in two dimensions.
+
+In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the
+relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables, we must use
+more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of construction we use plans and
+elevations and sections through different planes, to specify the form of
+objects having three dimensions. In such systems of diagrams we have to
+indicate that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another
+diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding points in
+the different diagrams with the same letter. If the diagrams are drawn
+on the same piece of paper we may indicate corresponding points by
+drawing a line from one to the other, taking care that this line of
+correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for a real line in
+either diagram. (See GEOMETRY: _Descriptive_.)
+
+In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of which the
+form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are projections of the
+bodies taken from two points so near each other that, by viewing the two
+diagrams simultaneously, one with each eye, we identify the
+corresponding points intuitively. The method in which we simultaneously
+contemplate two figures, and recognize a correspondence between certain
+points in the one figure and certain points in the other, is one of the
+most powerful and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in
+pure geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures
+have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes spoken of as
+the method or principle of Duality. GEOMETRY: _Projective_.)
+
+                        DIAGRAMS IN MECHANICS.
+
+  The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the
+  use of a series of diagrams representing the configuration,
+  displacement and acceleration of the parts of the system.
+
+  _Diagram of Configuration._--In considering a material system it is
+  often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at
+  any given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The
+  position of any particle of the system is defined by drawing a
+  straight line or vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the
+  given particle. The position of the particle with respect to the
+  origin is determined by the magnitude and direction of this vector. If
+  in the diagram we draw from the origin (which need not be the same
+  point of space as the origin for the material system) a vector equal
+  and parallel to the vector which determines the position of the
+  particle, the end of this vector will indicate the position of the
+  particle in the diagram of configuration. If this is done for all the
+  particles we shall have a system of points in the diagram of
+  configuration, each of which corresponds to a particle of the material
+  system, and the relative positions of any pair of these points will be
+  the same as the relative positions of the material particles which
+  correspond to them.
+
+  We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the
+  vectors are supposed to be drawn--one for the material system, the
+  other for the diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn
+  from them, may now be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the
+  material system and on the other a set of points, each point
+  corresponding to a particle of the system, and the whole representing
+  the configuration of the system at a given instant.
+
+  This is called a diagram of configuration.
+
+  _Diagram of Displacement._--Let us next consider two diagrams of
+  configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different
+  instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second
+  the final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration to
+  the other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at present
+  consider the length of time during which the displacement was
+  effected, nor the intermediate stages through which it passed, but
+  only the final result--a change of configuration. To study this change
+  we construct a diagram of displacement.
+
+  Let A, B, C be the points in the initial diagram of configuration, and
+  A', B', C' be the corresponding points in the final diagram of
+  configuration. From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement, draw
+  a vector oa equal and parallel to AA', ob equal and parallel to BB',
+  oc to CC', and so on. The points a, b, c, &c., will be such that the
+  vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so on.
+  The diagram containing the points a, b, c, &c., is therefore called
+  the diagram of displacement.
+
+  In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed
+  that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system.
+  For we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to AA', which we
+  cannot do unless we know the absolute final position of A, with
+  respect to its initial position. In this diagram of displacement there
+  is therefore, besides the points a, b, c, &c., an _origin_, o, which
+  represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary
+  because the two configurations do not exist at the same time; and
+  therefore to express their relative position we require to know a
+  point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time.
+
+  But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume
+  a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space.
+  Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and equal to BA
+  in the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel and equal to
+  A'B' in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the position
+  of the point b relative to a will be the same by this construction as
+  by the former construction, only we must observe that in this second
+  construction we use only vectors such as AB, A'B', which represent the
+  relative position of points both of which exist simultaneously,
+  instead of vectors such as AA', BB', which express the position of a
+  point at one instant relative to its position at a former instant, and
+  which therefore cannot be determined by observation, because the two
+  ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously.
+
+  It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by
+  the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates that we
+  have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But no such point
+  occurs in the second construction, because we use such vectors only as
+  we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of displacements _without
+  an origin_ represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know
+  about the displacement of the material system.
+
+  _Diagram of Velocity._--If the relative velocities of the points of
+  the system are constant, then the diagram of displacement
+  corresponding to an interval of a unit of time between the initial and
+  the final configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If
+  the relative velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in
+  which the velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system
+  at the given instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The
+  diagram of displacements for this imaginary system is the required
+  diagram of relative velocities of the actual system at the given
+  instant. It is easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any
+  one point relative to any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity
+  of any of them.
+
+  _Diagram of Acceleration._--By the same process by which we formed the
+  diagram of displacements from the two diagrams of initial and final
+  configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity
+  from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This diagram
+  may be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval of
+  time. And by the same process by which we deduced the diagram of
+  velocities from that of displacements we may deduce the diagram of
+  rates of acceleration from that of total acceleration.
+
+  We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kinematics
+  because they are found to be of use especially when we have to deal
+  with material systems containing a great number of parts, as in the
+  kinetic theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then appears as
+  a region of space swarming with points representing molecules, and the
+  only way in which we can investigate it is by considering the number
+  of such points in unit of volume in different parts of that region,
+  and calling this the _density_ of the gas.
+
+  In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region
+  containing points equal in number but distributed in a different
+  manner, and the number of points in any given portion of the region
+  expresses the number of molecules whose velocities lie within given
+  limits. We may speak of this as the velocity-density.
+
+  _Diagrams of Stress._--Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to
+  statical questions, because the state of the system is constant, so
+  that we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corresponding to
+  the successive states of the system. The most useful of these
+  applications, collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates to the
+  equilibrium of plane framed structures familiarly represented in
+  bridges and roof-trusses. Two diagrams are used, one called the
+  diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of stress. The
+  structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links
+  jointed together at their extremities. In practice these joints have
+  friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so that the force acting at
+  the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly through the axis of the
+  joint; but as it is unsafe to make the stability of the structure
+  depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we assume in our
+  calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and therefore
+  that the force acting on the end of any link passes through the axis
+  of the joint.
+
+  The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in
+  the diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in the
+  actual structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the frame
+  it is represented by a straight line joining the points representing
+  the two joints. If no force acts on the link except the two forces
+  acting through the centres of the joints, these two forces must be
+  equal and opposite, and their direction must coincide with the
+  straight line joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting
+  on either extremity of the link is directed towards the other
+  extremity, the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is
+  called a "strut." If it is directed away from the other extremity, the
+  stress on the link is called tension and the link is called a "tie."
+  In this case, therefore, the only stress acting in a link is a
+  pressure or a tension in the direction of the straight line which
+  represents it in the diagram of the frame, and all that we have to do
+  is to find the magnitude of this stress. In the actual structure
+  gravity acts on every part of the link, but in the diagram we
+  substitute for the actual weight of the different parts of the link
+  two weights which have the same resultant acting at the extremities of
+  the link.
+
+  We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without
+  weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of
+  the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If any link has
+  more than two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an
+  imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which has only two
+  joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a system of points,
+  certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines, and each point is
+  in general acted on by a weight or other force acting between it and
+  some point external to the system. To complete the diagram we may
+  represent these external forces as links, that is to say, straight
+  lines joining the points of the frame to points external to the frame.
+  Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point of
+  application of the weight with the centre of the earth.
+
+  But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in
+  the lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together
+  with the real frame and the links representing external forces, which
+  join points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up
+  together a complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of
+  points connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may in
+  this way reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points
+  with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of
+  these points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each
+  of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining
+  the points, so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might
+  do this by calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure
+  or the tension which acts in it.
+
+  We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are
+  represented graphically as regards direction and position, but
+  symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be
+  represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the
+  direction of the force containing as many units of length as there are
+  units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an
+  arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to
+  this method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram
+  of configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as a
+  record of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces,
+  but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of
+  the calculation.
+
+  But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set
+  of forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel
+  and proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon
+  the forces are in equilibrium. (See MECHANICS.) We might in this way
+  form a series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame.
+  But in so doing we give up the principle of drawing the line
+  representing a force from the point of application of the force, for
+  all the sides of the polygon cannot pass through the same point, as
+  the forces do. We also represent every stress twice over, for it
+  appears as a side of both the polygons corresponding to the two joints
+  between which it acts. But if we can arrange the polygons in such a
+  way that the sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress
+  coincide with each other, we may form a diagram in which every stress
+  is represented in direction and magnitude, though not in position, by
+  a single line which is the common boundary of the two polygons which
+  represent the joints at the extremities of the corresponding piece of
+  the frame.
+
+  We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is
+  made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in
+  which every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude
+  by a straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is
+  manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the
+  corresponding polygon is closed or not.
+
+  The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of
+  stress are as follows:--To every link in the frame corresponds a
+  straight line in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude
+  and direction the stress acting in that link; and to every joint of
+  the frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces
+  acting at that joint are represented by the sides of the polygon taken
+  in a certain cyclical order, the cyclical order of the sides of the
+  two adjacent polygons being such that their common side is traced in
+  opposite directions in going round the two polygons.
+
+  The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the
+  direction of the force acting on that joint of the frame which
+  corresponds to the polygon, and due to that link of the frame which
+  corresponds to the side. This determines whether the stress of the
+  link is a pressure or a tension. If we know whether the stress of any
+  one link is a pressure or a tension, this determines the cyclical
+  order of the sides of the two polygons corresponding to the ends of
+  the links, and therefore the cyclical order of all the polygons, and
+  the nature of the stress in every link of the frame.
+
+  _Reciprocal Diagrams._--When to every point of concourse of the lines
+  in the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton
+  of the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal.
+
+  The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other
+  cases than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in his
+  _Applied Mechanics_ (1857). The method was independently applied to a
+  large number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman in the
+  office of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk Maxwell in his
+  lectures in King's College, London. In the _Phil. Mag._ for 1864 the
+  latter pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and
+  in a paper on "Reciprocal Figures, Frames and Diagrams of Forces,"
+  _Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed the relation of the
+  method to Airy's function of stress and to other mathematical methods.
+  Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a number of applications of the
+  method to practice (_Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxv.).
+
+  L. Cremona (_Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica_, 1872)
+  deduced the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the
+  two components of a wrench as developed by Möbius. Karl Culmann, in
+  his _Graphische Statik_ (1st ed. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), made great
+  use of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not
+  reciprocal. Maurice Levy in his _Statique graphique_ (1874) has
+  treated the whole subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R.
+  H. Bow, in his _The Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed
+  Structures_ (1873), materially simplified the process of drawing a
+  diagram of stress reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of
+  equilibrating external forces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of Configuration.]
+
+  Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or
+  the links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow places
+  a letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the
+  frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as
+  separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one link
+  of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection of
+  the links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of
+  each of the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of
+  stress, as the opposite sides of the parallelogram which corresponds
+  to the point of intersection.
+
+  This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of
+  configuration (fig. 1), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the
+  linkwork which Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane.
+
+  In fig. 1 the real joints are distinguished from the places where one
+  link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T,
+  V. The four links RSTV form a "contraparallelogram" in which RS = TV
+  and RV = ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar to each other. A
+  fourth triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the
+  quadruplane. The four points O, P, N, Q form a parallelogram whose
+  angle POQ is constant and equal to [pi] - SOR. The product of the
+  distances OP and OQ is constant. The linkwork may be fixed at O. If
+  any figure is traced by P, Q will trace the inverse figure, but turned
+  round O through the constant angle POQ. In the diagram forces Pp, Qq
+  are balanced by the force Co at the fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq
+  are necessarily inversely as OP and OQ, and make equal angles with
+  those lines.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Diagram of Stress.]
+
+  Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the
+  diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a
+  point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress in
+  the link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented in
+  the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding to
+  those areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by lines
+  crossing it, the stress in each part is represented by a different
+  line for each part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link
+  these lines are all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress
+  in RV is represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE
+  and AB. If two areas have no part of their boundary in common the
+  letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined
+  by a straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn between
+  them, it would represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of
+  all the stresses in the links which are cut by any line, straight or
+  curved, joining the two areas. For instance the areas F and C in fig.
+  1 have no common boundary, and the points F and C in fig. 2 are not
+  joined by a straight line. But every path from the area F to the area
+  C in fig. 1 passes through a series of other areas, and each passage
+  from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a line drawn in
+  the diagram of stress. Hence the whole path from F to C in fig. 1
+  corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and extending from F
+  to C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the
+  path is represented by FC in fig. 2.
+
+  Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on BRIDGES
+  (q.v.).
+
+                 _Automatic Description of Diagrams._
+
+  There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates
+  of a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values
+  of two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move, say
+  horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing point is
+  made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying as the
+  value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out a curve
+  on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any given time
+  may be determined. This principle is applied to the automatic
+  registration of phenomena of all kinds, from those of meteorology and
+  terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon-shot, the vibrations
+  of sounding bodies, the motions of animals, voluntary and involuntary,
+  and the currents in electric telegraphs.
+
+  In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a
+  constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to that of the
+  piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is proportional
+  to the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the
+  curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and the pressure of
+  the steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not only supplies a
+  record of the pressure of the steam at each stage of the stroke of the
+  engine, but indicates the work done by the steam in each stroke by the
+  area enclosed by the curve traced on the diagram.          (J. C. M.)
+
+
+DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a branch of
+applied mathematics which treats of the construction of sun-dials, that
+is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the
+divisions of the day (Lat. _dies_) by the motion of the shadow of some
+object on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the
+earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun;
+though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division
+into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the
+greatest elevation.
+
+_History._--The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah
+xxxviii. 8: "Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which
+is gone down in the _sun-dial_ of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date
+of this would be about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know
+nothing of the character or construction of the instrument. The earliest
+of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the
+hemicycle, or hemisphere, of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who
+probably lived about 300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed
+with its rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed
+in any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the horizon
+the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere, and
+the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular
+arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts, determined twelve equal
+intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this were done at the
+time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as
+might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the
+corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow of
+the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of
+time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide
+each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal parts were
+called _temporary hours_; and, since the duration of daylight varies
+from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from those
+of another; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that
+time, and especially in countries where the variation between the
+longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our
+climates.
+
+The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as
+appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same
+construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials have in modern
+times been found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is
+supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says
+that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The
+second and third were found in 1751--one at Castel-Nuovo and the other
+at Rignano; and a fourth was found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in
+his _Abhandlungen von den Sonnenuhren der Alten_ (Leipzig, 1777), says
+that this dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore
+be the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of
+Alexandria.
+
+Herodotus recorded that the Greeks derived from the Babylonians the use
+of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry
+enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some
+of which remain to us, and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but
+also of great ingenuity.
+
+Ptolemy's _Almagest_ treats of the construction of dials by means of his
+_analemma_, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical
+problems. The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular
+dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west,
+north or south, and these are the only ones he treats of. It is certain,
+however, that the ancients were able to construct declining dials, as is
+shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics--the Tower of
+the Winds at Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which
+the eight principal winds are represented, and over them eight different
+dials--four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the
+intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subsequent to
+that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower in the sixth
+chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials, and as he has
+described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that the
+dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary
+hours or, as the Greeks called them, _hectemoria_.
+
+The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this
+Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius
+Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees
+less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The
+first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by
+order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on
+gnomonics, this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we
+remember that the dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of
+Memphis, and consequently less adapted to its position than that of
+Catania to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not
+cultivated in Italy.
+
+The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great importance
+to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the Greeks,
+but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions. One
+of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the
+13th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and
+other surfaces. He even introduced _equal_ or _equinoctial hours_, but
+the idea was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in
+use.
+
+Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l
+Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by _equal_ hours was
+generally adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics
+from the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century is almost a blank,
+and during that time the change took place. We can see, however, that
+the change would necessarily follow the introduction of clocks and other
+mechanical methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were,
+the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in
+winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary
+hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now,
+we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of
+France about the year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new
+sun-dials came into general use during the 14th and 15th centuries.
+
+Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was SEBASTIAN
+MÃœNSTER (q.v.), who published his _Horologiographia_ at Basel in 1531.
+He gives a number of correct rules, but without demonstrations. Among
+his inventions was a moon-dial,[1] but this does not admit of much
+accuracy.
+
+During the 17th century dialling was discussed at great length by many
+writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto volume of 800 pages
+entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be
+considered to contain all that was known at that time.
+
+In the 18th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and
+these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament
+to a garden, or in remote country districts where the old dial on the
+church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by
+its side. The art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little
+more than a mathematical recreation.
+
+  _General Principles._--The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth
+  are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded.
+  That the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in
+  twenty-four hours, and that it is carried round the sun in one year at
+  a nearly uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing these facts.
+  But the effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit our
+  purpose better, and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the
+  ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent
+  confirmation, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and
+  stars revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once
+  a day--the sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some
+  four minutes longer--so that at the end of the year it finds itself
+  again in the same place, having made a complete revolution of the
+  heavens relatively to the stars from west to east.
+
+  The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line
+  through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small,
+  compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a
+  parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely
+  look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in
+  the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and
+  6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An
+  axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole,
+  its elevation being equal to the latitude of the place.
+
+  The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would that
+  of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes, spoken
+  of above, were always the same. But this is constantly altering, so
+  that the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also consequently
+  as measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a strictly uniform
+  pace. This irregularity, which is slight, would be of little
+  consequence in the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and watches
+  being mechanical measures of time could not, except by extreme
+  complication, be made to follow this irregularity, even if desirable.
+
+  The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the
+  length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in
+  the year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly;
+  but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will
+  be sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock-the greatest
+  accumulated difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in
+  November, but on the average much less. The four days on which the two
+  agree are April 15, June 15, September 1 and December 24.
+
+  Clock-time is called _mean time_, that marked by the sun-dial is
+  called _apparent time_, and the difference between them is the
+  _equation of time_. It is given in most calendars and almanacs,
+  frequently under the heading "clock slow," "clock fast." When the time
+  by the sun-dial is known, the equation of time will at once enable us
+  to obtain the corresponding clock-time, or vice versa.
+
+  Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the
+  apparent position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need
+  consideration in the construction of an instrument which, with the
+  best workmanship, does not after all admit of very great accuracy.
+
+  The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood. The
+  problem before us is the following:--A rod, or _style_, as it is
+  called, being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's
+  axis, we have to find how and where points or lines of reference must
+  be traced on some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the
+  shadow of the style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know
+  that at that moment it is solar noon,--that is, that the plane through
+  the style and through the sun then coincides with the meridian; again,
+  that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is 1
+  o'clock by solar time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the
+  above plane through the style and through the sun has just turned
+  through the twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution; and so on for
+  the subsequent hours,--the hours before noon being indicated in a
+  similar manner. The style and the surface on which these lines are
+  traced together constitute the dial.
+
+  The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected--whether on
+  church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall--the surface
+  must be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines.
+
+  The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the
+  accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the
+  instrument depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an
+  angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter
+  condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the
+  meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is fixed
+  to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that the
+  style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be
+  usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by
+  the style it must always be understood that the middle line of the
+  thin band of shade is meant.
+
+  The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the
+  dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate.
+
+  The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to
+  determine accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend
+  on this one. We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style
+  has been itself accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is
+  done the XII o'clock line will be found by the intersection of the
+  dial surface with the vertical plane which contains the style; and the
+  most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a
+  plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang freely, and
+  waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide on the
+  dial. This single shadow will be the XII o'clock line.
+
+  In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock
+  line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore,
+  at once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line.
+
+  The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate
+  method of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when
+  good watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the style
+  falls when 1, 2, 3, &c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the next
+  morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced; and
+  in the same manner the hours might be subdivided into halves and
+  quarters, or even into minutes.
+
+  But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II,
+  III, &c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each
+  of these lines would make with the XII o'clock line. Now, except in
+  the simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a
+  cardinal point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or
+  elaborate geometrical constructions, implying considerable
+  mathematical knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of
+  error. The chief source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the
+  data; for the position of the dial-plane would have to be found before
+  the calculations began,--that is, it would be necessary to know
+  exactly by how many degrees it declined from the south towards the
+  east or west, and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical.
+  The ancients, with the means at their disposal, could obtain these
+  results only very roughly.
+
+  Dials received different names according to their position:--
+
+  _Horizontal dials_, when traced on a horizontal plane;
+
+  _Vertical dials_, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal
+  points;
+
+  _Vertical declining dials_, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal
+  point;
+
+  _Inclining dials_, when traced on planes neither vertical nor
+  horizontal (these were further distinguished as _reclining_ when
+  leaning backwards from an observer, _proclining_ when leaning
+  forwards);
+
+  _Equinoctial dials_, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's
+  axis, &c. &c.
+
+  _Dial Construction._--A very correct view of the problem of dial
+  construction may be obtained as follows:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. 1) having an axis AB parallel to
+  the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cylinder let equidistant
+  generating-lines be traced 15° apart, one of them XII ... XII being in
+  the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II, &c.,
+  following in the order of the sun's motion.
+
+  Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line XII ...
+  XII at apparent noon, on the line I ... I at one hour after noon, on
+  II ... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the cylinder be
+  cut by any plane MN representing the plane on which the dial is to be
+  traced, the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane and fall on
+  the lines AXII AI, AII, &c.
+
+  The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made
+  by AI, AII, &c. with AXII; the line AXII itself, being in the
+  vertical plane through AB, may be supposed known.
+
+  For the purposes of actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere
+  will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it
+  to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock
+  line in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south
+  dial.
+
+  _Horizontal Dial._--Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed
+  transparent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of
+  the heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore
+  coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then the
+  circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with the
+  horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next divide
+  the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, bc, cd, &c. ... of
+  15° each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the various
+  points of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp, Pcp, &c.
+  ... These will exactly correspond to the equidistant generating lines
+  on the cylinder in the previous construction, and the shadow of the
+  style will fall on these circles after successive intervals of 1,2, 3,
+  &c., hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle in the points
+  B, C, D, &c., then EB, EC, ED, &c. ... will be the I, II, III, &c.,
+  hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal dial consists
+  in calculating the angles which these lines make with the XII o'clock
+  line EA, whose position is known. The spherical triangles PAB, PAC,
+  &c., enable us to do this readily. They are all right-angled at A, the
+  side PA is the latitude of the place, and the angles APB, APC, &c.,
+  are respectively 15°, 30°, &c., then
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15° sin _latitude_,
+                  tan AC = tan 30° sin _latitude_,
+                           &c. &c.
+
+  These determine the sides AB, AC, &c., that is, the angles AEB, AEC,
+  &c., required.
+
+  The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian EA of
+  11° 51' on a London dial, of 12° 31' at Edinburgh, of 11° 23' at
+  Paris, 12° 0' at Berlin, 9° 55' at New York and 9° 19' at San
+  Francisco. In the same way may be found the angles made by the other
+  hour-lines.
+
+  The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant
+  from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further, because all
+  the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these. In the first
+  place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian, and therefore
+  two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-lines equidistant
+  from the meridian; thus the XI o'clock line and the I o'clock line
+  must make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the same as the II
+  o'clock, and so on. And next, the 24 great circles, which were drawn
+  to determine these lines, are in reality only 12; for clearly the
+  great circle which gives I o'clock after midnight, and that which
+  gives I o'clock after noon, are one and the same, and so also for the
+  other hours. Therefore the hour-lines between VI in the evening and VI
+  the next morning are the prolongations of the remaining twelve.
+
+  Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and
+  retain only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on
+  it, and we shall have the horizontal dial.
+
+  On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock,
+  and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for
+  extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh the limits
+  will be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within the
+  Arctic circle, the whole circuit will be required.
+
+  Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal
+  plate from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate, which
+  is sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have an
+  acute angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly
+  fixed in a vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide
+  with the meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thickness
+  of the plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles.
+  Since there are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two
+  half dials, because a little consideration will show that, owing to
+  the thickness of the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast
+  a shadow. Thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours
+  before 6 o'clock in the morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the western
+  edge will be used. At noon it will change again to the eastern edge
+  until 6 o'clock in the evening, and finally the western edge for the
+  remaining hours of daylight.
+
+  The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles
+  meet the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be careful
+  to draw only those lines for which the corresponding style is able to
+  give a shadow as explained above. The dial will thus have the
+  appearance of a single dial plate, and there will be no confusion (see
+  fig. 3).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  The line of demarcation between the shadow and the light will be
+  better defined than when a wire style is used; but the indications by
+  this double dial will always be one minute too fast in the morning and
+  one minute too slow in the afternoon. This is owing to the magnitude
+  of the sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined
+  shadows are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require
+  them, but by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward one
+  in the afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to advance
+  through a space equal to its half-breadth.
+
+  Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate is
+  of metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be
+  purchased ready for placing on the pedestal,--the dial with all the
+  hour-lines traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its
+  proper position, if not even cast in the same piece with the dial
+  plate.
+
+  When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be
+  perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling will be
+  done with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected
+  either in the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate
+  till the time given by the shadow (making the _one_ minute correction
+  mentioned above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time is
+  known. It is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so built
+  up beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the latitude
+  of some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines will be
+  drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a dial can
+  therefore not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although it would,
+  without appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose latitude did
+  not differ more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London, and it would be
+  safe to employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire.
+
+  If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in
+  latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a
+  place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of
+  time would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following
+  table will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of
+  the angle of the style,--all angles on the dial being readily measured
+  with an ordinary protractor. It extends from 50° lat. to 59½° lat.,
+  and therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and  Ireland:--
+
+  +-------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+  |  LAT. |XI. A.M.| X. A.M.| IX. A.M.|VIII. A.M.|VII. A.M.|VI. A.M.|
+  |       | I. P.M.|II. P.M.|III. P.M.|IIII. P.M.|  V. P.M.|VI. P.M.|
+  +-------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+  | 50° 0'| 11° 36'| 23° 51'|  37° 27'|  53°  0' |  70° 43'| 90°  0'|
+  | 50 30 | 11  41 | 24   1 |  37  39 |  53  12  |  70  51 | 90   0 |
+  | 51  0 | 11  46 | 24  10 |  37  51 |  53  23  |  70  59 | 90   0 |
+  | 51 30 | 11  51 | 24  19 |  38   3 |  53  35  |  71   6 | 90   0 |
+  | 52  0 | 11  55 | 24  28 |  38  14 |  53  46  |  71  13 | 90   0 |
+  | 52 30 | 12   0 | 24  37 |  38  25 |  53  57  |  71  20 | 90   0 |
+  | 53  0 | 12   5 | 24  45 |  38  37 |  54   8  |  71  27 | 90   0 |
+  | 53 30 | 12   9 | 24  54 |  38  48 |  54  19  |  71  34 | 90   0 |
+  | 54  0 | 12  14 | 25   2 |  38  58 |  54  29  |  71  40 | 90   0 |
+  | 54 30 | 12  18 | 25  10 |  39   9 |  54  39  |  71  47 | 90   0 |
+  | 55  0 | 12  23 | 25  19 |  39  19 |  54  49  |  71  53 | 90   0 |
+  | 55 30 | 12  27 | 25  27 |  39  30 |  54  59  |  71  59 | 90   0 |
+  | 56  0 | 12  31 | 25  35 |  39  40 |  55   9  |  72   5 | 90   0 |
+  | 56 30 | 12  36 | 25  43 |  39  50 |  55  18  |  72  11 | 90   0 |
+  | 57  0 | 12  40 | 25  50 |  39  59 |  55  27  |  72  17 | 90   0 |
+  | 57 30 | 12  44 | 25  58 |  40   9 |  55  36  |  72  22 | 90   0 |
+  | 58  0 | 12  48 | 26   5 |  40  18 |  55  45  |  72  28 | 90   0 |
+  | 58 30 | 12  52 | 26  13 |  40  27 |  55  54  |  72  33 | 90   0 |
+  | 59  0 | 12  56 | 26  20 |  40  36 |  56   2  |  72  39 | 90   0 |
+  | 59 30 | 13   0 | 26  27 |  40  45 |  56  11  |  72  44 | 90   0 |
+  +-------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+
+  _Vertical South Dial._--Let us take again our imaginary transparent
+  sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis.
+  Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the
+  meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane
+  facing south. This will cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA, which,
+  being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south, will
+  be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial circle,
+  obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the axis PEp.
+  The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the vertical line
+  EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and the line
+  EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the intersection of two
+  great circles ZM, QM, each at right angles to the vertical plane QZP,
+  will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem, divide
+  the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15° each, beginning at a,
+  viz. ab, bc, &c.,--each quadrant aM, MQ, &c., containing 6,--then
+  through each point of division and through the axis Pp draw a plane
+  cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles. As the sun
+  revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will successively fall
+  on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these circles cross
+  the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &c., the shadow of the
+  lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB, EC, &c.,
+  which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial,
+  Ep being the style.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on
+  each side of noon; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than
+  6 o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the
+  dial before that time, and is no longer available.
+
+  It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c., may be calculated.
+
+  The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c., will give us a simple rule.
+  These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP,
+  is the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the
+  latitude and 90°; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &c., are 15°,
+  30°, &c., respectively. Then
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15° sin _co-latitude_;
+
+  or more simply,
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15° cos _latitude_,
+                  tan AC = tan 30° cos _latitude_,
+                           &c. &c.
+
+  and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB, AEC,
+  &c., required.
+
+  In this ease the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the
+  opposite result to that of the horizontal dial.
+
+  _Inclining, Reclining, &c., Dials._--We shall not enter into the
+  calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before
+  supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and
+  all the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these
+  hour-circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines
+  just as in the previous cases; but the triangles will no longer be
+  right-angled, and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the
+  chances of error being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing
+  the dial plane in its true position on the sphere, since that true
+  position will have to be found from observations which can be only
+  roughly performed.
+
+  In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is not a
+  plane, and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the
+  only safe practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points
+  (one is sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the
+  moment when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and
+  afterwards connect these points with the centre by a continuous line.
+  Of course the style must have been accurately fixed in its true
+  position before we begin.
+
+  _Equatorial Dial._--The name equatorial dial is given to one whose
+  plane is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the
+  equator. It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided
+  into 24 equal ares is placed at right angles to the style, and hour
+  divisions are marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style
+  point accurately to the pole, and that the noon division coincide with
+  the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall on the other
+  divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be marked on
+  both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite sides
+  in the summer and in the winter months, changing at each equinox.
+
+  _To find the Meridian Plane._--We have, so far, assumed the meridian
+  plane to be accurately known; we shall proceed to describe some of the
+  methods by which it may be found.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approximation.
+  It is well known that the needle of the compass, when free to move
+  horizontally, oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction
+  termed the magnetic meridian. This does not coincide with the true
+  north and south line, but the difference between them is generally
+  known with tolerable accuracy, and is called the variation of the
+  compass. The variation differs widely at different parts of the
+  surface of the earth, and is not stationary at any particular place,
+  though the change is slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation
+  which takes place about the mean position, but too small to need
+  notice here (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL).
+
+  With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass
+  can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian,
+  but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further
+  alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has
+  been made.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  A very simple practical method is the following:--
+
+  Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position
+  that it may receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the
+  afternoon. Then carefully level the surface by means of a
+  spirit-level. This must be done very accurately, and the table in that
+  position made perfectly secure, so that there be no danger of its
+  shifting during the day.
+
+  Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly
+  fixed. The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface,
+  should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H
+  for centre, describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD,
+  EF, &c.
+
+  A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet
+  line at some convenient height above H.
+
+  Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the bead P
+  as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It will be
+  found to describe a curve ACE ... FDB, approaching the point H as the
+  sun advances towards noon, and receding from it afterwards. (The curve
+  is a conic section--an hyperbola in these regions.) At the moment when
+  it crosses the arc AB, mark the point A; AP is then the direction of
+  the sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH is the altitude of
+  the sun. In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses the same
+  arc; then the angle PBH is the altitude. But the right-angled
+  triangles PHA, PHB are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the
+  same altitudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after
+  noon. It follows that, _if the sun has not changed its declination_
+  during the interval, the two positions will be symmetrically placed
+  one on each side of the meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and
+  bisecting it in M, HM will be the meridian line.
+
+  Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c., will furnish its
+  meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the
+  mean of the positions thus found must be taken.
+
+  The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its
+  declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and
+  may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at
+  the end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder
+  of the year the change of declination is so slow that we may safely
+  neglect it. The most favourable times are at the end of June and at
+  the end of December, when the sun's declination is almost stationary.
+  If the line HM be produced both ways to the edges of the table, then
+  the two points on the ground vertically below those on the edges may
+  be found by a plummet, and, if permanent marks be made there, the
+  meridian plane, which is the vertical plane passing through these two
+  points, will have its position perfectly secured.
+
+  _To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position._--Before giving
+  any other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the
+  construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be
+  accurately placed in its true position. The angle which the style
+  makes with a hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place,
+  is known, and the north and south direction is also roughly given by
+  the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted
+  approximately--correctly, indeed, as to its inclination--but probably
+  requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine
+  plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be
+  properly adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls
+  exactly on the plumb-line,--or, which is the same thing, if both
+  shadows coincide on the dial.
+
+  This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane,
+  whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the
+  ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not
+  generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian
+  plane, and that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a
+  plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow
+  of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. A signal
+  from the observer there to the observer at the dial enables the latter
+  to adjust the style as directed above.
+
+  _Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane._--We have dwelt at some
+  length on these practical operations because they are simple and
+  tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant,
+  nor telescope--nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of
+  shadow lines.
+
+  The Pole star, or _Ursae Minoris_, may also be employed for finding
+  the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star
+  is now only about 1° 14' from the pole; if therefore a plumb-line be
+  suspended at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his
+  position till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane
+  through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian
+  plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would
+  be strictly coincident. This would be when the star crosses the
+  meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we
+  wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times of
+  the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the
+  _Nautical Almanac_, and a watch would be necessary to know when the
+  instant arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate,
+  because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes
+  in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the
+  azimuth.
+
+  The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both
+  calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star [eta] _Ursae
+  Majoris_, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest
+  from the "pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours
+  from the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which
+  joins the two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole
+  star, at a distance of about 1° 14' from the pole, is crossing the
+  meridian above the pole, the star [eta] _Ursae Majoris_, whose polar
+  distance is about 40°, has not yet reached the meridian below the
+  pole.
+
+  When [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ reaches the meridian, which will be within
+  half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian; but its
+  slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now
+  at some instant between these two times--much nearer the latter than
+  the former--the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly
+  vertical; and at this instant, which the observer determines by seeing
+  that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither of the
+  stars is strictly in the meridian; but the deviation from it is so
+  small that it may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the
+  plumb-line taken for meridian plane.
+
+  In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane
+  by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet at
+  a short distance in front of the eye; this second plummet, being
+  suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as
+  always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian plane
+  will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground, one
+  under each plummet.
+
+  This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the
+  upper transit of _Polaris_; for, at the lower transit, the other star
+  [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and
+  the observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible
+  when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half of
+  the year is lost to this method.
+
+  Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40° N., for there
+  the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit;--we may even
+  say not lower than 45° N., for the star must be at least 5° above the
+  horizon before it becomes distinctly visible.
+
+  There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed, but
+  none so convenient as these two, on account of _Polaris_ with its very
+  slow motion being one of the pair.
+
+  _To place the Style in its True Position without previous
+  Determination of the Meridian Plane._--The various methods given above
+  for finding the meridian plane have for ultimate object the
+  determination of the plane, not on its own account, but as an element
+  for fixing the instant of noon, whereby the style may be properly
+  placed.
+
+  We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we
+  determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a
+  good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instrument
+  for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined
+  in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The
+  simplest and most practically useful methods will be found described
+  and investigated in any work on astronomy.
+
+  For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the
+  forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the
+  sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions
+  of the horizon--but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of
+  the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than
+  10 o'clock--take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same
+  moment, marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so observed
+  being properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &c., will, together
+  with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination, taken from
+  the _Nautical Almanac_, enable us to calculate the time. This will be
+  the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we require.
+  Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we see
+  at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time; we know,
+  therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon
+  arrives, and waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its
+  proper position as explained before.
+
+  We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and
+  observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time
+  from some observatory where the work is done; and, allowing for the
+  change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we
+  have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar
+  noon as in the previous case.
+
+  In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in
+  devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced.
+  Sometimes the shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder,
+  or on a sphere, or on a combination of these. A universal dial was
+  constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross; another universal
+  dial showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons. These
+  universal dials required adjusting before use, and for this a
+  mariner's compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it would be
+  tedious and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a
+  rule, the more complex the less accurate.
+
+  Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable
+  centres. They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the
+  style had to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-_lines_
+  they had hour-_points_; and the style, instead of being parallel to
+  the axis of the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon.
+  There was no practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse;
+  and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new
+  mathematical problems.
+
+  _Portable Dials._--The dials so far described have been fixed dials,
+  for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were
+  to be fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made
+  generally of a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and
+  these, so long as the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a
+  watch.
+
+  The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with
+  that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and
+  the same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are
+  essential points of difference between them, besides those which are
+  at once apparent.
+
+  In the fixed dial the result depends on the _uniform_ angular motion
+  of the sun round the fixed style; and a small error in the assumed
+  position of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the
+  instrument, or to some small neglected correction, has only a trifling
+  effect on the time. This is owing to the angular displacement of the
+  sun being so rapid--a quarter of a degree every minute--that for the
+  ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required, as a
+  displacement of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one degree,
+  can be readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial
+  this is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now
+  available, because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may
+  refer it. In the new position, to which the observer has gone, the
+  zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically
+  find; and the basis for the determination of the time is the
+  constantly but _very irregularly_ varying zenith distance of the sun.
+
+  At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only
+  method available for finding local time; but the perfection which has
+  been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to
+  reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however,
+  to be taken. The observations must not be made within a couple of
+  hours of noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor
+  too near the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions there;
+  and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portable dial.
+
+  To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials,
+  let us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54° lat., and a mean
+  declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at 6 o'clock,
+  and at noon have an altitude of 36°,--that is, the portable dial will
+  indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each minute, or
+  two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The vertical motion
+  of the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon, but even there it
+  will be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or half the rate of
+  the fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed throughout the
+  day.
+
+  Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude
+  for which they are available, and they should not be used more than 4
+  or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were constructed.
+
+  We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use.
+
+  _Dial on a Cylinder._--A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in.
+  high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of
+  tolerably easy rotation. A hole in the lid receives the style shaped
+  somewhat like a bayonet; and the straight part of the style, which, on
+  account of the two bends, is lower than the lid, projects horizontally
+  out from the cylinder to a distance of 1 or 1½ in. When not in use the
+  style would be taken out and placed inside the cylinder.
+
+  A horizontal circle is traced on the cylinder opposite the projecting
+  style, and this circle is divided into 36 approximately equidistant
+  intervals.[2] These intervals represent spaces of time, and to each
+  division is assigned a date, so that each month has three dates marked
+  as follows:-January 10, 20, 31; February 10, 20, 28; March 10, 20, 31;
+  April 10, 20, 30, and so on,--always the 10th, the 20th, and the last
+  day of each month.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis of
+  the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily
+  understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as
+  to bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then
+  placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned
+  round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the
+  vertical line below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite
+  point of this line, the position of which point will depend on the
+  length of the style--that is, the distance of its end from the surface
+  of the cylinder--and on the altitude of the sun at that instant.
+  Suppose that the observations are continued all day, the cylinder
+  being very gradually turned so that the style may always face the sun,
+  and suppose that marks are made on the vertical line to show the
+  extremity of the shadow at each exact hour from sun-rise to
+  sun-set-these times being taken from a good fixed sun-dial,--then it is
+  obvious that the next year, on the _same date_, the sun's declination
+  being about the same, and the observer in about the same latitude, the
+  marks made the previous year will serve to tell the time all that day.
+
+  What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the
+  instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which
+  would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation, cannot
+  be the method employed.
+
+  The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation.
+  Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken
+  from the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place
+  and the length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for
+  computing the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark
+  below the style for each successive hour.
+
+  We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at
+  the same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if
+  the dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results
+  will be sufficiently approximate.
+
+  When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective
+  dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding hour-points,
+  will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down,
+  the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper position between
+  the two divisions. The horizontality of the surface on which the
+  instrument rests is a very necessary condition, especially in summer,
+  when, the shadow of the style being long, the extreme end will shift
+  rapidly for a small deviation from the vertical, and render the
+  reading uncertain. The dial can also be used by holding it up by a
+  small ring in the top of the lid, and probably the vertically is
+  better ensured in that way.
+
+  _Portable Dial on a Card._--This neat and very ingenious dial is
+  attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and probably
+  dates from the early part of the 17th century. Ozanam says that it was
+  sometimes called the _capuchin_, from some fancied resemblance to a
+  cowl thrown back.
+
+  _Construction._--Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the
+  card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it; with C as
+  centre, and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB
+  below the horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at
+  the points r, s, t, &c., and through these points draw perpendiculars
+  to the diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line
+  through r will be the XI ... I line, the line through s the X ... II
+  line, and so on; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself; by
+  subdivision of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &c., we may draw the
+  hour-lines corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where
+  it can be done without confusion.
+
+  Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the place,
+  and let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at right angles
+  to AD.
+
+  With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of circle
+  RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on it,
+  extending from 0° at S to 23½° on each side at R and T. Next determine
+  the points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn from A to the
+  degree divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully mark these
+  crossings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination, south
+  declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the other
+  hemisphere of the earth this would be reversed; the north declinations
+  would be on the upper half.
+
+  Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations of
+  that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the days
+  of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and place
+  these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without confusion,
+  opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the _sun-line_ at the
+  top of the card parallel to the line ACB; and, near the extremity, to
+  the right, draw any small figure intended to form, as it were, a door
+  of which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken that this hinge is
+  exactly at right angles to the _sun-line_. Make a fine open slit c d
+  right through the card and extending from the hinge to a short
+  distance on the door,--the centre line of this slit coinciding
+  accurately with the _sun-line_. Now, cut the door completely through
+  the card; except, of course, along the hinge, which, when the card is
+  thick, should be partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the
+  opening. Cut the card right through along the line FDG, and pass a
+  thread carrying a little plummet W and a _very_ small bead P; the bead
+  having sufficient friction with the thread to retain any position when
+  acted on only by its own weight, but sliding easily along the thread
+  when moved by the hand. At the back of the card the thread terminates
+  in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through; or better, because
+  giving more friction and a better hold, it passes through the centre
+  of a small disk of card--a fraction of an inch in diameter--and, by a
+  knot, is made fast at the back of the disk.
+
+  To complete the construction,--with the centres F and G, and radii FA
+  and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the hour-lines;
+  for in an observation the bead will always be found between them. The
+  forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated in the
+  figure. The dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon and
+  afternoon; but extraneous circumstances, as, for instance, whether the
+  sun is rising or falling, will settle that point, except when close to
+  noon, where it will always be uncertain.
+
+  To _rectify_ the dial (using the old expression, which means to
+  prepare the dial for an observation),--open the small door, by turning
+  it about its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the
+  thread in the line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it
+  over the point A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincide
+  with A.
+
+  To find the hour of the day,--hold the dial in a vertical position in
+  such a way that its plane may pass through the sun. The verticality is
+  ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without
+  pressing. Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical
+  plane), until the central line of sunshine, passing through the open
+  slit of the door, just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against
+  which the bead P then rests indicates the time.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  The _sun-line_ drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used as
+  a _shadow-line_. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the
+  prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was
+  gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly
+  coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a
+  degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of
+  the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb
+  of the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre.
+  Now, even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a
+  considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much time
+  will the indication of the dial be in error.
+
+  The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be
+  free from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of
+  the sun.
+
+  The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere
+  toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educational
+  value which is not to be measured by the roughness of the results
+  obtained.
+
+  The theory of this instrument is as follows:--Let H (fig. 9) be the
+  point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that
+  the angle DAH is the north declination of the sun,--P, the bead,
+  resting against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the
+  hour-angle from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this
+  hour-angle is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC, a
+  north declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the
+  _sun-line_, or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle
+  PHQ will be equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC, for
+  the pair of lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to the
+  sun-line and the horizontal.
+
+  Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and N
+  respectively.
+
+  Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following values
+  will be readily deduced from the figure:--
+
+  AD = a cos _decl._ DH = a sin _decl._ PQ = a sin _alt._
+
+     CX = AC = AD cos _lat._ = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+     PN = CV = CX cos ACX = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._ cos ACX.
+     NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = sin _decl._ sin _lat._
+       (:. the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.)
+
+  And since           PQ = NQ + PN,
+  we have, by simple substitution,
+  a sin _alt._ = a sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + a cos _del._ cos _lat._
+  cos ACX; or, dividing by a throughout,
+
+  sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+                                                        cos ACX ... (1)
+  which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead.
+
+  To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let fig. 10
+  represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole, Z the
+  zenith and S the sun.
+
+  From the spherical triangle PZS, we have
+      cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP + sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS
+          but ZS = zenith distance = 90° - altitude
+              ZP = 90° - PR        = 90°- latitude
+              PS = polar distance  = 90° - declination,
+  therefore, by substitution
+
+  sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+                                                       cos ZPS ... (2)
+  and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun.
+
+  A comparison of the two formulae (1) and (2) shows that the hour-angle
+  given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and
+  proves the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or
+  at sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree.
+  If, then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the
+  sun-line, at a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at
+  c, the time of sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the
+  central line of light were made to fall on cm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  LITERATURE.--The following list includes the principal writers on
+  dialling whose works have come down, to us, and to these we must refer
+  for descriptions of the various constructions, some simple and direct,
+  others fanciful and intricate, which have been at different times
+  employed: Ptolemy, _Analemma_, restored by Commandine; Vitruvius,
+  _Architecture_; Sebastian Münster, _Horologiographia_; Orontius
+  Fineus, _De horologiis solaribus_; Mutio Oddi da Urbino, _Horologi
+  solari_; Dryander, _De horologiorum compositione_; Conrad Gesner,
+  _Pandectae_; Andreas Schöner, _Gnomonicae_; F. Commandine,
+  _Horologiorum descriptio_; Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, _De gnomonum usu_;
+  Georgius Schomberg, _Exegesis fundamentorum gnomonicorum_; Joan.
+  Solomon de Caus, _Horologes solaires_; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, _Praxis
+  horologiorum_; Desargues, _Manière universelle pour poser l'essieu_,
+  &c.; Ath. Kircher, _Ars magna lucis et Umbrae_; Hallum, _Explicatio
+  horologii in horto regio Londini_; Joan. Mark, _Tractatus
+  horologiorum_; Clavius, _Gnomonices de horologiis_. Also among more
+  modern writers, Deschales, Ozanam, Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire,
+  Walper; in German, Paterson, Michael, Müller; in English, Foster,
+  Wells, Collins, Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn, Emerson and Ferguson. See
+  also Hans Löschner, _Über Sonnenuhren_ (2nd ed., Graz, 1906).  (H. G.)
+
+[1] In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an
+elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 17th or beginning of the
+18th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it available
+as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known.
+
+[2] Strict equality is not necessary, as the observations made are on
+the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to the
+others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go completely
+and exactly round the cylinder, although they were always so drawn, and
+both these conditions were insisted upon in the directions for the
+construction.
+
+
+DIALECT (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], conversation, manner of speaking,
+[Greek: dialegesthai], to converse), a particular or characteristic
+manner of speech, and hence any variety of a language. In its widest
+sense languages which are branches of a common or parent language may be
+said to be "dialects" of that language; thus Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and
+Doric are dialects of Greek, though there may never have at any time
+been a separate language of which they were variations; so the various
+Romance languages, Italian, French, Spanish, &c., were dialects of
+Latin. Again, where there have existed side by side, as in England,
+various branches of a language, such as the languages of the Angles, the
+Jutes or the Saxons, and the descendant of one particular language, from
+many causes, has obtained the predominance, the traces of the other
+languages remain in the "dialects" of the districts where once the
+original language prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from the
+historical point of view, to say that "dialect" varieties of a language
+represent degradations of the standard language. A "literary" accepted
+language, such as modern English, represents the original language
+spoken in the Midlands, with accretions of Norman, French, and later
+literary and scientific additions from classical and other sources,
+while the present-day "dialects" preserve, in inflections, pronunciation
+and particular words, traces of the original variety of the language not
+incorporated in the standard language of the country. See the various
+articles on languages (English, French, &c).
+
+
+DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], discourse,
+debate; [Greek: ê dialektikê], sc. [Greek: technê], the art of debate),
+a logical term, generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous
+sense for verbal or purely abstract disputation devoid of practical
+value. According to Aristotle, Zeno of Elea "invented" dialectic, the
+art of disputation by question and answer, while Plato developed it
+metaphysically in connexion with his doctrine of "Ideas" as the art of
+analysing ideas in themselves and in relation to the ultimate idea of
+the Good (_Repub._ vii.). The special function of the so-called
+"Socratic dialectic" was to show the inadequacy of popular beliefs.
+Aristotle himself used "dialectic," as opposed to "science," for that
+department of mental activity which examines the presuppositions lying
+at the back of all the particular sciences. Each particular science has
+its own subject matter and special principles ([Greek: idiai archai]) on
+which the superstructure of its special discoveries is based. The
+Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals with the universal laws ([Greek:
+koinai archai]) of reasoning, which can be applied to the particular
+arguments of all the sciences. The sciences, for example, all seek to
+define their own species; dialectic, on the other hand, sets forth the
+conditions which all definitions must satisfy whatever their subject
+matter. Again, the sciences all seek to educe general laws; dialectic
+investigates the nature of such laws, and the kind and degree of
+necessity to which they can attain. To this general subject matter
+Aristotle gives the name "Topics" ([Greek: topoi], loci, communes loci).
+"Dialectic" in this sense is the equivalent of "logic." Aristotle also
+uses the term for the science of probable reasoning as opposed to
+demonstrative reasoning ([Greek: apodeiktikê]). The Stoics divided
+[Greek: logikê] (logic) into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time
+till the end of the middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with, or
+a part of, logic.
+
+In modern philosophy the word has received certain special meanings. In
+Kantian terminology _Dialektik_ is the name of that portion of the
+_Kritik d. reinen Vernunft_ in which Kant discusses the impossibility of
+applying to "things-in-themselves" the principles which are found to
+govern phenomena. In the system of Hegel the word resumes its original
+Socratic sense, as the name of that intellectual process whereby the
+inadequacy of popular conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history,
+therefore, "dialectic" has been connected with that which is remote
+from, or alien to, unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or
+transcendental, rather than with the facts of common experience and
+material things.
+
+
+DIALLAGE, an important mineral of the pyroxene group, distinguished by
+its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The chemical composition
+is the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiO_{3})_{2}, but it sometimes contains
+the molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"')_{2} SiO_{6} and Na Fe"'
+(SiO_{3})_{2}, in addition, when it approaches to augite in composition.
+Diallage is in fact an altered form of these varieties of pyroxene; the
+particular kind of alteration which they have undergone being known as
+"schillerization." This, as described by Prof. J. W. Judd, consists in
+the development of a fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary
+twinning and the separation of secondary products along these and other
+planes of chemical weakness ("solution planes") in the crystal. The
+secondary products consist of mixtures of various hydrated oxides--opal,
+göthite, limonite, &c--and appear as microscopic inclusions filling or
+partly filling cavities, which have definite outlines with respect to
+the enclosing crystal and are known as negative crystals. It is to the
+reflection and interference of light from these minute inclusions that
+the peculiar bronzy sheen or "schiller" of the mineral is due. The most
+pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid; another,
+less distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third parallel to
+the plane of symmetry; these planes of secondary parting are in addition
+to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all pyroxenes. Frequently the
+material is interlaminated with a rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an
+amphibole (smaragdite or uralite), the latter being an alteration
+product of the diallage.
+
+Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes brown, in
+colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller on the laminated
+surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific gravity 3.2 to 3.35. It
+does not occur in distinct crystals with definite outlines, but only as
+lamellar masses in deep-seated igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of
+which it is an essential constituent. It occurs also in some peridotites
+and serpentines, and rarely in volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline
+schists. Masses of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained
+gabbros of the Island of Skye, Le Prese near Bornio in Valtellina,
+Lombardy, Prato near Florence, and many other localities.
+
+The name diallage, from diallage, "difference," in allusion to the
+dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally applied by R.
+J. Haüy in 1801, included other minerals (the orthorhombic pyroxenes
+hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and the smaragdite variety of
+hornblende) which exhibit the same peculiarities of schiller structure;
+it is now limited to the monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like
+the minerals of similar appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut
+and polished for ornamental purposes.                        (L. J. S.)
+
+
+DIALOGUE, properly the conversation between two or more persons,
+reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the Greeks for
+purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction, and scarcely
+modified since the days of its invention. A dialogue is in reality a
+little drama without a theatre, and with scarcely any change of scene.
+It should be illuminated with those qualities which La Fontaine
+applauded in the dialogue of Plato, namely vivacity, fidelity of tone,
+and accuracy in the opposition of opinions. It has always been a
+favourite with those writers who have something to censure or to impart,
+but who love to stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to
+pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than
+indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing and noting
+down the undulations of human thought that it almost escapes analysis.
+All that is recorded, in any literature, of what pretend to be the
+actual words spoken by living or imaginary people is of the nature of
+dialogue. One branch of letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it.
+But in its technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek
+philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the
+extreme refinement of an art.
+
+The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form is
+commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose earliest
+experiment in it is believed to survive in the _Laches_. The Platonic
+dialogue, however, was founded on the mime, which had been cultivated
+half a century earlier by the Sicilian poets, Sophron and Epicharmus.
+The works of these writers, which Plato admired and imitated, are lost,
+but it is believed that they were little plays, usually with only two
+performers. The recently discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us
+some idea of their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced
+it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing
+element of character-drawing. He must have begun this about the year
+405, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection,
+especially in the cycle directly inspired by the death of Socrates. All
+his philosophical writings, except the _Apology_, are cast in this form.
+As the greatest of all masters of Greek prose style, Plato lifted his
+favourite instrument, the dialogue, to its highest splendour, and to
+this day he remains by far its most distinguished proficient. In the 2nd
+century a.d. Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his
+ironic dialogues "Of the Gods," "Of the Dead," "Of Love" and "Of the
+Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and philosophical
+error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he merely paints scenes
+of modern life. The title of Lucian's most famous collection was
+borrowed in the 17th century by two French writers of eminence, each of
+whom prepared _Dialogues des morts_. These were Fontenelle (1683) and
+Fénelon (1712). In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not
+been extensively employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713, for his
+Platonic treatise, _Hylas and Philonous_. Landor's _Imaginary
+Conversations_ (1821-1828) is the most famous example of it in the 19th
+century, although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In
+Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works
+published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of
+Valdés (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are
+celebrated. In Italian, collections of dialogues, on the model of Plato,
+have been composed by Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by
+Galiani (1770), by Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. In
+our own day, the French have returned to the original application of
+dialogue, and the inventions of "Gyp," of Henri Lavedan and of others,
+in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told in
+conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes
+of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with them. This kind of
+dialogue has been employed in English, and with conspicuous cleverness
+by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but it does not seem so easily appreciated by
+English as by French readers. (E.G.)
+
+
+DIALYSIS (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: luein], to
+loosen), in chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for
+separating colloidal and crystalline substances. He found that solutions
+could be divided into two classes according to their action upon a
+porous diaphragm such as parchment. If a solution, say of salt, be
+placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom, termed a "dialyser,"
+and the drum and its contents placed in a larger vessel of water, the
+salt will pass through the membrane. If the salt solution be replaced by
+one of glue, gelatin or gum, it will be found that the membrane is
+impermeable to these solutes. To the first class Graham gave the name
+"crystalloids," and to the second "colloids." This method is
+particularly effective in the preparation of silicic acid. By adding
+hydrochloric acid to a dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, no
+precipitate will fall and the solution will contain hydrochloric acid,
+an alkaline chloride, and silicic acid. If the solution be transferred
+to a dialyser, the hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass
+through the parchment, while the silicic acid will be retained.
+
+
+DIAMAGNETISM. Substances which, like iron, are attracted by the pole of
+an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as magnetic, all others being
+regarded as non-magnetic. It was noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that
+a number of so-called non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac,
+were influenced by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed
+the opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted
+upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more or less
+magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (_Experimental Researches_, vol. iii.)
+that while practically all natural substances are indeed acted upon by a
+sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only a comparatively small
+number that are attracted like iron, the great majority being repelled.
+Bodies of the latter class were termed by Faraday _diamagnetics_. The
+strongest diamagnetic substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility
+being--0.000014, and its permeability 0.9998. The diamagnetic quality of
+this metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet, and its
+repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once recognized before
+the date of Faraday's experiments. The metals gold, silver, copper,
+lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and
+platinum are attracted by a very strong pole. (See MAGNETISM.)
+
+
+DIAMANTE, FRA, Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato about 1400. He
+was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine community of that
+order, and was the friend and assistant of Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite
+convent of Prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been
+suppressed, and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving
+the destruction of the paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra
+Filippo in the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of
+the cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to
+Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings of the
+commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined to petition
+the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to Prato,--a proof
+that his share in the work was so important that his recall involved the
+suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted Fra Filippo in the execution
+of the frescoes still to be seen in the cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra
+Diamante completed in 1470 after his master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo
+left a son ten years old to the care of Diamante, who, having received
+200 ducats from the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work
+done in the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as
+Vasari says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small
+portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however, would
+depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra Diamante, and the
+terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo. Fra Diamante must have been
+nearly seventy when he completed the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact
+year of his death is not known.
+
+
+DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA (1640?-1684?), Spanish dramatist, was born at
+Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and began writing for the stage
+in 1657. He became a knight of Santiago in 1660; the date of his death
+is unknown, but no reference to him as a living author occurs after
+1684. Like many other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is
+deficient in originality, and his style is riddled with affectations;
+_La Desgraciada Raquel_, which was long considered to be his best play,
+is really Mira de Amescua's _Judía de Toledo_ under another title; and
+the earliest of Diamante's surviving pieces, _El Honrador de su padre_
+(1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille's Cid.
+Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of French
+dramatic methods into Spain.
+
+
+DIAMANTINA (formerly called _Tejuco_), a mining town of the state of
+Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly on a steep
+hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio Jequitinhonha (where
+diamond-washing was once carried on), and partly on the level plain
+above. The town is roughly but substantially built, with broad streets
+and large squares. It is the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal
+seminary, and has many churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous;
+they include a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum
+and a secondary school. There are several small manufactures, including
+cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on. The surrounding
+region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the lateral ranges of the
+Serra do Espinhaço, is rough and barren, but rich in minerals,
+principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is the commercial centre of an
+extensive region, and has long been noted for its wealth. The date of
+the discovery of diamonds, upon which its wealth and importance chiefly
+depend, is uncertain, but the official announcement was made in 1729,
+and in the following year the mines were declared crown property, with a
+crown reservation, known as the "forbidden district," 42 leagues in
+circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining was forbidden
+within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe
+restrictions. There are no trustworthy returns of the value of the
+output, but in 1849 the total was estimated up to that date at
+300,000,000 francs (see DIAMOND). The present name of the town was
+assumed (instead of Tejuco) in 1838, when it was made a _cidade_.
+
+
+DIAMANTINO, a small town of the state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the
+Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction with the Paraguay, in
+14° 24' 33" S., 56° 8' 30" W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality 2147,
+mostly Indians. It stands in a broken sterile region 1837 ft. above
+sea-level and at the foot of the great Matto Grosso plateau. The first
+mining settlement dates from 1730, when gold was found in the vicinity.
+On the discovery of diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large
+population and for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet
+expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined.
+Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of export.
+
+
+DIAMETER (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: metron], measure),
+in geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic
+section and terminated by the curve; the "principal diameters" of the
+ellipse and hyperbola coincide with the "axes" and are at ...
+                          (_continued in volume 8, slice 4, page 0158._)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+DETERMINANT, formula = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" - a"bc' - a"b'c.
+changed to = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c.
+
+DETMOLD, added missing comma after 'Detmold possesses a natural history
+museum'.
+
+DEVENTER, 'The "Athenaeum" disappeared' corrected from the original
+'disappered'.
+
+DEVIL, replaced comma with a period after 'according to 1 Chron. xxi'.
+
+DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF, 'In November 1684' originally 'Novembr'.
+
+DIAGRAM, 'found to be of use especially' originally 'epsecially'.
+
+DIAL, table angles on the dial, column IX. A.M. III. P.M. bottom entry
+corrected from '45 45' to '40 45'.
+
+DIAGRAM, missing closing parenthesis added after 'to mark out by lines'.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30073 ***
diff --git a/30073-8.txt b/30073-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8837cd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7837 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3
+       "Destructors" to "Diameter"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 24, 2009 [EBook #30073]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+  are listed at the end of the text. Due to space constraints, italics
+  denoting underscores were not used in the tables.
+
+
+                          THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
+
+      A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+                              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+                           VOLUME VIII slice III
+
+                           Destructor to Diameter
+
+
+
+
+DESTRUCTOR (_continued from volume 8, slice 2, page 0108._)
+  ... in main flues, &c. (g) The chimney draught must be assisted with
+  forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of 1½ in. to 2 in.
+  under grates by water-gauge. (h) Where a destructor is required to
+  work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its
+  efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view
+  in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary
+  consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace
+  so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the temperature of
+  the gases is reduced before the organic matter has been thoroughly
+  burned. (i) Where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a
+  large percentage of CO_{2} should be sought in the furnaces with as
+  little excess of air as possible, and the flue gases should be
+  utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates, and the feed-water
+  to the boilers. (j) Ample boiler capacity and hot-water storage
+  feed-tanks should be included in the design where steam-power is
+  required.
+
+  [Sidenote: Cost.]
+
+  As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few
+  trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends, amongst
+  other things, upon the difficulty of preparing the site, upon the
+  nature of the foundations required, the height of the chimney-shaft,
+  the length of the inclined or approach roadway, and the varying prices
+  of labour and materials in different localities. As an example may be
+  mentioned the case of Bristol, where, in 1892, the total cost of
+  constructing a 16-cell Fryer destructor was £11,418, of which £2909
+  was expended on foundations, and £1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost
+  of the destructor proper, buildings and approach road was therefore
+  £6820, or about £426 per cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in
+  destructors depends mainly upon--(a) The price of labour in the
+  locality, and the number of "shifts" or changes of workmen per day;
+  (b) the type of furnace adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be
+  consumed; (d) the interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The
+  cost of burning ton for ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces,
+  including labour and repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion
+  destructors. The average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four
+  different towns throughout England, exclusive of interest on the cost
+  of the works, is 1s. 1½d. per ton burned; the minimum cost is 6d. per
+  ton at Bradford, and the maximum cost 2s. 10d. per ton at Battersea.
+  At Shoreditch the cost per ton for the year ending on the 25th of
+  March 1899, including labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &c. (but
+  exclusive of interest on cost of works), was 2s. 6.9d. The quantity of
+  refuse burned per cell per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up
+  to 20 tons. The ordinary low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft.
+  grate area, burns about 20 lb. of refuse per square foot of grate
+  area per hour, or between 5 and 6 tons per cell per 24 hours. The
+  Meldrum destructor furnaces at Rochdale burn as much as 66 lb. per
+  square foot of grate area per hour, and the Beaman and Deas destructor
+  at Llandudno 71.7 lb. per square foot per hour. The amount, however,
+  always depends materially on the care observed in stoking, the nature
+  of the material, the frequency of removal of clinker, and on the
+  question whether the whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is
+  thoroughly cremated.
+
+  [Sidenote: Residues:]
+
+  The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from
+  22 to 37% of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30% is a very usual
+  amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists of about 8% of straw,
+  paper, shavings, &c., the residue contains about 29% clinker, 2.7%
+  fine ash, .5% flue dust, and .6% old tins, making a total residue of
+  32.8%. As the residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the
+  total bulk of the refuse dealt with, it is a question of the utmost
+  importance that some profitable, or at least inexpensive, means should
+  be devised for its regular disposal. Among other purposes, it has been
+  used for bottoming for macadamized roads, for the manufacture of
+  concrete, for making paving slabs, for forming suburban footpaths or
+  cinder footwalks, and for the manufacture of mortar. The last is a
+  very general, and in many places profitable, mode of disposal. An
+  entirely new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of good
+  well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion with the construction
+  of bacteria beds for sewage disposal, and in many districts its value
+  has, by this means, become greatly enhanced.
+
+  [Sidenote: Forced draught.]
+
+  Through defects in the design and management of many of the early
+  destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these have,
+  to some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute.
+  Although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this
+  respect, that is by no means the case with the modern improved type of
+  high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great
+  prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of
+  a refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to
+  the inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and worked, will
+  give rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the midst of a
+  populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect cremation of the refuse
+  and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential. This is
+  supplied either as air draught delivered from a rapidly revolving fan,
+  or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall steam jet or the Meldrum blower.
+  With a forced blast less air is required to obtain complete combustion
+  than by chimney draught. The forced draught grate requires little more
+  than the quantity theoretically necessary, while with chimney draught
+  more than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied. With
+  forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is attained, and if it
+  is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter the furnaces
+  during stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of pressure in
+  the cells during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to
+  prevent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The forced draught
+  pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The efficiency of the
+  combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the
+  "Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the
+  proportion of CO_{2} passing away in the waste gases; the higher the
+  percentage of CO_{2} the more efficient the furnace, provided there is
+  no formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete
+  combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO_{2} for refuse burning is
+  about 20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting
+  secondary air over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the
+  air-pressure in the ash-pit, an amount approximating to this
+  percentage may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly
+  worked. If the proportion of free oxygen (i.e. excess of air) is
+  large, more air is passed through the furnace than is required for
+  complete combustion, and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste
+  of heat. The position of the econometer in testing should be as near
+  the furnace as possible, as there may be considerable air leakage
+  through the brickwork of the flues.
+
+  The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the inlet
+  air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of which
+  is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue.
+
+  [Sidenote: Calorific value.]
+
+  The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and gases
+  perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature varying
+  from 1250° to 2000° F., and the maintenance of such temperatures has
+  very naturally suggested the possibility of utilizing this heat-energy
+  for the production of steam-power. Experience shows that a
+  considerable amount of energy may be derived from steam-raising
+  destructor stations, amply justifying a reasonable increase of
+  expenditure on plant and labour. The actual calorific value of the
+  refuse material necessarily varies, but, as a general average, with
+  suitably designed and properly managed plant, an evaporation of 1 lb.
+  of water per pound of refuse burned is a result which may be readily
+  attained, and affords a basis of calculation which engineers may
+  safely adopt in practice. Many destructor steam-raising plants,
+  however, give considerably higher results, evaporations approaching 2
+  lb. of water per pound of refuse being often met with under
+  favourable conditions.
+
+  From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the
+  calorific value of unscreened house refuse varies from 1 to 2 lb. of
+  water evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion
+  depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with.
+  Taking the evaporative power of coal at 10 lb. of water per pound of
+  coal, this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from {1/10} to
+  {1/5} that of coal; or, with coal at 20s. per ton, refuse has a
+  commercial value of from 2s. to 4s. per ton. In London the quantity of
+  house refuse amounts to about 1¼ million tons per annum, which is
+  equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be
+  burned in furnaces giving an evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound
+  of refuse, it would yield a total power annually of about 138 million
+  brake horse-power hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 20s. per ton
+  for this amount of power even when calculated upon the very low
+  estimate of 2 lb.[1] of coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at
+  over £123,000. On the same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town,
+  with, say, a population of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5
+  cwt. per head per annum, would afford 112 indicated horse-power per
+  ton burned, and the total indicated horse-power hours per annum would
+  be
+
+       70,000 × 5 cwt.
+       --------------- × 112 = 1,960,000 I.H.P. hours annually.
+              20
+
+  If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the
+  electrical horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of
+  90%)
+
+       1,960,000 × 90
+       -------------- = 1,764,000 E.H.P. hours per annum;
+            100
+
+  and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be
+
+                 1,764,000 × 746 = 1,315,944,000.
+
+  Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give
+  1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power
+  lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have
+
+   1,184,349,600 watt-hours
+   ------------------------ = 39,478,320 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum;
+           30 watts
+
+               39,478,320
+  that is, ----------------- = 563 8-c.p. lamp hours per annum per
+           70,000 population           head of population.
+
+  Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20% on
+  three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would be 478
+  8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population: i.e. if the
+  power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it would supply
+  electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of the
+  population for about 1{1/3} hours for every night of the year.
+
+  [Sidenote: Difficulties.]
+
+  In actual practice, when the electric energy is for the purposes of
+  lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the
+  thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want of adequate
+  means of storage either of the thermal or of the electric energy. A
+  destructor station usually yields a fairly definite amount of thermal
+  energy uniformly throughout the 24 hours, while the consumption of
+  electric-lighting current is extremely irregular, the maximum demand
+  being about four times the mean demand. The period during which the
+  demand exceeds the mean is comparatively short, and does not exceed
+  about 6 hours out of the 24, while for a portion of the time the
+  demand may not exceed {1/20}th of the maximum. This difficulty, at
+  first regarded as somewhat grave, is substantially minimized by the
+  provision of ample boiler capacity, or by the introduction of feed
+  thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during
+  the hours of light load (say 18 out of the 24), so that at the time of
+  maximum load the boiler may be filled directly from these vessels,
+  which work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler.
+  Further, the difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at
+  stations where there is a fair day load which practically ceases at
+  about the hour when the illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing
+  the demand upon both destructor and electric plant throughout the 24
+  hours. This arises in cases where current is consumed during the day
+  for motors, fans, lifts, electric tramways, and other like purposes,
+  and, as the employment of electric energy for these services is
+  rapidly becoming general, no difficulty need be anticipated in the
+  successful working of combined destructor and electric plants where
+  these conditions prevail. The more uniform the electrical demand
+  becomes, the more fully may the power from a destructor station be
+  utilized.
+
+  In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse
+  destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with
+  various other classes of power-using undertakings, including tramways,
+  water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and
+  clinker-crushing works and others; and the increasingly large sums
+  which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this
+  character is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value of
+  such combinations where these several classes of work must be carried
+  on.
+
+  For further information on the subject, reference should be made to
+  William H. Maxwell, _Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with an
+  exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants_ (London, 1899), with
+  a special _Supplement_ embodying later results (London, 1905).
+
+  See also the _Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal
+  and County Engineers_, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214
+  and xxv. p. 138; also the _Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
+  Engineers_, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413,
+  cxxxviii. p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp.
+  369 and 498, cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300.           (W. H. MA.)
+
+[1] With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4 lb. of coal per
+brake horse-power per hour is a very usual performance.
+
+
+DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN, 3rd BARON (1835-1895), English
+poet, eldest son of George Fleming Leicester (afterwards Warren), 2nd
+Baron De Tabley, was born on the 26th of April 1835. He was educated at
+Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with
+second classes in classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn
+of 1858 he went to Turkey as unpaid attaché to Lord Stratford de
+Redcliffe, and two years later was called to the bar. He became an
+officer in the Cheshire Yeomanry, and unsuccessfully contested
+Mid-Cheshire in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in
+1871 he removed to London, where he became a close friend of Tennyson
+for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the title in 1887 he
+was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a recluse. It was not till
+1892 that he returned to London life, and enjoyed a sort of renaissance
+of reputation and friendship. During the later years of his life Lord De
+Tabley made many new friends, besides reopening old associations, and he
+almost seemed to be gathering around him a small literary company when
+his health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde, in
+his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire.
+Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a poet,
+De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at one time an
+authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels; published _A Guide to the
+Study of Book Plates_ (1880); and the fruit of his careful researches in
+botany was printed posthumously in his elaborate _Flora of Cheshire_
+(1899). Poetry, however, was his first and last passion, and to that he
+devoted the best energies of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards
+poetry came from his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a
+close companionship during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as
+Tennyson lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees.
+Fortescue was killed by falling from the mast of Lord Drogheda's yacht
+in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De Tabley into deep
+depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley issued four little volumes
+of pseudonymous verse (by G. F. Preston), in the production of which he
+had been greatly stimulated by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he
+assumed a pseudonym--his _Praeterita_ (1863) bearing the name of William
+Lancaster. In the next year he published _Eclogues and Monodramas_,
+followed in 1865 by _Studies in Verse_. These volumes all displayed
+technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was not till the
+publication of _Philoctetes_ in 1866 that De Tabley met with any wide
+recognition. _Philoctetes_ bore the initials "M.A.," which, to the
+author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning Matthew Arnold. He at once
+disclosed his identity, and received the congratulations of his friends,
+among whom were Tennyson, Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published
+_Orestes_, in 1870 _Rehearsals_ and in 1873 _Searching the Net_. These
+last two bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat
+disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876 _The Soldier
+of Fortune_, a drama on which he had bestowed much careful labour,
+proved a complete failure, he retired altogether from the literary
+arena. It was not until 1893 that he was persuaded to return, and the
+immediate success in that year of his _Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical_,
+encouraged him to publish a second series in 1895, the year of his
+death. The genuine interest with which these volumes were welcomed did
+much to lighten the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life.
+His posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics of De
+Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style, derived from
+close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and colour. His passion
+for detail was both a strength and a weakness: it lent a loving fidelity
+to his description of natural objects, but it sometimes involved him in
+a loss of simple effect from over-elaboration of treatment. He was
+always a student of the classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration
+directly from them. He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a
+brother poet well said, "still climbed the clear cold altitudes of
+song." His ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally
+ice-bound at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and
+bright, vivid outlines.
+
+  See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his _Critical Kit-Kats_ (1896).
+                                                                (A. WA.)
+
+
+DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE ÉDOUARD (1848- ), French painter, was born in
+Paris on the 5th of October 1848. After working as a pupil of
+Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the Salon of 1867, a picture
+representing "A Corner of Meissonier's Studio." Military life was from
+the first a principal attraction to the young painter, and he gained his
+reputation by depicting the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail
+truthfully rendered. He exhibited "A Halt" (1868); "Soldiers at rest,
+during the Manoeuvres at the Camp of Saint Maur" (1869); "Engagement
+between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814" (1870). The war of
+1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which gained him
+repeated successes. Among his more important pictures may be named "The
+Conquerors" (1872); "The Retreat" (1873); "The Charge of the 9th
+Regiment of Cuirassiers in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870"
+(1874); "The Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A
+Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877); "Bonaparte in
+Egypt" (1878); the "Inauguration of the New Opera House"--a
+water-colour; the "Defence of Champigny by Faron's Division" (1879). He
+also worked with Alphonse de Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In
+1884 he exhibited at the Salon the "Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic
+study, and "The Dream" (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille recorded
+other events in the military history of his country: the "Sortie of the
+Garrison of Huningue" (now in the Luxemburg), the "Vincendon Brigade,"
+and "Bizerte," reminiscences of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit
+to Russia, Detaille exhibited "The Cossacks of the Ataman" and "The
+Hereditary Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other
+important works are: "Victims to Duty," "The Prince of Wales and the
+Duke of Connaught" and "Pasteur's Funeral." In his picture of "Châlons,
+9th October 1896," exhibited in the Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the
+emperor and empress of Russia at a review, with M. Félix Faure. Detaille
+became a member of the French Institute in 1898.
+
+   See Marius Vachon, _Detaille_ (Paris, 1898); Frédéric Masson,
+  _Édouard Detaille and his work_ (Paris and London, 1891); J. Claretie,
+  _Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains_ (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy,
+  _Les Jeunes peintres militaires_ (Paris, 1878).
+
+
+DETAINER (from _detain_, Lat. _detinere_), in law, the act of keeping a
+person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a person's goods, or
+other real or personal property. A writ of detainer was a form for the
+beginning of a personal action against a person already lodged within
+the walls of a prison; it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838.
+
+
+DETERMINANT, in mathematics, a function which presents itself in the
+solution of a system of simple equations.
+
+1. Considering the equations
+
+                   ax  + by  + cz  = d,
+                   a'x + b'y + c'z = d',
+                   a"x + b"y + c"z = d",
+
+and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross
+multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in such a
+manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient of y becomes =
+0, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = 0; the factors in question
+are b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c (values which, as at once seen,
+have the desired property); we thus obtain an equation which contains on
+the left-hand side only a multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a
+constant term; the coefficient of x has the value
+
+          a(b'c" - b"c') + a'(b"c - bc") + a"(bc' - b'c),
+
+and this function, represented in the form
+
+                         |a,  b,  c |,
+                         |a', b', c'|
+                         |a", b", c"|
+
+is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 3², it is
+called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed that the
+resulting equation is
+
+                |a,  b,  c | x = |d,  b,  c |
+                |a', b', c'|     |d', b', c'|
+                |a", b", c"|     |d", b", c"|
+
+where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function with d,
+d', d" in place of a, a', a" respectively, and is of course also a
+determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c
+used in the process are themselves the determinants of the second order
+
+                |b', c'|, |b", c"|, |b,  c |.
+                |b", c"|  |b,  c |  |b', c'|
+
+We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation of the
+determinants of the orders 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., each from the preceding one,
+viz. we have
+
+  |a|      = a,
+
+  |a,  b | = a|b'| - a'|b|.
+  |a', b'|
+
+  |a,  b,  c | = a|b', c'| + a'|b", c"| + a"|b,  c |,
+  |a', b', c'|    |b", c"|     |b , c |     |b', c'|
+  |a", b", c"|
+
+  |a,   b  , c  , d  | = a|b',  c',  d' | - a'|b" , c" , d" | +
+  |a',  b' , c' , d' |    |b",  c",  d" |     |b"', c"', d"'|
+  |a",  b" , c" , d" |    |b"', c"', d"'|     |b  , c  , d  |
+  |a"', b"', c"', d"'|
+
+                      + a"|b"', c"', d"'| - a"'|b , c,  d |,
+                          |b  , c  , d  |      |b', c', d'|
+                          |b' , c' , d' |      |b", c", d"|
+
+and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd order, but
+alternately + and - for a determinant of an even order.
+
+2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results:--
+
+A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3...n products which
+can be formed with n elements out of n² elements arranged in the form of
+a square, no two of the n elements being in the same line or in the same
+column, and each such product having the coefficient ± unity.
+
+The products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible
+manner the columns (or the lines) of the determinant, and then taking
+for the factors the n elements in the dexter diagonal. And we thence
+derive the rule for the signs, viz. considering the primitive
+arrangement of the columns as positive, then an arrangement obtained
+therefrom by a single interchange (inversion, or derangement) of two
+columns is regarded as negative; and so in general an arrangement is
+positive or negative according as it is derived from the primitive
+arrangement by an even or an odd number of interchanges. [This implies
+the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive
+arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even number of
+interchanges,--a theorem the verification of which may be easily
+obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular case of the general
+one), an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number
+of interchanges.] And this being so, each product has the sign belonging
+to the corresponding arrangement of the columns; in particular, a
+determinant contains with the sign + the product of the elements in its
+dexter diagonal. It is to be observed that the rule gives as many
+positive as negative arrangements, the number of each being = ½ 1.2...n.
+
+The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving to the
+columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers 1, 2, 3 ... n, to
+obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement we take, as often as
+a lower number succeeds a higher one, the sign -, and, compounding
+together all these minus signs, obtain the proper sign, + or - as the
+case may be.
+
+Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123, 231, 312
+are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the developed expression
+of the foregoing determinant of the third order is
+
+           = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c.
+
+3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function[1] of the
+elements of each column thereof, and also a linear function of the
+elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the determinant retains
+the same value, only its sign being altered, when any two columns are
+interchanged, or when any two lines are interchanged; more generally,
+when the columns are permuted in any manner, or when the lines are
+permuted in any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with
+the sign + or - according as the new arrangement (considered as derived
+from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative according to the
+foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that, if two columns are
+identical, or if two lines are identical, the value of the determinant
+is = 0. It may be added, that if the lines are converted into columns,
+and the columns into lines, in such a way as to leave the dexter
+diagonal unaltered, the value of the determinant is unaltered; the
+determinant is in this case said to be _transposed_.
+
+4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of the n²
+elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or say, for
+shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only the sign is
+altered when any two columns are interchanged; these properties
+completely determine the function, except as to a common factor which
+may multiply all the terms. If, to get rid of this arbitrary common
+factor, we assume that the product of the elements in the dexter
+diagonal has the coefficient +1, we have a complete definition of the
+determinant, and it is interesting to show how from these properties,
+assumed for the definition of the determinant, it at once appears that
+the determinant is a function serving for the solution of a system of
+linear equations. Observe that the properties show at once that if any
+column is = 0 (that is, if the elements in the column are each = 0),
+then the determinant is = 0; and further, that if any two columns are
+identical, then the determinant is = 0.
+
+5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the
+beginning of this article, consider the determinant
+
+                 |ax  + by  + cz  - d , b , c |;
+                 |a'x + b'y + c'z - d', b', c'|
+                 |a"x + b"y + c"z - d", b", c"|
+
+it appears that this is
+
+  = x|a , b , c | + y|b , b , c | + z|c , b , c | - |d , b , c |;
+     |a', b', c'|    |b', b', c'|    |c', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+     |a", b", c"|    |b", b", c"|    |c", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+viz. the second and third terms each vanishing, it is
+
+                = x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c |.
+                   |a', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+                   |a", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the
+original determinant is = 0, and therefore the determinant itself is = 0;
+that is, the linear equations give
+
+                x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c | = 0;
+                 |a', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+                 |a", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+which is the result obtained above.
+
+We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there is a
+more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the new
+equation
+
+            [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z = [delta];
+
+a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have
+
+           |[alpha], [beta], [gamma], [delta]| = 0;
+           |   a   ,    b  ,    c   , d      |
+           |   a'  ,    b' ,    c'  , d'     |
+           |   a"  ,    b" ,    c"  , d"     |
+
+or, as this may be written,
+
+     |[alpha], [beta], [gamma]    | - [delta]| a , b , c | = 0:
+     |   a   ,   b   ,    c   , d |          | a', b', c'|
+     |   a'  ,   b'  ,    c'  , d'|          | a", b", c"|
+     |   a"  ,   b"  ,    c"  , d"|          |           |
+
+which, considering [delta] as standing herein for its value [alpha]x +
+[beta]y + [gamma]z, is a consequence of the original equations only: we
+have thus an expression for [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z, an arbitrary
+linear function of the unknown quantities x, y, z; and by comparing the
+coefficients of [alpha], [beta], [gamma] on the two sides respectively,
+we have the values of x, y, z; in fact, these quantities, each
+multiplied by
+
+                      |a , b , c |,
+                      |a', b', c'|
+                      |a", b", c"|
+
+are in the first instance obtained in the forms
+
+       |1             |, |    1         |, |        1     |;
+       |a , b , c , d |  |a , b , c , d |  |a , b , c , d |
+       |a', b', c', d'|  |a', b', c', d'|  |a', b', c', d'|
+       |a", b", c", d"|  |a", b", c", d"|  |a", b", c", d"|
+
+but these are
+
+         = |b , c , d |, - |c , d , a |, |d , a , b |,
+           |b', c', d'|    |c', d', a'|  |d', a', b'|
+           |b", c", d"|    |c", d", a"|  |d", a", b"|
+
+or, what is the same thing,
+
+         = |b , c , d |, |c , a , d |, |a , b , d |
+           |b', c', d'|  |c', a', d'|  |a', b', d'|
+           |b", c", d"|  |c", a", d"|  |a", b", d"|
+
+respectively.
+
+6. _Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order._--The theorem
+is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition of a
+determinant. It is most simply expressed thus--
+
+              ([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"),
+                     ([beta],[beta]',[beta]"),
+                           ([gamma],[gamma]',[gamma]")
+              +---------------------------------------+
+  (a , b , c )|          "       "       "            | =
+  (a', b', c')|          "       "       "            |
+  (a", b", c")|          "       "       "            |
+
+                        = |a , b , c |. |[alpha] , [beta] , [gamma] |,
+                          |a', b', c'|  |[alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'|
+                          |a", b", c"|  |[alpha]", [beta]", [gamma]"|
+
+where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant, the
+terms of the first line being (a, b, c)([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"),
+that is, a[alpha] + b[alpha]' + c[alpha]", (a, b, c)([beta], [beta]',
+[beta]"), that is, a[beta] + b[beta]' + c[beta]", (a, b, c)([gamma],
+[gamma]', [gamma]"), that is a[gamma] + b[gamma]' + c[gamma]"; and
+similarly the terms in the second and third lines are the life functions
+with (a', b', c') and (a", b", c") respectively.
+
+There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns; the
+result would hold good if on the left-hand side we had written ([alpha],
+[beta], [gamma]), ([alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'), ([alpha]", [beta]",
+[gamma]"), or what is the same thing, if on the right-hand side we had
+transposed the second determinant; and either of these changes would, it
+might be thought, increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason
+which need not be explained,[2] the form actually adopted is the
+preferable one.
+
+To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant on the
+left-hand side, _qua_ linear function of its columns, may be broken up
+into a sum of (3³ =) 27 determinants, each of which is either of some
+such form as
+
+         = [alpha][beta][gamma]'|a , a , b |,
+                                |a', a', b'|
+                                |a", a", b"|
+
+
+where the term [alpha][beta][gamma]' is not a term of the
+[alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant, and its coefficient (as a determinant
+with two identical columns) vanishes; or else it is of a form such as
+
+         = [alpha][beta]'[gamma]"|a , b , c |,
+                                 |a', b', c'|
+                                 |a", b", c"|
+
+that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the
+abc-determinant last written down; the sum of all other factors ±
+[alpha][beta]'[gamma]" is the [alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant of the
+formula; and the final result then is, that the determinant on the
+left-hand side is equal to the product on the right-hand side of the
+formula.
+
+7. _Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary
+Determinants._--Consider, for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth
+order, 5 = 2 + 3, and let the top two lines be
+
+                        a , b , c , d , e
+                        a', b', c', d', e'
+
+then, if we consider how these elements enter into the determinant, it
+is at once seen that they enter only through the determinants of the
+second order |a , b |, &c., which can be formed by selecting any two
+             |a', b'|
+columns at pleasure. Moreover, representing the remaining three lines by
+
+                   a" , b" , c" , d" , e"
+                   a"', b"', c"', d"', e"'
+                   a"", b"", c"", d"", e""
+
+it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant
+formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant of the
+third order formed with the complementary three columns of the second
+set; and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a
+sum of all the products of the form
+
+                 = |a , b |  |c" , d" , e" |,
+                   |a', b"|  |c"', d"', e"'|
+                             |c"", d"", e""|
+
+the sign ± being in each case such that the sign of the term ±
+ab'c"d'"e"" obtained from the diagonal elements of the component
+determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the determinant of
+the fifth order; for the product written down the sign is obviously +.
+
+Observe that for a determinant of the n-th order, taking the
+decomposition to be 1 + (n - 1), we fall back upon the equations given
+at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a determinant.
+
+8. Any determinant |a , b | formed out of the elements of the original
+                   |a', b'|
+determinant, by selecting the lines and columns at pleasure, is termed a
+_minor_ of the original determinant; and when the number of lines and
+columns, or order of the determinant, is n-1, then such determinant is
+called a _first minor_; the number of the first minors is = n², the
+first minors, in fact, corresponding to the several elements of the
+determinant--that is, the coefficient therein of any term whatever is
+the corresponding first minor. The first minors, each divided by the
+determinant itself, form a system of elements _inverse_ to the elements
+of the determinant.
+
+A determinant is _symmetrical_ when every two elements symmetrically
+situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal to each other; if
+they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum of the two elements be
+= 0), this relation not extending to the diagonal elements themselves,
+which remain arbitrary, then the determinant is _skew_; but if the
+relation does extend to the diagonal terms (that is, if these are each =
+0), then the determinant is _skew symmetrical_; thus the determinants
+
+  |a, h, g|; |    a ,     [nu],  - [mu]|; |     0,      [nu],  - [mu]|
+  |h, b, f|  |- [nu],        b,[lambda]|  |- [nu],         0,[lambda]|
+  |g, f, c|  |  [mu],-[lambda],      c |  |  [mu],- [lambda],       0|
+
+are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical:
+
+The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments, and
+applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of mathematics. For
+further developments of the theory of determinants see ALGEBRAIC FORMS.
+                                                                (A. CA.)
+
+  9. _History._--These functions were originally known as "resultants,"
+  a name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but now replaced by
+  the title "determinants," a name first applied to certain forms of
+  them by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the theory of determinants
+  is to be found in the writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693),
+  who incidentally discovered certain properties when reducing the
+  eliminant of a system of linear equations. Gabriel Cramer, in a note
+  to his _Analyse des lignes courbes algébriques_ (1750), gave the rule
+  which establishes the sign of a product as _plus_ or _minus_ according
+  as the number of displacements from the typical form has been even or
+  odd. Determinants were also employed by Étienne Bezout in 1764, but
+  the first connected account of these functions was published in 1772
+  by Charles Auguste Vandermonde. Laplace developed a theorem of
+  Vandermonde for the expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph
+  Louis Lagrange, in his memoir on _Pyramids_, used determinants of the
+  third order, and proved that the square of a determinant was also a
+  determinant. Although he obtained results now identified with
+  determinants, Lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically.
+  In 1801 Gauss published his _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_, which,
+  although written in an obscure form, gave a new impetus to
+  investigations on this and kindred subjects. To Gauss is due the
+  establishment of the important theorem, that the product of two
+  determinants both of the second and third orders is a determinant. The
+  formulation of the general theory is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy,
+  whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries made in the
+  following decades by Hoëné-Wronski and J. Binet in France, Carl Gustav
+  Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur Cayley in
+  England. Jacobi's researches were published in _Crelle's Journal_
+  (1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and enriched by
+  new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacobi is
+  indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The far-reaching
+  discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the most important
+  developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new fields were opened up,
+  and have been diligently explored by many mathematicians.
+  Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley; axisymmetric-determinants by
+  Jacobi, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester and O. Hesse, and centro-symmetric
+  determinants by W. R. F. Scott and G. Zehfuss. Continuants have been
+  discussed by Sylvester; alternants by Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H.
+  Nagelbach and G. Garbieri; circulants by E. Catalan, W. Spottiswoode
+  and J. W. L. Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B. Christoffel and G.
+  Frobenius. Determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been
+  studied by V. von Zeipel; the expression of definite integrals as
+  determinants by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the expression of
+  continued fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V. Nachreiner, S.
+  Günther and E. Fürstenau. (See T. Muir, _Theory of Determinants_,
+  1906).
+
+[1] The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest
+sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is that
+the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a', a", ... of any
+column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa + A'a' + A"a" + ...
+without any term independent of a, a', a" ...
+
+[2] The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for the
+multiplication of two matrices.
+
+
+DETERMINISM (Lat. _determinare_, to prescribe or limit), in ethics, the
+name given to the theory that all moral choice, so called, is the
+determined or necessary result of psychological and other conditions. It
+is opposed to the various doctrines of Free-Will, known as voluntarism,
+libertarianism, indeterminism, and is from the ethical standpoint more
+or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism. There are various degrees
+of determinism. It may be held that every action is causally connected
+not only externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also
+internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if we could
+know exactly all these conditions, we should be able to forecast with
+mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue. In this
+theory the agent cannot be held responsible for his action in any sense.
+It is the extreme antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the
+doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative
+courses (the _liberum arbitrium indifferentiae_). Since, however, the
+evidence of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the
+individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself as
+being free within certain limitations to make his own choice of
+alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that there may be
+in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes
+solely an element of freedom. This view is corroborated by the
+phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent feels that he ought to, and
+could, have chosen a different course of action. These two kinds of
+determinism are sometimes distinguished as "hard" and "soft"
+determinism. The controversy between determinism and libertarianism
+hinges largely on the significance of the word "motive"; indeed in no
+other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by
+purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How far, and in
+what sense, can action which is determined by motives be said to be
+free? For a long time the advocates of free-will, in their eagerness to
+preserve moral responsibility, went so far as to deny all motives as
+influencing moral action. Such a contention, however, clearly defeats
+its own object by reducing all action to chance. On the other hand, the
+scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the
+distinction between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives,
+character and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product
+of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does it
+become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in his motives
+and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards outward surroundings,
+in his appetites and aversions, inherited tendency and environment have
+been found to play a very large part; indeed many thinkers hold that the
+whole of a man's development, mental as well as physical, is determined
+by external conditions.
+
+In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed,
+but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament assumes
+throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been argued by
+theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge, coupled with
+that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily implies that all
+human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world. Such an
+inference is, however, clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of
+sin, repentance and the atonement, as also with that of eternal reward
+and punishment, which postulates a real measure of human responsibility.
+
+For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles, WILL,
+PREDESTINATION (for the theological problems), ETHICS.
+
+
+DETINUE (O. Fr. _detenue_, from _detenir_, to hold back), in law, an
+action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property in goods
+seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and refuses to
+redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue, the
+judgment is that he recover the chattel or, if it cannot be had, its
+value, which is assessed by the judge and jury, and also certain damages
+for detaining the same. An order for the restitution of the specific
+goods may be enforced by a special writ of execution, called a writ of
+delivery. (See CONTRACT; TROVER.)
+
+
+DETMOLD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of
+Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the Teutoburger
+Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Altenbeken line of the Prussian
+state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164. The residential château of the
+princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550), in the Renaissance style, is an
+imposing building, lying with its pretty gardens nearly in the centre of
+the town; whilst at the entrance to the large park on the south is the
+New Palace (1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house.
+Detmold possesses a natural history museum, theatre, high school,
+library, the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876)
+was born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe
+(1801-1836), also a native, died. The leading industries are
+linen-weaving, tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of
+marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town is the
+Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's colossal statue of Hermann or
+Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold (Thiatmelli) was in 783
+the scene of a conflict between the Saxons and the troops of
+Charlemagne.
+
+
+DETROIT, the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite Windsor, Canada, about 4 m.
+W. from the outlet of Lake St Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop.
+(1880) 116,340; (1890) 205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were
+foreign-born and 4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the
+foreign-born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German Poles,
+25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians, 6347 were
+English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by the Michigan Central,
+the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the
+Père Marquette, the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo &
+Ironton and the Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2 m. to 3
+m., and the other 6 m. from the centre of the city, connect the factory
+districts with the main railway lines. Trains are ferried across the
+river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to Cleveland,
+Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important places between,
+and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also the S. terminus for
+several lines to more remote lake ports, and electric lines extend from
+here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac, Jackson, Toledo and Grand Rapids.
+
+The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase from 29 sq.
+m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in proportion to its
+population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of the
+United States. Baltimore, for example, had in 1904 nearly 70% more
+inhabitants (estimated), while its area at that time was a little less
+and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter less than that of Detroit. The ground
+within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is
+quite level, but rises gradually from the river bank, which is only a
+few feet in height. The Detroit river, along which the city extends for
+about 10 m., is here ½ m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its current is
+quite rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth it has a
+width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of islands,
+which during the summer are popular resorts. The city has a 3 m.
+frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the Detroit, with a 16 ft.
+channel. Before the fire by which the city was destroyed in 1805, the
+streets were only 12 ft. wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty. But
+when the rebuilding began, several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide
+were--through the influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one
+of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the
+city of Washington--made to radiate from two central points. From a half
+circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues 120 ft. and 200 ft.
+wide. About ¼ m. toward the river from this was established another
+focal point called the Campus Martius, 600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at
+which commence radiating or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide.
+Running north from the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand
+Circus is Woodward Avenue, 120 ft. wide, dividing the present city, as
+it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the river is
+Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these avenues is the
+principal retail street along its lower portion, and is a residence
+avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the principal wholesale street
+at the lower end, and a fine residence avenue E. of this. Many of the
+other residence streets are 80 ft. wide. The setting of shade trees was
+early encouraged, and large elms and maples abound. The intersections of
+the diagonal streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as
+well as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly
+with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much used, and
+kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other American cities of
+equal size are the streets and avenues kept so clean. The Grand
+Boulevard, 150 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 12 m. in length, has been
+constructed around the city except along the river front. A very large
+proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit own their homes: there are no
+large congested tenement-house districts; and many streets in various
+parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often
+having a garden plot in front.
+
+Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871), overlooking
+the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in three storeys; the
+flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of 200 ft. On the
+four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures, each
+14 ft. in height, to represent Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and
+on the same level with these is a clock weighing 7670 lb--one of the
+largest in the world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and
+Sailors' monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892)
+and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four corners in each of three
+sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures
+representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry and Artillery,
+also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History; the figure by which the
+monument is surmounted was designed to symbolize Michigan. A larger and
+more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county
+court house, facing Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a
+gilded dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely
+decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest architectural
+beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine Byzantine interior, St
+John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue Baptist and the First
+Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue, and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of
+Mary, both Roman Catholic. The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson
+Avenue, contains some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese
+collections, the Scripps' collection of old masters, other valuable
+paintings, and a small library; free lectures on art are given here
+through the winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908,
+including one of the best collections of state and town histories in the
+country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and relating
+principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the public. The
+city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The principal ones are the
+Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monument on the Campus Martius, and a
+statue of Mayor Pingree in West Grand Circus Park.
+
+The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about 1200
+acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in the river
+at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having an area of more
+than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of 4½ acres, with its trees,
+flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant resting place in the busiest
+quarter of the city. Six miles farther out on Woodward Avenue is Palmer
+Park of about 140 acres, given to the city in 1894 and named in honour
+of the donor. Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the city, and
+there are various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are Elmwood
+(Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining in the E.
+part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in the N. part of the
+city.
+
+_Charity and Education._--Among the charitable institutions are the
+general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's); the Detroit Emergency,
+the Children's Free and the United States Marine hospitals; St Luke's
+hospital, church home, and orphanage; the House of Providence (a
+maternity hospital and infant asylum); the Woman's hospital and
+foundling's home; the Home for convalescent children, &c. In 1894 the
+mayor, Hazen Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of
+preparing, through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant
+land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other
+vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor
+commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the unemployed,
+and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan served an
+admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression, and was
+copied in other cities; it was abandoned when, with the renewal of
+industrial activity, the necessity for it ceased. The leading penal
+institution of the city is the Detroit House of Correction, noted for
+its efficient reformatory work; the inmates are employed ten hours a
+day, chiefly in making furniture. The house of correction pays the city
+a profit of $35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in
+addition to those of the general public school system, include several
+parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and commercial colleges;
+Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877; the Detroit College of
+Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan College of Medicine and Surgery,
+opened in 1888; the Detroit College of law, founded in 1891, and a city
+normal school.
+
+_Commerce._--Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and
+shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous traffic
+between the upper and lower lakes passes through the Detroit river. In
+1907 the number of vessels recorded was 34,149, with registered tonnage
+of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons of freight, valued at
+$697,311,302. This includes vessels which delivered part or all of their
+cargo at Detroit. The largest item in the freights is iron ore on
+vessels bound down. The next is coal on vessels up bound. Grain and
+lumber are the next largest items. Detroit is a port of entry, and its
+foreign commerce, chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The
+city's exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in
+1909. The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,100,659 in 1909.
+
+As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total number of
+manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with a product for the
+year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there were 2847 establishments with
+a product for the year valued at $100,892,838; or an increase of 30.4%
+in the decade. In 1900 the establishments under the factory system,
+omitting the hand trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and
+produced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments under the
+factory system numbered 1363 and the product had increased 45.7% to
+$128,761,658. In the district subsequently annexed the product in 1904
+was about $12,000,000, making a total of $140,000,000. The output for
+1906 was estimated at $180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905
+visited 1721 factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected
+1790 factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in the
+country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the value of its
+product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In 1906 the city had
+twenty automobile factories, with an output of 11,000 cars, valued at
+$12,000,000. Detroit is probably the largest manufacturer in the country
+of freight cars, stoves, pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash
+and similar alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships,
+paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods, furniture, boots
+and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt liquors and fur goods; and
+slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry.
+
+The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought into one
+association the members of three former bodies, making a compact
+organization with civic as well as commercial aims. The board has
+brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of
+the city and many of the professional men. Their united efforts have
+brought many new industries to the city, have improved industrial
+conditions, and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal
+administration. Other business organizations are the Board of Trade,
+devoted to the grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers'
+Association, which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between
+employer and employed, the Builders' & Traders' Exchange, and the Credit
+Men's Association.
+
+_Administration._--Although the city received its first charter in 1806,
+and another in 1815, the real power rested in the hands of the governor
+and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters of 1824 and 1827
+centred the government in a council and made the list of elective
+officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised in 1857 and again in 1859
+and the present charter dates from 1883. Under this charter only three
+administrative officers are elected,--the mayor, the city clerk and the
+city treasurer,--elections being biennial. The administration of the
+city departments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one
+commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and boulevards,
+police and public works departments. The four members of the health
+board are nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate.
+The school board is an independent body, consisting of one elected
+member from each ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has
+the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common
+council. In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other
+principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor and confirmed
+by the council, are controller, corporation counsel, board of three
+assessors, fire commission (four members), public lighting commission
+(six members), water commission (five members), poor commission (four
+members), and inspectors of the house of correction (four in number).
+The members of the public library commission, six in number, are elected
+by the board of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next
+fiscal year are furnished by the different departments to the controller
+in February. He transmits them to the common council with his
+recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to consider them.
+It may reduce or increase the amounts asked, and may add new items. The
+budget then goes to the board of estimates, which has a month for its
+consideration. This body consists of two members elected from each ward
+and five elected at large. The mayor and heads of departments are
+advisory members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the board
+of estimates can hold no other office and they have no appointing power,
+the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political
+motives and influences. They may reduce or cut out any estimates
+submitted, but cannot increase any or add new ones. No bonds can be
+issued without the assent of the board of estimates. The budget is
+apportioned among twelve committees which have almost invariably given
+close and conscientious examination to the actual needs of the
+departments. A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing
+the service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations.
+Prudent management under this system has placed the city in the highest
+rank financially. Its debt limit is 2% on the assessed valuation, and
+even that low maximum is not often reached. The debt in 1907 was only
+about $5,500,000, a smaller _per capita_ debt than that of any other
+city of over 100,000 inhabitants in the country; the assessed valuation
+was $330,000,000; the city tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of
+assessed valuation. Both the council and the estimators are hampered in
+their work by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries
+and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the
+legislature, which has also determined many affairs of a purely
+administrative character.
+
+Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership. On account
+of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private company, the city
+bought the water-works as long ago as 1836. The works have been twice
+moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the
+city. In 1907 there were six engines in the works with a pumping
+capacity of 152,000,000 gallons daily. The daily average of water used
+during the preceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water is pumped
+from Lake St Clair and is of exceptional purity. The city began its own
+public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the river near
+the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public buildings, but
+makes no provision for commercial business. The lighting is excellent,
+and the cost is probably less than could be obtained from a private
+company. The street lighting is done partly from pole and arm lights,
+but largely from steel towers from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with
+strong reflected lights at the top. The city also owns two portable
+asphalt plants, and thus makes a saving in the cost of street repairing
+and resurfacing. With a view of effecting the reduction of street car
+fares to three cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for
+purchasing or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme
+Court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as the
+constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal
+improvement, the state could not empower a municipality to do so.
+Certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question of
+municipal ownership of the railways.
+
+_History._--Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet de la Mothe
+Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the importance of the place
+as a strategic point for determining the control of the fur trade and
+the possession of the North-west and had received assistance from the
+French government soon after Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the
+secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged
+the English government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac
+arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at once built
+a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now Jefferson Avenue
+and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and named it Fort Pontchartrain
+in honour of the French colonial minister. Indians at once came to the
+place in large numbers, but they soon complained of the high price of
+French goods; there was serious contention between Cadillac and the
+French Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had been
+granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the Jesuits. After
+the several parties had begun to complain to the home government the
+monopoly of the fur trade was transferred to Cadillac and he was
+exhorted to cease quarrelling with the Jesuits. Although the
+inhabitants then increased to 200 or more, dissatisfaction with the
+paternal rule of the founder increased until 1710, when he was made
+governor of Louisiana. The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn;
+by the second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and
+for several years following the population was greatly reduced and the
+post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the Mississippi
+country was opened, the population once more increased, and again in
+1748, when the settlement of the Ohio Valley began, the governor-general
+of Canada offered special inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit,
+with the result that the population was soon more than 1000 and the
+cultivation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however, the
+place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers and an
+English element was introduced into the population which up to this time
+had been almost exclusively French. Three years later, during the
+conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly escaped capture and then
+suffered from a siege lasting from the 9th of May until the 12th of
+October. Under English rule it continued from this time on as a military
+post with its population usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new
+fort was built and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of
+Independence the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions
+to ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which
+concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United States in
+1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the 11th of January
+1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794. It was then named Fort
+Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated as a town and received its
+present name. In 1805 all except one or two buildings were destroyed by
+fire. General William Hull (1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American
+Independence, governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander
+of the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to hear
+immediately of the declaration of war between the United States and
+Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped by Lake Erie. He
+made from Detroit on the 12th of July an awkward and futile advance into
+Canada, which, if more vigorous, might have resulted in the capture of
+Malden and the establishment of American troops in Canada, and then
+retired to his fortifications. On the 16th of August 1812, without any
+resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the city
+to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards attempted to
+justify himself by criticism of the War Department in general and in
+particular of General Henry Dearborn's armistice with Prevost, which had
+not included in its terms Hull, whom Dearborn had been sent out to
+reinforce.[1] After Perry's victory on the 14th of September on Lake
+Erie, Detroit on the 29th of September was again occupied by the forces
+of the United States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since
+then its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of
+Michigan from 1805 to 1847.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Silas Farmer, _The History of Detroit and Michigan_
+  (Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and "Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P.
+  Powell's _Historic Towns of the Western States_ (New York and London,
+  1901); D. F. Wilcox, "Municipal Government in Michigan and Ohio," in
+  _Columbia University Studies_ (New York, 1896); C. M. Burton,
+  _"Cadillac's Village" or Detroit under Cadillac_ (Detroit, 1896);
+  Francis Parkman, _A Half Century of Conflict_ (Boston, 1897); and _The
+  Conspiracy of Pontiac_ (Boston, 1898); and the annual _Reports_ of the
+  Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.).
+
+[1] Hull was tried at Albany in 1814 by court martial, General Dearborn
+presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and
+unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president
+remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution.
+
+
+DETTINGEN, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Main,
+and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg railway, 10 m. N.W. of
+Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the
+27th of June 1743, when the English, Hanoverians and Austrians (the
+"Pragmatic army"), 42,000 men under the command of George II. of
+England, routed the numerically superior French forces under the duc de
+Noailles. It was in memory of this victory that Handel composed his
+_Dettingen Te Deum_.
+
+
+DEUCALION, in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of Phthia in
+Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the mythical ancestor
+of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved to destroy all mankind by a
+flood, Deucalion constructed a boat or ark, in which, after drifting
+nine days and nights, he landed on Mount Parnassus (according to others,
+Othrys, Aetna or Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and
+inquired how to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind
+them the "bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the
+hillside. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by
+Pyrrha, women.
+
+  See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 243-415; Apollonius Rhodius
+  iii. 1085 ff.; H. Usener, _Die Sintflutsagen_ (1899).
+
+
+DEUCE (a corruption of the Fr. _deux_, two), a term applied to the "two"
+of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used in tennis when
+both sides have each scored three points in a game, or five games in a
+set; to win the game or set two points or games must then be won
+consecutively. The earliest instances in English of the use of the slang
+expression "the deuce," in exclamations and the like, date from the
+middle of the 17th century. The meaning was similar to that of "plague"
+or "mischief" in such phrases as "plague on you," "mischief take you"
+and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for "the devil" is
+later. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the most probable
+derivation is from a Low German _das daus_, i.e. the "deuce" in dice,
+the lowest and therefore the most unlucky throw. The personification,
+with a consequent change of gender, to _der daus_, came later. The word
+has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic
+mythology.
+
+
+DEUS, JOÃO DE (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet of his
+generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in the province of
+Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating in the faculty of law at
+the university of Coimbra, he did not proceed to his degree but settled
+in the city, dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses,
+which circulated among professors and undergraduates in manuscript
+copies. In the volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he
+practised a rigorous self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855,
+and the first of his poems to appear in a separate form was _La Lata_,
+in 1860. In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor
+of _O Bejense_, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo, and
+four years later he edited the _Folha do Sul_. As the pungent satirical
+verses entitled _Eleições_ prove, he was not an ardent politician, and,
+though he was returned as Liberal deputy for the constituency of Silves
+in 1869, he acted independently of all political parties and promptly
+resigned his mandate. The renunciation implied in the act, which cut him
+off from all advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of
+his lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend
+José Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series of
+poems, _Flores do campo_, which is supplemented by the _Ramo de flores_
+(1869). This is João de Deus's masterpiece. _Pires de Marmalada_ (1869)
+is an improvisation of no great merit. The four theatrical
+pieces--_Amemos o nosso proximo_, _Ser apresentado_, _Ensaio de
+Casamento_, and _A Viúva inconsolavel_--are prose translations from
+Méry, cleverly done, but not worth the doing. _Horacio e Lydia_ (1872),
+a translation from Ronsard, is a good example of artifice in
+manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure, the Portuguese
+couplet. As an indication of a strong spiritual reaction three prose
+fragments (1873)--_Anna, Mãe de Maria_, _A Virgem Maria_ and _A Mulher
+do Levita de Ephrain_--translated from Darboy's _Femmes de la Bible_,
+are full of significance. The _Folhas soltas_ (1876) is a collection of
+verse in the manner of _Flores do campo_, brilliantly effective and
+exquisitely refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his
+attention to educational problems, and in his _Cartilha maternal_ (1876)
+first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzi and
+Fröbel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate was a
+misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational mission absorbed
+João de Deus completely, and is responsible for numerous controversial
+letters, for a translation of Théodore-Henri Barrau's treatise, _Des
+devoirs des enfants envers leurs parents_, for a prosodic dictionary
+and for many other publications of no literary value. A copy of verses
+in Antonio Vieira's _Grinalda de Maria_ (1877), the _Loas á Virgem_
+(1878) and the _Proverbios de Salomão_ are evidence of a complete return
+to orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a lamentable error of
+judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled _Cryptinas_ have
+been inserted in the completest edition of João de Deus's poems--_Campo
+de Flores_ (Lisbon, 1893). He died at Lisbon on the 11th of January
+1896, was accorded a public funeral and was buried in the National
+Pantheon, the Jeronymite church at Belem, where repose the remains of
+Camoens, Herculano and Garrett. His scattered minor prose writings and
+correspondence have been posthumously published by Dr Theophilo Braga
+(Lisbon, 1898).
+
+Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has been more
+widely read, more profoundly admired than João de Deus; yet no poet in
+any country has been more indifferent to public opinion and more
+deliberately careless of personal fame. He is not responsible for any
+single edition of his poems, which were put together by pious but
+ill-informed enthusiasts, who ascribed to him verses that he had not
+written; he kept no copies of his compositions, seldom troubled to write
+them himself, and was content for the most part to dictate them to
+others. He has no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is
+limited in theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch,
+often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced
+accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise a set of
+proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And yet, though
+he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though he wrote nothing at
+all comparable in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of _Os
+Lusiadas_, the popular instinct which links his name with that of his
+great predecessor is eminently just. For Camoens was his model; not the
+Camoens of the epic, but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets,
+where the passion of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has
+noted five stages of development in João de Deus's artistic life--the
+imitative, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout
+phases. Under each of these divisions is included much that is of
+extreme interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through
+the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly probable
+that _Caturras_ and _Gaspar_, pieces as witty as anything in Bocage but
+free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always interest literary
+students. But it is as the singer of love that João de Deus will delight
+posterity as he delighted his own generation. The elegiac music of
+_Rachel_ and of _Marina_, the melancholy of _Adeus_ and of _Remoinho_,
+the tenderness and sincerity of _Meu casta lirio_, of _Lagrima celeste_,
+of _Descalça_ and a score more songs are distinguished by the large,
+vital simplicity which withstands time. It is precisely in the quality
+of unstudied simplicity that João de Deus is incomparably strong. The
+temptations to a display of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a
+Portuguese poet; he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has
+before him the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an
+instrument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is João de
+Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge in idle ornament.
+His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweetness and of reverent
+purity; yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental,
+and, though he has not the strength for a long fight, emotion has seldom
+been set to more delicate music. Had he included among his other gifts
+the gift of selection, had he continued the poetic discipline of his
+youth instead of dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he
+performed it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man,
+there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen.
+
+  See also Maxime Formont, _Le Mouvement poétique contemporain en
+  Portugal_ (Lyon, 1892).                                (J. F.-K.)
+
+
+DEUTERONOMY, the name of one of the books of the Old Testament. This
+book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal criticism, orthodox
+scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its Mosaic authorship
+reduced it to the level of a pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at
+last triumphed over tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of
+Deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive,
+however, to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion
+regarding the composition and date of his book has passed.
+
+In the 17th century the characteristics which so clearly mark off
+Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch were frankly
+recognized, but the most advanced critics of that age were inclined to
+pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five. In the
+beginning of the 19th century de Wette startled the religious world by
+declaring that Deuteronomy, so far from being Mosaic, was not known till
+the time of Josiah. This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever
+since, this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical
+criticism. The only other single chapter of the Bible which is
+responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in
+critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy years
+after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen inferred that
+Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and therefore could not
+have been in existence in his day; for had Leviticus been the recognized
+Law-book of his nation Ezekiel could not have represented as a
+degradation the very position which that Law-book described as a special
+honour conferred on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so
+far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than
+Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much later stratum,
+and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic.
+
+The title "Deuteronomy" is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of
+the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered "and he shall write out for
+himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really means "and he [the king]
+shall write out for himself a copy of this law," where there is not the
+slightest suggestion that the author intended to describe "this law"
+delivered on the plains of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to
+the first code given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the
+phrase "this law" is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater difficulty
+than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew word for
+"copy." How much does "this law" include? It was long supposed to mean
+the whole of our present Deuteronomy; indeed, it is on that supposition
+that the traditional view of the Mosaic authorship is based. But the
+context alone can determine the question; and that is often so ambiguous
+that a sure inference is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that
+nowhere need "this law" mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably
+means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little that
+it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered stones set
+up beside an altar.
+
+Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a
+long process of development. The fact that it is legislative as well as
+hortatory is enough to prove this, for most of the laws it contains are
+found elsewhere in the Pentateuch, sometimes in less developed,
+sometimes in more developed forms, a fact which is conclusive proof of
+prolonged historical development. According to the all-pervading law of
+evolution, the less complex form must have preceded the more complex.
+Still, the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as
+easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable for its
+copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious feeling.
+
+The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot have been so
+large as our present book, for not only could it be read at a single
+sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one day. On the day it was
+found, Shaphan first read it himself, and then went to the king and read
+it aloud to him. But perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is
+that it was read publicly to the assembled people immediately before
+they, as well as their king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a
+word is said as to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by
+such a great multitude, being long or difficult.
+
+The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.),
+which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression made
+upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been produced by
+the legislative part alone. The king must have listened to the curses as
+well as the blessings in chap, xxviii., and no doubt also to the
+exhortations in chaps. v.-xi. Hence we may conclude that the original
+book consisted of a central mass of religious, civil and social laws,
+preceded by a hortatory introduction and followed by an effective
+peroration. The book read to Josiah must therefore have comprised most
+of what is found in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But
+something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present
+form, for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43
+(where the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52,
+there are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally
+acknowledged to be post-exilic.
+
+The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now
+have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv. 44, more
+historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more hortatory than
+historical. These may at first have been prefixed to separate editions
+of the legislative portion, but were eventually combined. Then, before D
+was united to P, five appendices of very various dates and embracing
+poetry as well as prose, were added so as to give a fuller account of
+the last days of Moses and thus lead up to the narrative of his death
+with which the book closes. (1) Chap. xxvii., where the elders of Israel
+are introduced for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. 1)
+and then the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer
+to laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this
+chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the laws
+codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The second
+appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us the farewell
+address of Moses and is certainly later than D. Moses is represented as
+speaking not with any hope of preventing Israel's apostasy but because
+he knows that the people will eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a
+point of view very different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap.
+xxxii. That this didactic poem must have been written late in the
+nation's history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7:
+"Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many generations." Such
+words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of Moses. It must have
+been composed in a time of natural gloom and depression, after Yahweh's
+anger had been provoked by "a very froward generation," certainly not
+before the Assyrian Empire had loomed up against the political horizon,
+aggressive and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the
+time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses, chap, xxxiii.
+The first line proves that this poem is not by D, who speaks invariably
+of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation depicted is in striking contrast
+with that of the Song. Everything is bright because of promises
+fulfilled, and the future bids fair to be brighter still. Bruston
+maintains with reason that the Blessing, strictly so called, consists
+only of vv. 6-25, and has been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the
+goodness of Jehovah to his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv.
+1-5, 26-29). The special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and
+Manasseh) in vv. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the
+time of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II. (5)
+The account of Moses' death, chap. xxxiv. This appendix, containing, as
+it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even Deuteronomy was not put
+into its present form until after the exile.
+
+From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the Covenant (Ex.
+xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E, the prophetic
+narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not quite clear whether D
+knew E as an independent work, or after its combination with J, the
+somewhat earlier prophetic narrative of the Southern kingdom, the
+combined form of which is now indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel
+certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that D quotes always from
+E and never from J, for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as
+readily be ascribed to J as to E, cf. Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut.
+x. 14 and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written
+certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J.
+
+In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas, whereas in
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere manifest. Hence this
+school of thought arose between the age of Isaiah and that of Jeremiah;
+but how long D itself may have been in existence before it was read in
+622 to Josiah cannot be determined with certainty. Many argue that D was
+written immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put
+into the temple for the purpose of being "found." This theory gives some
+plausibility to the charge that the book is a pious fraud. But the
+narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference. The more natural
+explanation is that it was written not in the early years of Josiah's
+reign, and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office, but
+some time during the long reign of Manasseh, probably when his policy
+was most reactionary and when he favoured the worship of the "host of
+heaven" and set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This
+explains why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed
+it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity should
+arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he actually foresaw
+how favourable that opportunity would prove, and that, as soon as
+discovered, his work would be promulgated as law by the king and
+willingly accepted by the people. The author believed that everything he
+wrote was in full accordance with the mind of Moses, and would
+contribute to the national weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and
+therefore he did not scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is
+not to be expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact
+year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is enough to
+determine with something like probability the century or half-century
+which best fits its historical data; and these appear to point to the
+reign of Manasseh.
+
+Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the historical
+résumés JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even verses being
+copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points out in his careful
+analysis, there are only three facts in D which are not also found in
+JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number of souls that went down
+into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark being made of acacia wood. But even
+these may have been in J or E originally, and left out when JE was
+combined with P. Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory
+parts of D between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural
+when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular; but as a
+similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally
+acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue seems anything but
+trustworthy, depending as it does on the presence or absence of a single
+Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it frequently does, in the division of
+verses which otherwise seem to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The
+inference as to diversity of authorship is much more conclusive when
+difference of standpoint can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii.
+2. The first two passages represent Moses as addressing the generation
+that was alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to
+those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later; and it
+may well be that the one author may, in the historical and hortatory
+parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other the 2nd singular;
+without the further inference being justified that every law in which
+the 2nd singular is used must be assigned to the latter, and every law
+in which the 2nd plural occurs must be due to the former.
+
+The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding characteristics,
+is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation towards which events had
+long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9 shows that even the zeal of Josiah
+could not carry out the instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's
+acceptance of D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the
+religion of Judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its
+adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them. D
+requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols, but
+of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas (stone pillars) often set
+up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21). These reforms made too heavy
+demands upon the people, as was proved by the reaction which set in at
+Josiah's death. Indeed the country people would look on the destruction
+of the high places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and
+would consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his
+sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of Jerusalem and
+the exile of the people would appear to those who had obeyed D's
+instructions as a well-merited punishment for national apostasy.
+
+Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each individual
+Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the declaration of
+the individual's duty towards God immediately follows the emphatic
+intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity. "Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our
+God, Yahweh is one: and thou shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thine
+heart and with all thy soul and with all thy strength" (vi. 4, 5).
+
+In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should never be
+forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy ever pronounced on
+any scripture was pronounced by Christ himself, when he said "on these
+words hang all the law and the prophets," and it is also well to
+remember that when tempted in the wilderness he repelled each suggestion
+of the Tempter by a quotation from Deuteronomy.
+
+Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the influence of
+the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and despite the spirit of love
+which breathes so strongly throughout the book, especially for the poor,
+the widow and the fatherless, the stranger and the homeless Levite
+(xxiv. 10-22), and the humanity shown towards both beasts and birds
+(xxii. 1, 4, 6 f., xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to
+explain the intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance
+characteristic of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as
+his own soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's
+pitiless order to that man is "Thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand
+shall be first upon him to put him to death." From this single instance
+we see not only how far mankind has travelled along the path of
+religious toleration since Deuteronomy was written, but also how very
+far the criticism implied in Christ's method of dealing with what "was
+said to them of old time" may be legitimately carried. (J. A. P.*)
+
+
+DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873), German oriental scholar,
+was born on the 28th of October 1829, at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of
+Jewish extraction. On reaching his sixteenth year he began his studies
+at the university of Berlin, paying special attention to theology and
+the Talmud. He also mastered the English language and studied English
+literature. In 1855 Deutsch was appointed assistant in the library of
+the British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and contributed no
+less than 190 papers to _Chambers's Encyclopaedia_, in addition to
+essays in Kitto's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries, and articles in
+periodicals. In October 1867 his article on "The Talmud," published in
+the _Quarterly Review_, made him known. It was translated into French,
+German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch and Danish. He died at Alexandria on the
+12th of May 1873.
+
+  His _Literary Remains_, edited by Lady Strangford, were published in
+  1874, consisting of nineteen papers on such subjects as "The Talmud,"
+  "Islam," "Semitic Culture," "Egypt, Ancient and Modern," "Semitic
+  Languages," "The Targums," "The Samaritan Pentateuch," and "Arabic
+  Poetry."
+
+
+DEUTSCHKRONE, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, between the two
+lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 m. N.W. of Schneidemühl, a railway junction
+60 m. north of Posen. Pop. (1905) 7282. It is the seat of the public
+offices for the district, possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
+church, a synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuit
+college, and has manufactures of machinery, woollens, tiles, brandy and
+beer.
+
+
+DEUTZ (anc. _Divitio_), formerly an independent town of Germany, in the
+Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to
+Cologne, with which it has been incorporated since 1888. It contains the
+church of St Heribert, built in the 17th century, cavalry barracks,
+artillery magazines, and gas, porcelain, machine and carriage factories.
+It has a handsome railway station on the banks of the Rhine, negotiating
+the local traffic with Elberfeld and Königswinter. The fortifications of
+the town form part of the defences of Cologne. To the east is the
+manufacturing suburb of Kalk.
+
+The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine monastery by
+Heribert, archbishop of Cologne. Permission to fortify the town was in
+1230 granted to the citizens by the archbishop of Cologne, between whom
+and the counts of Berg it was in 1240 divided. It was burnt in 1376,
+1445 and 1583; and in 1678, after the peace of Nijmwegen, the
+fortifications were dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed
+in 1888.
+
+
+DEUX-SÈVRES, an inland department of western France, formed in 1790
+mainly of the three districts of Poitou, Thouarsais, Gâtine and
+Niortais, added to a small portion of Saintonge and a still smaller
+portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 339,466. It is bounded
+N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne, S.E. by Charente, S. by
+Charente-Inférieure and W. by Vendée. The department takes its name from
+two rivers--the Sèvre of Niort which traverses the southern portion, and
+the Sèvre of Nantes (an affluent of the Loire) which drains the
+north-west. There are three regions--the Gâtine, occupying the north and
+centre of the department, the Plaine in the south and the
+Marais,--distinguished by their geological character and their general
+physical appearance. The Gâtine, formed of primitive rocks (granite and
+schists), is the continuation of the "Bocage" of Vendée and
+Maine-et-Loire. Its surface is irregular and covered with hedges and
+clumps of wood or forests. The systematic application of lime has much
+improved the soil, which is naturally poor. The Plaine, resting on
+oolite limestone, is treeless but fertile. The Marais, a low-lying
+district in the extreme south-west, consists of alluvial clays which also
+are extremely productive when properly drained. The highest points,
+several of which exceed 700 ft., are found in a line of hills which
+begins in the centre of the department, to the south of Parthenay, and
+stretches north-west into the neighbouring department of Vendée. It
+divides the region drained by the Sèvre Nantaise and the Thouet (both
+affluents of the Loire) in the north from the basins of the Sèvre
+Niortaise and the Charente in the south. The climate is mild, the annual
+temperature at Niort being 54° Fahr., and the rainfall nearly 25 in. The
+winters are colder in the Gâtine, the summers warmer in the Plaine.
+
+Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sèvres, which is primarily an
+agricultural department, consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the
+main cereals. Potatoes and mangold-wurzels are the chief root-crops.
+Niort is a centre for the growing Of vegetables (onions, asparagus,
+artichokes, &c.) and of angelica. Considerable quantities of beetroot
+are raised to supply the distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp, rape and
+flax are also cultivated. Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of
+Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the south. The
+department is well known for the Parthenay breed of cattle and the
+Poitou breed of horses; and the mules reared in the southern
+arrondissements are much sought after both in France and in Spain. The
+system of co-operative dairying is practised in some localities. The
+apple-trees of the Gâtine and the walnut-trees of the Plaine bring a
+good return. Coal is mined, and the department produces building-stone
+and lime. A leading industry is the manufacture of textiles (serges,
+druggets, linen, handkerchiefs, flannels, swan-skins and knitted goods).
+Tanning and leather-dressing are carried on at Niort and other places,
+and gloves are made at Niort. Wool and cotton spinning, hat and shoe
+making, distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also
+main industries. The department exports cattle and sheep to Paris and
+Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and its industrial
+products.
+
+The Sèvre Niortaise and its tributary the Mignon furnish 19 m. of
+navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouest-État railway.
+It contains a large proportion of Protestants, especially in the
+south-east. The four arrondissements are Niort, Bressuire, Melle and
+Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and the communes 356. Deux-Sèvres is
+part of the region of the IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the
+académie (educational circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its
+court of appeal.
+
+Niort (the capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent, Thouars
+and Oiron are the principal places in the department. Several other
+towns contain features of interest. Among these are Airvault, where
+there is a church of the 12th and 14th centuries which once belonged to
+the abbey of St Pierre, and an ancient bridge built by the monks;
+Celles-sur-Belle, where there is an old church rebuilt by Louis XI., and
+again in the 17th century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a fine
+Romanesque church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of the
+most ancient abbeys of Gaul.
+
+
+DEVA (Sanskrit "heavenly"), in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, spirits of
+the light and air, and minor deities generally beneficent. In Persian
+mythology, however, the word is used for evil spirits or demons.
+According to Zoroaster the devas were created by Ahriman.
+
+
+DEVA (mod. _Chester_), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain on the Dee.
+It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and held probably till the
+end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison was the Legio XX. Valeria
+Victrix, with which another legion (II. Adjutrix) was associated for a
+few years, about A.D. 75-85. It never developed, like many Roman
+legionary fortresses, into a town, but remained military throughout.
+Parts of its north and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate)
+and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area.
+
+  See F. J. Haverfield, _Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester_
+  (Chester, 1900), Introduction.
+
+
+DEVADATTA, the son of Suklodana, who was younger brother to the father
+of the Buddha (_Mah[=a]vastu_, iii. 76). Both he and his brother
+[=A]nanda, who were considerably younger than the Buddha, joined the
+brotherhood in the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry. Four other
+cousins of theirs, chiefs of the S[=a]kiya clan, and a barber named
+Up[=a]li, were admitted to the order at the same time; and at their own
+request the barber was admitted first, so that as their senior in the
+order he should take precedence of them (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 228). All
+the others continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years
+afterwards, having gained over the crown prince of Magadha,
+Aj[=a]tasattu, to his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting of
+the order, that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the leadership
+to him, Devadatta (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 238; _J[=a]taka_, i. 142). This
+proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition to have
+successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his aged father
+and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death of the
+Buddha (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 241-250; _J[=a]taka_, vi. 131), shortly
+afterwards, relying upon the feeling of the people in favour of
+asceticism, he brought forward four propositions for ascetic rules to be
+imposed on the order. These being refused, he appealed to the people,
+started an order of his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's
+community to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the
+success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be referred
+to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the _Anguttara_ (see _Dialogues
+of the Buddha_ i. 222), for Devadatta's family name was Gotama. But his
+community was certainly still in existence in the 4th century A.D., for
+it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien, the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's
+translation, p. 62). And it possibly lasted till the 7th century, for
+Hsüan Tsang mentions that in a monastery in Bengal the monks then
+followed a certain regulation of Devadatta's (T. Watters, _On Yuan
+Chwang_, ii. 191). There is no mention in the canon as to how or when
+Devadatta died; but the commentary on the _J[=a]taka_, written in the
+5th century A.D., has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by
+the earth near S[=a]vatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha
+(_J[=a]taka_, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to both
+the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and T. Watters,
+_On Yuan Chwang_, i. 390). It is a striking example of the way in which
+such legends grow, that it is only the latest of these authorities,
+Hsüan Tsang, who says that, though ostensibly approaching the Buddha
+with a view to reconciliation, Devadatta had concealed poison in his
+nail with the object of murdering the Buddha.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Vinaya Texts_, translated by Rhys Davids and H.
+  Oldenberg (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); _The J[=a]taka_, edited by V.
+  Fausböll (7 vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_
+  (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushell, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905); _Fa Hian_,
+  translated by J. Legge (Oxford, 1886); _Mah[=a]vastu_ (ed. Tenant, 3
+  vols., Paris, 1882-1897).                               (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+DEVAPRAYAG (DEOPRAYAG), a village in Tehri State of the United
+Provinces, India. It is situated at the spot where the rivers Alaknanda
+and Bhagirathi unite and form the Ganges, and as one of the five sacred
+confluences in the hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout
+Hindus. Devaprayag stands at an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a
+hill which rises above it 800 ft. On a terrace in the upper part of the
+village is the temple of Raghunath, built of huge uncemented stones,
+pyramidical in form and capped by a white cupola.
+
+
+DEVENS, CHARLES (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist, was born in
+Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 4th of April 1820. He graduated at
+Harvard College in 1838, and at the Harvard law school in 1840, and was
+admitted to the bar in Franklin county, Mass., where he practised from
+1841 to 1849. In the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the state senate,
+and from 1849 to 1853 was United States marshal for Massachusetts, in
+which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the fugitive slave,
+Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained to do, much against
+his personal desire; and subsequently he attempted in vain to purchase
+Sims's freedom, and many years later appointed him to a position in the
+department of justice at Washington. Devens practised law at Worcester
+from 1853 until 1861, and throughout the Civil War served in the Federal
+army, becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier-general
+of volunteers in April 1862. At the battle of Ball's Bluff (1861) he was
+severely wounded; he was again wounded at Fair Oaks (1862) and at
+Chancellorsville (1863), where he commanded a division. He later
+distinguished himself at Cold Harbor, and commanded a division in
+Grant's final campaign in Virginia (1864-65), his troops being the first
+to occupy Richmond after its fall. Breveted major-general in 1865, he
+remained in the army for a year as commander of the military district of
+Charleston, South Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetts superior
+court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate justice of the supreme
+court of the state from 1873 to 1877, and again from 1881 to 1891. From
+1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet
+of President Hayes. He died at Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January
+1891.
+
+  See his _Orations and Addresses_, with a memoir by John Codman Ropes
+  (Boston, 1891).
+
+
+DEVENTER, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the right bank
+of the Ysel, at the confluence of the Schipbeek, and a junction station
+10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also connected by steam tramway S.E.
+with Brokulo. Pop. (1900) 26,212. Deventer is a neat and prosperous town
+situated in the midst of prettily wooded environs, and containing many
+curious old buildings. There are three churches of special interest: the
+Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies the site
+of an older structure of which the 11th-century crypt remains; the Roman
+Catholic Broederkerk, or Brothers' Church, containing among its relics
+three ancient gospels said to have been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin),
+the English apostle of the Frisians and Westphalians (d. c. 773); and
+the Bergkerk, dedicated in 1206, which has two late Romanesque towers.
+The town hall (1693) contains a remarkable painting of the town council
+by Terburg. In the fine square called the Brink is the old weigh-house,
+now a school (gymnasium), built in 1528, with a large external staircase
+(1644). The gymnasium is descended from the Latin school of which the
+celebrated Alexander Hegius was master in the third quarter of the 15th
+century, when the young Erasmus was sent to it, and at which Adrian
+Floreizoon, afterwards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil
+about the same time. Another famous educational institution was the
+"Athenaeum" or high school, founded in 1630, at which Henri Renery (d.
+1639) taught philosophy, while Johann Friedrich Gronov (Gronovius)
+(1611-1671) taught rhetoric and history in the middle of the same
+century. The "Athenaeum" disappeared in 1876. In modern times Deventer
+possessed a famous teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch
+translator of Shakespeare. The town library, also called the library of
+the Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and _incunabula_, and a 13th-century
+copy of _Reynard the Fox_. The archives of the town are of considerable
+value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade, Deventer has important
+iron foundries and carpet factories (the royal manufactory of Smyrna
+carpets being especially famous); while cotton-printing, rope-making and
+the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on. A public official
+is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread
+known as "_Deventer Koek_," which has a reputation throughout Holland.
+In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of Deventer, some
+14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870.
+
+In the 14th century Deventer was the centre of the famous religious and
+educational movement associated with the name of GERHARD GROOT (q.v.),
+who was a native of the town (see BROTHERS OF COMMON LIFE).
+
+
+DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1902), Irish poet and critic, was born at
+Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the 10th of January 1814, being the
+third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt (1788-1846). In 1832 his father
+dropped the final name by royal licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet.
+Wordsworth called his sonnets the "most perfect of the age." These and
+his drama, _Mary Tudor_, were published by his son in 1875 and 1884.
+Aubrey de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his
+twenty-eighth year published _The Waldenses_, which he followed up in
+the next year by _The Search after Proserpine_. Thenceforward he was
+continually engaged, till his death on the 20th of January 1902, in the
+production of poetry and criticism. His best-known works are: in verse,
+_The Sisters_ (1861); _The Infant Bridal_ (1864); _Irish Odes_ (1869);
+_Legends of St Patrick_ (1872); and _Legends of the Saxon Saints_
+(1879); and in prose, _Essays chiefly on Poetry_ (1887); and _Essays
+chiefly Literary and Ethical_ (1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume
+of travel-sketches, and two dramas in verse, _Alexander the Great_
+(1874); and _St Thomas of Canterbury_ (1876); both of which, though they
+contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic
+spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry are "high
+seriousness" and a fine religious enthusiasm. His research in questions
+of faith led him to the Roman Church; and in many of his poems, notably
+in the volume of sonnets called _St Peter's Chains_ (1888), he made rich
+additions to devotional verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose
+calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his
+affection for Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and
+weight to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will
+be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study of
+Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many
+followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers; but
+after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on "Celtic Literature," nothing
+perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival than Aubrey de Vere's tender
+insight into the Irish character, and his stirring reproductions of the
+early Irish epic poetry.
+
+  A volume of _Selections_ from his poems was edited in 1894 (New York
+  and London) by G. E. Woodberry.
+
+
+DEVICE, a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also a pattern or
+design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem, often combined with a
+motto or legend. "Device" and its doublet "devise" come from the two Old
+French forms _devis_ and _devise_ of the Latin _divisa_, things divided,
+from _dividere_, to separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out,
+apportion. "Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term
+for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention restricted
+to a disposition of real property, the term "bequest" being used of
+personalty (see WILL). This use is directly due to the Medieval Latin
+meaning of _dividere_ = _testamento disponere_. In its verbal form,
+"devise" is used not only in the legal sense, but also in the sense of
+to plan, arrange, scheme.
+
+
+DEVIL (Gr. [Greek: diabolos], "slanderer," from [Greek: diaballein], to
+slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the supreme
+spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used for minor evil
+spirits in much the same sense as "demon." From the various
+characteristics associated with this idea, the term has come to be
+applied by analogy in many different senses. From the idea of evil as
+degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure, the term is applied to
+persons in evil plight, or of slight consideration. In English legal
+phraseology "devil" and "devilling" are used of barristers who act as
+substitutes for others. Any remuneration which the legal "devil" may
+receive is purely a matter of private arrangement between them. In the
+chancery division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of
+one half of the fee which the client pays; "in the king's bench division
+remuneration for 'devilling' of briefs or assisting in drafting and
+opinions is not common" (see _Annual Practice_, 1907, p. 717). In a
+similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by
+a literary hack or "devil." The term "printer's devil" for the errand
+boy in a printing office probably combines this idea with that of his
+being black with ink. The common notions of the devil as black,
+ill-favoured, malicious, destructive and the like, have occasioned the
+application of the term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the
+devil-fish, the coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth
+or separating wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or
+fried. In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the
+word, as used in mythology and religion.
+
+The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all
+phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good or evil, produce
+pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction in the character of
+these agencies is gradually recognized; the agents of good become gods,
+those of evil, demons. A tendency towards the simplification and
+organization of the evil as of the good forces, leads towards belief in
+outstanding leaders among the forces of evil. When the divine is most
+completely conceived as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and
+over against God stands Satan, or the devil.
+
+Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian monotheism that
+this belief in the devil has been most fully developed, yet there are
+approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In Babylonian mythology
+"the old serpent goddess 'the lady Nina' was transformed into the
+embodiment of all that was hostile to the powers of heaven" (Sayce's
+_Hibbert Lectures_, p. 283), and was confounded with the dragon Tiamat,
+"a terrible monster, reappearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab
+and Leviathan, the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man"
+(Tennant's _The Fall and Original Sin_, p. 43), and according to Gunkel
+(_Schöpfung und Chaos_, p. 383) "the original of the 'old serpent' of
+Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with an army of
+monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat of the luminous
+gods. While the Greek mythology described the Titans as "enchained once
+for all in their dark dungeons" yet Prometheus' threat remained to
+disturb the tranquillity of the Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology
+the army of darkness is led by Hel, the personification of twilight,
+sunk to the goddess who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and
+Loki, originally the god of fire, but afterwards "looked upon as the
+father of the evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her
+adornments, who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the
+death of Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts,
+Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver the
+celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the caverns of the
+clouds. In the _Trimurti_, Brahm[=a] (the impersonal) is manifested as
+Brahm[=a] (the personal creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Siva (the
+destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the belief in the god of Vedic times
+Rudra, who is represented as "the wild hunter who storms over the earth
+with his bands, and lays low with arrows the men who displease him"
+(Chantepie de la Saussaye's _Religionsgeschichte_, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p.
+25). The evil character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali
+(the black) is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The
+opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in Zoroastrianism.
+Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is Ahriman, the source of all
+evil; and the opposition runs through the whole universe (D'Alviella's
+_Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 158-164).
+
+The conception of _Satan_ (Heb. [Hebrew: Satan], the adversary, Gr.
+[Greek: Satanas], or [Greek: Satan], 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the
+post-exilic period of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of
+the influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots
+in much older beliefs. An "evil spirit" possesses Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 14),
+but it is "from the Lord." The same agency produces discord between
+Abimelech and the Shechemites (Judges ix. 23). "A lying spirit in the
+mouth of all his prophets" as Yahweh's messenger entices Ahab to his
+doom (1 Kings xxii. 22). Growing human corruption is traced to the
+fleshy union of angels and women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil,
+whether as misfortune or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (1 Sam.
+xviii. 10; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1; 1 Kings xxii. 20; Isa. vi. 10, lxiii. 17).
+After the Exile there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence
+by the introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all
+evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of God and
+man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands as the adversary
+of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by Yahweh for desiring that
+Jerusalem should be further punished. In the book of Job he presents
+himself before the Lord among the sons of God (ii. 1), yet he is
+represented both as accuser and tempter. He disbelieves in Job's
+integrity, and desires him to be so tried that he may fall into sin.
+While, according to 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, God himself tests David in regard to
+the numbering of the people, according to 1 Chron. xxi. 1 it is Satan
+who tempts him.
+
+The development of the conception continued in later Judaism, which was
+probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism. It is doubtful,
+however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book of Tobit is the same as
+the A[=e]shma Da[=e]wa of the Bundahesh. He is the evil spirit who slew
+the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8), and the name probably means
+"Destroyer." In the book of Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a
+rival kingdom of evil, but here are also mentioned Satans, who are
+distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function,
+to tempt, to accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly
+(Ecclesiasticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii.
+(Wisdom ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom
+lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14); Gen. iii. is probably
+referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, "a serpent speaking with the
+words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert wisdom." The _Book of
+the Secrets of Enoch_ not only identifies Satan with the Serpent, but
+also describes his revolt against God, and expulsion from heaven. In the
+Jewish _Targums_ Sammael, "the highest angel that stands before God's
+throne, caused the serpent to seduce the woman"; he coalesces with
+Satan, and has inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is
+ascribed to a union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's
+standing before God he is greatly feared.
+
+This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced in the
+New Testament. Satan is the [Greek: diabolos] (Matt. xiii. 39; John
+xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10), slanderer or accuser,
+the [Greek: peirazôn] (Matt. iv. 3; 1 Thess. iii. 5), the tempter, the
+[Greek: ponêros] (Matt. v. 37; John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil
+one, and the [Greek: echthros] (Matt. xiii. 39), the enemy. He is
+apparently identified with Beelzebub (or Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26,
+27. Jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons belonging to a
+kingdom of evil under the leadership of Satan "the prince of demons"
+(Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in demonic possessions it is his
+function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 11, vi. 7; Luke x. 17-20). But he
+himself conquers Satan in resisting his temptations (Matt. iv. 1-11).
+Simon is warned against him, and Judas yields to him as tempter (Luke
+xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's cures are represented as a triumph
+over Satan (Luke x. 18). This Jewish doctrine is found in Paul's letters
+also. Satan rules over a world of evil, supernatural agencies, whose
+dwelling is in the lower heavens (Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince
+of the power of the air" (ii. 2). He is the tempter (1 Thess. iii. 5; 1
+Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x. 10), to whom the offender is to be
+handed over for bodily destruction (v. 5), identified with the serpent
+(Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and probably with Beliar or Belial (vi.
+15); and the surrender of man to him brought death into the world (Rom.
+v. 17). Paul's own "stake in the flesh" is Satan's messenger (2 Cor.
+xii. 7). According to Hebrews Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by
+dying (ii. 14). Revelation describes the war in heaven between God with
+his angels and Satan or the dragon, the "old serpent," the deceiver of
+the whole world (xii. 9), with his hosts of darkness. After the
+overthrow of the Beast and the kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned
+in the bottomless pit a thousand years (xx. 2). Again loosed to deceive
+the nations, he is finally cast into the lake of fire and brimstone (xx.
+10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2 Peter ii. 4). In John's Gospel and Epistles
+Satan is opposed to Christ. Sinner and murderer from the beginning (1
+John iii. 8) and liar by nature (John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin
+(viii. 34), causes death (verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30),
+but has no power over Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. 11; 1
+John v. 18). He will be destroyed by Christ with all his works (John
+xvi. 33; 1 John iii. 8).
+
+In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic Age "the
+present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon, was just as
+generally presupposed as man's need of redemption, which was regarded as
+a result of that dominion. The tenacity of this belief may be explained
+among other things by the living impression of the polytheism that
+surrounded the communities on every side. By means of this assumption
+too, humanity seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for
+redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range"
+(Harnack's _History of Dogma_, i. p. 181). While Christ's First Advent
+delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow would be
+completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics held that "the present
+world sprang from a fall of man, or from an undertaking hostile to God,
+and is, therefore, the product of an evil or intermediate being" (p.
+257). Some taught that while the future had been assigned by God to
+Christ, the devil had received the present age (p. 309). The fathers
+traced all doctrines not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and
+the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil
+transforming himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes
+Satan's fall to "pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation"; and
+traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in resisting his
+temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline passages, represents
+the death of Christ "as a ransom paid to the 'apostasy' for men who had
+fallen into captivity" (ii. 290). He does not admit that Satan has any
+lawful claim on man, or that God practised a deceit on him, as later
+fathers taught. This theory of the _atonement_ was formulated by Origen.
+"By his successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God
+offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped, as
+Christ overcame both him and death" (p. 367). It was held by Gregory of
+Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase _pia fraus_, Augustine, Leo I., and
+Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst form. "The humanity of Christ
+was the bait; the fish, the devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging
+on the invisible hook, Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the
+relation of the work of Christ to Satan retires into the background,
+Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view.
+It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the Lombard
+asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard represents man's
+bondage to Satan "as righteously permitted as a just retribution for
+sin," he being "the executioner of the divine justice." Another theory
+of Origen's found less acceptance. The devil, as a being resulting from
+God's will, cannot always remain a devil. The possibility of his
+redemption, however, was in the 5th century branded as a heresy. Persian
+dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the doctrine
+of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy views of
+Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to this
+influence. Mani taught that Satan with his demons, sprung from the
+kingdom of darkness, attacked the realm of light, the earth, defeated
+man sent against him by the God of light, but was overthrown by the God
+of light, who then delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). "During the
+middle ages," says Tulloch, "the belief in the devil was
+absorbing--saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant
+conflict with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the
+13th to the 15th century, passed into Protestantism. Luther was always
+conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan. "As I found he was
+about to begin again," says Luther, "I gathered together my books, and
+got into bed. Another time in the night I heard him above my cell
+walking on the cloister, but as I knew it was the devil I paid no
+attention to him and went to sleep." He held that this world will pass
+away with its pleasures, as there can be no real improvement in it, for
+the devil continues in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii.
+191). I. A. Dorner (_Christian Doctrine_, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant
+doctrine as follows:--"He is brought into relation with natural
+sinfulness, and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to
+him. The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery to
+Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the
+extra-Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and by his
+word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating anything is
+also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting substances is
+conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judgment that his power is
+wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered up to eternal punishment."
+This belief in the devil was specially strong in Scotland among both
+clergy and laity in the 17th century. "The devil was always and
+literally at hand," says Buckle, "he was haunting them, speaking to
+them, and tempting them. Go where they would he was there."
+
+In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on
+this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of demonic possession, and
+held that Christ in his language accommodated himself to the views of
+the sick whom he was seeking to cure. Kant regarded the devil as a
+personification of the radical evil in man. Daub in his _Judas
+Ishcarioth_ argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute evil, and
+the absolute evil as real must be in a person. Schelling regarded the
+devil as, not a person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the
+freedom of man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the
+common belief. "The problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in
+Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self-knowledge." Dorner has
+formulated a theory which explains the development of the conception of
+Satan in the Holy Scriptures as in correspondence with an evolution in
+the character of Satan. "Satan appears in Scripture under four leading
+characters:--first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to
+decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts
+criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine, which
+brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he is described,
+especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of God and man." He
+supposes "a change in Satan in the course of the history of the divine
+revelation, in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn
+enemy of God and man, especially in the New Testament times, in which,
+on the other hand, his power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues
+that "the world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits
+breaches everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance" (pp. 99, 102).
+H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. "The evil
+principle," he says, "has in itself no personality, but attains a
+progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no individual
+personality, save only in individual creatures, who in an especial
+manner make themselves its organs; but among these is one creature in
+whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and
+head of the kingdom of evil" (_Dogmatics_, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no
+place in his constructive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but
+recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another
+constitutes a kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E.
+Garvie, _The Ritschlian Theology_, p. 304). Kaftan affirms that a
+"doctrine about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as
+faith can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the
+dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left to the
+immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will on account of
+the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would be arrogant to wish
+to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the thought that Satan also
+stands under the commission of the Almighty God, and that no one must
+suppose that by leading back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get
+rid of his own guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith"
+(_Dogmatik_, p. 348). In the book entitled _Evil and Evolution_ there is
+"an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient
+mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil is best
+explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan, who in the
+process of evolution interferes with the divine designs, an interference
+which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible.
+Satan is, however, held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom
+been estranged from, and opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be
+conquered by moral means. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic
+possession maintains that "the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son
+of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession" (p.
+150), and argues that, as "the Incarnation indicated the establishment
+of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took place "a counter
+movement among the powers of darkness," of which "genuine demonic
+possession was one of the manifestations" (p. 249).
+
+Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently affirmed
+that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an essential
+article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an indispensable
+element of Christian experience. On the one hand science has so
+explained many of the processes of outer nature and of the inner life of
+man as to leave no room for Satanic agency. On the other hand the modern
+view of the inspiration of the Scriptures does not necessitate the
+acceptance of the doctrine of the Scriptures on this subject as finally
+and absolutely authoritative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter
+may be accounted for as either an accommodation to the views of those
+with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the limitation
+of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the Incarnation, for it
+cannot be contended that as revealer of God and redeemer of men it was
+imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in
+this respect. The possibility of the existence of evil spirits,
+organized under one leader Satan to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be
+denied; the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may,
+however, be doubted; the necessity of any such belief for Christian
+thought and life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also DEMONOLOGY;
+POSSESSION.)                                                (A. E. G.*)
+
+
+DEVIZES, a market town and municipal borough in the Devizes
+parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by S. of London
+by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6532. Its castle was built on
+a tongue of land flanked by two deep ravines, and behind this the town
+grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its
+main streets, in which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate
+from the market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord
+Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town on the N.,
+passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-nine locks. St
+John's church, one of the most interesting in Wiltshire, is cruciform,
+with a massive central tower, based upon two round and two pointed
+arches. It was originally Norman of the 12th century, and the chancel
+arch and low vaulted chancel, in this style, are very fine. In the
+interior several ancient monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are
+preserved, besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich
+ceilings of oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly
+Norman, but was rebuilt in the 15th and again in the 19th century. Its
+lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof, and the
+south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves its Norman mouldings.
+The woollen industries of Devizes have lost their prosperity; but there
+is a large grain trade, with engineering works, breweries, and
+manufactures of silk, snuff, tobacco and agricultural implements. The
+town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors.
+Area, 906 acres.
+
+Devizes (_Divisis_, _la Devise_, _De Vies_) does not appear in any
+historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the
+construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger, bishop of
+Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important political centre,
+and led to its speedy development. After the disgrace of Roger in 1139
+the castle was seized by the Crown; in the 14th century it formed part
+of the dowry of the queens of England, and figured prominently in
+history until its capture and demolition by Cromwell in the Civil War of
+the 17th century. Devizes became a borough by prescription, and the
+first charter from Matilda, confirmed by successive later sovereigns,
+merely grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of
+undisturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause conferring on the town the
+liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II. instituted a coroner. A gild
+merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward II. and Edward III., and in
+1614 was divided into the three companies of drapers, mercers and
+leathersellers. The present governing charters were issued by James I.
+and Charles I., the latter being little more than a confirmation of the
+former, which instituted a common council consisting of a mayor, a town
+clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses. These charters were surrendered
+to Charles II., and a new one was conferred by James II., but abandoned
+three years later in favour of the original grant. Devizes returned two
+members to parliament from 1295, until deprived of one member by the
+Representation of the People Act of 1867, and of the other by the
+Redistribution Act of 1885. The woollen manufacture was the staple
+industry of the town from the reign of Edward III. until the middle of
+the 18th century, when complaints as to the decay of trade began to be
+prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth the market was held on Monday, and
+there were two annual fairs at the feasts of the Purification of the
+Virgin and the Decollation of John the Baptist. The market was
+transferred to Thursday in the next reign, and the fairs in the 18th
+century had become seven in number.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Wiltshire_; _History of Devizes_ (Devizes,
+  1859).
+
+
+DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68), the name applied to the war which arose
+out of Louis XIV.'s claims to certain Spanish territories in right of
+his wife Maria Theresa, upon whom the ownership was alleged to have
+"devolved." (See, for the military operations, DUTCH WARS.) The war was
+ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668.
+
+
+DEVON, EARLS OF. From the family of De Redvers (De Ripuariis; Riviers),
+who had been earls of Devon from about 1100, this title passed to Hugh
+de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340), the representative of a prominent family in
+the county (see Gibbon's "digression" in chap. lxi. of the _Decline and
+Fall_, ed. Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay
+(1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of Towton.
+It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward Courtenay (d. 1509), whose
+son Sir William (d. 1511) married Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too
+great proximity to the throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry
+(c. 1498-1539) was restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in
+1525 was created marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of
+William Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture
+on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son Edward
+(1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant in the Courtenay
+family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the
+House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon was restored to the peerage,
+still being held by the head of the Courtenays. The earlier earls of
+Devon were referred to occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the
+former variant has prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the
+earldom and dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND
+DUKES OF, and also the article COURTENAY).
+
+
+DEVONIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name applied to series of stratified
+fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed during the Devonian
+period, that is, in the interval of time between the close of the
+Silurian period and the beginning of the Carboniferous; it includes the
+marine Devonian and an estuarine Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The
+name "Devonian" was introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A.
+Sedgwick to describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W.
+Lonsdale had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be
+intermediate between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two
+workers also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the
+continent, where already several others, F. Roemer, H. E. Beyrich, &c.,
+were endeavouring to elucidate the succession of strata in this portion
+of the "Transition Series." The labours of these earlier workers,
+including in addition to those already mentioned, the brothers F. and G.
+von Sandberger, A. Dumont, J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de
+Verneuil and H. von Dechen, although somewhat modified by later
+students, formed the foundation upon which the modern classification of
+the Devonian rocks is based.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution of Devonian Rocks]
+
+                   _Stratigraphy of the Devonian Facies._
+
+  Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall that
+  the Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central Europe
+  that the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and here, too,
+  their geological position was first indicated by the founders of the
+  system, Sedgwick and Murchison.
+
+  _Continental Europe._--Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the
+  centre of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south of
+  Belgium across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best known from
+  the picturesque gorges which have been cut through them by the Rhine
+  below Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves. They reappear from under
+  younger formations in Brittany, in the Harz and Thuringia, and are
+  exposed in Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, North Moravia and eastern
+  Galicia. The principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical
+  areas are indicated in Table I.
+
+  This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata,
+  is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet
+  represents the _Stringocephalus_ limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards
+  into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical
+  modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general
+  palaeontological characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony,
+  Silesia, the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have
+  been detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of
+  the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods,
+  lamellibranchs and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of
+  the Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales,
+  limestones and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but
+  containing ores of silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other
+  metals, may be referable to the Devonian system.
+
+  In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of a
+  vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional
+  seams of limestone, and in particular with one thick central
+  calcareous zone. These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by
+  numerous broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (_Phacops_,
+  _Homalonotus_, &c.) which, though generically like those of the
+  Silurian system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous
+  zone abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous
+  brachiopods. In the highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods
+  (_Clymenia_) occurs in some of the limestones, while the shales are
+  crowded with a small but characteristic ostracod crustacean
+  (_Cypridina_). Here and there traces of fishes have been found, more
+  especially in the Eifel, but seldom in such a state of preservation as
+  to warrant their being assigned to any definite place in the
+  zoological scale. Subsequently, however, E. Beyrich has described from
+  Gerolstein in the Eifel an undoubted species of _Pterichthys_, which,
+  as it cannot be certainly identified with any known form, he names _P.
+  Rhenanus_. A _Coccosteus_ has been described by F. A. Roemer from the
+  Harz, and still later one has been cited from Bicken near Herborn by
+  V. Koenen; but, as Beyrich points out, there may be some doubt as to
+  whether the latter is not a _Pterichthys_. A _Ctenacanthus_, seemingly
+  undistinguishable from the _C. Bohemicus_ of Barrande's Étage G, has
+  also been obtained from the Lower Devonian "Nereitenschichten" of
+  Thuringia. The characteristic _Holoptychius nobilissimus_ has been
+  detected in the Psammite de Condroz, which in Belgium forms a
+  characteristic sandy portion of the Upper Devonian rocks. These are
+  interesting facts, as helping to link the Devonian and Old Red
+  Sandstone types together. But they are as yet too few and unsupported
+  to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations between these
+  types.
+
+  It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red
+  Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones
+  and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the
+  fish-bearing sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was
+  shown in the great work _Russia and the Ural Mountains_ by Murchison,
+  De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper
+  Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent of
+  surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development arises
+  not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal character
+  of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described elsewhere, they
+  remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they were
+  originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they present but
+  a meagre representative of the massive Devonian greywacke and
+  limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Yet vast
+  though the area is over which they form the surface rock, it is
+  probably only a small portion of their total extent; for they are
+  found turned up from under the newer formations along the flank of the
+  Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread continuously across
+  the whole breadth of Russia in Europe. Though almost everywhere
+  undisturbed, they afford evidence of some terrestrial oscillation
+  between the time of their formation and that of the Silurian rocks on
+  which they rest, for they are found gradually to overlap Upper and
+  Lower Silurian formations.
+
+                                  TABLE I.
+
+       +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+       |             |                   |                              | Brittany and |                 |                 |
+       |  Stages.    |     Ardennes.     |           Rhineland.         |   Normandy.  |    Bohemia.     |      Harz.      |
+     / +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+    |  |             | Limestone of      | Cypridina slates.            | Slates of    |                 | Cypridina       |
+ U  |  |             |  Etroeungt.       | Pön sandstone (Sauerland).   |  Rostellec.  |                 |  slates.        |
+ P  |  | Famennien   | Psammites of      | Crumbly limestone (Kramen-   |              |                 | Clymenia        |
+ P  |  | (Clymenia   |  Condroz (sandy   |  zelkalk) with Clymenia.     |              |                 |  limestone and  |
+ E  |  |  beds).     |  series).         | Neheim slates in Sauerland,  |              |                 |  limestone of   |
+ R  |  |             | Slates of Famenne |  and diabases, tuffs, &c.,   |              |                 |  Altenau.       |
+    |  |             |  (shaly series).  |  in Dillmulde, &c.           |              |                 |                 |
+ D /   +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+ E \   |             | Slates of         | Adorf limestone of Waldeck   | Limestone of |                 | Iberg limestone |
+ V  |  |             |  Matagne.         |  and shales with Goniatites  |  Cop-Choux   |                 |  and Winterberg |
+ O  |  | Frasnien    | Limestones, marls |  (Eifel and Aix) =           |  and green   |                 |  limestone;     |
+ N  |  |(Intumesce-  |  and shale of     |  Budesheimer shales.         |  slates of   |                 |  also Adorf     |
+ I  |  | cens beds). |  Frasne, and      | Marls, limestone and dolomite|  Travuliors. |                 |  limestone and  |
+ A  |  |             |  red marble of    |  with Rhynchonella cuboides  |              |                 |  shales         |
+ N  |  |             |  Flanders.        |  (Flinz in part).            |              |                 |  (Budesheim).   |
+ .  |  |             |                   | Iberg limestone of Dillmulde.|              |                 |                 |
+     \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+     / |             | Limestone of      | Stringocephalus limestone,   |Limestones    | H_{2} (of       | Stringocephalus |
+ M  |  |             |  Givet.           |  ironstone of Brilon and     | of Chalonnes,|  Barrande) dark |  shales with    |
+ I  |  |  Givérien   |                   |  Lahnmulde.                  | Montjean and |  plant-bearing  |  Flaser and     |
+ D  |  |(Stringocep- |                   | Upper Lenne shales, crinoidal| l'Ecochère.  |  shales.        |  Knollenkalk.   |
+ D  |  | halus beds).|                   |  limestone of Eifel, red     |              |                 | Wissenbach      |
+ L  |  |             |                   |  sandstones of Aix.          |              |                 |  slates.        |
+ E  |  |             |                   | Tuffs and diabases of Brilon |              | H_{1}.          |                 |
+    |  |             |                   |  and Lahnmulde.              |              |                 |                 |
+ D /   |             |                   | Red conglomerate of Aix.     |              |                 |                 |
+ E \   +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+ V  |  |             | Calceola slates   | Calceola beds, Wissenbach    | Slates of    | G_{3} Cephalo-  | Calceola beds.  |
+ O  |  |             |  and limestones   |  slates, Lower Lenne beds,   |  Porsguen,   |  pod limestone. | Nereite slates, |
+ N  |  | Eifélien    |  of  Couvin.      |  Güntroder limestone and     |  greywacke   | G_{2} Tentacu-  |  slates of      |
+ I  |  |  (Calceola  | Greywacke  with   |  clay slate of Lahnmulde,    |  of Fret.    |  lite limestone.|  Wieda and      |
+ A  |  |   beds).    |  Spirifer         |  Dillmulde, Wildungen,       |              | G_{3} Knollen-  |  limestones of  |
+ N  |  |             |  cultrijugatus.   |  Griefenstein limestone,     |              |  kalk and       |  Hasselfeld.    |
+ .  |  |             |                   |  Ballersbach limestone.      |              |  mottled Mnenian|                 |
+     \ |             |                   |                              |              |  limestone.     |                 |
+       +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+     / | Coblentzien |Greywacke of       | Upper Coblentz slates.       | Limestones   |                 | Haupt quartzite |
+ L  |  |             |  Hierges.         | Red sandstone of Eifel,      |  of Erbray,  |                 |  (of Lossen) =  |
+ O  |  |             |Shales and conglom-|  Coblentz quartzite, lower   |  Brulon, Viré|                 |  Rammelsberg    |
+ W  |  |             | erate of Burnot   |  Coblentz slates.            |  and Néhou,  |                 |  slates, Schal- |
+ E  |  |             | with quartzite,   | Hunsrück and Siegener        |  greywacke   |                 |  lker slates =  |
+ R  |  |             | of Bierlé and     |  greywacke and slates.       |  of Faou,    |                 |  Kahleberg      |
+    |  |             | red  slates of    | Taunus quartzite and         |  sandstone   |                 |  sandstone.     |
+ D  |  |             | Vireux, greywacke |  greywacke.                  |  of Gahard.  | F-{2} of        | Hercynian slates|
+ E /   |             | of Montigny,      |                              |              |  Barrande.      |  and lime-      |
+ V \   |             | sandstone of Anor.|                              |              | White Konjeprus |  stones.        |
+ O  |  +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+  Limestone with |                 |
+ N  |  | Gédinnien   |Slates of St Hubert| Slates of Gédinne.           | Slates and   |  Hercynian      |                 |
+ I  |  |             | and Fooz, slates  |                              |  quartzites  |  fauna.         |                 |
+ A  |  |             | of Mondrepuits,   |                              |  of Plou-    |                 |                 |
+ N  |  |             | arkose of Weis-   |                              |  gastel.     |                 |                 |
+ .  |  |             | mes, conglomerate |                              |              |                 |                 |
+    |  |             | of Fèpin.         |                              |              |                 |                 |
+     \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+
+  The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact,
+  first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite
+  within themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red
+  Sandstone types. In some districts they consist largely of limestones,
+  in others of red sandstones and marls. In the former they present
+  molluscs and other marine organisms of known Devonian species; in the
+  latter they afford remains of fishes, some of which are specifically
+  identical with those of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The
+  distribution of these two palaeontological types in Russia is traced
+  by Murchison to the lithological characters of the rocks, and
+  consequent original diversities of physical conditions, rather than to
+  differences of age. Indeed cases occur where in the same band of rock
+  Devonian shells and Old Red Sandstone fishes lie commingled. In the
+  belt of the formation which extends southwards from Archangel and the
+  White Sea, the strata consist of sands and marls, and contain only
+  fish remains. Traced through the Baltic provinces, they are found to
+  pass into red and green marls, clays, thin limestones and sandstones,
+  with beds of gypsum. In some of the calcareous bands such fossils
+  occur as _Orthis striatula_, _Spiriferina prisca_, _Leptaena
+  productoides_, _Spirifer calcaratus_, _Spirorbis omphaloides_ and
+  _Orthoceras subfusiforme_. In the higher beds _Holoptychius_ and other
+  well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone occur. Followed still
+  farther to the south, as far as the watershed between Orel and
+  Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red colour and sandy
+  character, and become thin-bedded yellow limestones, and dolomites
+  with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt deposits are indicated
+  by occasional saline springs. It is evident that the geographical
+  conditions of the Russian area during the Devonian period must have
+  closely resembled those of the Rhine basin and central England during
+  the Triassic period. The Russian Devonian rocks have been classified
+  in Table II. There is an unquestionable passage of the uppermost
+  Devonian rocks of Russia into the base of the Carboniferous system.
+
+                               TABLE II.
+
+       +---------------------------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+       |     North-West Russia.          | Central Russia. |  Petchoraland.   |       Ural Region.          |
+     / +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+ U  |  | Red sandstone | Limestones with | Limestones with | Domanik slates   | Cypridina slates, Clymenia  |
+ P  |  |  (Old Red).   |  Spirifer       |  Arca oreliana. |  and limestones  |  limestones (Famennien).    |
+ P <   |               |  Verneuili and  | Limestones with |  with Sp.        | Limestones with Gephyoceras |
+ E  |  |               |  Sp. Archiaci.  |  Sp. Verneuili  |  Verneuili.      |  intumescens and            |
+ R  |  |               |                 |  and Sp.        |                  |  Rhynchonella cuboides      |
+    |  |               |                 |  Archiaci.      |                  |  (Frasnien).                |
+     \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+ M   / |    Dolomites and limestones     |            Marl with               | Limestones and slates with  |
+ I  |  |             with                |        Spirifer Anossofi           |  Sp. Anossofi (Givétien).   |
+ D <   |       Spirifer Anossofi.        |           and corals.              | Limestones and slates with  |
+ D  |  |                                                                      |  Pentamerus baschkiricus    |
+ L  |  |                      Lower sandstone (Old Red).                      |  (Eifélien).                |
+ E   \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+     / |                                 |                 |                  | Limestones and slates of    |
+ L  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  the Yuresan and Ufa rivers,|
+ O  |  |            Absent.              |                 |                  |  slate and quartzite,       |
+ W <   |                                 |                 |                  |  marble of Byclaya and      |
+ E  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  of Bogoslovsk, phyllitic   |
+ R  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  schists and quartzite.     |
+     \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+
+  The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very
+  different from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name
+  "Hercynian" has been applied, and the correlation of the strata has
+  been a source of prolonged discussion among continental geologists. A
+  similar fauna appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia, in Brittany
+  (limestone of Erbray) and in the Urals. The Upper Devonian of the Harz
+  passes up into the Culm.
+
+  In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is
+  represented by _Clymenia_ limestone and _Cypridina_ slates with Adorf
+  limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The
+  middle division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaculite and
+  Nereite shales and limestones below. The upper part of the Lower
+  Devonian, the sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably upon
+  Silurian rocks. In the Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones, the
+  equivalents of the Iberg limestone, which attain an enormous
+  thickness; these are underlain by coral limestones with fossils
+  similar to those of the Konjeprus limestone of Bohemia; below these
+  are shales and nodular limestones with goniatites. The Devonian rocks
+  of Poland are sandy in the lower, and more calcareous in the upper
+  parts. They are of interest because while the upper portions agree
+  closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top of the Coblentzien
+  upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red Sandstone fishes
+  (_Coccosteus_, &c.) are found. In France Devonian rocks are found well
+  developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table, also in Normandy and
+  Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the middle and upper divisions
+  are known. In south France in the neighbourhood of Cabrières, about
+  Montpellier and in the Montagne Noire, all three divisions are found
+  in a highly calcareous condition. Devonian rocks are recognized,
+  though frequently much metamorphosed, on both the northern and
+  southern flanks of the Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they
+  are extensively developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft.
+  thick, all three divisions and most of the central European
+  subdivisions are present. In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of
+  Spain bear a marked resemblance to those of Brittany.
+
+  _Asia._--From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have been
+  traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai Mountains
+  they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age with a fauna
+  possessing Hercynian features. The same features are observed in the
+  Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan. Well-developed
+  quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of Yarkand and
+  Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are widespread in China.
+  Upper Devonian rocks are recorded from Persia, and from the Hindu Kush
+  on the right bank of the Chitral river.
+
+  _England._--In England the original Devonian rocks are developed in
+  Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire these rocks
+  consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south Devon there
+  are, in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and intercalations
+  of lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the stratigraphy in this
+  region is a difficult matter, partly on account of the absence of good
+  exposures with fossils, and partly through the disturbed condition of
+  the rocks. The system has been subdivided as shown in Table III.
+
+                                   TABLE III.
+
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+          |    North Devon and West     |                               |
+          |          Somerset.          |         South Devon.          |
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+        / | Pilton group. Grits, slates | Ashburton slates.             |
+   U   |  |  and thin limestones.       | Livaton slates.               |
+   P   |  | Baggy group. Sandstones     | Red and green Entomis slates  |
+   P  <   |  and slates.                |  (Famennien).                 |
+   E   |  | Pickwell Down group.        | Red and grey slates with      |
+   R   |  |  Dark slates and grits.     |  tuffs.                       |
+   .   |  | Morte slates (?).           | Chudleigh goniatite limestone |
+        \ |                             |  Petherwyn beds (Frasnien).   |
+   M      +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   I    / | Ilfracombe slates with      | Torquay and Plymouth          |
+   D   |  |  lenticles of limestone.    |  limestones and Ashprington   |
+   D  <   | Combe Martin grits and      |  volcanic series. (Givétien   |
+   L   |  |  slates.                    |  and Eifélien.)               |
+   E   |  |                             | Slates and limestones of      |
+   .    \ |                             |  Hope's Nose.                 |
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   L    / | Hangman grits and slates.   | Looe beds (Cornwall).         |
+   O   |  | Lynton group, grits and     | Meadfoot, Cockington and      |
+   W  <   |  calcareous slates.         |  Warberry series of slates    |
+   E   |  | Foreland grits and slates.  |  and greywackes. (Coblentzien |
+   R   |  |                             |  and Gédinnien.)              |
+   .    \ +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+  The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the Rhenish
+  and south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the Devonian rocks
+  pass upward without break into the Culm.
+
+  _North America._--In North America the Devonian rocks are extensively
+  developed; they have been studied most closely in the New York region,
+  where they are classified according to Table IV.
+
+  The classification below is not capable of application over the states
+  generally and further details are required from many of the regions
+  where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but everywhere the broad
+  threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland the following
+  arrangement has been adopted--(1) Helderberg = Coeymans; (2) Oriskany;
+  (3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings = Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire
+  = Catskill in part. In the interior the Helderbergian is missing and
+  the system commences with (1) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton,
+  (4) Portage (and Genesee), (5) Chemung.
+
+  The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the
+  continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and in Canada
+  (Gaspé, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal); an Appalachian belt,
+  and a lower Mississippian region. The series as a whole is mainly
+  calcareous (2000 ft. in Gaspé), and thins out towards the west. The
+  fauna has Hercynian affinities. The Oriskany formation consists
+  largely of coarse sandstones; it is thin in New York, but in Maryland
+  and Virginia it is several hundred feet thick. It is more widespread
+  than the underlying Helderbergian. The Lower Devonian appears to be
+  thick in northern Maine and in Gaspé, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia,
+  but neither the palaeontology nor the stratigraphy has been completely
+  worked out.
+
+  In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base, Esopus
+  and Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the
+  Appalachian region; but the Onondaga limestones are much more
+  extensive. The Erian series is often described as the Hamilton series
+  outside the New York district, where the _Marcellus_ shales are
+  grouped together with the Hamilton shales, and numerous local
+  subdivisions are included, as in Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The
+  rocks are mostly shales or slates, but limestones predominate in the
+  western development. In Pennsylvania the Hamilton series is from 1500
+  ft. to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more calcareous western extension it
+  is much thinner. The _Marcellus_ shales are bituminous in places.
+
+  The Senecan series is composed of shallow-water deposits; the Tully
+  limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a layer
+  of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The bituminous
+  Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.); 25 ft. on Lake
+  Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage formation reach 1000
+  ft. to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the Chautauquan series the
+  Chemung formation is not always clearly separable from the Portage
+  beds, it is a sandstone and conglomerate formation which reaches its
+  maximum thickness (8000 ft.) in Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly
+  towards the west. In the Catskill region the Upper Devonian has an Old
+  Red facies--red shales and sandstones with a freshwater and brackish
+  fauna.
+
+                                     TABLE IV.
+
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+         |               |                               |  Probable   |
+         |  Groups.      |    Formations.                |  European   |
+         |               |                               | Equivalent. |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+       / | Chautauquan.  | Chemung beds with Catskill    | Famennien.  |
+  U   |  |               |  as a local facies.           |             |
+  P   |  |               |                               |             |
+  P  <   |             ( | Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca  | Frasnien.   |
+  E   |  |             ( |  and Oneonta shales as local  |             |
+  R   |  | Senecan.    < |  facies).                     |             |
+  .   |  |             ( | Genesee shales.               |             |
+       \ |             ( | Tully limestone.              |             |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+  M    / | Erian.      ( | Hamilton shale.               | Givétien.   |
+  I   |  |             ( | Marcellus shale.              |             |
+  D   |  |               |                               |             |
+  D  <   |             ( | Onondaga (Corniferous)        | Eifélien.   |
+  L   |  | Ulsterian.  ( |   limestone.                  |             |
+  E   |  |             < | Schoharie grit.               |             |
+  .    \ |             ( | Esopus grit (Caudagalli grit).|             |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+  L    / | Oriskanian.   | Oriskany sandstone.           | Coblentzien.|
+  O   |  |               |                               |             |
+  W   |  |             ( | Kingston beds.                | Gédinnien.  |
+  E  <   |Helderbe-    ( | Becraft limestone.            |             |
+  R   |  |   rgian.    < | New Scotland beds.            |             |
+  .   |  |             ( | Coeymans limestone.           |             |
+       \ +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+
+  Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short
+  distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated
+  Devonian rocks in many parts of the continent. In the Great Plains
+  this system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado,
+  Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona; Devonian rocks
+  occur between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains, in the Arbuckle
+  Mountains of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the western interior limestones
+  predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are found at Eureka, Nevada,
+  beneath 2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific coast metamorphism of the
+  rocks is common, and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them.
+
+  In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern
+  region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along the
+  course of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence they
+  stretch out into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much that is
+  now classed as Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil evidence to be
+  Carboniferous.
+
+  _South America, Africa, Australia, &c._--In South America the Devonian
+  is well developed; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and the
+  Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about the junction
+  of the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has affinities with
+  the Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied to the South
+  American Devonian is that of South Africa, where they are represented
+  by the Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In Australia we find Lower
+  Devonian consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks;
+  and a Middle division with coral limestones in Victoria, New South
+  Wales and Queensland; an Upper division has also been observed. In New
+  Zealand the Devonian is well exposed in the Reefton mining field; and
+  it has been suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may
+  belong to this system.
+
+           _Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies._
+
+  The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald Geikie,
+  "consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down
+  conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off
+  in the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while
+  they are separated from each other by an unconformability." The Old
+  Red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated
+  lakes or lagoons, approximately parallel to one another, with a
+  general alignment in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas of deposit
+  Sir A. Geikie has assigned convenient distinctive names.
+
+  In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a
+  pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative of a
+  prolonged interval of erosion. In the central valley between the base
+  of the Highlands and the southern uplands lay "Lake Caledonia." Here
+  the lower division is made up of some 20,000 ft. of shallow-water
+  deposits, reddish-brown, yellow and grey sandstones and conglomerates,
+  with occasional "cornstones," and thin limestones. The grey flagstones
+  with shales are almost confined to Forfarshire, and are known as the
+  "Arbroath flags." Interbedded volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites,
+  diabases, with agglomerates and tuffs constitute an important feature,
+  and attain a thickness of 6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A
+  line of old volcanic vents may be traced in a direction roughly
+  parallel to the trend of the great central valley. On the northern
+  side of the Highlands was "Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than
+  the foregoing lake, though its boundaries are not determinable. It lay
+  over Moray Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended
+  from Caithness to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even
+  have stretched across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in
+  Sognefjord and Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some
+  parts of northern Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the
+  Caithness flags, dark grey and bituminous, which, with the red
+  sandstones and conglomerates at their base, probably attain a
+  thickness of 16,000 ft. The somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led
+  Murchison to class the flags as Middle Devonian. In the Shetland
+  Islands contemporaneous volcanic rocks have been observed. Over the
+  west of Argyllshire lay "Lake Lorne"; here the volcanic rocks
+  predominate, they are intercalated with shallow-water deposits. A
+  similar set of rocks occupy the Cheviot district.
+
+  The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in
+  Shropshire and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales,
+  sandstones and marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few fossils,
+  and no break has yet been found in the series. In Scotland this series
+  was deposited in basins which correspond only partially with those of
+  the earlier period. They are well developed in central Scotland over
+  the lowlands bordering the Moray Firth. Interbedded lavas and tuffs
+  are found in the island of Hoy. An interesting feature of this series
+  is the occurrence of great crowds of fossil fishes in some localities,
+  notably at Dura Den in Fife. In the north of England this series rests
+  unconformably upon the Lower Old Red and the Silurian.
+
+  Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmorland, and
+  also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey, a brecciated
+  conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit
+  in places, has often been classed with the Old Red Sandstone, but in
+  parts, at least, it is more likely to belong to the base of the
+  Carboniferous system. In Ireland the lower division appears to be
+  represented by the Dingle beds and Glengariff grits, while the Kerry
+  rocks and the Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the equivalents of the upper
+  division. Rocks of Old Red type, both lower and upper, are found in
+  Spitzbergen and in Bear Island. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the
+  Old Red facies is extensively developed. The Gaspé sandstones have
+  been estimated at 7036 ft. thick. In parts of western Russia Old Red
+  Sandstone fossils are found in beds intercalated with others
+  containing marine fauna of the Devonian facies.
+
+              _Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas._
+
+  The two types of sediment formed during this period--the _marine_
+  Devonian and the _lagoonal_ Old Red Sandstone--representing as they do
+  two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical
+  condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubtless
+  at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off no
+  less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have
+  records; but this period is the earliest in which these variations of
+  environment are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break
+  between the older Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous above
+  is not strongly marked; and in certain areas a very close relationship
+  can be shown to exist between the older Devonian and the former, and
+  the younger Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless, taken as a whole,
+  the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality.
+
+  The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are presented by
+  corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant individually and
+  varied in form; and they are so distinctive of the period that no
+  Devonian species has yet been found either in the Silurian or in the
+  Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present day, and
+  contributed to the formation of limestone masses in Devonshire, on the
+  continent of Europe and in North America. Rugose and tabulate forms
+  prevailed; among the former the cyathophyllids (_Cyathophyllum_) were
+  important, _Phillipsastraea_, _Zaphrentis_, _Acervularia_ and the
+  curious _Calceola_ (_sandalina_), an operculate genus which has given
+  palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis, for it has been
+  regarded as a pelecypod (hippurite) and a brachiopod. The tabulate
+  corals were represented by _Favosites_, _Michelinia_, _Pleurodictyum_,
+  _Fistulipora_, _Pachypora_ and others. _Heliolites_ and _Plasmopora_
+  represent the alcyonarians. Stromatoporoids were important reef
+  builders. A well-known fossil is _Receptaculites_, a genus to which it
+  has been difficult to assign a definite place; it has been thought to
+  be a sponge, it may be a calcareous alga, or a curious representative
+  of the foraminifera.
+
+  In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their
+  development: they compose three-quarters of the known fauna, and more
+  than 1100 species have been described. Changes were taking place from
+  the beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera;
+  several Silurian forms dropped out, and new types were coming in. A
+  noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the
+  genus _Spirifer_, other spiriferids were _Ambocoelia_, _Uncites_,
+  _Verneuilia_. Orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance, while
+  the productids (_Productella_, _Chonetes_, _Strophalosia_) were
+  increasing. The strophomenids were still flourishing, represented by
+  the genera _Leptaena_, _Stropheodonta_, _Kayserella_, and others. The
+  ancient _Lingula_, along with _Crania_ and _Orbiculoidea_, occur among
+  the inarticulate forms. Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is
+  _Atrypa reticularis_. The athyrids were very numerous (_Athyris_,
+  _Retzia_, _Merista_, _Meristella_, _Kayserina_, &c.); and the
+  rhynchonellids were well represented by _Pugnax_, _Hypothyris_, and
+  several other genera. The important group of terebratulids appears in
+  this system; amongst them _Stringocephalus_ is an eminently
+  characteristic Devonian brachiopod; others are _Dielasma_,
+  _Cryptonella_, _Rensselaeria_ and _Oriskania_.
+
+  The pelecypod molluscs were represented by _Pterinea_, abundant in the
+  lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by
+  _Cucullella_, _Buchiola_ and _Curtonotus_ in the upper members of the
+  system. Other genera are _Actinodesma_, _Cardiola_, _Nucula_,
+  _Megalodon_, _Aviculopecten_, &c. Gasteropods were becoming more
+  important, but the simple capulid forms prevailed: _Platyceras_
+  (_Capulus_), _Straparollus_, _Pleurotomaria_, _Murchisonia_,
+  _Macrocheilina_, _Euomphalus_. Among the pteropods, _Tentaculites_ was
+  very abundant in some quarters; others were _Conularia_ and
+  _Styliolina_. In the Devonian period the cephalopods began to make a
+  distinct advance in numbers, and in development. The goniatites appear
+  with the genera _Anarcestes_, _Agoniatites_, _Tornoceras_, _Bactrites_
+  and others; and in the upper strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the
+  later ammonoids, began to take definite shape. While several new
+  nautiloids (_Homaloceras_, _Ryticeras_, &c.) made their appearance
+  several of the older genera still lived on (_Orthoceras_,
+  _Poterioceras_, _Actinoceras_).
+
+  Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian sea, though
+  they were relatively scarce in others; they include the genera
+  _Melocrinus_, _Haplocrinus_, _Cupressocrinus_, _Calceocrinus_ and
+  _Eleuthrocrinus_. The cystideans were falling off (_Proteocystis_,
+  _Tiaracrinus_), but blastoids were in the ascendant (_Nucleocrinus_,
+  _Codaster_, &c.). Both brittle-stars, _Ophiura_, _Palaeophiura_,
+  _Eugaster_, and true starfishes, _Palaeaster_, _Aspidosoma_, were
+  present, as well as urchins (_Lepidocentrus_).
+
+  When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct
+  assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly
+  lacustrine or lagoonal with a eurypteridian facies. The trilobites had
+  already begun to decline in importance, and as happens not
+  infrequently with degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to
+  develop strange eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their
+  genera. A number of Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period,
+  and some gradually developed into new and distinctive forms; such were
+  _Proëtus_, _Harpes_, _Cheirurus_, _Bronteus_ and others. Distinct
+  species of _Phacops_ mark the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively,
+  while the genus _Dalmania_ (_Odontochile_) was represented by species
+  with an almost world-wide range. The Ostracod _Entomis_ (_Cypridina_)
+  was extremely abundant in places--_Cypridinen-Schiefer_--while the
+  true _Cypridina_ was also present along with _Beyrichia_,
+  _Leperditia_, &c. The Phyllocarids, _Echinocaris_, _Eleuthrocaris_,
+  _Tropidocaris_, are common in the United States. It is in the Old Red
+  Sandstone that the eurypterids are best preserved; foremost among
+  these was _Pterygotus_; _P. anglicus_ has been found in Scotland with
+  a length of nearly 6 ft.; _Eurypterus_, _Slimonia_, _Stylonurus_ were
+  other genera.
+
+  Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and
+  neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder believed he
+  had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a stridulating organ
+  was present. A species of _Ephemera_, allied to the modern may-fly,
+  had a spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the Scottish Old Red
+  Sandstone myriapods, _Kampecaris_ and _Archidesmus_, have been
+  described; they are somewhat simpler than more recent forms, each
+  segment being separate, and supplied with only one pair of walking
+  legs. Spiders and scorpions also lived upon the land.
+
+  The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red strata,
+  coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed by some of the
+  forms, has caused the period to be described as the "age of fishes."
+  As in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above, we find one
+  assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater or brackish
+  conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine
+  Devonian; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there
+  seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of
+  living in either environment, whatever may have been the real
+  condition of the Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious
+  ostracoderms, a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the
+  characteristics of fishes, but more probably belonging to a distinct
+  class of organisms, which appears to link the vertebrates with the
+  arthropods. They had come into existence late in Silurian times; but
+  it is in the Old Red strata that their remains are most fully
+  preserved. They were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of
+  Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada, and are represented by
+  such forms as _Pteraspis_, _Cephalaspis_, _Cyathaspis_, _Tremataspis_,
+  _Bothriolepis_ and _Pterichthys_.
+
+  In the lower members of the Old Red series _Dipterus_, and in the
+  upper members _Phaneropleuron_, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes;
+  and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious
+  forms still survive in the African _Protopterus_, the Australian
+  _Ceratodus_ and the South American _Lepidosiren_,--all freshwater
+  fishes. Distantly related to the lung-fishes were the singular
+  arthrodirans, a group possessing the unusual faculty of moving the
+  head in a vertical plane. These comprise the wide-ranging _Coccosteus_
+  with _Homosteus_ and _Dinichthys_, the largest fish of the period. The
+  latter probably reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with
+  exceedingly powerful jaws provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were
+  fairly prominent denizens of the sea; some were armed with cutting
+  teeth, others with crushing dental plates; and although they were on
+  the whole marine fishes, they were evidently able to live in fresher
+  waters, like some of their modern representatives, for their remains,
+  mostly teeth and large dermal spines, are found both in the Devonian
+  and Old Red rocks. _Mesacanthus_, _Diplacanthus_, _Climatius_,
+  _Cheiracanthus_ are characteristic genera. The crossopterygians,
+  ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of the fins, were represented
+  by _Holoptychius_ and _Glyptopomus_ in the Upper Old Red, and by such
+  genera as _Diplopterus_, _Osteolepis_, _Gyroptychius_ in the lower
+  division. The _Polypterus_ of the Nile and _Calamoichthys_ of South
+  Africa are the modern exemplars of this group. _Cheirolepis_, found in
+  the Old Red of Scotland and Canada, is the only Devonian
+  representative of the actinopterygian fishes. The cyclostome fishes
+  have, so far, been discovered only in Scotland, in the tiny
+  _Palaeospondylus_. Amphibian remains have been found in the Devonian
+  of Belgium; and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the
+  same class (_Thinopus antiquus_) have been described by Professor
+  Marsh from the Chemung formation of Pennsylvania.
+
+  _Plant Life._--In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone we
+  find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In
+  some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they
+  form thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently flourished
+  around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains were
+  buried along with the other forms of life. Lycopods and ferns were the
+  predominant types; and it is important to notice that both groups were
+  already highly developed. The ferns include the genera _Sphenopteris_,
+  _Megalopteris_, _Archaeopteris_, _Neuropteris_. Among the Lycopods are
+  _Lycopodites_, _Psilophyton_, _Lepidodendron_. Modern horsetails are
+  represented by _Calamocladus_, _Asterocalamites_, _Annularia_. Of
+  great interest are the genera _Cordaites_, _Araucarioxylon_, &c.,
+  which were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the Coniferae and
+  the Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure markings, aquatic
+  plants are not so well represented as might have been expected;
+  _Parka_, a common fossil, has been regarded as a water plant with a
+  creeping stem and two kinds of sporangia in sessile sporocarps.
+
+_Physical Conditions, &c._--Perhaps the most striking fact that is
+brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils is the
+gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took place quietly
+in every quarter of the globe shortly after the beginning of the period.
+While in most places the Lower Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian
+formations in a perfectly conformable manner, the Middle and Upper
+divisions, on account of this encroachment of the sea, rest
+unconformably upon the older rocks, the Lower division being
+unrepresented. This is true over the greater part of South America, so
+far as our limited knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North
+America, in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central
+Europe. Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the
+coast lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The
+known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas; no
+abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has pointed out the
+probability of a Eurasian sea province extending through Europe towards
+the east, across north and central Asia towards Manitoba in Canada, and
+an American sea province embracing the United States, South America and
+South Africa. At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land
+area caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before the
+beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe to eastern
+Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red Sandstone was formed.
+
+In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence of three
+zones of deposition: (1) A northern, Old Red, region, including Great
+Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and Spitzbergen; here the land was
+close at hand; great brackish lagoons prevailed, which communicated more
+or less directly with the open sea. In European Russia, during its
+general advance, the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas, only
+to be driven off again, during pauses in the relative subsidence of the
+land, when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more established
+the lagoonal conditions. These alternating phases were frequently
+repeated. (2) A middle region, covering Devonshire and Cornwall, the
+Ardennes, the northern part of the lower Rhenish mountains, and the
+upper Harz to the Polish Mittelgebirge; here we find evidence of a
+shallow sea, clastic deposits and a sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern
+region reaching from Brittany to the south of the Rhenish mountains,
+lower Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here was a deeper sea with a more
+pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind that the above-mentioned regions
+are intended to refer to the time when the extension of the Devonian sea
+was near its maximum. In the case of North America it has been shown
+that in early and middle Devonian time more or less distinct faunas
+invaded the continent from five different centres, viz. the Helderberg,
+the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern Hamilton and the north-western
+Hamilton; these reached the interior approximately in the order given.
+
+Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas had
+mingled one with another and a more generalized life assemblage had been
+evolved, we find many forms with a very wide range, indicating great
+uniformity of conditions. Thus we find identical species of brachiopods
+inhabiting the Devonian seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany,
+Russia, southern Asia and China; such are, _Hypothyris_ (_Rhynchonella_)
+_cuboides_, _Spirifer disjunctus_ and others. The fauna of the
+_Calceola_ shales can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and
+Siberia; the _Stringocephalus_ limestones are represented in Belgium,
+England, the Urals and Canada; and the (_Gephyroceras_) _intumescens_
+shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba.
+
+The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no violent crustal
+movements seem to have taken place, and while some changes of level
+occurred towards its close in Great Britain, Bohemia and Russia,
+generally the passage from Devonian to Carboniferous conditions was
+quite gradual. In later periods these rocks have suffered considerable
+movement and metamorphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and
+in the Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over
+the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly
+widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period. In the
+Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness (6000 ft.) of
+igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates
+and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle
+division. In west central Europe volcanic rocks are found at many
+horizons, the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs,
+_schalstein_. Felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the Middle Devonian of
+Australia. Contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the
+American Devonian, but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to
+be some.
+
+There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it is
+interesting to observe that local glacial conditions _may_ have existed
+in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated
+boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other hand, the
+prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm
+temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas.
+
+The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some importance: in many
+of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead, copper, iron are
+exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in New Zealand, gold veins
+occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is found in China and a little coal in
+Germany, while the Upper Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of
+western Pennsylvania and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle
+division is oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central
+Tennessee, and in England the marls of the "Old Red" are employed for
+brick-making.
+
+  REFERENCES.--The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is very
+  extensive; important papers have been contributed by the following
+  geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Béclard, E. W. Benecke, L.
+  Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W. Dawson, A.
+  Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Frech, J. Fournet, Sir A.
+  Geikie, G. Gürich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch, A. von
+  Koenen, Hugh Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de Rouville, C.
+  Schuchert, T. Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E. Ussher, P. N.
+  Wenjukoff, G. F. Whidborne, J. F. Whiteaves and H. S. Williams.
+  Sedgwick and Murchison's original description appeared in the _Trans.
+  Geol. Soc._ (2nd series, vol. v., 1839). Good general accounts will be
+  found in Sir A. Geikie's _Text-Book of Geology_ (vol. ii., 4th ed.,
+  1903), in E. Kayser's _Lehrbuch der Geologie_ (vol. ii., 2nd ed.,
+  1902), and, for North America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's _Geology_
+  (vol. ii., 1906). See the _Index to the Geological Magazine_
+  (1864-1903), and in subsequent annual volumes; _Geological Literature
+  added to the Geological Society's Library_ (London), annually since
+  1893; and the _Neues Jahrbuch für Min., Geologie und Paläontologie_
+  (Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The U.S. Geological Survey publishes at
+  intervals a _Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, &c._,
+  and this (e.g. Bulletin 301,--the _Bibliog. and Index_ for 1901-1905)
+  contains numerous references for the Devonian system in North America.
+                                                              (J. A. H.)
+
+
+DEVONPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Devonshire,
+England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and Plymouth, the seat of one of
+the royal dockyards, and an important naval and military station. Pop.
+(1901) 70,437. It is situated immediately above the N.W. angle of
+Plymouth Sound, occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse
+Pool on the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great
+Western and the London & South Western railways. The town proper was
+formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch excavated out of the
+limestone, but these are in great part demolished. Adjoining Devonport
+are East Stonehouse (an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice
+Town, the two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected in
+1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is distinguished by
+a Doric portico; while near it are the public library, in Egyptian
+style, and a conspicuous Doric column built of Devonshire granite. This
+monument, which is 100 ft. high, was raised in commemoration of the
+naming of the town in 1824. Other institutions are the Naval Engineering
+College, Keyham (1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899,
+the majority of the students being connected with the dockyard; the
+naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and the naval and
+military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was formerly defended by a
+battery (now a naval signalling station), stands the military residence,
+or Government House, occupied by the commander of the Plymouth Coast
+Defences; and near at hand is the principal naval residence, the naval
+commander-in-chief's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the
+Hamoaze to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in
+the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devonport, however,
+is the royal dockyard, originally established by William III. in 1689
+and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock. It is situated within the old
+town boundary and contains four docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham
+steamyard, situated higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and
+connected with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further
+extensions were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as
+Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard comprised two
+basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the southern 7 acres in area,
+and three docks, having floor-lengths of 295, 347 and 413 ft., together
+with iron and brass foundries, machinery shops, engineer students' shop,
+&c. The new extensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 21st of
+February 1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in
+front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of 77 acres of
+mudflats lying below high-water mark. The scheme presented three leading
+features--a tidal basin, a group of three graving docks with entrance
+lock, and a large enclosed basin with a coaling depôt at the north end.
+The tidal basin, close to the old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long
+with a mean width of 590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth
+being 32 ft. at low water of spring tides. It affords access to two
+graving docks, one with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20½ ft. of water
+over the sill, and the other with a length of 741 ft. and 32 ft. of
+water over the sill. Each of these can be subdivided by means of an
+intermediate caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an entrance to
+the closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the closed
+basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock. The
+closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft. long,
+measures 1550 ft. by 1000 ft. and has an area of 35½ acres, with a depth
+of 32 ft. at low-water springs; it has a direct entrance from the
+Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The foundations of the walls are carried
+down to the rock, which in some places lies covered with mud 100 ft. or
+more below coping level. Compressed air is used to work the sliding
+caissons which close the entrances of the docks and closed basin. A
+ropery at Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy.
+
+By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a parliamentary
+borough including East Stonehouse and returning two members. The ground
+on which it stands is for the most part the property of the St Aubyn
+family (Barons St Levan), whose steward holds a court leet and a court
+baron annually. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and
+forty-eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres.
+
+
+DEVONPORT, EAST and WEST, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, situated on
+both sides of the mouth of the river Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of
+Hobart. Pop. (1901), East Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is
+regular communication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it
+ranks as the third port in Tasmania. A celebrated regatta is held on the
+Mersey annually on New Year's day.
+
+
+DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Devonshire title, now in the
+Cavendish family, had previously been held by Charles Blount
+(1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson of the 4th Lord Mountjoy
+(d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he was created earl of Devonshire in
+1603 for his services in Ireland, where he became famous in subduing the
+rebellion between 1600 and 1603; but the title became extinct at his
+death. In the Cavendish line the 1st earl of Devonshire was William (d.
+1626), second son of Sir William Cavendish (q.v.), and of Elizabeth
+Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury. He was
+created earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was succeeded by
+William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by his son William
+(1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of the original members of
+the Royal Society, who married a daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury.
+
+WILLIAM CAVENDISH, 1st duke of Devonshire (1640-1707), English
+statesman, eldest son of the earl of Devonshire last mentioned, was born
+on the 25th of January 1640. After completing his education he made the
+tour of Europe according to the custom of young men of his rank, being
+accompanied on his travels by Dr Killigrew. On his return he obtained,
+in 1661, a seat in parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became
+conspicuous as one of the most determined and daring opponents of the
+general policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee
+appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord treasurer
+Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for Derby, and made a privy councillor
+by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from the board with his friend Lord
+Russell, when he found that the Roman Catholic interest uniformly
+prevailed. He carried up to the House of Lords the articles of
+impeachment against Lord Chief-Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and
+illegal proceedings in the court of King's bench; and when the king
+declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of
+York, afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons that a bill
+might be brought in for the association of all his majesty's Protestant
+subjects. He also openly denounced the king's counsellors, and voted for
+an address to remove them. He appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his
+trial, at a time when it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice
+than a witness. After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof
+of his attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell in
+the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his escape.
+In November 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father.
+He opposed arbitrary government under James II. with the same
+consistency and high spirit as during the previous reign. He was
+withdrawn from public life for a time, however, in consequence of a
+hasty and imprudent act of which his enemies knew how to avail
+themselves. Fancying that he had received an insulting look in the
+presence chamber from Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance
+at court the king encouraged, he immediately avenged the affront by
+challenging the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking
+him with his cane. This offence was punished by a fine of £30,000, which
+was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely fortune. Not
+being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's bench, from which he
+was released only on signing a bond for the whole amount. This was
+afterwards cancelled by King William. After his discharge the earl went
+for a time to Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of
+a new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by Verrio,
+Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again brought him into
+prominence. He was one of the seven who signed the original paper
+inviting the prince of Orange from Holland, and was the first nobleman
+who appeared in arms to receive him at his landing. He received the
+order of the Garter on the occasion of the coronation, and was made lord
+high steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William on
+his visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington and duke of
+Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on the same day on which the
+head of the house of Russell was created duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote
+Macaulay, "the two great houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long
+been closely connected by friendship and by marriage, by common
+opinions, common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same
+day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to confer."
+His last public service was assisting to conclude the union with
+Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son, the marquis of
+Hartington, had been appointed among the commissioners by Queen Anne. He
+died on the 18th of August 1707, and ordered the following inscription
+to be put on his monument:-
+
+                          Willielmus Dux Devon,
+                   Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus,
+                      Inimicus et Invisus Tyrannis.
+
+He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of Ormonde, and he
+was succeeded by his eldest son William as 2nd duke, and by the latter's
+son William as 3rd duke (viceroy of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's
+son William (1720-1764) succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the
+daughter and heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and Cork, who
+brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and from
+November 1756 to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly in order that
+Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of Newcastle, should be in
+power. His son William (1748-1811), 5th duke, is memorable as the
+husband of the beautiful Georgiana Spencer, duchess of Devonshire
+(1757-1806), and of the intellectual Elizabeth Foster, duchess of
+Devonshire (1758-1824), both of whom Gainsborough painted. His son
+William, 6th duke (1790-1858), who died unmarried, was sent on a special
+mission to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and
+became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was he who
+employed Sir Joseph Paxton at Chatsworth. The title passed in 1858 to
+his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of Burlington, as 7th duke, a
+man who, without playing a prominent part in public affairs, exercised
+great influence, not only by his position but by his distinguished
+abilities. At Cambridge in 1829 he was second wrangler, first Smith's
+prizeman, and eighth classic, and subsequently he became chancellor of
+the university.
+
+SPENCER COMPTON CAVENDISH, 8th duke (1833-1908), born on the 23rd of
+July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke (then earl of Burlington) and his
+wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord
+Cavendish, as he then was, took his degree at Trinity College,
+Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to the special mission to Russia for
+the new tsar's accession; and in 1857 he was returned to parliament as
+Liberal member for North Lancashire. At the opening of the new
+parliament of 1859 the marquis of Hartington (as he had now become)
+moved the amendment to the address which overthrew the government of
+Lord Derby. In 1863 he became first a lord of the admiralty, and then
+under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the Russell-Gladstone
+administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he entered it as war
+secretary. He retired with his colleagues in July 1866; but upon Mr
+Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he became postmaster-general, an
+office which he exchanged in 1871 for that of secretary for Ireland.
+When Mr Gladstone, after his defeat and resignation in 1874, temporarily
+withdrew from the leadership of the Liberal party in January 1875, Lord
+Hartington was chosen Liberal leader in the House of Commons, Lord
+Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W. E. Forster, who had taken a
+much more prominent part in public life, was the only other possible
+nominee, but he declined to stand. Lord Hartington's rank no doubt told
+in his favour, and Mr Forster's education bill had offended the
+Nonconformist members, who would probably have withheld their support.
+Lord Hartington's prudent management in difficult circumstances laid his
+followers under great obligations, since not only was the opposite party
+in the ascendant, but his own former chief was indulging in the freedom
+of independence. After the complete defeat of the Conservatives in the
+general election of 1880, a large proportion of the party would have
+rejoiced if Lord Hartington could have taken the Premiership instead of
+Mr Gladstone, and the queen, in strict conformity with constitutional
+usage (though Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have had
+the preference), sent for him as leader of the Opposition. Mr Gladstone,
+however, was clearly master of the situation: no cabinet could be formed
+without him, nor could he reasonably be expected to accept a subordinate
+post. Lord Hartington, therefore, gracefully abdicated the leadership,
+and became secretary of state for India, from which office, in December
+1882, he passed to the war office. His administration was memorable for
+the expeditions of General Gordon and Lord Wolseley to Khartum, and a
+considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly
+responsible for the "betrayal of Gordon." His lethargic manner, apart
+from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in their
+minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government
+acted "too late"; but Gladstone and Lord Granville were no less
+responsible than he. In June 1885 he resigned along with his colleagues,
+and in December was elected for the Rossendale Division of Lancashire,
+created by the new reform bill. Immediately afterwards the great
+political opportunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr
+Gladstone's conversion to home rule for Ireland. Lord Hartington's
+refusal to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the
+chief of the new Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and
+influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved the
+first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera house, and
+also, in the House of Commons, moved the rejection of Mr Gladstone's
+Bill on the second reading. During the memorable electoral contest which
+followed, no election excited more interest than Lord Hartington's for
+the Rossendale division, where he was returned by a majority of nearly
+1500 votes. In the new parliament he held a position much resembling
+that which Sir Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the
+leader of a small, compact party, the standing and ability of whose
+members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally esteemed
+and trusted beyond any other man in the country, yet in his own opinion
+forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's offers to serve under him
+as prime minister (both after the general election, and again when Lord
+Randolph Churchill resigned) were declined, and Lord Hartington
+continued to discharge the delicate duties of the leader of a middle
+party with no less judgment than he had shown when leading the Liberals
+during the interregnum of 1875-1880. It was not until 1895, when the
+differences between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become
+almost obliterated by changed circumstances, and the habit of acting
+together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the death of
+his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's third ministry
+as president of the council. The duke thus was the nominal
+representative of education in the cabinet at a time when educational
+questions were rapidly becoming of great importance; and his own
+technical knowledge of this difficult and intricate question being
+admittedly superficial, a good deal of criticism from time to time
+resulted. He had however by this time an established position in public
+life, and a reputation for weight of character, which procured for him
+universal respect and confidence, and exempted him from bitter attack,
+even from his most determined political opponents. Wealth and rank
+combined with character to place him in a measure above party; and his
+succession to his father as chancellor of the university of Cambridge in
+1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the country. In the same year
+he had married the widow of the 7th duke of Manchester.
+
+He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council till
+the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on account of differences with
+Mr BALFOUR (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards free trade. As Mr
+Chamberlain had retired from the cabinet, and the duke had not thought
+it necessary to join Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in resigning a
+fortnight earlier, the defection was unanticipated and was sharply
+criticized by Mr Balfour, who, in the rearrangement of his ministry, had
+only just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish, to
+be secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the conclusion
+that while he himself was substantially a free-trader,[1] Mr Balfour did
+not mean the same thing by the term. He necessarily became the leader of
+the Free Trade Unionists who were neither Balfourites nor
+Chamberlainites, and his weight was thrown into the scale against any
+association of Unionism with the constructive policy of tariff reform,
+which he identified with sheer Protection. A struggle at once began
+within the Liberal Unionist organization between those who followed the
+duke and those who followed Mr CHAMBERLAIN (q.v.); but the latter were
+in the majority and a reorganization in the Liberal Unionist Association
+took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a separate
+body. The duke then became president of the new organizations, the
+Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist Free Trade Club. In the
+subsequent developments the duke played a dignified but somewhat silent
+part, and the Unionist rout in 1906 was not unaffected by his open
+hostility to any taint of compromise with the tariff reform movement.
+But in the autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of
+cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and
+spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on the
+24th of March 1908.
+
+The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial magnate,
+and an Englishman with thoroughly national tastes for sport, his weighty
+and disinterested character made him a statesman of the first rank in
+his time, in spite of the absence of showy or brilliant qualities. He
+had no self-seeking ambitions, and on three occasions preferred not to
+become prime minister. Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he
+was not an orator, nor "clever"; and he lacked all subtlety of
+intellect; but he was conspicuous for solidity of mind and
+straightforwardness of action, and for conscientious application as an
+administrator, whether in his public or private life. The fact that he
+once yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly quoted as
+characteristic; but he combined a great fund of common sense and
+knowledge of the average opinion with a patriotic sense of duty towards
+the state. Throughout his career he remained an old-fashioned Liberal,
+or rather Whig, of a type which in his later years was becoming
+gradually more and more rare.
+
+There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as 9th duke by
+his nephew VICTOR CHRISTIAN CAVENDISH (b. 1868), who had been Liberal
+Unionist member for West Derbyshire since 1891, and was treasurer of the
+household (1900 to 1903) and financial secretary to the treasury (1903
+to 1905); in 1892 he married a daughter of the marquess of Lansdowne, by
+whom he had two sons.                                          (H. CH.)
+
+[1] His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: "I believe that
+our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advantageous
+to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on
+which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any
+departure from it, for sufficient reasons."
+
+
+DEVONSHIRE (DEVON), a south-western county of England, bounded N.W. and
+N. by the Bristol Channel, N.E. by Somerset and Dorset, S.E. and S. by
+the English Channel, and W. by Cornwall. The area, 2604.9 sq. m., is
+exceeded only by those of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English
+counties. Nearly the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly. The
+county contains the highest land in England south of Derbyshire
+(excepting points on the south Welsh border); and the scenery, much
+varied, is in most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad
+uplands of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend
+into North Devon, and are still the haunt of red deer, and of the small
+hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dartmoor, the
+streams are rich in trout. Dartmoor, the principal physical feature of
+the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of moorland which rises in the
+southern part. Its highest point, 2039 ft., is found in the
+north-western portion. Its rough wastes contrast finely with the wild
+but wooded region which immediately surrounds the granite of which it is
+composed, and with the rich cultivated country lying beyond. Especially
+noteworthy in this fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful district
+of apple orchards, lying between the Erme and the Dart; the rich
+meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale of Exeter; and the red rocks
+near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a characteristic charm to the
+Devonshire landscape are the number of picturesque old cottages roofed
+with thatch; and the deep lanes, sunk below the common level of the
+ground, bordered by tall hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs.
+The north and south coasts of the county differ much in character, but
+both have grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by any in England
+or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of colour.
+As a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers flow seaward
+are densely wooded, and the country immediately inland is of great
+beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which constitutes the boundary between
+Devon and Cornwall, and flows into the English Channel, after forming in
+its estuary the harbours of Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers
+rise on Dartmoor. These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling
+into the English Channel, and the Taw flowing north towards Bideford
+Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives part of
+its waters from Dartmoor through the Okement, but itself rises in the
+angle of high land near Hartland point on the north coast, and makes a
+wide sweep southward. The lesser Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme
+and the Vealm, all running south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in
+Somersetshire; but the main part of its course is through Devonshire
+(where it gives name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the
+English Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the Creedy and the
+Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south, and
+the Axe, for part of its course, divides the counties of Devon and
+Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow; while the rivers
+of Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid course.
+
+  _Geology._--The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks in
+  Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a series of slates, grits and
+  greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian
+  cherts as at Codden Hill; beds of "culm," an impure variety of coal,
+  are found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at
+  Bampton, Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western
+  boundary. North and south of the Culm an older series of slates, grits
+  and limestones appears; it was considered so characteristic of the
+  county that it was called the DEVONIAN SYSTEM (q.v.), the marine
+  equivalent of the Old Red Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It lies
+  in the form of a trough with its axis running east and west. In the
+  central hollow the Culm reposes, while the northern and southern rims
+  rise to the surface respectively north of the latitude of Barnstaple
+  and South Molton and south of the latitude of Tavistock. These
+  Devonian rocks have been subdivided into upper, middle and lower
+  divisions, but the stratigraphy is difficult to follow as the beds
+  have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of contorted strata may be
+  seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in the south, at Bolt
+  Head and Start Point they have undergone severe metamorphism.
+  Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but in the south
+  important masses occur, in the middle and at the base of the upper
+  subdivisions, about Plymouth, Torquay, Brixham and between Newton
+  Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these limestones, which are
+  largely quarried and when polished are known as Devonshire marbles.
+
+  On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set
+  of rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently
+  towards the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of the
+  younger rocks is a series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and
+  marls which are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some geologists
+  have been classed as Permian. These red rocks are beautifully exposed
+  on the coast by Dawlish and Teignmouth, and they extend inland,
+  producing a red soil, past Exeter and Tiverton. A long narrow strip of
+  the same formation reaches out westward on the top of the Culm as far
+  as Jacobstow. Farther east, the Bunter pebble beds are represented by
+  the well-known pebble deposit of Budleigh Salterton, whence they are
+  traceable inland towards Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper
+  marls and sandstones, well exposed at Sidmouth, where the upper
+  Greensand plateau is clearly seen to overlie them. The Greensand
+  covers all the high ground northward from Sidmouth as far as the
+  Blackdown Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the Chalk is seen, and at
+  the latter place is a famous landslip on the coast, caused by the
+  springs which issue from the Greensand below the Chalk. The Lower
+  Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was formerly in
+  considerable demand. At the extreme east of the county, Rhaetic and
+  Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a "bone" bed bearing
+  the remains of saurians and fish.
+
+  Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm and
+  Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times and subsequently exposed
+  by denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity are abundant in
+  the masses of diabase, dolerite, &c., at Bradford and Trusham, south
+  of Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington. Perhaps the most
+  interesting is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent Tor near Tavistock.
+  An Eocene deposit, the product of the denudation of the Dartmoor
+  Hills, lies in a small basin at Bovey Tracey (see BOVEY BEDS); it
+  yields beds of lignite and valuable clays.
+
+  Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near
+  Torquay and at other points, and a submerged forest lies in the bay
+  south of the same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian
+  limestone at Kent's Hole near Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are famous
+  for the remains of extinct mammals; bones of the elephant, rhinoceros,
+  bear and hyaena have been found as well as flint implements of early
+  man.
+
+  _Minerals._--Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near the
+  north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been worked on Dartmoor (in stream
+  works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much worked before the
+  end of the 18th century. Tin occurs in the granite of Dartmoor, and
+  along its borders, but rather where the Devonian than where the
+  Carboniferous rocks border the granite. It is found most plentifully
+  in the district which surrounds Tavistock, which, for tin and other
+  ores, is in effect the great mining district of the county. Here,
+  about 4 m. from Tavistock, are the Devon Great Consols mines, which
+  from 1843 to 1871 were among the richest copper mines in the world,
+  and by far the largest and most profitable in the kingdom. The divided
+  profits during this period amounted to £1,192,960. But the mining
+  interests of Devonshire are affected by the same causes, and in the
+  same way, as those of Cornwall. The quantity of ore has greatly
+  diminished, and the cost of raising it from the deep mines prevents
+  competition with foreign markets. In many mines tin underlies the
+  general depth of the copper, and is worked when the latter has been
+  exhausted. The mineral products of the Tavistock district are various,
+  and besides tin and copper, ores of zinc and iron are largely
+  distributed. Great quantities of refined arsenic have been produced at
+  the Devon Great Consols mine, by elimination from the iron pyrites
+  contained in the various lodes. Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood
+  of Exeter, in the valley of the Teign and in N. Devon; but the most
+  profitable mines, which are shallow, are, like those of tin and
+  copper, in the Tavistock district.
+
+  The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles,
+  building stones, slates and potters' clay. Among building stones, the
+  granite of Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried near
+  Princetown, near Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor and
+  elsewhere. The annual export is considerable. Hard traps, which occur
+  in many places, are also much used, as are the limestones of
+  Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The Roborough stone, used from an early
+  period in Devonshire churches, is found near Tavistock, and is a hard,
+  porphyritic elvan, taking a fine polish. Excellent roofing slates
+  occur in the Devonian series round the southern part of Dartmoor. The
+  chief quarries are near Ashburton and Plymouth (Cann quarry). Potters'
+  clay is worked at King's Teignton, whence it is largely exported; at
+  Bovey Tracey; and at Watcombe near Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of
+  the finest quality. China clay or kaolin is found on the southern side
+  of Dartmoor, at Lee Moor, and near Trowlesworthy. There is a large
+  deposit of umber close to Ashburton.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate varies greatly in different
+parts of the county, but everywhere it is more humid than that of the
+eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The mean annual temperature
+somewhat exceeds that of the midlands, but the average summer heat is
+rather less than that of the southern counties to the east. The air of
+the Dartmoor highlands is sharp and bracing. Mists are frequent, and
+snow often lies long. On the south coast frost is little known, and many
+half hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles, geraniums and
+heliotropes, live through the winter without protection. The climate of
+Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places on this coast is
+very equable, the mean temperature in January being 43.6° at Plymouth.
+The north coast, exposed to the storms and swell of the Atlantic, is
+more bracing; although there also, in the more sheltered nooks (as at
+Combe Martin), myrtles of great size and age flower freely, and produce
+their annual crop of berries.
+
+Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county is under
+cultivation; the cultivated area falling a little below the average of
+the English counties. There are, however, about 160,000 acres of hill
+pasture in addition to the area in permanent pasture, which is more than
+one-half that of the cultivated area. The Devon breed of cattle is well
+adapted both for fattening and for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept
+in great numbers on the hill pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief
+cattle-farming and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for
+two products of the dairy--the clotted cream to which it gives its name,
+and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats occupy about three times
+the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk of the acreage under green
+crops is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangold. Orchards occupy a
+large acreage, and consist chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every farm
+maintaining one for the manufacture of cider.
+
+_Fisheries._--Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable than those
+of Cornwall, large quantities of the pilchard and herrings caught in
+Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much of the fishing is carried on
+within the three-mile limit; and it may be asserted that trawling is the
+main feature of the Devonshire industry, whereas seining and driving
+characterize that of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice,
+soles, turbot, shrimps, lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with,
+besides herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After
+Plymouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are
+lesser stations in every bay and estuary.
+
+_Other Industries._--The principal industrial works in the county are
+the various Government establishments at Plymouth and Devonport. Among
+other industries may be noted the lace-works at Tiverton; the
+manufacture of pillow-lace for which Honiton and its neighbourhood has
+long been famous; and the potteries and terra-cotta works of Bovey
+Tracey and Watcombe. Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh
+and Ashburton, and boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is
+employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &c., in the great
+prison of Dartmoor.
+
+_Communications._--The main line of the Great Western railway, entering
+the county in the east from Taunton, runs to Exeter, skirts the coast as
+far as Teignmouth, and continues a short distance inland by Newton Abbot
+to Plymouth, after which it crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great
+bridge to Saltash in Cornwall. Branches serve Torquay and other seaside
+resorts of the south coast; and among other branches are those from
+Taunton to Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to Tavistock and
+Launceston. The main line of the London & South-Western railway between
+Exeter and Plymouth skirts the north and west of Dartmoor by Okehampton
+and Tavistock. A branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple, Ilfracombe,
+Bideford and Torrington, while the Lynton & Barnstaple and the Bideford,
+Westward Ho & Appledore lines serve the districts indicated by their
+names. The branch line to Princetown from the Plymouth-Tavistock line of
+the Great Western company in part follows the line of a very early
+railway--that constructed to connect Plymouth with the Dartmoor prison
+in 1819-1825, which was worked with horse cars. The only waterways of
+any importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to Gunnislake (3 m.
+S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal, noteworthy as one of the
+oldest in England, for it was originally cut in the reign of Elizabeth.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891 of 631,808, and 1901 of
+661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168 acres. The
+county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Barnstaple (pop.
+14,137), Bideford (8754), Dartmouth (6579), Devonport, a county borough
+(70,437), Exeter, a city and county borough (47,185), Torrington,
+officially Great Torrington (3241), Honiton (3271), Okehampton (2569),
+Plymouth, a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848), Tiverton
+(10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (4035). The other urban districts are
+Ashburton (2628), Bampton (1657), Brixham (8092), Buckfastleigh (2520),
+Budleigh Salterton (1883), Crediton (3974), Dawlish (4003), East
+Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485), Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy
+(1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivybridge (1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton
+(1641), Newton Abbot (12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495),
+Paignton (8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201),
+Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The county is in the western
+circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one court of quarter
+sessions, and is divided into twenty-four petty sessional divisions. The
+boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford, Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth, South
+Molton, and Tiverton have separate commissions of the peace and courts
+of quarter sessions, and those of Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay
+and Totnes have commissions of the peace only. There are 461 civil
+parishes. Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of
+small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro; and there are 516
+ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
+county. The parliamentary divisions are the Eastern or Honiton,
+North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North-western or
+Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes, Torquay, and Mid
+or Ashburton, each returning one member; and the county also contains
+the parliamentary boroughs of Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two
+members, and that of Exeter, returning one member.
+
+_History._--The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun some time
+before the 8th century, for in 700 there existed at Exeter a famous
+Saxon school. By this time, however, the Saxons had become Christians,
+and established their supremacy, not by destructive inroads, but by a
+gradual process of colonization, settling among the native Welsh and
+allowing them to hold lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of
+the district which is now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must
+have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter, remained
+partly Welsh until the time of Æthelstan. At the beginning of the 9th
+century Wessex was divided into definite _pagi_, probably corresponding
+to the later shires, and the Saxon Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name
+in 823, when a battle was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the
+people of Devonshire at Camelford. During the Danish invasions of the
+9th century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In 851 the
+invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of Devon, and in 878,
+when the Danes under Hubba were harrying the coast with a squadron of
+twenty-three ships, they were again defeated with great slaughter by the
+fyrd. The modern hundreds of Devonshire correspond in position very
+nearly with those given in the Domesday Survey, though the names have in
+many cases been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places
+of meeting. The hundred of Bampton formerly included estates west of the
+Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge. Ten of the modern
+hundreds have been formed by the union of two or more Domesday hundreds,
+while the Domesday hundred of Liston has had the new hundred of
+Tavistock severed from it since 1114. Many of the hundreds were
+separated by tracts of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire
+contained a vast extent, until in 1204 the inhabitants paid 5000 marks
+to have the county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor
+and Exmoor.
+
+Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric of
+Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached to the newly created
+diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund constituted
+Devonshire a separate diocese, and placed the see at Crediton. About
+1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall were united, and in 1049
+the see was fixed at Exeter. The archdeaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple
+and Totnes are all mentioned in the 12th century and formerly comprised
+twenty-four deaneries. The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and
+Ottery have been created since the 16th century, while those of
+Tamerton, Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre have been abolished,
+bringing the present number to twenty-three.
+
+At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an active hostility
+to Harold, and the easy submission which it rendered to the Conqueror
+accounts for the exceptionally large number of Englishmen who are found
+retaining lands after the Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman
+barons were known as honours, chief among them being Plympton,
+Okehampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of Plympton was
+bestowed in the 12th century on the Redvers family, together with the
+earldom of Devon; in the 13th century it passed to the Courtenay family,
+who had already become possessed of the honour of Okehampton, and who in
+1335 obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in the
+14th century on the Holland family, which became extinct in the reign of
+Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh, who was born at
+Budleigh, had long held considerable estates in the county.
+
+Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being at first
+hereditary, but afterwards held for one year only. In 1320 complaint was
+made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in the hands of the great
+lords, who did not appoint a sufficiency of bailiffs for their proper
+government. The miners of Devon had independent courts, known as
+stannary courts, for the regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary
+towns being Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient
+miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor.
+
+The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen by Baldwin
+de Redvers, and in the 14th and 15th centuries the French made frequent
+attacks on the Devonshire coast, being repulsed in 1404 by the people of
+Dartmouth. In the Wars of the Roses the county was much divided, and
+frequent skirmishes took place between the earl of Devon and Lord
+Bonville, the respective champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist
+parties. Great disturbances in the county followed the Reformation of
+the 16th century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say mass at
+Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county as a
+whole favoured the parliament, but the prevailing desire was for peace,
+and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities in Devonshire and
+Cornwall was agreed upon. Skirmishes, however, continued until the
+capture of Dartmouth and Exeter in 1646 put an end to the struggle. In
+1688 the prince of Orange landed at Torbay and was entertained for
+several days at Ford and at Exeter.
+
+The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time immemorial, and in the
+14th century mines of tin, copper, lead, gold and silver are mentioned.
+Agriculturally the county was always poor, and before the
+disafforestation rendered especially so through the ravages committed by
+the herds of wild deer. At the time of the Domesday Survey the salt
+industry was important, and there were ninety-nine mills in the county
+and thirteen fisheries. From an early period the chief manufacture was
+that of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manufacture
+of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire. About 1505
+Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an improved method of spinning
+into the county, and cider-making is mentioned in the 16th century. In
+1680 the lace industry was already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St
+Mary, and flax, hemp and malt were largely produced in the 17th and 18th
+centuries.
+
+Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295
+Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock, Torrington and Totnes were also
+represented. In 1831 the county with its boroughs returned a total of
+twenty-six members, but under the Reform Act of 1832 it returned four
+members in two divisions, and with ten boroughs was represented by a
+total of eighteen members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six
+members in three divisions, and four of the boroughs were disfranchised,
+making a total of seventeen members.
+
+_Antiquities._--In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich as
+Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest interest, the
+most peculiar of which are the long parallel alignments of upright
+stones, which, on a small scale, resemble those of Carnac in Brittany.
+On Dartmoor the lines are invariably straight, and are found in direct
+connexion with cairns, and with circles which are probably sepulchral.
+These stone avenues are very numerous. Of the so-called sacred circles
+the best examples are the "Longstones" on Scorhill Down, and the "Grey
+Wethers" under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest cromlech is the
+"Spinster's Rock" at Drewsteignton, a three-pillared cromlech which may
+well be compared with those of Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or
+single upright stones; a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of
+the Teign, near the Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit
+of nearly every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on
+Heltor, above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably evident that these
+have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite, and
+that the dolmen in the Teign is due to the action of the river. Clusters
+of hut foundations, circular, and formed of rude granite blocks, are
+frequent; the best example of such a primitive village is at Batworthy,
+near Chagford; the type resembles that of East Cornwall. Walled
+enclosures, or pounds, occur in many places; Grimspound is the most
+remarkable. Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor
+in many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of great slabs of
+granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor. Scattered
+over the county are numerous large hill castles and camps,--all
+earthworks, and all apparently of the British period. Roman relics have
+been found from time to time at Exeter (_Isca Damnoniorum_), the only
+large Roman station in the county.
+
+The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period, dating
+from the middle of the 14th to the end of the 15th century. Exeter
+cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except the Norman
+towers) being very beautiful Decorated work. The special features of
+Devonshire churches, however, are the richly carved pulpits and chancel
+screens of wood, in which this county exceeded every other in England,
+with the exception of Norfolk and Suffolk. The designs are rich and
+varied, and the skill displayed often very great. Granite crosses are
+frequent, the finest and earliest being that of Coplestone, near
+Crediton. Monastic remains are scanty; the principal are those at Tor,
+Buckfast, Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings the
+houses of Wear Gilford, Bradley and Dartington of the 15th century;
+Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan), and Forde (Jacobean),
+deserve notice. The ruined castles of Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter,
+with its vast British earthworks, Berry Pomeroy (Henry III., with ruins
+of a large Tudor mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 15th
+century), are all interesting and picturesque.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--T. Westcote, _Survey of Devon_, written about 1630, and
+  first printed in 1845; J. Prince, _Worthies of Devon_ (Exeter, 1701);
+  Sir W. Pole, _Collections towards a History of the County of Devon_
+  (London, 1791); R. Polwhele, _History of Devonshire_ (3 vols. Exeter,
+  1797, 1798-1800); T. Moore, _History of Devon from the Earliest Period
+  to the Present Time_ (vols, i., ii., London, 1829-1831); G. Oliver,
+  _Historic Collections relating to the Monasteries in Devon_ (Exeter,
+  1820); D. and S. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_ (vol. vi., London, 1822);
+  _Ecclesiastical Antiquities in Devon_ (Exeter, 1844); Mrs Bray,
+  _Traditions of Devonshire_, in a series of letters to Robert Southey
+  (London, 1838); G. C. Boase, _Devonshire Bibliography_ (London, 1883);
+  Sir W. R. Drake, _Devonshire Notes and Notelets_ (London, 1888); S.
+  Hewett, _Peasant Speech of Devon_ (London, 1892); R. N. Worth,
+  _History of Devonshire_ (London, 1886, new edition, 1895); C. Worthy,
+  _Devonshire Parishes_ (Exeter, 1887); _Devonshire Wills_ (London,
+  1896); _Victoria County History, Devonshire_.
+
+
+DEVRIENT, the name of a family of German actors.
+
+LUDWIG DEVRIENT (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the 15th of December
+1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He was apprenticed to an
+upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employment, joined a travelling
+theatrical company, and made his first appearance on the stage at Gera
+in 1804 as the messenger in Schiller's _Braut von Messina_. By the
+interest of Count Brühl, he appeared at Rudolstadt as Franz Moor in
+Schiller's _Räuber_, so successfully that he obtained a permanent
+engagement at the ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played until 1809.
+He then received a call to Breslau, where he remained for six years. So
+brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of Shakespeare's
+plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation; yet that great
+artist was generous enough to recommend the young actor as his only
+possible successor. On Iffland's death Devrient was summoned to Berlin,
+where he was for fifteen years the popular idol. He died there on the
+30th of December 1832. Ludwig Devrient was equally great in comedy and
+tragedy. Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard II. were
+among his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his _Reminiscences_ has given a
+graphic picture of him and the "demoniac fascination" of his acting.
+
+  See Z. Funck, _Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und
+  Devrients_ (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in _Devrient-Novellen_ (3rd ed.,
+  Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel _Devrient und Hoffmann_
+  (Berlin, 1873), and Eduard Devrient's _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1861).
+
+Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother, a
+merchant, were also connected with the stage. KARL AUGUST DEVRIENT
+(1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the 5th of April 1797. After being for
+a short time in business, he entered a cavalry regiment as volunteer and
+fought at Waterloo. He then joined the stage, making his first
+appearance on the stage in 1819 at Brunswick. In 1821 he received an
+engagement at the court theatre in Dresden, where, in 1823, he married
+Wilhelmine Schröder (see SCHRÖDER-DEVRIENT). In 1835 he joined the
+company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His best parts were
+Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the 5th of April 1872. His brother
+PHILIPP EDUARD DEVRIENT (1801-1877), born at Berlin on the 11th of
+August 1801, was for a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to
+theatrical management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director of the court
+theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began a thorough
+reorganization of the theatre, and in the course of seventeen years of
+assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high position, but enriched
+its repertory by many noteworthy librettos, among which _Die Gunst des
+Augenblicks_ and _Verirrungen_ are the best known. But his chief work is
+his history of the German stage--_Geschichte der deutschen
+Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1848-1874). He died on the 4th of October
+1877. A complete edition of his works--_Dramatische und dramaturgische
+Schriften_--was published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873).
+
+The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of Ludwig Devrient
+was GUSTAV EMIL DEVRIENT (1803-1872), born in Berlin on the 4th of
+September 1803. He made his first appearance on the stage in 1821, at
+Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's _Jungfrau von Orleans_. After a short
+engagement in Leipzig, he received in 1829 a call to Hamburg, but after
+two years accepted a permanent appointment at the court theatre in
+Dresden, to which he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief
+characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play), Marquis
+Posa (in Schiller's _Don Carlos_), and Goethe's Torquato Tasso. He acted
+several times in London, where his Hamlet was considered finer than
+Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on the 7th of August 1872.
+
+OTTO DEVRIENT (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on the 3rd of
+October 1838, was the son of Philipp Eduard Devrient. He joined the
+stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively in Stuttgart, Berlin
+and Leipzig, until he received a fixed appointment at Karlsruhe, in
+1863. In 1873 he became stage manager at Weimar, where he gained great
+praise for his _mise en scène_ of Goethe's _Faust_. After being manager
+of the theatres in Mannheim and Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in
+1883 he was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884
+he was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and in
+1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died at Stettin on the
+23rd of June 1894.
+
+
+DEW. The word "dew" (O.E. _deaw_; cf. Ger. _Tau_) is a very ancient one
+and its meaning must therefore be defined on historical principles.
+According to the _New English Dictionary_, it means "the moisture
+deposited in minute drops upon any cool surface by condensation of the
+vapour of the atmosphere; formed after a hot day, during or towards
+night and plentiful in the early morning." Huxley in his _Physiography_
+makes the addition "without production of mist." The formation of mist
+is not necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it necessarily
+prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead of
+water it is called hoarfrost. The researches of Aitken suggest that the
+words "by condensation of the vapour in the atmosphere" might be omitted
+from the definition. He has given reasons for believing that the large
+dewdrops on the leaves of plants, the most characteristic of all the
+phenomena of dew, are to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by
+the exuding of drops of water from the plant through the pores of the
+leaves themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases is the
+continuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the
+leaves with water from the soil. The process is set up in full vigour in
+the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions at the surface of
+the leaf in the hot sun, and continued after the sun has gone.
+
+On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illustrating the
+formation of dew is the production of a deposit of moisture, in minute
+drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass or polished metal vessel by
+the cooling of a liquid contained in the vessel. If the liquid is water,
+it can be cooled by pieces of ice; if volatile like ether, by bubbling
+air through it. No deposit is formed by this process until the
+temperature is reduced to a point which, from that circumstance, has
+received a special name, although it depends upon the state of the air
+round the vessel. So generally accepted is the physical analogy between
+the natural formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner
+described, that the point below which the temperature of a surface must
+be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known as the "dew-point."
+
+In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at which, _by
+being cooled without change of pressure_, the air becomes saturated with
+water vapour, not on account of any increase of supply of that compound,
+but by the diminution of the capacity of the air for holding it in the
+gaseous condition. Thus, when the dew-point temperature has been
+determined, the pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere at the time
+of the deposit is given by reference to a table of saturation pressures
+of water vapour at different temperatures. As it is a well-established
+proposition that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not
+vary while the air is being cooled without change of its total external
+pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the pressure of
+water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced. Thus the artificial
+formation of dew and consequent determination of the dew-point is a
+recognized method of measuring the pressure, and thence the amount of
+water vapour in the atmosphere. The dew-point method is indeed in some
+ways a fundamental method of hygrometry.
+
+The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the question of
+the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse. So long as the
+dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter, but when the
+dew-point begins to approach the normal temperature of the human body
+the atmosphere becomes insupportable.
+
+The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists practically in
+determining the process or processes by which leaves, blades of grass,
+stones, and other objects in the open air upon which dew may be
+observed, become cooled "below the dew-point."
+
+Formerly, from the time of Aristotle at least, dew was supposed to
+"fall." That view of the process was not extinct at the time of
+Wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without reproach. To
+Dr Charles Wells of London belongs the credit of bringing to a focus the
+ideas which originated with the study of radiation at the beginning of
+the 19th century, and which are expressed by saying that the cooling
+necessary to produce dew on exposed surfaces is to be attributed to the
+radiation from the surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an account of the
+theory of automatic cooling by radiation, which has found a place in all
+text-books of physics, in his first _Essay on Dew_ published in 1818.
+The theory is supported in that and in a second essay by a number of
+well-planned observations, and the essays are indeed models of
+scientific method. The process of the formation of dew as represented by
+Wells is a simple one. It starts from the point of view that all bodies
+are constantly radiating heat, and cool automatically unless they
+receive a corresponding amount of heat from other bodies by radiation or
+conduction. Good radiators, which are at the same time bad conductors of
+heat, such as blades of grass, lose heat rapidly on a clear night by
+radiation to the sky and become cooled below the dew-point of the
+atmosphere.
+
+The question was very fully studied by Melloni and others, but little
+more was added to the explanation given by Wells until 1885, when John
+Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question whether the water of
+dewdrops on plants or stones came from the air or the earth, and
+described a number of experiments to show that under the conditions of
+observation in Scotland, it was the earth from which the moisture was
+probably obtained, either by the operation of the vascular system of
+plants in the formation of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and
+subsequent condensation in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some
+controversy was excited by the publication of Aitken's views, and it is
+interesting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which
+is of general application in meteorological questions, namely, that the
+physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological
+phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that is
+necessary to produce dew, nor even radiation from a body which does not
+conduct heat. The body must be surrounded by an atmosphere so fully
+supplied with moisture that the dew-point can be passed by the cooling
+due to radiation. Thus the conditions favourable for the formation of
+dew are (1) a good radiating surface, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) a
+clear sky, (4) thermal insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm
+moist ground or some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in
+the surface layers of air.
+
+Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in considering the
+supply of moisture we must take into consideration the ground as well as
+the air and concern ourselves with the temperature of both. Of the five
+conditions mentioned, the first four may be considered necessary, but
+the fifth is very important for securing a copious deposit. It can
+hardly be maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply
+of water by evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a supply is
+forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited process of
+condensation which deprives the air of its moisture and is therefore
+soon terminable, we have the process of distillation which goes on as
+long as conditions are maintained. This distinction is of some practical
+importance for it indicates the protecting power of wet soil in favour
+of young plants as against night frost. If distillation between the
+ground and the leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot
+fall much below the original dew-point because the supply of water for
+condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of heat by
+radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of water from the
+atmosphere, without renewal of the supply, the dew-point will gradually
+get lower as the moisture is deposited and the process of cooling will
+go on.
+
+In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large changes
+taking place within a small range of level. It is with the layer a few
+inches thick on either side of the surface that we are principally
+concerned, and for an adequate comprehension of the conditions close
+consideration is required. To illustrate this point reference may be
+made to figs. 1 and 2, which represent the condition of affairs at 10.40
+P.M. on about the 20th of October 1885, according to observations by
+Aitken. Vertical distances represent heights in feet, while the
+temperatures of the air and the dew-point are represented by horizontal
+distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of the
+diagram. The line marked 0 is the ground level itself, a rather
+indefinite quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical
+distance represented is from 4 ft. above ground to 1 ft. below ground,
+and the special phenomena which we are considering take place in the
+layer which represents the rapid transition between the temperature of
+the ground 3 in. below the surface and that of the air a few inches
+above ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+The point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and
+dry-bulb curve will cut. If they cut above the surface, mist will
+result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be formed. Below the
+surface, it may be assumed that the air is saturated with moisture and
+any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by
+distillation. It may be remarked, by the way, that such distillation
+between soil layers of different temperatures must be productive of the
+transference of large quantities of water between different levels in
+the soil either upward or downward according to the time of year.
+
+These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and moisture of
+the ground in the phenomena which have been considered. From the surface
+there is a continual loss of heat going on by radiation and a continual
+supply of warmth and moisture from below. But while the heat can escape,
+the moisture cannot. Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as
+it approaches the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the
+effect of the moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach.
+In the case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the
+left to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well
+shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to the same
+point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if there were so
+copious a condensation from the atmosphere as actually to make the air
+drier at the surface than up above. In diagram 1, for soil, the effect
+on air temperature and moisture is shown; the two lines converge to cut
+at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground
+line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the
+surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature
+gradient.
+
+The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical countries,
+is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by gutters and spouts,
+but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total
+rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the
+Loango coast at 3 mm., but the estimate seems a high one. Measurements
+go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate
+annual deposit of dew is 1 in. to 1.5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1.2
+in. at Munich (Wollny), 0.3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1.6 in. at
+Tenbury, Worcestershire (Badgley).
+
+With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that of the
+maintenance of "dew ponds" is intimately associated. The name is given
+to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the
+south of England and elsewhere. Some of these ponds are very ancient, as
+the title of a work on _Neolithic Dewponds_ by A. J. and G. Hubbard
+indicates. Their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend
+upon dew and not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of
+water supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been
+discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence seems to
+be against the view that dew deposits make any important contribution to
+the supply of water. The construction of dew ponds is, however, still
+practised on traditional lines, and it is said that a new dew pond has
+first to be filled artificially. It does not come into existence by the
+gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For _Dew_, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells
+  (London, 1818), also "An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella (London,
+  1866), Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni, _Pogg. Ann._
+  lxxi. pp. 416, 424 and lxxiii. p. 467; Jamin, "Compléments à la
+  théorie de la rosée," _Journal de physique_, viii. p. 41; J. Aitken,
+  on "Dew," _Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh_, xxxiii., part i. 2, and
+  "Nature," vol. xxxiii. p. 256; C. Tomlinson, "Remarks on a new Theory
+  of Dew," _Phil. Mag._ (1886), 5th series, vol. 21, p. 483 and vol. 22,
+  p. 270; Russell, _Nature_, vol 47, p. 210; also _Met. Zeit._ (1893),
+  p. 390; Homén, _Bodenphysikalische und meteorologische Beobachtungen_
+  (Berlin, 1894), iii.; _Taubildung_, p. 88, &c.; Rubenson, "Die
+  Temperatur-und Feuchtigkeitsverhältnisse in den unteren Luftschichten
+  bei der Taubildung," _Met. Zeit._ xi. (1876), p. 65; H. E. Hamberg,
+  "Température et humidité de l'air à différentes hauteurs à Upsal,"
+  _Soc. R. des sciences d'Upsal_ (1876); review in _Met. Zeit._ xii.
+  (1877), p. 105.
+
+  For _Dew Ponds_, see Stephen Hales, _Statical Essays_, vol. i.,
+  experiment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731); Gilbert White,
+  _Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne_, letter xxix. (London,
+  1789); Dr C. Wells, _An Essay on Dew_ (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866);
+  Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, "Prize Essay on Water Supply," _Journ. Roy.
+  Agric. Soc._, 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and
+  Symons, "Evaporation from the Surface of Water," _Brit. Assoc. Rep._
+  (1869), sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, "Hydrogeology: One of the
+  Developments of Modern Practical Geology," _Trans. Inst. Surveyors_,
+  vol. ix. pp. 153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise
+  on Dew Ponds" (London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural History of
+  Isolated Ponds," _Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society_,
+  vol. v. pp. 272-286 (1892); Professor G. S. Brady, _On the Nature and
+  Origin of Freshwater Faunas_ (1899); Professor L. C. Miall, "Dew
+  Ponds," _Reports of the British Association_ (Bradford Meeting, 1900),
+  pp. 579-585; A. J. and G. Hubbard, "Neolithic Dewponds and
+  Cattle-Ways" (London, 1904, 1907).                         (W. N. S.)
+
+
+DEWAN or DIWAN, an Oriental term for finance minister. The word is
+derived from the Arabian _diwan_, and is commonly used in India to
+denote a minister of the Mogul government, or in modern days the prime
+minister of a native state. It was in the former sense that the grant of
+the _dewanny_ to the East India Company in 1765 became the foundation of
+the British empire in India.
+
+
+DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist and physicist, was born at
+Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the 20th of September 1842. He was
+educated at Dollar Academy and Edinburgh University, being at the latter
+first a pupil, and afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then
+professor of chemistry; he also studied under Kekulé at Ghent. In 1875
+he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy
+at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and in 1877 he succeeded
+Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of chemistry in the Royal
+Institution, London. He was president of the Chemical Society in 1897,
+and of the British Association in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission
+on London Water Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee on
+Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir Frederick Abel.
+His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his earlier papers, some
+deal with questions of organic chemistry, others with Graham's
+hydrogenium and its physical constants, others with high temperatures,
+e.g. the temperature of the sun and of the electric spark, others again
+with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc. With
+Professor J. G. M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the
+physiological action of light, and examined the changes which take place
+in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With
+Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he began in
+1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later of which
+were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous
+constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid of low
+temperatures; and he was joined by Professor J. A. Fleming, of
+University College, London, in the investigation of the electrical
+behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures. His name is
+most widely known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the
+so-called permanent gases and his researches at temperatures approaching
+the zero of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry
+dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the "Latent Heat
+of Liquid Gases" before the British Association. In 1878 he devoted a
+Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to the then recent work
+of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and exhibited for the first time in
+Great Britain the working of the Cailletet apparatus. Six years later,
+in the same place, he described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and
+K. S. Olszewski, and illustrated for the first time in public the
+liquefaction of oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed
+for optical projection so that the actions taking place might be visible
+to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which the
+liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling
+agent, and he showed its employment for this purpose in connexion with
+some researches on meteorites; about the same time he also obtained
+oxygen in the solid state. By 1891 he had designed and erected at the
+Royal Institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint,
+and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and
+liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea
+occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of
+liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the
+influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to preserve
+the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to keep them so
+free from ebullition that examination of their optical properties
+becomes possible. He next experimented with a high-pressure hydrogen jet
+by which low temperatures were realized through the Thomson-Joule
+effect, and the successful results thus obtained led him to build at the
+Royal Institution the large refrigerating machine by which in 1898
+hydrogen was for the first time collected in the liquid state, its
+solidification following in 1899. Later he investigated the
+gas-absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and
+applied them to the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see
+LIQUID GASES). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford medal upon
+him for his work in the production of low temperatures, and in 1899 he
+became the first recipient of the Hodgkins gold medal of the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, for his contributions to our knowledge of the
+nature and properties of atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first
+British subject to receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of
+Sciences, and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal
+of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904, and in 1908
+he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of Arts.
+
+
+DEWAS, two native states of India, in the Malwa Political Charge of
+Central India, founded in the first half of the 18th century by two
+brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into Malwa with the peshwa, Baji
+Rao, in 1728. Their descendants are known as the senior and junior
+branches of the family, and since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as
+a separate state, though the lands belonging to each are so intimately
+entangled, that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the
+main street are under different administrations and have different
+arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch has an
+area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the area of the
+junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904.
+
+
+DEWBERRY, _Rubus caesius_, a trailing plant, allied to the bramble, of
+the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods, hedges and the
+borders of fields in England and other countries of Europe. The leaves
+have three leaflets, are hairy beneath, and of a dusky green; the
+flowers which appear in June and July are white, or pale rose-coloured.
+The fruit is large, and closely embraced by the calyx, and consists of a
+few drupules, which are black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an
+agreeable acid taste.
+
+
+DEW-CLAW, the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the "false hoof" of
+the deer, sometimes also called the "nails." In dogs the dew-claw is the
+rudimentary toe or hallux (corresponding to the big toe in man) hanging
+loosely attached to the skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg.
+The origin of the word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested
+that, while the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw
+merely brushes the dew from the grass.
+
+
+D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, Bart. (1602-1650), English antiquarian, eldest son
+of Paul D'Ewes of Milden, Suffolk, and of Cecilia, daughter and heir of
+Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born on the 18th
+of December 1602, and educated at the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds,
+and at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to the Middle
+Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623, when he immediately
+began his collections of material and his studies in history and
+antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne, daughter and heir of Sir William
+Clopton, of Luton's Hall in Suffolk, through whom he obtained a large
+addition to his already considerable fortune. On the 6th of December he
+was knighted. He took an active part as a strong Puritan and member of
+the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary government
+in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member for Sudbury.
+On the 15th of July he was created a baronet by the king, but
+nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out, and
+in 1643 took the Covenant. He was one of the members expelled by Pride's
+Purge in 1648, and died on the 18th of April 1650. He had married
+secondly Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley
+in Derbyshire, by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and
+title, the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731.
+D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious scope, no less
+than the whole history of England based on original documents. But
+though excelling as a collector of materials, and as a laborious,
+conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had little power of
+generalization or construction, and died without publishing anything
+except an uninteresting tract, _The Primitive Practice for Preserving
+Truth_ (1645), and some speeches. His _Journals of all the Parliaments
+during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth_, however, a valuable work, was
+published in 1682. His large collections, including transcripts from
+ancient records, many of the originals of which are now dispersed or
+destroyed, are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His
+unprinted Diaries from 1621-1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable
+for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only authority
+for incidents and speeches during that period, and are amusing from the
+glimpses the diarist affords of his own character, his good estimation
+of himself and his little jealousies; some are in a cipher and some in
+Latin.
+
+  Extracts from his _Autobiography and Correspondence_ from the MSS. in
+  the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell-Phillips in 1845,
+  by Hearne in the appendix to his _Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II._
+  (1729), and in the _Bibliotheca topographica Britannica_, No. xv. vol.
+  vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, _College Life in the Time
+  of James I._ (1851). His Diaries have been extensively drawn upon by
+  Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his _Studies of the Great
+  Rebellion_. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the Harleian
+  Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts.
+
+
+DE WET, CHRISTIAN (1854- ), Boer general and politician, was born on the
+7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop, Smithfield district (Orange Free
+State), and later resided at Dewetsdorp. He served in the first
+Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81 as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he
+lived on his farm, becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took
+part in the earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a
+commandant and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the
+west. His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near
+Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg a little
+later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and more as the most
+formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla warfare. Sometimes
+severely handled by the British, sometimes escaping only by the
+narrowest margin of safety from the columns which attempted to surround
+him, and falling upon and annihilating isolated British posts, De Wet
+continued to the end of the war his successful career, striking heavily
+where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to
+bay. He took an active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at
+the conclusion of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer
+generals. While in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a
+modification of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote
+an account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in
+November 1902 under the title _Three Years' War_. In November, 1907 he
+was elected a member of the first parliament of the Orange River Colony
+and was appointed minister of agriculture. In 1908-9 he was a delegate
+to the Closer Union Convention.
+
+
+DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT (1780-1849), German theologian, was
+born on the 12th of January 1780, at Ulla, near Weimar, where his father
+was pastor. He was sent to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height
+of its literary glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with
+Johann Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In 1799
+he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal teachers
+being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Paulus, from the latter of whom he
+derived his tendency to free critical inquiry. Both in methods and in
+results, however, he occupied an almost solitary position among German
+theologians. Having taken his doctor's degree, he became _privat-docent_
+at Jena; in 1807 professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came
+under the influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was
+transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded university of
+Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was,
+however, dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written
+a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the murderer
+of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the
+university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving
+him of the chair, but banishing him from the Prussian kingdom. He
+retired for a time to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the
+preparation of his edition of Luther, and in writing the romance
+_Theodor oder die Weihe des Zweiflers_ (Berlin, 1822), in which he
+describes the education of an evangelical pastor. During this period he
+made his first essay in preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of
+very popular gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the
+university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before.
+Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party,
+De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and
+among the people generally. He was admitted a citizen, and became rector
+of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength,
+particularly in the theological faculty. He died on the 16th of June
+1849.
+
+De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as "the epoch-making
+opener of the historical criticism of the Pentateuch." He prepared the
+way for the Supplement-theory. But he also made valuable contributions
+to other branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic
+faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled _Die Entsagung_
+(Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied
+ecclesiastical music and architecture. As a Biblical critic he is
+sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer
+says (_Development of Theology_, p. 102), he "occupied as free a
+position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the
+creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the
+religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with a
+more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the connexion of the
+present life of the church with the past." His works are marked by
+exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness.
+Accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress
+of criticism.
+
+  The most important of his works are:--_Beiträge zur Einleitung in das
+  Alte Testament_ (2 vols., 1806-1807); _Kommentar über die Psalmen_
+  (1811), which has passed through several editions, and is still
+  regarded as of high authority; _Lehrbuch der hebräisch-jüdischen
+  Archäologie_ (1814); _Über Religion und Theologie_ (1815); a work of
+  great importance as showing its author's general theological position;
+  _Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik_ (1813-1816); _Lehrbuch der
+  historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel_ (1817); _Christliche
+  Sittenlehre_ (1819-1821); _Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1826);
+  _Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das
+  Leben_ (1827); _Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens_ (1846); and
+  _Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament_ (1836-1848).
+  De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825-1828).
+
+   See K. R. Hagenbach in _Herzog's Realencyklopädie_; G. C. F. Lücke's
+  _W. M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung_ (1850); and D.
+  Schenkel's _W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie für
+  unsere Zeit_ (1849). Rudolf Stähelin, _De Wette nach seiner theol.
+  Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung_ (1880); F. Lichtenberger, _History of
+  German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889); Otto Pfleiderer,
+  _Development of Theology_ (1890), pp. 97 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, _Founders
+  of the Old Testament Criticism_, pp. 31 ff.
+
+
+DEWEY, DAVIS RICH (1858- ), American economist and statistician, was
+born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th of April 1858. He was
+educated at the university of Vermont and at Johns Hopkins University,
+and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was chairman of the state
+board on the question of the unemployed (1895), member of the
+Massachusetts commission on public, charitable and reformatory interests
+(1897), special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of
+a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an excellent
+_Syllabus on Political History since 1815_ (1887), a _Financial History
+of the U.S._ (1902), and _National Problems_ (1907).
+
+
+DEWEY, GEORGE (1837- ), American naval officer, was born at Montpelier,
+Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837. He studied at Norwich University,
+then at Norwich, Vermont, and graduated at the United States Naval
+Academy in 1858. He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in
+the Civil War served on the steamsloop "Mississippi" (1861-1863) during
+Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862, and at
+Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting below
+Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865 served on the
+steam-gunboat "Agawam" with the North Atlantic blockading squadron and
+took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January
+1865. In March 1865 he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the
+European squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States
+Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the "Narragansett" in
+1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned commander in 1872; was
+light-house inspector in 1876-1877; and was secretary of the light-house
+board in 1877-1882. In 1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief
+of the bureau of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of
+the light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board of
+inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of commodore in
+February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned, at his own request, to
+sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In April 1898, while with his
+fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by cable that war had begun between
+the United States and Spain, and was ordered to "capture or destroy the
+Spanish fleet" then in Philippine waters. On the 1st of May he
+overwhelmingly defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in
+Manila Bay, a victory won without the loss of a man on the American
+ships (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). Congress, in a joint resolution,
+tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and men
+under his command, and authorized "the secretary of the navy to present
+a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey, and cause to be struck
+bronze medals commemorating the battle of Manila Bay, and to distribute
+such medals to the officers and men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron
+of the United States." He was promoted rear-admiral on the 10th of May
+1898. On the 18th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the
+city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders from his
+government to maintain control, Dewey received the rank of admiral
+(March 3, 1899)--that title, formerly borne only by Farragut and Porter,
+having been revived by act of Congress (March 2, 1899),--and returned
+home, arriving in New York City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he
+received a great ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman
+Philippine Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible
+Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president of the
+Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority report on a
+few details.
+
+
+DEWEY, MELVIL (1851- ), American librarian, was born at Adams Center,
+New York, on the 10th of December 1851. He graduated in 1874 at Amherst
+College, where he was assistant librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he
+removed to Boston, where he founded and became editor of _The Library
+Journal_, which became an influential factor in the development of
+libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration. He was
+also one of the founders of the American Library Association, of which
+he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president in 1891 and 1893. In
+1883 he became librarian of Columbia College, and in the following year
+founded there the School of Library Economy, the first institution for
+the instruction of librarians ever organized. This school, which was
+very successful, was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was
+re-established as the State Library School under his direction; from
+1888 to 1906 he was director of the New York State Library and from 1888
+to 1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York,
+completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of the most
+efficient in America, and establishing the system of state travelling
+libraries and picture collections. His "Decimal System of
+Classification" for library cataloguing, first proposed in 1876, is
+extensively used.
+
+
+DEWING, THOMAS WILMER (1851- ), American figure painter, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1851. He was a pupil of Jules
+Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to 1879; was elected a full member of the
+National Academy of Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten
+American Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition
+(1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis (1904). His
+decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and finish. Among his
+portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White and of his own wife. Mrs
+Dewing (b, 1855), _née_ Maria Oakey, a figure and flower painter, was a
+pupil of John La Farge in New York, and of Couture in Paris.
+
+
+DE WINT, PETER (1784-1849), English landscape painter, of Dutch
+extraction, son of an English physician, was born at Stone,
+Staffordshire, on the 21st of January 1784. He studied art in London,
+and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In 1812 he became a member of
+the Society of Painters in Watercolours, where he exhibited largely for
+many years, as well as at the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of
+William Hilton, R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. De
+Wint's life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he
+ranks as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his
+pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+
+DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was born at Kampen,
+and in 1761 entered the naval service at the age of twelve years. He
+distinguished himself by his zeal and courage, and at the revolution of
+1787 he had reached the rank of lieutenant. The overthrow of the
+"patriot" party forced him to fly for his safety to France. Here he
+threw himself heart and soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took
+part under Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and
+was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When Pichegru in
+1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the French army to his
+native country. The states-general now utilized the experience he had
+gained as a naval officer by giving him the post of adjunct-general for
+the reorganization of the Dutch navy. In 1796 he was appointed
+vice-admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts
+to strengthen it and improve its condition, and on the 11th of October
+1797 he ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British fleet
+under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the Dutch were
+defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner. He remained in
+England until December, when he was liberated by exchange. His conduct
+in the battle of Camperdown was declared by a court-martial to have
+nobly maintained the honour of the Dutch flag.
+
+From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador to the French
+republic, and was then once more appointed commander of the fleet. He
+was sent with a strong squadron to the Mediterranean to repress the
+Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a treaty of peace with the Tripolitan
+government. He enjoyed the confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of
+Holland, and, after the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French
+empire, in an equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was
+created marshal and count of Huessen, and given the command of the armed
+forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the grand cross of the
+Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector-general of the northern
+coasts, and in 1811 he placed him at the head of the fleet he had
+collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards De Winter was seized with
+illness and compelled to betake himself to Paris, where he died on the
+2nd of June 1812. He had a splendid public funeral and was buried in the
+Pantheon. His heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the Nicolaas
+Kerk at Kampen.
+
+
+DE WITT, CORNELIUS (1623-1672), brother of JOHN DE WITT (q.v.), was born
+at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgomaster of Dort and member of the
+states of Holland and West Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the
+important post of _ruwaard_ or governor of the land of Putten and
+bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater
+brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout his career
+with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by the
+states of Holland to accompany Admiral de Ruyter in his famous
+expedition to Chatham. Cornelius de Witt on this occasion distinguished
+himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De
+Ruyter in 1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at
+Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled by
+illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that the
+Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother were the
+objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account of his imprisonment,
+trial and death, is given below.
+
+
+DE WITT, JOHN (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at Dort, on the
+24th of September 1625. He was a member of one of the old burgher-regent
+families of his native town. His father, Jacob de Witt, was six times
+burgomaster of Dort, and for many years sat as a representative of the
+town in the states of Holland. He was a strenuous adherent of the
+republican or oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the
+princes of the house of Orange, who represented the federal principle
+and had the support of the masses of the people. John was educated at
+Leiden, and early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in
+mathematics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother
+Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on his
+return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate. In 1650 he
+was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which made him the leader
+and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of Holland. In this
+same year the states of Holland found themselves engaged in a struggle
+for provincial supremacy, on the question of the disbanding of troops,
+with the youthful prince of Orange, William II. William, with the
+support of the states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders
+of the states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle;
+among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William, at the
+moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction. He left only a
+posthumous child, afterwards William III. of Orange, and the principles
+advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed, and the authority of the states of
+Holland became predominant in the republic.
+
+At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence, sagacity
+and business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of Dort that
+on the 23rd of July 1653 he was appointed to the office of grand
+pensionary (_Raadpensionaris_) of Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He
+was re-elected in 1658, 1663 and 1668, and held office until his death
+in 1672. During this period of nineteen years the general conduct of
+public affairs and administration, and especially of foreign affairs,
+such was the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was
+largely placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to the
+brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been caused by the
+keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states. The Dutch were
+unprepared, and suffered severely through the loss of their carrying
+trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about peace as soon as possible.
+The first demands of Cromwell were impossible, for they aimed at the
+absorption of the two republics into a single state, but at last in the
+autumn of 1654 peace was concluded, by which the Dutch made large
+concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to English ships in
+the narrow seas. The treaty included a secret article, which the
+states-general refused to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in
+inducing the states of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of
+Holland pledged themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a
+captain-general of the union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called,
+was aimed at the young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the
+Stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was
+personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his
+ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that he
+prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter.
+
+The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently successful.
+He restored the finances of the state, and extended its commercial
+supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he sustained Denmark against
+Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an advantageous peace with Portugal. The
+accession of Charles II. to the English throne led to the rescinding of
+the Act of Seclusion; nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the
+prince of Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This
+led to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to a
+renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial rights, and
+war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and courage displayed by the
+grand pensionary during the course of this fiercely contested naval
+struggle could scarcely have been surpassed. He himself on more than one
+occasion went to sea with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came
+in contact by the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action
+and inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an
+organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship
+of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty of peace signed at
+Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of _uti possidetis_, were so
+honourable to the United Provinces. A still greater triumph of
+diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the Triple Alliance (January 17,
+1668) between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden, which checked the
+attempt of Louis XIV. to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in
+the name of his wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was
+but temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take vengeance
+for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III. was growing to
+manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout the country spared no
+efforts to undermine the authority of De Witt, and secure for the young
+prince of Orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors.
+
+In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded the United
+Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically no resistance was
+possible. The unanimous voice of the people called William III. to the
+head of affairs, and there were violent demonstrations against John de
+Witt. His brother Cornelius was (July 24) arrested on a charge of
+conspiring against the prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt
+resigned the post of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with
+such distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the 19th of
+August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banishment. He
+was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother came to visit him in
+the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this collected outside, and finally
+burst into the prison, seized the two brothers and literally tore them
+to pieces. Their mangled remains were hung up by the feet to a
+lamp-post. Thus perished, by the savage act of an infuriated mob, one of
+the greatest statesmen of his age.
+
+John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influential
+burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two sons and three
+daughters.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Geddes, _History of the Administration of John de
+  Witt_, (vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefèvre-Pontalis, _Jean de
+  Witt, grand pensionnaire de Hollande_ (2 vols., Paris, 1884); P.
+  Simons, _Johan de Witt en zijn tijd_ (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842);
+  W. C. Knottenbelt, _Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt_
+  (Amsterdam, 1862); _J. de Witt, Brieven ... gewisselt tusschen den
+  Heer Johan de Witt ... ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d.
+  Vereen. Nederlanden so in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken,
+  Poolen, enz. 1652-69_ (6 vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); _Brieven ...
+  1650-1657 (1658) eerste deel bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W.
+  Kernkamp_ (Amsterdam, 1906).
+
+
+DEWLAP (from the O.E. _læppa_, a lappet, or hanging fold; the first
+syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explanation that the word
+means "the fold which brushes the dew" is not borne out, according to
+the _New English Dictionary_, by the equivalent words such as the
+Danish _doglaeb_, in Scandinavian languages), the loose fold of skin
+hanging from the neck of cattle, also applied to similar folds in the
+necks of other animals and fowls, as the dog, turkey, &c. The American
+practice of branding cattle by making a cut in the neck is known as a
+"dewlap brand." The skin of the neck in human beings often becomes
+pendulous with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by the same
+name.
+
+
+DEWSBURY, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the
+West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of
+Leeds, on the Great Northern, London & North-Western, and Lancashire &
+Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 28,060. The parish church of All Saints
+was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the 18th century;
+the portions still preserved of the original structure are mainly Early
+English. The chief industries are the making of blankets, carpets,
+druggets and worsted yarn; and there are iron foundries and machinery
+works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary borough
+includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and returns one
+member. The municipal borough, incorporated in 1862, is under a mayor, 6
+aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1471 acres. Paulinus, first
+archbishop of York, about the year 627 preached in the district of
+Dewsbury, where Edwin, king of Northumbria, whom he converted to
+Christianity, had a royal mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are
+remains of a Cistercian convent of the 12th century, in an extensive
+park, where tradition relates that Robin Hood died and was buried.
+
+
+DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek historian,
+statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian family
+of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon basileus and eponymus in
+Athens. When the Heruli overran Greece and captured Athens (269),
+Dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of
+patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up
+in his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording his
+services, has been preserved (_Corpus Inscrr. Atticarum_, iii. No. 716).
+It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to his military
+achievements. Photius (_cod._ 82) mentions three historical works by
+Dexippus, of which considerable fragments remain: (1) [Greek: Ta met'
+Alexandron], an epitome of a similarly named work by Arrian; (2) [Greek:
+Skuthika], a history of the wars of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians)
+in the 3rd century; (3) [Greek: Chronikê historia], a chronological
+history from the earliest times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270),
+frequently referred to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work
+was continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks very
+highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a level with
+Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments (C. W.
+Müller, _F.H.G._ iii. 666-687).
+
+
+DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821-1890), American clergyman and author, was
+born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the 13th of August 1821. He
+graduated at Yale in 1840 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in
+1844; was pastor of a Congregational church in Manchester, New
+Hampshire, in 1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational
+church, Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the _Congregationalist_
+in 1851-1866, of the _Congregational Quarterly_ in 1859-1866, and of the
+_Congregationalist_, with which the _Recorder_ was merged, from 1867
+until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the 13th of November 1890. He
+was an authority on the history of Congregationalism and was lecturer on
+that subject at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879; he left
+his fine library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among
+his works are: _Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is, How it
+works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church Government, and
+its consequent Demands_ (1865), _The Church Polity of the Puritans the
+Polity of the New Testament_ (1870), _As to Roger Williams and His
+"Banishment" from the Massachusetts Colony_ (1876), _Congregationalism
+of the Last Three Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature_ (1880), his
+most important work, _A Handbook of Congregationalism_ (1880), _The True
+Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptist"_ (1881), _Common Sense as to
+Woman Suffrage_ (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets bearing on early
+church history in New England, especially Baptist controversies. His
+_The England and Holland of the Pilgrims_ was completed by his son,
+Morton Dexter (b. 1846), and published in 1905.
+
+
+DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747-1806), American merchant, remarkable for his
+eccentricities, was born at Malden, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of
+February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities
+of the depreciated continental currency, which was ultimately redeemed
+by the Federal government at par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter
+and built extraordinary houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New
+Hampshire. He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior
+pictures, besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal
+statues carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of himself was
+included in the collection, and had for an inscription "I am the first
+in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest philosopher in the
+Western World." He wrote a book entitled _Pickle for the Knowing Ones_.
+It was wholly without punctuation marks, and as this aroused comment, he
+published a second edition, at the end of which was a page displaying
+nothing but commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to
+"peper and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping
+enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried out in
+a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the 26th of October
+1806.
+
+
+DEXTRINE (BRITISH GUM, STARCH GUM, LEIOCOME), (C_{6}H_{10}O_{5})_{x}, a
+substance produced from starch by the action of dilute acids, or by
+roasting it at a temperature between 170° and 240° C. It is manufactured
+by spraying starch with 2% nitric acid, drying in air, and then heating
+to about 110°. Different modifications are known, e.g. amylodextrine,
+erythrodextrine and achroodextrine. Its name has reference to its
+powerful dextrorotatory action on polarized light. Pure dextrine is an
+insipid, odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is sometimes
+yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves in water
+and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated from its
+solutions as the hydrated compound, C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}.H_{2}O. Diastase
+converts it eventually into maltose, C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}; and by boiling
+with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is transformed
+into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}. It does not
+ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce Fehling's solution.
+If heated with strong nitric acid it gives oxalic, and not mucic acid.
+Dextrine much resembles gum arabic, for which it is generally
+substituted. It is employed for sizing paper, for stiffening cotton
+goods, and for thickening colours in calico printing, also in the making
+of lozenges, adhesive stamps and labels, and surgical bandages.
+
+  See Otto Lueger, _Lexikon der gesamten Technik_.
+
+
+DEY (an adaptation of the Turk, d[=a]î, a maternal uncle), an
+honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men,
+and appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their
+commanding officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries
+became in the 17th century rulers of that country (see ALGERIA:
+HISTORY). From the middle of the 16th century to the end of the
+17th century the ruler of Tunisia was also called dey, a title
+frequently used during the same period by the sovereigns of
+Tripoli.
+
+
+DHAMMAP[=A]LA, the name of one of the early disciples of the Buddha, and
+therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by Buddhist
+novices on their entering the brotherhood. The most famous of the
+Bhikshus so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half
+of the 5th century A.D. at the Badara Tittha Vih[=a]ra, near the east
+coast of India, just a little south of where Madras now stands. It is to
+him we owe the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books,
+consisting almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on the
+Netti, perhaps the oldest P[=a]li work outside the canon. Extracts from
+the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven others, have
+been published by the P[=a]li Text Society. These works show great
+learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But as Dhammap[=a]la
+confines himself rigidly either to questions of the meaning of words,
+or to discussions of the ethical import of his texts, very little can be
+gathered from his writings of value for the social history of his time.
+For the right interpretation of the difficult texts on which he
+comments, they are indispensable. Though in all probability a Tamil by
+birth, he declares, in the opening lines of those of his works that have
+been edited, that he followed the tradition of the Great Minster at
+Anur[=a]dhapura in Ceylon, and the works themselves confirm this in
+every respect. Hsüan Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint
+story of a Dhammap[=a]la of K[=a]nchipura (the modern Konjevaram). He
+was a son of a high official, and betrothed to a daughter of the king,
+but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast, entered the order, and
+attained to reverence and distinction. It is most likely that this
+story, whether legendary or not (and Hsüan Tsang heard the story at
+K[=a]nchipura nearly two centuries after the date of Dhammap[=a]la),
+referred to this author. But it may also refer, as Hsüan Tsang refers
+it, to another author of the same name. Other unpublished works, besides
+those mentioned above, have been ascribed to Dhammap[=a]la, but it is
+very doubtful whether they are really by him.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_ (ed. Rhys Davids and
+  Bushell, London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in _Zeitschrift der
+  deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_ (1898), pp. 97 foll.; _Netti_
+  (ed. E. Hardy, London, P[=a]li Text Society, 1902), especially the
+  Introduction, passim; _Therî G[=a]th[=a] Commentary_, _Peta Vatthu
+  Commentary_, and _Vim[=a]na Vatthu Commentary_, all three published by
+  the P[=a]li Text Society.                              (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+DHANIS, FRANCIS, BARON (1861-1909), Belgian administrator, was born in
+London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen years of his life at
+Greenock, where he received his early education. He was the son of a
+Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady named Maher. The name Dhanis is
+supposed to be a variation of D'Anvers. Having completed his education
+at the École Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment
+of grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he
+reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the Congo,
+and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well in founding new
+stations north of the Congo that, when the government decided to put an
+end to the Arab domination on the Upper Congo, he was selected to
+command the chief expedition sent against the slave dealers. The
+campaign began in April 1892, and it was not brought to a successful
+conclusion till January 1894. The story of this war has been told in
+detail by Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book _The Fall of
+the Congo Arabs_. The principal achievements of the campaign were the
+captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at Nyangwe,
+Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis was raised to the rank
+of baron, and in 1895 was made vice-governor of the Congo State. In 1896
+he took command of an expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely
+composed of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted, and
+who had been irritated by the execution of some of their chiefs for
+indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and murdered many of
+their white officers. Dhanis found himself confronted with a more
+formidable adversary than even the Arabs in these well-armed and
+half-disciplined mercenaries. During two years (1897-1898) he was
+constantly engaged in a life-and-death struggle with them. Eventually he
+succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous
+soldiers. Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less
+striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both think that
+the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in
+bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899 Baron Dhanis returned to
+Belgium with the honorary rank of vice governor-general. He died on the
+14th of November 1909.
+
+
+DHAR, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency, Central India. It
+includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories, and has an area of 1775 sq.
+m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta. The founder of the present ruling
+family was Anand Rao Punwar, a descendant of the great Paramara clan of
+Rajputs who from the 9th to the 13th century, when they were driven out
+by the Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar. In
+1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the peshwa, the
+victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the
+family which seven centuries before had been expelled from this very
+city and country. Towards the close of the 18th and in the early part of
+the 19th century, the state was subject to a series of spoliations by
+Sindia and Holkar, and was only preserved from destruction by the
+talents and courage of the adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a
+treaty of 1819 Dhar passed under British protection, and bound itself to
+act in subordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion
+in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar, then a
+minor, with the exception of the detached district of Bairusia, which
+was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand Rao, who received the personal
+title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in 1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded
+by Udaji Rao Punwar. In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state
+includes the ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of
+Malwa.
+
+THE TOWN OF DHAR is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901)
+17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees surrounded by
+barren hills, and possesses, besides its old walls, many interesting
+buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan, some of them containing records of a
+great historical importance. The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built
+by Dilawar Khan in 1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives
+its name from an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at
+the beginning of the 13th century in commemoration of a victory, and
+bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town
+of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft. high, is now
+overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an enclosure containing four
+tombs, the most notable being that of Shaikh Kamal Maulvi
+(Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous 13th-century Mussulman saint
+Nizam-ud-din Auliya.[1] The mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built
+out of Hindu remains in the 14th or 15th century: its name is derived
+from the slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit
+grammar, with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the
+town stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to have
+been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the 14th century. It
+contains the palace of the raja. Of modern institutions may be mentioned
+the high school, public library, hospital, and the chapel, school and
+hospital of the Canadian Presbyterian mission. There is also a
+government opium depot for the payment of duty, the town being a
+considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain.
+
+  The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari (the
+  city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the capital
+  of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who transferred his
+  headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th century.
+  During the rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous throughout
+  India as a centre of culture and learning; but, after suffering
+  various vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the Mussulmans at
+  the beginning of the 14th century. At the close of the century Dilawar
+  Khan, the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been appointed governor
+  in 1399, practically established his independence, his son Hoshang
+  Shah being the first Mahommedan king of Malwa. Under this dynasty Dhar
+  was second in importance to the capital Mandu. Subsequently, in the
+  time of Akbar, Dhar fell under the dominion of the Moguls, in whose
+  hands it remained till 1730, when it was conquered by the Mahrattas.
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908).
+
+[1] Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near Delhi,
+was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret society of
+Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed to have been the
+founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special reverence for his
+memory.
+
+
+DHARAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Surat political agency
+division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The population in 1901
+was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during the decade; the estimated
+gross revenue is £25,412; and the tribute £600. Its chief is a Sesodia
+Rajput. The state has been surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay
+system. It contains one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272
+villages. Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very
+unhealthy, is capable of cultivation; the rest is covered with rocky
+hills, forest and brushwood.
+
+
+DHARMSALA, a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab, India, situated
+on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of Kangra town, at an elevation
+of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971. The scenery of Dharmsala is of
+peculiar grandeur. The spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with
+oak and other trees; behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain
+tower towards the jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half
+the year; while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra
+valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the Kangra
+district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the centre of a
+European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied by Gurkha
+regiments. The station was destroyed by the earthquake of April 1905, in
+which 1625 persons, including 25 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha
+garrison, perished (_Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1908).
+
+
+DHARWAR, a town and district of British India, in the southern division
+of Bombay. The town has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. The
+population in 1901 was 31,279. It has several ginning factories and a
+cotton-mill; two high schools, one maintained by the Government and the
+other by the Basel German Mission.
+
+The DISTRICT OF DHARWAR has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the north and
+north-east are great plains of black soil, favourable to cotton-growing;
+in the south and west are successive ranges of low hills, with flat
+fertile valleys between them. The whole district lies high and has no
+large rivers.
+
+In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of 6% in the
+decade. The most influential classes of the community are Brahmans and
+Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968, or 46% of the Hindu population;
+they worship the symbol of Siva, and males and females both carry this
+emblem about their person in a silver case. The principal crops are
+millets, pulse and cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and
+Gadag, junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the
+district in several directions.
+
+The early history of the territory comprised within the district of
+Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription
+slabs and memorial stones which abound there. From these it is clear
+that the country fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties
+that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of the Chalukyan dynasty, whether
+temples or inscriptions, being especially abundant. In the 14th century
+the district was first overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was
+annexed to the newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an
+official of which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built
+the fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of
+Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years practically
+independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573 the fort was captured
+by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was annexed to his dominions. In
+1685 the fort was taken by the emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the
+break-up of the Mogul empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of
+Poona. In 1764 the province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in
+1778 captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the
+Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817, Dharwar was
+incorporated with the territory of the East India Company.
+
+
+DHOLPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area
+of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country, without any special
+manufactures. All along the bank of the river Chambal the country is
+deeply intersected by ravines; low ranges of hills in the western
+portion of the state supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and
+easily-worked red sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was
+270,973, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The estimated revenue
+is £83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway from
+Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely from drought.
+In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief amounted to £8190.
+
+The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,310. The
+present town, which dates from the 16th century, stands somewhat to the
+north of the site of the older Hindu town built, it is supposed, in the
+11th century by the Tonwar Rajput Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named
+after him Dholdera or Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the
+town may be mentioned the fortified _sarai_ built in the reign of Akbar,
+within which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one of
+his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is growing in
+importance as a centre of trade.
+
+Little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of
+Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the Tonwar
+Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th to the 12th century.
+In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in 1501 the fort of Dholpur was
+taken by the Mahommedans under Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred
+to a Mussulman governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort
+was captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed under the
+sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the province of Agra.
+During the dissensions which followed the death of Aurangzeb in 1707,
+Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria obtained possession of Dholpur, and his
+family retained it till 1761, after which it was taken successively by
+the Jat raja, Suraj Mal of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by
+Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored to Sindhia
+by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence of new arrangements
+was again occupied by the British. Finally, in 1806, the territories of
+Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat
+Singh, ancestor of the present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his
+state of Gohad, which was ceded to Sindhia.
+
+The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia Jats, who
+are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo-Scythian wave of
+invasion which swept over northern India about A.D. 100. An ancestor of
+the family appears to have held certain territories at Bamraoli near
+Agra c. 1195. His descendant in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished
+himself in an expedition against the freebooters of the Deccan, was
+rewarded by the sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the
+title of _rana_. In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces
+against Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion
+of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories then in
+his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected from invasion
+by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently withdrawn, the rana having
+been guilty of treachery, and in 1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing
+the fortress of Gwalior, and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the
+whole of Gohad. In 1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by
+the British government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the
+rana agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of
+Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief binding
+himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the paramount power, and
+to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the British
+government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana of Dholpur, was
+succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh, who showed great loyalty
+during the Mutiny of 1857, was created a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869.
+He was succeeded in 1873 by his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the
+C.B. and frontier medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in
+1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883).
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908) and authorities there
+  given.
+
+
+DHOW, the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the Arabian
+Sea. The language to which the word belongs is unknown. According to the
+_New English Dictionary_ the place of origin may be the Persian Gulf,
+assuming that the word is identical with the tava mentioned by
+Athanasius Nikitin (_India in the 15th Century_, Hakluyt Society, 1858).
+Though the word is used generally of any craft along the East African
+coast, it is usually applied to the vessel of about 150 to 200 tons
+burden with a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows
+generally have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous
+length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is
+carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels employed in
+the slave trade from the east coast of Africa.
+
+
+DHRANGADRA, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay,
+situated in the north of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area is 1156
+sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The estimated gross revenue is £38,000 and
+the tribute £3000. A state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to
+the town of Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in
+1898. Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor; the
+manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand-mills. The chief
+town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of 14,770.
+
+The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with the
+predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala Rajputs,
+who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in the 8th century. Raj
+Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji (b. 1837), who succeeded his father
+in 1869, was distinguished for the enlightened character of his
+administration, especially in the matter of establishing schools and
+internal communications. He was created a K.C.S.I in 1877. He died in
+1900, and was succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b.
+1872).
+
+
+DHULEEP SINGH (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born in February
+1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the 18th of September 1843, under
+the regency of his mother the rani Jindan, a woman of great capacity and
+strong will, but extremely inimical to the British. He was acknowledged
+by Ranjit Singh and recognized by the British government. After six
+years of peace the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were
+defeated in four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore,
+the capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but it
+was administered to a great extent by the British government in his
+name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the British,
+and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite of the valour of the
+Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat, and in March 1849 Dhuleep
+Singh was deposed, a pension of £40,000 a year being granted to him and
+his dependants. He became a Christian and elected to live in England. On
+coming of age he made an arrangement with the British government by
+which his income was reduced to £25,000 in consideration of advances for
+the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at Elvedon in Suffolk.
+While passing through Alexandria in 1864 he met Miss Bamba Müller, the
+daughter of a German merchant who had married an Abyssinian. The
+maharaja had been interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he
+met Miss Müller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching.
+She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were the
+issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the maharaja
+married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady, Miss Ada Douglas
+Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja was passionately fond of
+sport, and his shooting parties were celebrated, while he himself became
+a _persona grata_ in English society. The result, however, was financial
+difficulty, and in 1882 he appealed to the government for assistance,
+making various claims based upon the alleged possession of private
+estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor diamond
+to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, whereupon he started for
+India, after drawing up a proclamation to his former subjects. But as it
+was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the Punjab, he remained for
+some time as a guest at the residency at Aden, and was allowed to
+receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity,
+which actually took place within the residency itself. As the climate
+began to affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and
+returned to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his
+claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but when that
+expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where he lived for the
+rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the Indian government.
+His death from an attack of apoplexy took place at Paris on the 22nd of
+October 1893. The maharaja's eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay
+Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges,
+Cambridge. In 1888 he obtained a commission in the 1st Royal Dragoon
+Guards. In 1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the
+earl of Coventry.                                              (G.F.B.)
+
+
+DHULIA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of West
+Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the Panjhra river.
+Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds,
+and weaving of cotton. A railway connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the
+main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.
+
+
+DIABASE, in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite. It
+was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks of this group
+differed from their Tertiary and Recent representatives in certain
+essential respects, but this is now admitted to be untenable, and the
+differences are known to be merely the result of the longer exposure to
+decomposition, pressure and shearing, which the older rocks have
+experienced. Their olivine tends to become serpentinized; their augite
+changes to chlorite and uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation
+of zeolites, calcite, sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green
+colour (from the development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence
+the older name of "greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them
+become somewhat schistose from pressure ("greenstone-schists,"
+meta-diabase, &c.). Although the original definition of the group can no
+longer be justified, the name is so well established in current usage
+that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and dolerite are
+employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of rocks.
+
+  The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz.
+  olivine, augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities
+  of hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite.
+
+  There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine;
+  quartz-diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende
+  diabases (or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is
+  characteristic of another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially
+  those which contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the
+  intersertal dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases,
+  hypersthene-diabases and the rocks which have been described as
+  tholeites. Porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites,
+  some of which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant
+  fine-grained or partly glassy ground-mass (_diabas-mandelstein_,
+  amygdaloidal diabase). The somewhat ill-defined spilites are regarded
+  by many as modifications of diabase-porphyrite. In the intersertal and
+  porphyrite diabases, fresh or devitrified glassy base is not
+  infrequent. It is especially conspicuous in some tholeites
+  (hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks consist of
+  augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a brown,
+  vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte
+  (sordawilite, &c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite
+  sills and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites
+  of grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green
+  augite (variolites).
+
+  To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the
+  diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary dolerites. In
+  the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more common than in the
+  newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous
+  habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in most cases secondary
+  after pyroxene, and is then known as uralite; often it forms
+  pseudomorphs which retain the shape of the original augite. Where
+  diabases have been crushed or sheared, hornblende readily develops at
+  the expense of pyroxene, sometimes replacing it completely. In the
+  later stages of alteration the amphibole becomes compact and well
+  crystallized; the rocks consist of green hornblende and plagioclase
+  felspar, and are then generally known as epidiorites or amphibolites.
+  At the same time a schistose structure is produced. But transition
+  forms are very common, having more or less of the augite remaining,
+  surrounded by newly formed hornblende which at first is rather fibrous
+  and tends to spread outwards through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite
+  also is abundant both in sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it
+  calcite may make its appearance, or the lime set free from the augite
+  may combine with the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to
+  form incrustations or borders of sphene around the original crystals
+  of ilmenite. Epidote is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which
+  results from the decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the
+  pyroxenes. Many diabases, especially those of the teschenite
+  sub-group, are filled with zeolites.
+
+  Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts
+  of the globe. Popular names for them are "whinstone," "greenstone,"
+  "toadstone" and "trap." They form excellent road-mending stones and
+  are much quarried for this purpose, being tough, durable and resistant
+  to wear, so long as they are not extremely decomposed. Many of them
+  are to be preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle.
+  The quality of the Cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly
+  improved by a smaller amount of recrystallization where they have been
+  heated by contact with intrusive masses of granite. (J. S. F.)
+
+
+DIABETES (from Gr. [Greek: dia], through, and [Greek: bainein], to
+pass), a constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive
+discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described, viz.
+Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only increased
+in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less amount of
+sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the urine is simply
+increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal ingredient. This latter,
+however, must be distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular
+kidney, lardaceous disease of the kidney, and also occurring in certain
+cases of hysteria.
+
+_Diabetes mellitus_ is the disease to which the term is most commonly
+applied, and is by far the more serious and important ailment. It is one
+of the diseases due to altered metabolism (see METABOLIC DISEASES). It
+is markedly hereditary, much more prevalent in towns and especially
+modern city life than in more primitive rustic communities, and most
+common among the Jews. The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually
+considered one cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour
+its occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so often
+met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself.
+No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of
+life. It attacks males twice as frequently as females, and fair more
+frequently than dark people.
+
+The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the patient may
+suffer for a length of time before he thinks it necessary to apply for
+medical aid. The first symptoms which attract attention are failure of
+strength, and emaciation, along with great thirst and an increased
+amount and frequent passage of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2
+to 3 pints in the 24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or
+even more. It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than
+normal urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific
+gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable
+irritation of the urinary passages.
+
+By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic
+urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar,
+while the amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by
+certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar passed may vary from
+a few ounces to two or more pounds per diem, and it is found to be
+markedly increased after saccharine or starchy food has been taken.
+Sugar may also be found in the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all
+the excretions of persons suffering from this disease. One of the most
+distressing symptoms is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly
+seeking to allay, the quantity of liquid consumed being in general
+enormous, and there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious
+appetite. The mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may
+be evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the general
+health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and more emaciated.
+He suffers from increasing muscular weakness, the temperature of his
+body is lowered, and the skin is dry and harsh. There is often a
+peculiar flush on the face, not limited to the malar eminences, but
+extending up to the roots of the hair. The teeth are loosened or decay,
+there is a tendency to bleeding from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms,
+constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There
+is in general great mental depression or irritability.
+
+Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of
+young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be rapid. The
+complications of the disease are many and serious. It may cause impaired
+vision by weakening the muscles of accommodation, or by lessening the
+sensitiveness of the retina to light. Also cataract is very common. Skin
+affections of all kinds may occur and prove very intractable. Boils,
+carbuncles, cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life
+advances, though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women.
+Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and gangrene
+of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis in the latter
+disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney diseases and heart
+failure due to fatty heart are all of common occurrence. Also patients
+seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric fever, though the
+attack usually runs a mild course. The sugar temporarily disappears
+during the fever. But the most serious complication of all is known as
+diabetic coma, which is very commonly the final cause of death. The
+onset is often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a
+rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either
+constipation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal
+pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true coma,
+though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The patient suffers
+from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath and skin have a sweet
+ethereal odour. The condition may last from twenty-four hours to three
+days, but is almost invariably the precursor of death.
+
+Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being exceedingly
+rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25% of phthisis or pneumonia, and
+the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral haemorrhage, gangrene, &c.
+The most favourable cases are those in which the patient is advanced in
+years, those in which it is associated with obesity or gout, and where
+the social conditions are favourable. A few cures have been recorded in
+which the disease supervened after some acute illness. The unfavourable
+cases are those in which there is a family history of the disease and in
+which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be done by appropriate
+treatment to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to prolong life.
+
+There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that of
+drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by the
+idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition between very
+wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has
+been proved beyond question that certain kinds of food have a powerful
+influence in aggravating the disease, more particularly those consisting
+largely of saccharine and starchy matter; and it may be stated generally
+that the various methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as
+far as possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is
+recommended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous
+foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be avoided;
+while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream, cheese, eggs,
+butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be taken with advantage.
+As a substitute for ordinary bread, which most persons find it difficult
+to do without for any length of time, bran bread, gluten bread and
+almond biscuits. A patient must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to
+a carbohydrate-free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable
+to bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite gradually,
+one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of the diet,
+whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully
+noted meanwhile. The treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes, sugar
+and fruit, and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by
+some diabetic substitute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to
+its lowest point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount
+of carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect on the
+glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be worked out
+experimentally for each individual patient. But in every case, if
+drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma supervene, all restrictions
+must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate freely allowed. The question of
+alcohol is one which must be largely determined by the previous history
+of the patient, but a small quantity will help to make up the
+deficiencies of a diet poor in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky,
+and Hollands gin, are usually free from sugar, and some of the light
+Bordeaux wines contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given
+as cream, fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless,
+but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and endive
+yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to 1½ ozs. daily without
+increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked or raw, are
+allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form. The question of
+milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid
+diet, allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended.
+Thirst is relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria. But
+hypodermic injections of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva, and
+thus relieve the dryness of the mouth. Constipation appears to increase
+the thirst, and must always be carefully guarded against. The best
+remedies are the aperient mineral waters.
+
+Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes, but few of
+them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy. Opium is often
+found of great service, its administration being followed by marked
+amelioration in all the symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar
+action. In the severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of
+little or no use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin
+hydrochloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more
+power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium and
+aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the sugar
+excretion without counterbalancing bad effects.
+
+In _diabetes insipidus_ there is constant thirst and an excessive flow
+of urine, which, however, is not found to contain any abnormal
+constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to those of
+diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked, the disease
+being in general very slow in its progress. In some cases the health
+appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely a direct cause of death,
+but from its debilitating effects may predispose to serious and fatal
+complications. It is best treated by tonics and generous diet. Valerian
+has been found beneficial, the powdered root being given in 5-grain
+doses.
+
+
+DIABOLO, a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones
+joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught by means of a
+cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game appears originally to
+have come from China, where a top (_Kouengen_), made of two hollow
+pierced cylinders of metal or wood, joined by a rod--and often of
+immense size,--was made by rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was
+used by pedlars to attract customers. From China it was introduced by
+missionaries to Europe; and a form of the game, known as "the devil on
+two sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the end of
+the 18th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with improvements in
+it. But its principal vogue was in France in 1812, where the top was
+called "le diable." Amusing old prints exist (see _Fry's Magazine_,
+March and December 1907), depicting examples of the popular craze in
+France at the time. The _diable_ of those days resembled a globular
+wooden dumb-bell with a short waist, and the sonorous hum when
+spinning--the _bruit du diable_--was a pronounced feature. At intervals
+during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a
+top of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that
+the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer, Gustave
+Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game, had
+experimented for some time with new forms of top with a view to bringing
+it again into popularity; and having devised the double-cone shape, and
+added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends
+of the double-cone, with other improvements, he named it "diabolo." The
+use of celluloid in preference to metal or wood as its material appears
+to have been due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by
+the inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and catching
+the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions, both as an
+exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in "diabolo tennis" and other
+ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and the chief French
+seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906, its vogue spread in
+1907 so that in France and England it became the fashionable "rage"
+among both children and adults.
+
+The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor C. V. Boys in
+the _Proc. Phys. Soc._ (London), Nov. 1907.
+
+
+DIACONICON, in the Greek Church, the name given to a chamber on the
+south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils, vessels, &c.,
+of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II. (565-574), owing to
+a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and protheses were located in
+apses at the east end of the aisles. Before that time there was only one
+apse. In the churches in central Syria of slightly earlier date, the
+diaconicon is rectangular, the side apses at Kalat-Seman having been
+added at a later date.
+
+
+DIADOCHI (Gr. [Greek: diadechesthai], to receive from another), i.e.
+"Successors," the name given to the Macedonian generals who fought for
+the empire of Alexander after his death in 323 B.C. The name includes
+Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, Antipater and his son
+Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into
+which the Macedonian empire was divided under these rulers are known as
+Hellenistic. The chief were Asia Minor and Syria under the SELEUCID
+DYNASTY (q.v.), Egypt under the PTOLEMIES (q.v.), Macedonia under the
+successors of Antigonus Gonatas, PERGAMUM (q.v.) under the Attalid
+dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were merged in the Roman empire. (See
+MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.)
+
+
+DIAGONAL (Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: gônia], a corner), in
+geometry, a line joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a
+rectilinear figure.
+
+
+DIAGORAS, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist, flourished
+in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious in his youth and a
+writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became an atheist because a great
+wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods. In consequence of his
+blasphemous speeches, and especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he
+was condemned to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head
+(Aristoph. _Clouds_, 830; _Birds_, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth,
+where he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called
+[Greek Phrygioi logoi] or [Greek: Apopyrgizontes], in which he probably
+attacked the Phrygian divinities.
+
+
+DIAGRAM (Gr. [Greek: diagramma], from [Greek: diagraphein], to mark out
+by lines), a figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical relations
+between the parts of the figure illustrate relations between other
+objects. They may be classed according to the manner in which they are
+intended to be used, and also according to the kind of analogy which we
+recognize between the diagram and the thing represented. The diagrams in
+mathematical treatises are intended to help the reader to follow the
+mathematical reasoning. The construction of the figure is defined in
+words so that even if no figure were drawn the reader could draw one for
+himself. The diagram is a good one if those features which form the
+subject of the proposition are clearly represented.
+
+Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way--namely, for
+purposes of measurement. The plans and designs drawn by architects and
+engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by
+measuring certain distances on the diagram. For such purposes it is
+essential that the drawing be as accurate as possible. We therefore
+class diagrams as diagrams of illustration, which merely suggest certain
+relations to the mind of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale,
+from which measurements are intended to be made. There are some diagrams
+or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of no importance,
+provided their connexions are properly shown. Of this kind are the
+diagrams of electrical connexions, and those belonging to that
+department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis,
+periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness.
+
+_Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic._--Diagrams may
+also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which no symbols
+are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular
+points of the diagrams, and mixed diagrams, in which certain magnitudes
+are represented, not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by
+symbols, such as numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the
+height of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by
+marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on
+the map. There is another method in which a line called a contour line
+is drawn through all the places in the map whose height above the sea is
+a certain number of feet, and the number of feet is written at some
+point or points of this line. By the use of a series of contour lines,
+the height of a great number of places can be indicated on a map by
+means of a small number of written symbols. Still this method is not a
+purely graphical method, but a partly symbolical method of expressing
+the third dimension of objects on a diagram in two dimensions.
+
+In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the
+relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables, we must use
+more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of construction we use plans and
+elevations and sections through different planes, to specify the form of
+objects having three dimensions. In such systems of diagrams we have to
+indicate that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another
+diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding points in
+the different diagrams with the same letter. If the diagrams are drawn
+on the same piece of paper we may indicate corresponding points by
+drawing a line from one to the other, taking care that this line of
+correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for a real line in
+either diagram. (See GEOMETRY: _Descriptive_.)
+
+In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of which the
+form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are projections of the
+bodies taken from two points so near each other that, by viewing the two
+diagrams simultaneously, one with each eye, we identify the
+corresponding points intuitively. The method in which we simultaneously
+contemplate two figures, and recognize a correspondence between certain
+points in the one figure and certain points in the other, is one of the
+most powerful and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in
+pure geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures
+have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes spoken of as
+the method or principle of Duality. GEOMETRY: _Projective_.)
+
+                        DIAGRAMS IN MECHANICS.
+
+  The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the
+  use of a series of diagrams representing the configuration,
+  displacement and acceleration of the parts of the system.
+
+  _Diagram of Configuration._--In considering a material system it is
+  often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at
+  any given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The
+  position of any particle of the system is defined by drawing a
+  straight line or vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the
+  given particle. The position of the particle with respect to the
+  origin is determined by the magnitude and direction of this vector. If
+  in the diagram we draw from the origin (which need not be the same
+  point of space as the origin for the material system) a vector equal
+  and parallel to the vector which determines the position of the
+  particle, the end of this vector will indicate the position of the
+  particle in the diagram of configuration. If this is done for all the
+  particles we shall have a system of points in the diagram of
+  configuration, each of which corresponds to a particle of the material
+  system, and the relative positions of any pair of these points will be
+  the same as the relative positions of the material particles which
+  correspond to them.
+
+  We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the
+  vectors are supposed to be drawn--one for the material system, the
+  other for the diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn
+  from them, may now be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the
+  material system and on the other a set of points, each point
+  corresponding to a particle of the system, and the whole representing
+  the configuration of the system at a given instant.
+
+  This is called a diagram of configuration.
+
+  _Diagram of Displacement._--Let us next consider two diagrams of
+  configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different
+  instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second
+  the final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration to
+  the other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at present
+  consider the length of time during which the displacement was
+  effected, nor the intermediate stages through which it passed, but
+  only the final result--a change of configuration. To study this change
+  we construct a diagram of displacement.
+
+  Let A, B, C be the points in the initial diagram of configuration, and
+  A', B', C' be the corresponding points in the final diagram of
+  configuration. From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement, draw
+  a vector oa equal and parallel to AA', ob equal and parallel to BB',
+  oc to CC', and so on. The points a, b, c, &c., will be such that the
+  vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so on.
+  The diagram containing the points a, b, c, &c., is therefore called
+  the diagram of displacement.
+
+  In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed
+  that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system.
+  For we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to AA', which we
+  cannot do unless we know the absolute final position of A, with
+  respect to its initial position. In this diagram of displacement there
+  is therefore, besides the points a, b, c, &c., an _origin_, o, which
+  represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary
+  because the two configurations do not exist at the same time; and
+  therefore to express their relative position we require to know a
+  point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time.
+
+  But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume
+  a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space.
+  Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and equal to BA
+  in the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel and equal to
+  A'B' in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the position
+  of the point b relative to a will be the same by this construction as
+  by the former construction, only we must observe that in this second
+  construction we use only vectors such as AB, A'B', which represent the
+  relative position of points both of which exist simultaneously,
+  instead of vectors such as AA', BB', which express the position of a
+  point at one instant relative to its position at a former instant, and
+  which therefore cannot be determined by observation, because the two
+  ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously.
+
+  It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by
+  the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates that we
+  have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But no such point
+  occurs in the second construction, because we use such vectors only as
+  we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of displacements _without
+  an origin_ represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know
+  about the displacement of the material system.
+
+  _Diagram of Velocity._--If the relative velocities of the points of
+  the system are constant, then the diagram of displacement
+  corresponding to an interval of a unit of time between the initial and
+  the final configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If
+  the relative velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in
+  which the velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system
+  at the given instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The
+  diagram of displacements for this imaginary system is the required
+  diagram of relative velocities of the actual system at the given
+  instant. It is easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any
+  one point relative to any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity
+  of any of them.
+
+  _Diagram of Acceleration._--By the same process by which we formed the
+  diagram of displacements from the two diagrams of initial and final
+  configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity
+  from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This diagram
+  may be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval of
+  time. And by the same process by which we deduced the diagram of
+  velocities from that of displacements we may deduce the diagram of
+  rates of acceleration from that of total acceleration.
+
+  We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kinematics
+  because they are found to be of use especially when we have to deal
+  with material systems containing a great number of parts, as in the
+  kinetic theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then appears as
+  a region of space swarming with points representing molecules, and the
+  only way in which we can investigate it is by considering the number
+  of such points in unit of volume in different parts of that region,
+  and calling this the _density_ of the gas.
+
+  In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region
+  containing points equal in number but distributed in a different
+  manner, and the number of points in any given portion of the region
+  expresses the number of molecules whose velocities lie within given
+  limits. We may speak of this as the velocity-density.
+
+  _Diagrams of Stress._--Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to
+  statical questions, because the state of the system is constant, so
+  that we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corresponding to
+  the successive states of the system. The most useful of these
+  applications, collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates to the
+  equilibrium of plane framed structures familiarly represented in
+  bridges and roof-trusses. Two diagrams are used, one called the
+  diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of stress. The
+  structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links
+  jointed together at their extremities. In practice these joints have
+  friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so that the force acting at
+  the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly through the axis of the
+  joint; but as it is unsafe to make the stability of the structure
+  depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we assume in our
+  calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and therefore
+  that the force acting on the end of any link passes through the axis
+  of the joint.
+
+  The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in
+  the diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in the
+  actual structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the frame
+  it is represented by a straight line joining the points representing
+  the two joints. If no force acts on the link except the two forces
+  acting through the centres of the joints, these two forces must be
+  equal and opposite, and their direction must coincide with the
+  straight line joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting
+  on either extremity of the link is directed towards the other
+  extremity, the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is
+  called a "strut." If it is directed away from the other extremity, the
+  stress on the link is called tension and the link is called a "tie."
+  In this case, therefore, the only stress acting in a link is a
+  pressure or a tension in the direction of the straight line which
+  represents it in the diagram of the frame, and all that we have to do
+  is to find the magnitude of this stress. In the actual structure
+  gravity acts on every part of the link, but in the diagram we
+  substitute for the actual weight of the different parts of the link
+  two weights which have the same resultant acting at the extremities of
+  the link.
+
+  We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without
+  weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of
+  the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If any link has
+  more than two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an
+  imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which has only two
+  joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a system of points,
+  certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines, and each point is
+  in general acted on by a weight or other force acting between it and
+  some point external to the system. To complete the diagram we may
+  represent these external forces as links, that is to say, straight
+  lines joining the points of the frame to points external to the frame.
+  Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point of
+  application of the weight with the centre of the earth.
+
+  But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in
+  the lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together
+  with the real frame and the links representing external forces, which
+  join points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up
+  together a complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of
+  points connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may in
+  this way reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points
+  with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of
+  these points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each
+  of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining
+  the points, so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might
+  do this by calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure
+  or the tension which acts in it.
+
+  We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are
+  represented graphically as regards direction and position, but
+  symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be
+  represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the
+  direction of the force containing as many units of length as there are
+  units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an
+  arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to
+  this method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram
+  of configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as a
+  record of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces,
+  but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of
+  the calculation.
+
+  But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set
+  of forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel
+  and proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon
+  the forces are in equilibrium. (See MECHANICS.) We might in this way
+  form a series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame.
+  But in so doing we give up the principle of drawing the line
+  representing a force from the point of application of the force, for
+  all the sides of the polygon cannot pass through the same point, as
+  the forces do. We also represent every stress twice over, for it
+  appears as a side of both the polygons corresponding to the two joints
+  between which it acts. But if we can arrange the polygons in such a
+  way that the sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress
+  coincide with each other, we may form a diagram in which every stress
+  is represented in direction and magnitude, though not in position, by
+  a single line which is the common boundary of the two polygons which
+  represent the joints at the extremities of the corresponding piece of
+  the frame.
+
+  We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is
+  made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in
+  which every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude
+  by a straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is
+  manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the
+  corresponding polygon is closed or not.
+
+  The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of
+  stress are as follows:--To every link in the frame corresponds a
+  straight line in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude
+  and direction the stress acting in that link; and to every joint of
+  the frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces
+  acting at that joint are represented by the sides of the polygon taken
+  in a certain cyclical order, the cyclical order of the sides of the
+  two adjacent polygons being such that their common side is traced in
+  opposite directions in going round the two polygons.
+
+  The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the
+  direction of the force acting on that joint of the frame which
+  corresponds to the polygon, and due to that link of the frame which
+  corresponds to the side. This determines whether the stress of the
+  link is a pressure or a tension. If we know whether the stress of any
+  one link is a pressure or a tension, this determines the cyclical
+  order of the sides of the two polygons corresponding to the ends of
+  the links, and therefore the cyclical order of all the polygons, and
+  the nature of the stress in every link of the frame.
+
+  _Reciprocal Diagrams._--When to every point of concourse of the lines
+  in the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton
+  of the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal.
+
+  The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other
+  cases than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in his
+  _Applied Mechanics_ (1857). The method was independently applied to a
+  large number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman in the
+  office of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk Maxwell in his
+  lectures in King's College, London. In the _Phil. Mag._ for 1864 the
+  latter pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and
+  in a paper on "Reciprocal Figures, Frames and Diagrams of Forces,"
+  _Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed the relation of the
+  method to Airy's function of stress and to other mathematical methods.
+  Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a number of applications of the
+  method to practice (_Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxv.).
+
+  L. Cremona (_Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica_, 1872)
+  deduced the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the
+  two components of a wrench as developed by Möbius. Karl Culmann, in
+  his _Graphische Statik_ (1st ed. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), made great
+  use of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not
+  reciprocal. Maurice Levy in his _Statique graphique_ (1874) has
+  treated the whole subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R.
+  H. Bow, in his _The Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed
+  Structures_ (1873), materially simplified the process of drawing a
+  diagram of stress reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of
+  equilibrating external forces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of Configuration.]
+
+  Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or
+  the links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow places
+  a letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the
+  frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as
+  separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one link
+  of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection of
+  the links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of
+  each of the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of
+  stress, as the opposite sides of the parallelogram which corresponds
+  to the point of intersection.
+
+  This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of
+  configuration (fig. 1), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the
+  linkwork which Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane.
+
+  In fig. 1 the real joints are distinguished from the places where one
+  link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T,
+  V. The four links RSTV form a "contraparallelogram" in which RS = TV
+  and RV = ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar to each other. A
+  fourth triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the
+  quadruplane. The four points O, P, N, Q form a parallelogram whose
+  angle POQ is constant and equal to [pi] - SOR. The product of the
+  distances OP and OQ is constant. The linkwork may be fixed at O. If
+  any figure is traced by P, Q will trace the inverse figure, but turned
+  round O through the constant angle POQ. In the diagram forces Pp, Qq
+  are balanced by the force Co at the fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq
+  are necessarily inversely as OP and OQ, and make equal angles with
+  those lines.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Diagram of Stress.]
+
+  Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the
+  diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a
+  point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress in
+  the link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented in
+  the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding to
+  those areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by lines
+  crossing it, the stress in each part is represented by a different
+  line for each part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link
+  these lines are all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress
+  in RV is represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE
+  and AB. If two areas have no part of their boundary in common the
+  letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined
+  by a straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn between
+  them, it would represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of
+  all the stresses in the links which are cut by any line, straight or
+  curved, joining the two areas. For instance the areas F and C in fig.
+  1 have no common boundary, and the points F and C in fig. 2 are not
+  joined by a straight line. But every path from the area F to the area
+  C in fig. 1 passes through a series of other areas, and each passage
+  from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a line drawn in
+  the diagram of stress. Hence the whole path from F to C in fig. 1
+  corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and extending from F
+  to C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the
+  path is represented by FC in fig. 2.
+
+  Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on BRIDGES
+  (q.v.).
+
+                 _Automatic Description of Diagrams._
+
+  There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates
+  of a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values
+  of two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move, say
+  horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing point is
+  made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying as the
+  value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out a curve
+  on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any given time
+  may be determined. This principle is applied to the automatic
+  registration of phenomena of all kinds, from those of meteorology and
+  terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon-shot, the vibrations
+  of sounding bodies, the motions of animals, voluntary and involuntary,
+  and the currents in electric telegraphs.
+
+  In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a
+  constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to that of the
+  piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is proportional
+  to the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the
+  curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and the pressure of
+  the steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not only supplies a
+  record of the pressure of the steam at each stage of the stroke of the
+  engine, but indicates the work done by the steam in each stroke by the
+  area enclosed by the curve traced on the diagram.          (J. C. M.)
+
+
+DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a branch of
+applied mathematics which treats of the construction of sun-dials, that
+is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the
+divisions of the day (Lat. _dies_) by the motion of the shadow of some
+object on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the
+earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun;
+though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division
+into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the
+greatest elevation.
+
+_History._--The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah
+xxxviii. 8: "Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which
+is gone down in the _sun-dial_ of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date
+of this would be about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know
+nothing of the character or construction of the instrument. The earliest
+of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the
+hemicycle, or hemisphere, of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who
+probably lived about 300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed
+with its rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed
+in any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the horizon
+the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere, and
+the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular
+arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts, determined twelve equal
+intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this were done at the
+time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as
+might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the
+corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow of
+the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of
+time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide
+each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal parts were
+called _temporary hours_; and, since the duration of daylight varies
+from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from those
+of another; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that
+time, and especially in countries where the variation between the
+longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our
+climates.
+
+The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as
+appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same
+construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials have in modern
+times been found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is
+supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says
+that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The
+second and third were found in 1751--one at Castel-Nuovo and the other
+at Rignano; and a fourth was found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in
+his _Abhandlungen von den Sonnenuhren der Alten_ (Leipzig, 1777), says
+that this dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore
+be the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of
+Alexandria.
+
+Herodotus recorded that the Greeks derived from the Babylonians the use
+of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry
+enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some
+of which remain to us, and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but
+also of great ingenuity.
+
+Ptolemy's _Almagest_ treats of the construction of dials by means of his
+_analemma_, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical
+problems. The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular
+dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west,
+north or south, and these are the only ones he treats of. It is certain,
+however, that the ancients were able to construct declining dials, as is
+shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics--the Tower of
+the Winds at Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which
+the eight principal winds are represented, and over them eight different
+dials--four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the
+intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subsequent to
+that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower in the sixth
+chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials, and as he has
+described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that the
+dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary
+hours or, as the Greeks called them, _hectemoria_.
+
+The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this
+Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius
+Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees
+less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The
+first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by
+order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on
+gnomonics, this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we
+remember that the dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of
+Memphis, and consequently less adapted to its position than that of
+Catania to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not
+cultivated in Italy.
+
+The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great importance
+to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the Greeks,
+but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions. One
+of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the
+13th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and
+other surfaces. He even introduced _equal_ or _equinoctial hours_, but
+the idea was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in
+use.
+
+Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l
+Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by _equal_ hours was
+generally adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics
+from the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century is almost a blank,
+and during that time the change took place. We can see, however, that
+the change would necessarily follow the introduction of clocks and other
+mechanical methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were,
+the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in
+winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary
+hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now,
+we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of
+France about the year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new
+sun-dials came into general use during the 14th and 15th centuries.
+
+Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was SEBASTIAN
+MÜNSTER (q.v.), who published his _Horologiographia_ at Basel in 1531.
+He gives a number of correct rules, but without demonstrations. Among
+his inventions was a moon-dial,[1] but this does not admit of much
+accuracy.
+
+During the 17th century dialling was discussed at great length by many
+writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto volume of 800 pages
+entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be
+considered to contain all that was known at that time.
+
+In the 18th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and
+these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament
+to a garden, or in remote country districts where the old dial on the
+church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by
+its side. The art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little
+more than a mathematical recreation.
+
+  _General Principles._--The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth
+  are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded.
+  That the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in
+  twenty-four hours, and that it is carried round the sun in one year at
+  a nearly uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing these facts.
+  But the effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit our
+  purpose better, and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the
+  ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent
+  confirmation, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and
+  stars revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once
+  a day--the sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some
+  four minutes longer--so that at the end of the year it finds itself
+  again in the same place, having made a complete revolution of the
+  heavens relatively to the stars from west to east.
+
+  The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line
+  through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small,
+  compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a
+  parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely
+  look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in
+  the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and
+  6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An
+  axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole,
+  its elevation being equal to the latitude of the place.
+
+  The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would that
+  of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes, spoken
+  of above, were always the same. But this is constantly altering, so
+  that the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also consequently
+  as measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a strictly uniform
+  pace. This irregularity, which is slight, would be of little
+  consequence in the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and watches
+  being mechanical measures of time could not, except by extreme
+  complication, be made to follow this irregularity, even if desirable.
+
+  The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the
+  length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in
+  the year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly;
+  but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will
+  be sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock-the greatest
+  accumulated difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in
+  November, but on the average much less. The four days on which the two
+  agree are April 15, June 15, September 1 and December 24.
+
+  Clock-time is called _mean time_, that marked by the sun-dial is
+  called _apparent time_, and the difference between them is the
+  _equation of time_. It is given in most calendars and almanacs,
+  frequently under the heading "clock slow," "clock fast." When the time
+  by the sun-dial is known, the equation of time will at once enable us
+  to obtain the corresponding clock-time, or vice versa.
+
+  Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the
+  apparent position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need
+  consideration in the construction of an instrument which, with the
+  best workmanship, does not after all admit of very great accuracy.
+
+  The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood. The
+  problem before us is the following:--A rod, or _style_, as it is
+  called, being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's
+  axis, we have to find how and where points or lines of reference must
+  be traced on some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the
+  shadow of the style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know
+  that at that moment it is solar noon,--that is, that the plane through
+  the style and through the sun then coincides with the meridian; again,
+  that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is 1
+  o'clock by solar time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the
+  above plane through the style and through the sun has just turned
+  through the twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution; and so on for
+  the subsequent hours,--the hours before noon being indicated in a
+  similar manner. The style and the surface on which these lines are
+  traced together constitute the dial.
+
+  The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected--whether on
+  church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall--the surface
+  must be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines.
+
+  The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the
+  accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the
+  instrument depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an
+  angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter
+  condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the
+  meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is fixed
+  to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that the
+  style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be
+  usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by
+  the style it must always be understood that the middle line of the
+  thin band of shade is meant.
+
+  The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the
+  dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate.
+
+  The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to
+  determine accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend
+  on this one. We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style
+  has been itself accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is
+  done the XII o'clock line will be found by the intersection of the
+  dial surface with the vertical plane which contains the style; and the
+  most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a
+  plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang freely, and
+  waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide on the
+  dial. This single shadow will be the XII o'clock line.
+
+  In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock
+  line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore,
+  at once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line.
+
+  The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate
+  method of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when
+  good watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the style
+  falls when 1, 2, 3, &c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the next
+  morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced; and
+  in the same manner the hours might be subdivided into halves and
+  quarters, or even into minutes.
+
+  But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II,
+  III, &c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each
+  of these lines would make with the XII o'clock line. Now, except in
+  the simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a
+  cardinal point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or
+  elaborate geometrical constructions, implying considerable
+  mathematical knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of
+  error. The chief source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the
+  data; for the position of the dial-plane would have to be found before
+  the calculations began,--that is, it would be necessary to know
+  exactly by how many degrees it declined from the south towards the
+  east or west, and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical.
+  The ancients, with the means at their disposal, could obtain these
+  results only very roughly.
+
+  Dials received different names according to their position:--
+
+  _Horizontal dials_, when traced on a horizontal plane;
+
+  _Vertical dials_, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal
+  points;
+
+  _Vertical declining dials_, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal
+  point;
+
+  _Inclining dials_, when traced on planes neither vertical nor
+  horizontal (these were further distinguished as _reclining_ when
+  leaning backwards from an observer, _proclining_ when leaning
+  forwards);
+
+  _Equinoctial dials_, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's
+  axis, &c. &c.
+
+  _Dial Construction._--A very correct view of the problem of dial
+  construction may be obtained as follows:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. 1) having an axis AB parallel to
+  the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cylinder let equidistant
+  generating-lines be traced 15° apart, one of them XII ... XII being in
+  the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II, &c.,
+  following in the order of the sun's motion.
+
+  Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line XII ...
+  XII at apparent noon, on the line I ... I at one hour after noon, on
+  II ... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the cylinder be
+  cut by any plane MN representing the plane on which the dial is to be
+  traced, the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane and fall on
+  the lines AXII AI, AII, &c.
+
+  The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made
+  by AI, AII, &c. with AXII; the line AXII itself, being in the
+  vertical plane through AB, may be supposed known.
+
+  For the purposes of actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere
+  will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it
+  to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock
+  line in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south
+  dial.
+
+  _Horizontal Dial._--Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed
+  transparent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of
+  the heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore
+  coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then the
+  circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with the
+  horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next divide
+  the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, bc, cd, &c. ... of
+  15° each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the various
+  points of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp, Pcp, &c.
+  ... These will exactly correspond to the equidistant generating lines
+  on the cylinder in the previous construction, and the shadow of the
+  style will fall on these circles after successive intervals of 1,2, 3,
+  &c., hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle in the points
+  B, C, D, &c., then EB, EC, ED, &c. ... will be the I, II, III, &c.,
+  hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal dial consists
+  in calculating the angles which these lines make with the XII o'clock
+  line EA, whose position is known. The spherical triangles PAB, PAC,
+  &c., enable us to do this readily. They are all right-angled at A, the
+  side PA is the latitude of the place, and the angles APB, APC, &c.,
+  are respectively 15°, 30°, &c., then
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15° sin _latitude_,
+                  tan AC = tan 30° sin _latitude_,
+                           &c. &c.
+
+  These determine the sides AB, AC, &c., that is, the angles AEB, AEC,
+  &c., required.
+
+  The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian EA of
+  11° 51' on a London dial, of 12° 31' at Edinburgh, of 11° 23' at
+  Paris, 12° 0' at Berlin, 9° 55' at New York and 9° 19' at San
+  Francisco. In the same way may be found the angles made by the other
+  hour-lines.
+
+  The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant
+  from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further, because all
+  the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these. In the first
+  place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian, and therefore
+  two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-lines equidistant
+  from the meridian; thus the XI o'clock line and the I o'clock line
+  must make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the same as the II
+  o'clock, and so on. And next, the 24 great circles, which were drawn
+  to determine these lines, are in reality only 12; for clearly the
+  great circle which gives I o'clock after midnight, and that which
+  gives I o'clock after noon, are one and the same, and so also for the
+  other hours. Therefore the hour-lines between VI in the evening and VI
+  the next morning are the prolongations of the remaining twelve.
+
+  Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and
+  retain only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on
+  it, and we shall have the horizontal dial.
+
+  On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock,
+  and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for
+  extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh the limits
+  will be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within the
+  Arctic circle, the whole circuit will be required.
+
+  Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal
+  plate from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate, which
+  is sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have an
+  acute angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly
+  fixed in a vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide
+  with the meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thickness
+  of the plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles.
+  Since there are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two
+  half dials, because a little consideration will show that, owing to
+  the thickness of the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast
+  a shadow. Thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours
+  before 6 o'clock in the morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the western
+  edge will be used. At noon it will change again to the eastern edge
+  until 6 o'clock in the evening, and finally the western edge for the
+  remaining hours of daylight.
+
+  The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles
+  meet the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be careful
+  to draw only those lines for which the corresponding style is able to
+  give a shadow as explained above. The dial will thus have the
+  appearance of a single dial plate, and there will be no confusion (see
+  fig. 3).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  The line of demarcation between the shadow and the light will be
+  better defined than when a wire style is used; but the indications by
+  this double dial will always be one minute too fast in the morning and
+  one minute too slow in the afternoon. This is owing to the magnitude
+  of the sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined
+  shadows are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require
+  them, but by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward one
+  in the afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to advance
+  through a space equal to its half-breadth.
+
+  Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate is
+  of metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be
+  purchased ready for placing on the pedestal,--the dial with all the
+  hour-lines traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its
+  proper position, if not even cast in the same piece with the dial
+  plate.
+
+  When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be
+  perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling will be
+  done with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected
+  either in the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate
+  till the time given by the shadow (making the _one_ minute correction
+  mentioned above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time is
+  known. It is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so built
+  up beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the latitude
+  of some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines will be
+  drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a dial can
+  therefore not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although it would,
+  without appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose latitude did
+  not differ more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London, and it would be
+  safe to employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire.
+
+  If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in
+  latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a
+  place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of
+  time would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following
+  table will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of
+  the angle of the style,--all angles on the dial being readily measured
+  with an ordinary protractor. It extends from 50° lat. to 59½° lat.,
+  and therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and  Ireland:--
+
+  +-------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+  |  LAT. |XI. A.M.| X. A.M.| IX. A.M.|VIII. A.M.|VII. A.M.|VI. A.M.|
+  |       | I. P.M.|II. P.M.|III. P.M.|IIII. P.M.|  V. P.M.|VI. P.M.|
+  +-------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+  | 50° 0'| 11° 36'| 23° 51'|  37° 27'|  53°  0' |  70° 43'| 90°  0'|
+  | 50 30 | 11  41 | 24   1 |  37  39 |  53  12  |  70  51 | 90   0 |
+  | 51  0 | 11  46 | 24  10 |  37  51 |  53  23  |  70  59 | 90   0 |
+  | 51 30 | 11  51 | 24  19 |  38   3 |  53  35  |  71   6 | 90   0 |
+  | 52  0 | 11  55 | 24  28 |  38  14 |  53  46  |  71  13 | 90   0 |
+  | 52 30 | 12   0 | 24  37 |  38  25 |  53  57  |  71  20 | 90   0 |
+  | 53  0 | 12   5 | 24  45 |  38  37 |  54   8  |  71  27 | 90   0 |
+  | 53 30 | 12   9 | 24  54 |  38  48 |  54  19  |  71  34 | 90   0 |
+  | 54  0 | 12  14 | 25   2 |  38  58 |  54  29  |  71  40 | 90   0 |
+  | 54 30 | 12  18 | 25  10 |  39   9 |  54  39  |  71  47 | 90   0 |
+  | 55  0 | 12  23 | 25  19 |  39  19 |  54  49  |  71  53 | 90   0 |
+  | 55 30 | 12  27 | 25  27 |  39  30 |  54  59  |  71  59 | 90   0 |
+  | 56  0 | 12  31 | 25  35 |  39  40 |  55   9  |  72   5 | 90   0 |
+  | 56 30 | 12  36 | 25  43 |  39  50 |  55  18  |  72  11 | 90   0 |
+  | 57  0 | 12  40 | 25  50 |  39  59 |  55  27  |  72  17 | 90   0 |
+  | 57 30 | 12  44 | 25  58 |  40   9 |  55  36  |  72  22 | 90   0 |
+  | 58  0 | 12  48 | 26   5 |  40  18 |  55  45  |  72  28 | 90   0 |
+  | 58 30 | 12  52 | 26  13 |  40  27 |  55  54  |  72  33 | 90   0 |
+  | 59  0 | 12  56 | 26  20 |  40  36 |  56   2  |  72  39 | 90   0 |
+  | 59 30 | 13   0 | 26  27 |  40  45 |  56  11  |  72  44 | 90   0 |
+  +-------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+
+  _Vertical South Dial._--Let us take again our imaginary transparent
+  sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis.
+  Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the
+  meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane
+  facing south. This will cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA, which,
+  being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south, will
+  be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial circle,
+  obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the axis PEp.
+  The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the vertical line
+  EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and the line
+  EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the intersection of two
+  great circles ZM, QM, each at right angles to the vertical plane QZP,
+  will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem, divide
+  the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15° each, beginning at a,
+  viz. ab, bc, &c.,--each quadrant aM, MQ, &c., containing 6,--then
+  through each point of division and through the axis Pp draw a plane
+  cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles. As the sun
+  revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will successively fall
+  on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these circles cross
+  the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &c., the shadow of the
+  lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB, EC, &c.,
+  which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial,
+  Ep being the style.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on
+  each side of noon; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than
+  6 o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the
+  dial before that time, and is no longer available.
+
+  It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c., may be calculated.
+
+  The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c., will give us a simple rule.
+  These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP,
+  is the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the
+  latitude and 90°; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &c., are 15°,
+  30°, &c., respectively. Then
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15° sin _co-latitude_;
+
+  or more simply,
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15° cos _latitude_,
+                  tan AC = tan 30° cos _latitude_,
+                           &c. &c.
+
+  and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB, AEC,
+  &c., required.
+
+  In this ease the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the
+  opposite result to that of the horizontal dial.
+
+  _Inclining, Reclining, &c., Dials._--We shall not enter into the
+  calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before
+  supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and
+  all the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these
+  hour-circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines
+  just as in the previous cases; but the triangles will no longer be
+  right-angled, and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the
+  chances of error being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing
+  the dial plane in its true position on the sphere, since that true
+  position will have to be found from observations which can be only
+  roughly performed.
+
+  In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is not a
+  plane, and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the
+  only safe practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points
+  (one is sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the
+  moment when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and
+  afterwards connect these points with the centre by a continuous line.
+  Of course the style must have been accurately fixed in its true
+  position before we begin.
+
+  _Equatorial Dial._--The name equatorial dial is given to one whose
+  plane is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the
+  equator. It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided
+  into 24 equal ares is placed at right angles to the style, and hour
+  divisions are marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style
+  point accurately to the pole, and that the noon division coincide with
+  the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall on the other
+  divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be marked on
+  both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite sides
+  in the summer and in the winter months, changing at each equinox.
+
+  _To find the Meridian Plane._--We have, so far, assumed the meridian
+  plane to be accurately known; we shall proceed to describe some of the
+  methods by which it may be found.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approximation.
+  It is well known that the needle of the compass, when free to move
+  horizontally, oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction
+  termed the magnetic meridian. This does not coincide with the true
+  north and south line, but the difference between them is generally
+  known with tolerable accuracy, and is called the variation of the
+  compass. The variation differs widely at different parts of the
+  surface of the earth, and is not stationary at any particular place,
+  though the change is slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation
+  which takes place about the mean position, but too small to need
+  notice here (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL).
+
+  With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass
+  can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian,
+  but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further
+  alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has
+  been made.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  A very simple practical method is the following:--
+
+  Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position
+  that it may receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the
+  afternoon. Then carefully level the surface by means of a
+  spirit-level. This must be done very accurately, and the table in that
+  position made perfectly secure, so that there be no danger of its
+  shifting during the day.
+
+  Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly
+  fixed. The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface,
+  should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H
+  for centre, describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD,
+  EF, &c.
+
+  A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet
+  line at some convenient height above H.
+
+  Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the bead P
+  as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It will be
+  found to describe a curve ACE ... FDB, approaching the point H as the
+  sun advances towards noon, and receding from it afterwards. (The curve
+  is a conic section--an hyperbola in these regions.) At the moment when
+  it crosses the arc AB, mark the point A; AP is then the direction of
+  the sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH is the altitude of
+  the sun. In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses the same
+  arc; then the angle PBH is the altitude. But the right-angled
+  triangles PHA, PHB are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the
+  same altitudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after
+  noon. It follows that, _if the sun has not changed its declination_
+  during the interval, the two positions will be symmetrically placed
+  one on each side of the meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and
+  bisecting it in M, HM will be the meridian line.
+
+  Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c., will furnish its
+  meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the
+  mean of the positions thus found must be taken.
+
+  The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its
+  declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and
+  may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at
+  the end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder
+  of the year the change of declination is so slow that we may safely
+  neglect it. The most favourable times are at the end of June and at
+  the end of December, when the sun's declination is almost stationary.
+  If the line HM be produced both ways to the edges of the table, then
+  the two points on the ground vertically below those on the edges may
+  be found by a plummet, and, if permanent marks be made there, the
+  meridian plane, which is the vertical plane passing through these two
+  points, will have its position perfectly secured.
+
+  _To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position._--Before giving
+  any other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the
+  construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be
+  accurately placed in its true position. The angle which the style
+  makes with a hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place,
+  is known, and the north and south direction is also roughly given by
+  the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted
+  approximately--correctly, indeed, as to its inclination--but probably
+  requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine
+  plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be
+  properly adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls
+  exactly on the plumb-line,--or, which is the same thing, if both
+  shadows coincide on the dial.
+
+  This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane,
+  whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the
+  ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not
+  generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian
+  plane, and that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a
+  plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow
+  of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. A signal
+  from the observer there to the observer at the dial enables the latter
+  to adjust the style as directed above.
+
+  _Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane._--We have dwelt at some
+  length on these practical operations because they are simple and
+  tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant,
+  nor telescope--nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of
+  shadow lines.
+
+  The Pole star, or _Ursae Minoris_, may also be employed for finding
+  the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star
+  is now only about 1° 14' from the pole; if therefore a plumb-line be
+  suspended at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his
+  position till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane
+  through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian
+  plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would
+  be strictly coincident. This would be when the star crosses the
+  meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we
+  wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times of
+  the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the
+  _Nautical Almanac_, and a watch would be necessary to know when the
+  instant arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate,
+  because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes
+  in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the
+  azimuth.
+
+  The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both
+  calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star [eta] _Ursae
+  Majoris_, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest
+  from the "pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours
+  from the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which
+  joins the two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole
+  star, at a distance of about 1° 14' from the pole, is crossing the
+  meridian above the pole, the star [eta] _Ursae Majoris_, whose polar
+  distance is about 40°, has not yet reached the meridian below the
+  pole.
+
+  When [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ reaches the meridian, which will be within
+  half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian; but its
+  slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now
+  at some instant between these two times--much nearer the latter than
+  the former--the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly
+  vertical; and at this instant, which the observer determines by seeing
+  that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither of the
+  stars is strictly in the meridian; but the deviation from it is so
+  small that it may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the
+  plumb-line taken for meridian plane.
+
+  In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane
+  by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet at
+  a short distance in front of the eye; this second plummet, being
+  suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as
+  always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian plane
+  will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground, one
+  under each plummet.
+
+  This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the
+  upper transit of _Polaris_; for, at the lower transit, the other star
+  [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and
+  the observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible
+  when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half of
+  the year is lost to this method.
+
+  Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40° N., for there
+  the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit;--we may even
+  say not lower than 45° N., for the star must be at least 5° above the
+  horizon before it becomes distinctly visible.
+
+  There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed, but
+  none so convenient as these two, on account of _Polaris_ with its very
+  slow motion being one of the pair.
+
+  _To place the Style in its True Position without previous
+  Determination of the Meridian Plane._--The various methods given above
+  for finding the meridian plane have for ultimate object the
+  determination of the plane, not on its own account, but as an element
+  for fixing the instant of noon, whereby the style may be properly
+  placed.
+
+  We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we
+  determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a
+  good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instrument
+  for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined
+  in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The
+  simplest and most practically useful methods will be found described
+  and investigated in any work on astronomy.
+
+  For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the
+  forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the
+  sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions
+  of the horizon--but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of
+  the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than
+  10 o'clock--take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same
+  moment, marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so observed
+  being properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &c., will, together
+  with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination, taken from
+  the _Nautical Almanac_, enable us to calculate the time. This will be
+  the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we require.
+  Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we see
+  at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time; we know,
+  therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon
+  arrives, and waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its
+  proper position as explained before.
+
+  We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and
+  observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time
+  from some observatory where the work is done; and, allowing for the
+  change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we
+  have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar
+  noon as in the previous case.
+
+  In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in
+  devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced.
+  Sometimes the shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder,
+  or on a sphere, or on a combination of these. A universal dial was
+  constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross; another universal
+  dial showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons. These
+  universal dials required adjusting before use, and for this a
+  mariner's compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it would be
+  tedious and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a
+  rule, the more complex the less accurate.
+
+  Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable
+  centres. They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the
+  style had to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-_lines_
+  they had hour-_points_; and the style, instead of being parallel to
+  the axis of the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon.
+  There was no practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse;
+  and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new
+  mathematical problems.
+
+  _Portable Dials._--The dials so far described have been fixed dials,
+  for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were
+  to be fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made
+  generally of a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and
+  these, so long as the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a
+  watch.
+
+  The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with
+  that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and
+  the same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are
+  essential points of difference between them, besides those which are
+  at once apparent.
+
+  In the fixed dial the result depends on the _uniform_ angular motion
+  of the sun round the fixed style; and a small error in the assumed
+  position of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the
+  instrument, or to some small neglected correction, has only a trifling
+  effect on the time. This is owing to the angular displacement of the
+  sun being so rapid--a quarter of a degree every minute--that for the
+  ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required, as a
+  displacement of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one degree,
+  can be readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial
+  this is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now
+  available, because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may
+  refer it. In the new position, to which the observer has gone, the
+  zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically
+  find; and the basis for the determination of the time is the
+  constantly but _very irregularly_ varying zenith distance of the sun.
+
+  At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only
+  method available for finding local time; but the perfection which has
+  been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to
+  reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however,
+  to be taken. The observations must not be made within a couple of
+  hours of noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor
+  too near the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions there;
+  and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portable dial.
+
+  To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials,
+  let us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54° lat., and a mean
+  declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at 6 o'clock,
+  and at noon have an altitude of 36°,--that is, the portable dial will
+  indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each minute, or
+  two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The vertical motion
+  of the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon, but even there it
+  will be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or half the rate of
+  the fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed throughout the
+  day.
+
+  Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude
+  for which they are available, and they should not be used more than 4
+  or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were constructed.
+
+  We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use.
+
+  _Dial on a Cylinder._--A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in.
+  high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of
+  tolerably easy rotation. A hole in the lid receives the style shaped
+  somewhat like a bayonet; and the straight part of the style, which, on
+  account of the two bends, is lower than the lid, projects horizontally
+  out from the cylinder to a distance of 1 or 1½ in. When not in use the
+  style would be taken out and placed inside the cylinder.
+
+  A horizontal circle is traced on the cylinder opposite the projecting
+  style, and this circle is divided into 36 approximately equidistant
+  intervals.[2] These intervals represent spaces of time, and to each
+  division is assigned a date, so that each month has three dates marked
+  as follows:-January 10, 20, 31; February 10, 20, 28; March 10, 20, 31;
+  April 10, 20, 30, and so on,--always the 10th, the 20th, and the last
+  day of each month.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis of
+  the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily
+  understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as
+  to bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then
+  placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned
+  round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the
+  vertical line below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite
+  point of this line, the position of which point will depend on the
+  length of the style--that is, the distance of its end from the surface
+  of the cylinder--and on the altitude of the sun at that instant.
+  Suppose that the observations are continued all day, the cylinder
+  being very gradually turned so that the style may always face the sun,
+  and suppose that marks are made on the vertical line to show the
+  extremity of the shadow at each exact hour from sun-rise to
+  sun-set-these times being taken from a good fixed sun-dial,--then it is
+  obvious that the next year, on the _same date_, the sun's declination
+  being about the same, and the observer in about the same latitude, the
+  marks made the previous year will serve to tell the time all that day.
+
+  What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the
+  instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which
+  would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation, cannot
+  be the method employed.
+
+  The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation.
+  Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken
+  from the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place
+  and the length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for
+  computing the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark
+  below the style for each successive hour.
+
+  We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at
+  the same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if
+  the dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results
+  will be sufficiently approximate.
+
+  When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective
+  dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding hour-points,
+  will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down,
+  the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper position between
+  the two divisions. The horizontality of the surface on which the
+  instrument rests is a very necessary condition, especially in summer,
+  when, the shadow of the style being long, the extreme end will shift
+  rapidly for a small deviation from the vertical, and render the
+  reading uncertain. The dial can also be used by holding it up by a
+  small ring in the top of the lid, and probably the vertically is
+  better ensured in that way.
+
+  _Portable Dial on a Card._--This neat and very ingenious dial is
+  attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and probably
+  dates from the early part of the 17th century. Ozanam says that it was
+  sometimes called the _capuchin_, from some fancied resemblance to a
+  cowl thrown back.
+
+  _Construction._--Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the
+  card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it; with C as
+  centre, and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB
+  below the horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at
+  the points r, s, t, &c., and through these points draw perpendiculars
+  to the diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line
+  through r will be the XI ... I line, the line through s the X ... II
+  line, and so on; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself; by
+  subdivision of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &c., we may draw the
+  hour-lines corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where
+  it can be done without confusion.
+
+  Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the place,
+  and let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at right angles
+  to AD.
+
+  With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of circle
+  RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on it,
+  extending from 0° at S to 23½° on each side at R and T. Next determine
+  the points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn from A to the
+  degree divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully mark these
+  crossings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination, south
+  declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the other
+  hemisphere of the earth this would be reversed; the north declinations
+  would be on the upper half.
+
+  Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations of
+  that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the days
+  of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and place
+  these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without confusion,
+  opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the _sun-line_ at the
+  top of the card parallel to the line ACB; and, near the extremity, to
+  the right, draw any small figure intended to form, as it were, a door
+  of which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken that this hinge is
+  exactly at right angles to the _sun-line_. Make a fine open slit c d
+  right through the card and extending from the hinge to a short
+  distance on the door,--the centre line of this slit coinciding
+  accurately with the _sun-line_. Now, cut the door completely through
+  the card; except, of course, along the hinge, which, when the card is
+  thick, should be partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the
+  opening. Cut the card right through along the line FDG, and pass a
+  thread carrying a little plummet W and a _very_ small bead P; the bead
+  having sufficient friction with the thread to retain any position when
+  acted on only by its own weight, but sliding easily along the thread
+  when moved by the hand. At the back of the card the thread terminates
+  in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through; or better, because
+  giving more friction and a better hold, it passes through the centre
+  of a small disk of card--a fraction of an inch in diameter--and, by a
+  knot, is made fast at the back of the disk.
+
+  To complete the construction,--with the centres F and G, and radii FA
+  and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the hour-lines;
+  for in an observation the bead will always be found between them. The
+  forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated in the
+  figure. The dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon and
+  afternoon; but extraneous circumstances, as, for instance, whether the
+  sun is rising or falling, will settle that point, except when close to
+  noon, where it will always be uncertain.
+
+  To _rectify_ the dial (using the old expression, which means to
+  prepare the dial for an observation),--open the small door, by turning
+  it about its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the
+  thread in the line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it
+  over the point A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincide
+  with A.
+
+  To find the hour of the day,--hold the dial in a vertical position in
+  such a way that its plane may pass through the sun. The verticality is
+  ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without
+  pressing. Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical
+  plane), until the central line of sunshine, passing through the open
+  slit of the door, just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against
+  which the bead P then rests indicates the time.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  The _sun-line_ drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used as
+  a _shadow-line_. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the
+  prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was
+  gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly
+  coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a
+  degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of
+  the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb
+  of the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre.
+  Now, even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a
+  considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much time
+  will the indication of the dial be in error.
+
+  The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be
+  free from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of
+  the sun.
+
+  The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere
+  toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educational
+  value which is not to be measured by the roughness of the results
+  obtained.
+
+  The theory of this instrument is as follows:--Let H (fig. 9) be the
+  point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that
+  the angle DAH is the north declination of the sun,--P, the bead,
+  resting against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the
+  hour-angle from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this
+  hour-angle is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC, a
+  north declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the
+  _sun-line_, or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle
+  PHQ will be equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC, for
+  the pair of lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to the
+  sun-line and the horizontal.
+
+  Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and N
+  respectively.
+
+  Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following values
+  will be readily deduced from the figure:--
+
+  AD = a cos _decl._ DH = a sin _decl._ PQ = a sin _alt._
+
+     CX = AC = AD cos _lat._ = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+     PN = CV = CX cos ACX = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._ cos ACX.
+     NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = sin _decl._ sin _lat._
+       (:. the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.)
+
+  And since           PQ = NQ + PN,
+  we have, by simple substitution,
+  a sin _alt._ = a sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + a cos _del._ cos _lat._
+  cos ACX; or, dividing by a throughout,
+
+  sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+                                                        cos ACX ... (1)
+  which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead.
+
+  To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let fig. 10
+  represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole, Z the
+  zenith and S the sun.
+
+  From the spherical triangle PZS, we have
+      cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP + sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS
+          but ZS = zenith distance = 90° - altitude
+              ZP = 90° - PR        = 90°- latitude
+              PS = polar distance  = 90° - declination,
+  therefore, by substitution
+
+  sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+                                                       cos ZPS ... (2)
+  and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun.
+
+  A comparison of the two formulae (1) and (2) shows that the hour-angle
+  given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and
+  proves the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or
+  at sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree.
+  If, then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the
+  sun-line, at a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at
+  c, the time of sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the
+  central line of light were made to fall on cm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  LITERATURE.--The following list includes the principal writers on
+  dialling whose works have come down, to us, and to these we must refer
+  for descriptions of the various constructions, some simple and direct,
+  others fanciful and intricate, which have been at different times
+  employed: Ptolemy, _Analemma_, restored by Commandine; Vitruvius,
+  _Architecture_; Sebastian Münster, _Horologiographia_; Orontius
+  Fineus, _De horologiis solaribus_; Mutio Oddi da Urbino, _Horologi
+  solari_; Dryander, _De horologiorum compositione_; Conrad Gesner,
+  _Pandectae_; Andreas Schöner, _Gnomonicae_; F. Commandine,
+  _Horologiorum descriptio_; Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, _De gnomonum usu_;
+  Georgius Schomberg, _Exegesis fundamentorum gnomonicorum_; Joan.
+  Solomon de Caus, _Horologes solaires_; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, _Praxis
+  horologiorum_; Desargues, _Manière universelle pour poser l'essieu_,
+  &c.; Ath. Kircher, _Ars magna lucis et Umbrae_; Hallum, _Explicatio
+  horologii in horto regio Londini_; Joan. Mark, _Tractatus
+  horologiorum_; Clavius, _Gnomonices de horologiis_. Also among more
+  modern writers, Deschales, Ozanam, Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire,
+  Walper; in German, Paterson, Michael, Müller; in English, Foster,
+  Wells, Collins, Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn, Emerson and Ferguson. See
+  also Hans Löschner, _Über Sonnenuhren_ (2nd ed., Graz, 1906).  (H. G.)
+
+[1] In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an
+elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 17th or beginning of the
+18th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it available
+as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known.
+
+[2] Strict equality is not necessary, as the observations made are on
+the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to the
+others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go completely
+and exactly round the cylinder, although they were always so drawn, and
+both these conditions were insisted upon in the directions for the
+construction.
+
+
+DIALECT (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], conversation, manner of speaking,
+[Greek: dialegesthai], to converse), a particular or characteristic
+manner of speech, and hence any variety of a language. In its widest
+sense languages which are branches of a common or parent language may be
+said to be "dialects" of that language; thus Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and
+Doric are dialects of Greek, though there may never have at any time
+been a separate language of which they were variations; so the various
+Romance languages, Italian, French, Spanish, &c., were dialects of
+Latin. Again, where there have existed side by side, as in England,
+various branches of a language, such as the languages of the Angles, the
+Jutes or the Saxons, and the descendant of one particular language, from
+many causes, has obtained the predominance, the traces of the other
+languages remain in the "dialects" of the districts where once the
+original language prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from the
+historical point of view, to say that "dialect" varieties of a language
+represent degradations of the standard language. A "literary" accepted
+language, such as modern English, represents the original language
+spoken in the Midlands, with accretions of Norman, French, and later
+literary and scientific additions from classical and other sources,
+while the present-day "dialects" preserve, in inflections, pronunciation
+and particular words, traces of the original variety of the language not
+incorporated in the standard language of the country. See the various
+articles on languages (English, French, &c).
+
+
+DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], discourse,
+debate; [Greek: ê dialektikê], sc. [Greek: technê], the art of debate),
+a logical term, generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous
+sense for verbal or purely abstract disputation devoid of practical
+value. According to Aristotle, Zeno of Elea "invented" dialectic, the
+art of disputation by question and answer, while Plato developed it
+metaphysically in connexion with his doctrine of "Ideas" as the art of
+analysing ideas in themselves and in relation to the ultimate idea of
+the Good (_Repub._ vii.). The special function of the so-called
+"Socratic dialectic" was to show the inadequacy of popular beliefs.
+Aristotle himself used "dialectic," as opposed to "science," for that
+department of mental activity which examines the presuppositions lying
+at the back of all the particular sciences. Each particular science has
+its own subject matter and special principles ([Greek: idiai archai]) on
+which the superstructure of its special discoveries is based. The
+Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals with the universal laws ([Greek:
+koinai archai]) of reasoning, which can be applied to the particular
+arguments of all the sciences. The sciences, for example, all seek to
+define their own species; dialectic, on the other hand, sets forth the
+conditions which all definitions must satisfy whatever their subject
+matter. Again, the sciences all seek to educe general laws; dialectic
+investigates the nature of such laws, and the kind and degree of
+necessity to which they can attain. To this general subject matter
+Aristotle gives the name "Topics" ([Greek: topoi], loci, communes loci).
+"Dialectic" in this sense is the equivalent of "logic." Aristotle also
+uses the term for the science of probable reasoning as opposed to
+demonstrative reasoning ([Greek: apodeiktikê]). The Stoics divided
+[Greek: logikê] (logic) into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time
+till the end of the middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with, or
+a part of, logic.
+
+In modern philosophy the word has received certain special meanings. In
+Kantian terminology _Dialektik_ is the name of that portion of the
+_Kritik d. reinen Vernunft_ in which Kant discusses the impossibility of
+applying to "things-in-themselves" the principles which are found to
+govern phenomena. In the system of Hegel the word resumes its original
+Socratic sense, as the name of that intellectual process whereby the
+inadequacy of popular conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history,
+therefore, "dialectic" has been connected with that which is remote
+from, or alien to, unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or
+transcendental, rather than with the facts of common experience and
+material things.
+
+
+DIALLAGE, an important mineral of the pyroxene group, distinguished by
+its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The chemical composition
+is the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiO_{3})_{2}, but it sometimes contains
+the molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"')_{2} SiO_{6} and Na Fe"'
+(SiO_{3})_{2}, in addition, when it approaches to augite in composition.
+Diallage is in fact an altered form of these varieties of pyroxene; the
+particular kind of alteration which they have undergone being known as
+"schillerization." This, as described by Prof. J. W. Judd, consists in
+the development of a fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary
+twinning and the separation of secondary products along these and other
+planes of chemical weakness ("solution planes") in the crystal. The
+secondary products consist of mixtures of various hydrated oxides--opal,
+göthite, limonite, &c--and appear as microscopic inclusions filling or
+partly filling cavities, which have definite outlines with respect to
+the enclosing crystal and are known as negative crystals. It is to the
+reflection and interference of light from these minute inclusions that
+the peculiar bronzy sheen or "schiller" of the mineral is due. The most
+pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid; another,
+less distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third parallel to
+the plane of symmetry; these planes of secondary parting are in addition
+to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all pyroxenes. Frequently the
+material is interlaminated with a rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an
+amphibole (smaragdite or uralite), the latter being an alteration
+product of the diallage.
+
+Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes brown, in
+colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller on the laminated
+surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific gravity 3.2 to 3.35. It
+does not occur in distinct crystals with definite outlines, but only as
+lamellar masses in deep-seated igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of
+which it is an essential constituent. It occurs also in some peridotites
+and serpentines, and rarely in volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline
+schists. Masses of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained
+gabbros of the Island of Skye, Le Prese near Bornio in Valtellina,
+Lombardy, Prato near Florence, and many other localities.
+
+The name diallage, from diallage, "difference," in allusion to the
+dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally applied by R.
+J. Haüy in 1801, included other minerals (the orthorhombic pyroxenes
+hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and the smaragdite variety of
+hornblende) which exhibit the same peculiarities of schiller structure;
+it is now limited to the monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like
+the minerals of similar appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut
+and polished for ornamental purposes.                        (L. J. S.)
+
+
+DIALOGUE, properly the conversation between two or more persons,
+reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the Greeks for
+purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction, and scarcely
+modified since the days of its invention. A dialogue is in reality a
+little drama without a theatre, and with scarcely any change of scene.
+It should be illuminated with those qualities which La Fontaine
+applauded in the dialogue of Plato, namely vivacity, fidelity of tone,
+and accuracy in the opposition of opinions. It has always been a
+favourite with those writers who have something to censure or to impart,
+but who love to stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to
+pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than
+indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing and noting
+down the undulations of human thought that it almost escapes analysis.
+All that is recorded, in any literature, of what pretend to be the
+actual words spoken by living or imaginary people is of the nature of
+dialogue. One branch of letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it.
+But in its technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek
+philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the
+extreme refinement of an art.
+
+The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form is
+commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose earliest
+experiment in it is believed to survive in the _Laches_. The Platonic
+dialogue, however, was founded on the mime, which had been cultivated
+half a century earlier by the Sicilian poets, Sophron and Epicharmus.
+The works of these writers, which Plato admired and imitated, are lost,
+but it is believed that they were little plays, usually with only two
+performers. The recently discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us
+some idea of their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced
+it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing
+element of character-drawing. He must have begun this about the year
+405, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection,
+especially in the cycle directly inspired by the death of Socrates. All
+his philosophical writings, except the _Apology_, are cast in this form.
+As the greatest of all masters of Greek prose style, Plato lifted his
+favourite instrument, the dialogue, to its highest splendour, and to
+this day he remains by far its most distinguished proficient. In the 2nd
+century a.d. Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his
+ironic dialogues "Of the Gods," "Of the Dead," "Of Love" and "Of the
+Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and philosophical
+error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he merely paints scenes
+of modern life. The title of Lucian's most famous collection was
+borrowed in the 17th century by two French writers of eminence, each of
+whom prepared _Dialogues des morts_. These were Fontenelle (1683) and
+Fénelon (1712). In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not
+been extensively employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713, for his
+Platonic treatise, _Hylas and Philonous_. Landor's _Imaginary
+Conversations_ (1821-1828) is the most famous example of it in the 19th
+century, although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In
+Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works
+published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of
+Valdés (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are
+celebrated. In Italian, collections of dialogues, on the model of Plato,
+have been composed by Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by
+Galiani (1770), by Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. In
+our own day, the French have returned to the original application of
+dialogue, and the inventions of "Gyp," of Henri Lavedan and of others,
+in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told in
+conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes
+of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with them. This kind of
+dialogue has been employed in English, and with conspicuous cleverness
+by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but it does not seem so easily appreciated by
+English as by French readers. (E.G.)
+
+
+DIALYSIS (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: luein], to
+loosen), in chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for
+separating colloidal and crystalline substances. He found that solutions
+could be divided into two classes according to their action upon a
+porous diaphragm such as parchment. If a solution, say of salt, be
+placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom, termed a "dialyser,"
+and the drum and its contents placed in a larger vessel of water, the
+salt will pass through the membrane. If the salt solution be replaced by
+one of glue, gelatin or gum, it will be found that the membrane is
+impermeable to these solutes. To the first class Graham gave the name
+"crystalloids," and to the second "colloids." This method is
+particularly effective in the preparation of silicic acid. By adding
+hydrochloric acid to a dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, no
+precipitate will fall and the solution will contain hydrochloric acid,
+an alkaline chloride, and silicic acid. If the solution be transferred
+to a dialyser, the hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass
+through the parchment, while the silicic acid will be retained.
+
+
+DIAMAGNETISM. Substances which, like iron, are attracted by the pole of
+an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as magnetic, all others being
+regarded as non-magnetic. It was noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that
+a number of so-called non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac,
+were influenced by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed
+the opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted
+upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more or less
+magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (_Experimental Researches_, vol. iii.)
+that while practically all natural substances are indeed acted upon by a
+sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only a comparatively small
+number that are attracted like iron, the great majority being repelled.
+Bodies of the latter class were termed by Faraday _diamagnetics_. The
+strongest diamagnetic substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility
+being--0.000014, and its permeability 0.9998. The diamagnetic quality of
+this metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet, and its
+repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once recognized before
+the date of Faraday's experiments. The metals gold, silver, copper,
+lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and
+platinum are attracted by a very strong pole. (See MAGNETISM.)
+
+
+DIAMANTE, FRA, Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato about 1400. He
+was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine community of that
+order, and was the friend and assistant of Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite
+convent of Prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been
+suppressed, and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving
+the destruction of the paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra
+Filippo in the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of
+the cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to
+Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings of the
+commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined to petition
+the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to Prato,--a proof
+that his share in the work was so important that his recall involved the
+suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted Fra Filippo in the execution
+of the frescoes still to be seen in the cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra
+Diamante completed in 1470 after his master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo
+left a son ten years old to the care of Diamante, who, having received
+200 ducats from the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work
+done in the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as
+Vasari says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small
+portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however, would
+depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra Diamante, and the
+terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo. Fra Diamante must have been
+nearly seventy when he completed the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact
+year of his death is not known.
+
+
+DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA (1640?-1684?), Spanish dramatist, was born at
+Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and began writing for the stage
+in 1657. He became a knight of Santiago in 1660; the date of his death
+is unknown, but no reference to him as a living author occurs after
+1684. Like many other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is
+deficient in originality, and his style is riddled with affectations;
+_La Desgraciada Raquel_, which was long considered to be his best play,
+is really Mira de Amescua's _Judía de Toledo_ under another title; and
+the earliest of Diamante's surviving pieces, _El Honrador de su padre_
+(1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille's Cid.
+Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of French
+dramatic methods into Spain.
+
+
+DIAMANTINA (formerly called _Tejuco_), a mining town of the state of
+Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly on a steep
+hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio Jequitinhonha (where
+diamond-washing was once carried on), and partly on the level plain
+above. The town is roughly but substantially built, with broad streets
+and large squares. It is the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal
+seminary, and has many churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous;
+they include a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum
+and a secondary school. There are several small manufactures, including
+cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on. The surrounding
+region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the lateral ranges of the
+Serra do Espinhaço, is rough and barren, but rich in minerals,
+principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is the commercial centre of an
+extensive region, and has long been noted for its wealth. The date of
+the discovery of diamonds, upon which its wealth and importance chiefly
+depend, is uncertain, but the official announcement was made in 1729,
+and in the following year the mines were declared crown property, with a
+crown reservation, known as the "forbidden district," 42 leagues in
+circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining was forbidden
+within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe
+restrictions. There are no trustworthy returns of the value of the
+output, but in 1849 the total was estimated up to that date at
+300,000,000 francs (see DIAMOND). The present name of the town was
+assumed (instead of Tejuco) in 1838, when it was made a _cidade_.
+
+
+DIAMANTINO, a small town of the state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the
+Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction with the Paraguay, in
+14° 24' 33" S., 56° 8' 30" W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality 2147,
+mostly Indians. It stands in a broken sterile region 1837 ft. above
+sea-level and at the foot of the great Matto Grosso plateau. The first
+mining settlement dates from 1730, when gold was found in the vicinity.
+On the discovery of diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large
+population and for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet
+expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined.
+Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of export.
+
+
+DIAMETER (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: metron], measure),
+in geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic
+section and terminated by the curve; the "principal diameters" of the
+ellipse and hyperbola coincide with the "axes" and are at ...
+                          (_continued in volume 8, slice 4, page 0158._)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+DETERMINANT, formula = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" - a"bc' - a"b'c.
+changed to = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c.
+
+DETMOLD, added missing comma after 'Detmold possesses a natural history
+museum'.
+
+DEVENTER, 'The "Athenaeum" disappeared' corrected from the original
+'disappered'.
+
+DEVIL, replaced comma with a period after 'according to 1 Chron. xxi'.
+
+DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF, 'In November 1684' originally 'Novembr'.
+
+DIAGRAM, 'found to be of use especially' originally 'epsecially'.
+
+DIAL, table angles on the dial, column IX. A.M. III. P.M. bottom entry
+corrected from '45 45' to '40 45'.
+
+DIAGRAM, missing closing parenthesis added after 'to mark out by lines'.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 30073-8.txt or 30073-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/0/7/30073/
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/30073-8.zip b/30073-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab4beac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-8.zip
diff --git a/30073-h.zip b/30073-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa3b6a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h.zip
diff --git a/30073-h/30073-h.htm b/30073-h/30073-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..10c5141
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/30073-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,8429 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+    "text/html; charset=UTF-8" />
+
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, Volume VIII slice III - Destructor to Diameter
+    </title>
+
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+    body { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; line-height: 1.4em; color: black; background-color: #f5f5f5}
+    p {  margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; }
+    p.noind {  margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; }
+
+    H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         }
+    hr                   {width: 70%; height: 5px; color: #dcdcdc; }
+    hr.full              {width: 100%;}
+    hr.short             {text-align: center; width: 20%;}
+    hr.art               {width: 40%; height: 5px; color: #778899; margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1.5em; }
+    hr.foot              {margin-left: 2em; text-align: left; width: 16%; color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; }
+
+    table.allbnomar { border : 1px solid black; border-collapse: collapse; }
+    table.allb    { border : 1px solid black; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 4em  }
+    table.allbctr { border : 1px solid black; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+    table.nob     { margin-left: 4em }
+    table.nobctr  { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+
+    table.math    { margin-left:10%;vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+    table.math0   { vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+    table.math0l  { vertical-align: middle; text-align: left; }
+    table.mathc   { vertical-align: middle; text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+    table.math15  { margin-left:15%;vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+    table.math15l { margin-left: 15%; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left; }
+    table.maths   { font-size:smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+
+    td            { white-space: nowrap; }
+    td.norm       { white-space: normal; }
+    td.denom      { border-top: 1px solid black; }
+    td.allb       { border : 1px solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.allbw      { text-align: left; white-space: nowrap;
+                    border : 1px solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+
+    td.allbr2     { border-left : 1px solid black; border-top : 1px solid black; border-bottom : thin solid black;
+			border-right : medium double black; border-right : medium double black;  padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.caption    { font-size: 0.8em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; }
+    td.spac       { padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; }
+      .lsp        { padding-left: 1em; text-align: left; }
+      .lsp4       { padding-left: 4em; text-align: left; }
+    td.nspac      { padding-left: 0em; padding-right: 0em; }
+    td.nob        { padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.ttitle     { background-color: #778899; color: white;
+                    border : 1px solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.vertb      { border-left : 1px solid black; border-right : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.vertbr2    { border-left : 1px solid black; border-right : medium double black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.leftb      { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; border-left: black 1px solid }
+    td.rightb     { border-right: black 1px solid; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em }
+    td.leftb1     { padding-right: 0; padding-left: 0; border-left: black 1px solid }
+    td.rightb1    { border-right: black 1px solid; padding-right: 0; padding-left: 0 }
+    td.leftb2     { padding-right: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; border-left: black 1px solid; text-align: left }
+    td.rightb2    { border-right: black 1px solid; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-left: 0; text-align: right }
+    td.botb       { border-bottom : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.botb1      { border-bottom : 1px solid black; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0; }
+    td.vertbotb   { border-left : thin solid black; border-right : thin solid black; border-bottom : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; }
+    td.verttopb   { border-left : thin solid black; border-right : thin solid black; border-top : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    table p       { margin: 0;}
+
+    a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+    a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+    a:hover {color:red}
+    link {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+
+    .author   {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em;}
+    .center   {text-align: center; }
+    .cenhead  {text-align: center;  margin-top: 1em;}
+    .right    {text-align: right; }
+    .t        {padding-top: 1.5em; }
+    .tr       {vertical-align: top;}
+    .tc       {vertical-align: top;}
+    .tr p     {text-align: right;}
+    .tc p     {text-align: center;}
+    .m        {vertical-align: middle; }
+    .mr       {vertical-align: middle;}
+    .mc       {vertical-align: middle;}
+    .mr p     {text-align: right;}
+    .mc p     {text-align: center;}
+    .b        {vertical-align: bottom; }
+    .vol      {font-size: small;}
+    .grk      {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;}
+
+    sup       {font-style: normal; font-size: small;}
+    sub       {font-style: normal; font-size: 0.7em;}
+    pre       {font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace; margin-left: 1em;}
+    .sc       {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .scac     {font-size: small;}
+    blockquote       {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; }
+    blockquote.b2n   {margin-left: 4em; margin-right: 4em; }
+    blockquote.small {font-size: small; }
+    span.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 1%; text-align: right; font-size: 9pt; font-style: normal; color: #708090}
+    .sidenote {width: 16%; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em;
+	font-size: smaller; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0; background-color: #dcdcdc }
+    .note     {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; }
+    span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;}
+    span.special {text-decoration: none;}
+    span.small   {font-size:small;}
+    span.intlim  {font-size:small; position:relative; top:-2ex; left:-0.4em;}
+    span.lower   {position:relative; top:0.5ex;}
+    span.over    {text-decoration: overline;}
+    span.under   {text-decoration: underline;}
+    span.bq      {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; }
+    span.spc     { padding-left: 2em; }
+    .nobo	 {border: thin;}
+    .red 	 {color: red;}
+
+    .figright1 { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 3em; font-size: 0.8em; padding-bottom: 1em; margin: 0px; padding-top: 1em; text-align: center }
+    .figleft1 { padding-right: 3em; padding-left: 0.5em; font-size: 0.8em; padding-bottom: 1em; margin: 0px; padding-top: 1em; text-align: center }
+
+    .figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 1.5em;}
+    img.middle { border: none; vertical-align: middle }
+    .third     { width:33%; float:left; }
+    .quarter   { width:25%; float:left; }
+
+    .above, .below { font-size: 50%; }
+    .above { vertical-align: 1.3ex; }
+    .below { vertical-align: -0.3ex; }
+    .condenced { line-height: 1.2em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; }
+
+    </style>
+   </head>
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30073 ***</div>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3>VOLUME VIII slice III<br /><br />
+Destructor to Diameter</h3>
+<hr />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page109"></a>[Page 109]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>DESTRUCTOR</b> (<i>continued from volume 8 slice 2 page 108.</i>)</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p class="noind">... in main flues, &amp;c. (g) The chimney draught must be assisted with
+forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of 1&frac12; in. to
+2 in. under grates by water-gauge. (h) Where a destructor is required to
+work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its
+efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view
+in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary
+consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace
+so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the temperature of the
+gases is reduced before the organic matter has been thoroughly burned.
+(i) Where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a large
+percentage of CO<sub>2</sub> should be sought in the furnaces with as little excess
+of air as possible, and the flue gases should be utilized in heating the
+air-supply to the grates, and the feed-water to the boilers. (j) Ample
+boiler capacity and hot-water storage feed-tanks should be included in
+the design where steam-power is required.</p>
+
+<p>As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few
+trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends, <span class="sidenote">Cost.</span>
+amongst other things, upon the difficulty of preparing the site, upon
+the nature of the foundations required, the height of the chimney-shaft,
+the length of the inclined or approach roadway, and the varying prices
+of labour and materials in different localities. As an example may be
+mentioned the case of Bristol, where, in 1892, the total cost of
+constructing a 16-cell Fryer destructor was £11,418, of which £2909 was
+expended on foundations, and £1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost of the
+destructor proper, buildings and approach road was therefore £6820, or
+about £426 per cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in destructors
+depends mainly upon&mdash;(a) The price of labour in the locality, and the
+number of "shifts" or changes of workmen per day; (b) the type of
+furnace adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be consumed; (d) the
+interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The cost of burning ton for
+ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces, including labour and
+repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion destructors. The average
+cost of burning refuse at twenty-four different towns throughout
+England, exclusive of interest on the cost of the works, is 1s.
+1&frac12;d. per ton burned; the minimum cost is 6d. per ton at Bradford,
+and the maximum cost 2s. 10d. per ton at Battersea. At Shoreditch the
+cost per ton for the year ending on the 25th of March 1899, including
+labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &amp;c. (but exclusive of interest
+on cost of works), was 2s. 6.9d. The quantity of refuse burned per cell
+per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up to 20 tons. The ordinary
+low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft. grate area, burns about 20
+lb. of refuse per square foot of grate area per hour, or between 5 and 6
+tons per cell per 24 hours. The Meldrum destructor furnaces at Rochdale
+burn as much as 66 lb. per square foot of grate area per hour, and the
+Beaman and Deas destructor at Llandudno 71.7 lb. per square foot per
+hour. The amount, however, always depends materially on the care
+observed in stoking, the nature of the material, the frequency of
+removal of clinker, and on the question whether the whole of the refuse
+passed into the furnace is thoroughly cremated.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from
+22 to 37% of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30% is a very <span class="sidenote">Residues:</span>
+usual amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists of about 8% of
+straw, paper, shavings, &amp;c., the residue contains about 29% clinker,
+2.7% fine ash, .5% flue dust, and .6% old tins, making a total residue
+of 32.8%. As the residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the
+total bulk of the refuse dealt with, it is a question of the utmost
+importance that some profitable, or at least inexpensive, means should
+be devised for its regular disposal. Among other purposes, it has been
+used for bottoming for macadamized roads, for the manufacture of
+concrete, for making paving slabs, for forming suburban footpaths or
+cinder footwalks, and for the manufacture of mortar. The last is a very
+general, and in many places profitable, mode of disposal. An entirely
+new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of good well-vitrified
+destructor clinker in connexion with the construction of bacteria beds
+for sewage disposal, and in many districts its value has, by this means,
+become greatly enhanced.</p>
+
+<p>Through defects in the design and management of many of the early
+destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these have, to
+some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute. Although
+some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this respect, that
+is by no means the case with the modern improved type of
+high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great
+prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of a
+refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to the
+inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and worked, will give
+rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the midst of a
+populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect cremation of the refuse
+and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential. <span class="sidenote">Forced draught.</span>
+This is supplied either as air draught delivered from a rapidly
+revolving fan, or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall steam jet or the
+Meldrum blower. With a forced blast less air is required to obtain
+complete combustion than by chimney draught. The forced draught grate
+requires little more than the quantity theoretically necessary, while
+with chimney draught more than double the theoretical amount of air must
+be supplied. With forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is
+attained, and if it is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter
+the furnaces during stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of
+pressure in the cells during clinkering should be maintained just
+sufficient to prevent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The
+forced draught pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The
+efficiency of the combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by
+the "Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the
+proportion of CO<sub>2</sub> passing away in the waste gases; the higher the
+percentage of CO<sub>2</sub> the more efficient the furnace, provided there is no
+formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete
+combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO<sub>2</sub> for refuse burning is about
+20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting secondary air
+over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the air-pressure in the
+ash-pit, an amount approximating to this percentage may be attained in a
+well-designed furnace if properly worked. If the proportion of free
+oxygen (i.e. excess of air) is large, more air is passed through the
+furnace than is required for complete combustion, and the heating of
+this excess is clearly a waste of heat. The position of the econometer
+in testing should be as near the furnace as possible, as there may be
+considerable air leakage through the brickwork of the flues.</p>
+
+<p>The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the
+inlet air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of
+which is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue.</p>
+
+<p>The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and
+gases perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature
+<span class="sidenote">Calorific value.</span>varying from 1250° to 2000° F., and the maintenance of
+such temperatures has very naturally suggested the possibility
+of utilizing this heat-energy for the production of
+steam-power. Experience shows that a considerable amount of
+energy may be derived from steam-raising destructor stations, amply
+justifying a reasonable increase of expenditure on plant and labour.
+The actual calorific value of the refuse material necessarily varies,
+but, as a general average, with suitably designed and properly
+managed plant, an evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound of refuse
+burned is a result which may be readily attained, and affords a basis
+of calculation which engineers may safely adopt in practice. Many
+destructor steam-raising plants, however, give considerably higher
+results, evaporations approaching 2 lb. of water per pound of refuse
+being often met with under favourable conditions.</p>
+
+<p>From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the calorific
+value of unscreened house refuse varies from 1 to 2 lb. of water
+evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion depending
+upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with. Taking the
+evaporative power of coal at 10 lb. of water per pound of coal, this
+gives for domestic house refuse a value of from <b><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">10</span></b> to
+<b><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">5</span></b> that of coal; or, with coal at 20s. per ton, refuse has a
+commercial value of from 2s. to 4s. per ton. In London the quantity of
+house refuse amounts to about 1¼ million tons per annum, which is
+equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be burned
+in furnaces giving an evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound of refuse,
+it would yield a total power annually of about 138 million brake
+horse-power hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 20s. per ton for this
+amount of power even when calculated upon the very low estimate of 2
+lb.<a name="FnAnchor_1" href="#Footnote_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> of coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at over £123,000.
+On the same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town, with, say, a
+population of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5 cwt. per head per
+annum, would afford 112 indicated horse-power per ton burned, and the
+total indicated horse-power hours per annum would be</p>
+
+<table class="math" summary="math">
+ <tr><td>70,000 × 5 cwt.</td>
+ <td rowspan="2">× 112 = 1,960,000 I.H.P. hours annually.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom">20</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the electrical
+horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of 90%)</p>
+
+<table class="math" summary="math">
+ <tr><td>1,960,000 × 90</td>
+ <td rowspan="2">= 1,764,000 E.H.P. hours per annum;</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom">100</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 12em; ">1,764,000 × 746 = 1,315,944,000.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give
+1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power
+lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have</p>
+
+<table class="math" summary="math">
+ <tr><td>1,184,349,600 watt-hours</td>
+ <td rowspan="2">= 39,478,320 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum;</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom">30 watts</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="math" summary="math">
+ <tr><td rowspan="2">that is,</td>
+ <td>39,478,320</td>
+ <td rowspan="2">563 8-c.p. lamp hours per annum per head of population.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom">70,000 population</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20% on
+three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would be 478
+8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population: i.e. if the
+power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it would supply
+electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of the population
+for about 1<b><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">3</span></b> hours for every night of the year.</p>
+
+<p>In actual practice, when the electric energy is for the purposes of
+lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the
+<span class="sidenote">Difficulties.</span>thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want of
+adequate means of storage either of the thermal or of the electric
+energy. A destructor station usually yields a fairly definite amount of
+thermal energy uniformly throughout the 24 hours, while the consumption
+of electric-lighting current is extremely <span class="pagenum"><a name="page110"></a>[Page 110]</span> irregular, the
+maximum demand being about four times the mean demand. The period during
+which the demand exceeds the mean is comparatively short, and does not
+exceed about 6 hours out of the 24, while for a portion of the time the
+demand may not exceed <b><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;
+<span class="below">20</span></b>th of the maximum. This difficulty, at
+first regarded as somewhat grave, is substantially minimized by the
+provision of ample boiler capacity, or by the introduction of feed
+thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during the
+hours of light load (say 18 out of the 24), so that at the time of
+maximum load the boiler may be filled directly from these vessels, which
+work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler. Further, the
+difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at stations where
+there is a fair day load which practically ceases at about the hour when
+the illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing the demand upon both
+destructor and electric plant throughout the 24 hours. This arises in
+cases where current is consumed during the day for motors, fans, lifts,
+electric tramways, and other like purposes, and, as the employment of
+electric energy for these services is rapidly becoming general, no
+difficulty need be anticipated in the successful working of combined
+destructor and electric plants where these conditions prevail. The more
+uniform the electrical demand becomes, the more fully may the power from
+a destructor station be utilized.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse
+destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with various
+other classes of power-using undertakings, including tramways,
+water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and clinker-crushing
+works and others; and the increasingly large sums which are being yearly
+expended in combined undertakings of this character is perhaps the
+strongest evidence of the practical value of such combinations where
+these several classes of work must be carried on.</p>
+
+<p>For further information on the subject, reference should be made to
+William H. Maxwell, <i>Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with an
+exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants</i> (London, 1899), with a
+special <i>Supplement</i> embodying later results (London, 1905).</p>
+
+<p>See also the <i>Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal
+and County Engineers</i>, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214
+and xxv. p. 138; also the <i>Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
+Engineers</i>, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413, cxxxviii.
+p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp. 369 and 498,
+cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300.</p>
+<div class="author">(<span class="sc">W. H. Ma.</span>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" href="#FnAnchor_1">[1]</a> With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4 lb. of coal
+per brake horse-power per hour is a very usual performance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><b>DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN,</b> <span class="sc">3rd
+Baron</span> (1835-1895), English poet, eldest son of George Fleming
+Leicester (afterwards Warren), 2nd Baron De Tabley, was born on
+the 26th of April 1835. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church,
+Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with second classes in
+classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn of 1858
+he went to Turkey as unpaid attaché to Lord Stratford de Redcliffe,
+and two years later was called to the bar. He became an officer in
+the Cheshire Yeomanry, and unsuccessfully contested Mid-Cheshire
+in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in 1871
+he removed to London, where he became a close friend of
+Tennyson for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the
+title in 1887 he was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a
+recluse. It was not till 1892 that he returned to London life,
+and enjoyed a sort of renaissance of reputation and friendship.
+During the later years of his life Lord De Tabley made many new
+friends, besides reopening old associations, and he almost seemed
+to be gathering around him a small literary company when his
+health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde,
+in his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire.
+Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a
+poet, De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at
+one time an authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels;
+published <i>A Guide to the Study of Book Plates</i> (1880); and the
+fruit of his careful researches in botany was printed posthumously
+in his elaborate <i>Flora of Cheshire</i> (1899). Poetry, however, was
+his first and last passion, and to that he devoted the best energies
+of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards poetry came from
+his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a close companionship
+during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as Tennyson
+lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees.
+Fortescue was killed by falling from the mast of Lord Drogheda's
+yacht in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De
+Tabley into deep depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley
+issued four little volumes of pseudonymous verse (by G. F.
+Preston), in the production of which he had been greatly stimulated
+by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he assumed a
+pseudonym&mdash;his <i>Praeterita</i> (1863) bearing the name of William
+Lancaster. In the next year he published <i>Eclogues and Monodramas</i>,
+followed in 1865 by <i>Studies in Verse</i>. These volumes all
+displayed technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was
+not till the publication of <i>Philoctetes</i> in 1866 that De Tabley met
+with any wide recognition. <i>Philoctetes</i> bore the initials "M.A.,"
+which, to the author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning
+Matthew Arnold. He at once disclosed his identity, and received
+the congratulations of his friends, among whom were Tennyson,
+Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published <i>Orestes</i>, in 1870
+<i>Rehearsals</i> and in 1873 <i>Searching the Net</i>. These last two
+bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat
+disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876
+<i>The Soldier of Fortune</i>, a drama on which he had bestowed much
+careful labour, proved a complete failure, he retired altogether
+from the literary arena. It was not until 1893 that he was
+persuaded to return, and the immediate success in that year of
+his <i>Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical</i>, encouraged him to publish a
+second series in 1895, the year of his death. The genuine interest
+with which these volumes were welcomed did much to lighten
+the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life. His
+posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics
+of De Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style,
+derived from close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and
+colour. His passion for detail was both a strength and a weakness:
+it lent a loving fidelity to his description of natural objects,
+but it sometimes involved him in a loss of simple effect from
+over-elaboration of treatment. He was always a student of the
+classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration directly from them.
+He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a brother poet
+well said, "still climbed the clear cold altitudes of song." His
+ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally ice-bound
+at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and bright,
+vivid outlines.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his <i>Critical Kit-Kats</i> (1896).</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(A. Wa.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><b>DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE ÉDOUARD</b> (1848-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>),
+French painter, was born in Paris on the 5th of October 1848.
+After working as a pupil of Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the
+Salon of 1867, a picture representing "A Corner of Meissonier's
+Studio." Military life was from the first a principal attraction
+to the young painter, and he gained his reputation by depicting
+the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail truthfully rendered.
+He exhibited "A Halt" (1868); "Soldiers at rest, during the
+Man&oelig;uvres at the Camp of Saint Maur" (1869); "Engagement
+between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814" (1870). The
+war of 1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which
+gained him repeated successes. Among his more important
+pictures may be named "The Conquerors" (1872); "The
+Retreat" (1873); "The Charge of the 9th Regiment of Cuirassiers
+in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870" (1874); "The
+Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A
+Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877);
+"Bonaparte in Egypt" (1878); the "Inauguration of the New
+Opera House"&mdash;a water-colour; the "Defence of Champigny
+by Faron's Division" (1879). He also worked with Alphonse de
+Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In 1884 he exhibited
+at the Salon the "Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic study,
+and "The Dream" (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille
+recorded other events in the military history of his country:
+the "Sortie of the Garrison of Huningue" (now in the Luxemburg),
+the "Vincendon Brigade," and "Bizerte," reminiscences
+of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit to Russia, Detaille
+exhibited "The Cossacks of the Ataman" and "The Hereditary
+Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other
+important works are: "Victims to Duty," "The Prince of
+Wales and the Duke of Connaught" and "Pasteur's Funeral."
+In his picture of "Châlons, 9th October 1896," exhibited in the
+Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the emperor and empress of
+Russia at a review, with M. Félix Faure. Detaille became a
+member of the French Institute in 1898.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Marius Vachon, <i>Detaille</i> (Paris, 1898); Frédéric Masson,
+<i>Édouard Detaille and his work</i> (Paris and London, 1891); J. Claretie,
+<i>Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains</i> (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy,
+<i>Les Jeunes peintres militaires</i> (Paris, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page111"></a>[Page 111]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>DETAINER</b> (from <i>detain</i>, Lat. <i>detinere</i>), in law, the act of
+keeping a person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a
+person's goods, or other real or personal property. A writ of
+detainer was a form for the beginning of a personal action
+against a person already lodged within the walls of a prison;
+it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><b>DETERMINANT,</b> in mathematics, a function which presents
+itself in the solution of a system of simple equations.</p>
+
+<p>1. Considering the equations</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>ax</td><td>+</td><td>by</td><td>+</td><td>cz</td><td>=</td><td>d,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;x</td><td>+</td><td>b&prime;y</td><td>+</td><td>c&prime;z</td><td>=</td><td>d&prime;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;x</td><td>+</td><td>b&Prime;y</td><td>+</td><td>c&Prime;z</td><td>=</td><td>d&Prime;,</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross
+multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in
+such a manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient
+of y becomes = 0, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = 0;
+the factors in question are b&prime;c&Prime; - b&Prime;c&prime;, b&Prime;c - bc&Prime;, bc&prime; - b&prime;c (values
+which, as at once seen, have the desired property); we thus
+obtain an equation which contains on the left-hand side only a
+multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a constant term; the
+coefficient of x has the value</p>
+
+<p class="center">a(b&prime;c&Prime; - b&Prime;c&prime;) + a&prime;(b&Prime;c - bc&Prime;) + a&Prime;(bc&prime; - b&prime;c),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and this function, represented in the form</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 3², it is
+called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed that the
+resulting equation is</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;x =&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>d,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td></td>
+ <td>d&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td></td>
+ <td>d&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function
+with d, d&prime;, d&Prime; in place of a, a&prime;, a&Prime; respectively, and is of course also
+a determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c&Prime; - b&Prime;c&prime;, b&Prime;c - bc&Prime;,
+bc&prime; - b&prime;c used in the process are themselves the determinants of
+the second order</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>b,</td><td>c</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation
+of the determinants of the orders 1, 2, 3, 4, &amp;c., each from the
+preceding one, viz. we have</p>
+
+<table class="math0l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1">&nbsp;</td><td>a</td><td class="rightb1">&nbsp;</td><td style="padding-left: 7em; ">= a,</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<table class="math0l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td style="padding-left: 5em; ">= a</td><td class="leftb1">&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;</td><td class="rightb1">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td style="padding-left: 6em; ">- a&prime;</td><td class="leftb1">&nbsp;</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1">&nbsp;</td><td>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<table class="math0l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td style="padding-left: 2em; ">= a&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td style="padding-left: 2em; ">+ a&prime;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td style="padding-left: 2em; ">+ a&Prime;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b,</td><td>c</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<table class="math0l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;= a&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;- a&prime;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;+ a&Prime;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;&prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;- a&prime;&Prime;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>c&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>d&prime;&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>c&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>d&prime;&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>b&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>c&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>d&prime;&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd order, but
+alternately + and - for a determinant of an even order.</p>
+
+<p>2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3...n products which
+can be formed with n elements out of n² elements arranged in the form of
+a square, no two of the n elements being in the same line or in the same
+column, and each such product having the coefficient ± unity.</p>
+
+<p>The products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible
+manner the columns (or the lines) of the determinant, and then taking
+for the factors the n elements in the dexter diagonal. And we thence
+derive the rule for the signs, viz. considering the primitive
+arrangement of the columns as positive, then an arrangement obtained
+therefrom by a single interchange (inversion, or derangement) of two
+columns is regarded as negative; and so in general an arrangement is
+positive or negative according as it is derived from the primitive
+arrangement by an even or an odd number of interchanges. [This implies
+the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive
+arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even number of
+interchanges,&mdash;a theorem the verification of which may be easily
+obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular case of the general
+one), an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number
+of interchanges.] And this being so, each product has the sign belonging
+to the corresponding arrangement of the columns; in particular, a
+determinant contains with the sign + the product of the elements in its
+dexter diagonal. It is to be observed that the rule gives as many
+positive as negative arrangements, the number of each being = ½ 1.2...n.</p>
+
+<p>The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving
+to the columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers
+1, 2, 3 ... n, to obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement
+we take, as often as a lower number succeeds a higher one, the
+sign -, and, compounding together all these minus signs, obtain
+the proper sign, + or - as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123,
+231, 312 are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the
+developed expression of the foregoing determinant of the third
+order is</p>
+
+<p class="center">= ab&prime;c&Prime; - ab&Prime;c&prime; + a&prime;b&Prime;c - a&prime;bc&Prime; <span class="correction" title="originally minus sign">+</span> a&Prime;bc&prime; - a&Prime;b&prime;c.</p>
+
+<p>3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function<a name="FnAnchor_2" href="#Footnote_2"><sup>[1]</sup></a>
+of the elements of each column thereof, and also a linear function
+of the elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the determinant
+retains the same value, only its sign being altered,
+when any two columns are interchanged, or when any two
+lines are interchanged; more generally, when the columns are
+permuted in any manner, or when the lines are permuted in
+any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with
+the sign + or - according as the new arrangement (considered
+as derived from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative
+according to the foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that,
+if two columns are identical, or if two lines are identical, the
+value of the determinant is = 0. It may be added, that if the
+lines are converted into columns, and the columns into lines, in
+such a way as to leave the dexter diagonal unaltered, the value
+of the determinant is unaltered; the determinant is in this case
+said to be <i>transposed</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of
+the n² elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or
+say, for shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only
+the sign is altered when any two columns are interchanged;
+these properties completely determine the function, except as to
+a common factor which may multiply all the terms. If, to get
+rid of this arbitrary common factor, we assume that the product
+of the elements in the dexter diagonal has the coefficient +1, we
+have a complete definition of the determinant, and it is interesting
+to show how from these properties, assumed for the definition
+of the determinant, it at once appears that the determinant is a
+function serving for the solution of a system of linear equations.
+Observe that the properties show at once that if any column is
+= 0 (that is, if the elements in the column are each = 0), then
+the determinant is = 0; and further, that if any two columns
+are identical, then the determinant is = 0.</p>
+
+<p>5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the
+beginning of this article, consider the determinant</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>ax</td><td>+</td><td>by</td><td>+</td><td>cz</td><td>-</td><td>d,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;x</td><td>+</td><td>b&prime;y</td><td>+</td><td>c&prime;z</td><td>-</td><td>d&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;x</td><td>+</td><td>b&Prime;y</td><td>+</td><td>c&Prime;z</td><td>-</td><td>d&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">it appears that this is</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>= x</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;+ y&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;+ z&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>c,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;-&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>d,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">viz. the second and third terms each vanishing, it is</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>= x</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;-&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>d,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112"></a>[Page 112]</span> original determinant is = 0, and therefore the determinant
+itself is = 0; that is, the linear equations give</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>x</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;-&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>d,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;= 0;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">which is the result obtained above.</p>
+
+<p>We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there
+is a more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the
+new equation</p>
+
+<p class="center">&alpha;x + &beta;y + &gamma;z = &delta;;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have</p>
+
+<table class="math15l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&alpha;,</td><td>&beta;,</td><td>&gamma;,</td><td>&delta;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;= 0;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">or, as this may be written,</p>
+
+<table class="math15l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&alpha;,</td><td>&beta;,</td><td>&gamma;,</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;- &delta;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;= 0;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">which, considering &delta; as standing herein for its value
+&alpha;x + &beta;y + &gamma;z, is a consequence of the original
+equations only: we have thus an expression for &alpha;x + &beta;y +
+&gamma;z, an arbitrary linear function of the unknown quantities x, y,
+z; and by comparing the coefficients of &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma; on the
+two sides respectively, we have the values of x, y, z; in fact, these
+quantities, each multiplied by</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">are in the first instance obtained in the forms</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>1</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">but these are</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>=&nbsp;</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;-&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>c,</td><td>d,</td><td>a</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>d,</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;,</td><td>a&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&prime;,</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;,</td><td>a&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&Prime;,</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">or, what is the same thing,</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>=&nbsp;</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>c,</td><td>a,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&prime;,</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&Prime;,</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">respectively.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order.</i>&mdash;The
+theorem is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition
+of a determinant. It is most simply expressed thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="botb1">(&alpha;, &alpha;&prime;, &alpha;&Prime;),</td>
+ <td class="botb1">(&beta;, &beta;&prime;, &beta;&Prime;),</td>
+ <td class="botb1">(&gamma;, &gamma;&prime;, &gamma;&Prime;)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>(a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td>)</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;.&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&alpha;,</td><td>&beta;,</td><td>&gamma;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>(a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>)</td>
+ <td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&alpha;&prime;,</td><td>&beta;&prime;,</td><td>&gamma;&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>(a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>)</td>
+ <td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&alpha;&Prime;,</td><td>&beta;&Prime;,</td><td>&gamma;&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant,
+the terms of the first line being (a, b, c)(&alpha;, &alpha;&prime;, &alpha;&Prime;),
+that is, a&alpha; + b&alpha;&prime; + c&alpha;&Prime;, (a, b, c)(&beta;, &beta;&prime;, &beta;&Prime;),
+that is, a&beta; + b&beta;&prime; + c&beta;&Prime;, (a, b, c)(&gamma;, &gamma;&prime;, &gamma;&Prime;),
+that is a&gamma; + b&gamma;&prime; + c&gamma;&Prime;; and similarly the terms in the second and
+third lines are the life functions with (a&prime;, b&prime;, c&prime;) and (a&Prime;, b&Prime;, c&Prime;)
+respectively.</p>
+
+<p>There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns; the
+result would hold good if on the left-hand side we had written (&alpha;,
+&beta;, &gamma;), (&alpha;&prime;, &beta;&prime;, &gamma;&prime;),
+(&alpha;&Prime;, &beta;&Prime;, &gamma;&Prime;), or what is the same
+thing, if on the right-hand side we had transposed the second
+determinant; and either of these changes would, it might be thought,
+increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason which need not be
+explained,<a name="FnAnchor_3" href="#Footnote_3"><sup>[2]</sup></a> the form actually adopted is the preferable one.</p>
+
+<p>To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant
+on the left-hand side, <i>qua</i> linear function of its columns, may be
+broken up into a sum of (3³ =) 27 determinants, each of which is
+either of some such form as</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>= &alpha;&beta;&gamma;&prime;&nbsp;</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">where the term &alpha;&beta;&gamma;' is not a term of the &alpha;&beta;&gamma;-determinant, and its
+coefficient (as a determinant with two identical columns) vanishes;
+or else it is of a form such as</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>= &alpha;&beta;&prime;&gamma;&Prime;&nbsp;</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the
+abc-determinant last written down; the sum of all other factors
+± &alpha;&beta;&prime;&gamma;&Prime; is the &alpha;&beta;&gamma;-determinant of the formula; and the final
+result then is, that the determinant on the left-hand side is equal
+to the product on the right-hand side of the formula.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary Determinants.</i>&mdash;Consider,
+for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth
+order, 5 = 2 + 3, and let the top two lines be</p>
+
+<table class="math0l" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; " summary="math">
+<tr><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d,</td><td>e</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;,</td><td>e&prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">then, if we consider how these elements enter into the determinant, it
+is at once seen that they enter only through the determinants of the
+second order</p>
+
+<table class="math0l" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; " summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">&amp;c., which can be formed by selecting any two columns at pleasure.
+Moreover, representing the remaining three lines by</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant
+formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant of the
+third order formed with the complementary three columns of the second
+set; and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a
+sum of all the products of the form</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">the sign ± being in each case such that the sign of the term
+± ab&prime;c&Prime;d&prime;&Prime;e&Prime;&Prime; obtained from the diagonal elements of the component
+determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the
+determinant of the fifth order; for the product written down
+the sign is obviously +.</p>
+
+<p>Observe that for a determinant of the n-th order, taking the
+decomposition to be 1&nbsp;+&nbsp;(n&nbsp;-&nbsp;1), we fall back upon the equations
+given at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a
+determinant.</p>
+
+<table class="math0l" style="margin-left: 1em; " summary="math">
+<tr><td>8. Any determinant&nbsp;</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;formed out of the elements of the original determinant, by selecting the</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind" style="margin-top: 0; ">lines and columns at
+pleasure, is termed a <i>minor</i> of the original determinant; and
+when the number of lines and columns, or order of the determinant,
+is n-1, then such determinant is called a <i>first minor</i>; the
+number of the first minors is = n², the first minors, in fact, corresponding
+to the several elements of the determinant&mdash;that is,
+the coefficient therein of any term whatever is the corresponding
+first minor. The first minors, each divided by the determinant
+itself, form a system of elements <i>inverse</i> to the elements of the
+determinant.</p>
+
+<p>A determinant is <i>symmetrical</i> when every two elements
+symmetrically situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal
+to each other; if they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum
+of the two elements be = 0), this relation not extending to the
+diagonal elements themselves, which remain arbitrary, then the
+determinant is <i>skew</i>; but if the relation does extend to the
+diagonal terms (that is, if these are each = 0), then the determinant
+is <i>skew symmetrical</i>; thus the determinants</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" style="text-align: right; " summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>h,</td><td>g</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>&nu;,</td><td>-&mu;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>0,</td><td>&nu;,</td><td>-&mu;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>h,</td><td>b,</td><td>f</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>-&nu;,</td><td>b,</td><td>&lambda;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>-&nu;,</td><td>0,</td><td>&lambda;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>g,</td><td>f,</td><td>c</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&mu;,</td><td>-&lambda;,</td><td>c</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&mu;,</td><td>-&lambda;,</td><td>0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical:
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113"></a>[Page 113]</span>
+The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments,
+and applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of
+mathematics. For further developments of the theory of determinants
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algebraic Forms</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(<span class="sc">A. Ca.</span>)</div>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>9. <i>History.</i>&mdash;These functions were originally known as "resultants," a
+name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but now replaced by the
+title "determinants," a name first applied to certain forms of them by
+Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the theory of determinants is to be
+found in the writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693), who
+incidentally discovered certain properties when reducing the eliminant
+of a system of linear equations. Gabriel Cramer, in a note to his
+<i>Analyse des lignes courbes algébriques</i> (1750), gave the rule which
+establishes the sign of a product as <i>plus</i> or <i>minus</i> according as the
+number of displacements from the typical form has been even or odd.
+Determinants were also employed by Étienne Bezout in 1764, but the first
+connected account of these functions was published in 1772 by Charles
+Auguste Vandermonde. Laplace developed a theorem of Vandermonde for the
+expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph Louis Lagrange, in his
+memoir on <i>Pyramids</i>, used determinants of the third order, and proved
+that the square of a determinant was also a determinant. Although he
+obtained results now identified with determinants, Lagrange did not
+discuss these functions systematically. In 1801 Gauss published his
+<i>Disquisitiones arithmeticae</i>, which, although written in an obscure
+form, gave a new impetus to investigations on this and kindred subjects.
+To Gauss is due the establishment of the important theorem, that the
+product of two determinants both of the second and third orders is a
+determinant. The formulation of the general theory is due to Augustin
+Louis Cauchy, whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries
+made in the following decades by Hoëné-Wronski and J. Binet in France,
+Carl Gustav Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur
+Cayley in England. Jacobi's researches were published in <i>Crelle's
+Journal</i> (1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and
+enriched by new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacobi
+is indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The
+far-reaching discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the
+most important developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new fields
+were opened up, and have been diligently explored by many
+mathematicians. Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley;
+axisymmetric-determinants by Jacobi, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester and O.
+Hesse, and centro-symmetric determinants by W. R. F. Scott and G.
+Zehfuss. Continuants have been discussed by Sylvester; alternants by
+Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H. Nagelbach and G. Garbieri; circulants by E.
+Catalan, W. Spottiswoode and J. W. L. Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B.
+Christoffel and G. Frobenius. Determinants composed of binomial
+coefficients have been studied by V. von Zeipel; the expression of
+definite integrals as determinants by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the
+expression of continued fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V.
+Nachreiner, S. Günther and E. Fürstenau. (See T. Muir, <i>Theory of
+Determinants</i>, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" href="#FnAnchor_2">[1]</a> The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest
+sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is
+that the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a&prime;, a&Prime;, ... of
+any column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa + A&prime;a&prime; + A&Prime;a&Prime; +
+... without any term independent of a, a&prime;, a&Prime; ...</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" href="#FnAnchor_3">[2]</a> The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for
+the multiplication of two matrices.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DETERMINISM</b> (Lat. <i>determinare</i>, to prescribe or limit), in ethics, the
+name given to the theory that all moral choice, so called, is the
+determined or necessary result of psychological and other conditions. It
+is opposed to the various doctrines of Free-Will, known as voluntarism,
+libertarianism, indeterminism, and is from the ethical standpoint more
+or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism. There are various degrees
+of determinism. It may be held that every action is causally connected
+not only externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also
+internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if we could
+know exactly all these conditions, we should be able to forecast with
+mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue. In this
+theory the agent cannot be held responsible for his action in any sense.
+It is the extreme antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the
+doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative
+courses (the <i>liberum arbitrium indifferentiae</i>). Since, however, the
+evidence of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the
+individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself as
+being free within certain limitations to make his own choice of
+alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that there may be
+in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes
+solely an element of freedom. This view is corroborated by the
+phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent feels that he ought to, and
+could, have chosen a different course of action. These two kinds of
+determinism are sometimes distinguished as "hard" and "soft"
+determinism. The controversy between determinism and libertarianism
+hinges largely on the significance of the word "motive"; indeed in no
+other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by
+purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How far, and in
+what sense, can action which is determined by motives be said to be
+free? For a long time the advocates of free-will, in their eagerness to
+preserve moral responsibility, went so far as to deny all motives as
+influencing moral action. Such a contention, however, clearly defeats
+its own object by reducing all action to chance. On the other hand, the
+scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the
+distinction between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives,
+character and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product
+of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does it
+become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in his motives
+and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards outward surroundings,
+in his appetites and aversions, inherited tendency and environment have
+been found to play a very large part; indeed many thinkers hold that the
+whole of a man's development, mental as well as physical, is determined
+by external conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed,
+but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament assumes
+throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been argued by
+theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge, coupled with
+that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily implies that all
+human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world. Such an
+inference is, however, clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of
+sin, repentance and the atonement, as also with that of eternal reward
+and punishment, which postulates a real measure of human responsibility.</p>
+
+<p>For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Will</a>,
+<a href="#artlinks">Predestination</a></span> (for the theological problems), <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DETINUE</b> (O. Fr. <i>detenue</i>, from <i>detenir</i>, to hold back), in law, an
+action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property in goods
+seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and refuses to
+redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue, the
+judgment is that he recover the chattel or, if it cannot be had, its
+value, which is assessed by the judge and jury, and also certain damages
+for detaining the same. An order for the restitution of the specific
+goods may be enforced by a special writ of execution, called a writ of
+delivery. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contract</a>; <a href="#artlinks">Trover</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DETMOLD,</b> a town of Germany, capital of the principality
+of Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the
+Teutoburger Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Altenbeken
+line of the Prussian state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164.
+The residential château of the princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550),
+in the Renaissance style, is an imposing building, lying with its
+pretty gardens nearly in the centre of the town; whilst at
+the entrance to the large park on the south is the New Palace
+(1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house. Detmold
+possesses a natural history <span class="correction" title="added the comma">museum,</span> theatre, high school, library,
+the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876) was
+born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe
+(1801-1836), also a native, died. The leading industries are linen-weaving,
+tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of
+marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town
+is the Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's colossal statue of
+Hermann or Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold
+(Thiatmelli) was in 783 the scene of a conflict between the
+Saxons and the troops of Charlemagne.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DETROIT,</b> the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite Windsor, Canada, about 4 m.
+W. from the outlet of Lake St Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop.
+(1880) 116,340; (1890) 205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were
+foreign-born and 4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the
+foreign-born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German Poles,
+25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians, 6347 were
+English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by the Michigan Central,
+the Lake Shore &amp; Michigan Southern, the Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the
+Père Marquette, the Detroit &amp; Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo
+&amp; Ironton and the Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2
+m. to 3 m., and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page114"></a>[Page 114]</span> the other 6 m. from the centre of the city,
+connect the factory districts with the main railway lines. Trains are
+ferried across the river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to
+Cleveland, Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important
+places between, and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also the S.
+terminus for several lines to more remote lake ports, and electric lines
+extend from here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac, Jackson, Toledo and
+Grand Rapids.
+</p>
+
+<p>The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase from 29 sq.
+m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in proportion to its
+population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of the
+United States. Baltimore, for example, had in 1904 nearly 70% more
+inhabitants (estimated), while its area at that time was a little less
+and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter less than that of Detroit. The ground
+within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is
+quite level, but rises gradually from the river bank, which is only a
+few feet in height. The Detroit river, along which the city extends for
+about 10 m., is here &frac12; m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its
+current is quite rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth
+it has a width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of
+islands, which during the summer are popular resorts. The city has a 3
+m. frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the Detroit, with a 16 ft.
+channel. Before the fire by which the city was destroyed in 1805, the
+streets were only 12 ft. wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty. But
+when the rebuilding began, several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide
+were&mdash;through the influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one
+of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the
+city of Washington&mdash;made to radiate from two central points. From a half
+circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues 120 ft. and 200 ft.
+wide. About ¼ m. toward the river from this was established another
+focal point called the Campus Martius, 600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at
+which commence radiating or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide.
+Running north from the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand
+Circus is Woodward Avenue, 120 ft. wide, dividing the present city, as
+it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the river is
+Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these avenues is the
+principal retail street along its lower portion, and is a residence
+avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the principal wholesale street
+at the lower end, and a fine residence avenue E. of this. Many of the
+other residence streets are 80 ft. wide. The setting of shade trees was
+early encouraged, and large elms and maples abound. The intersections of
+the diagonal streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as
+well as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly
+with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much used, and
+kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other American cities of
+equal size are the streets and avenues kept so clean. The Grand
+Boulevard, 150 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 12 m. in length, has been
+constructed around the city except along the river front. A very large
+proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit own their homes: there are no
+large congested tenement-house districts; and many streets in various
+parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often
+having a garden plot in front.
+</p>
+
+<p>Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871), overlooking
+the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in three storeys; the
+flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of 200 ft. On the
+four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures, each
+14 ft. in height, to represent Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and
+on the same level with these is a clock weighing 7670 lb&mdash;one of the
+largest in the world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and
+Sailors' monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892)
+and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four corners in each of three
+sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures
+representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry and Artillery,
+also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History; the figure by which the
+monument is surmounted was designed to symbolize Michigan. A larger and
+more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county
+court house, facing Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a
+gilded dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely
+decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest architectural
+beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine Byzantine interior, St
+John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue Baptist and the First
+Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue, and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of
+Mary, both Roman Catholic. The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson
+Avenue, contains some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese
+collections, the Scripps' collection of old masters, other valuable
+paintings, and a small library; free lectures on art are given here
+through the winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908,
+including one of the best collections of state and town histories in the
+country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and relating
+principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the public. The
+city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The principal ones are the
+Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monument on the Campus Martius, and a
+statue of Mayor Pingree in West Grand Circus Park.
+</p>
+
+<p>The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about 1200
+acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in the river
+at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having an area of more
+than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of 4&frac12; acres, with its
+trees, flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant resting place in the
+busiest quarter of the city. Six miles farther out on Woodward Avenue is
+Palmer Park of about 140 acres, given to the city in 1894 and named in
+honour of the donor. Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the
+city, and there are various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are
+Elmwood (Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining
+in the E. part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in the N.
+part of the city.</p>
+
+<p><i>Charity and Education.</i>&mdash;Among the charitable institutions are the
+general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's); the Detroit Emergency,
+the Children's Free and the United States Marine hospitals; St Luke's
+hospital, church home, and orphanage; the House of Providence (a
+maternity hospital and infant asylum); the Woman's hospital and
+foundling's home; the Home for convalescent children, &amp;c. In 1894
+the mayor, Hazen Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of
+preparing, through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant
+land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other
+vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor
+commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the unemployed,
+and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan served an
+admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression, and was
+copied in other cities; it was abandoned when, with the renewal of
+industrial activity, the necessity for it ceased. The leading penal
+institution of the city is the Detroit House of Correction, noted for
+its efficient reformatory work; the inmates are employed ten hours a
+day, chiefly in making furniture. The house of correction pays the city
+a profit of $35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in
+addition to those of the general public school system, include several
+parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and commercial colleges;
+Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877; the Detroit College of
+Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan College of Medicine and Surgery,
+opened in 1888; the Detroit College of law, founded in 1891, and a city
+normal school.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and
+shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous traffic
+between the upper and lower lakes passes through the Detroit river. In
+1907 the number of vessels recorded was 34,149, with registered tonnage
+of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons of freight, valued at
+$697,311,302. This includes vessels which delivered part or all of their
+cargo at Detroit. The largest item in the freights is iron ore on
+vessels bound down. The next is coal on vessels up bound. Grain and
+lumber are the next largest items. Detroit is a port of entry, and its
+foreign commerce, chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The
+city's exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>[Page 115]</span> 1909. The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,100,659 in
+1909.</p>
+
+<p>As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total number of
+manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with a product for the
+year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there were 2847 establishments with
+a product for the year valued at $100,892,838; or an increase of 30.4%
+in the decade. In 1900 the establishments under the factory system,
+omitting the hand trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and
+produced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments under the
+factory system numbered 1363 and the product had increased 45.7% to
+$128,761,658. In the district subsequently annexed the product in 1904
+was about $12,000,000, making a total of $140,000,000. The output for
+1906 was estimated at $180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905
+visited 1721 factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected
+1790 factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in the
+country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the value of its
+product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In 1906 the city had
+twenty automobile factories, with an output of 11,000 cars, valued at
+$12,000,000. Detroit is probably the largest manufacturer in the country
+of freight cars, stoves, pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash
+and similar alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships,
+paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods, furniture, boots
+and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt liquors and fur goods; and
+slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry.</p>
+
+<p>The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought into one
+association the members of three former bodies, making a compact
+organization with civic as well as commercial aims. The board has
+brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of
+the city and many of the professional men. Their united efforts have
+brought many new industries to the city, have improved industrial
+conditions, and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal
+administration. Other business organizations are the Board of Trade,
+devoted to the grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers'
+Association, which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between
+employer and employed, the Builders' &amp; Traders' Exchange, and the
+Credit Men's Association.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration.</i>&mdash;Although the city received its first charter in 1806,
+and another in 1815, the real power rested in the hands of the governor
+and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters of 1824 and 1827
+centred the government in a council and made the list of elective
+officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised in 1857 and again in 1859
+and the present charter dates from 1883. Under this charter only three
+administrative officers are elected,&mdash;the mayor, the city clerk and the
+city treasurer,&mdash;elections being biennial. The administration of the
+city departments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one
+commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and boulevards,
+police and public works departments. The four members of the health
+board are nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate.
+The school board is an independent body, consisting of one elected
+member from each ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has
+the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common
+council. In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other
+principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor and confirmed
+by the council, are controller, corporation counsel, board of three
+assessors, fire commission (four members), public lighting commission
+(six members), water commission (five members), poor commission (four
+members), and inspectors of the house of correction (four in number).
+The members of the public library commission, six in number, are elected
+by the board of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next
+fiscal year are furnished by the different departments to the controller
+in February. He transmits them to the common council with his
+recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to consider them.
+It may reduce or increase the amounts asked, and may add new items. The
+budget then goes to the board of estimates, which has a month for its
+consideration. This body consists of two members elected from each ward
+and five elected at large. The mayor and heads of departments are
+advisory members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the board
+of estimates can hold no other office and they have no appointing power,
+the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political
+motives and influences. They may reduce or cut out any estimates
+submitted, but cannot increase any or add new ones. No bonds can be
+issued without the assent of the board of estimates. The budget is
+apportioned among twelve committees which have almost invariably given
+close and conscientious examination to the actual needs of the
+departments. A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing
+the service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations.
+Prudent management under this system has placed the city in the highest
+rank financially. Its debt limit is 2% on the assessed valuation, and
+even that low maximum is not often reached. The debt in 1907 was only
+about $5,500,000, a smaller <i>per capita</i> debt than that of any other
+city of over 100,000 inhabitants in the country; the assessed valuation
+was $330,000,000; the city tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of
+assessed valuation. Both the council and the estimators are hampered in
+their work by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries
+and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the
+legislature, which has also determined many affairs of a purely
+administrative character.</p>
+
+<p>Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership. On account
+of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private company, the city
+bought the water-works as long ago as 1836. The works have been twice
+moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the
+city. In 1907 there were six engines in the works with a pumping
+capacity of 152,000,000 gallons daily. The daily average of water used
+during the preceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water is pumped
+from Lake St Clair and is of exceptional purity. The city began its own
+public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the river near
+the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public buildings, but
+makes no provision for commercial business. The lighting is excellent,
+and the cost is probably less than could be obtained from a private
+company. The street lighting is done partly from pole and arm lights,
+but largely from steel towers from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with
+strong reflected lights at the top. The city also owns two portable
+asphalt plants, and thus makes a saving in the cost of street repairing
+and resurfacing. With a view of effecting the reduction of street car
+fares to three cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for
+purchasing or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme
+Court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as the
+constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal
+improvement, the state could not empower a municipality to do so.
+Certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question of
+municipal ownership of the railways.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet de la Mothe
+Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the importance of the place
+as a strategic point for determining the control of the fur trade and
+the possession of the North-west and had received assistance from the
+French government soon after Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the
+secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged
+the English government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac
+arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at once built
+a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now Jefferson Avenue
+and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and named it Fort Pontchartrain
+in honour of the French colonial minister. Indians at once came to the
+place in large numbers, but they soon complained of the high price of
+French goods; there was serious contention between Cadillac and the
+French Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had been
+granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the Jesuits. After
+the several parties had begun to complain to the home government the
+monopoly of the fur trade was transferred to Cadillac and he was
+exhorted to cease quarrelling with the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page116"></a>[Page 116]</span> Jesuits. Although the
+inhabitants then increased to 200 or more, dissatisfaction with the
+paternal rule of the founder increased until 1710, when he was made
+governor of Louisiana. The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn;
+by the second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and
+for several years following the population was greatly reduced and the
+post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the Mississippi
+country was opened, the population once more increased, and again in
+1748, when the settlement of the Ohio Valley began, the governor-general
+of Canada offered special inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit,
+with the result that the population was soon more than 1000 and the
+cultivation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however, the
+place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers and an
+English element was introduced into the population which up to this time
+had been almost exclusively French. Three years later, during the
+conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly escaped capture and then
+suffered from a siege lasting from the 9th of May until the 12th of
+October. Under English rule it continued from this time on as a military
+post with its population usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new
+fort was built and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of
+Independence the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions
+to ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which
+concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United States in
+1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the 11th of January
+1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794. It was then named Fort
+Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated as a town and received its
+present name. In 1805 all except one or two buildings were destroyed by
+fire. General William Hull (1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American
+Independence, governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander
+of the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to hear
+immediately of the declaration of war between the United States and
+Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped by Lake Erie. He
+made from Detroit on the 12th of July an awkward and futile advance into
+Canada, which, if more vigorous, might have resulted in the capture of
+Malden and the establishment of American troops in Canada, and then
+retired to his fortifications. On the 16th of August 1812, without any
+resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the city
+to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards attempted to
+justify himself by criticism of the War Department in general and in
+particular of General Henry Dearborn's armistice with Prevost, which had
+not included in its terms Hull, whom Dearborn had been sent out to
+reinforce.<a name="FnAnchor_4" href="#Footnote_4"><sup>[1]</sup></a> After Perry's victory on the 14th of September on Lake
+Erie, Detroit on the 29th of September was again occupied by the forces
+of the United States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since
+then its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of
+Michigan from 1805 to 1847.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Silas Farmer, <i>The History of Detroit and Michigan</i>
+(Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and "Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P.
+Powell's <i>Historic Towns of the Western States</i> (New York and London,
+1901); D. F. Wilcox, "Municipal Government in Michigan and
+Ohio," in <i>Columbia University Studies</i> (New York, 1896); C. M.
+Burton, <i>"Cadillac's Village" or Detroit under Cadillac</i> (Detroit,
+1896); Francis Parkman, <i>A Half Century of Conflict</i> (Boston, 1897);
+and <i>The Conspiracy of Pontiac</i> (Boston, 1898); and the annual
+<i>Reports</i> of the Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_4" href="#FnAnchor_4">[1]</a> Hull was tried at Albany in 1814 by court martial, General Dearborn
+presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and
+unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president
+remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DETTINGEN,</b> a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Main,
+and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg railway, 10 m. N.W. of
+Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the
+27th of June 1743, when the English, Hanoverians and Austrians (the
+"Pragmatic army"), 42,000 men under the command of George II. of
+England, routed the numerically superior French forces under the duc de
+Noailles. It was in memory of this victory that Handel composed his
+<i>Dettingen Te Deum</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUCALION,</b> in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of Phthia in
+Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the mythical ancestor
+of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved to destroy all mankind by a
+flood, Deucalion constructed a boat or ark, in which, after drifting
+nine days and nights, he landed on Mount Parnassus (according to others,
+Othrys, Aetna or Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and
+inquired how to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind
+them the "bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the
+hillside. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by
+Pyrrha, women.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, <i>Metam</i>. i. 243-415; Apollonius
+Rhodius iii. 1085 ff.; H. Usener, <i>Die Sintflutsagen</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUCE</b> (a corruption of the Fr. <i>deux</i>, two), a term applied to the "two"
+of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used in tennis when
+both sides have each scored three points in a game, or five games in a
+set; to win the game or set two points or games must then be won
+consecutively. The earliest instances in English of the use of the slang
+expression "the deuce," in exclamations and the like, date from the
+middle of the 17th century. The meaning was similar to that of "plague"
+or "mischief" in such phrases as "plague on you," "mischief take you"
+and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for "the devil" is
+later. According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> the most probable
+derivation is from a Low German <i>das daus</i>, i.e. the "deuce" in dice,
+the lowest and therefore the most unlucky throw. The personification,
+with a consequent change of gender, to <i>der daus</i>, came later. The word
+has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic
+mythology.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUS, JOÃO DE</b> (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet of his
+generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in the province of
+Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating in the faculty of law at
+the university of Coimbra, he did not proceed to his degree but settled
+in the city, dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses,
+which circulated among professors and undergraduates in manuscript
+copies. In the volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he
+practised a rigorous self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855,
+and the first of his poems to appear in a separate form was <i>La Lata</i>,
+in 1860. In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor
+of <i>O Bejense</i>, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo, and
+four years later he edited the <i>Folha do Sul</i>. As the pungent satirical
+verses entitled <i>Eleições</i> prove, he was not an ardent politician, and,
+though he was returned as Liberal deputy for the constituency of Silves
+in 1869, he acted independently of all political parties and promptly
+resigned his mandate. The renunciation implied in the act, which cut him
+off from all advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of
+his lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend
+José Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series of
+poems, <i>Flores do campo</i>, which is supplemented by the <i>Ramo de flores</i>
+(1869). This is João de Deus's masterpiece. <i>Pires de Marmalada</i> (1869)
+is an improvisation of no great merit. The four theatrical
+pieces&mdash;<i>Amemos o nosso proximo</i>, <i>Ser apresentado</i>, <i>Ensaio de
+Casamento</i>, and <i>A Viúva inconsolavel</i>&mdash;are prose translations from
+Méry, cleverly done, but not worth the doing. <i>Horacio e Lydia</i> (1872),
+a translation from Ronsard, is a good example of artifice in
+manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure, the Portuguese
+couplet. As an indication of a strong spiritual reaction three prose
+fragments (1873)&mdash;<i>Anna, Mãe de Maria</i>, <i>A Virgem Maria</i> and <i>A Mulher
+do Levita de Ephrain</i>&mdash;translated from Darboy's <i>Femmes de la Bible</i>,
+are full of significance. The <i>Folhas soltas</i> (1876) is a collection of
+verse in the manner of <i>Flores do campo</i>, brilliantly effective and
+exquisitely refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his
+attention to educational problems, and in his <i>Cartilha maternal</i> (1876)
+first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzi and
+Fröbel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate was a
+misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational mission absorbed
+João de Deus completely, and is responsible for numerous controversial
+letters, for a translation of Théodore-Henri Barrau's treatise, <i>Des
+devoirs des enfants envers leurs</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page117"></a>[Page 117]</span> <i>parents</i>, for a prosodic
+dictionary and for many other publications of no literary value. A copy
+of verses in Antonio Vieira's <i>Grinalda de Maria</i> (1877), the <i>Loas á
+Virgem</i> (1878) and the <i>Proverbios de Salomão</i> are evidence of a
+complete return to orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a
+lamentable error of judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled
+<i>Cryptinas</i> have been inserted in the completest edition of João de
+Deus's poems&mdash;<i>Campo de Flores</i> (Lisbon, 1893). He died at Lisbon on the
+11th of January 1896, was accorded a public funeral and was buried in
+the National Pantheon, the Jeronymite church at Belem, where repose the
+remains of Camoens, Herculano and Garrett. His scattered minor prose
+writings and correspondence have been posthumously published by Dr
+Theophilo Braga (Lisbon, 1898).</p>
+
+<p>Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has been more
+widely read, more profoundly admired than João de Deus; yet no poet in
+any country has been more indifferent to public opinion and more
+deliberately careless of personal fame. He is not responsible for any
+single edition of his poems, which were put together by pious but
+ill-informed enthusiasts, who ascribed to him verses that he had not
+written; he kept no copies of his compositions, seldom troubled to write
+them himself, and was content for the most part to dictate them to
+others. He has no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is
+limited in theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch,
+often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced
+accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise a set of
+proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And yet, though
+he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though he wrote nothing at
+all comparable in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of <i>Os
+Lusiadas</i>, the popular instinct which links his name with that of his
+great predecessor is eminently just. For Camoens was his model; not the
+Camoens of the epic, but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets,
+where the passion of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has
+noted five stages of development in João de Deus's artistic life&mdash;the
+imitative, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout
+phases. Under each of these divisions is included much that is of
+extreme interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through
+the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly probable
+that <i>Caturras</i> and <i>Gaspar</i>, pieces as witty as anything in Bocage but
+free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always interest literary
+students. But it is as the singer of love that João de Deus will delight
+posterity as he delighted his own generation. The elegiac music of
+<i>Rachel</i> and of <i>Marina</i>, the melancholy of <i>Adeus</i> and of <i>Remoinho</i>,
+the tenderness and sincerity of <i>Meu casta lirio</i>, of <i>Lagrima celeste</i>,
+of <i>Descalça</i> and a score more songs are distinguished by the large,
+vital simplicity which withstands time. It is precisely in the quality
+of unstudied simplicity that João de Deus is incomparably strong. The
+temptations to a display of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a
+Portuguese poet; he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has
+before him the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an
+instrument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is João de
+Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge in idle ornament.
+His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweetness and of reverent
+purity; yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental,
+and, though he has not the strength for a long fight, emotion has seldom
+been set to more delicate music. Had he included among his other gifts
+the gift of selection, had he continued the poetic discipline of his
+youth instead of dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he
+performed it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man,
+there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See also Maxime Formont, <i>Le Mouvement poétique contemporain
+en Portugal</i> (Lyon, 1892).</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(J. F.-K.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUTERONOMY,</b> the name of one of the books of the Old Testament. This
+book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal criticism, orthodox
+scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its Mosaic authorship
+reduced it to the level of a pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at
+last triumphed over tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of
+Deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive,
+however, to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion
+regarding the composition and date of his book has passed.</p>
+
+<p>In the 17th century the characteristics which so clearly mark off
+Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch were frankly
+recognized, but the most advanced critics of that age were inclined to
+pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five. In the
+beginning of the 19th century de Wette startled the religious world by
+declaring that Deuteronomy, so far from being Mosaic, was not known till
+the time of Josiah. This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever
+since, this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical
+criticism. The only other single chapter of the Bible which is
+responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in
+critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy years
+after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen inferred that
+Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and therefore could not
+have been in existence in his day; for had Leviticus been the recognized
+Law-book of his nation Ezekiel could not have represented as a
+degradation the very position which that Law-book described as a special
+honour conferred on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so
+far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than
+Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much later stratum,
+and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic.</p>
+
+<p>The title "Deuteronomy" is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of
+the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered "and he shall write out for
+himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really means "and he [the king]
+shall write out for himself a copy of this law," where there is not the
+slightest suggestion that the author intended to describe "this law"
+delivered on the plains of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to
+the first code given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the
+phrase "this law" is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater difficulty
+than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew word for
+"copy." How much does "this law" include? It was long supposed to mean
+the whole of our present Deuteronomy; indeed, it is on that supposition
+that the traditional view of the Mosaic authorship is based. But the
+context alone can determine the question; and that is often so ambiguous
+that a sure inference is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that
+nowhere need "this law" mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably
+means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little that
+it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered stones set
+up beside an altar.</p>
+
+<p>Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a
+long process of development. The fact that it is legislative as well as
+hortatory is enough to prove this, for most of the laws it contains are
+found elsewhere in the Pentateuch, sometimes in less developed,
+sometimes in more developed forms, a fact which is conclusive proof of
+prolonged historical development. According to the all-pervading law of
+evolution, the less complex form must have preceded the more complex.
+Still, the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as
+easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable for its
+copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious feeling.</p>
+
+<p>The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot have been so
+large as our present book, for not only could it be read at a single
+sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one day. On the day it was
+found, Shaphan first read it himself, and then went to the king and read
+it aloud to him. But perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is
+that it was read publicly to the assembled people immediately before
+they, as well as their king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a
+word is said as to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by
+such a great multitude, being long or difficult.</p>
+
+<p>The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.),
+which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression made
+upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been produced by
+the legislative part alone. The king must have listened to the curses as
+well as the blessings in chap, xxviii., and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page118"></a>[Page 118]</span> no doubt also to
+the exhortations in chaps. v.-xi. Hence we may conclude that the
+original book consisted of a central mass of religious, civil and social
+laws, preceded by a hortatory introduction and followed by an effective
+peroration. The book read to Josiah must therefore have comprised most
+of what is found in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But
+something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present
+form, for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43
+(where the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52,
+there are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally
+acknowledged to be post-exilic.</p>
+
+<p>The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now
+have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv. 44, more
+historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more hortatory than
+historical. These may at first have been prefixed to separate editions
+of the legislative portion, but were eventually combined. Then, before D
+was united to P, five appendices of very various dates and embracing
+poetry as well as prose, were added so as to give a fuller account of
+the last days of Moses and thus lead up to the narrative of his death
+with which the book closes. (1) Chap. xxvii., where the elders of Israel
+are introduced for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. 1)
+and then the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer
+to laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this
+chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the laws
+codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The second
+appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us the farewell
+address of Moses and is certainly later than D. Moses is represented as
+speaking not with any hope of preventing Israel's apostasy but because
+he knows that the people will eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a
+point of view very different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap.
+xxxii. That this didactic poem must have been written late in the
+nation's history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7:
+"Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many generations." Such
+words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of Moses. It must have
+been composed in a time of natural gloom and depression, after Yahweh's
+anger had been provoked by "a very froward generation," certainly not
+before the Assyrian Empire had loomed up against the political horizon,
+aggressive and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the
+time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses, chap, xxxiii.
+The first line proves that this poem is not by D, who speaks invariably
+of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation depicted is in striking contrast
+with that of the Song. Everything is bright because of promises
+fulfilled, and the future bids fair to be brighter still. Bruston
+maintains with reason that the Blessing, strictly so called, consists
+only of vv. 6-25, and has been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the
+goodness of Jehovah to his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv.
+1-5, 26-29). The special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and
+Manasseh) in vv. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the
+time of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II. (5)
+The account of Moses' death, chap. xxxiv. This appendix, containing, as
+it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even Deuteronomy was not put
+into its present form until after the exile.</p>
+
+<p>From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the Covenant (Ex.
+xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E, the prophetic
+narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not quite clear whether D
+knew E as an independent work, or after its combination with J, the
+somewhat earlier prophetic narrative of the Southern kingdom, the
+combined form of which is now indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel
+certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that D quotes always from
+E and never from J, for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as
+readily be ascribed to J as to E, cf. Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut.
+x. 14 and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written
+certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J.</p>
+
+<p>In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas, whereas in
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere manifest. Hence this
+school of thought arose between the age of Isaiah and that of Jeremiah;
+but how long D itself may have been in existence before it was read in
+622 to Josiah cannot be determined with certainty. Many argue that D was
+written immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put
+into the temple for the purpose of being "found." This theory gives some
+plausibility to the charge that the book is a pious fraud. But the
+narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference. The more natural
+explanation is that it was written not in the early years of Josiah's
+reign, and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office, but
+some time during the long reign of Manasseh, probably when his policy
+was most reactionary and when he favoured the worship of the "host of
+heaven" and set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This
+explains why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed
+it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity should
+arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he actually foresaw
+how favourable that opportunity would prove, and that, as soon as
+discovered, his work would be promulgated as law by the king and
+willingly accepted by the people. The author believed that everything he
+wrote was in full accordance with the mind of Moses, and would
+contribute to the national weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and
+therefore he did not scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is
+not to be expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact
+year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is enough to
+determine with something like probability the century or half-century
+which best fits its historical data; and these appear to point to the
+reign of Manasseh.</p>
+
+<p>Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the historical
+résumés JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even verses being
+copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points out in his careful
+analysis, there are only three facts in D which are not also found in
+JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number of souls that went down
+into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark being made of acacia wood. But even
+these may have been in J or E originally, and left out when JE was
+combined with P. Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory
+parts of D between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural
+when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular; but as a
+similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally
+acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue seems anything but
+trustworthy, depending as it does on the presence or absence of a single
+Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it frequently does, in the division of
+verses which otherwise seem to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The
+inference as to diversity of authorship is much more conclusive when
+difference of standpoint can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii.
+2. The first two passages represent Moses as addressing the generation
+that was alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to
+those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later; and it
+may well be that the one author may, in the historical and hortatory
+parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other the 2nd singular;
+without the further inference being justified that every law in which
+the 2nd singular is used must be assigned to the latter, and every law
+in which the 2nd plural occurs must be due to the former.</p>
+
+<p>The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding characteristics,
+is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation towards which events had
+long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9 shows that even the zeal of Josiah
+could not carry out the instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's
+acceptance of D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the
+religion of Judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its
+adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them. D
+requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols, but
+of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas (stone pillars) often set
+up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21). These reforms made too heavy
+demands upon the people, as was proved by the reaction which set in at
+Josiah's death. Indeed the country people would look on the destruction
+of the high places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and
+would consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119"></a>[Page 119]</span> sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of
+Jerusalem and the exile of the people would appear to those who had
+obeyed D's instructions as a well-merited punishment for national
+apostasy.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each
+individual Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the
+declaration of the individual's duty towards God immediately
+follows the emphatic intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity.
+"Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our God, Yahweh is one: and thou
+shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thine heart and with all thy
+soul and with all thy strength" (vi. 4, 5).</p>
+
+<p>In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should
+never be forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy
+ever pronounced on any scripture was pronounced by Christ
+himself, when he said "on these words hang all the law and the
+prophets," and it is also well to remember that when tempted in
+the wilderness he repelled each suggestion of the Tempter by a
+quotation from Deuteronomy.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the
+influence of the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and
+despite the spirit of love which breathes so strongly throughout
+the book, especially for the poor, the widow and the fatherless,
+the stranger and the homeless Levite (xxiv. 10-22), and the
+humanity shown towards both beasts and birds (xxii. 1, 4, 6 f.,
+xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to explain the
+intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance characteristic
+of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as his own
+soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's pitiless
+order to that man is "Thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand
+shall be first upon him to put him to death." From this single
+instance we see not only how far mankind has travelled along the
+path of religious toleration since Deuteronomy was written, but
+also how very far the criticism implied in Christ's method of
+dealing with what "was said to them of old time" may be
+legitimately carried.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(J. A. P.*)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM</b> (1829-1873), German oriental scholar,
+was born on the 28th of October 1829, at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of
+Jewish extraction. On reaching his sixteenth year he began his studies
+at the university of Berlin, paying special attention to theology and
+the Talmud. He also mastered the English language and studied English
+literature. In 1855 Deutsch was appointed assistant in the library of
+the British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and contributed no
+less than 190 papers to <i>Chambers's Encyclopaedia</i>, in addition to
+essays in Kitto's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries, and articles in
+periodicals. In October 1867 his article on "The Talmud," published in
+the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, made him known. It was translated into French,
+German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch and Danish. He died at Alexandria on the
+12th of May 1873.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>His <i>Literary Remains</i>, edited by Lady Strangford, were published in
+1874, consisting of nineteen papers on such subjects as "The Talmud,"
+"Islam," "Semitic Culture," "Egypt, Ancient and Modern," "Semitic
+Languages," "The Targums," "The Samaritan Pentateuch," and "Arabic
+Poetry."</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUTSCHKRONE,</b> a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, between the two
+lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 m. N.W. of Schneidemühl, a railway junction
+60 m. north of Posen. Pop. (1905) 7282. It is the seat of the public
+offices for the district, possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
+church, a synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuit
+college, and has manufactures of machinery, woollens, tiles, brandy and
+beer.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUTZ</b> (anc. <i>Divitio</i>), formerly an independent town of Germany, in the
+Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to
+Cologne, with which it has been incorporated since 1888. It contains the
+church of St Heribert, built in the 17th century, cavalry barracks,
+artillery magazines, and gas, porcelain, machine and carriage factories.
+It has a handsome railway station on the banks of the Rhine, negotiating
+the local traffic with Elberfeld and Königswinter. The fortifications of
+the town form part of the defences of Cologne. To the east is the
+manufacturing suburb of Kalk.</p>
+
+<p>The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine monastery by
+Heribert, archbishop of Cologne. Permission to fortify the town was in
+1230 granted to the citizens by the archbishop of Cologne, between whom
+and the counts of Berg it was in 1240 divided. It was burnt in 1376,
+1445 and 1583; and in 1678, after the peace of Nijmwegen, the
+fortifications were dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed
+in 1888.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUX-SÈVRES,</b> an inland department of western France, formed in 1790
+mainly of the three districts of Poitou, Thouarsais, Gâtine and
+Niortais, added to a small portion of Saintonge and a still smaller
+portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 339,466. It is bounded
+N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne, S.E. by Charente, S. by
+Charente-Inférieure and W. by Vendée. The department takes its name from
+two rivers&mdash;the Sèvre of Niort which traverses the southern portion, and
+the Sèvre of Nantes (an affluent of the Loire) which drains the
+north-west. There are three regions&mdash;the Gâtine, occupying the north and
+centre of the department, the Plaine in the south and the
+Marais,&mdash;distinguished by their geological character and their general
+physical appearance. The Gâtine, formed of primitive rocks (granite and
+schists), is the continuation of the "Bocage" of Vendée and
+Maine-et-Loire. Its surface is irregular and covered with hedges and
+clumps of wood or forests. The systematic application of lime has much
+improved the soil, which is naturally poor. The Plaine, resting on
+oolite limestone, is treeless but fertile. The Marais, a low-lying
+district in the extreme southwest, consists of alluvial clays which also
+are extremely productive when properly drained. The highest points,
+several of which exceed 700 ft., are found in a line of hills which
+begins in the centre of the department, to the south of Parthenay, and
+stretches north-west into the neighbouring department of Vendée. It
+divides the region drained by the Sèvre Nantaise and the Thouet (both
+affluents of the Loire) in the north from the basins of the Sèvre
+Niortaise and the Charente in the south. The climate is mild, the annual
+temperature at Niort being 54° Fahr., and the rainfall nearly 25 in. The
+winters are colder in the Gâtine, the summers warmer in the Plaine.</p>
+
+<p>Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sèvres, which is primarily an
+agricultural department, consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the
+main cereals. Potatoes and mangold-wurzels are the chief root-crops.
+Niort is a centre for the growing Of vegetables (onions, asparagus,
+artichokes, &amp;c.) and of angelica. Considerable quantities of
+beetroot are raised to supply the distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp,
+rape and flax are also cultivated. Vineyards are numerous in the
+neighbourhood of Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the
+south. The department is well known for the Parthenay breed of cattle
+and the Poitou breed of horses; and the mules reared in the southern
+arrondissements are much sought after both in France and in Spain. The
+system of co-operative dairying is practised in some localities. The
+apple-trees of the Gâtine and the walnut-trees of the Plaine bring a
+good return. Coal is mined, and the department produces building-stone
+and lime. A leading industry is the manufacture of textiles (serges,
+druggets, linen, handkerchiefs, flannels, swan-skins and knitted goods).
+Tanning and leather-dressing are carried on at Niort and other places,
+and gloves are made at Niort. Wool and cotton spinning, hat and shoe
+making, distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also
+main industries. The department exports cattle and sheep to Paris and
+Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and its industrial
+products.</p>
+
+<p>The Sèvre Niortaise and its tributary the Mignon furnish 19 m. of
+navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouest-État railway.
+It contains a large proportion of Protestants, especially in the
+south-east. The four arrondissements are Niort, Bressuire, Melle and
+Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and the communes 356. Deux-Sèvres is
+part of the region of the IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the
+académie (educational circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its
+court of appeal.</p>
+
+<p>Niort (the capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent, Thouars
+and Oiron are the principal places in the department. Several other
+towns contain features of interest. Among these <span class="pagenum"><a name="page120"></a>[Page 120]</span> are
+Airvault, where there is a church of the 12th and 14th centuries which
+once belonged to the abbey of St Pierre, and an ancient bridge built by
+the monks; Celles-sur-Belle, where there is an old church rebuilt by
+Louis XI., and again in the 17th century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a
+fine Romanesque church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of
+the most ancient abbeys of Gaul.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVA</b> (Sanskrit "heavenly"), in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, spirits of
+the light and air, and minor deities generally beneficent. In Persian
+mythology, however, the word is used for evil spirits or demons.
+According to Zoroaster the devas were created by Ahriman.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVA</b> (mod. <i>Chester</i>), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain on the Dee.
+It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and held probably till the
+end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison was the Legio XX. Valeria
+Victrix, with which another legion (II. Adjutrix) was associated for a
+few years, about A.D. 75-85. It never developed, like many Roman
+legionary fortresses, into a town, but remained military throughout.
+Parts of its north and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate)
+and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See F. J. Haverfield, <i>Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester</i>
+(Chester, 1900), Introduction.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVADATTA,</b> the son of Suklodana, who was younger brother to the father
+of the Buddha (<i>Mah&#x0101;vastu</i>, iii. 76). Both he and his brother
+&#x0100;nanda, who were considerably younger than the Buddha, joined the
+brotherhood in the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry. Four other
+cousins of theirs, chiefs of the S&#x0101;kiya clan, and a barber named
+Up&#x0101;li, were admitted to the order at the same time; and at their own
+request the barber was admitted first, so that as their senior in the
+order he should take precedence of them (<i>Vinaya Texts</i>, iii. 228). All
+the others continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years
+afterwards, having gained over the crown prince of Magadha,
+Aj&#x0101;tasattu, to his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting
+of the order, that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the
+leadership to him, Devadatta (<i>Vinaya Texts</i>, iii. 238; <i>J&#x0101;taka</i>, i.
+142). This proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition
+to have successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his aged
+father and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death
+of the Buddha (<i>Vinaya Texts</i>, iii. 241-250; <i>J&#x0101;taka</i>, vi. 131),
+shortly afterwards, relying upon the feeling of the people in favour of
+asceticism, he brought forward four propositions for ascetic rules to be
+imposed on the order. These being refused, he appealed to the people,
+started an order of his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's
+community to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the
+success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be referred
+to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the <i>Anguttara</i> (see <i>Dialogues
+of the Buddha</i> i. 222), for Devadatta's family name was Gotama. But his
+community was certainly still in existence in the 4th century A.D., for
+it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien, the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's
+translation, p. 62). And it possibly lasted till the 7th century, for
+Hsüan Tsang mentions that in a monastery in Bengal the monks then
+followed a certain regulation of Devadatta's (T. Watters, <i>On Yuan
+Chwang</i>, ii. 191). There is no mention in the canon as to how or when
+Devadatta died; but the commentary on the <i>J&#x0101;taka</i>, written in the
+5th century A.D., has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by
+the earth near S&#x0101;vatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha
+(<i>J&#x0101;taka</i>, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to both
+the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and T. Watters,
+<i>On Yuan Chwang</i>, i. 390). It is a striking example of the way in which
+such legends grow, that it is only the latest of these authorities,
+Hsüan Tsang, who says that, though ostensibly approaching the Buddha
+with a view to reconciliation, Devadatta had concealed poison in his
+nail with the object of murdering the Buddha.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Vinaya Texts</i>, translated by Rhys Davids and H. Oldenberg
+(3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); <i>The J&#x0101;taka</i>, edited by V. Fausböll (7
+vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Watters, <i>On Yuan Chwang</i> (ed. Rhys Davids
+and Bushell, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905); <i>Fa Hian</i>, translated by J.
+Legge (Oxford, 1886); <i>Mah&#x0101;vastu</i> (ed. Tenant, 3 vols., Paris,
+1882-1897).</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(T. W. R. D.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVAPRAYAG</b> (<span class="sc">Deoprayag</span>), a village in Tehri State of the United
+Provinces, India. It is situated at the spot where the rivers Alaknanda
+and Bhagirathi unite and form the Ganges, and as one of the five sacred
+confluences in the hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout
+Hindus. Devaprayag stands at an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a
+hill which rises above it 800 ft. On a terrace in the upper part of the
+village is the temple of Raghunath, built of huge uncemented stones,
+pyramidical in form and capped by a white cupola.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVENS, CHARLES</b> (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist, was born in
+Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 4th of April 1820. He graduated at
+Harvard College in 1838, and at the Harvard law school in 1840, and was
+admitted to the bar in Franklin county, Mass., where he practised from
+1841 to 1849. In the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the state senate,
+and from 1849 to 1853 was United States marshal for Massachusetts, in
+which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the fugitive slave,
+Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained to do, much against
+his personal desire; and subsequently he attempted in vain to purchase
+Sims's freedom, and many years later appointed him to a position in the
+department of justice at Washington. Devens practised law at Worcester
+from 1853 until 1861, and throughout the Civil War served in the Federal
+army, becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier-general
+of volunteers in April 1862. At the battle of Ball's Bluff (1861) he was
+severely wounded; he was again wounded at Fair Oaks (1862) and at
+Chancellorsville (1863), where he commanded a division. He later
+distinguished himself at Cold Harbor, and commanded a division in
+Grant's final campaign in Virginia (1864-65), his troops being the first
+to occupy Richmond after its fall. Breveted major-general in 1865, he
+remained in the army for a year as commander of the military district of
+Charleston, South Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetts superior
+court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate justice of the supreme
+court of the state from 1873 to 1877, and again from 1881 to 1891. From
+1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet
+of President Hayes. He died at Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January
+1891.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See his <i>Orations and Addresses</i>, with a memoir by John Codman Ropes
+(Boston, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVENTER,</b> a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the right bank
+of the Ysel, at the confluence of the Schipbeek, and a junction station
+10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also connected by steam tramway S.E.
+with Brokulo. Pop. (1900) 26,212. Deventer is a neat and prosperous town
+situated in the midst of prettily wooded environs, and containing many
+curious old buildings. There are three churches of special interest: the
+Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies the site
+of an older structure of which the 11th-century crypt remains; the Roman
+Catholic Broederkerk, or Brothers' Church, containing among its relics
+three ancient gospels said to have been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin),
+the English apostle of the Frisians and Westphalians (d. c. 773); and
+the Bergkerk, dedicated in 1206, which has two late Romanesque towers.
+The town hall (1693) contains a remarkable painting of the town council
+by Terburg. In the fine square called the Brink is the old weigh-house,
+now a school (gymnasium), built in 1528, with a large external staircase
+(1644). The gymnasium is descended from the Latin school of which the
+celebrated Alexander Hegius was master in the third quarter of the 15th
+century, when the young Erasmus was sent to it, and at which Adrian
+Floreizoon, afterwards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil
+about the same time. Another famous educational institution was the
+"Athenaeum" or high school, founded in 1630, at which Henri Renery (d.
+1639) taught philosophy, while Johann Friedrich Gronov (Gronovius)
+(1611-1671) taught rhetoric and history in the middle of the same
+century. The "Athenaeum" <span class="correction" title="corrected from disappered">disappeared</span> in 1876. In modern times Deventer
+possessed a famous teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch
+translator of Shakespeare. The town library, also called the library of
+the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page121"></a>[Page 121]</span> Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and <i>incunabula</i>, and a
+13th-century copy of <i>Reynard the Fox</i>. The archives of the town are of
+considerable value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade, Deventer
+has important iron foundries and carpet factories (the royal manufactory
+of Smyrna carpets being especially famous); while cotton-printing,
+rope-making and the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on. A
+public official is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of
+gingerbread known as "<i>Deventer Koek</i>," which has a reputation
+throughout Holland. In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of
+Deventer, some 14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870.</p>
+
+<p>In the 14th century Deventer was the centre of the famous religious and
+educational movement associated with the name of <a>Gerhard Groot</a> (q.v.),
+who was a native of the town (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brothers of Common Life</a></span>.).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS</b> (1814-1902), Irish poet and critic, was born at
+Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the 10th of January 1814, being the
+third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt (1788-1846). In 1832 his father
+dropped the final name by royal licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet.
+Wordsworth called his sonnets the "most perfect of the age." These and
+his drama, <i>Mary Tudor</i>, were published by his son in 1875 and 1884.
+Aubrey de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his
+twenty-eighth year published <i>The Waldenses</i>, which he followed up in
+the next year by <i>The Search after Proserpine</i>. Thenceforward he was
+continually engaged, till his death on the 20th of January 1902, in the
+production of poetry and criticism. His best-known works are: in verse,
+<i>The Sisters</i> (1861); <i>The Infant Bridal</i> (1864); <i>Irish Odes</i> (1869);
+<i>Legends of St Patrick</i> (1872); and <i>Legends of the Saxon Saints</i>
+(1879); and in prose, <i>Essays chiefly on Poetry</i> (1887); and <i>Essays
+chiefly Literary and Ethical</i> (1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume
+of travel-sketches, and two dramas in verse, <i>Alexander the Great</i>
+(1874); and <i>St Thomas of Canterbury</i> (1876); both of which, though they
+contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic
+spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry are "high
+seriousness" and a fine religious enthusiasm. His research in questions
+of faith led him to the Roman Church; and in many of his poems, notably
+in the volume of sonnets called <i>St Peter's Chains</i> (1888), he made rich
+additions to devotional verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose
+calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his
+affection for Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and
+weight to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will
+be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study of
+Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many
+followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers; but
+after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on "Celtic Literature," nothing
+perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival than Aubrey de Vere's tender
+insight into the Irish character, and his stirring reproductions of the
+early Irish epic poetry.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>A volume of <i>Selections</i> from his poems was edited in 1894 (New
+York and London) by G. E. Woodberry.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVICE,</b> a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also a pattern or
+design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem, often combined with a
+motto or legend. "Device" and its doublet "devise" come from the two Old
+French forms <i>devis</i> and <i>devise</i> of the Latin <i>divisa</i>, things divided,
+from <i>dividere</i>, to separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out,
+apportion. "Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term
+for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention restricted
+to a disposition of real property, the term "bequest" being used of
+personalty (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Will</a></span>). This use is directly due to the Medieval Latin
+meaning of <i>dividere</i> = <i>testamento disponere</i>. In its verbal form,
+"devise" is used not only in the legal sense, but also in the sense of
+to plan, arrange, scheme.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVIL</b> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="diabolos">&delta;&iota;&#x3ac;&beta;&omicron;&lambda;&omicron;&sigmaf;</span>, "slanderer,"
+from <span class="grk" title="diaballein">&delta;&iota;&alpha;&beta;&#x3ac;&lambda;&lambda;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;</span>, to
+slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the supreme
+spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used for minor evil
+spirits in much the same sense as "demon." From the various
+characteristics associated with this idea, the term has come to be
+applied by analogy in many different senses. From the idea of evil as
+degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure, the term is applied to
+persons in evil plight, or of slight consideration. In English legal
+phraseology "devil" and "devilling" are used of barristers who act as
+substitutes for others. Any remuneration which the legal "devil" may
+receive is purely a matter of private arrangement between them. In the
+chancery division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of
+one half of the fee which the client pays; "in the king's bench division
+remuneration for 'devilling' of briefs or assisting in drafting and
+opinions is not common" (see <i>Annual Practice</i>, 1907, p. 717). In a
+similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by
+a literary hack or "devil." The term "printer's devil" for the errand
+boy in a printing office probably combines this idea with that of his
+being black with ink. The common notions of the devil as black,
+ill-favoured, malicious, destructive and the like, have occasioned the
+application of the term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the
+devil-fish, the coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth
+or separating wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or
+fried. In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the
+word, as used in mythology and religion.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all
+phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good or evil, produce
+pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction in the character of
+these agencies is gradually recognized; the agents of good become gods,
+those of evil, demons. A tendency towards the simplification and
+organization of the evil as of the good forces, leads towards belief in
+outstanding leaders among the forces of evil. When the divine is most
+completely conceived as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and
+over against God stands Satan, or the devil.</p>
+
+<p>Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian monotheism
+that this belief in the devil has been most fully developed,
+yet there are approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In
+Babylonian mythology "the old serpent goddess 'the lady Nina'
+was transformed into the embodiment of all that was hostile to
+the powers of heaven" (Sayce's <i>Hibbert Lectures</i>, p. 283), and was
+confounded with the dragon Tiamat, "a terrible monster, reappearing
+in the Old Testament writings as Rahab and Leviathan,
+the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man" (Tennant's
+<i>The Fall and Original Sin</i>, p. 43), and according to Gunkel
+(<i>Schöpfung und Chaos</i>, p. 383) "the original of the 'old serpent'
+of Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with
+an army of monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat
+of the luminous gods. While the Greek mythology described
+the Titans as "enchained once for all in their dark dungeons"
+yet Prometheus' threat remained to disturb the tranquillity of the
+Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology the army of darkness
+is led by Hel, the personification of twilight, sunk to the goddess
+who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and Loki, originally
+the god of fire, but afterwards "looked upon as the father of the
+evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her adornments,
+who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the death of
+Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts,
+Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver
+the celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the
+caverns of the clouds. In the <i>Trimurti</i>, Brahm&#x0103; (the impersonal)
+is manifested as Brahm&#x0101; (the personal creator), Vishnu (the
+preserver), and Siva (the destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the
+belief in the god of Vedic times Rudra, who is represented as
+"the wild hunter who storms over the earth with his bands, and
+lays low with arrows the men who displease him" (Chantepie de
+la Saussaye's <i>Religionsgeschichte</i>, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. 25). The evil
+character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali (the black)
+is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The
+opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in
+Zoroastrianism. Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is
+Ahriman, the source of all evil; and the opposition runs through
+the whole universe (D'Alviella's <i>Hibbert Lectures</i>, pp. 158-164).</p>
+
+<p>The conception of <i>Satan</i> (Heb. <span title="Satan">&#x05e9;&#x05d8;&#x05df;</span>, the adversary, Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="Satanas">&Sigma;&alpha;&tau;&alpha;&nu;&#8118;&sigmaf;</span>, or <span class="grk" title="Satan">&Sigma;&alpha;&tau;&#8118;&nu;</span>, 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the post-exilic period
+of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122"></a>[Page 122]</span>
+influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots
+in much older beliefs. An "evil spirit" possesses Saul (1 Sam.
+xvi. 14), but it is "from the Lord." The same agency produces
+discord between Abimelech and the Shechemites (Judges ix. 23).
+"A lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets" as Yahweh's
+messenger entices Ahab to his doom (1 Kings xxii. 22). Growing
+human corruption is traced to the fleshy union of angels and
+women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil, whether as misfortune
+or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (1 Sam. xviii. 10; 2 Sam.
+xxiv. 1; 1 Kings xxii. 20; Isa. vi. 10, lxiii. 17). After the Exile
+there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence by the
+introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all
+evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of
+God and man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands
+as the adversary of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by
+Yahweh for desiring that Jerusalem should be further punished.
+In the book of Job he presents himself before the Lord among the
+sons of God (ii. 1), yet he is represented both as accuser and tempter.
+He disbelieves in Job's integrity, and desires him to be so tried that
+he may fall into sin. While, according to 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, God himself
+tests David in regard to the numbering of the people, according to 1
+Chron. <span class="correction" title="replaced comma with a period">xxi.</span> 1 it is Satan who tempts him.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the conception continued in later Judaism, which was
+probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism. It is doubtful,
+however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book of Tobit is the same as
+the A&#x113;shma Da&#x113;wa of the Bundahesh. He is the evil spirit who slew
+the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8), and the name probably means
+"Destroyer." In the book of Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a
+rival kingdom of evil, but here are also mentioned Satans, who are
+distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function,
+to tempt, to accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly
+(Ecclesiasticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii.
+(Wisdom ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom
+lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14); Gen. iii. is probably
+referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, "a serpent speaking with the
+words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert wisdom." The <i>Book of
+the Secrets of Enoch</i> not only identifies Satan with the Serpent, but
+also describes his revolt against God, and expulsion from heaven. In the
+Jewish <i>Targums</i> Sammael, "the highest angel that stands before God's
+throne, caused the serpent to seduce the woman"; he coalesces with
+Satan, and has inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is
+ascribed to a union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's
+standing before God he is greatly feared.</p>
+
+<p>This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced in the
+New Testament. Satan is the <span class="grk"
+title="diabolos">&delta;&iota;&#x3ac;&beta;&omicron;&lambda;&omicron;&sigmaf;</span>
+(Matt. xiii. 39; John xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10),
+slanderer or accuser, the <span
+class="grk" title="peirazôn">&pi;&epsilon;&iota;&rho;&#x3ac;&zeta;&omega;&nu;</span> (Matt.
+iv. 3; 1 Thess. iii. 5), the tempter, the <span class="grk"
+title="ponêros">&pi;&omicron;&nu;&eta;&rho;&#x3cc;&sigmaf;</span> (Matt. v. 37;
+John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil one, and the <span class="grk"
+title="echthros">&#7952;&chi;&theta;&rho;&#x3cc;&sigmaf;</span> (Matt. xiii.
+39), the enemy. He is apparently identified with Beelzebub (or
+Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26, 27. Jesus appears to recognize the
+existence of demons belonging to a kingdom of evil under the leadership
+of Satan "the prince of demons" (Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in
+demonic possessions it is his function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 11,
+vi. 7; Luke x. 17-20). But he himself conquers Satan in resisting his
+temptations (Matt. iv. 1-11). Simon is warned against him, and Judas
+yields to him as tempter (Luke xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's cures
+are represented as a triumph over Satan (Luke x. 18). This Jewish
+doctrine is found in Paul's letters also. Satan rules over a world of
+evil, supernatural agencies, whose dwelling is in the lower heavens
+(Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince of the power of the air" (ii. 2).
+He is the tempter (1 Thess. iii. 5; 1 Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x.
+10), to whom the offender is to be handed over for bodily destruction
+(v. 5), identified with the serpent (Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and
+probably with Beliar or Belial (vi. 15); and the surrender of man to him
+brought death into the world (Rom. v. 17). Paul's own "stake in the
+flesh" is Satan's messenger (2 Cor. xii. 7). According to Hebrews
+Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by dying (ii. 14). Revelation
+describes the war in heaven between God with his angels and Satan or
+the dragon, the "old serpent," the deceiver of the whole world (xii. 9),
+with his hosts of darkness. After the overthrow of the Beast and the
+kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned in the bottomless pit a thousand
+years (xx. 2). Again loosed to deceive the nations, he is finally cast
+into the lake of fire and brimstone (xx. 10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2
+Peter ii. 4). In John's Gospel and Epistles Satan is opposed to Christ.
+Sinner and murderer from the beginning (1 John iii. 8) and liar by
+nature (John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin (viii. 34), causes death
+(verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30), but has no power over
+Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. 11; 1 John v. 18). He will be
+destroyed by Christ with all his works (John xvi. 33; 1 John iii. 8).</p>
+
+<p>In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic Age "the
+present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon, was just as
+generally presupposed as man's need of redemption, which was regarded as
+a result of that dominion. The tenacity of this belief may be explained
+among other things by the living impression of the polytheism that
+surrounded the communities on every side. By means of this assumption
+too, humanity seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for
+redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range"
+(Harnack's <i>History of Dogma</i>, i. p. 181). While Christ's First Advent
+delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow would be
+completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics held that "the present
+world sprang from a fall of man, or from an undertaking hostile to God,
+and is, therefore, the product of an evil or intermediate being" (p.
+257). Some taught that while the future had been assigned by God to
+Christ, the devil had received the present age (p. 309). The fathers
+traced all doctrines not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and
+the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil
+transforming himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes
+Satan's fall to "pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation"; and
+traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in resisting his
+temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline passages, represents
+the death of Christ "as a ransom paid to the 'apostasy' for men who had
+fallen into captivity" (ii. 290). He does not admit that Satan has any
+lawful claim on man, or that God practised a deceit on him, as later
+fathers taught. This theory of the <i>atonement</i> was formulated by Origen.
+"By his successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God
+offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped, as
+Christ overcame both him and death" (p. 367). It was held by Gregory of
+Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase <i>pia fraus</i>, Augustine, Leo I., and
+Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst form. "The humanity of Christ
+was the bait; the fish, the devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging
+on the invisible hook, Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the
+relation of the work of Christ to Satan retires into the background,
+Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view.
+It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the Lombard
+asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard represents man's
+bondage to Satan "as righteously permitted as a just retribution for
+sin," he being "the executioner of the divine justice." Another theory
+of Origen's found less acceptance. The devil, as a being resulting from
+God's will, cannot always remain a devil. The possibility of his
+redemption, however, was in the 5th century branded as a heresy. Persian
+dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the doctrine
+of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy views of
+Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to this
+influence. Mani taught that Satan with his demons, sprung from the
+kingdom of darkness, attacked the realm of light, the earth, defeated
+man sent against him by the God of light, but was overthrown by the God
+of light, who then delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). "During the
+middle ages," says Tulloch, "the belief in the devil was
+absorbing&mdash;saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant
+conflict with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the
+13th to the 15th century, passed into Protestantism. Luther <span class="pagenum"><a name="page123"></a>[Page 123]</span>
+was always conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan. "As I
+found he was about to begin again," says Luther, "I gathered together my
+books, and got into bed. Another time in the night I heard him above my
+cell walking on the cloister, but as I knew it was the devil I paid no
+attention to him and went to sleep." He held that this world will pass
+away with its pleasures, as there can be no real improvement in it, for
+the devil continues in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii.
+191). I. A. Dorner (<i>Christian Doctrine</i>, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant
+doctrine as follows:&mdash;"He is brought into relation with natural
+sinfulness, and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to
+him. The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery to
+Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the
+extra-Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and by his
+word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating anything is
+also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting substances is
+conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judgment that his power is
+wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered up to eternal punishment."
+This belief in the devil was specially strong in Scotland among both
+clergy and laity in the 17th century. "The devil was always and
+literally at hand," says Buckle, "he was haunting them, speaking to
+them, and tempting them. Go where they would he was there."</p>
+
+<p>In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on
+this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of demonic possession, and
+held that Christ in his language accommodated himself to the views of
+the sick whom he was seeking to cure. Kant regarded the devil as a
+personification of the radical evil in man. Daub in his <i>Judas
+Ishcarioth</i> argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute evil, and
+the absolute evil as real must be in a person. Schelling regarded the
+devil as, not a person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the
+freedom of man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the
+common belief. "The problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in
+Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self-knowledge." Dorner has
+formulated a theory which explains the development of the conception of
+Satan in the Holy Scriptures as in correspondence with an evolution in
+the character of Satan. "Satan appears in Scripture under four leading
+characters:&mdash;first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to
+decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts
+criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine, which
+brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he is described,
+especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of God and man." He
+supposes "a change in Satan in the course of the history of the divine
+revelation, in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn
+enemy of God and man, especially in the New Testament times, in which,
+on the other hand, his power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues
+that "the world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits
+breaches everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance" (pp. 99, 102).
+H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. "The evil
+principle," he says, "has in itself no personality, but attains a
+progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no individual
+personality, save only in individual creatures, who in an especial
+manner make themselves its organs; but among these is one creature in
+whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and
+head of the kingdom of evil" (<i>Dogmatics</i>, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no
+place in his constructive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but
+recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another
+constitutes a kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E.
+Garvie, <i>The Ritschlian Theology</i>, p. 304). Kaftan affirms that a
+"doctrine about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as
+faith can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the
+dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left to the
+immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will on account of
+the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would be arrogant to wish
+to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the thought that Satan also
+stands under the commission of the Almighty God, and that no one must
+suppose that by leading back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get
+rid of his own guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith"
+(<i>Dogmatik</i>, p. 348). In the book entitled <i>Evil and Evolution</i> there is
+"an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient
+mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil is best
+explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan, who in the
+process of evolution interferes with the divine designs, an interference
+which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible.
+Satan is, however, held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom
+been estranged from, and opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be
+conquered by moral means. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic
+possession maintains that "the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son
+of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession" (p.
+150), and argues that, as "the Incarnation indicated the establishment
+of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took place "a counter
+movement among the powers of darkness," of which "genuine demonic
+possession was one of the manifestations" (p. 249).</p>
+
+<p>Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently affirmed
+that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an essential
+article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an indispensable
+element of Christian experience. On the one hand science has so
+explained many of the processes of outer nature and of the inner life of
+man as to leave no room for Satanic agency. On the other hand the modern
+view of the inspiration of the Scriptures does not necessitate the
+acceptance of the doctrine of the Scriptures on this subject as finally
+and absolutely authoritative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter
+may be accounted for as either an accommodation to the views of those
+with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the limitation
+of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the Incarnation, for it
+cannot be contended that as revealer of God and redeemer of men it was
+imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in
+this respect. The possibility of the existence of evil spirits,
+organized under one leader Satan to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be
+denied; the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may,
+however, be doubted; the necessity of any such belief for Christian
+thought and life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Demonology</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Possession</a></span>.)</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(A. E. G.*)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVIZES,</b> a market town and municipal borough in the Devizes
+parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by S. of London
+by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6532. Its castle was built on
+a tongue of land flanked by two deep ravines, and behind this the town
+grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its
+main streets, in which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate
+from the market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord
+Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town on the N.,
+passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-nine locks. St
+John's church, one of the most interesting in Wiltshire, is cruciform,
+with a massive central tower, based upon two round and two pointed
+arches. It was originally Norman of the 12th century, and the chancel
+arch and low vaulted chancel, in this style, are very fine. In the
+interior several ancient monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are
+preserved, besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich
+ceilings of oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly
+Norman, but was rebuilt in the 15th and again in the 19th century. Its
+lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof, and the
+south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves its Norman mouldings.
+The woollen industries of Devizes have lost their prosperity; but there
+is a large grain trade, with engineering works, breweries, and
+manufactures of silk, snuff, tobacco and agricultural implements. The
+town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors.
+Area, 906 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Devizes (<i>Divisis</i>, <i>la Devise</i>, <i>De Vies</i>) does not appear in any
+historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the
+construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger, bishop of
+Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important political centre,
+and led to its speedy development. After the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"></a>[Page 124]</span> disgrace of
+Roger in 1139 the castle was seized by the Crown; in the 14th century it
+formed part of the dowry of the queens of England, and figured
+prominently in history until its capture and demolition by Cromwell in
+the Civil War of the 17th century. Devizes became a borough by
+prescription, and the first charter from Matilda, confirmed by
+successive later sovereigns, merely grants exemption from certain tolls
+and the enjoyment of undisturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause
+conferring on the town the liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II.
+instituted a coroner. A gild merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward
+II. and Edward III., and in 1614 was divided into the three companies of
+drapers, mercers and leathersellers. The present governing charters were
+issued by James I. and Charles I., the latter being little more than a
+confirmation of the former, which instituted a common council consisting
+of a mayor, a town clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses. These
+charters were surrendered to Charles II., and a new one was conferred by
+James II., but abandoned three years later in favour of the original
+grant. Devizes returned two members to parliament from 1295, until
+deprived of one member by the Representation of the People Act of 1867,
+and of the other by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The woollen
+manufacture was the staple industry of the town from the reign of Edward
+III. until the middle of the 18th century, when complaints as to the
+decay of trade began to be prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth the
+market was held on Monday, and there were two annual fairs at the feasts
+of the Purification of the Virgin and the Decollation of John the
+Baptist. The market was transferred to Thursday in the next reign, and
+the fairs in the 18th century had become seven in number.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Wiltshire</i>; <i>History of Devizes</i>
+(Devizes, 1859).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVOLUTION, WAR OF</b> (1667-68), the name applied to the war which arose
+out of Louis XIV.'s claims to certain Spanish territories in right of
+his wife Maria Theresa, upon whom the ownership was alleged to have
+"devolved." (See, for the military operations, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch Wars</a></span>.) The war was
+ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVON, EARLS OF.</b> From the family of De Redvers (De Ripuariis; Riviers),
+who had been earls of Devon from about 1100, this title passed to Hugh
+de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340), the representative of a prominent family in
+the county (see Gibbon's "digression" in chap. lxi. of the <i>Decline and
+Fall</i>, ed. Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay
+(1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of Towton.
+It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward Courtenay (d. 1509), whose
+son Sir William (d. 1511) married Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too
+great proximity to the throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry
+(c. 1498-1539) was restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in
+1525 was created marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of
+William Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture
+on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son Edward
+(1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant in the Courtenay
+family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the
+House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon was restored to the peerage,
+still being held by the head of the Courtenays. The earlier earls of
+Devon were referred to occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the
+former variant has prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the
+earldom and dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Devonshire, Earls and Dukes of</a></span>, and also the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Courtenay</a></span>).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVONIAN SYSTEM,</b> in geology, the name applied to series
+of stratified fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed
+during the Devonian period, that is, in the interval of time
+between the close of the Silurian period and the beginning of the
+Carboniferous; it includes the marine Devonian and an estuarine
+Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The name "Devonian" was
+introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A. Sedgwick to
+describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W. Lonsdale
+had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be intermediate
+between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two workers
+also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the
+European continent, where already several others, F. Roemer,
+H. E. Beyrich, &amp;c., were endeavouring to elucidate the succession
+of strata in this portion of the "Transition Series." The labours
+of these earlier workers, including in addition to those already
+mentioned, the brothers F. and G. von Sandberger, A. Dumont,
+J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de Verneuil and H. von
+Dechen, although somewhat modified by later students, formed
+the foundation upon which the modern classification of the
+Devonian rocks is based.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/img124.jpg" width="650" height="507" alt="Distribution of Devonian Rocks" title="Distribution of Devonian Rocks" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p class="center"><i>Stratigraphy of the Devonian Facies.</i></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall that the
+Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central Europe that
+the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and here, too, their
+geological position was first indicated by the founders of the system,
+Sedgwick and Murchison.</p>
+
+<p><i>Continental Europe.</i>&mdash;Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the centre
+of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south of Belgium
+across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best known from the
+picturesque gorges which have been cut through them by the Rhine below
+Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves. They reappear from under younger
+formations in Brittany, in the Harz and Thuringia, and are exposed in
+Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, North Moravia and eastern Galicia. The
+principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical areas are
+indicated in Table I.</p>
+
+<p>This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata,
+is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet
+represents the <i>Stringocephalus</i> limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards
+into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical
+modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general palaeontological
+characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony, Silesia,
+the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have been
+detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of
+the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods, lamellibranchs
+and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of the
+Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales, limestones
+and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but containing ores of
+silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other metals, may be referable
+to the Devonian system.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of a vast
+thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional seams of
+limestone, and in particular with one thick central calcareous zone.
+These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by numerous
+broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (<i>Phacops</i>,
+<i>Homalonotus</i>, &amp;c.) which, though generically like those of the
+Silurian system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous zone
+abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous brachiopods. In
+the highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods (<i>Clymenia</i>) occurs
+in some of the limestones, while the shales are crowded with a small but
+characteristic ostracod crustacean (<i>Cypridina</i>). Here and there traces
+of fishes have been found, more especially in the Eifel, but seldom in
+such a state of preservation as to warrant their being assigned to any
+definite place in the zoological scale. Subsequently, however, E.
+Beyrich has described from Gerolstein in the Eifel an undoubted species
+of <i>Pterichthys</i>, which, as it cannot be certainly identified with any
+known form, he names <i>P. Rhenanus</i>. A <i>Coccosteus</i> has been described by
+F. A. Roemer from the Harz, and still later one has been cited from
+Bicken near Herborn by V. Koenen; but, as Beyrich points out, there may
+be some doubt as to whether the latter is not a <i>Pterichthys</i>. A
+<i>Ctenacanthus</i>, seemingly undistinguishable from the <i>C. Bohemicus</i> of
+Barrande's Étage G, has also been <span class="pagenum"><a name="page125"></a>[Page 125]</span> obtained from the Lower
+Devonian "Nereitenschichten" of Thuringia. The characteristic
+<i>Holoptychius nobilissimus</i> has been detected in the Psammite de
+Condroz, which in Belgium forms a characteristic sandy portion of the
+Upper Devonian rocks. These are interesting facts, as helping to link
+the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone types together. But they are as yet
+too few and unsupported to warrant any large deduction as to the
+correlations between these types.</p>
+
+<p>It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red
+Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones
+and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the fish-bearing
+sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was
+shown in the great work <i>Russia and the Ural Mountains</i> by Murchison,
+De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper
+Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent
+of surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development
+arises not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal
+character of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described elsewhere,
+they remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they
+were originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they
+present but a meagre representative of the massive Devonian greywacke
+and limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of
+Britain. Yet vast though the area is over which they form the
+surface rock, it is probably only a small portion of their total extent;
+for they are found turned up from under the newer formations along
+the flank of the Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread
+continuously across the whole breadth of Russia in Europe. Though
+almost everywhere undisturbed, they afford evidence of some
+terrestrial oscillation between the time of their formation and that
+of the Silurian rocks on which they rest, for they are found gradually
+to overlap Upper and Lower Silurian formations.</p>
+
+<p class="center sc t">Table I.</p>
+
+<table style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-bottom: 2em;" title="TABLE I."
+summary="TABLE I.">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Stages.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Ardennes.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Rhineland.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Brittany and <br />Normandy.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Bohemia.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Harz.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Upper <br />Devonian.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Famennienc <br />
+         &nbsp;(<i>Clymenia</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;beds).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestone of Etr&oelig;ungt.<br />
+         Psammites of Condroz <br />
+         &nbsp;(sandy series). <br />
+         Slates of Famenne <br />
+         &nbsp;(shaly series).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Cypridina</i> slates. <br />
+         Pön sandstone (Sauerland). <br />
+         Crumbly limestone (Kramen- <br />
+         &nbsp;zelkalk) with <i>Clymenia</i>. <br />
+         Neheim slates in Sauerland, <br />
+         &nbsp;and diabases, tuffs, &amp;c., in <br />
+         &nbsp;Dillmulde, &amp;c.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates of Rostellec.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         &nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Cypridina</i> slates. <br />
+         <i>Clymenia</i> limestone <br />
+         &nbsp;and limestone of <br />
+         &nbsp;Altenau.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Frasnien <br />
+         (<i>Intumes</i>- <br />
+         <i>cens</i> beds).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates of Matagne. <br />
+         Limestones, marls and <br />
+         &nbsp;shale of Frasne, and <br />
+         &nbsp;red marble of <br />
+         &nbsp;Flanders.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Adorf limestone of Waldeck <br />
+         &nbsp;and shales with <i>Goniatites</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;(Eifel and Aix) = <br />
+         &nbsp;Budesheimer shales. <br />
+         Marls, limestone and dolomite <br />
+         &nbsp;with <i>Rhynchonella cuboides</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;(Flinz in part). <br />
+         Iberg limestone of Dillmulde.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestone of Cop- <br />
+         &nbsp;Choux and green <br />
+         &nbsp;slates of Travuliors. <br /></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         &nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Iberg limestone and <br />
+         &nbsp;Winterberg lime- <br />
+         &nbsp;stone; also Adorf <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone and shales <br />
+         &nbsp;(Budesheim).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Middle <br />Devonian.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Givérien <br />
+         &nbsp;(<i>Stringo</i>- <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>cephalus</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;beds).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestone of Givet.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Stringocephalus</i> limestone, <br />
+         &nbsp;ironstone of Brilon and <br />
+         &nbsp;Lahnmulde. <br />
+         Upper Lenne shales, crinoidal <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone of Eifel, red <br />
+         &nbsp;sandstones of Aix. <br />
+         Tuffs and diabases of Brilon <br />
+         &nbsp;and Lahnmulde. <br />
+         Red conglomerate of Aix.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestones of <br />
+         &nbsp;Chalonnes, Montjean <br />
+         &nbsp;and l'Ecochère.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         H<sub>2</sub> (of Barrande) <br />
+         &nbsp;dark plant-bearing <br />
+         &nbsp;shales. <br />
+          <br />
+          <br />
+         H<sub>1</sub>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Stringocephalus</i> shales <br />
+         &nbsp;with Flaser and <br />
+         &nbsp;Knollenkalk. <br />
+         Wissenbach slates.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Eifélien<br />
+         &nbsp;(<i>Calceola</i><br />
+         &nbsp;beds).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Calceola slates and <br />
+         &nbsp;limestones of  Couvin. <br />
+         Greywacke with <i>Spirifer <br />
+         &nbsp;cultrijugatus</i>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Calceola</i> beds, Wissenbach <br />
+         &nbsp;slates, Lower Lenne beds, <br />
+         &nbsp;Güntroder limestone and <br />
+         &nbsp;clay slate of Lahnmulde, <br />
+         &nbsp;Dillmulde, Wildungen, <br />
+         &nbsp;Griefenstein limestone, <br />
+         &nbsp;Ballersbach limestone.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates of Porsguen, <br />
+         &nbsp;greywacke of Fret.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         G<sub>3</sub> Cephalopod <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone. <br />
+         G<sub>2</sub> Tentaculite <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone. <br />
+         G<sub>3</sub> Knollenkalk <br />
+         &nbsp;and mottled <br />
+         &nbsp;Mnenian <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Calceola</i> beds. <br />
+         Nereite slates, slates <br />
+         &nbsp;of Wieda and lime- <br />
+         &nbsp;stones of Hasselfeld.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Lower <br />Devonian.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Coblentzien</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Greywacke of Hierges. <br />
+         Shales and conglomer- <br />
+         &nbsp;ate of Burnot with <br />
+         &nbsp;quartzite, of Bierlé <br />
+         &nbsp;and red slates of <br />
+         &nbsp;Vireux, greywacke <br />
+         &nbsp;of Vireux, greywacke <br />
+         &nbsp;of Montigny, sand- <br />
+         &nbsp;stone of Anor.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Upper Coblentz slates. <br />
+         Red sandstone of Eifel, <br />
+         &nbsp;Coblentz quartzite, lower <br />
+         &nbsp;Coblentz slates. <br />
+         Hunsrück and Siegener <br />
+         &nbsp;greywacke and slates. <br />
+         Taunus quartzite and <br />
+         &nbsp;greywacke.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestones <br />
+         &nbsp;of Erbray, Brulon, <br />
+         &nbsp;Viré and Néhou, <br />
+         &nbsp;greywacke of Faou, <br />
+         &nbsp;sandstone of <br />
+         &nbsp;Gahard.</td>
+    <td class="allbw" rowspan="2">
+         F<sub>2</sub> of Barrande. <br />
+         White Konjeprus <br />
+         &nbsp;Limestone with <br />
+         &nbsp;Hercynian fauna.</td>
+    <td class="allbw" rowspan="2">
+         Haupt quartzite (of <br />
+         &nbsp;Lossen) = Rammelsberg <br />
+         &nbsp;slates, Schallker slates = <br />
+         &nbsp;Kahleberg sandstone. <br />
+         Hercynian slates and <br />
+         &nbsp;limestones.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Gédinnien</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates of St Hubert and <br />
+         &nbsp;and Fooz, slates of <br />
+         &nbsp;Mondrepuits, arkose of <br />
+         &nbsp;Weismes, conglomerate <br />
+         &nbsp;of Fèpin.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates of Gédinne.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates and quartzites <br />
+         &nbsp;of Plougastel.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact,
+first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite within
+themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red Sandstone
+types. In some districts they consist largely of limestones, in others
+of red sandstones and marls. In the former they present molluscs and
+other marine organisms of known Devonian species; in the latter they
+afford remains of fishes, some of which are specifically identical with
+those of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The distribution of these
+two palaeontological types in Russia is traced by Murchison to the
+lithological characters of the rocks, and consequent original
+diversities of physical conditions, rather than to differences of age.
+Indeed cases occur where in the same band of rock Devonian shells and
+Old Red Sandstone fishes lie commingled. In the belt of the formation
+which extends southwards from Archangel and the White Sea, the strata
+consist of sands and marls, and contain only fish remains. Traced
+through the Baltic provinces, they are found to pass into red and green
+marls, clays, thin limestones and sandstones, with beds of gypsum. In
+some of the calcareous bands such fossils occur as <i>Orthis striatula</i>,
+<i>Spiriferina prisca</i>, <i>Leptaena productoides</i>, <i>Spirifer calcaratus</i>,
+<i>Spirorbis omphaloides</i> and <i>Orthoceras subfusiforme</i>. In the higher
+beds <i>Holoptychius</i> and other well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone
+occur. Followed still farther to the south, as far as the watershed
+between Orel and Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red colour and
+sandy character, and become thin-bedded yellow limestones, and dolomites
+with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt deposits are indicated by
+occasional saline springs. It is evident <span class="pagenum"><a name="page126"></a>[Page 126]</span> that the
+geographical conditions of the Russian area during the Devonian period
+must have closely resembled those of the Rhine basin and central England
+during the Triassic period. The Russian Devonian rocks have been
+classified in Table II. There is an unquestionable passage of the
+uppermost Devonian rocks of Russia into the base of the Carboniferous
+system.</p>
+
+<p class="center sc t">Table II.</p>
+
+<table style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-bottom: 2em;" title="TABLE II."
+summary="TABLE II.">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+         North-West Russia.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Central Russia.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Petchoraland.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Ural Region.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle"><span class="sc">Upper.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Red sandstone <br />
+         &nbsp;(Old Red).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestones with <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Spirifer Verneuili</i> and <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Sp. Archiaci</i>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestones with <i>Arca</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>oreliana</i> <br />
+         Limestones with <i>Sp.</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Verneuili</i> and <i>Sp.</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Archiaci</i>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Domanik slates and <br />
+         &nbsp;limestones with <i>Sp.</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Verneuili</i>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Cypridina</i> slates, <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Clymenia</i> limestones <br />
+         &nbsp;(Famennien). <br />
+         Limestones with <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Gephyoceras intumescens</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;and <i>Rhynchonella cuboides</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;(Frasnien).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Middle.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+         Dolomites and limestones <br />
+         with <br />
+         <i>Spirifer Anossofi</i>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+         Marl with <br />
+         <i>Spirifer Anossofi</i> <br />
+         and corals.</td>
+    <td class="allbw" rowspan="2">
+         Limestones and slates <br />
+         &nbsp;with Sp. Anossofi <br />
+         &nbsp;(Givétien). <br />
+         Limestones and slates with <br />
+         &nbsp;Pentamerus baschkiricus <br />
+         &nbsp;(Eifélien).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="allbw" style="text-align: center; " colspan="4">
+         Lower sandstone (Old Red).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle"><span class="sc">Lower.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+         Absent.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="allbw">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestones and slates of the <br />
+         Yuresan and Ufa rivers, <br />
+         slate and quartzite, <br />
+         marble of Byclaya and <br />
+         of Bogoslovsk, phyllitic <br />
+         schists and quartzite.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very different
+from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name "Hercynian" has
+been applied, and the correlation of the strata has been a source of
+prolonged discussion among continental geologists. A similar fauna
+appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia, in Brittany (limestone of Erbray)
+and in the Urals. The Upper Devonian of the Harz passes up into the
+Culm.</p>
+
+<p>In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is
+represented by <i>Clymenia</i> limestone and <i>Cypridina</i> slates with Adorf
+limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The middle
+division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaculite and Nereite
+shales and limestones below. The upper part of the Lower Devonian, the
+sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably upon Silurian rocks. In the
+Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones, the equivalents of the Iberg
+limestone, which attain an enormous thickness; these are underlain by
+coral limestones with fossils similar to those of the Konjeprus
+limestone of Bohemia; below these are shales and nodular limestones with
+goniatites. The Devonian rocks of Poland are sandy in the lower, and
+more calcareous in the upper parts. They are of interest because while
+the upper portions agree closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top
+of the Coblentzien upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red
+Sandstone fishes (<i>Coccosteus</i>, &amp;c.) are found. In France Devonian
+rocks are found well developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table,
+also in Normandy and Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the middle
+and upper divisions are known. In south France in the neighbourhood of
+Cabrières, about Montpellier and in the Montagne Noire, all three
+divisions are found in a highly calcareous condition. Devonian rocks are
+recognized, though frequently much metamorphosed, on both the northern
+and southern flanks of the Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they
+are extensively developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft.
+thick, all three divisions and most of the central European subdivisions
+are present. In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of Spain bear a
+marked resemblance to those of Brittany.</p>
+
+<p><i>Asia.</i>&mdash;From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have been
+traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai Mountains
+they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age with a fauna
+possessing Hercynian features. The same features are observed in the
+Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan. Well-developed
+quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of Yarkand and
+Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are widespread in China. Upper
+Devonian rocks are recorded from Persia, and from the Hindu Kush on the
+right bank of the Chitral river.</p>
+
+<p><i>England.</i>&mdash;In England the original Devonian rocks are developed in
+Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire these rocks
+consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south Devon there are,
+in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and intercalations of
+lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the stratigraphy in this region
+is a difficult matter, partly on account of the absence of good
+exposures with fossils, and partly through the disturbed condition of
+the rocks. The system has been subdivided as shown in Table III.</p>
+
+<p class="center sc t">Table III.</p>
+
+<table style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-bottom: 2em;" title="TABLE III."
+summary="TABLE III.">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         North Devon and West <br />
+         Somerset.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         South Devon.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle"><span class="sc">Upper.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Pilton group. Grits, slates <br />
+         &nbsp;and thin limestones. <br />
+         Baggy group. Sandstones <br />
+         &nbsp;and slates. <br />
+         Pickwell Down group. <br />
+         &nbsp;Dark slates and grits. <br />
+         Morte slates (?).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Ashburton slates. <br />
+         Livaton slates. <br />
+         Red and green <i>Entomis</i> slates <br />
+         &nbsp;(Famennien). <br />
+         Red and grey slates with <br />
+         &nbsp;tuffs. <br />
+         Chudleigh goniatite limestone <br />
+         &nbsp;Petherwyn beds (Frasnien).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle"><span class="sc">Middle.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Ilfracombe slates with <br />
+         &nbsp;lenticles of limestone. <br />
+         Combe Martin grits and <br />
+         &nbsp;slates.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Torquay and Plymouth <br />
+         &nbsp;limestones and Ashprington <br />
+         &nbsp;volcanic series. (Givétien <br />
+         &nbsp;and Eifélien.) <br />
+         Slates and limestones of <br />
+         &nbsp;Hope's Nose.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle"><span class="sc">Lower.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Hangman grits and slates. <br />
+         Lynton group, grits and <br />
+         &nbsp;calcareous slates. <br />
+         Foreland grits and slates.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Looe beds (Cornwall). <br />
+         Meadfoot, Cockington and <br />
+         &nbsp;Warberry series of slates <br />
+         &nbsp;and greywackes. (Coblentzien <br />
+         &nbsp;and Gédinnien.)</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the Rhenish and
+south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the Devonian rocks pass
+upward without break into the Culm.</p>
+
+<p><i>North America.</i>&mdash;In North America the Devonian rocks are extensively
+developed; they have been studied most closely in the New York region,
+where they are classified according to Table IV.</p>
+
+<p>The classification below is not capable of application over the states
+generally and further details are required from many of the regions
+where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but everywhere the broad
+threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland the following
+arrangement has been adopted&mdash;(1) Helderberg = Coeymans; (2) Oriskany;
+(3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings = Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire =
+Catskill in part. In the interior the Helderbergian is missing and the
+system commences with (1) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton, (4)
+Portage (and Genesee), (5) Chemung.</p>
+
+<p>The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the
+continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and in Canada
+(Gaspé, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal); an Appalachian belt,
+and a lower Mississippian region. The series as a whole is mainly
+calcareous (2000 ft. in Gaspé), and thins out towards the west. The
+fauna has Hercynian affinities. The Oriskany formation consists largely
+of coarse sandstones; it is thin in New York, but in Maryland and
+Virginia it is several hundred feet thick. It is more widespread than
+the underlying Helderbergian. The Lower Devonian appears to be thick in
+northern Maine and in Gaspé, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, but neither
+the palaeontology nor the stratigraphy has been completely worked out.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>[Page 127]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base, Esopus and
+Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the Appalachian
+region; but the Onondaga limestones are much more extensive. The Erian
+series is often described as the Hamilton series outside the New York
+district, where the <i>Marcellus</i> shales are grouped together with the
+Hamilton shales, and numerous local subdivisions are included, as in
+Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The rocks are mostly shales or slates, but
+limestones predominate in the western development. In Pennsylvania the
+Hamilton series is from 1500 ft. to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more
+calcareous western extension it is much thinner. The <i>Marcellus</i> shales
+are bituminous in places.</p>
+
+<p>The Senecan series is composed of shallow-water deposits; the Tully
+limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a layer of
+pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The bituminous
+Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.); 25 ft. on Lake
+Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage formation reach 1000 ft.
+to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the Chautauquan series the Chemung
+formation is not always clearly separable from the Portage beds, it is a
+sandstone and conglomerate formation which reaches its maximum thickness
+(8000 ft.) in Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly towards the west. In the
+Catskill region the Upper Devonian has an Old Red facies&mdash;red shales and
+sandstones with a freshwater and brackish fauna.</p>
+
+<p class="center sc t">Table IV.</p>
+
+<table style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-bottom: 2em; " title="TABLE IV."
+summary="TABLE IV.">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Groups.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Formations.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Probable <br />
+         European <br />
+         Equivalent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr style="background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; ">
+    <td  class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Upper.</span></td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Chautauquan.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Chemung beds with Catskill <br />
+         &nbsp;as a local facies.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Famennien.</td>
+  </tr>
+   <tr style="background-color: #d3d3d3; color: black; ">
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Senecan.</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca <br />
+         &nbsp;and Oneonta shales as local <br />
+         &nbsp;facies). <br />
+         Genesee shales. <br />
+         Tully limestone.</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Frasnien.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr style="background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; ">
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Middle.</span></td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Erian.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Hamilton shale. <br />
+         Marcellus shale.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Givétien.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr style="background-color: #d3d3d3; color: black; ">
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Ulsterian.</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Onondaga (Corniferous) <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone. <br />
+         Schoharie grit. <br />
+         Esopus grit (Caudagalli grit).</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Eifélien.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr style="background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; ">
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Lower.</span></td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Oriskanian.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Oriskany sandstone.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Coblentzien.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr style="background-color: #d3d3d3; color: black; ">
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Helderbergian.</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Kingston beds. <br />
+         Becraft limestone. <br />
+         New Scotland beds. <br />
+         Coeymans limestone.</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Gédinnien.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short
+distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated
+Devonian rocks in many parts of the continent. In the Great Plains this
+system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado, Utah,
+Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona; Devonian rocks occur
+between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains, in the Arbuckle Mountains
+of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the western interior limestones
+predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are found at Eureka, Nevada, beneath
+2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific coast metamorphism of the rocks is
+common, and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them.</p>
+
+<p>In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern
+region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along the course
+of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence they stretch out
+into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much that is now classed as
+Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil evidence to be Carboniferous.</p>
+
+<p><i>South America, Africa, Australia, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;In South America the
+Devonian is well developed; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and the
+Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about the junction of
+the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has affinities with the
+Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied to the South American
+Devonian is that of South Africa, where they are represented by the
+Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In Australia we find Lower Devonian
+consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks; and a Middle
+division with coral limestones in Victoria, New South Wales and
+Queensland; an Upper division has also been observed. In New Zealand the
+Devonian is well exposed in the Reefton mining field; and it has been
+suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may belong to this
+system.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald Geikie,
+"consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down
+conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off in
+the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while they
+are separated from each other by an unconformability." The Old Red
+strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated lakes or
+lagoons, approximately parallel to one another, with a general alignment
+in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas of deposit Sir A. Geikie has
+assigned convenient distinctive names.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a
+pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative of a prolonged
+interval of erosion. In the central valley between the base of the
+Highlands and the southern uplands lay "Lake Caledonia." Here the lower
+division is made up of some 20,000 ft. of shallow-water deposits,
+reddish-brown, yellow and grey sandstones and conglomerates, with
+occasional "cornstones," and thin limestones. The grey flagstones with
+shales are almost confined to Forfarshire, and are known as the
+"Arbroath flags." Interbedded volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites,
+diabases, with agglomerates and tuffs constitute an important feature,
+and attain a thickness of 6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A
+line of old volcanic vents may be traced in a direction roughly parallel
+to the trend of the great central valley. On the northern side of the
+Highlands was "Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than the foregoing
+lake, though its boundaries are not determinable. It lay over Moray
+Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended from Caithness
+to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even have stretched
+across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in Sognefjord and
+Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some parts of northern
+Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the Caithness flags, dark
+grey and bituminous, which, with the red sandstones and conglomerates at
+their base, probably attain a thickness of 16,000 ft. The somewhat
+peculiar fauna of this series led Murchison to class the flags as Middle
+Devonian. In the Shetland Islands contemporaneous volcanic rocks have
+been observed. Over the west of Argyllshire lay "Lake Lorne"; here the
+volcanic rocks predominate, they are intercalated with shallow-water
+deposits. A similar set of rocks occupy the Cheviot district.</p>
+
+<p>The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in Shropshire
+and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales, sandstones and
+marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few fossils, and no break has
+yet been found in the series. In Scotland this series was deposited in
+basins which correspond only partially with those of the earlier period.
+They are well developed in central Scotland over the lowlands bordering
+the Moray Firth. Interbedded lavas and tuffs are found in the island of
+Hoy. An interesting feature of this series is the occurrence of great
+crowds of fossil fishes in some localities, notably at Dura Den in Fife.
+In the north of England this series rests unconformably upon the Lower
+Old Red and the Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmorland, and
+also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey, a brecciated
+conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit in
+places, has often been classed with the Old Red Sandstone, but in parts,
+at least, it is more likely to belong to the base of the Carboniferous
+system. In Ireland the lower division appears to be represented by the
+Dingle beds and Glengariff grits, while the Kerry rocks and the
+Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the equivalents of the upper division. Rocks
+of Old Red type, both lower and upper, are found in Spitzbergen and in
+Bear Island. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the Old Red facies is
+extensively developed. The Gaspé sandstones have been estimated at 7036
+ft. thick. In parts of western Russia Old Red Sandstone fossils are
+found in beds intercalated with others containing marine fauna of the
+Devonian facies.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas.</i></p>
+
+<p>The two types of sediment formed during this period&mdash;the <i>marine</i>
+Devonian and the <i>lagoonal</i> Old Red Sandstone&mdash;representing as they do
+two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical
+condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubtless
+at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off no
+less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have records;
+but this period is the earliest in which these variations of environment
+are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break between the older
+Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous above is not strongly
+marked; and in certain areas a very close relationship can be shown to
+exist between the older Devonian and the former, and the younger
+Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, the life of
+this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality.</p>
+
+<p>The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are presented by
+corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant individually and varied
+in form; and they are so distinctive of the period that no Devonian
+species has yet been found either in the Silurian or in the
+Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present day, and contributed
+to the formation of limestone masses in Devonshire, on the continent of
+Europe and in North America. Rugose and tabulate forms prevailed; among
+the former the cyathophyllids (<i>Cyathophyllum</i>) were important,
+<i>Phillipsastraea</i>, <i>Zaphrentis</i>, <i>Acervularia</i> and the curious
+<i>Calceola</i> (<i>sandalina</i>), an operculate genus which has given
+palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis, for it has been regarded
+as a pelecypod (hippurite) and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page128"></a>[Page 128]</span> a brachiopod. The tabulate
+corals were represented by <i>Favosites</i>, <i>Michelinia</i>, <i>Pleurodictyum</i>,
+<i>Fistulipora</i>, <i>Pachypora</i> and others. <i>Heliolites</i> and <i>Plasmopora</i>
+represent the alcyonarians. Stromatoporoids were important reef
+builders. A well-known fossil is <i>Receptaculites</i>, a genus to which it
+has been difficult to assign a definite place; it has been thought to be
+a sponge, it may be a calcareous alga, or a curious representative of
+the foraminifera.</p>
+
+<p>In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their
+development: they compose three-quarters of the known fauna, and more
+than 1100 species have been described. Changes were taking place from
+the beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera;
+several Silurian forms dropped out, and new types were coming in. A
+noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the
+genus <i>Spirifer</i>, other spiriferids were <i>Ambocoelia</i>, <i>Uncites</i>,
+<i>Verneuilia</i>. Orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance, while
+the productids (<i>Productella</i>, <i>Chonetes</i>, <i>Strophalosia</i>) were
+increasing. The strophomenids were still flourishing, represented by the
+genera <i>Leptaena</i>, <i>Stropheodonta</i>, <i>Kayserella</i>, and others. The
+ancient <i>Lingula</i>, along with <i>Crania</i> and <i>Orbiculoidea</i>, occur among
+the inarticulate forms. Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is
+<i>Atrypa reticularis</i>. The athyrids were very numerous (<i>Athyris</i>,
+<i>Retzia</i>, <i>Merista</i>, <i>Meristella</i>, <i>Kayserina</i>, &amp;c.); and the
+rhynchonellids were well represented by <i>Pugnax</i>, <i>Hypothyris</i>, and
+several other genera. The important group of terebratulids appears in
+this system; amongst them <i>Stringocephalus</i> is an eminently
+characteristic Devonian brachiopod; others are <i>Dielasma</i>,
+<i>Cryptonella</i>, <i>Rensselaeria</i> and <i>Oriskania</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The pelecypod molluscs were represented by <i>Pterinea</i>, abundant in the
+lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by <i>Cucullella</i>,
+<i>Buchiola</i> and <i>Curtonotus</i> in the upper members of the system. Other
+genera are <i>Actinodesma</i>, <i>Cardiola</i>, <i>Nucula</i>, <i>Megalodon</i>,
+<i>Aviculopecten</i>, &amp;c. Gasteropods were becoming more important, but
+the simple capulid forms prevailed: <i>Platyceras</i> (<i>Capulus</i>),
+<i>Straparollus</i>, <i>Pleurotomaria</i>, <i>Murchisonia</i>, <i>Macrocheilina</i>,
+<i>Euomphalus</i>. Among the pteropods, <i>Tentaculites</i> was very abundant in
+some quarters; others were <i>Conularia</i> and <i>Styliolina</i>. In the Devonian
+period the cephalopods began to make a distinct advance in numbers, and
+in development. The goniatites appear with the genera <i>Anarcestes</i>,
+<i>Agoniatites</i>, <i>Tornoceras</i>, <i>Bactrites</i> and others; and in the upper
+strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the later ammonoids, began to take
+definite shape. While several new nautiloids (<i>Homaloceras</i>,
+<i>Ryticeras</i>, &amp;c.) made their appearance several of the older genera
+still lived on (<i>Orthoceras</i>, <i>Poterioceras</i>, <i>Actinoceras</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian sea, though
+they were relatively scarce in others; they include the genera
+<i>Melocrinus</i>, <i>Haplocrinus</i>, <i>Cupressocrinus</i>, <i>Calceocrinus</i> and
+<i>Eleuthrocrinus</i>. The cystideans were falling off (<i>Proteocystis</i>,
+<i>Tiaracrinus</i>), but blastoids were in the ascendant (<i>Nucleocrinus</i>,
+<i>Codaster</i>, &amp;c.). Both brittle-stars, <i>Ophiura</i>, <i>Palaeophiura</i>,
+<i>Eugaster</i>, and true starfishes, <i>Palaeaster</i>, <i>Aspidosoma</i>, were
+present, as well as urchins (<i>Lepidocentrus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct
+assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly lacustrine
+or lagoonal with a eurypteridian facies. The trilobites had already
+begun to decline in importance, and as happens not infrequently with
+degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to develop strange
+eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their genera. A number of
+Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period, and some gradually
+developed into new and distinctive forms; such were <i>Proëtus</i>, <i>Harpes</i>,
+<i>Cheirurus</i>, <i>Bronteus</i> and others. Distinct species of <i>Phacops</i> mark
+the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively, while the genus <i>Dalmania</i>
+(<i>Odontochile</i>) was represented by species with an almost world-wide
+range. The Ostracod <i>Entomis</i> (<i>Cypridina</i>) was extremely abundant in
+places&mdash;<i>Cypridinen-Schiefer</i>&mdash;while the true <i>Cypridina</i> was also
+present along with <i>Beyrichia</i>, <i>Leperditia</i>, &amp;c. The Phyllocarids,
+<i>Echinocaris</i>, <i>Eleuthrocaris</i>, <i>Tropidocaris</i>, are common in the United
+States. It is in the Old Red Sandstone that the eurypterids are best
+preserved; foremost among these was <i>Pterygotus</i>; <i>P. anglicus</i> has been
+found in Scotland with a length of nearly 6 ft.; <i>Eurypterus</i>,
+<i>Slimonia</i>, <i>Stylonurus</i> were other genera.</p>
+
+<p>Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and
+neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder believed he
+had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a stridulating organ was
+present. A species of <i>Ephemera</i>, allied to the modern may-fly, had a
+spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the Scottish Old Red Sandstone
+myriapods, <i>Kampecaris</i> and <i>Archidesmus</i>, have been described; they are
+somewhat simpler than more recent forms, each segment being separate,
+and supplied with only one pair of walking legs. Spiders and scorpions
+also lived upon the land.</p>
+
+<p>The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red strata,
+coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed by some of the
+forms, has caused the period to be described as the "age of fishes." As
+in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above, we find one
+assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater or brackish
+conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine
+Devonian; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there
+seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of living
+in either environment, whatever may have been the real condition of the
+Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious ostracoderms, a
+remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the characteristics of
+fishes, but more probably belonging to a distinct class of organisms,
+which appears to link the vertebrates with the arthropods. They had come
+into existence late in Silurian times; but it is in the Old Red strata
+that their remains are most fully preserved. They were abundant in the
+fresh or brackish waters of Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada,
+and are represented by such forms as <i>Pteraspis</i>, <i>Cephalaspis</i>,
+<i>Cyathaspis</i>, <i>Tremataspis</i>, <i>Bothriolepis</i> and <i>Pterichthys</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the lower members of the Old Red series <i>Dipterus</i>, and in the upper
+members <i>Phaneropleuron</i>, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes; and it is
+of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious forms still
+survive in the African <i>Protopterus</i>, the Australian <i>Ceratodus</i> and the
+South American <i>Lepidosiren</i>,&mdash;all freshwater fishes. Distantly related
+to the lung-fishes were the singular arthrodirans, a group possessing
+the unusual faculty of moving the head in a vertical plane. These
+comprise the wide-ranging <i>Coccosteus</i> with <i>Homosteus</i> and
+<i>Dinichthys</i>, the largest fish of the period. The latter probably
+reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with exceedingly powerful jaws
+provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were fairly prominent denizens
+of the sea; some were armed with cutting teeth, others with crushing
+dental plates; and although they were on the whole marine fishes, they
+were evidently able to live in fresher waters, like some of their modern
+representatives, for their remains, mostly teeth and large dermal
+spines, are found both in the Devonian and Old Red rocks. <i>Mesacanthus</i>,
+<i>Diplacanthus</i>, <i>Climatius</i>, <i>Cheiracanthus</i> are characteristic genera.
+The crossopterygians, ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of the
+fins, were represented by <i>Holoptychius</i> and <i>Glyptopomus</i> in the Upper
+Old Red, and by such genera as <i>Diplopterus</i>, <i>Osteolepis</i>,
+<i>Gyroptychius</i> in the lower division. The <i>Polypterus</i> of the Nile and
+<i>Calamoichthys</i> of South Africa are the modern exemplars of this group.
+<i>Cheirolepis</i>, found in the Old Red of Scotland and Canada, is the only
+Devonian representative of the actinopterygian fishes. The cyclostome
+fishes have, so far, been discovered only in Scotland, in the tiny
+<i>Palaeospondylus</i>. Amphibian remains have been found in the Devonian of
+Belgium; and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the same
+class (<i>Thinopus antiquus</i>) have been described by Professor Marsh from
+the Chemung formation of Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Life.</i>&mdash;In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone we
+find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In some
+regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they form
+thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently flourished around
+the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains were buried
+along with the other forms of life. Lycopods and ferns were the
+predominant types; and it is important to notice that both groups were
+already highly developed. The ferns include the genera <i>Sphenopteris</i>,
+<i>Megalopteris</i>, <i>Archaeopteris</i>, <i>Neuropteris</i>. Among the Lycopods are
+<i>Lycopodites</i>, <i>Psilophyton</i>, <i>Lepidodendron</i>. Modern horsetails are
+represented by <i>Calamocladus</i>, <i>Asterocalamites</i>, <i>Annularia</i>. Of great
+interest are the genera <i>Cordaites</i>, <i>Araucarioxylon</i>, &amp;c., which
+were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the Coniferae and the
+Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure markings, aquatic plants
+are not so well represented as might have been expected; <i>Parka</i>, a
+common fossil, has been regarded as a water plant with a creeping stem
+and two kinds of sporangia in sessile sporocarps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Physical Conditions, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Perhaps the most striking fact that is
+brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils is the
+gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took place quietly
+in every quarter of the globe shortly after the beginning of the period.
+While in most places the Lower Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian
+formations in a perfectly conformable manner, the Middle and Upper
+divisions, on account of this encroachment of the sea, rest
+unconformably upon the older rocks, the Lower division being
+unrepresented. This is true over the greater part of South America, so
+far as our limited knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North
+America, in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central
+Europe. Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the
+coast lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The
+known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas; no
+abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has pointed out the
+probability of a Eurasian sea province extending through Europe towards
+the east, across north and central Asia towards Manitoba in Canada, and
+an American sea province embracing the United States, South America and
+South Africa. At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land
+area caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before the
+beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe to eastern
+Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red Sandstone was formed.</p>
+
+<p>In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence of three
+zones of deposition: (1) A northern, Old Red, region, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page129"></a>[Page 129]</span>
+including Great Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and Spitzbergen;
+here the land was close at hand; great brackish lagoons prevailed, which
+communicated more or less directly with the open sea. In European
+Russia, during its general advance, the sea occasionally gained access
+to wide areas, only to be driven off again, during pauses in the
+relative subsidence of the land, when the continued terrigenous
+sedimentation once more established the lagoonal conditions. These
+alternating phases were frequently repeated. (2) A middle region,
+covering Devonshire and Cornwall, the Ardennes, the northern part of the
+lower Rhenish mountains, and the upper Harz to the Polish Mittelgebirge;
+here we find evidence of a shallow sea, clastic deposits and a
+sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern region reaching from Brittany to the
+south of the Rhenish mountains, lower Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here
+was a deeper sea with a more pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind
+that the above-mentioned regions are intended to refer to the time when
+the extension of the Devonian sea was near its maximum. In the case of
+North America it has been shown that in early and middle Devonian time
+more or less distinct faunas invaded the continent from five different
+centres, viz. the Helderberg, the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern
+Hamilton and the north-western Hamilton; these reached the interior
+approximately in the order given.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas had
+mingled one with another and a more generalized life assemblage had been
+evolved, we find many forms with a very wide range, indicating great
+uniformity of conditions. Thus we find identical species of brachiopods
+inhabiting the Devonian seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany,
+Russia, southern Asia and China; such are, <i>Hypothyris</i> (<i>Rhynchonella</i>)
+<i>cuboides</i>, <i>Spirifer disjunctus</i> and others. The fauna of the
+<i>Calceola</i> shales can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and
+Siberia; the <i>Stringocephalus</i> limestones are represented in Belgium,
+England, the Urals and Canada; and the (<i>Gephyroceras</i>) <i>intumescens</i>
+shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba.</p>
+
+<p>The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no violent crustal
+movements seem to have taken place, and while some changes of level
+occurred towards its close in Great Britain, Bohemia and Russia,
+generally the passage from Devonian to Carboniferous conditions was
+quite gradual. In later periods these rocks have suffered considerable
+movement and metamorphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and
+in the Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over
+the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly
+widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period. In the
+Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness (6000 ft.) of
+igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates
+and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle
+division. In west central Europe volcanic rocks are found at many
+horizons, the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs,
+<i>schalstein</i>. Felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the Middle Devonian of
+Australia. Contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the
+American Devonian, but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to
+be some.</p>
+
+<p>There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it is
+interesting to observe that local glacial conditions <i>may</i> have existed
+in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated
+boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other hand, the
+prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm
+temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas.</p>
+
+<p>The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some importance: in many
+of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead, copper, iron are
+exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in New Zealand, gold veins
+occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is found in China and a little coal in
+Germany, while the Upper Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of
+western Pennsylvania and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle
+division is oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central
+Tennessee, and in England the marls of the "Old Red" are employed for
+brick-making.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">References.</span>&mdash;The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is very
+extensive; important papers have been contributed by the following
+geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Béclard, E. W. Benecke, L.
+Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W. Dawson, A.
+Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Frech, J. Fournet, Sir A. Geikie,
+G. Gürich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch, A. von Koenen, Hugh
+Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de Rouville, C. Schuchert, T.
+Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E. Ussher, P. N. Wenjukoff, G. F.
+Whidborne, J. F. Whiteaves and H. S. Williams. Sedgwick and Murchison's
+original description appeared in the <i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i> (2nd series,
+vol. v., 1839). Good general accounts will be found in Sir A. Geikie's
+<i>Text-Book of Geology</i> (vol. ii., 4th ed., 1903), in E. Kayser's
+<i>Lehrbuch der Geologie</i> (vol. ii., 2nd ed., 1902), and, for North
+America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's <i>Geology</i> (vol. ii., 1906). See
+the <i>Index to the Geological Magazine</i> (1864-1903), and in subsequent
+annual volumes; <i>Geological Literature added to the Geological Society's
+Library</i> (London), annually since 1893; and the <i>Neues Jahrbuch für
+Min., Geologie und Paläontologie</i> (Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The
+U.S. Geological Survey publishes at intervals a <i>Bibliography and Index
+of North American Geology, &amp;c.</i>, and this (e.g. Bulletin 301,&mdash;the
+<i>Bibliog. and Index</i> for 1901-1905) contains numerous references for the
+Devonian system in North America.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(J. A. H.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVONPORT,</b> a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Devonshire,
+England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and Plymouth, the seat of one of
+the royal dockyards, and an important naval and military station. Pop.
+(1901) 70,437. It is situated immediately above the N.W. angle of
+Plymouth Sound, occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse
+Pool on the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great
+Western and the London &amp; South Western railways. The town proper was
+formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch excavated out of the
+limestone, but these are in great part demolished. Adjoining Devonport
+are East Stonehouse (an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice
+Town, the two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected in
+1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is distinguished by
+a Doric portico; while near it are the public library, in Egyptian
+style, and a conspicuous Doric column built of Devonshire granite. This
+monument, which is 100 ft. high, was raised in commemoration of the
+naming of the town in 1824. Other institutions are the Naval Engineering
+College, Keyham (1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899,
+the majority of the students being connected with the dockyard; the
+naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and the naval and
+military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was formerly defended by a
+battery (now a naval signalling station), stands the military residence,
+or Government House, occupied by the commander of the Plymouth Coast
+Defences; and near at hand is the principal naval residence, the naval
+commander-in-chief's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the
+Hamoaze to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in
+the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devonport, however,
+is the royal dockyard, originally established by William III. in 1689
+and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock. It is situated within the old
+town boundary and contains four docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham
+steamyard, situated higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and
+connected with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further
+extensions were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as
+Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard comprised two
+basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the southern 7 acres in area,
+and three docks, having floor-lengths of 295, 347 and 413 ft., together
+with iron and brass foundries, machinery shops, engineer students' shop,
+&amp;c. The new extensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 21st of
+February 1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in
+front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of 77 acres of
+mudflats lying below high-water mark. The scheme presented three leading
+features&mdash;a tidal basin, a group of three graving docks with entrance
+lock, and a large enclosed basin with a coaling depôt at the north end.
+The tidal basin, close to the old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long
+with a mean width of 590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth
+being 32 ft. at low water of spring tides. It affords access to two
+graving docks, one with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20&frac12; ft. of
+water over the sill, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>[Page 130]</span> the other with a length of 741 ft.
+and 32 ft. of water over the sill. Each of these can be subdivided by
+means of an intermediate caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an
+entrance to the closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the
+closed basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock.
+The closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft. long,
+measures 1550 ft. by 1000 ft. and has an area of 35&frac12; acres, with
+a depth of 32 ft. at low-water springs; it has a direct entrance from
+the Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The foundations of the walls are
+carried down to the rock, which in some places lies covered with mud 100
+ft. or more below coping level. Compressed air is used to work the
+sliding caissons which close the entrances of the docks and closed
+basin. A ropery at Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the
+navy.</p>
+
+<p>By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a parliamentary
+borough including East Stonehouse and returning two members. The ground
+on which it stands is for the most part the property of the St Aubyn
+family (Barons St Levan), whose steward holds a court leet and a court
+baron annually. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and
+forty-eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVONPORT, EAST</b> and <b>WEST</b>, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, situated on
+both sides of the mouth of the river Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of
+Hobart. Pop. (1901), East Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is
+regular communication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it
+ranks as the third port in Tasmania. A celebrated regatta is held on the
+Mersey annually on New Year's day.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF.</b> The Devonshire title, now in the
+Cavendish family, had previously been held by Charles Blount
+(1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson of the 4th Lord Mountjoy
+(d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he was created earl of Devonshire in
+1603 for his services in Ireland, where he became famous in subduing the
+rebellion between 1600 and 1603; but the title became extinct at his
+death. In the Cavendish line the 1st earl of Devonshire was William (d.
+1626), second son of Sir William Cavendish (q.v.), and of Elizabeth
+Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury. He was
+created earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was succeeded by
+William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by his son William
+(1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of the original members of
+the Royal Society, who married a daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">William Cavendish</span>, 1st duke of Devonshire (1640-1707), English
+statesman, eldest son of the earl of Devonshire last mentioned, was born
+on the 25th of January 1640. After completing his education he made the
+tour of Europe according to the custom of young men of his rank, being
+accompanied on his travels by Dr Killigrew. On his return he obtained,
+in 1661, a seat in parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became
+conspicuous as one of the most determined and daring opponents of the
+general policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee
+appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord treasurer
+Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for Derby, and made a privy councillor
+by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from the board with his friend Lord
+Russell, when he found that the Roman Catholic interest uniformly
+prevailed. He carried up to the House of Lords the articles of
+impeachment against Lord Chief-Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and
+illegal proceedings in the court of King's bench; and when the king
+declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of
+York, afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons that a bill
+might be brought in for the association of all his majesty's Protestant
+subjects. He also openly denounced the king's counsellors, and voted for
+an address to remove them. He appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his
+trial, at a time when it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice
+than a witness. After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof
+of his attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell in
+the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his escape.
+In <span class="correction" title="originally 'Novembr'">November</span> 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father.
+He opposed arbitrary government under James II. with the same
+consistency and high spirit as during the previous reign. He was
+withdrawn from public life for a time, however, in consequence of a
+hasty and imprudent act of which his enemies knew how to avail
+themselves. Fancying that he had received an insulting look in the
+presence chamber from Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance
+at court the king encouraged, he immediately avenged the affront by
+challenging the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking
+him with his cane. This offence was punished by a fine of £30,000, which
+was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely fortune. Not
+being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's bench, from which he
+was released only on signing a bond for the whole amount. This was
+afterwards cancelled by King William. After his discharge the earl went
+for a time to Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of
+a new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by Verrio,
+Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again brought him into
+prominence. He was one of the seven who signed the original paper
+inviting the prince of Orange from Holland, and was the first nobleman
+who appeared in arms to receive him at his landing. He received the
+order of the Garter on the occasion of the coronation, and was made lord
+high steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William on
+his visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington and duke of
+Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on the same day on which the
+head of the house of Russell was created duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote
+Macaulay, "the two great houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long
+been closely connected by friendship and by marriage, by common
+opinions, common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same
+day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to confer."
+His last public service was assisting to conclude the union with
+Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son, the marquis of
+Hartington, had been appointed among the commissioners by Queen Anne. He
+died on the 18th of August 1707, and ordered the following inscription
+to be put on his monument:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">Willielmus Dux Devon, <br />
+Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus, <br />
+Inimicus et Invisus Tyrannis.</p>
+
+<p>He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of Ormonde, and he
+was succeeded by his eldest son William as 2nd duke, and by the latter's
+son William as 3rd duke (viceroy of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's
+son William (1720-1764) succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the
+daughter and heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and Cork, who
+brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and from
+November 1756 to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly in order that
+Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of Newcastle, should be in
+power. His son William (1748-1811), 5th duke, is memorable as the
+husband of the beautiful Georgiana Spencer, duchess of Devonshire
+(1757-1806), and of the intellectual Elizabeth Foster, duchess of
+Devonshire (1758-1824), both of whom Gainsborough painted. His son
+William, 6th duke (1790-1858), who died unmarried, was sent on a special
+mission to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and
+became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was he who
+employed Sir Joseph Paxton at Chatsworth. The title passed in 1858 to
+his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of Burlington, as 7th duke, a
+man who, without playing a prominent part in public affairs, exercised
+great influence, not only by his position but by his distinguished
+abilities. At Cambridge in 1829 he was second wrangler, first Smith's
+prizeman, and eighth classic, and subsequently he became chancellor of
+the university.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Spencer Compton Cavendish</span>, 8th duke (1833-1908), born on the 23rd of
+July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke (then earl of Burlington) and his
+wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord
+Cavendish, as he then was, took his degree at Trinity College,
+Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to the special mission to Russia for
+the new tsar's accession; and in 1857 he was returned to parliament as
+Liberal member for North Lancashire. At the opening of the new
+parliament of 1859 the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page131"></a>[Page 131]</span> marquis of Hartington (as he had now
+become) moved the amendment to the address which overthrew the
+government of Lord Derby. In 1863 he became first a lord of the
+admiralty, and then under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the
+Russell-Gladstone administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he
+entered it as war secretary. He retired with his colleagues in July
+1866; but upon Mr Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he became
+postmaster-general, an office which he exchanged in 1871 for that of
+secretary for Ireland. When Mr Gladstone, after his defeat and
+resignation in 1874, temporarily withdrew from the leadership of the
+Liberal party in January 1875, Lord Hartington was chosen Liberal leader
+in the House of Commons, Lord Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W.
+E. Forster, who had taken a much more prominent part in public life, was
+the only other possible nominee, but he declined to stand. Lord
+Hartington's rank no doubt told in his favour, and Mr Forster's
+education bill had offended the Nonconformist members, who would
+probably have withheld their support. Lord Hartington's prudent
+management in difficult circumstances laid his followers under great
+obligations, since not only was the opposite party in the ascendant, but
+his own former chief was indulging in the freedom of independence. After
+the complete defeat of the Conservatives in the general election of
+1880, a large proportion of the party would have rejoiced if Lord
+Hartington could have taken the Premiership instead of Mr Gladstone, and
+the queen, in strict conformity with constitutional usage (though
+Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have had the
+preference), sent for him as leader of the Opposition. Mr Gladstone,
+however, was clearly master of the situation: no cabinet could be formed
+without him, nor could he reasonably be expected to accept a subordinate
+post. Lord Hartington, therefore, gracefully abdicated the leadership,
+and became secretary of state for India, from which office, in December
+1882, he passed to the war office. His administration was memorable for
+the expeditions of General Gordon and Lord Wolseley to Khartum, and a
+considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly
+responsible for the "betrayal of Gordon." His lethargic manner, apart
+from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in their
+minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government
+acted "too late"; but Gladstone and Lord Granville were no less
+responsible than he. In June 1885 he resigned along with his colleagues,
+and in December was elected for the Rossendale Division of Lancashire,
+created by the new reform bill. Immediately afterwards the great
+political opportunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr
+Gladstone's conversion to home rule for Ireland. Lord Hartington's
+refusal to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the
+chief of the new Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and
+influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved the
+first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera house, and
+also, in the House of Commons, moved the rejection of Mr Gladstone's
+Bill on the second reading. During the memorable electoral contest which
+followed, no election excited more interest than Lord Hartington's for
+the Rossendale division, where he was returned by a majority of nearly
+1500 votes. In the new parliament he held a position much resembling
+that which Sir Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the
+leader of a small, compact party, the standing and ability of whose
+members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally esteemed
+and trusted beyond any other man in the country, yet in his own opinion
+forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's offers to serve under him
+as prime minister (both after the general election, and again when Lord
+Randolph Churchill resigned) were declined, and Lord Hartington
+continued to discharge the delicate duties of the leader of a middle
+party with no less judgment than he had shown when leading the Liberals
+during the interregnum of 1875-1880. It was not until 1895, when the
+differences between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become
+almost obliterated by changed circumstances, and the habit of acting
+together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the death of
+his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's third ministry
+as president of the council. The duke thus was the nominal
+representative of education in the cabinet at a time when educational
+questions were rapidly becoming of great importance; and his own
+technical knowledge of this difficult and intricate question being
+admittedly superficial, a good deal of criticism from time to time
+resulted. He had however by this time an established position in public
+life, and a reputation for weight of character, which procured for him
+universal respect and confidence, and exempted him from bitter attack,
+even from his most determined political opponents. Wealth and rank
+combined with character to place him in a measure above party; and his
+succession to his father as chancellor of the university of Cambridge in
+1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the country. In the same year
+he had married the widow of the 7th duke of Manchester.</p>
+
+<p>He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council till
+the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on account of differences with
+Mr <a>Balfour</a> (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards free trade. As Mr
+Chamberlain had retired from the cabinet, and the duke had not thought
+it necessary to join Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in resigning a
+fortnight earlier, the defection was unanticipated and was sharply
+criticized by Mr Balfour, who, in the rearrangement of his ministry, had
+only just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish, to
+be secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the conclusion
+that while he himself was substantially a free-trader,<a name="FnAnchor_5" href="#Footnote_5"><sup>[1]</sup></a> Mr Balfour did
+not mean the same thing by the term. He necessarily became the leader of
+the Free Trade Unionists who were neither Balfourites nor
+Chamberlainites, and his weight was thrown into the scale against any
+association of Unionism with the constructive policy of tariff reform,
+which he identified with sheer Protection. A struggle at once began
+within the Liberal Unionist organization between those who followed the
+duke and those who followed Mr <a>Chamberlain</a> (q.v.); but the latter were
+in the majority and a reorganization in the Liberal Unionist Association
+took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a separate
+body. The duke then became president of the new organizations, the
+Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist Free Trade Club. In the
+subsequent developments the duke played a dignified but somewhat silent
+part, and the Unionist rout in 1906 was not unaffected by his open
+hostility to any taint of compromise with the tariff reform movement.
+But in the autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of
+cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and
+spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on the
+24th of March 1908.</p>
+
+<p>The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial magnate,
+and an Englishman with thoroughly national tastes for sport, his weighty
+and disinterested character made him a statesman of the first rank in
+his time, in spite of the absence of showy or brilliant qualities. He
+had no self-seeking ambitions, and on three occasions preferred not to
+become prime minister. Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he
+was not an orator, nor "clever"; and he lacked all subtlety of
+intellect; but he was conspicuous for solidity of mind and
+straightforwardness of action, and for conscientious application as an
+administrator, whether in his public or private life. The fact that he
+once yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly quoted as
+characteristic; but he combined a great fund of common sense and
+knowledge of the average opinion with a patriotic sense of duty towards
+the state. Throughout his career he remained an old-fashioned Liberal,
+or rather Whig, of a type which in his later years was becoming
+gradually more and more rare.</p>
+
+<p>There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as 9th duke by
+his nephew <span class="sc">Victor Christian Cavendish</span> (b. 1868), who had been Liberal
+Unionist member for West Derbyshire since 1891, and was treasurer of the
+household (1900 to 1903) and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>[Page 132]</span> financial secretary to the
+treasury (1903 to 1905); in 1892 he married a daughter of the marquess
+of Lansdowne, by whom he had two sons.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(H. Ch.)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_5" href="#FnAnchor_5">[1]</a> His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: "I believe that
+our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advantageous
+to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on
+which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any
+departure from it, for sufficient reasons."</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVONSHIRE</b> (<span class="sc">Devon</span>), a south-western county of England, bounded N.W. and
+N. by the Bristol Channel, N.E. by Somerset and Dorset, S.E. and S. by
+the English Channel, and W. by Cornwall. The area, 2604.9 sq. m., is
+exceeded only by those of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English
+counties. Nearly the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly. The
+county contains the highest land in England south of Derbyshire
+(excepting points on the south Welsh border); and the scenery, much
+varied, is in most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad
+uplands of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend
+into North Devon, and are still the haunt of red deer, and of the small
+hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dartmoor, the
+streams are rich in trout. Dartmoor, the principal physical feature of
+the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of moorland which rises in the
+southern part. Its highest point, 2039 ft., is found in the
+north-western portion. Its rough wastes contrast finely with the wild
+but wooded region which immediately surrounds the granite of which it is
+composed, and with the rich cultivated country lying beyond. Especially
+noteworthy in this fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful district
+of apple orchards, lying between the Erme and the Dart; the rich
+meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale of Exeter; and the red rocks
+near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a characteristic charm to the
+Devonshire landscape are the number of picturesque old cottages roofed
+with thatch; and the deep lanes, sunk below the common level of the
+ground, bordered by tall hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs.
+The north and south coasts of the county differ much in character, but
+both have grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by any in England
+or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of colour.
+As a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers flow seaward
+are densely wooded, and the country immediately inland is of great
+beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which constitutes the boundary between
+Devon and Cornwall, and flows into the English Channel, after forming in
+its estuary the harbours of Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers
+rise on Dartmoor. These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling
+into the English Channel, and the Taw flowing north towards Bideford
+Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives part of
+its waters from Dartmoor through the Okement, but itself rises in the
+angle of high land near Hartland point on the north coast, and makes a
+wide sweep southward. The lesser Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme
+and the Vealm, all running south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in
+Somersetshire; but the main part of its course is through Devonshire
+(where it gives name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the
+English Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the Creedy and the
+Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south, and
+the Axe, for part of its course, divides the counties of Devon and
+Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow; while the rivers
+of Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid course.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks in
+Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a series of slates, grits and
+greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian
+cherts as at Codden Hill; beds of "culm," an impure variety of coal, are
+found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at Bampton,
+Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western boundary. North
+and south of the Culm an older series of slates, grits and limestones
+appears; it was considered so characteristic of the county that it was
+called the <a>Devonian system</a> (q.v.), the marine equivalent of the Old Red
+Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It lies in the form of a trough with
+its axis running east and west. In the central hollow the Culm reposes,
+while the northern and southern rims rise to the surface respectively
+north of the latitude of Barnstaple and South Molton and south of the
+latitude of Tavistock. These Devonian rocks have been subdivided into
+upper, middle and lower divisions, but the stratigraphy is difficult to
+follow as the beds have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of
+contorted strata may be seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in
+the south, at Bolt Head and Start Point they have undergone severe
+metamorphism. Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but in
+the south important masses occur, in the middle and at the base of the
+upper subdivisions, about Plymouth, Torquay, Brixham and between Newton
+Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these limestones, which are
+largely quarried and when polished are known as Devonshire marbles.</p>
+
+<p>On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set of
+rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently towards
+the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of the younger
+rocks is a series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and marls which
+are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some geologists have been
+classed as Permian. These red rocks are beautifully exposed on the coast
+by Dawlish and Teignmouth, and they extend inland, producing a red soil,
+past Exeter and Tiverton. A long narrow strip of the same formation
+reaches out westward on the top of the Culm as far as Jacobstow. Farther
+east, the Bunter pebble beds are represented by the well-known pebble
+deposit of Budleigh Salterton, whence they are traceable inland towards
+Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper marls and sandstones, well
+exposed at Sidmouth, where the upper Greensand plateau is clearly seen
+to overlie them. The Greensand covers all the high ground northward from
+Sidmouth as far as the Blackdown Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the
+Chalk is seen, and at the latter place is a famous landslip on the
+coast, caused by the springs which issue from the Greensand below the
+Chalk. The Lower Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was
+formerly in considerable demand. At the extreme east of the county,
+Rhaetic and Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a "bone"
+bed bearing the remains of saurians and fish.</p>
+
+<p>Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm and
+Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times and subsequently exposed by
+denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity are abundant in the
+masses of diabase, dolerite, &amp;c., at Bradford and Trusham, south of
+Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington. Perhaps the most interesting
+is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent Tor near Tavistock. An Eocene
+deposit, the product of the denudation of the Dartmoor Hills, lies in a
+small basin at Bovey Tracey (see <a>Bovey Beds</a>); it yields beds of lignite
+and valuable clays.</p>
+
+<p>Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near Torquay
+and at other points, and a submerged forest lies in the bay south of the
+same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian limestone at Kent's
+Hole near Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are famous for the remains of
+extinct mammals; bones of the elephant, rhinoceros, bear and hyaena have
+been found as well as flint implements of early man.</p>
+
+<p><i>Minerals.</i>&mdash;Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near the
+north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been worked on Dartmoor (in stream
+works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much worked before the end
+of the 18th century. Tin occurs in the granite of Dartmoor, and along
+its borders, but rather where the Devonian than where the Carboniferous
+rocks border the granite. It is found most plentifully in the district
+which surrounds Tavistock, which, for tin and other ores, is in effect
+the great mining district of the county. Here, about 4 m. from
+Tavistock, are the Devon Great Consols mines, which from 1843 to 1871
+were among the richest copper mines in the world, and by far the largest
+and most profitable in the kingdom. The divided profits during this
+period amounted to £1,192,960. But the mining interests of Devonshire
+are affected by the same causes, and in the same way, as those of
+Cornwall. The quantity of ore has greatly diminished, and the cost of
+raising it from the deep mines prevents competition with foreign
+markets. In many mines tin underlies the general depth of the copper,
+and is worked when the latter has been exhausted. The mineral products
+of the Tavistock district are various, and besides tin and copper, ores
+of zinc and iron are largely distributed. Great quantities of refined
+arsenic have been produced at the Devon Great Consols mine, by
+elimination from the iron pyrites contained in the various lodes.
+Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood of Exeter, in the valley of the
+Teign and in N. Devon; but the most profitable mines, which are shallow,
+are, like those of tin and copper, in the Tavistock district.</p>
+
+<p>The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles, building
+stones, slates and potters' clay. Among building stones, the granite of
+Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried near Princetown,
+near Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor and elsewhere. The annual
+export is considerable. Hard traps, which occur in many places, are also
+much used, as are the limestones of Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The
+Roborough stone, used from an early period in Devonshire churches, is
+found near Tavistock, and is a hard, porphyritic elvan, taking a fine
+polish. Excellent roofing slates occur in the Devonian series round the
+southern part of Dartmoor. The chief quarries are near Ashburton and
+Plymouth (Cann quarry). Potters' clay is worked at King's Teignton,
+whence it is largely exported; at Bovey Tracey; and at Watcombe near
+Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of the finest quality. China clay or
+kaolin is found on the southern side of Dartmoor, at Lee Moor, and near
+Trowlesworthy. There is a large deposit of umber close to Ashburton.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>&mdash;The climate varies greatly in different
+parts of the county, but everywhere it is more humid <span class="pagenum"><a name="page133"></a>[Page 133]</span> than
+that of the eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The mean annual
+temperature somewhat exceeds that of the midlands, but the average
+summer heat is rather less than that of the southern counties to the
+east. The air of the Dartmoor highlands is sharp and bracing. Mists are
+frequent, and snow often lies long. On the south coast frost is little
+known, and many half hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles,
+geraniums and heliotropes, live through the winter without protection.
+The climate of Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places
+on this coast is very equable, the mean temperature in January being
+43.6° at Plymouth. The north coast, exposed to the storms and swell of
+the Atlantic, is more bracing; although there also, in the more
+sheltered nooks (as at Combe Martin), myrtles of great size and age
+flower freely, and produce their annual crop of berries.</p>
+
+<p>Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county is under
+cultivation; the cultivated area falling a little below the average of
+the English counties. There are, however, about 160,000 acres of hill
+pasture in addition to the area in permanent pasture, which is more than
+one-half that of the cultivated area. The Devon breed of cattle is well
+adapted both for fattening and for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept
+in great numbers on the hill pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief
+cattle-farming and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for
+two products of the dairy&mdash;the clotted cream to which it gives its name,
+and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats occupy about three times
+the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk of the acreage under green
+crops is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangold. Orchards occupy a
+large acreage, and consist chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every farm
+maintaining one for the manufacture of cider.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fisheries.</i>&mdash;Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable than those
+of Cornwall, large quantities of the pilchard and herrings caught in
+Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much of the fishing is carried on
+within the three-mile limit; and it may be asserted that trawling is the
+main feature of the Devonshire industry, whereas seining and driving
+characterize that of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice,
+soles, turbot, shrimps, lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with,
+besides herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After
+Plymouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are
+lesser stations in every bay and estuary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;The principal industrial works in the county
+are the various Government establishments at Plymouth and
+Devonport. Among other industries may be noted the lace-works
+at Tiverton; the manufacture of pillow-lace for which
+Honiton and its neighbourhood has long been famous; and the
+potteries and terra-cotta works of Bovey Tracey and Watcombe.
+Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh and
+Ashburton, and boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is
+employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &amp;c., in the
+great prison of Dartmoor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The main line of the Great Western railway, entering
+the county in the east from Taunton, runs to Exeter, skirts the coast as
+far as Teignmouth, and continues a short distance inland by Newton Abbot
+to Plymouth, after which it crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great
+bridge to Saltash in Cornwall. Branches serve Torquay and other seaside
+resorts of the south coast; and among other branches are those from
+Taunton to Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to Tavistock and
+Launceston. The main line of the London &amp; South-Western railway
+between Exeter and Plymouth skirts the north and west of Dartmoor by
+Okehampton and Tavistock. A branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple,
+Ilfracombe, Bideford and Torrington, while the Lynton &amp; Barnstaple
+and the Bideford, Westward Ho &amp; Appledore lines serve the districts
+indicated by their names. The branch line to Princetown from the
+Plymouth-Tavistock line of the Great Western company in part follows the
+line of a very early railway&mdash;that constructed to connect Plymouth with
+the Dartmoor prison in 1819-1825, which was worked with horse cars. The
+only waterways of any importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to
+Gunnislake (3 m. S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal,
+noteworthy as one of the oldest in England, for it was originally cut in
+the reign of Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The area of the ancient county is
+1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891 of 631,808, and 1901 of
+661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168 acres. The
+county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Barnstaple (pop.
+14,137), Bideford (8754), Dartmouth (6579), Devonport, a county borough
+(70,437), Exeter, a city and county borough (47,185), Torrington,
+officially Great Torrington (3241), Honiton (3271), Okehampton (2569),
+Plymouth, a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848), Tiverton
+(10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (4035). The other urban districts are
+Ashburton (2628), Bampton (1657), Brixham (8092), Buckfastleigh (2520),
+Budleigh Salterton (1883), Crediton (3974), Dawlish (4003), East
+Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485), Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy
+(1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivybridge (1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton
+(1641), Newton Abbot (12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495),
+Paignton (8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201),
+Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The county is in the western
+circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one court of quarter
+sessions, and is divided into twenty-four petty sessional divisions. The
+boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford, Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth, South
+Molton, and Tiverton have separate commissions of the peace and courts
+of quarter sessions, and those of Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay
+and Totnes have commissions of the peace only. There are 461 civil
+parishes. Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of
+small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro; and there are 516
+ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
+county. The parliamentary divisions are the Eastern or Honiton,
+North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North-western or
+Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes, Torquay, and Mid
+or Ashburton, each returning one member; and the county also contains
+the parliamentary boroughs of Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two
+members, and that of Exeter, returning one member.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun some time
+before the 8th century, for in 700 there existed at Exeter a famous
+Saxon school. By this time, however, the Saxons had become Christians,
+and established their supremacy, not by destructive inroads, but by a
+gradual process of colonization, settling among the native Welsh and
+allowing them to hold lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of
+the district which is now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must
+have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter, remained
+partly Welsh until the time of &AElig;thelstan. At the beginning of the 9th
+century Wessex was divided into definite <i>pagi</i>, probably corresponding
+to the later shires, and the Saxon Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name
+in 823, when a battle was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the
+people of Devonshire at Camelford. During the Danish invasions of the
+9th century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In 851 the
+invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of Devon, and in 878,
+when the Danes under Hubba were harrying the coast with a squadron of
+twenty-three ships, they were again defeated with great slaughter by the
+fyrd. The modern hundreds of Devonshire correspond in position very
+nearly with those given in the Domesday Survey, though the names have in
+many cases been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places
+of meeting. The hundred of Bampton formerly included estates west of the
+Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge. Ten of the modern
+hundreds have been formed by the union of two or more Domesday hundreds,
+while the Domesday hundred of Liston has had the new hundred of
+Tavistock severed from it since 1114. Many of the hundreds were
+separated by tracts of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire
+contained a vast extent, until in 1204 the inhabitants paid 5000 marks
+to have the county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor
+and Exmoor.</p>
+
+<p>Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric <span class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>[Page
+134]</span> of Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached to the newly
+created diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund constituted
+Devonshire a separate diocese, and placed the see at Crediton. About
+1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall were united, and in 1049
+the see was fixed at Exeter. The archdeaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple
+and Totnes are all mentioned in the 12th century and formerly comprised
+twenty-four deaneries. The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and
+Ottery have been created since the 16th century, while those of
+Tamerton, Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre have been abolished,
+bringing the present number to twenty-three.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an active hostility
+to Harold, and the easy submission which it rendered to the Conqueror
+accounts for the exceptionally large number of Englishmen who are found
+retaining lands after the Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman
+barons were known as honours, chief among them being Plympton,
+Okehampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of Plympton was
+bestowed in the 12th century on the Redvers family, together with the
+earldom of Devon; in the 13th century it passed to the Courtenay family,
+who had already become possessed of the honour of Okehampton, and who in
+1335 obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in the
+14th century on the Holland family, which became extinct in the reign of
+Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh, who was born at
+Budleigh, had long held considerable estates in the county.</p>
+
+<p>Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being at first
+hereditary, but afterwards held for one year only. In 1320 complaint was
+made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in the hands of the great
+lords, who did not appoint a sufficiency of bailiffs for their proper
+government. The miners of Devon had independent courts, known as
+stannary courts, for the regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary
+towns being Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient
+miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor.</p>
+
+<p>The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen by Baldwin
+de Redvers, and in the 14th and 15th centuries the French made frequent
+attacks on the Devonshire coast, being repulsed in 1404 by the people of
+Dartmouth. In the Wars of the Roses the county was much divided, and
+frequent skirmishes took place between the earl of Devon and Lord
+Bonville, the respective champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist
+parties. Great disturbances in the county followed the Reformation of
+the 16th century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say mass at
+Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county as a
+whole favoured the parliament, but the prevailing desire was for peace,
+and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities in Devonshire and
+Cornwall was agreed upon. Skirmishes, however, continued until the
+capture of Dartmouth and Exeter in 1646 put an end to the struggle. In
+1688 the prince of Orange landed at Torbay and was entertained for
+several days at Ford and at Exeter.</p>
+
+<p>The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time immemorial, and in the
+14th century mines of tin, copper, lead, gold and silver are mentioned.
+Agriculturally the county was always poor, and before the
+disafforestation rendered especially so through the ravages committed by
+the herds of wild deer. At the time of the Domesday Survey the salt
+industry was important, and there were ninety-nine mills in the county
+and thirteen fisheries. From an early period the chief manufacture was
+that of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manufacture
+of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire. About 1505
+Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an improved method of spinning
+into the county, and cider-making is mentioned in the 16th century. In
+1680 the lace industry was already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St
+Mary, and flax, hemp and malt were largely produced in the 17th and 18th
+centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295
+Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock, Torrington and Totnes were also
+represented. In 1831 the county with its boroughs returned a total of
+twenty-six members, but under the Reform Act of 1832 it returned four
+members in two divisions, and with ten boroughs was represented by a
+total of eighteen members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six
+members in three divisions, and four of the boroughs were disfranchised,
+making a total of seventeen members.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich as
+Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest interest, the
+most peculiar of which are the long parallel alignments of upright
+stones, which, on a small scale, resemble those of Carnac in Brittany.
+On Dartmoor the lines are invariably straight, and are found in direct
+connexion with cairns, and with circles which are probably sepulchral.
+These stone avenues are very numerous. Of the so-called sacred circles
+the best examples are the "Longstones" on Scorhill Down, and the "Grey
+Wethers" under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest cromlech is the
+"Spinster's Rock" at Drewsteignton, a three-pillared cromlech which may
+well be compared with those of Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or
+single upright stones; a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of
+the Teign, near the Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit
+of nearly every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on
+Heltor, above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably evident that these
+have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite, and
+that the dolmen in the Teign is due to the action of the river. Clusters
+of hut foundations, circular, and formed of rude granite blocks, are
+frequent; the best example of such a primitive village is at Batworthy,
+near Chagford; the type resembles that of East Cornwall. Walled
+enclosures, or pounds, occur in many places; Grimspound is the most
+remarkable. Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor
+in many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of great slabs of
+granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor. Scattered
+over the county are numerous large hill castles and camps,&mdash;all
+earthworks, and all apparently of the British period. Roman relics have
+been found from time to time at Exeter (<i>Isca Damnoniorum</i>), the only
+large Roman station in the county.</p>
+
+<p>The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period, dating
+from the middle of the 14th to the end of the 15th century. Exeter
+cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except the Norman
+towers) being very beautiful Decorated work. The special features of
+Devonshire churches, however, are the richly carved pulpits and chancel
+screens of wood, in which this county exceeded every other in England,
+with the exception of Norfolk and Suffolk. The designs are rich and
+varied, and the skill displayed often very great. Granite crosses are
+frequent, the finest and earliest being that of Coplestone, near
+Crediton. Monastic remains are scanty; the principal are those at Tor,
+Buckfast, Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings the
+houses of Wear Gilford, Bradley and Dartington of the 15th century;
+Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan), and Forde (Jacobean),
+deserve notice. The ruined castles of Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter,
+with its vast British earthworks, Berry Pomeroy (Henry III., with ruins
+of a large Tudor mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 15th
+century), are all interesting and picturesque.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;T. Westcote, <i>Survey of Devon</i>, written about 1630, and
+first printed in 1845; J. Prince, <i>Worthies of Devon</i> (Exeter, 1701);
+Sir W. Pole, <i>Collections towards a History of the County of Devon</i>
+(London, 1791); R. Polwhele, <i>History of Devonshire</i> (3 vols. Exeter,
+1797, 1798-1800); T. Moore, <i>History of Devon from the Earliest Period
+to the Present Time</i> (vols, i., ii., London, 1829-1831); G. Oliver,
+<i>Historic Collections relating to the Monasteries in Devon</i> (Exeter,
+1820); D. and S. Lysons, <i>Magna Britannia</i> (vol. vi., London, 1822);
+<i>Ecclesiastical Antiquities in Devon</i> (Exeter, 1844); Mrs Bray,
+<i>Traditions of Devonshire</i>, in a series of letters to Robert Southey
+(London, 1838); G. C. Boase, <i>Devonshire Bibliography</i> (London, 1883);
+Sir W. R. Drake, <i>Devonshire Notes and Notelets</i> (London, 1888); S.
+Hewett, <i>Peasant Speech of Devon</i> (London, 1892); R. N. Worth, <i>History
+of Devonshire</i> (London, 1886, new edition, 1895); C. Worthy, <i>Devonshire
+Parishes</i> (Exeter, 1887); <i>Devonshire Wills</i> (London, 1896); <i>Victoria
+County History, Devonshire</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVRIENT,</b> the name of a family of German actors.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Ludwig Devrient</span> (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the 15th of December
+1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page135"></a>[Page 135]</span> apprenticed to
+an upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employment, joined a
+travelling theatrical company, and made his first appearance on the
+stage at Gera in 1804 as the messenger in Schiller's <i>Braut von
+Messina</i>. By the interest of Count Brühl, he appeared at Rudolstadt as
+Franz Moor in Schiller's <i>Räuber</i>, so successfully that he obtained a
+permanent engagement at the ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played
+until 1809. He then received a call to Breslau, where he remained for
+six years. So brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of
+Shakespeare's plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation;
+yet that great artist was generous enough to recommend the young actor
+as his only possible successor. On Iffland's death Devrient was summoned
+to Berlin, where he was for fifteen years the popular idol. He died
+there on the 30th of December 1832. Ludwig Devrient was equally great in
+comedy and tragedy. Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard
+II. were among his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his <i>Reminiscences</i>
+has given a graphic picture of him and the "demoniac fascination" of his
+acting.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Z. Funck, <i>Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und
+Devrients</i> (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in <i>Devrient-Novellen</i> (3rd ed.,
+Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel <i>Devrient und Hoffmann</i> (Berlin,
+1873), and Eduard Devrient's <i>Geschichte der deutschen Schauspielkunst</i>
+(Leipzig, 1861).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother, a
+merchant, were also connected with the stage. <span class="sc">Karl August Devrient</span>
+(1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the 5th of April 1797. After being for
+a short time in business, he entered a cavalry regiment as volunteer and
+fought at Waterloo. He then joined the stage, making his first
+appearance on the stage in 1819 at Brunswick. In 1821 he received an
+engagement at the court theatre in Dresden, where, in 1823, he married
+Wilhelmine Schröder (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schröder-Devrient</a></span>). In 1835 he joined the
+company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His best parts were
+Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the 5th of April 1872. His brother
+<span class="sc">Philipp Eduard Devrient</span> (1801-1877), born at Berlin on the 11th of
+August 1801, was for a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to
+theatrical management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director of the court
+theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began a thorough
+reorganization of the theatre, and in the course of seventeen years of
+assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high position, but enriched
+its repertory by many noteworthy librettos, among which <i>Die Gunst des
+Augenblicks</i> and <i>Verirrungen</i> are the best known. But his chief work is
+his history of the German stage&mdash;<i>Geschichte der deutschen
+Schauspielkunst</i> (Leipzig, 1848-1874). He died on the 4th of October
+1877. A complete edition of his works&mdash;<i>Dramatische und dramaturgische
+Schriften</i>&mdash;was published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873).</p>
+
+<p>The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of Ludwig Devrient
+was <span class="sc">Gustav Emil Devrient</span> (1803-1872), born in Berlin on the 4th of
+September 1803. He made his first appearance on the stage in 1821, at
+Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's <i>Jungfrau von Orleans</i>. After a short
+engagement in Leipzig, he received in 1829 a call to Hamburg, but after
+two years accepted a permanent appointment at the court theatre in
+Dresden, to which he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief
+characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play), Marquis
+Posa (in Schiller's <i>Don Carlos</i>), and Goethe's Torquato Tasso. He acted
+several times in London, where his Hamlet was considered finer than
+Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on the 7th of August 1872.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Otto Devrient</span> (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on the 3rd of
+October 1838, was the son of Philipp Eduard Devrient. He joined the
+stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively in Stuttgart, Berlin
+and Leipzig, until he received a fixed appointment at Karlsruhe, in
+1863. In 1873 he became stage manager at Weimar, where he gained great
+praise for his <i>mise en scène</i> of Goethe's <i>Faust</i>. After being manager
+of the theatres in Mannheim and Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in
+1883 he was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884
+he was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and in
+1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died at Stettin on the
+23rd of June 1894.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEW.</b> The word "dew" (O.E. <i>deaw</i>; cf. Ger. <i>Tau</i>) is a very ancient one
+and its meaning must therefore be defined on historical principles.
+According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, it means "the moisture
+deposited in minute drops upon any cool surface by condensation of the
+vapour of the atmosphere; formed after a hot day, during or towards
+night and plentiful in the early morning." Huxley in his <i>Physiography</i>
+makes the addition "without production of mist." The formation of mist
+is not necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it necessarily
+prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead of
+water it is called hoarfrost. The researches of Aitken suggest that the
+words "by condensation of the vapour in the atmosphere" might be omitted
+from the definition. He has given reasons for believing that the large
+dewdrops on the leaves of plants, the most characteristic of all the
+phenomena of dew, are to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by
+the exuding of drops of water from the plant through the pores of the
+leaves themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases is the
+continuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the
+leaves with water from the soil. The process is set up in full vigour in
+the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions at the surface of
+the leaf in the hot sun, and continued after the sun has gone.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illustrating the
+formation of dew is the production of a deposit of moisture, in minute
+drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass or polished metal vessel by
+the cooling of a liquid contained in the vessel. If the liquid is water,
+it can be cooled by pieces of ice; if volatile like ether, by bubbling
+air through it. No deposit is formed by this process until the
+temperature is reduced to a point which, from that circumstance, has
+received a special name, although it depends upon the state of the air
+round the vessel. So generally accepted is the physical analogy between
+the natural formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner
+described, that the point below which the temperature of a surface must
+be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known as the "dew-point."</p>
+
+<p>In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at which, <i>by
+being cooled without change of pressure</i>, the air becomes saturated with
+water vapour, not on account of any increase of supply of that compound,
+but by the diminution of the capacity of the air for holding it in the
+gaseous condition. Thus, when the dew-point temperature has been
+determined, the pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere at the time
+of the deposit is given by reference to a table of saturation pressures
+of water vapour at different temperatures. As it is a well-established
+proposition that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not
+vary while the air is being cooled without change of its total external
+pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the pressure of
+water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced. Thus the artificial
+formation of dew and consequent determination of the dew-point is a
+recognized method of measuring the pressure, and thence the amount of
+water vapour in the atmosphere. The dew-point method is indeed in some
+ways a fundamental method of hygrometry.</p>
+
+<p>The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the question of
+the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse. So long as the
+dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter, but when the
+dew-point begins to approach the normal temperature of the human body
+the atmosphere becomes insupportable.</p>
+
+<p>The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists practically in
+determining the process or processes by which leaves, blades of grass,
+stones, and other objects in the open air upon which dew may be
+observed, become cooled "below the dew-point."</p>
+
+<p>Formerly, from the time of Aristotle at least, dew was supposed to
+"fall." That view of the process was not extinct at the time of
+Wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without reproach. To
+Dr Charles Wells of London belongs the credit of bringing to a focus the
+ideas which originated with the study of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>[Page 136]</span> radiation at the
+beginning of the 19th century, and which are expressed by saying that
+the cooling necessary to produce dew on exposed surfaces is to be
+attributed to the radiation from the surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an
+account of the theory of automatic cooling by radiation, which has found
+a place in all text-books of physics, in his first <i>Essay on Dew</i>
+published in 1818. The theory is supported in that and in a second essay
+by a number of well-planned observations, and the essays are indeed
+models of scientific method. The process of the formation of dew as
+represented by Wells is a simple one. It starts from the point of view
+that all bodies are constantly radiating heat, and cool automatically
+unless they receive a corresponding amount of heat from other bodies by
+radiation or conduction. Good radiators, which are at the same time bad
+conductors of heat, such as blades of grass, lose heat rapidly on a
+clear night by radiation to the sky and become cooled below the
+dew-point of the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>The question was very fully studied by Melloni and others, but little
+more was added to the explanation given by Wells until 1885, when John
+Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question whether the water of
+dewdrops on plants or stones came from the air or the earth, and
+described a number of experiments to show that under the conditions of
+observation in Scotland, it was the earth from which the moisture was
+probably obtained, either by the operation of the vascular system of
+plants in the formation of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and
+subsequent condensation in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some
+controversy was excited by the publication of Aitken's views, and it is
+interesting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which
+is of general application in meteorological questions, namely, that the
+physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological
+phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that is
+necessary to produce dew, nor even radiation from a body which does not
+conduct heat. The body must be surrounded by an atmosphere so fully
+supplied with moisture that the dew-point can be passed by the cooling
+due to radiation. Thus the conditions favourable for the formation of
+dew are (1) a good radiating surface, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) a
+clear sky, (4) thermal insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm
+moist ground or some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in
+the surface layers of air.</p>
+
+<p>Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in considering the
+supply of moisture we must take into consideration the ground as well as
+the air and concern ourselves with the temperature of both. Of the five
+conditions mentioned, the first four may be considered necessary, but
+the fifth is very important for securing a copious deposit. It can
+hardly be maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply
+of water by evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a supply is
+forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited process of
+condensation which deprives the air of its moisture and is therefore
+soon terminable, we have the process of distillation which goes on as
+long as conditions are maintained. This distinction is of some practical
+importance for it indicates the protecting power of wet soil in favour
+of young plants as against night frost. If distillation between the
+ground and the leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot
+fall much below the original dew-point because the supply of water for
+condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of heat by
+radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of water from the
+atmosphere, without renewal of the supply, the dew-point will gradually
+get lower as the moisture is deposited and the process of cooling will
+go on.</p>
+
+<p>In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large changes
+taking place within a small range of level. It is with the layer a few
+inches thick on either side of the surface that we are principally
+concerned, and for an adequate comprehension of the conditions close
+consideration is required. To illustrate this point reference may be
+made to figs. 1 and 2, which represent the condition of affairs at 10.40
+P.M. on about the 20th of October 1885, according to observations by
+Aitken. Vertical distances represent heights in feet, while the
+temperatures of the air and the dew-point are represented by horizontal
+distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of the
+diagram. The line marked 0 is the ground level itself, a rather
+indefinite quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical
+distance represented is from 4 ft. above ground to 1 ft. below ground,
+and the special phenomena which we are considering take place in the
+layer which represents the rapid transition between the temperature of
+the ground 3 in. below the surface and that of the air a few inches
+above ground.</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img136a.jpg" width="250" height="391" alt="Soil" title="Soil" /></td>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img136b.jpg" width="170" height="391" alt="Grass" title="Grass" /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and
+dry-bulb curve will cut. If they cut above the surface, mist will
+result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be formed. Below the
+surface, it may be assumed that the air is saturated with moisture and
+any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by
+distillation. It may be remarked, by the way, that such distillation
+between soil layers of different temperatures must be productive of the
+transference of large quantities of water between different levels in
+the soil either upward or downward according to the time of year.</p>
+
+<p>These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and moisture of
+the ground in the phenomena which have been considered. From the surface
+there is a continual loss of heat going on by radiation and a continual
+supply of warmth and moisture from below. But while the heat can escape,
+the moisture cannot. Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as
+it approaches the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the
+effect of the moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach.
+In the case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the
+left to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well
+shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to the same
+point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if there were so
+copious a condensation from the atmosphere as actually to make the air
+drier at the surface than up above. In diagram 1, for soil, the effect
+on air temperature and moisture is shown; the two lines converge to cut
+at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground
+line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the
+surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature
+gradient.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical countries,
+is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by gutters and spouts,
+but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total
+rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the
+Loango coast at 3 mm., but the estimate seems a high one. Measurements
+go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate
+annual deposit of dew is 1 in. to 1.5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1.2
+in. at Munich (Wollny), 0.3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1.6 in. at
+Tenbury, Worcestershire (Badgley).</p>
+
+<p>With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that of the
+maintenance of "dew ponds" is intimately associated. The name is given
+to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the
+south of England and elsewhere. Some of these ponds are very ancient, as
+the title of a work on <i>Neolithic Dewponds</i> by A. J. and G. Hubbard
+indicates. Their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend
+upon dew and not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of
+water supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been
+discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence seems to
+be against the view that dew deposits make any important contribution to
+the supply of water. The construction of dew ponds is, however, still
+practised on traditional lines, and it is said that a new dew pond has
+first to be filled artificially. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>[Page 137]</span> It does not come into
+existence by the gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;For <i>Dew</i>, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells (London,
+1818), also "An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella (London, 1866),
+Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni, <i>Pogg. Ann.</i> lxxi. pp.
+416, 424 and lxxiii. p. 467; Jamin, "Compléments à la théorie de la
+rosée," <i>Journal de physique</i>, viii. p. 41; J. Aitken, on "Dew," <i>Trans.
+Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh</i>, xxxiii., part i. 2, and "Nature," vol. xxxiii.
+p. 256; C. Tomlinson, "Remarks on a new Theory of Dew," <i>Phil. Mag.</i>
+(1886), 5th series, vol. 21, p. 483 and vol. 22, p. 270; Russell,
+<i>Nature</i>, vol 47, p. 210; also <i>Met. Zeit.</i> (1893), p. 390; Homén,
+<i>Bodenphysikalische und meteorologische Beobachtungen</i> (Berlin, 1894),
+iii.; <i>Taubildung</i>, p. 88, &amp;c.; Rubenson, "Die Temperatur-und
+Feuchtigkeitsverhältnisse in den unteren Luftschichten bei der
+Taubildung," <i>Met. Zeit.</i> xi. (1876), p. 65; H. E. Hamberg, "Température
+et humidité de l'air à différentes hauteurs à Upsal," <i>Soc. R. des
+sciences d'Upsal</i> (1876); review in <i>Met. Zeit.</i> xii. (1877), p. 105.</p>
+
+<p>For <i>Dew Ponds</i>, see Stephen Hales, <i>Statical Essays</i>, vol. i.,
+experiment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731); Gilbert White,
+<i>Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne</i>, letter xxix. (London,
+1789); Dr C. Wells, <i>An Essay on Dew</i> (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866);
+Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, "Prize Essay on Water Supply," <i>Journ. Roy.
+Agric. Soc.</i>, 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and Symons,
+"Evaporation from the Surface of Water," <i>Brit. Assoc. Rep.</i> (1869),
+sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, "Hydrogeology: One of the Developments of
+Modern Practical Geology," <i>Trans. Inst. Surveyors</i>, vol. ix. pp.
+153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise on Dew Ponds"
+(London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural History of Isolated Ponds,"
+<i>Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society</i>, vol. v. pp. 272-286
+(1892); Professor G. S. Brady, <i>On the Nature and Origin of Freshwater
+Faunas</i> (1899); Professor L. C. Miall, "Dew Ponds," <i>Reports of the
+British Association</i> (Bradford Meeting, 1900), pp. 579-585; A. J. and G.
+Hubbard, "Neolithic Dewponds and Cattle-Ways" (London, 1904, 1907).</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(W. N. S.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWAN</b> or <span class="sc">Diwan</span>, an Oriental term for finance minister. The word is
+derived from the Arabian <i>diwan</i>, and is commonly used in India to
+denote a minister of the Mogul government, or in modern days the prime
+minister of a native state. It was in the former sense that the grant of
+the <i>dewanny</i> to the East India Company in 1765 became the foundation of
+the British empire in India.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWAR, SIR JAMES</b> (1842-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), British chemist and physicist, was born at
+Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the 20th of September 1842. He was
+educated at Dollar Academy and Edinburgh University, being at the latter
+first a pupil, and afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then
+professor of chemistry; he also studied under Kekulé at Ghent. In 1875
+he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy
+at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and in 1877 he succeeded
+Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of chemistry in the Royal
+Institution, London. He was president of the Chemical Society in 1897,
+and of the British Association in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission
+on London Water Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee on
+Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir Frederick Abel.
+His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his earlier papers, some
+deal with questions of organic chemistry, others with Graham's
+hydrogenium and its physical constants, others with high temperatures,
+e.g. the temperature of the sun and of the electric spark, others again
+with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc. With
+Professor J. G. M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the
+physiological action of light, and examined the changes which take place
+in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With
+Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he began in
+1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later of which
+were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous
+constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid of low
+temperatures; and he was joined by Professor J. A. Fleming, of
+University College, London, in the investigation of the electrical
+behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures. His name is
+most widely known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the
+so-called permanent gases and his researches at temperatures approaching
+the zero of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry
+dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the "Latent Heat
+of Liquid Gases" before the British Association. In 1878 he devoted a
+Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to the then recent work
+of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and exhibited for the first time in
+Great Britain the working of the Cailletet apparatus. Six years later,
+in the same place, he described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and
+K. S. Olszewski, and illustrated for the first time in public the
+liquefaction of oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed
+for optical projection so that the actions taking place might be visible
+to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which the
+liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling
+agent, and he showed its employment for this purpose in connexion with
+some researches on meteorites; about the same time he also obtained
+oxygen in the solid state. By 1891 he had designed and erected at the
+Royal Institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint,
+and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and
+liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea
+occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of
+liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the
+influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to preserve
+the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to keep them so
+free from ebullition that examination of their optical properties
+becomes possible. He next experimented with a high-pressure hydrogen jet
+by which low temperatures were realized through the Thomson-Joule
+effect, and the successful results thus obtained led him to build at the
+Royal Institution the large refrigerating machine by which in 1898
+hydrogen was for the first time collected in the liquid state, its
+solidification following in 1899. Later he investigated the
+gas-absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and
+applied them to the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see
+<a>Liquid Gases</a>). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford medal upon
+him for his work in the production of low temperatures, and in 1899 he
+became the first recipient of the Hodgkins gold medal of the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, for his contributions to our knowledge of the
+nature and properties of atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first
+British subject to receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of
+Sciences, and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal
+of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904, and in 1908
+he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of Arts.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWAS,</b> two native states of India, in the Malwa Political Charge of
+Central India, founded in the first half of the 18th century by two
+brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into Malwa with the peshwa, Baji
+Rao, in 1728. Their descendants are known as the senior and junior
+branches of the family, and since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as
+a separate state, though the lands belonging to each are so intimately
+entangled, that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the
+main street are under different administrations and have different
+arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch has an
+area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the area of the
+junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWBERRY,</b> <i>Rubus caesius</i>, a trailing plant, allied to the bramble, of
+the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods, hedges and the
+borders of fields in England and other countries of Europe. The leaves
+have three leaflets, are hairy beneath, and of a dusky green; the
+flowers which appear in June and July are white, or pale rose-coloured.
+The fruit is large, and closely embraced by the calyx, and consists of a
+few drupules, which are black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an
+agreeable acid taste.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEW-CLAW,</b> the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the "false hoof" of
+the deer, sometimes also called the "nails." In dogs the dew-claw is the
+rudimentary toe or hallux (corresponding to the big toe in man) hanging
+loosely attached to the skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg.
+The origin of the word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested
+that, while the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw
+merely brushes the dew from the grass.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS,</b> Bart. (1602-1650), English antiquarian, eldest son
+of Paul D'Ewes of Milden, Suffolk, and of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page138"></a>[Page 138]</span> Cecilia, daughter
+and heir of Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born
+on the 18th of December 1602, and educated at the grammar school of Bury
+St Edmunds, and at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to
+the Middle Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623, when he
+immediately began his collections of material and his studies in history
+and antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne, daughter and heir of Sir
+William Clopton, of Luton's Hall in Suffolk, through whom he obtained a
+large addition to his already considerable fortune. On the 6th of
+December he was knighted. He took an active part as a strong Puritan and
+member of the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary
+government in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member for
+Sudbury. On the 15th of July he was created a baronet by the king, but
+nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out, and
+in 1643 took the Covenant. He was one of the members expelled by Pride's
+Purge in 1648, and died on the 18th of April 1650. He had married
+secondly Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley
+in Derbyshire, by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and
+title, the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731.
+D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious scope, no less
+than the whole history of England based on original documents. But
+though excelling as a collector of materials, and as a laborious,
+conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had little power of
+generalization or construction, and died without publishing anything
+except an uninteresting tract, <i>The Primitive Practice for Preserving
+Truth</i> (1645), and some speeches. His <i>Journals of all the Parliaments
+during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth</i>, however, a valuable work, was
+published in 1682. His large collections, including transcripts from
+ancient records, many of the originals of which are now dispersed or
+destroyed, are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His
+unprinted Diaries from 1621-1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable
+for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only authority
+for incidents and speeches during that period, and are amusing from the
+glimpses the diarist affords of his own character, his good estimation
+of himself and his little jealousies; some are in a cipher and some in
+Latin.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>Extracts from his <i>Autobiography and Correspondence</i> from the MSS. in
+the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell-Phillips in 1845,
+by Hearne in the appendix to his <i>Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II.</i>
+(1729), and in the <i>Bibliotheca topographica Britannica</i>, No. xv. vol.
+vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, <i>College Life in the Time of
+James I.</i> (1851). His Diaries have been extensively drawn upon by
+Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his <i>Studies of the Great
+Rebellion</i>. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the Harleian
+Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WET, CHRISTIAN</b> (1854-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), Boer general and politician, was born on the
+7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop, Smithfield district (Orange Free
+State), and later resided at Dewetsdorp. He served in the first
+Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81 as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he
+lived on his farm, becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took
+part in the earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a
+commandant and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the
+west. His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near
+Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg a little
+later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and more as the most
+formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla warfare. Sometimes
+severely handled by the British, sometimes escaping only by the
+narrowest margin of safety from the columns which attempted to surround
+him, and falling upon and annihilating isolated British posts, De Wet
+continued to the end of the war his successful career, striking heavily
+where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to
+bay. He took an active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at
+the conclusion of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer
+generals. While in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a
+modification of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote
+an account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in
+November 1902 under the title <i>Three Years' War</i>. In November, 1907 he
+was elected a member of the first parliament of the Orange River Colony
+and was appointed minister of agriculture. In 1908-9 he was a delegate
+to the Closer Union Convention.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT</b> (1780-1849), German theologian, was
+born on the 12th of January 1780, at Ulla, near Weimar, where his father
+was pastor. He was sent to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height
+of its literary glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with
+Johann Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In 1799
+he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal teachers
+being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Paulus, from the latter of whom he
+derived his tendency to free critical inquiry. Both in methods and in
+results, however, he occupied an almost solitary position among German
+theologians. Having taken his doctor's degree, he became <i>privat-docent</i>
+at Jena; in 1807 professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came
+under the influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was
+transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded university of
+Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was,
+however, dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written
+a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the murderer
+of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the
+university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving
+him of the chair, but banishing him from the Prussian kingdom. He
+retired for a time to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the
+preparation of his edition of Luther, and in writing the romance
+<i>Theodor oder die Weihe des Zweiflers</i> (Berlin, 1822), in which he
+describes the education of an evangelical pastor. During this period he
+made his first essay in preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of
+very popular gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the
+university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before.
+Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party,
+De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and
+among the people generally. He was admitted a citizen, and became rector
+of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength,
+particularly in the theological faculty. He died on the 16th of June
+1849.</p>
+
+<p>De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as "the epoch-making
+opener of the historical criticism of the Pentateuch." He prepared the
+way for the Supplement-theory. But he also made valuable contributions
+to other branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic
+faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled <i>Die Entsagung</i>
+(Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied
+ecclesiastical music and architecture. As a Biblical critic he is
+sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer
+says (<i>Development of Theology</i>, p. 102), he "occupied as free a
+position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the
+creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the
+religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with a
+more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the connexion of the
+present life of the church with the past." His works are marked by
+exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness.
+Accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress
+of criticism.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>The most important of his works are:&mdash;<i>Beiträge zur Einleitung in das
+Alte Testament</i> (2 vols., 1806-1807); <i>Kommentar über die Psalmen</i>
+(1811), which has passed through several editions, and is still regarded
+as of high authority; <i>Lehrbuch der hebräisch-jüdischen Archäologie</i>
+(1814); <i>Ãœber Religion und Theologie</i> (1815); a work of great importance
+as showing its author's general theological position; <i>Lehrbuch der
+christlichen Dogmatik</i> (1813-1816); <i>Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen
+Einleitung in die Bibel</i> (1817); <i>Christliche Sittenlehre</i> (1819-1821);
+<i>Einleitung in das Neue Testament</i> (1826); <i>Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre
+Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das Leben</i> (1827); <i>Das Wesen des
+christlichen Glaubens</i> (1846); and <i>Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch
+zum Neuen Testament</i> (1836-1848). De Wette also edited Luther's works (5
+vols., 1825-1828).</p>
+
+<p>See K. R. Hagenbach in <i>Herzog's Realencyklopädie</i>; G. C. F. Lücke's <i>W.
+M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung</i> (1850); and D.
+Schenkel's <i>W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie für
+unsere Zeit</i> (1849). Rudolf Stähelin, <i>De Wette nach seiner theol.
+Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung</i> (1880); F. Lichtenberger, <i>History of German
+Theology in the Nineteenth Century</i> (1889); Otto Pfleiderer,
+<i>Development of Theology</i> (1890), pp. 97 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, <i>Founders of
+the Old Testament Criticism</i>, pp. 31 ff.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139"></a>[Page 139]</span></p>
+<p><b>DEWEY, DAVIS RICH</b> (1858-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), American economist and statistician, was
+born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th of April 1858. He was
+educated at the university of Vermont and at Johns Hopkins University,
+and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was chairman of the state
+board on the question of the unemployed (1895), member of the
+Massachusetts commission on public, charitable and reformatory interests
+(1897), special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of
+a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an excellent
+<i>Syllabus on Political History since 1815</i> (1887), a <i>Financial History
+of the U.S.</i> (1902), and <i>National Problems</i> (1907).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWEY, GEORGE</b> (1837-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), American naval officer, was born at Montpelier,
+Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837. He studied at Norwich University,
+then at Norwich, Vermont, and graduated at the United States Naval
+Academy in 1858. He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in
+the Civil War served on the steamsloop "Mississippi" (1861-1863) during
+Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862, and at
+Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting below
+Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865 served on the
+steam-gunboat "Agawam" with the North Atlantic blockading squadron and
+took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January
+1865. In March 1865 he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the
+European squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States
+Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the "Narragansett" in
+1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned commander in 1872; was
+light-house inspector in 1876-1877; and was secretary of the light-house
+board in 1877-1882. In 1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief
+of the bureau of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of
+the light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board of
+inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of commodore in
+February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned, at his own request, to
+sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In April 1898, while with his
+fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by cable that war had begun between
+the United States and Spain, and was ordered to "capture or destroy the
+Spanish fleet" then in Philippine waters. On the 1st of May he
+overwhelmingly defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in
+Manila Bay, a victory won without the loss of a man on the American
+ships (see <a>Spanish-American War</a>). Congress, in a joint resolution,
+tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and men
+under his command, and authorized "the secretary of the navy to present
+a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey, and cause to be struck
+bronze medals commemorating the battle of Manila Bay, and to distribute
+such medals to the officers and men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron
+of the United States." He was promoted rear-admiral on the 10th of May
+1898. On the 18th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the
+city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders from his
+government to maintain control, Dewey received the rank of admiral
+(March 3, 1899)&mdash;that title, formerly borne only by Farragut and Porter,
+having been revived by act of Congress (March 2, 1899),&mdash;and returned
+home, arriving in New York City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he
+received a great ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman
+Philippine Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible
+Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president of the
+Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority report on a
+few details.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWEY, MELVIL</b> (1851-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), American librarian, was born at Adams Center,
+New York, on the 10th of December 1851. He graduated in 1874 at Amherst
+College, where he was assistant librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he
+removed to Boston, where he founded and became editor of <i>The Library
+Journal</i>, which became an influential factor in the development of
+libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration. He was
+also one of the founders of the American Library Association, of which
+he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president in 1891 and 1893. In
+1883 he became librarian of Columbia College, and in the following year
+founded there the School of Library Economy, the first institution for
+the instruction of librarians ever organized. This school, which was
+very successful, was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was
+re-established as the State Library School under his direction; from
+1888 to 1906 he was director of the New York State Library and from 1888
+to 1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York,
+completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of the most
+efficient in America, and establishing the system of state travelling
+libraries and picture collections. His "Decimal System of
+Classification" for library cataloguing, first proposed in 1876, is
+extensively used.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWING, THOMAS WILMER</b> (1851-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), American figure painter, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1851. He was a pupil of Jules
+Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to 1879; was elected a full member of the
+National Academy of Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten
+American Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition
+(1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis (1904). His
+decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and finish. Among his
+portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White and of his own wife. Mrs
+Dewing (b, 1855), <i>née</i> Maria Oakey, a figure and flower painter, was a
+pupil of John La Farge in New York, and of Couture in Paris.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WINT, PETER</b> (1784-1849), English landscape painter, of Dutch
+extraction, son of an English physician, was born at Stone,
+Staffordshire, on the 21st of January 1784. He studied art in London,
+and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In 1812 he became a member of
+the Society of Painters in Watercolours, where he exhibited largely for
+many years, as well as at the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of
+William Hilton, R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. De
+Wint's life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he
+ranks as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his
+pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM</b> (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was born at Kampen,
+and in 1761 entered the naval service at the age of twelve years. He
+distinguished himself by his zeal and courage, and at the revolution of
+1787 he had reached the rank of lieutenant. The overthrow of the
+"patriot" party forced him to fly for his safety to France. Here he
+threw himself heart and soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took
+part under Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and
+was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When Pichegru in
+1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the French army to his
+native country. The states-general now utilized the experience he had
+gained as a naval officer by giving him the post of adjunct-general for
+the reorganization of the Dutch navy. In 1796 he was appointed
+vice-admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts
+to strengthen it and improve its condition, and on the 11th of October
+1797 he ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British fleet
+under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the Dutch were
+defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner. He remained in
+England until December, when he was liberated by exchange. His conduct
+in the battle of Camperdown was declared by a court-martial to have
+nobly maintained the honour of the Dutch flag.</p>
+
+<p>From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador to the French
+republic, and was then once more appointed commander of the fleet. He
+was sent with a strong squadron to the Mediterranean to repress the
+Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a treaty of peace with the Tripolitan
+government. He enjoyed the confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of
+Holland, and, after the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French
+empire, in an equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was
+created marshal and count of Huessen, and given the command of the armed
+forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the grand cross of the
+Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector-general of the northern
+coasts, and in 1811 he placed him at the head of the fleet he had
+collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards <span class="pagenum"><a name="page140"></a>[Page 140]</span> De Winter was seized
+with illness and compelled to betake himself to Paris, where he died on
+the 2nd of June 1812. He had a splendid public funeral and was buried in
+the Pantheon. His heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the
+Nicolaas Kerk at Kampen.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WITT, CORNELIUS</b> (1623-1672), brother of <a>John de Witt</a> (q.v.), was born
+at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgomaster of Dort and member of the
+states of Holland and West Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the
+important post of <i>ruwaard</i> or governor of the land of Putten and
+bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater
+brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout his career
+with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by the
+states of Holland to accompany Admiral de Ruyter in his famous
+expedition to Chatham. Cornelius de Witt on this occasion distinguished
+himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De
+Ruyter in 1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at
+Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled by
+illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that the
+Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother were the
+objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account of his imprisonment,
+trial and death, is given below.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WITT, JOHN</b> (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at Dort, on the
+24th of September 1625. He was a member of one of the old burgher-regent
+families of his native town. His father, Jacob de Witt, was six times
+burgomaster of Dort, and for many years sat as a representative of the
+town in the states of Holland. He was a strenuous adherent of the
+republican or oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the
+princes of the house of Orange, who represented the federal principle
+and had the support of the masses of the people. John was educated at
+Leiden, and early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in
+mathematics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother
+Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on his
+return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate. In 1650 he
+was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which made him the leader
+and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of Holland. In this
+same year the states of Holland found themselves engaged in a struggle
+for provincial supremacy, on the question of the disbanding of troops,
+with the youthful prince of Orange, William II. William, with the
+support of the states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders
+of the states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle;
+among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William, at the
+moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction. He left only a
+posthumous child, afterwards William III. of Orange, and the principles
+advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed, and the authority of the states of
+Holland became predominant in the republic.</p>
+
+<p>At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence, sagacity
+and business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of Dort that
+on the 23rd of July 1653 he was appointed to the office of grand
+pensionary (<i>Raadpensionaris</i>) of Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He
+was re-elected in 1658, 1663 and 1668, and held office until his death
+in 1672. During this period of nineteen years the general conduct of
+public affairs and administration, and especially of foreign affairs,
+such was the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was
+largely placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to the
+brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been caused by the
+keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states. The Dutch were
+unprepared, and suffered severely through the loss of their carrying
+trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about peace as soon as possible.
+The first demands of Cromwell were impossible, for they aimed at the
+absorption of the two republics into a single state, but at last in the
+autumn of 1654 peace was concluded, by which the Dutch made large
+concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to English ships in
+the narrow seas. The treaty included a secret article, which the
+states-general refused to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in
+inducing the states of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of
+Holland pledged themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a
+captain-general of the union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called,
+was aimed at the young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the
+Stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was
+personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his
+ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that he
+prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter.</p>
+
+<p>The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently successful.
+He restored the finances of the state, and extended its commercial
+supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he sustained Denmark against
+Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an advantageous peace with Portugal. The
+accession of Charles II. to the English throne led to the rescinding of
+the Act of Seclusion; nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the
+prince of Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This
+led to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to a
+renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial rights, and
+war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and courage displayed by the
+grand pensionary during the course of this fiercely contested naval
+struggle could scarcely have been surpassed. He himself on more than one
+occasion went to sea with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came
+in contact by the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action
+and inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an
+organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship
+of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty of peace signed at
+Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of <i>uti possidetis</i>, were so
+honourable to the United Provinces. A still greater triumph of
+diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the Triple Alliance (January 17,
+1668) between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden, which checked the
+attempt of Louis XIV. to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in
+the name of his wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was
+but temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take vengeance
+for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III. was growing to
+manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout the country spared no
+efforts to undermine the authority of De Witt, and secure for the young
+prince of Orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded the United
+Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically no resistance was
+possible. The unanimous voice of the people called William III. to the
+head of affairs, and there were violent demonstrations against John de
+Witt. His brother Cornelius was (July 24) arrested on a charge of
+conspiring against the prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt
+resigned the post of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with
+such distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the 19th of
+August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banishment. He
+was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother came to visit him in
+the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this collected outside, and finally
+burst into the prison, seized the two brothers and literally tore them
+to pieces. Their mangled remains were hung up by the feet to a
+lamp-post. Thus perished, by the savage act of an infuriated mob, one of
+the greatest statesmen of his age.</p>
+
+<p>John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influential
+burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two sons and three
+daughters.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;J. Geddes, <i>History of the Administration of John de
+Witt</i>, (vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefèvre-Pontalis, <i>Jean de Witt,
+grand pensionnaire de Hollande</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1884); P. Simons,
+<i>Johan de Witt en zijn tijd</i> (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842); W. C.
+Knottenbelt, <i>Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt</i> (Amsterdam,
+1862); <i>J. de Witt, Brieven ... gewisselt tusschen den Heer Johan de
+Witt ... ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d. Vereen. Nederlanden so
+in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken, Poolen, enz. 1652-69</i> (6
+vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); <i>Brieven ... 1650-1657 (1658) eerste deel
+bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W. Kernkamp</i> (Amsterdam, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWLAP</b> (from the O.E. <i>l&aelig;ppa</i>, a lappet, or hanging fold; the first
+syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explanation that the word
+means "the fold which brushes the dew" is not borne out, according to
+the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, by the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>[Page 141]</span> equivalent words such
+as the Danish <i>doglaeb</i>, in Scandinavian languages), the loose fold of
+skin hanging from the neck of cattle, also applied to similar folds in
+the necks of other animals and fowls, as the dog, turkey, &amp;c. The
+American practice of branding cattle by making a cut in the neck is
+known as a "dewlap brand." The skin of the neck in human beings often
+becomes pendulous with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by
+the same name.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWSBURY,</b> a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the
+West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of
+Leeds, on the Great Northern, London &amp; North-Western, and Lancashire
+&amp; Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 28,060. The parish church of All
+Saints was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the 18th
+century; the portions still preserved of the original structure are
+mainly Early English. The chief industries are the making of blankets,
+carpets, druggets and worsted yarn; and there are iron foundries and
+machinery works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary
+borough includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and returns
+one member. The municipal borough, incorporated in 1862, is under a
+mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1471 acres. Paulinus, first
+archbishop of York, about the year 627 preached in the district of
+Dewsbury, where Edwin, king of Northumbria, whom he converted to
+Christianity, had a royal mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are
+remains of a Cistercian convent of the 12th century, in an extensive
+park, where tradition relates that Robin Hood died and was buried.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS</b> (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek historian,
+statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian family
+of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon basileus and eponymus in
+Athens. When the Heruli overran Greece and captured Athens (269),
+Dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of
+patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up
+in his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording his
+services, has been preserved (<i>Corpus Inscrr. Atticarum</i>, iii. No. 716).
+It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to his military
+achievements. Photius (<i>cod.</i> 82) mentions three historical works by
+Dexippus, of which considerable fragments remain: (1) <span class="grk" title="Ta met' Alexandron">
+&Tau;&#8048; &mu;&epsilon;&tau;&#8125;
+&#7944;&lambda;&#x03ad;&xi;&alpha;&nu;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&nu;</span>, an
+epitome of a similarly named work by Arrian; (2) <span class="grk"
+title="Skuthika">&Sigma;&kappa;&upsilon;&theta;&iota;&kappa;&#x03ac;</span>, a
+history of the wars of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians) in the 3rd
+century; (3) <span class="grk" title="Chronikê historia">&Chi;&rho;&omicron;&nu;&iota;&kappa;&#8052;
+&#7985;&sigma;&tau;&omicron;&rho;&#x03af;&alpha;</span>, a chronological
+history from the earliest times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270),
+frequently referred to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work
+was continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks very
+highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a level with
+Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments (C. W.
+Müller, <i>F.H.G.</i> iii. 666-687).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN</b> (1821-1890), American clergyman and author, was
+born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the 13th of August 1821. He
+graduated at Yale in 1840 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in
+1844; was pastor of a Congregational church in Manchester, New
+Hampshire, in 1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational
+church, Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the <i>Congregationalist</i>
+in 1851-1866, of the <i>Congregational Quarterly</i> in 1859-1866, and of the
+<i>Congregationalist</i>, with which the <i>Recorder</i> was merged, from 1867
+until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the 13th of November 1890. He
+was an authority on the history of Congregationalism and was lecturer on
+that subject at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879; he left
+his fine library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among
+his works are: <i>Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is, How it
+works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church Government, and
+its consequent Demands</i> (1865), <i>The Church Polity of the Puritans the
+Polity of the New Testament</i> (1870), <i>As to Roger Williams and His
+"Banishment" from the Massachusetts Colony</i> (1876), <i>Congregationalism
+of the Last Three Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature</i> (1880), his
+most important work, <i>A Handbook of Congregationalism</i> (1880), <i>The True
+Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptist"</i> (1881), <i>Common Sense</i> <i>as to
+Woman Suffrage</i> (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets bearing on early
+church history in New England, especially Baptist controversies. His
+<i>The England and Holland of the Pilgrims</i> was completed by his son,
+Morton Dexter (b. 1846), and published in 1905.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEXTER, TIMOTHY</b> (1747-1806), American merchant, remarkable for his
+eccentricities, was born at Malden, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of
+February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities
+of the depreciated continental currency, which was ultimately redeemed
+by the Federal government at par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter
+and built extraordinary houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New
+Hampshire. He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior
+pictures, besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal
+statues carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of himself was
+included in the collection, and had for an inscription "I am the first
+in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest philosopher in the
+Western World." He wrote a book entitled <i>Pickle for the Knowing Ones</i>.
+It was wholly without punctuation marks, and as this aroused comment, he
+published a second edition, at the end of which was a page displaying
+nothing but commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to
+"peper and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping
+enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried out in
+a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the 26th of October
+1806.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEXTRINE</b> (<span class="sc">British Gum, Starch Gum, Leiocome</span>),
+(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>)<sub>x</sub>, a substance produced from starch by the action of
+dilute acids, or by roasting it at a temperature between 170°
+and 240° C. It is manufactured by spraying starch with 2% nitric
+acid, drying in air, and then heating to about 110°. Different
+modifications are known, e.g. amylodextrine, erythrodextrine and
+achroodextrine. Its name has reference to its powerful dextrorotatory
+action on polarized light. Pure dextrine is an insipid,
+odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is sometimes
+yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves
+in water and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated
+from its solutions as the hydrated compound, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>.H<sub>2</sub>O.
+Diastase converts it eventually into maltose, C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>; and by
+boiling with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is
+transformed into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. It
+does not ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce
+Fehling's solution. If heated with strong nitric acid it gives
+oxalic, and not mucic acid. Dextrine much resembles gum
+arabic, for which it is generally substituted. It is employed for
+sizing paper, for stiffening cotton goods, and for thickening
+colours in calico printing, also in the making of lozenges, adhesive
+stamps and labels, and surgical bandages.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Otto Lueger, <i>Lexikon der gesamten Technik</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEY</b> (an adaptation of the Turk, d&#x0101;&#x012b;, a maternal uncle), an
+honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men, and
+appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their commanding
+officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries became in the 17th
+century rulers of that country (see <a>Algeria: History</a>). From the middle
+of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century the ruler of Tunisia
+was also called dey, a title frequently used during the same period by
+the sovereigns of Tripoli.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHAMMAP&#x0100;LA,</b> the name of one of the early disciples of the Buddha,
+and therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by Buddhist
+novices on their entering the brotherhood. The most famous of the
+Bhikshus so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half
+of the 5th century A.D. at the Badara Tittha Vihd&#x0101;ra, near the
+east coast of India, just a little south of where Madras now stands. It
+is to him we owe the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical
+books, consisting almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on
+the Netti, perhaps the oldest P&#x0101;li work outside the canon.
+Extracts from the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven
+others, have been published by the Pd&#x0101;li Text Society. These
+works show great learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But as
+Dhammap&#x0101;la confines himself rigidly either to questions of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page142"></a>[Page
+142]</span> the meaning of words, or to discussions of the ethical import of
+his texts, very little can be gathered from his writings of value for
+the social history of his time. For the right interpretation of the
+difficult texts on which he comments, they are indispensable. Though in
+all probability a Tamil by birth, he declares, in the opening lines of
+those of his works that have been edited, that he followed the tradition
+of the Great Minster at Anurd&#x0101;dhapura in Ceylon, and the works
+themselves confirm this in every respect. Hsüan Tsang, the famous
+Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint story of a Dhammapd&#x0101;la of
+Kd&#x0101;nchipura (the modern Konjevaram). He was a son of a high
+official, and betrothed to a daughter of the king, but escaped on the
+eve of the wedding feast, entered the order, and attained to reverence
+and distinction. It is most likely that this story, whether legendary or
+not (and Hsüan Tsang heard the story at Kd&#x0101;nchipura nearly two
+centuries after the date of Dhammapd&#x0101;la), referred to this
+author. But it may also refer, as Hsüan Tsang refers it, to another
+author of the same name. Other unpublished works, besides those
+mentioned above, have been ascribed to Dhammapd&#x0101;la, but it is
+very doubtful whether they are really by him.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;T. Watters, <i>On Yuan Chwang</i> (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushell,
+London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen
+morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i> (1898), pp. 97 foll.; <i>Netti</i> (ed. E.
+Hardy, London, P&#x0101;li Text Society, 1902), especially the
+Introduction, passim; <i>Ther&#x012b; Gd&#x0101;thd&#x0101; Commentary</i>,
+<i>Peta Vatthu Commentary</i>, and <i>Vimd&#x0101;na Vatthu Commentary</i>, all
+three published by the P&#x0101;li Text Society.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(T. W. R. D.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHANIS, FRANCIS,</b> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1861-1909), Belgian administrator, was born in
+London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen years of his life at
+Greenock, where he received his early education. He was the son of a
+Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady named Maher. The name Dhanis is
+supposed to be a variation of D'Anvers. Having completed his education
+at the École Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment
+of grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he
+reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the Congo,
+and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well in founding new
+stations north of the Congo that, when the government decided to put an
+end to the Arab domination on the Upper Congo, he was selected to
+command the chief expedition sent against the slave dealers. The
+campaign began in April 1892, and it was not brought to a successful
+conclusion till January 1894. The story of this war has been told in
+detail by Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book <i>The Fall of
+the Congo Arabs</i>. The principal achievements of the campaign were the
+captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at Nyangwe,
+Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis was raised to the rank
+of baron, and in 1895 was made vice-governor of the Congo State. In 1896
+he took command of an expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely
+composed of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted, and
+who had been irritated by the execution of some of their chiefs for
+indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and murdered many of
+their white officers. Dhanis found himself confronted with a more
+formidable adversary than even the Arabs in these well-armed and
+half-disciplined mercenaries. During two years (1897-1898) he was
+constantly engaged in a life-and-death struggle with them. Eventually he
+succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous
+soldiers. Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less
+striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both think that
+the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in
+bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899 Baron Dhanis returned to
+Belgium with the honorary rank of vice governor-general. He died on the
+14th of November 1909.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHAR,</b> a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency, Central India. It
+includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories, and has an area of 1775 sq.
+m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta. The founder of the present ruling
+family was Anand Rao Punwar, a descendant of the great Paramara clan of
+Rajputs who from the 9th to the 13th century, when they were driven out
+by the Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar. In
+1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the peshwa, the
+victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the
+family which seven centuries before had been expelled from this very
+city and country. Towards the close of the 18th and in the early part of
+the 19th century, the state was subject to a series of spoliations by
+Sindia and Holkar, and was only preserved from destruction by the
+talents and courage of the adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a
+treaty of 1819 Dhar passed under British protection, and bound itself to
+act in subordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion
+in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar, then a
+minor, with the exception of the detached district of Bairusia, which
+was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand Rao, who received the personal
+title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in 1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded
+by Udaji Rao Punwar. In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state
+includes the ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of
+Malwa.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">The Town of Dhar</span> is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901)
+17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees surrounded by
+barren hills, and possesses, besides its old walls, many interesting
+buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan, some of them containing records of a
+great historical importance. The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built
+by Dilawar Khan in 1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives
+its name from an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at
+the beginning of the 13th century in commemoration of a victory, and
+bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town
+of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft. high, is now
+overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an enclosure containing four
+tombs, the most notable being that of Shaikh Kamal Maulvi
+(Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous 13th-century Mussulman saint
+Nizam-ud-din Auliya.<a name="FnAnchor_6" href="#Footnote_6"><sup>[1]</sup></a> The mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built
+out of Hindu remains in the 14th or 15th century: its name is derived
+from the slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit
+grammar, with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the
+town stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to have
+been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the 14th century. It
+contains the palace of the raja. Of modern institutions may be mentioned
+the high school, public library, hospital, and the chapel, school and
+hospital of the Canadian Presbyterian mission. There is also a
+government opium depot for the payment of duty, the town being a
+considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari (the
+city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the capital
+of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who transferred his
+headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th century. During
+the rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous throughout India as a
+centre of culture and learning; but, after suffering various
+vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the Mussulmans at the
+beginning of the 14th century. At the close of the century Dilawar Khan,
+the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been appointed governor in 1399,
+practically established his independence, his son Hoshang Shah being the
+first Mahommedan king of Malwa. Under this dynasty Dhar was second in
+importance to the capital Mandu. Subsequently, in the time of Akbar,
+Dhar fell under the dominion of the Moguls, in whose hands it remained
+till 1730, when it was conquered by the Mahrattas.</p>
+
+<p>See <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_6" href="#FnAnchor_6">[1]</a> Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near Delhi,
+was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret society of
+Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed to have been the
+founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special reverence for his
+memory.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHARAMPUR,</b> a native state of India, in the Surat political agency
+division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The population in 1901
+was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during the decade; the estimated
+gross revenue is £25,412; and the tribute £600. Its chief is a Sesodia
+Rajput. The state has been surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay
+system. It contains one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272
+villages. Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very
+unhealthy, is capable of cultivation; the rest is covered with rocky
+hills, forest and brushwood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page143"></a>[Page 143]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHARMSALA,</b> a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab, India, situated
+on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of Kangra town, at an elevation
+of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971. The scenery of Dharmsala is of
+peculiar grandeur. The spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with
+oak and other trees; behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain
+tower towards the jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half
+the year; while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra
+valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the Kangra
+district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the centre of a
+European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied by Gurkha
+regiments. The station was destroyed by the earthquake of April 1905, in
+which 1625 persons, including 25 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha
+garrison, perished (<i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i>, 1908).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHARWAR,</b> a town and district of British India, in the southern division
+of Bombay. The town has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. The
+population in 1901 was 31,279. It has several ginning factories and a
+cotton-mill; two high schools, one maintained by the Government and the
+other by the Basel German Mission.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Dharwar</span> has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the north and
+north-east are great plains of black soil, favourable to cotton-growing;
+in the south and west are successive ranges of low hills, with flat
+fertile valleys between them. The whole district lies high and has no
+large rivers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of 6% in the
+decade. The most influential classes of the community are Brahmans and
+Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968, or 46% of the Hindu population;
+they worship the symbol of Siva, and males and females both carry this
+emblem about their person in a silver case. The principal crops are
+millets, pulse and cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and
+Gadag, junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the
+district in several directions.</p>
+
+<p>The early history of the territory comprised within the district of
+Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription
+slabs and memorial stones which abound there. From these it is clear
+that the country fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties
+that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of the Chalukyan dynasty, whether
+temples or inscriptions, being especially abundant. In the 14th century
+the district was first overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was
+annexed to the newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an
+official of which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built
+the fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of
+Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years practically
+independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573 the fort was captured
+by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was annexed to his dominions. In
+1685 the fort was taken by the emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the
+break-up of the Mogul empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of
+Poona. In 1764 the province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in
+1778 captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the
+Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817, Dharwar was
+incorporated with the territory of the East India Company.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHOLPUR,</b> a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area
+of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country, without any special
+manufactures. All along the bank of the river Chambal the country is
+deeply intersected by ravines; low ranges of hills in the western
+portion of the state supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and
+easily-worked red sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was
+270,973, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The estimated revenue
+is £83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway from
+Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely from drought.
+In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief amounted to £8190.</p>
+
+<p>The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,310. The
+present town, which dates from the 16th century, stands somewhat to the
+north of the site of the older Hindu town built, it is supposed, in the
+11th century by the Tonwar Rajput Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named
+after him Dholdera or Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the
+town may be mentioned the fortified <i>sarai</i> built in the reign of Akbar,
+within which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one of
+his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is growing in
+importance as a centre of trade.</p>
+
+<p>Little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of
+Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the Tonwar
+Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th to the 12th century.
+In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in 1501 the fort of Dholpur was
+taken by the Mahommedans under Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred
+to a Mussulman governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort
+was captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed under the
+sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the province of Agra.
+During the dissensions which followed the death of Aurangzeb in 1707,
+Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria obtained possession of Dholpur, and his
+family retained it till 1761, after which it was taken successively by
+the Jat raja, Suraj Mal of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by
+Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored to Sindhia
+by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence of new arrangements
+was again occupied by the British. Finally, in 1806, the territories of
+Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat
+Singh, ancestor of the present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his
+state of Gohad, which was ceded to Sindhia.</p>
+
+<p>The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia Jats, who
+are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo-Scythian wave of
+invasion which swept over northern India about A.D. 100. An ancestor of
+the family appears to have held certain territories at Bamraoli near
+Agra c. 1195. His descendant in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished
+himself in an expedition against the freebooters of the Deccan, was
+rewarded by the sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the
+title of <i>rana</i>. In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces
+against Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion
+of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories then in
+his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected from invasion
+by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently withdrawn, the rana having
+been guilty of treachery, and in 1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing
+the fortress of Gwalior, and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the
+whole of Gohad. In 1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by
+the British government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the
+rana agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of
+Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief binding
+himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the paramount power, and
+to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the British
+government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana of Dholpur, was
+succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh, who showed great loyalty
+during the Mutiny of 1857, was created a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869.
+He was succeeded in 1873 by his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the
+C.B. and frontier medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in
+1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883).</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908) and authorities
+there given.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHOW,</b> the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the Arabian
+Sea. The language to which the word belongs is unknown. According to the
+<i>New English Dictionary</i> the place of origin may be the Persian Gulf,
+assuming that the word is identical with the tava mentioned by
+Athanasius Nikitin (<i>India in the 15th Century</i>, Hakluyt Society, 1858).
+Though the word is used generally of any craft along the East African
+coast, it is usually applied to the vessel of about 150 to 200 tons
+burden with a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows
+generally have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous
+length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is
+carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels employed in
+the slave trade from the east coast of Africa.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page144"></a>[Page 144]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHRANGADRA,</b> a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay,
+situated in the north of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area is 1156
+sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The estimated gross revenue is £38,000 and
+the tribute £3000. A state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to
+the town of Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in
+1898. Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor; the
+manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand-mills. The chief
+town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of 14,770.</p>
+
+<p>The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with the
+predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala Rajputs,
+who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in the 8th century. Raj
+Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji (b. 1837), who succeeded his father
+in 1869, was distinguished for the enlightened character of his
+administration, especially in the matter of establishing schools and
+internal communications. He was created a K.C.S.I in 1877. He died in
+1900, and was succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b.
+1872).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHULEEP SINGH</b> (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born in February
+1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the 18th of September 1843, under
+the regency of his mother the rani Jindan, a woman of great capacity and
+strong will, but extremely inimical to the British. He was acknowledged
+by Ranjit Singh and recognized by the British government. After six
+years of peace the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were
+defeated in four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore,
+the capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but it
+was administered to a great extent by the British government in his
+name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the British,
+and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite of the valour of the
+Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat, and in March 1849 Dhuleep
+Singh was deposed, a pension of £40,000 a year being granted to him and
+his dependants. He became a Christian and elected to live in England. On
+coming of age he made an arrangement with the British government by
+which his income was reduced to £25,000 in consideration of advances for
+the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at Elvedon in Suffolk.
+While passing through Alexandria in 1864 he met Miss Bamba Müller, the
+daughter of a German merchant who had married an Abyssinian. The
+maharaja had been interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he
+met Miss Müller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching.
+She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were the
+issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the maharaja
+married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady, Miss Ada Douglas
+Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja was passionately fond of
+sport, and his shooting parties were celebrated, while he himself became
+a <i>persona grata</i> in English society. The result, however, was financial
+difficulty, and in 1882 he appealed to the government for assistance,
+making various claims based upon the alleged possession of private
+estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor diamond
+to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, whereupon he started for
+India, after drawing up a proclamation to his former subjects. But as it
+was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the Punjab, he remained for
+some time as a guest at the residency at Aden, and was allowed to
+receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity,
+which actually took place within the residency itself. As the climate
+began to affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and
+returned to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his
+claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but when that
+expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where he lived for the
+rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the Indian government.
+His death from an attack of apoplexy took place at Paris on the 22nd of
+October 1893. The maharaja's eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay
+Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges,
+Cambridge. In 1888 he obtained a commission in the 1st Royal Dragoon
+Guards. In 1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the
+earl of Coventry.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(G. F. B.)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHULIA,</b> a town of British India, administrative headquarters of West
+Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the Panjhra river.
+Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds,
+and weaving of cotton. A railway connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the
+main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIABASE,</b> in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite. It
+was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks of this group
+differed from their Tertiary and Recent representatives in certain
+essential respects, but this is now admitted to be untenable, and the
+differences are known to be merely the result of the longer exposure to
+decomposition, pressure and shearing, which the older rocks have
+experienced. Their olivine tends to become serpentinized; their augite
+changes to chlorite and uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation
+of zeolites, calcite, sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green
+colour (from the development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence
+the older name of "greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them
+become somewhat schistose from pressure ("greenstone-schists,"
+meta-diabase, &amp;c.). Although the original definition of the group
+can no longer be justified, the name is so well established in current
+usage that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and dolerite
+are employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of
+rocks.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz. olivine,
+augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities of
+hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite.</p>
+
+<p>There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine;
+quartz-diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende
+diabases (or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is characteristic
+of another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially those which
+contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the intersertal
+dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases, hypersthene-diabases
+and the rocks which have been described as tholeites. Porphyritic
+structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites, some of which are highly
+vesicular and contain remains of an abundant fine-grained or partly
+glassy ground-mass (<i>diabas-mandelstein</i>, amygdaloidal diabase). The
+somewhat ill-defined spilites are regarded by many as modifications of
+diabase-porphyrite. In the intersertal and porphyrite diabases, fresh or
+devitrified glassy base is not infrequent. It is especially conspicuous
+in some tholeites (hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks
+consist of augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a
+brown, vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte
+(sordawilite, &amp;c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite
+sills and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites
+of grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green
+augite (variolites).</p>
+
+<p>To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the
+diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary dolerites. In
+the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more common than in the
+newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous
+habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in most cases secondary after
+pyroxene, and is then known as uralite; often it forms pseudomorphs
+which retain the shape of the original augite. Where diabases have been
+crushed or sheared, hornblende readily develops at the expense of
+pyroxene, sometimes replacing it completely. In the later stages of
+alteration the amphibole becomes compact and well crystallized; the
+rocks consist of green hornblende and plagioclase felspar, and are then
+generally known as epidiorites or amphibolites. At the same time a
+schistose structure is produced. But transition forms are very common,
+having more or less of the augite remaining, surrounded by newly formed
+hornblende which at first is rather fibrous and tends to spread outwards
+through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite also is abundant both in
+sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it calcite may make its
+appearance, or the lime set free from the augite may combine with the
+titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to form incrustations or
+borders of sphene around the original crystals of ilmenite. Epidote is
+another secondary lime-bearing mineral which results from the
+decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the pyroxenes. Many
+diabases, especially those of the teschenite sub-group, are filled with
+zeolites.</p>
+
+<p>Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts of
+the globe. Popular names for them are "whinstone," "greenstone,"
+"toadstone" and "trap." They form excellent road-mending stones and are
+much quarried for this purpose, being tough, durable and resistant to
+wear, so long as they are not extremely decomposed. Many of them are to
+be preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle. The quality
+of the Cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly improved by a
+smaller amount of recrystallization where they have been heated by
+contact with intrusive masses of granite.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(J. S. F.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page145"></a>[Page 145]</span></p>
+<p><b>DIABETES</b> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="dia">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;</span>, through, and <span
+class="grk" title="bainein">&beta;&alpha;&#x03af;&nu;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;</span>, to pass),
+a constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive
+discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described, viz.
+Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only increased
+in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less amount of
+sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the urine is simply
+increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal ingredient. This latter,
+however, must be distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular
+kidney, lardaceous disease of the kidney, and also occurring in certain
+cases of hysteria.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diabetes mellitus</i> is the disease to which the term is most commonly
+applied, and is by far the more serious and important ailment. It is one
+of the diseases due to altered metabolism (see <a>Metabolic Diseases</a>). It
+is markedly hereditary, much more prevalent in towns and especially
+modern city life than in more primitive rustic communities, and most
+common among the Jews. The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually
+considered one cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour
+its occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so often
+met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself.
+No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of
+life. It attacks males twice as frequently as females, and fair more
+frequently than dark people.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the patient may
+suffer for a length of time before he thinks it necessary to apply for
+medical aid. The first symptoms which attract attention are failure of
+strength, and emaciation, along with great thirst and an increased
+amount and frequent passage of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2
+to 3 pints in the 24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or
+even more. It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than
+normal urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific
+gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable
+irritation of the urinary passages.</p>
+
+<p>By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic
+urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar,
+while the amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by
+certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar passed may vary from
+a few ounces to two or more pounds per diem, and it is found to be
+markedly increased after saccharine or starchy food has been taken.
+Sugar may also be found in the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all
+the excretions of persons suffering from this disease. One of the most
+distressing symptoms is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly
+seeking to allay, the quantity of liquid consumed being in general
+enormous, and there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious
+appetite. The mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may
+be evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the general
+health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and more emaciated.
+He suffers from increasing muscular weakness, the temperature of his
+body is lowered, and the skin is dry and harsh. There is often a
+peculiar flush on the face, not limited to the malar eminences, but
+extending up to the roots of the hair. The teeth are loosened or decay,
+there is a tendency to bleeding from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms,
+constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There
+is in general great mental depression or irritability.</p>
+
+<p>Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of
+young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be rapid. The
+complications of the disease are many and serious. It may cause impaired
+vision by weakening the muscles of accommodation, or by lessening the
+sensitiveness of the retina to light. Also cataract is very common. Skin
+affections of all kinds may occur and prove very intractable. Boils,
+carbuncles, cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life
+advances, though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women.
+Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and gangrene
+of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis in the latter
+disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney diseases and heart
+failure due to fatty heart are all of common occurrence. Also patients
+seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric fever, though the
+attack usually runs a mild course. The sugar temporarily disappears
+during the fever. But the most serious complication of all is known as
+diabetic coma, which is very commonly the final cause of death. The
+onset is often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a
+rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either
+constipation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal
+pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true coma,
+though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The patient suffers
+from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath and skin have a sweet
+ethereal odour. The condition may last from twenty-four hours to three
+days, but is almost invariably the precursor of death.</p>
+
+<p>Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being exceedingly
+rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25% of phthisis or pneumonia, and
+the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral haemorrhage, gangrene,
+&amp;c. The most favourable cases are those in which the patient is
+advanced in years, those in which it is associated with obesity or gout,
+and where the social conditions are favourable. A few cures have been
+recorded in which the disease supervened after some acute illness. The
+unfavourable cases are those in which there is a family history of the
+disease and in which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be done
+by appropriate treatment to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to
+prolong life.</p>
+
+<p>There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that of
+drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by the
+idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition between very
+wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has
+been proved beyond question that certain kinds of food have a powerful
+influence in aggravating the disease, more particularly those consisting
+largely of saccharine and starchy matter; and it may be stated generally
+that the various methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as
+far as possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is
+recommended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous
+foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be avoided;
+while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream, cheese, eggs,
+butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be taken with advantage.
+As a substitute for ordinary bread, which most persons find it difficult
+to do without for any length of time, bran bread, gluten bread and
+almond biscuits. A patient must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to
+a carbohydrate-free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable
+to bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite gradually,
+one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of the diet,
+whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully
+noted meanwhile. The treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes, sugar
+and fruit, and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by
+some diabetic substitute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to
+its lowest point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount
+of carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect on the
+glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be worked out
+experimentally for each individual patient. But in every case, if
+drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma supervene, all restrictions
+must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate freely allowed. The question of
+alcohol is one which must be largely determined by the previous history
+of the patient, but a small quantity will help to make up the
+deficiencies of a diet poor in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky,
+and Hollands gin, are usually free from sugar, and some of the light
+Bordeaux wines contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given
+as cream, fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless,
+but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and endive
+yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to 1&frac12; ozs. daily
+without increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked or raw, are
+allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form. The question of
+milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid
+diet, allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended.
+Thirst is relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria. But
+hypodermic injections of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva, and
+thus relieve the dryness of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page146"></a>[Page 146]</span> mouth. Constipation appears
+to increase the thirst, and must always be carefully guarded against.
+The best remedies are the aperient mineral waters.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes, but few of
+them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy. Opium is often
+found of great service, its administration being followed by marked
+amelioration in all the symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar
+action. In the severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of
+little or no use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin
+hydrochloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more
+power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium and
+aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the sugar
+excretion without counterbalancing bad effects.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>diabetes insipidus</i> there is constant thirst and an excessive flow
+of urine, which, however, is not found to contain any abnormal
+constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to those of
+diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked, the disease
+being in general very slow in its progress. In some cases the health
+appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely a direct cause of death,
+but from its debilitating effects may predispose to serious and fatal
+complications. It is best treated by tonics and generous diet. Valerian
+has been found beneficial, the powdered root being given in 5-grain
+doses.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIABOLO,</b> a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones
+joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught by means of a
+cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game appears originally to
+have come from China, where a top (<i>Kouengen</i>), made of two hollow
+pierced cylinders of metal or wood, joined by a rod&mdash;and often of
+immense size,&mdash;was made by rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was
+used by pedlars to attract customers. From China it was introduced by
+missionaries to Europe; and a form of the game, known as "the devil on
+two sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the end of
+the 18th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with improvements in
+it. But its principal vogue was in France in 1812, where the top was
+called "le diable." Amusing old prints exist (see <i>Fry's Magazine</i>,
+March and December 1907), depicting examples of the popular craze in
+France at the time. The <i>diable</i> of those days resembled a globular
+wooden dumb-bell with a short waist, and the sonorous hum when
+spinning&mdash;the <i>bruit du diable</i>&mdash;was a pronounced feature. At intervals
+during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a
+top of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that
+the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer, Gustave
+Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game, had
+experimented for some time with new forms of top with a view to bringing
+it again into popularity; and having devised the double-cone shape, and
+added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends
+of the double-cone, with other improvements, he named it "diabolo." The
+use of celluloid in preference to metal or wood as its material appears
+to have been due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by
+the inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and catching
+the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions, both as an
+exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in "diabolo tennis" and other
+ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and the chief French
+seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906, its vogue spread in
+1907 so that in France and England it became the fashionable "rage"
+among both children and adults.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor C. V. Boys in
+the <i>Proc. Phys. Soc.</i> (London), Nov. 1907.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIACONICON,</b> in the Greek Church, the name given to a chamber on the
+south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils, vessels,
+&amp;c., of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II. (565-574),
+owing to a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and protheses were
+located in apses at the east end of the aisles. Before that time there
+was only one apse. In the churches in central Syria of slightly earlier
+date, the diaconicon is rectangular, the side apses at Kalat-Seman
+having been added at a later date.</p>
+
+<p><b>DIADOCHI</b> (Gr. <span class="grk"
+title="diadechesthai">&delta;&iota;&alpha;&delta;&#7952;&chi;&epsilon;&sigma;&theta;&alpha;&iota;</span>,
+to receive from another), i.e. "Successors," the name given to the
+Macedonian generals who fought for the empire of Alexander after his
+death in 323 B.C. The name includes Antigonus and his son Demetrius
+Poliorcetes, Antipater and his son Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes
+and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into which the Macedonian empire was
+divided under these rulers are known as Hellenistic. The chief were Asia
+Minor and Syria under the Seleucid Dynasty (q.v.), Egypt under the
+Ptolemies (q.v.), Macedonia under the successors of Antigonus Gonatas,
+Pergamum (q.v.) under the Attalid dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were
+merged in the Roman empire. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Macedonian Empire</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAGONAL</b> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dia">;&delta;&#x03af;&alpha;</span>, through, <span
+class="grk" title="gônia">&gamma;&omega;&nu;&#x03af;&alpha;</span>, a corner), in geometry,
+a line joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a rectilinear
+figure.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DIAGORAS</b>, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist, flourished
+in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious in his youth and a
+writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became an atheist because a great
+wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods. In consequence of his
+blasphemous speeches, and especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he
+was condemned to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head
+(Aristoph. <i>Clouds</i>, 830; <i>Birds</i>, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth,
+where he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called
+<span class="grk" title="Phrygioi logoi">&Phi;&rho;&#x03cd;&gamma;&iota;&omicron;&iota;
+&lambda;&#x03cc;&gamma;&omicron;&iota;</span> or <span class="grk"
+title="Apopyrgizontes">&#7944;&pi;&omicron;&pi;&upsilon;&rho;&gamma;&#x03af;&zeta;&omicron;&nu;&tau;&epsilon;&sigmaf;</span>,
+in which he probably attacked the Phrygian divinities.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAGRAM</b> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="diagramma">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;&gamma;&rho;&alpha;&mu;&mu;&alpha;</span>,
+from <span class="grk" title="diagraphein">&delta;&iota;&alpha;&gamma;&rho;&#x03ac;&phi;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;</span>,
+to mark out by <span class="correction" title="added missing parenthesis">lines)</span>, a figure drawn in such a manner that the
+geometrical relations between the parts of the figure illustrate
+relations between other objects. They may be classed according to the
+manner in which they are intended to be used, and also according to the
+kind of analogy which we recognize between the diagram and the thing
+represented. The diagrams in mathematical treatises are intended to help
+the reader to follow the mathematical reasoning. The construction of the
+figure is defined in words so that even if no figure were drawn the
+reader could draw one for himself. The diagram is a good one if those
+features which form the subject of the proposition are clearly
+represented.</p>
+
+<p>Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way&mdash;namely, for
+purposes of measurement. The plans and designs drawn by architects and
+engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by
+measuring certain distances on the diagram. For such purposes it is
+essential that the drawing be as accurate as possible. We therefore
+class diagrams as diagrams of illustration, which merely suggest certain
+relations to the mind of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale,
+from which measurements are intended to be made. There are some diagrams
+or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of no importance,
+provided their connexions are properly shown. Of this kind are the
+diagrams of electrical connexions, and those belonging to that
+department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis,
+periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic.</i>&mdash;Diagrams may
+also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which no symbols
+are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular
+points of the diagrams, and mixed diagrams, in which certain magnitudes
+are represented, not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by
+symbols, such as numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the
+height of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by
+marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on
+the map. There is another method in which a line called a contour line
+is drawn through all the places in the map whose height above the sea is
+a certain number of feet, and the number of feet is written at some
+point or points of this line. By the use of a series of contour lines,
+the height of a great number of places can be indicated on a map by
+means of a small number of written symbols. Still this method is not a
+purely graphical method, but a partly symbolical method of expressing
+the third dimension of objects on a diagram in two dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the
+relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables, we must use
+more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of construction we use plans and
+elevations and sections through different planes, to specify the form of
+objects having three <span class="pagenum"><a name="page147"></a>[Page 147]</span> dimensions. In such systems of diagrams
+we have to indicate that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point
+in another diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding
+points in the different diagrams with the same letter. If the diagrams
+are drawn on the same piece of paper we may indicate corresponding
+points by drawing a line from one to the other, taking care that this
+line of correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for a real
+line in either diagram. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Descriptive</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of
+which the form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are
+projections of the bodies taken from two points so near each
+other that, by viewing the two diagrams simultaneously, one
+with each eye, we identify the corresponding points intuitively.
+The method in which we simultaneously contemplate two figures,
+and recognize a correspondence between certain points in the one
+figure and certain points in the other, is one of the most powerful
+and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in pure
+geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures
+have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes
+spoken of as the method or principle of Duality. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>
+<i>Projective</i>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p class="center sc">Diagrams in Mechanics.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the use
+of a series of diagrams representing the configuration, displacement and
+acceleration of the parts of the system.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagram of Configuration.</i>&mdash;In considering a material system it is
+often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at any
+given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The position of
+any particle of the system is defined by drawing a straight line or
+vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the given particle.
+The position of the particle with respect to the origin is determined by
+the magnitude and direction of this vector. If in the diagram we draw
+from the origin (which need not be the same point of space as the origin
+for the material system) a vector equal and parallel to the vector which
+determines the position of the particle, the end of this vector will
+indicate the position of the particle in the diagram of configuration.
+If this is done for all the particles we shall have a system of points
+in the diagram of configuration, each of which corresponds to a particle
+of the material system, and the relative positions of any pair of these
+points will be the same as the relative positions of the material
+particles which correspond to them.</p>
+
+<p>We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the vectors
+are supposed to be drawn&mdash;one for the material system, the other for the
+diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn from them, may now
+be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the material system and on
+the other a set of points, each point corresponding to a particle of the
+system, and the whole representing the configuration of the system at a
+given instant.</p>
+
+<p>This is called a diagram of configuration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagram of Displacement.</i>&mdash;Let us next consider two diagrams of
+configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different
+instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second the
+final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration to the
+other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at present
+consider the length of time during which the displacement was effected,
+nor the intermediate stages through which it passed, but only the final
+result&mdash;a change of configuration. To study this change we construct a
+diagram of displacement.</p>
+
+<p>Let A, B, C be the points in the initial diagram of configuration, and
+A&prime;, B&prime;, C&prime; be the corresponding points in the final diagram of
+configuration. From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement, draw a
+vector oa equal and parallel to AA&prime;, ob equal and parallel to BB&prime;, oc to
+CC&prime;, and so on. The points a, b, c, &amp;c., will be such that the
+vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so on. The
+diagram containing the points a, b, c, &amp;c., is therefore called the
+diagram of displacement.</p>
+
+<p>In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed
+that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system. For
+we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to AA&prime;, which we
+cannot do unless we know the absolute final position of A, with respect
+to its initial position. In this diagram of displacement there is
+therefore, besides the points a, b, c, &amp;c., an <i>origin</i>, o, which
+represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary because
+the two configurations do not exist at the same time; and therefore to
+express their relative position we require to know a point which remains
+the same at the beginning and end of the time.</p>
+
+<p>But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume a
+knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space.
+Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and equal to BA in
+the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel and equal to
+A&prime;B&prime; in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the
+position of the point b relative to a will be the same by this
+construction as by the former construction, only we must observe that in
+this second construction we use only vectors such as AB,
+A&prime;B&prime;, which represent the relative position of points both
+of which exist simultaneously, instead of vectors such as AA&prime;,
+BB&prime;, which express the position of a point at one instant relative
+to its position at a former instant, and which therefore cannot be
+determined by observation, because the two ends of the vector do not
+exist simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p>It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by
+the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates that we
+have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But no such point
+occurs in the second construction, because we use such vectors only as
+we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of displacements <i>without an
+origin</i> represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know about
+the displacement of the material system.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagram of Velocity.</i>&mdash;If the relative velocities of the points of the
+system are constant, then the diagram of displacement corresponding to
+an interval of a unit of time between the initial and the final
+configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If the relative
+velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in which the
+velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system at the given
+instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The diagram of
+displacements for this imaginary system is the required diagram of
+relative velocities of the actual system at the given instant. It is
+easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any one point
+relative to any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity of any of
+them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagram of Acceleration.</i>&mdash;By the same process by which we formed the
+diagram of displacements from the two diagrams of initial and final
+configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity
+from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This diagram may
+be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval of time. And
+by the same process by which we deduced the diagram of velocities from
+that of displacements we may deduce the diagram of rates of acceleration
+from that of total acceleration.</p>
+
+<p>We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kinematics
+because they are found to be of use <span class="correction"
+title="originally 'epsecially'">especially</span> when we have to deal with
+material systems containing a great number of parts, as in the kinetic
+theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then appears as a region
+of space swarming with points representing molecules, and the only way
+in which we can investigate it is by considering the number of such
+points in unit of volume in different parts of that region, and calling
+this the <i>density</i> of the gas.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region containing
+points equal in number but distributed in a different manner, and the
+number of points in any given portion of the region expresses the number
+of molecules whose velocities lie within given limits. We may speak of
+this as the velocity-density.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagrams of Stress.</i>&mdash;Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to
+statical questions, because the state of the system is constant, so that
+we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corresponding to the
+successive states of the system. The most useful of these applications,
+collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates to the equilibrium of plane
+framed structures familiarly represented in bridges and roof-trusses.
+Two diagrams are used, one called the diagram of the frame and the other
+called the diagram of stress. The structure itself consists of a number
+of separable pieces or links jointed together at their extremities. In
+practice these joints have friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so
+that the force acting at the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly
+through the axis of the joint; but as it is unsafe to make the stability
+of the structure depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we
+assume in our calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and
+therefore that the force acting on the end of any link passes through
+the axis of the joint.</p>
+
+<p>The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in the
+diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in the actual
+structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the frame it is
+represented by a straight line joining the points representing the two
+joints. If no force acts on the link except the two forces acting
+through the centres of the joints, these two forces must be equal and
+opposite, and their direction must coincide with the straight line
+joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting on either
+extremity of the link is directed towards the other extremity, the
+stress on the link is called pressure and the link is called a "strut."
+If it is directed away from the other extremity, the stress on the link
+is called tension and the link is called a "tie." In this case,
+therefore, the only stress acting in a link is a pressure or a tension
+in the direction of the straight line which represents it in the diagram
+of the frame, and all that we have to do is to find the magnitude of
+this stress. In the actual structure gravity acts on every part of the
+link, but in the diagram we substitute for the actual weight of the
+different parts of the link two weights which have the same resultant
+acting at the extremities of the link.</p>
+
+<p>We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without
+weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of
+the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If any link has
+more than two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an
+imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which has only two
+joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a system of points,
+certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines, and each point is
+in general acted on by a weight or other force acting between it and
+some point external to the system. To complete <span class="pagenum"><a name="page148"></a>[Page 148]</span> the diagram
+we may represent these external forces as links, that is to say,
+straight lines joining the points of the frame to points external to the
+frame. Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point
+of application of the weight with the centre of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in the
+lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together with
+the real frame and the links representing external forces, which join
+points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up together a
+complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of points
+connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may in this way
+reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points with
+attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of these
+points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each of these
+forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining the points,
+so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might do this by
+calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure or the
+tension which acts in it.</p>
+
+<p>We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are
+represented graphically as regards direction and position, but
+symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be
+represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the
+direction of the force containing as many units of length as there are
+units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an
+arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to this
+method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram of
+configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as a record
+of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces, but it
+would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of the
+calculation.</p>
+
+<p>But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set of
+forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel and
+proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon the
+forces are in equilibrium. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>.) We might in this way form a
+series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame. But in so
+doing we give up the principle of drawing the line representing a force
+from the point of application of the force, for all the sides of the
+polygon cannot pass through the same point, as the forces do. We also
+represent every stress twice over, for it appears as a side of both the
+polygons corresponding to the two joints between which it acts. But if
+we can arrange the polygons in such a way that the sides of any two
+polygons which represent the same stress coincide with each other, we
+may form a diagram in which every stress is represented in direction and
+magnitude, though not in position, by a single line which is the common
+boundary of the two polygons which represent the joints at the
+extremities of the corresponding piece of the frame.</p>
+
+<p>We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is
+made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in which
+every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude by a
+straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is
+manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the
+corresponding polygon is closed or not.</p>
+
+<p>The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of stress
+are as follows:&mdash;To every link in the frame corresponds a straight line
+in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude and direction the
+stress acting in that link; and to every joint of the frame corresponds
+a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces acting at that joint are
+represented by the sides of the polygon taken in a certain cyclical
+order, the cyclical order of the sides of the two adjacent polygons
+being such that their common side is traced in opposite directions in
+going round the two polygons.</p>
+
+<p>The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the direction
+of the force acting on that joint of the frame which corresponds to the
+polygon, and due to that link of the frame which corresponds to the
+side. This determines whether the stress of the link is a pressure or a
+tension. If we know whether the stress of any one link is a pressure or
+a tension, this determines the cyclical order of the sides of the two
+polygons corresponding to the ends of the links, and therefore the
+cyclical order of all the polygons, and the nature of the stress in
+every link of the frame.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reciprocal Diagrams.</i>&mdash;When to every point of concourse of the lines in
+the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton of
+the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal.</p>
+
+<p>The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other cases
+than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in his <i>Applied
+Mechanics</i> (1857). The method was independently applied to a large
+number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman in the office
+of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk Maxwell in his lectures in
+King's College, London. In the <i>Phil. Mag.</i> for 1864 the latter pointed
+out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and in a paper on
+"Reciprocal Figures, Frames and Diagrams of Forces," <i>Trans. R.S. Edin.</i>
+vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed the relation of the method to Airy's
+function of stress and to other mathematical methods. Professor Fleeming
+Jenkin has given a number of applications of the method to practice
+(<i>Trans. R.S. Edin.</i> vol. xxv.).</p>
+
+<p>L. Cremona (<i>Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica</i>, 1872) deduced
+the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the two
+components of a wrench as developed by Möbius. Karl Culmann, in his
+<i>Graphische Statik</i> (1st ed. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), made great use
+of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not reciprocal.
+Maurice Levy in his <i>Statique graphique</i> (1874) has treated the whole
+subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R. H. Bow, in his <i>The
+Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed Structures</i> (1873),
+materially simplified the process of drawing a diagram of stress
+reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of equilibrating
+external forces.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img148a.jpg" width="550" height="293" alt="Diagram of Configuration." title="Diagram of Configuration." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1</span> Diagram of Configuration.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or the
+links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow places a
+letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the
+frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as
+separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one link
+of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection of the
+links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of each of
+the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of stress,
+as the opposite sides of the parallelogram which corresponds to the
+point of intersection.</p>
+
+<p>This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of configuration
+(fig. 1), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the linkwork which
+Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane.</p>
+
+<p>In fig. 1 the real joints are distinguished from the places where one
+link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T, V.
+The four links RSTV form a "contraparallelogram" in which RS = TV and RV
+= ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar to each other. A fourth
+triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the quadruplane.
+The four points O, P, N, Q form a parallelogram whose angle POQ is
+constant and equal to &pi; - SOR. The product of the distances OP and OQ
+is constant. The linkwork may be fixed at O. If any figure is traced by
+P, Q will trace the inverse figure, but turned round O through the
+constant angle POQ. In the diagram forces Pp, Qq are balanced by the
+force Co at the fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq are necessarily
+inversely as OP and OQ, and make equal angles with those lines.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img148b.jpg" width="550" height="262" alt="Diagram of Stress." title="Diagram of Stress." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2</span> Diagram of Stress.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the
+diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a
+point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress in the
+link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented in the
+diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding to those
+areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by lines crossing
+it, the stress in each part is represented by a different line for each
+part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link these lines are
+all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress in RV is
+represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE and AB. If
+two areas have no part of their boundary in common the letters
+corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined by a
+straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn between them, it
+would represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of all the
+stresses in the links which are cut by any line, straight or curved,
+joining the two areas. For instance the areas F and C in fig. 1 have no
+common boundary, and the points F and C in fig. 2 are not joined by a
+straight line. But every path from the area F to the area C in fig. 1
+passes through a series of other areas, and each passage from one area
+into a contiguous area corresponds to a line drawn in the diagram of
+stress. Hence the whole path from F <span class="pagenum"><a name="page149"></a>[Page 149]</span> to C in fig. 1
+corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and extending from F to
+C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the path is
+represented by FC in fig. 2.</p>
+
+<p>Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on
+bridges (q.v.).</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Automatic Description of Diagrams.</i></p>
+
+<p>There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates of
+a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values of
+two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move, say
+horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing point is
+made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying as the
+value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out a curve
+on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any given time may
+be determined. This principle is applied to the automatic registration
+of phenomena of all kinds, from those of meteorology and terrestrial
+magnetism to the velocity of cannon-shot, the vibrations of sounding
+bodies, the motions of animals, voluntary and involuntary, and the
+currents in electric telegraphs.</p>
+
+<p>In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a
+constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to that of the
+piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is proportional to
+the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the
+curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and the pressure of the
+steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not only supplies a record
+of the pressure of the steam at each stage of the stroke of the engine,
+but indicates the work done by the steam in each stroke by the area
+enclosed by the curve traced on the diagram.<span style="padding-left:
+3em; ">(J. C. M.)</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAL</b> and <b>DIALLING.</b> Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a branch of
+applied mathematics which treats of the construction of sun-dials, that
+is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the
+divisions of the day (Lat. <i>dies</i>) by the motion of the shadow of some
+object on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the
+earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun;
+though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division
+into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the
+greatest elevation.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah
+xxxviii. 8: "Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which
+is gone down in the <i>sun-dial</i> of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date
+of this would be about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know
+nothing of the character or construction of the instrument. The earliest
+of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the
+hemicycle, or hemisphere, of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who
+probably lived about 300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed
+with its rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed
+in any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the horizon
+the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere, and
+the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular
+arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts, determined twelve equal
+intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this were done at the
+time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as
+might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the
+corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow of
+the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of
+time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide
+each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal parts were
+called <i>temporary hours</i>; and, since the duration of daylight varies
+from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from those
+of another; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that
+time, and especially in countries where the variation between the
+longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our
+climates.</p>
+
+<p>The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as
+appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same
+construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials have in modern
+times been found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is
+supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says
+that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The
+second and third were found in 1751&mdash;one at Castel-Nuovo and the other
+at Rignano; and a fourth was found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in
+his <i>Abhandlungen von den Sonnenuhren der Alten</i> (Leipzig, 1777), says
+that this dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore
+be the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of
+Alexandria.</p>
+
+<p>Herodotus recorded that the Greeks derived from the Babylonians the use
+of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry
+enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some
+of which remain to us, and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but
+also of great ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>Ptolemy's <i>Almagest</i> treats of the construction of dials by means of his
+<i>analemma</i>, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical
+problems. The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular
+dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west,
+north or south, and these are the only ones he treats of. It is certain,
+however, that the ancients were able to construct declining dials, as is
+shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics&mdash;the Tower of
+the Winds at Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which
+the eight principal winds are represented, and over them eight different
+dials&mdash;four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the
+intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subsequent to
+that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower in the sixth
+chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials, and as he has
+described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that the
+dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary
+hours or, as the Greeks called them, <i>hectemoria</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this
+Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius
+Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees
+less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The
+first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by
+order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on
+gnomonics, this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we
+remember that the dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of
+Memphis, and consequently less adapted to its position than that of
+Catania to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not
+cultivated in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great importance
+to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the Greeks,
+but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions. One
+of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the
+13th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and
+other surfaces. He even introduced <i>equal</i> or <i>equinoctial hours</i>, but
+the idea was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in
+use.</p>
+
+<p>Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l
+Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by <i>equal</i> hours was
+generally adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics
+from the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century is almost a blank,
+and during that time the change took place. We can see, however, that
+the change would necessarily follow the introduction of clocks and other
+mechanical methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were,
+the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in
+winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary
+hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now,
+we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of
+France about the year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new
+sun-dials came into general use during the 14th and 15th centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was <a>Sebastian
+Münster</a> (q.v.), who published his <i>Horologiographia</i> at Basel in 1531.
+He gives a number of correct rules, but without demonstrations. Among
+his inventions was a moon-dial,<a name="FnAnchor_7" href="#Footnote_7"><sup>[1]</sup></a> but this does not admit of much
+accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>During the 17th century dialling was discussed at great length by many
+writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto <span class="pagenum"><a name="page150"></a>[Page 150]</span> volume of 800
+pages entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be
+considered to contain all that was known at that time.</p>
+
+<p>In the 18th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and
+these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament
+to a garden, or in remote country districts where the old dial on the
+church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by
+its side. The art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little
+more than a mathematical recreation.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><i>General Principles.</i>&mdash;The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth
+are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded. That
+the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in twenty-four
+hours, and that it is carried round the sun in one year at a nearly
+uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing these facts. But the
+effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit our purpose better,
+and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the ideas of the ancients,
+of which our senses furnish apparent confirmation, and assume the earth
+to be fixed. Then, the sun and stars revolve round the earth's axis
+uniformly from east to west once a day&mdash;the sun lagging a little behind
+the stars, making its day some four minutes longer&mdash;so that at the end
+of the year it finds itself again in the same place, having made a
+complete revolution of the heavens relatively to the stars from west to
+east.</p>
+
+<p>The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line
+through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small,
+compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a
+parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely
+look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in
+the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and 6
+P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An axis so
+drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole, its
+elevation being equal to the latitude of the place.</p>
+
+<p>The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would that
+of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes, spoken of
+above, were always the same. But this is constantly altering, so that
+the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also consequently as
+measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a strictly uniform pace.
+This irregularity, which is slight, would be of little consequence in
+the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and watches being mechanical
+measures of time could not, except by extreme complication, be made to
+follow this irregularity, even if desirable.</p>
+
+<p>The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the
+length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in
+the year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly;
+but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will
+be sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock-the greatest accumulated
+difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in November, but
+on the average much less. The four days on which the two agree are April
+15, June 15, September 1 and December 24.</p>
+
+<p>Clock-time is called <i>mean time</i>, that marked by the sun-dial is called
+<i>apparent time</i>, and the difference between them is the <i>equation of
+time</i>. It is given in most calendars and almanacs, frequently under the
+heading "clock slow," "clock fast." When the time by the sun-dial is
+known, the equation of time will at once enable us to obtain the
+corresponding clock-time, or vice versa.</p>
+
+<p>Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the apparent
+position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need consideration
+in the construction of an instrument which, with the best workmanship,
+does not after all admit of very great accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood. The
+problem before us is the following:&mdash;A rod, or <i>style</i>, as it is called,
+being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's axis, we have
+to find how and where points or lines of reference must be traced on
+some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the shadow of the
+style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know that at that
+moment it is solar noon,&mdash;that is, that the plane through the style and
+through the sun then coincides with the meridian; again, that when the
+shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is 1 o'clock by solar
+time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the above plane through
+the style and through the sun has just turned through the twenty-fourth
+part of a complete revolution; and so on for the subsequent hours,&mdash;the
+hours before noon being indicated in a similar manner. The style and the
+surface on which these lines are traced together constitute the dial.</p>
+
+<p>The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected&mdash;whether on
+church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall&mdash;the surface must
+be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines.</p>
+
+<p>The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the
+accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the
+instrument depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an
+angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter
+condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the
+meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is fixed
+to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that the
+style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be
+usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by the
+style it must always be understood that the middle line of the thin band
+of shade is meant.</p>
+
+<p>The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the
+dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to determine
+accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend on this one.
+We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style has been itself
+accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is done the XII o'clock
+line will be found by the intersection of the dial surface with the
+vertical plane which contains the style; and the most simple way of
+drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a plummet from some point
+of the style whence it may hang freely, and waiting until the shadows of
+both style and plumb-line coincide on the dial. This single shadow will
+be the XII o'clock line.</p>
+
+<p>In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock
+line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore, at
+once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line.</p>
+
+<p>The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate method
+of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when good
+watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the style falls
+when 1, 2, 3, &amp;c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the next
+morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced; and
+in the same manner the hours might be subdivided into halves and
+quarters, or even into minutes.</p>
+
+<p>But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II, III,
+&amp;c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each of
+these lines would make with the XII o'clock line. Now, except in the
+simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a
+cardinal point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or
+elaborate geometrical constructions, implying considerable mathematical
+knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of error. The chief
+source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the data; for the
+position of the dial-plane would have to be found before the
+calculations began,&mdash;that is, it would be necessary to know exactly by
+how many degrees it declined from the south towards the east or west,
+and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical. The ancients,
+with the means at their disposal, could obtain these results only very
+roughly.</p>
+
+<p>Dials received different names according to their position:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Horizontal dials</i>, when traced on a horizontal plane;</p>
+
+<p><i>Vertical dials</i>, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal
+points;</p>
+
+<p><i>Vertical declining dials</i>, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal
+point;</p>
+
+<p><i>Inclining dials</i>, when traced on planes neither vertical nor horizontal
+(these were further distinguished as <i>reclining</i> when leaning
+backwards from an observer, <i>proclining</i> when leaning forwards);</p>
+
+<p><i>Equinoctial dials</i>, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's
+axis, &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dial Construction.</i>&mdash;A very correct view of the problem of dial
+construction may be obtained as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img150.jpg" width="550" height="524" alt="Dial Construction." title="Dial Construction." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. 1) having an axis AB parallel to
+the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cylinder let equidistant
+generating-lines be traced 15° apart, one of them XII ... XII being in
+the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II,
+&amp;c., following in the order of the sun's motion.</p>
+
+<p>Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line XII ...
+XII at apparent noon, on the line I ... I at one hour after noon, on II
+... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the cylinder be cut by
+any plane MN representing the plane on which the dial is to be traced,
+the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane and fall on the lines
+AXII AI, AII, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151"></a>[Page 151]</span> by AI, AII, &amp;c. with AXII; the line AXII itself, being
+in the vertical plane through AB, may be supposed known.</p>
+
+<p>For the purposes of actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere
+will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it
+to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock line
+in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south dial.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img151a.jpg" width="500" height="474" alt="Horizontal Dial." title="Horizontal Dial." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Horizontal Dial.</i>&mdash;Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed
+transparent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of the
+heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former</p>
+
+<p>horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore
+coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then the
+circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with the
+horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next divide
+the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, bc, cd, &amp;c. ... of
+15° each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the various points
+of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp, Pcp, &amp;c. ...
+These will exactly correspond to the equidistant generating lines on the
+cylinder in the previous construction, and the shadow of the style will
+fall on these circles after successive intervals of 1,2, 3, &amp;c.,
+hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle in the points B, C,
+D, &amp;c., then EB, EC, ED, &amp;c. ... will be the I, II, III,
+&amp;c., hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal dial
+consists in calculating the angles which these lines make with the XII
+o'clock line EA, whose position is known. The spherical triangles PAB,
+PAC, &amp;c., enable us to do this readily. They are all right-angled at
+A, the side PA is the latitude of the place, and the angles APB, APC,
+&amp;c., are respectively 15°, 30°, &amp;c., then</p>
+
+<p class="noind center">tan AB = tan 15° sin <i>latitude</i>,<br />
+                  tan AC = tan 30° sin <i>latitude</i>,<br />
+                                  &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">These determine the sides AB, AC, &amp;c., that is, the angles AEB, AEC,
+&amp;c., required.</p>
+
+<p>The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian EA of
+11° 51' on a London dial, of 12° 31' at Edinburgh, of 11° 23' at Paris,
+12° 0' at Berlin, 9° 55' at New York and 9° 19' at San Francisco. In the
+same way may be found the angles made by the other hour-lines.</p>
+
+<p>The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant
+from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further, because all
+the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these. In the first
+place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian, and therefore
+two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-lines equidistant
+from the meridian; thus the XI o'clock line and the I o'clock line must
+make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the same as the II o'clock,
+and so on. And next, the 24 great circles, which were drawn to determine
+these lines, are in reality only 12; for clearly the great circle which
+gives I o'clock after midnight, and that which gives I o'clock after
+noon, are one and the same, and so also for the other hours. Therefore
+the hour-lines between VI in the evening and VI the next morning are the
+prolongations of the remaining twelve.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and retain
+only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on it, and we
+shall have the horizontal dial.</p>
+
+<p>On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock,
+and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for
+extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh the limits will
+be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within the Arctic
+circle, the whole circuit will be required.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal plate
+from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate, which is
+sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have an acute
+angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly fixed in a
+vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide with the
+meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thickness of the
+plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles. Since there
+are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two half dials,
+because a little consideration will show that, owing to the thickness of
+the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast a shadow. Thus the
+eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours before 6 o'clock in the
+morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the western edge will be used. At
+noon it will change again to the eastern edge until 6 o'clock in the
+evening, and finally the western edge for the remaining hours of
+daylight.</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img151b.jpg" width="350" height="309" alt="Single dial plate." title="Single dial plate." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles meet
+the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be careful to
+draw only those lines for which the corresponding style is able to give
+a shadow as explained above. The dial will thus have the appearance of a
+single dial plate, and there will be no confusion (see fig. 3).</p>
+
+<p>The line of demarcation between the shadow and the light will be better
+defined than when a wire style is used; but the indications by this
+double dial will always be one minute too fast in the morning and one
+minute too slow in the afternoon. This is owing to the magnitude of the
+sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined shadows
+are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require them, but
+by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward one in the
+afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to advance through a
+space equal to its half-breadth.</p>
+
+<p>Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate is of
+metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be purchased
+ready for placing on the pedestal,&mdash;the dial with all the hour-lines
+traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its proper position,
+if not even cast in the same piece with the dial plate.</p>
+
+<p>When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be
+perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling will be done
+with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected either in
+the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate till the
+time given by the shadow (making the <i>one</i> minute correction mentioned
+above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time is known. It
+is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so built up
+beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the latitude of
+some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines will be drawn in
+directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a dial can therefore
+not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although it would, without
+appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose latitude did not differ
+more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London, and it would be safe to
+employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire.</p>
+
+<p>If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in
+latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a
+place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of time
+would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following table
+will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of the angle
+of the style,&mdash;all angles on the dial being readily measured with an
+ordinary protractor. It extends from 50° lat. to 59&frac12;° lat., and
+therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and Ireland:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;" summary="data">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">LAT.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">XI. A.M. <br />
+       I. P.M.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">X. A.M. <br />
+       II. P.M.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">IX. A.M. <br />
+       III. P.M.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">VIII. A.M. <br />
+       IIII. P.M.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">VII. A.M. <br />
+       V. P.M.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">VI. A.M. <br />
+       VI. P.M.</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">50°</td><td class="rightb2">0&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">11°</td><td class="rightb2">36&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">23°</td><td class="rightb2">51&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">37°</td><td class="rightb2">27&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53°</td><td class="rightb2">0&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">70°</td><td class="rightb2">43&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90°</td><td class="rightb2">0&prime;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">50</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">11</td><td class="rightb2">41</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">1</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">37</td><td class="rightb2">39</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">12</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">70</td><td class="rightb2">51</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">51</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">11</td><td class="rightb2">46</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">10</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">37</td><td class="rightb2">51</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">23</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">70</td><td class="rightb2">59</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">51</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">11</td><td class="rightb2">51</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">19</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">3</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">35</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">6</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">52</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">11</td><td class="rightb2">55</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">28</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">14</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">46</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">13</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">52</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">37</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">25</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">57</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">20</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">5</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">45</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">37</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">8</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">9</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">54</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">48</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">19</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">34</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">14</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">2</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">58</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">29</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">40</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">18</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">10</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">9</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">39</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">47</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">23</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">19</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">19</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">49</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">53</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">59</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">59</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">56</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">31</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">35</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">40</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">9</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">5</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">56</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">36</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">43</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">50</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">18</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">11</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">57</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">40</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">50</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">59</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">17</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">57</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">44</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">58</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">40</td><td class="rightb2">9</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">36</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">22</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">58</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">48</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">26</td><td class="rightb2">5</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">40</td><td class="rightb2">18</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">45</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">28</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">58</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">52</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">26</td><td class="rightb2">13</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">40</td><td class="rightb2">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">54</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">33</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">59</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">56</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">26</td><td class="rightb2">20</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">40</td><td class="rightb2">36</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">56</td><td class="rightb2">2</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">39</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">59</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">13</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">26</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; "><span class="correction" title="corrected from 45">40</span></td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">45</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">56</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">11</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">72</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">44</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">90</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">0</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Vertical South Dial.</i>&mdash;Let us take again our imaginary transparent
+sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis.
+Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page152"></a>[Page
+152]</span> meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical
+plane facing south. This will cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA,
+which, being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south,
+will be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial
+circle, obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the
+axis PEp. The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the
+vertical line EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and
+the line EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the intersection
+of two great circles ZM, QM, each at right angles to the vertical plane
+QZP, will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem,
+divide the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15° each, beginning
+at a, viz. ab, bc, &amp;c.,&mdash;each quadrant aM, MQ, &amp;c., containing
+6,&mdash;then through each point of division and through the axis Pp draw a
+plane cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles. As the sun
+revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will successively fall on
+these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these circles cross the
+vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &amp;c., the shadow of the
+lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB, EC, &amp;c.,
+which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial, Ep
+being the style.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img152a.jpg" width="500" height="540" alt="Vertical South Dial." title="Vertical South Dial." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on each
+side of noon; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than 6
+o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the dial
+before that time, and is no longer available.</p>
+
+<p>It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &amp;c., may be calculated.</p>
+
+<p>The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &amp;c., will give us a simple rule.
+These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP, is
+the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the
+latitude and 90°; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &amp;c., are 15°,
+30°, &amp;c., respectively. Then</p>
+
+<p class="noind center">tan AB = tan 15° sin <i>co-latitude</i>;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">or more simply,</p>
+
+<p class="noind center">tan AB = tan 15° cos <i>latitude</i>,<br />
+                  tan AC = tan 30° cos <i>latitude</i>,<br />
+                                  &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB,
+AEC, &amp;c., required.</p>
+
+<p>In this ease the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the opposite
+result to that of the horizontal dial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inclining, Reclining, &amp;c., Dials.</i>&mdash;We shall not enter into the
+calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before
+supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and all
+the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these hour-circles
+with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines just as in the
+previous cases; but the triangles will no longer be right-angled, and
+the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the chances of error
+being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing the dial plane in
+its true position on the sphere, since that true position will have to
+be found from observations which can be only roughly performed.</p>
+
+<p>In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is not a plane,
+and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the only safe
+practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points (one is
+sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the moment
+when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and afterwards
+connect these points with the centre by a continuous line. Of course
+the style must have been accurately fixed in its true position before
+we begin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Equatorial Dial.</i>&mdash;The name equatorial dial is given to one whose plane
+is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the equator.
+It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided into 24 equal
+ares is placed at right angles to the style, and hour divisions are
+marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style point accurately to
+the pole, and that the noon division coincide with the meridian plane,
+the shadow of the style will fall on the other divisions, each at its
+proper time. The divisions must be marked on both sides of the dial,
+because the sun will shine on opposite sides in the summer and in the
+winter months, changing at each equinox.</p>
+
+<p><i>To find the Meridian Plane.</i>&mdash;We have, so far, assumed the meridian
+plane to be accurately known; we shall proceed to describe some of the
+methods by which it may be found.</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img152b.jpg" width="300" height="295" alt="Equatorial Dial." title="Equatorial Dial." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approximation. It
+is well known that the needle of the compass, when free to move
+horizontally, oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction
+termed the magnetic meridian. This does not coincide with the true north
+and south line, but the difference between them is generally known with
+tolerable accuracy, and is called the variation of the compass. The
+variation differs widely at different parts of the surface of the earth,
+and is not stationary at any particular place, though the change is
+slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation which takes place
+about the mean position, but too small to need notice here (see <span class="sc"><a
+href="#artlinks">Magnetism, Terrestrial</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass
+can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian, but
+it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further alteration
+will be necessary when a more perfect determination has been made.</p>
+
+<p>A very simple practical method is the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position that
+it may receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the afternoon.
+Then carefully level the surface by means of a spirit-level. This must
+be done very accurately, and the table in that position made perfectly
+secure, so that there be no danger of its shifting during the day.</p>
+
+<p>Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly fixed.
+The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface, should be
+somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H for centre,
+describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD, EF, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet line
+at some convenient height above H.</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img152c.jpg" width="400" height="464" alt="Fig. 6." title="Fig. 6." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the bead P
+as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It will be
+found to describe a curve ACE ... FDB, approaching the point H as the
+sun advances towards noon, and receding from it afterwards. (The curve
+is a conic section&mdash;an hyperbola in these regions.) At the moment when
+it crosses the arc AB, mark the point A; AP is then the direction of the
+sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH is the altitude of the sun.
+In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses the same arc; then
+the angle PBH is the altitude. But the right-angled triangles PHA, PHB
+are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the same altitudes at
+those two instants, the one before, the other after noon. It follows
+that, <i>if the sun has not changed its declination</i> during the interval,
+the two positions will be symmetrically placed one on each side of the
+meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and bisecting it in M, HM
+will be the meridian line.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &amp;c., will furnish its
+meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the
+mean of the positions thus found must be taken.</p>
+
+<p>The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its
+declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and
+may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at the
+end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder of
+the year the change of declination is so slow that we may safely neglect
+it. The most favourable times are at the end of June and at the end of
+December, when the sun's declination is almost stationary. If the line
+HM be produced both ways to the edges of the table, then the two points
+on the ground vertically below those on the edges may be found by a
+plummet, and, if permanent marks be made there, the meridian plane,
+which is the vertical plane passing through these two points, will have
+its position perfectly secured.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page153"></a>[Page 153]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position.</i>&mdash;Before giving any
+other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the
+construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be accurately
+placed in its true position. The angle which the style makes with a
+hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place, is known, and
+the north and south direction is also roughly given by the mariner's
+compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted
+approximately&mdash;correctly, indeed, as to its inclination&mdash;but probably
+requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine
+plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be properly
+adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls exactly on
+the plumb-line,&mdash;or, which is the same thing, if both shadows coincide
+on the dial.</p>
+
+<p>This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane,
+whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the ground.
+Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not generally
+be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian plane, and
+that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a plummet over the
+mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow of the plumb-line
+falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. A signal from the observer
+there to the observer at the dial enables the latter to adjust the style
+as directed above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane.</i>&mdash;We have dwelt at some
+length on these practical operations because they are simple and
+tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant,
+nor telescope&mdash;nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of
+shadow lines.</p>
+
+<p>The Pole star, or <i>Ursae Minoris</i>, may also be employed for finding the
+meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star is
+now only about 1° 14' from the pole; if therefore a plumb-line be
+suspended at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his position
+till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane through his
+eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian plane. Twice
+in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would be strictly
+coincident. This would be when the star crosses the meridian above the
+pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we wished to employ the
+method of determining the meridian, the times of the stars crossing
+would have to be calculated from the data in the <i>Nautical Almanac</i>, and
+a watch would be necessary to know when the instant arrived. The watch
+need not, however, be very accurate, because the motion of the star is
+so slow that an error of ten minutes in the time would not give an error
+of one-eighth of a degree in the azimuth.</p>
+
+<p>The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both
+calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star &eta; <i>Ursae
+Majoris</i>, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest from
+the "pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours from
+the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which joins the
+two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole star, at a
+distance of about 1° 14' from the pole, is crossing the meridian above
+the pole, the star &eta; <i>Ursae Majoris</i>, whose polar distance is about
+40°, has not yet reached the meridian below the pole.</p>
+
+<p>When &eta; <i>Ursae Majoris</i> reaches the meridian, which will be within
+half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian; but its
+slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now
+at some instant between these two times&mdash;much nearer the latter than the
+former&mdash;the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly vertical;
+and at this instant, which the observer determines by seeing that the
+plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither of the stars is
+strictly in the meridian; but the deviation from it is so small that it
+may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the plumb-line taken
+for meridian plane.</p>
+
+<p>In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane
+by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet
+at a short distance in front of the eye; this second plummet, being
+suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as
+always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian
+plane will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground,
+one under each plummet.</p>
+
+<p>This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the
+upper transit of <i>Polaris</i>; for, at the lower transit, the other star &eta;
+<i>Ursae Majoris</i> would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and the
+observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible
+when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half
+of the year is lost to this method.</p>
+
+<p>Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40° N., for
+there the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit;&mdash;we
+may even say not lower than 45° N., for the star must be at least 5°
+above the horizon before it becomes distinctly visible.</p>
+
+<p>There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed,
+but none so convenient as these two, on account of <i>Polaris</i> with its
+very slow motion being one of the pair.</p>
+
+<p><i>To place the Style in its True Position without previous Determination
+of the Meridian Plane.</i>&mdash;The various methods given above for finding the
+meridian plane have for ultimate object the determination of the plane,
+not on its own account, but as an element for fixing the instant of
+noon, whereby the style may be properly placed.</p>
+
+<p>We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we
+determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a
+good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instrument
+for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined in
+a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The simplest
+and most practically useful methods will be found described and
+investigated in any work on astronomy.</p>
+
+<p>For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the
+forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the
+sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions
+of the horizon&mdash;but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of
+the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than 10
+o'clock&mdash;take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same moment,
+marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so observed being
+properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &amp;c., will, together
+with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination, taken from
+the <i>Nautical Almanac</i>, enable us to calculate the time. This will be
+the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we require. Comparing
+the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we see at once by
+how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time; we know, therefore,
+exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon arrives, and
+waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its proper position as
+explained before.</p>
+
+<p>We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and
+observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time
+from some observatory where the work is done; and, allowing for the
+change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we
+have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar
+noon as in the previous case.</p>
+
+<p>In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in devising
+elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced. Sometimes the
+shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder, or on a sphere,
+or on a combination of these. A universal dial was constructed of a
+figure in the shape of a cross; another universal dial showed the hours
+by a globe and by several gnomons. These universal dials required
+adjusting before use, and for this a mariner's compass and a
+spirit-level were necessary. But it would be tedious and useless to
+enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a rule, the more complex
+the less accurate.</p>
+
+<p>Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable centres.
+They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the style had
+to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-<i>lines</i> they had
+hour-<i>points</i>; and the style, instead of being parallel to the axis of
+the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon. There was no
+practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse; and they can
+only be considered as furnishing material for new mathematical problems.</p>
+
+<p><i>Portable Dials.</i>&mdash;The dials so far described have been fixed dials, for
+even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were to be
+fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made generally of
+a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and these, so long as
+the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a watch.</p>
+
+<p>The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with
+that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and the
+same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are essential
+points of difference between them, besides those which are at once
+apparent.</p>
+
+<p>In the fixed dial the result depends on the <i>uniform</i> angular motion of
+the sun round the fixed style; and a small error in the assumed position
+of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the instrument, or to
+some small neglected correction, has only a trifling effect on the time.
+This is owing to the angular displacement of the sun being so rapid&mdash;a
+quarter of a degree every minute&mdash;that for the ordinary affairs of life
+greater accuracy is not required, as a displacement of a quarter of a
+degree, or at any rate of one degree, can be readily seen by nearly
+every person. But with a portable dial this is no longer the case. The
+uniform angular motion is not now available, because we have no
+determined fixed plane to which we may refer it. In the new position, to
+which the observer has gone, the zenith is the only point of the heavens
+he can at once practically find; and the basis for the determination of
+the time is the constantly but <i>very irregularly</i> varying zenith
+distance of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only
+method available for finding local time; but the perfection which has
+been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to
+reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however, to
+be taken. The observations must not be made within a couple of hours of
+noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor too near
+the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions there; and the same
+restrictions must be observed in using a portable dial.</p>
+
+<p>To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials, let
+us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54° lat., and a mean
+declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at 6 o'clock,
+and at noon have an altitude of 36°,&mdash;that is, the portable dial will
+indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each minute, or
+two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The vertical motion of
+the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon, but even there it will
+be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or half the rate of the
+fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed throughout the day.</p>
+
+<p>Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154"></a>[Page 154]</span> for which they are available, and they should not be used
+more than 4 or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were
+constructed.</p>
+
+<p>We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use.</p>
+
+<table style="float: left; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figleft1">
+    <img src="images/img154a.jpg" width="300" height="468" alt="Dial on a Cylinder." title="Dial on a Cylinder." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Dial on a Cylinder.</i>&mdash;A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in.
+high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of tolerably
+easy rotation. A hole in the lid receives the style shaped somewhat like
+a bayonet; and the straight part of the style, which, on account of the
+two bends, is lower than the lid, projects horizontally out from the
+cylinder to a distance of 1 or 1&frac12; in. When not in use the style
+would be taken out and placed inside the cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>A horizontal circle is traced on the cylinder opposite the projecting
+style, and this circle is divided into 36 approximately equidistant
+intervals.<a name="FnAnchor_8" href="#Footnote_8"><sup>[2]</sup></a> These intervals represent spaces of time, and to each
+division is assigned a date, so that each month has three dates marked
+as follows:-January 10, 20, 31; February 10, 20, 28; March 10, 20, 31;
+April 10, 20, 30, and so on,&mdash;always the 10th, the 20th, and the last
+day of each month.</p>
+
+<p>Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis of
+the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily
+understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as to
+bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then
+placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned round
+bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the vertical line
+below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite point of this line,
+the position of which point will depend on the length of the style&mdash;that
+is, the distance of its end from the surface of the cylinder&mdash;and on the
+altitude of the sun at that instant. Suppose that the observations are
+continued all day, the cylinder being very gradually turned so that the
+style may always face the sun, and suppose that marks are made on the
+vertical line to show the extremity of the shadow at each exact hour
+from sunrise to sunset-these times being taken from a good fixed
+sun-dial,&mdash;then it is obvious that the next year, on the <i>same date</i>,
+the sun's declination being about the same, and the observer in about
+the same latitude, the marks made the previous year will serve to tell
+the time all that day.</p>
+
+<p>What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the
+instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which
+would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation, cannot be
+the method employed.</p>
+
+<p>The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation.
+Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken from
+the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place and the
+length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for computing
+the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark below the
+style for each successive hour.</p>
+
+<p>We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at the
+same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if the
+dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results will be
+sufficiently approximate.</p>
+
+<p>When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective
+dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding hour-points,
+will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down,
+the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper position between the
+two divisions. The horizontality of the surface on which the instrument
+rests is a very necessary condition, especially in summer, when, the
+shadow of the style being long, the extreme end will shift rapidly for a
+small deviation from the vertical, and render the reading uncertain. The
+dial can also be used by holding it up by a small ring in the top of the
+lid, and probably the vertically is better ensured in that way.</p>
+
+<p><i>Portable Dial on a Card.</i>&mdash;This neat and very ingenious dial is
+attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and probably
+dates from the early part of the 17th century. Ozanam says that it was
+sometimes called the <i>capuchin</i>, from some fancied resemblance to a cowl
+thrown back.</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the
+card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it; with C as centre,
+and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB below the
+horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at the points
+r, s, t, &amp;c., and through these points draw perpendiculars to the
+diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line through
+r will be the XI ... I line, the line through s the X ... II line, and
+so on; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself; by subdivision
+of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &amp;c., we may draw the hour-lines
+corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where it can be done
+without confusion.</p>
+
+<p>Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the place, and
+let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at right angles to AD.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img154b.jpg" width="550" height="825" alt="Portable Dial on a Card." title="Portable Dial on a Card." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of circle
+RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on it, extending
+from 0° at S to 23&frac12;° on each side at R and T. Next determine the
+points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn from A to the degree
+divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully mark these crossings.</p>
+
+<p>The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination, south
+declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the other hemisphere
+of the earth this would be reversed; the north declinations would be on
+the upper half.</p>
+
+<p>Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations of
+that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the days
+of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and place
+these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without confusion,
+opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the <i>sun-line</i> at the top
+of the card parallel to the line ACB; and, near the extremity, to the
+right, draw any small figure intended to form, as it were, a door of
+which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken that this hinge is
+exactly at right angles to the <i>sun-line</i>. Make a fine open slit c d
+right through the card and extending from the hinge to a short distance
+on the door,&mdash;the centre line of this slit coinciding accurately with
+the <i>sun-line</i>. Now, cut the door completely through the card; except,
+of course, along the hinge, which, when the card is thick, should be
+partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the opening. Cut the card
+right through along the line FDG, and pass a thread carrying a little
+plummet W and a <i>very</i> small bead P; the bead having sufficient friction
+with the thread to retain any position when acted on only by its own
+weight, but sliding easily along the thread when moved by the hand. At
+the back of the card the thread terminates in a knot to hinder it from
+being drawn through; or better, because giving more friction and a
+better hold, it passes through the centre of a small disk of card&mdash;a
+fraction of an inch in diameter&mdash;and, by a knot, is made fast at the
+back of the disk.</p>
+
+<p>To complete the construction,&mdash;with the centres F and G, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page155"></a>[Page 155]</span>
+radii FA and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the
+hour-lines; for in an observation the bead will always be found between
+them. The forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated
+in the figure. The dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon
+and afternoon; but extraneous circumstances, as, for instance, whether
+the sun is rising or falling, will settle that point, except when close
+to noon, where it will always be uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>To <i>rectify</i> the dial (using the old expression, which means to prepare
+the dial for an observation),&mdash;open the small door, by turning it about
+its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the thread in the
+line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it over the point
+A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincides with A.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img155a.jpg" width="550" height="748" alt="Fig. 9." title="Fig. 9." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>To find the hour of the day,&mdash;hold the dial in a vertical position in
+such a way that its plane may pass through the sun. The verticality is
+ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without pressing.
+Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical plane), until
+the central line of sunshine, passing through the open slit of the door,
+just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against which the bead P
+then rests indicates the time.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>sun-line</i> drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used as a
+<i>shadow-line</i>. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the
+prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was
+gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly
+coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a
+degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of
+the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb of
+the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre. Now,
+even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a
+considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much time
+will the indication of the dial be in error.</p>
+
+<p>The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be free
+from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of the
+sun.</p>
+
+<p>The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere
+toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educational value
+which is not to be measured by the roughness of the results obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of this instrument is as follows:&mdash;Let H (fig. 9) be the
+point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that
+the angle DAH is the north declination of the sun,&mdash;P, the bead, resting
+against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the hour-angle
+from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this hour-angle
+is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC, a north
+declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the <i>sun-line</i>,
+or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle PHQ will be
+equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC, for the pair of
+lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to the sun-line and
+the horizontal.</p>
+
+<p>Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and N
+respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following values
+will be readily deduced from the figure:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>AD = a cos <i>decl.</i>  DH = a sin <i>decl.</i> PQ = a sin <i>alt.</i></p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 3em; ">CX = AC = AD cos <i>lat.</i> = a cos <i>decl.</i> cos <i>lat.</i><br />
+   PN = CV = CX cos ACX = a cos <i>decl.</i> cos <i>lat.</i> cos ACX.<br />
+   NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = sin <i>decl.</i> sin <i>lat.</i></div>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em; ">(&there4; the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">And since<span style="padding-left:5em; ">PQ = NQ + PN,</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">we have, by simple substitution,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">a sin <i>alt.</i> = a sin <i>decl.</i> sin <i>lat.</i> + a cos <i>del.</i> cos <i>lat.</i> cos ACX;
+or, dividing by a throughout,</p>
+<div class="center">sin <i>alt.</i> = sin <i>decl.</i> sin <i>lat.</i> + cos <i>decl.</i> cos <i>lat.</i> cos ACX ... (1)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead.</p>
+
+<p>To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let fig. 10
+represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole, Z the zenith
+and S the sun.</p>
+
+<p>From the spherical triangle PZS, we have</p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 3em; ">cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP + sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS</div>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em; ">but ZS = zenith distance = 90° - altitude</div>
+<div style="margin-left: 5em; ">ZP = 90° - PR = 90°- latitude<br />
+            PS = polar distance = 90° - declination,</div>
+
+<p class="noind">therefore, by substitution</p>
+
+<div class="center">sin <i>alt.</i> = sin <i>decl.</i> sin <i>lat.</i> + cos <i>decl.</i> cos <i>lat.</i> cos ZPS ... (2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the two formulae (1) and (2) shows that the hour-angle
+given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and proves
+the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or at
+sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree. If,
+then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the sun-line, at
+a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at c, the time of
+sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the central line of
+light were made to fall on cm.</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img155b.jpg" width="300" height="278" alt="Fig. 10." title="Fig. 10." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;The following list includes the principal writers on
+dialling whose works have come down, to us, and to these we must refer
+for descriptions of the various constructions, some simple and direct,
+others fanciful and intricate, which have been at different times
+employed: Ptolemy, <i>Analemma</i>, restored by Commandine; Vitruvius,
+<i>Architecture</i>; Sebastian Münster, <i>Horologiographia</i>; Orontius Fineus,
+<i>De horologiis solaribus</i>; Mutio Oddi da Urbino, <i>Horologi solari</i>;
+Dryander, <i>De horologiorum compositione</i>; Conrad Gesner, <i>Pandectae</i>;
+Andreas Schöner, <i>Gnomonicae</i>; F. Commandine, <i>Horologiorum descriptio</i>;
+Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, <i>De gnomonum usu</i>; Georgius Schomberg, <i>Exegesis
+fundamentorum gnomonicorum</i>; Joan. Solomon de Caus, <i>Horologes
+solaires</i>; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, <i>Praxis horologiorum</i>; Desargues,
+<i>Manière universelle pour poser l'essieu</i>, &amp;c.; Ath. Kircher, <i>Ars
+magna lucis et Umbrae</i>; Hallum, <i>Explicatio horologii in horto regio
+Londini</i>; Joan. Mark, <i>Tractatus horologiorum</i>; Clavius, <i>Gnomonices de
+horologiis</i>. Also among more modern writers, Deschales, Ozanam,
+Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire, Walper; in German, Paterson, Michael,
+Müller; in English, Foster, Wells, Collins, Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn,
+Emerson and Ferguson. See also Hans Löschner, <i>Über Sonnenuhren</i> (2nd
+ed., Graz, 1906).</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(H. G.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_7" href="#FnAnchor_7">[1]</a> In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an
+elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 17th or beginning of
+the 18th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it
+available as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8" href="#FnAnchor_8">[2]</a> Strict equality is not necessary, as the observations made are on
+the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to
+the others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go
+completely and exactly round the cylinder, although they were
+always so drawn, and both these conditions were insisted upon in
+the directions for the construction.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIALECT</b> (from Gr. <span class="grk"
+title="dialektos">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;&lambda;&epsilon;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</span>,
+conversation, manner of speaking, <span class="grk"
+title="dialegesthai">&delta;&iota;&alpha;&lambda;&#x03ad;&gamma;&epsilon;&rho;&theta;&alpha;&iota;</span>,
+to converse), a particular or characteristic manner of speech, and hence
+any variety of a language. In its widest sense languages which are
+branches of a common or parent language may be said to be "dialects" of
+that language; thus Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and Doric are dialects of
+Greek, though there may never have at any time been a separate language
+of which they were variations; so the various Romance languages,
+Italian, French, Spanish, &amp;c., were dialects of Latin. Again, where
+there have existed side by side, as in England, various branches of a
+language, such as the languages of the Angles, the Jutes or the Saxons,
+and the descendant of one particular language, from many causes, has
+obtained the predominance, the traces of the other languages remain in
+the "dialects" of the districts where once the original language
+prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from the historical point of view,
+to say that "dialect" varieties of a language represent degradations of
+the standard language. A "literary" accepted language, such as modern
+English, represents the original language spoken in the Midlands, with
+accretions <span class="pagenum"><a name="page156"></a>[Page 156]</span>of Norman, French, and later literary and
+scientific additions from classical and other sources, while the
+present-day "dialects" preserve, in inflections, pronunciation and
+particular words, traces of the original variety of the language not
+incorporated in the standard language of the country. See the various
+articles on languages (English, French, &amp;c).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIALECTIC,</b> or <span class="sc">Dialectics</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk"
+title="dialektos">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;&lambda;&epsilon;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</span>,
+discourse, debate; <span class="grk" title="ê dialektikê">&#7969;
+&delta;&iota;&alpha;&lambda;&epsilon;&kappa;&tau;&iota;&kappa;&#x03ae;</span>,
+sc. <span class="grk" title="technê">&tau;&#x03ad;&chi;&nu;&eta;</span>, the art of debate), a logical term,
+generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous sense for verbal or
+purely abstract disputation devoid of practical value. According to
+Aristotle, Zeno of Elea "invented" dialectic, the art of disputation by
+question and answer, while Plato developed it metaphysically in
+connexion with his doctrine of "Ideas" as the art of analysing ideas in
+themselves and in relation to the ultimate idea of the Good (<i>Repub.</i>
+vii.). The special function of the so-called "Socratic dialectic" was to
+show the inadequacy of popular beliefs. Aristotle himself used
+"dialectic," as opposed to "science," for that department of mental
+activity which examines the presuppositions lying at the back of all the
+particular sciences. Each particular science has its own subject matter
+and special principles (<span class="grk" title="idiai archai">&#7988;&delta;&iota;&alpha;&iota;
+&#7936;&rho;&chi;&alpha;&#x03af;</span>) on which the superstructure of its
+special discoveries is based. The Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals
+with the universal laws (<span class="grk" title="koinai archai">&kappa;&omicron;&iota;&nu;&alpha;&#8054;
+&#7936;&rho;&chi;&alpha;&#x03af;</span>) of reasoning, which can be applied to
+the particular arguments of all the sciences. The sciences, for example,
+all seek to define their own species; dialectic, on the other hand, sets
+forth the conditions which all definitions must satisfy whatever their
+subject matter. Again, the sciences all seek to educe general laws;
+dialectic investigates the nature of such laws, and the kind and degree
+of necessity to which they can attain. To this general subject matter
+Aristotle gives the name "Topics" (<span class="grk" title="topoi">&tau;&#x03cc;&pi;&omicron;&iota;</span>,
+loci, communes loci). "Dialectic" in this sense is the equivalent of
+"logic." Aristotle also uses the term for the science of probable
+reasoning as opposed to demonstrative reasoning (<span class="grk"
+title="apodeiktikê">&#x03ac;&pi;&omicron;&delta;&epsilon;&iota;&kappa;&tau;&iota;&kappa;&#x03ae;</span>).
+The Stoics divided <span class="grk" title="logikê">&lambda;&omicron;&gamma;&iota;&kappa;&#x03ae;</span> (logic)
+into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time till the end of the
+middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with, or a part of, logic.</p>
+
+<p>In modern philosophy the word has received certain special meanings. In
+Kantian terminology <i>Dialektik</i> is the name of that portion of the
+<i>Kritik d. reinen Vernunft</i> in which Kant discusses the impossibility of
+applying to "things-in-themselves" the principles which are found to
+govern phenomena. In the system of Hegel the word resumes its original
+Socratic sense, as the name of that intellectual process whereby the
+inadequacy of popular conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history,
+therefore, "dialectic" has been connected with that which is remote
+from, or alien to, unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or
+transcendental, rather than with the facts of common experience and
+material things.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIALLAGE,</b> an important mineral of the pyroxene group, distinguished by
+its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The chemical composition
+is the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, but it sometimes contains the
+molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"')<sub>2</sub> SiO<sub>6</sub> and Na Fe"' (SiO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, in addition,
+when it approaches to augite in composition. Diallage is in fact an
+altered form of these varieties of pyroxene; the particular kind of
+alteration which they have undergone being known as "schillerization."
+This, as described by Prof. J. W. Judd, consists in the development of a
+fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary twinning and the
+separation of secondary products along these and other planes of
+chemical weakness ("solution planes") in the crystal. The secondary
+products consist of mixtures of various hydrated oxides&mdash;opal, göthite,
+limonite, &amp;c&mdash;and appear as microscopic inclusions filling or partly
+filling cavities, which have definite outlines with respect to the
+enclosing crystal and are known as negative crystals. It is to the
+reflection and interference of light from these minute inclusions that
+the peculiar bronzy sheen or "schiller" of the mineral is due. The most
+pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid; another,
+less distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third parallel to
+the plane of symmetry; these planes of secondary parting are in addition
+to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all pyroxenes. Frequently the
+material is interlaminated with a rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an
+amphibole (smaragdite or uralite), the latter being an alteration
+product of the diallage.</p>
+
+<p>Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes brown, in
+colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller on the laminated
+surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific gravity 3.2 to 3.35. It
+does not occur in distinct crystals with definite outlines, but only as
+lamellar masses in deep-seated igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of
+which it is an essential constituent. It occurs also in some peridotites
+and serpentines, and rarely in volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline
+schists. Masses of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained
+gabbros of the Island of Skye, Le Prese near Bornio in Valtellina,
+Lombardy, Prato near Florence, and many other localities.</p>
+
+<p>The name diallage, from diallage, "difference," in allusion to the
+dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally applied by R.
+J. Haüy in 1801, included other minerals (the orthorhombic pyroxenes
+hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and the smaragdite variety of
+hornblende) which exhibit the same peculiarities of schiller structure;
+it is now limited to the monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like
+the minerals of similar appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut
+and polished for ornamental purposes.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(L. J. S.)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIALOGUE,</b> properly the conversation between two or more persons,
+reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the Greeks for
+purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction, and scarcely
+modified since the days of its invention. A dialogue is in reality a
+little drama without a theatre, and with scarcely any change of scene.
+It should be illuminated with those qualities which La Fontaine
+applauded in the dialogue of Plato, namely vivacity, fidelity of tone,
+and accuracy in the opposition of opinions. It has always been a
+favourite with those writers who have something to censure or to impart,
+but who love to stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to
+pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than
+indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing and noting
+down the undulations of human thought that it almost escapes analysis.
+All that is recorded, in any literature, of what pretend to be the
+actual words spoken by living or imaginary people is of the nature of
+dialogue. One branch of letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it.
+But in its technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek
+philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the
+extreme refinement of an art.</p>
+
+<p>The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form is
+commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose earliest
+experiment in it is believed to survive in the <i>Laches</i>. The Platonic
+dialogue, however, was founded on the mime, which had been cultivated
+half a century earlier by the Sicilian poets, Sophron and Epicharmus.
+The works of these writers, which Plato admired and imitated, are lost,
+but it is believed that they were little plays, usually with only two
+performers. The recently discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us
+some idea of their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced
+it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing
+element of character-drawing. He must have begun this about the year
+405, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection,
+especially in the cycle directly inspired by the death of Socrates. All
+his philosophical writings, except the <i>Apology</i>, are cast in this form.
+As the greatest of all masters of Greek prose style, Plato lifted his
+favourite instrument, the dialogue, to its highest splendour, and to
+this day he remains by far its most distinguished proficient. In the 2nd
+century a.d. Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his
+ironic dialogues "Of the Gods," "Of the Dead," "Of Love" and "Of the
+Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and philosophical
+error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he merely paints scenes
+of modern life. The title of Lucian's most famous collection was
+borrowed in the 17th century by two French writers of eminence, each of
+whom prepared <i>Dialogues des morts</i>. These were Fontenelle (1683) and
+Fénelon (1712). In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not
+been extensively <span class="pagenum"><a name="page157"></a>[Page 157]</span> employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713,
+for his Platonic treatise, <i>Hylas and Philonous</i>. Landor's <i>Imaginary
+Conversations</i> (1821-1828) is the most famous example of it in the 19th
+century, although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In
+Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works
+published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of
+Valdés (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are
+celebrated. In Italian, collections of dialogues, on the model of Plato,
+have been composed by Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by
+Galiani (1770), by Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. In
+our own day, the French have returned to the original application of
+dialogue, and the inventions of "Gyp," of Henri Lavedan and of others,
+in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told in
+conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes
+of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with them. This kind of
+dialogue has been employed in English, and with conspicuous cleverness
+by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but it does not seem so easily appreciated by
+English as by French readers.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(E. G.)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIALYSIS</b> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="dia">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;</span>, through, <span
+class="grk" title="luein">&lambda;&#x03cd;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;</span>, to loosen), in
+chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for separating colloidal
+and crystalline substances. He found that solutions could be divided
+into two classes according to their action upon a porous diaphragm such
+as parchment. If a solution, say of salt, be placed in a drum provided
+with a parchment bottom, termed a "dialyser," and the drum and its
+contents placed in a larger vessel of water, the salt will pass through
+the membrane. If the salt solution be replaced by one of glue, gelatin
+or gum, it will be found that the membrane is impermeable to these
+solutes. To the first class Graham gave the name "crystalloids," and to
+the second "colloids." This method is particularly effective in the
+preparation of silicic acid. By adding hydrochloric acid to a dilute
+solution of an alkaline silicate, no precipitate will fall and the
+solution will contain hydrochloric acid, an alkaline chloride, and
+silicic acid. If the solution be transferred to a dialyser, the
+hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass through the parchment,
+while the silicic acid will be retained.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMAGNETISM.</b> Substances which, like iron, are attracted
+by the pole of an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as
+magnetic, all others being regarded as non-magnetic. It was
+noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that a number of so-called
+non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac, were influenced
+by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed the
+opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted
+upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more
+or less magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (<i>Experimental Researches</i>,
+vol. iii.) that while practically all natural substances are
+indeed acted upon by a sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only
+a comparatively small number that are attracted like iron, the
+great majority being repelled. Bodies of the latter class were
+termed by Faraday <i>diamagnetics</i>. The strongest diamagnetic
+substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility being&mdash;0.000014,
+and its permeability 0.9998. The diamagnetic quality of this
+metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet,
+and its repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once
+recognized before the date of Faraday's experiments. The
+metals gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are
+all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and platinum are attracted by
+a very strong pole. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magnetism</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMANTE, FRA,</b> Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato about 1400. He
+was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine community of that
+order, and was the friend and assistant of Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite
+convent of Prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been
+suppressed, and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving
+the destruction of the paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra
+Filippo in the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of
+the cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to
+Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings of the
+commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined to petition
+the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to Prato,&mdash;a proof
+that his share in the work was so important that his recall involved the
+suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted Fra Filippo in the execution
+of the frescoes still to be seen in the cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra
+Diamante completed in 1470 after his master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo
+left a son ten years old to the care of Diamante, who, having received
+200 ducats from the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work
+done in the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as
+Vasari says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small
+portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however, would
+depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra Diamante, and the
+terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo. Fra Diamante must have been
+nearly seventy when he completed the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact
+year of his death is not known.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA</b> (1640?-1684?), Spanish dramatist, was born at
+Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and began writing for the stage
+in 1657. He became a knight of Santiago in 1660; the date of his death
+is unknown, but no reference to him as a living author occurs after
+1684. Like many other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is
+deficient in originality, and his style is riddled with affectations;
+<i>La Desgraciada Raquel</i>, which was long considered to be his best play,
+is really Mira de Amescua's <i>Judía de Toledo</i> under another title; and
+the earliest of Diamante's surviving pieces, <i>El Honrador de su padre</i>
+(1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille's Cid.
+Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of French
+dramatic methods into Spain.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMANTINA</b> (formerly called <i>Tejuco</i>), a mining town of the state of
+Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly on a steep
+hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio Jequitinhonha (where
+diamond-washing was once carried on), and partly on the level plain
+above. The town is roughly but substantially built, with broad streets
+and large squares. It is the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal
+seminary, and has many churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous;
+they include a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum
+and a secondary school. There are several small manufactures, including
+cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on. The surrounding
+region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the lateral ranges of the
+Serra do Espinhaço, is rough and barren, but rich in minerals,
+principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is the commercial centre of an
+extensive region, and has long been noted for its wealth. The date of
+the discovery of diamonds, upon which its wealth and importance chiefly
+depend, is uncertain, but the official announcement was made in 1729,
+and in the following year the mines were declared crown property, with a
+crown reservation, known as the "forbidden district," 42 leagues in
+circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining was forbidden
+within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe
+restrictions. There are no trustworthy returns of the value of the
+output, but in 1849 the total was estimated up to that date at
+300,000,000 francs (see <a>Diamond</a>). The present name of the town was
+assumed (instead of Tejuco) in 1838, when it was made a <i>cidade</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMANTINO,</b> a small town of the state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the
+Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction with the Paraguay, in
+14&deg; 24&prime; 33&Prime; S., 56&deg; 8&prime; 30&Prime; W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality 2147,
+mostly Indians. It stands in a broken sterile region 1837 ft. above
+sea-level and at the foot of the great Matto Grosso plateau. The first
+mining settlement dates from 1730, when gold was found in the vicinity.
+On the discovery of diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large
+population and for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet
+expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined.
+Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of export.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMETER</b> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="dia">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;</span>, through, <span
+class="grk" title="metron">&mu;&#x03ad;&tau;&rho;&omicron;&nu;</span>, measure), in
+geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic section
+and terminated by the curve; the "principal diameters" of the ellipse
+and hyperbola coincide with the "axes" and are at ...</p>
+
+<p>(<i>Continued in volume 8, slice 4, page 158.</i>)</p>
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30073 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img124.jpg b/30073-h/images/img124.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..efa608d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img124.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img136a.jpg b/30073-h/images/img136a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..211232a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img136a.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img136b.jpg b/30073-h/images/img136b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..44fbd34
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img136b.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img148a.jpg b/30073-h/images/img148a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf4248f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img148a.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img148b.jpg b/30073-h/images/img148b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..046db41
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img148b.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img150.jpg b/30073-h/images/img150.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a61b6e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img150.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img151a.jpg b/30073-h/images/img151a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ddc737
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img151a.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img151b.jpg b/30073-h/images/img151b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fcad03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img151b.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img152a.jpg b/30073-h/images/img152a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d437903
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img152a.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img152b.jpg b/30073-h/images/img152b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b258716
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img152b.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img152c.jpg b/30073-h/images/img152c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a312157
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img152c.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img154a.jpg b/30073-h/images/img154a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..548e98b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img154a.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img154b.jpg b/30073-h/images/img154b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c159f52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img154b.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img155a.jpg b/30073-h/images/img155a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..083b938
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img155a.jpg
diff --git a/30073-h/images/img155b.jpg b/30073-h/images/img155b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a848fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073-h/images/img155b.jpg
diff --git a/30073.txt b/30073.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..796c599
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7840 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3
+       "Destructors" to "Diameter"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 24, 2009 [EBook #30073]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+  are listed at the end of the text. Due to space constraints, italics
+  denoting underscores were not used in the tables.
+
+
+                          THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+      A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+                              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+                           VOLUME VIII slice III
+
+                           Destructor to Diameter
+
+
+
+
+DESTRUCTOR (_continued from volume 8, slice 2, page 0108._)
+  ... in main flues, &c. (g) The chimney draught must be assisted with
+  forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of 1 1/2 in. to 2 
+  in. under grates by water-gauge. (h) Where a destructor is required to
+  work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its
+  efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view
+  in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary
+  consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace
+  so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the temperature of
+  the gases is reduced before the organic matter has been thoroughly
+  burned. (i) Where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a
+  large percentage of CO_{2} should be sought in the furnaces with as
+  little excess of air as possible, and the flue gases should be
+  utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates, and the feed-water
+  to the boilers. (j) Ample boiler capacity and hot-water storage
+  feed-tanks should be included in the design where steam-power is
+  required.
+
+  [Sidenote: Cost.]
+
+  As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few
+  trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends, amongst
+  other things, upon the difficulty of preparing the site, upon the
+  nature of the foundations required, the height of the chimney-shaft,
+  the length of the inclined or approach roadway, and the varying prices
+  of labour and materials in different localities. As an example may be
+  mentioned the case of Bristol, where, in 1892, the total cost of
+  constructing a 16-cell Fryer destructor was L11,418, of which L2909
+  was expended on foundations, and L1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost
+  of the destructor proper, buildings and approach road was therefore
+  L6820, or about L426 per cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in
+  destructors depends mainly upon--(a) The price of labour in the
+  locality, and the number of "shifts" or changes of workmen per day;
+  (b) the type of furnace adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be
+  consumed; (d) the interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The
+  cost of burning ton for ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces,
+  including labour and repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion
+  destructors. The average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four
+  different towns throughout England, exclusive of interest on the cost
+  of the works, is 1s. 1 1/2d. per ton burned; the minimum cost is 6d. per
+  ton at Bradford, and the maximum cost 2s. 10d. per ton at Battersea.
+  At Shoreditch the cost per ton for the year ending on the 25th of
+  March 1899, including labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &c. (but
+  exclusive of interest on cost of works), was 2s. 6.9d. The quantity of
+  refuse burned per cell per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up
+  to 20 tons. The ordinary low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft.
+  grate area, burns about 20 lb. of refuse per square foot of grate
+  area per hour, or between 5 and 6 tons per cell per 24 hours. The
+  Meldrum destructor furnaces at Rochdale burn as much as 66 lb. per
+  square foot of grate area per hour, and the Beaman and Deas destructor
+  at Llandudno 71.7 lb. per square foot per hour. The amount, however,
+  always depends materially on the care observed in stoking, the nature
+  of the material, the frequency of removal of clinker, and on the
+  question whether the whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is
+  thoroughly cremated.
+
+  [Sidenote: Residues:]
+
+  The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from
+  22 to 37% of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30% is a very usual
+  amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists of about 8% of straw,
+  paper, shavings, &c., the residue contains about 29% clinker, 2.7%
+  fine ash, .5% flue dust, and .6% old tins, making a total residue of
+  32.8%. As the residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the
+  total bulk of the refuse dealt with, it is a question of the utmost
+  importance that some profitable, or at least inexpensive, means should
+  be devised for its regular disposal. Among other purposes, it has been
+  used for bottoming for macadamized roads, for the manufacture of
+  concrete, for making paving slabs, for forming suburban footpaths or
+  cinder footwalks, and for the manufacture of mortar. The last is a
+  very general, and in many places profitable, mode of disposal. An
+  entirely new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of good
+  well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion with the construction
+  of bacteria beds for sewage disposal, and in many districts its value
+  has, by this means, become greatly enhanced.
+
+  [Sidenote: Forced draught.]
+
+  Through defects in the design and management of many of the early
+  destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these have,
+  to some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute.
+  Although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this
+  respect, that is by no means the case with the modern improved type of
+  high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great
+  prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of
+  a refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to
+  the inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and worked, will
+  give rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the midst of a
+  populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect cremation of the refuse
+  and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential. This is
+  supplied either as air draught delivered from a rapidly revolving fan,
+  or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall steam jet or the Meldrum blower.
+  With a forced blast less air is required to obtain complete combustion
+  than by chimney draught. The forced draught grate requires little more
+  than the quantity theoretically necessary, while with chimney draught
+  more than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied. With
+  forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is attained, and if it
+  is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter the furnaces
+  during stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of pressure in
+  the cells during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to
+  prevent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The forced draught
+  pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The efficiency of the
+  combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the
+  "Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the
+  proportion of CO_{2} passing away in the waste gases; the higher the
+  percentage of CO_{2} the more efficient the furnace, provided there is
+  no formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete
+  combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO_{2} for refuse burning is
+  about 20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting
+  secondary air over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the
+  air-pressure in the ash-pit, an amount approximating to this
+  percentage may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly
+  worked. If the proportion of free oxygen (i.e. excess of air) is
+  large, more air is passed through the furnace than is required for
+  complete combustion, and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste
+  of heat. The position of the econometer in testing should be as near
+  the furnace as possible, as there may be considerable air leakage
+  through the brickwork of the flues.
+
+  The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the inlet
+  air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of which
+  is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue.
+
+  [Sidenote: Calorific value.]
+
+  The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and gases
+  perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature varying
+  from 1250 deg. to 2000 deg. F., and the maintenance of such temperatures
+  has very naturally suggested the possibility of utilizing this
+  heat-energy for the production of steam-power. Experience shows that a
+  considerable amount of energy may be derived from steam-raising
+  destructor stations, amply justifying a reasonable increase of
+  expenditure on plant and labour. The actual calorific value of the
+  refuse material necessarily varies, but, as a general average, with
+  suitably designed and properly managed plant, an evaporation of 1 lb.
+  of water per pound of refuse burned is a result which may be readily
+  attained, and affords a basis of calculation which engineers may
+  safely adopt in practice. Many destructor steam-raising plants,
+  however, give considerably higher results, evaporations approaching 2
+  lb. of water per pound of refuse being often met with under
+  favourable conditions.
+
+  From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the
+  calorific value of unscreened house refuse varies from 1 to 2 lb. of
+  water evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion
+  depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with.
+  Taking the evaporative power of coal at 10 lb. of water per pound of
+  coal, this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from {1/10} to
+  {1/5} that of coal; or, with coal at 20s. per ton, refuse has a
+  commercial value of from 2s. to 4s. per ton. In London the quantity of
+  house refuse amounts to about 1 1/4 million tons per annum, which is
+  equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be
+  burned in furnaces giving an evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound
+  of refuse, it would yield a total power annually of about 138 million
+  brake horse-power hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 20s. per ton
+  for this amount of power even when calculated upon the very low
+  estimate of 2 lb.[1] of coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at
+  over L123,000. On the same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town,
+  with, say, a population of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5
+  cwt. per head per annum, would afford 112 indicated horse-power per
+  ton burned, and the total indicated horse-power hours per annum would
+  be
+
+       70,000 x 5 cwt.
+       --------------- x 112 = 1,960,000 I.H.P. hours annually.
+              20
+
+  If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the
+  electrical horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of
+  90%)
+
+       1,960,000 x 90
+       -------------- = 1,764,000 E.H.P. hours per annum;
+            100
+
+  and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be
+
+                 1,764,000 x 746 = 1,315,944,000.
+
+  Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give
+  1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power
+  lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have
+
+   1,184,349,600 watt-hours
+   ------------------------ = 39,478,320 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum;
+           30 watts
+
+               39,478,320
+  that is, ----------------- = 563 8-c.p. lamp hours per annum per
+           70,000 population           head of population.
+
+  Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20% on
+  three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would be 478
+  8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population: i.e. if the
+  power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it would supply
+  electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of the
+  population for about 1{1/3} hours for every night of the year.
+
+  [Sidenote: Difficulties.]
+
+  In actual practice, when the electric energy is for the purposes of
+  lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the
+  thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want of adequate
+  means of storage either of the thermal or of the electric energy. A
+  destructor station usually yields a fairly definite amount of thermal
+  energy uniformly throughout the 24 hours, while the consumption of
+  electric-lighting current is extremely irregular, the maximum demand
+  being about four times the mean demand. The period during which the
+  demand exceeds the mean is comparatively short, and does not exceed
+  about 6 hours out of the 24, while for a portion of the time the
+  demand may not exceed {1/20}th of the maximum. This difficulty, at
+  first regarded as somewhat grave, is substantially minimized by the
+  provision of ample boiler capacity, or by the introduction of feed
+  thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during
+  the hours of light load (say 18 out of the 24), so that at the time of
+  maximum load the boiler may be filled directly from these vessels,
+  which work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler.
+  Further, the difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at
+  stations where there is a fair day load which practically ceases at
+  about the hour when the illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing
+  the demand upon both destructor and electric plant throughout the 24
+  hours. This arises in cases where current is consumed during the day
+  for motors, fans, lifts, electric tramways, and other like purposes,
+  and, as the employment of electric energy for these services is
+  rapidly becoming general, no difficulty need be anticipated in the
+  successful working of combined destructor and electric plants where
+  these conditions prevail. The more uniform the electrical demand
+  becomes, the more fully may the power from a destructor station be
+  utilized.
+
+  In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse
+  destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with
+  various other classes of power-using undertakings, including tramways,
+  water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and
+  clinker-crushing works and others; and the increasingly large sums
+  which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this
+  character is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value of
+  such combinations where these several classes of work must be carried
+  on.
+
+  For further information on the subject, reference should be made to
+  William H. Maxwell, _Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with an
+  exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants_ (London, 1899), with
+  a special _Supplement_ embodying later results (London, 1905).
+
+  See also the _Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal
+  and County Engineers_, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214
+  and xxv. p. 138; also the _Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
+  Engineers_, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413,
+  cxxxviii. p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp.
+  369 and 498, cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300.           (W. H. MA.)
+
+[1] With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4 lb. of coal per
+brake horse-power per hour is a very usual performance.
+
+
+DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN, 3rd BARON (1835-1895), English
+poet, eldest son of George Fleming Leicester (afterwards Warren), 2nd
+Baron De Tabley, was born on the 26th of April 1835. He was educated at
+Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with
+second classes in classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn
+of 1858 he went to Turkey as unpaid attache to Lord Stratford de
+Redcliffe, and two years later was called to the bar. He became an
+officer in the Cheshire Yeomanry, and unsuccessfully contested
+Mid-Cheshire in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in
+1871 he removed to London, where he became a close friend of Tennyson
+for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the title in 1887 he
+was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a recluse. It was not till
+1892 that he returned to London life, and enjoyed a sort of renaissance
+of reputation and friendship. During the later years of his life Lord De
+Tabley made many new friends, besides reopening old associations, and he
+almost seemed to be gathering around him a small literary company when
+his health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde, in
+his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire.
+Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a poet,
+De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at one time an
+authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels; published _A Guide to the
+Study of Book Plates_ (1880); and the fruit of his careful researches in
+botany was printed posthumously in his elaborate _Flora of Cheshire_
+(1899). Poetry, however, was his first and last passion, and to that he
+devoted the best energies of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards
+poetry came from his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a
+close companionship during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as
+Tennyson lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees.
+Fortescue was killed by falling from the mast of Lord Drogheda's yacht
+in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De Tabley into deep
+depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley issued four little volumes
+of pseudonymous verse (by G. F. Preston), in the production of which he
+had been greatly stimulated by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he
+assumed a pseudonym--his _Praeterita_ (1863) bearing the name of William
+Lancaster. In the next year he published _Eclogues and Monodramas_,
+followed in 1865 by _Studies in Verse_. These volumes all displayed
+technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was not till the
+publication of _Philoctetes_ in 1866 that De Tabley met with any wide
+recognition. _Philoctetes_ bore the initials "M.A.," which, to the
+author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning Matthew Arnold. He at once
+disclosed his identity, and received the congratulations of his friends,
+among whom were Tennyson, Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published
+_Orestes_, in 1870 _Rehearsals_ and in 1873 _Searching the Net_. These
+last two bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat
+disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876 _The Soldier
+of Fortune_, a drama on which he had bestowed much careful labour,
+proved a complete failure, he retired altogether from the literary
+arena. It was not until 1893 that he was persuaded to return, and the
+immediate success in that year of his _Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical_,
+encouraged him to publish a second series in 1895, the year of his
+death. The genuine interest with which these volumes were welcomed did
+much to lighten the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life.
+His posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics of De
+Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style, derived from
+close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and colour. His passion
+for detail was both a strength and a weakness: it lent a loving fidelity
+to his description of natural objects, but it sometimes involved him in
+a loss of simple effect from over-elaboration of treatment. He was
+always a student of the classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration
+directly from them. He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a
+brother poet well said, "still climbed the clear cold altitudes of
+song." His ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally
+ice-bound at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and
+bright, vivid outlines.
+
+  See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his _Critical Kit-Kats_ (1896).
+                                                                (A. WA.)
+
+
+DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDOUARD (1848- ), French painter, was born in
+Paris on the 5th of October 1848. After working as a pupil of
+Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the Salon of 1867, a picture
+representing "A Corner of Meissonier's Studio." Military life was from
+the first a principal attraction to the young painter, and he gained his
+reputation by depicting the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail
+truthfully rendered. He exhibited "A Halt" (1868); "Soldiers at rest,
+during the Manoeuvres at the Camp of Saint Maur" (1869); "Engagement
+between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814" (1870). The war of
+1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which gained him
+repeated successes. Among his more important pictures may be named "The
+Conquerors" (1872); "The Retreat" (1873); "The Charge of the 9th
+Regiment of Cuirassiers in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870"
+(1874); "The Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A
+Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877); "Bonaparte in
+Egypt" (1878); the "Inauguration of the New Opera House"--a
+water-colour; the "Defence of Champigny by Faron's Division" (1879). He
+also worked with Alphonse de Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In
+1884 he exhibited at the Salon the "Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic
+study, and "The Dream" (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille recorded
+other events in the military history of his country: the "Sortie of the
+Garrison of Huningue" (now in the Luxemburg), the "Vincendon Brigade,"
+and "Bizerte," reminiscences of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit
+to Russia, Detaille exhibited "The Cossacks of the Ataman" and "The
+Hereditary Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other
+important works are: "Victims to Duty," "The Prince of Wales and the
+Duke of Connaught" and "Pasteur's Funeral." In his picture of "Chalons,
+9th October 1896," exhibited in the Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the
+emperor and empress of Russia at a review, with M. Felix Faure. Detaille
+became a member of the French Institute in 1898.
+
+   See Marius Vachon, _Detaille_ (Paris, 1898); Frederic Masson,
+  _Edouard Detaille and his work_ (Paris and London, 1891); J. Claretie,
+  _Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains_ (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy,
+  _Les Jeunes peintres militaires_ (Paris, 1878).
+
+
+DETAINER (from _detain_, Lat. _detinere_), in law, the act of keeping a
+person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a person's goods, or
+other real or personal property. A writ of detainer was a form for the
+beginning of a personal action against a person already lodged within
+the walls of a prison; it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838.
+
+
+DETERMINANT, in mathematics, a function which presents itself in the
+solution of a system of simple equations.
+
+1. Considering the equations
+
+                   ax  + by  + cz  = d,
+                   a'x + b'y + c'z = d',
+                   a"x + b"y + c"z = d",
+
+and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross
+multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in such a
+manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient of y becomes =
+0, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = 0; the factors in question
+are b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c (values which, as at once seen,
+have the desired property); we thus obtain an equation which contains on
+the left-hand side only a multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a
+constant term; the coefficient of x has the value
+
+          a(b'c" - b"c') + a'(b"c - bc") + a"(bc' - b'c),
+
+and this function, represented in the form
+
+                         |a,  b,  c |,
+                         |a', b', c'|
+                         |a", b", c"|
+
+is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 3 squared, it is
+called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed that the
+resulting equation is
+
+                |a,  b,  c | x = |d,  b,  c |
+                |a', b', c'|     |d', b', c'|
+                |a", b", c"|     |d", b", c"|
+
+where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function with d,
+d', d" in place of a, a', a" respectively, and is of course also a
+determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c
+used in the process are themselves the determinants of the second order
+
+                |b', c'|, |b", c"|, |b,  c |.
+                |b", c"|  |b,  c |  |b', c'|
+
+We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation of the
+determinants of the orders 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., each from the preceding one,
+viz. we have
+
+  |a|      = a,
+
+  |a,  b | = a|b'| - a'|b|.
+  |a', b'|
+
+  |a,  b,  c | = a|b', c'| + a'|b", c"| + a"|b,  c |,
+  |a', b', c'|    |b", c"|     |b , c |     |b', c'|
+  |a", b", c"|
+
+  |a,   b  , c  , d  | = a|b',  c',  d' | - a'|b" , c" , d" | +
+  |a',  b' , c' , d' |    |b",  c",  d" |     |b"', c"', d"'|
+  |a",  b" , c" , d" |    |b"', c"', d"'|     |b  , c  , d  |
+  |a"', b"', c"', d"'|
+
+                      + a"|b"', c"', d"'| - a"'|b , c,  d |,
+                          |b  , c  , d  |      |b', c', d'|
+                          |b' , c' , d' |      |b", c", d"|
+
+and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd order, but
+alternately + and - for a determinant of an even order.
+
+2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results:--
+
+A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3...n products which
+can be formed with n elements out of n squared elements arranged in the form of
+a square, no two of the n elements being in the same line or in the same
+column, and each such product having the coefficient +- unity.
+
+The products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible
+manner the columns (or the lines) of the determinant, and then taking
+for the factors the n elements in the dexter diagonal. And we thence
+derive the rule for the signs, viz. considering the primitive
+arrangement of the columns as positive, then an arrangement obtained
+therefrom by a single interchange (inversion, or derangement) of two
+columns is regarded as negative; and so in general an arrangement is
+positive or negative according as it is derived from the primitive
+arrangement by an even or an odd number of interchanges. [This implies
+the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive
+arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even number of
+interchanges,--a theorem the verification of which may be easily
+obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular case of the general
+one), an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number
+of interchanges.] And this being so, each product has the sign belonging
+to the corresponding arrangement of the columns; in particular, a
+determinant contains with the sign + the product of the elements in its
+dexter diagonal. It is to be observed that the rule gives as many
+positive as negative arrangements, the number of each being = 1/2 1.2...n.
+
+The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving to the
+columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers 1, 2, 3 ... n, to
+obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement we take, as often as
+a lower number succeeds a higher one, the sign -, and, compounding
+together all these minus signs, obtain the proper sign, + or - as the
+case may be.
+
+Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123, 231, 312
+are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the developed expression
+of the foregoing determinant of the third order is
+
+           = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c.
+
+3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function[1] of the
+elements of each column thereof, and also a linear function of the
+elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the determinant retains
+the same value, only its sign being altered, when any two columns are
+interchanged, or when any two lines are interchanged; more generally,
+when the columns are permuted in any manner, or when the lines are
+permuted in any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with
+the sign + or - according as the new arrangement (considered as derived
+from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative according to the
+foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that, if two columns are
+identical, or if two lines are identical, the value of the determinant
+is = 0. It may be added, that if the lines are converted into columns,
+and the columns into lines, in such a way as to leave the dexter
+diagonal unaltered, the value of the determinant is unaltered; the
+determinant is in this case said to be _transposed_.
+
+4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of the n squared
+elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or say, for
+shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only the sign is
+altered when any two columns are interchanged; these properties
+completely determine the function, except as to a common factor which
+may multiply all the terms. If, to get rid of this arbitrary common
+factor, we assume that the product of the elements in the dexter
+diagonal has the coefficient +1, we have a complete definition of the
+determinant, and it is interesting to show how from these properties,
+assumed for the definition of the determinant, it at once appears that
+the determinant is a function serving for the solution of a system of
+linear equations. Observe that the properties show at once that if any
+column is = 0 (that is, if the elements in the column are each = 0),
+then the determinant is = 0; and further, that if any two columns are
+identical, then the determinant is = 0.
+
+5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the
+beginning of this article, consider the determinant
+
+                 |ax  + by  + cz  - d , b , c |;
+                 |a'x + b'y + c'z - d', b', c'|
+                 |a"x + b"y + c"z - d", b", c"|
+
+it appears that this is
+
+  = x|a , b , c | + y|b , b , c | + z|c , b , c | - |d , b , c |;
+     |a', b', c'|    |b', b', c'|    |c', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+     |a", b", c"|    |b", b", c"|    |c", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+viz. the second and third terms each vanishing, it is
+
+                = x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c |.
+                   |a', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+                   |a", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the
+original determinant is = 0, and therefore the determinant itself is = 0;
+that is, the linear equations give
+
+                x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c | = 0;
+                 |a', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+                 |a", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+which is the result obtained above.
+
+We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there is a
+more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the new
+equation
+
+            [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z = [delta];
+
+a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have
+
+           |[alpha], [beta], [gamma], [delta]| = 0;
+           |   a   ,    b  ,    c   , d      |
+           |   a'  ,    b' ,    c'  , d'     |
+           |   a"  ,    b" ,    c"  , d"     |
+
+or, as this may be written,
+
+     |[alpha], [beta], [gamma]    | - [delta]| a , b , c | = 0:
+     |   a   ,   b   ,    c   , d |          | a', b', c'|
+     |   a'  ,   b'  ,    c'  , d'|          | a", b", c"|
+     |   a"  ,   b"  ,    c"  , d"|          |           |
+
+which, considering [delta] as standing herein for its value [alpha]x +
+[beta]y + [gamma]z, is a consequence of the original equations only: we
+have thus an expression for [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z, an arbitrary
+linear function of the unknown quantities x, y, z; and by comparing the
+coefficients of [alpha], [beta], [gamma] on the two sides respectively,
+we have the values of x, y, z; in fact, these quantities, each
+multiplied by
+
+                      |a , b , c |,
+                      |a', b', c'|
+                      |a", b", c"|
+
+are in the first instance obtained in the forms
+
+       |1             |, |    1         |, |        1     |;
+       |a , b , c , d |  |a , b , c , d |  |a , b , c , d |
+       |a', b', c', d'|  |a', b', c', d'|  |a', b', c', d'|
+       |a", b", c", d"|  |a", b", c", d"|  |a", b", c", d"|
+
+but these are
+
+         = |b , c , d |, - |c , d , a |, |d , a , b |,
+           |b', c', d'|    |c', d', a'|  |d', a', b'|
+           |b", c", d"|    |c", d", a"|  |d", a", b"|
+
+or, what is the same thing,
+
+         = |b , c , d |, |c , a , d |, |a , b , d |
+           |b', c', d'|  |c', a', d'|  |a', b', d'|
+           |b", c", d"|  |c", a", d"|  |a", b", d"|
+
+respectively.
+
+6. _Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order._--The theorem
+is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition of a
+determinant. It is most simply expressed thus--
+
+              ([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"),
+                     ([beta],[beta]',[beta]"),
+                           ([gamma],[gamma]',[gamma]")
+              +---------------------------------------+
+  (a , b , c )|          "       "       "            | =
+  (a', b', c')|          "       "       "            |
+  (a", b", c")|          "       "       "            |
+
+                        = |a , b , c |. |[alpha] , [beta] , [gamma] |,
+                          |a', b', c'|  |[alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'|
+                          |a", b", c"|  |[alpha]", [beta]", [gamma]"|
+
+where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant, the
+terms of the first line being (a, b, c)([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"),
+that is, a[alpha] + b[alpha]' + c[alpha]", (a, b, c)([beta], [beta]',
+[beta]"), that is, a[beta] + b[beta]' + c[beta]", (a, b, c)([gamma],
+[gamma]', [gamma]"), that is a[gamma] + b[gamma]' + c[gamma]"; and
+similarly the terms in the second and third lines are the life functions
+with (a', b', c') and (a", b", c") respectively.
+
+There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns; the
+result would hold good if on the left-hand side we had written ([alpha],
+[beta], [gamma]), ([alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'), ([alpha]", [beta]",
+[gamma]"), or what is the same thing, if on the right-hand side we had
+transposed the second determinant; and either of these changes would, it
+might be thought, increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason
+which need not be explained,[2] the form actually adopted is the
+preferable one.
+
+To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant on the
+left-hand side, _qua_ linear function of its columns, may be broken up
+into a sum of (3 cubed =) 27 determinants, each of which is either of some
+such form as
+
+         = [alpha][beta][gamma]'|a , a , b |,
+                                |a', a', b'|
+                                |a", a", b"|
+
+
+where the term [alpha][beta][gamma]' is not a term of the
+[alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant, and its coefficient (as a determinant
+with two identical columns) vanishes; or else it is of a form such as
+
+         = [alpha][beta]'[gamma]"|a , b , c |,
+                                 |a', b', c'|
+                                 |a", b", c"|
+
+that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the
+abc-determinant last written down; the sum of all other factors +-
+[alpha][beta]'[gamma]" is the [alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant of the
+formula; and the final result then is, that the determinant on the
+left-hand side is equal to the product on the right-hand side of the
+formula.
+
+7. _Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary
+Determinants._--Consider, for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth
+order, 5 = 2 + 3, and let the top two lines be
+
+                        a , b , c , d , e
+                        a', b', c', d', e'
+
+then, if we consider how these elements enter into the determinant, it
+is at once seen that they enter only through the determinants of the
+second order |a , b |, &c., which can be formed by selecting any two
+             |a', b'|
+columns at pleasure. Moreover, representing the remaining three lines by
+
+                   a" , b" , c" , d" , e"
+                   a"', b"', c"', d"', e"'
+                   a"", b"", c"", d"", e""
+
+it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant
+formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant of the
+third order formed with the complementary three columns of the second
+set; and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a
+sum of all the products of the form
+
+                 = |a , b |  |c" , d" , e" |,
+                   |a', b"|  |c"', d"', e"'|
+                             |c"", d"", e""|
+
+the sign +- being in each case such that the sign of the term +-
+ab'c"d'"e"" obtained from the diagonal elements of the component
+determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the determinant of
+the fifth order; for the product written down the sign is obviously +.
+
+Observe that for a determinant of the n-th order, taking the
+decomposition to be 1 + (n - 1), we fall back upon the equations given
+at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a determinant.
+
+8. Any determinant |a , b | formed out of the elements of the original
+                   |a', b'|
+determinant, by selecting the lines and columns at pleasure, is termed a
+_minor_ of the original determinant; and when the number of lines and
+columns, or order of the determinant, is n-1, then such determinant is
+called a _first minor_; the number of the first minors is = n squared, the
+first minors, in fact, corresponding to the several elements of the
+determinant--that is, the coefficient therein of any term whatever is
+the corresponding first minor. The first minors, each divided by the
+determinant itself, form a system of elements _inverse_ to the elements
+of the determinant.
+
+A determinant is _symmetrical_ when every two elements symmetrically
+situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal to each other; if
+they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum of the two elements be
+= 0), this relation not extending to the diagonal elements themselves,
+which remain arbitrary, then the determinant is _skew_; but if the
+relation does extend to the diagonal terms (that is, if these are each =
+0), then the determinant is _skew symmetrical_; thus the determinants
+
+  |a, h, g|; |    a ,     [nu],  - [mu]|; |     0,      [nu],  - [mu]|
+  |h, b, f|  |- [nu],        b,[lambda]|  |- [nu],         0,[lambda]|
+  |g, f, c|  |  [mu],-[lambda],      c |  |  [mu],- [lambda],       0|
+
+are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical:
+
+The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments, and
+applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of mathematics. For
+further developments of the theory of determinants see ALGEBRAIC FORMS.
+                                                                (A. CA.)
+
+  9. _History._--These functions were originally known as "resultants,"
+  a name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but now replaced by
+  the title "determinants," a name first applied to certain forms of
+  them by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the theory of determinants
+  is to be found in the writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693),
+  who incidentally discovered certain properties when reducing the
+  eliminant of a system of linear equations. Gabriel Cramer, in a note
+  to his _Analyse des lignes courbes algebriques_ (1750), gave the rule
+  which establishes the sign of a product as _plus_ or _minus_ according
+  as the number of displacements from the typical form has been even or
+  odd. Determinants were also employed by Etienne Bezout in 1764, but
+  the first connected account of these functions was published in 1772
+  by Charles Auguste Vandermonde. Laplace developed a theorem of
+  Vandermonde for the expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph
+  Louis Lagrange, in his memoir on _Pyramids_, used determinants of the
+  third order, and proved that the square of a determinant was also a
+  determinant. Although he obtained results now identified with
+  determinants, Lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically.
+  In 1801 Gauss published his _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_, which,
+  although written in an obscure form, gave a new impetus to
+  investigations on this and kindred subjects. To Gauss is due the
+  establishment of the important theorem, that the product of two
+  determinants both of the second and third orders is a determinant. The
+  formulation of the general theory is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy,
+  whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries made in the
+  following decades by Hoene-Wronski and J. Binet in France, Carl Gustav
+  Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur Cayley in
+  England. Jacobi's researches were published in _Crelle's Journal_
+  (1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and enriched by
+  new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacobi is
+  indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The far-reaching
+  discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the most important
+  developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new fields were opened up,
+  and have been diligently explored by many mathematicians.
+  Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley; axisymmetric-determinants by
+  Jacobi, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester and O. Hesse, and centro-symmetric
+  determinants by W. R. F. Scott and G. Zehfuss. Continuants have been
+  discussed by Sylvester; alternants by Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H.
+  Nagelbach and G. Garbieri; circulants by E. Catalan, W. Spottiswoode
+  and J. W. L. Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B. Christoffel and G.
+  Frobenius. Determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been
+  studied by V. von Zeipel; the expression of definite integrals as
+  determinants by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the expression of
+  continued fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V. Nachreiner, S.
+  Guenther and E. Fuerstenau. (See T. Muir, _Theory of Determinants_,
+  1906).
+
+[1] The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest
+sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is that
+the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a', a", ... of any
+column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa + A'a' + A"a" + ...
+without any term independent of a, a', a" ...
+
+[2] The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for the
+multiplication of two matrices.
+
+
+DETERMINISM (Lat. _determinare_, to prescribe or limit), in ethics, the
+name given to the theory that all moral choice, so called, is the
+determined or necessary result of psychological and other conditions. It
+is opposed to the various doctrines of Free-Will, known as voluntarism,
+libertarianism, indeterminism, and is from the ethical standpoint more
+or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism. There are various degrees
+of determinism. It may be held that every action is causally connected
+not only externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also
+internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if we could
+know exactly all these conditions, we should be able to forecast with
+mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue. In this
+theory the agent cannot be held responsible for his action in any sense.
+It is the extreme antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the
+doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative
+courses (the _liberum arbitrium indifferentiae_). Since, however, the
+evidence of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the
+individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself as
+being free within certain limitations to make his own choice of
+alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that there may be
+in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes
+solely an element of freedom. This view is corroborated by the
+phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent feels that he ought to, and
+could, have chosen a different course of action. These two kinds of
+determinism are sometimes distinguished as "hard" and "soft"
+determinism. The controversy between determinism and libertarianism
+hinges largely on the significance of the word "motive"; indeed in no
+other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by
+purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How far, and in
+what sense, can action which is determined by motives be said to be
+free? For a long time the advocates of free-will, in their eagerness to
+preserve moral responsibility, went so far as to deny all motives as
+influencing moral action. Such a contention, however, clearly defeats
+its own object by reducing all action to chance. On the other hand, the
+scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the
+distinction between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives,
+character and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product
+of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does it
+become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in his motives
+and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards outward surroundings,
+in his appetites and aversions, inherited tendency and environment have
+been found to play a very large part; indeed many thinkers hold that the
+whole of a man's development, mental as well as physical, is determined
+by external conditions.
+
+In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed,
+but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament assumes
+throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been argued by
+theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge, coupled with
+that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily implies that all
+human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world. Such an
+inference is, however, clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of
+sin, repentance and the atonement, as also with that of eternal reward
+and punishment, which postulates a real measure of human responsibility.
+
+For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles, WILL,
+PREDESTINATION (for the theological problems), ETHICS.
+
+
+DETINUE (O. Fr. _detenue_, from _detenir_, to hold back), in law, an
+action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property in goods
+seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and refuses to
+redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue, the
+judgment is that he recover the chattel or, if it cannot be had, its
+value, which is assessed by the judge and jury, and also certain damages
+for detaining the same. An order for the restitution of the specific
+goods may be enforced by a special writ of execution, called a writ of
+delivery. (See CONTRACT; TROVER.)
+
+
+DETMOLD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of
+Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the Teutoburger
+Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Altenbeken line of the Prussian
+state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164. The residential chateau of the
+princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550), in the Renaissance style, is an
+imposing building, lying with its pretty gardens nearly in the centre of
+the town; whilst at the entrance to the large park on the south is the
+New Palace (1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house.
+Detmold possesses a natural history museum, theatre, high school,
+library, the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876)
+was born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe
+(1801-1836), also a native, died. The leading industries are
+linen-weaving, tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of
+marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town is the
+Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's colossal statue of Hermann or
+Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold (Thiatmelli) was in 783
+the scene of a conflict between the Saxons and the troops of
+Charlemagne.
+
+
+DETROIT, the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite Windsor, Canada, about 4 m.
+W. from the outlet of Lake St Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop.
+(1880) 116,340; (1890) 205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were
+foreign-born and 4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the
+foreign-born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German Poles,
+25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians, 6347 were
+English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by the Michigan Central,
+the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the
+Pere Marquette, the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo &
+Ironton and the Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2 m. to 3
+m., and the other 6 m. from the centre of the city, connect the factory
+districts with the main railway lines. Trains are ferried across the
+river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to Cleveland,
+Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important places between,
+and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also the S. terminus for
+several lines to more remote lake ports, and electric lines extend from
+here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac, Jackson, Toledo and Grand Rapids.
+
+The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase from 29 sq.
+m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in proportion to its
+population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of the
+United States. Baltimore, for example, had in 1904 nearly 70% more
+inhabitants (estimated), while its area at that time was a little less
+and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter less than that of Detroit. The ground
+within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is
+quite level, but rises gradually from the river bank, which is only a
+few feet in height. The Detroit river, along which the city extends for
+about 10 m., is here 1/2 m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its current is
+quite rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth it has a
+width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of islands,
+which during the summer are popular resorts. The city has a 3 m.
+frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the Detroit, with a 16 ft.
+channel. Before the fire by which the city was destroyed in 1805, the
+streets were only 12 ft. wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty. But
+when the rebuilding began, several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide
+were--through the influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one
+of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the
+city of Washington--made to radiate from two central points. From a half
+circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues 120 ft. and 200 ft.
+wide. About 1/4 m. toward the river from this was established another
+focal point called the Campus Martius, 600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at
+which commence radiating or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide.
+Running north from the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand
+Circus is Woodward Avenue, 120 ft. wide, dividing the present city, as
+it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the river is
+Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these avenues is the
+principal retail street along its lower portion, and is a residence
+avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the principal wholesale street
+at the lower end, and a fine residence avenue E. of this. Many of the
+other residence streets are 80 ft. wide. The setting of shade trees was
+early encouraged, and large elms and maples abound. The intersections of
+the diagonal streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as
+well as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly
+with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much used, and
+kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other American cities of
+equal size are the streets and avenues kept so clean. The Grand
+Boulevard, 150 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 12 m. in length, has been
+constructed around the city except along the river front. A very large
+proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit own their homes: there are no
+large congested tenement-house districts; and many streets in various
+parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often
+having a garden plot in front.
+
+Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871), overlooking
+the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in three storeys; the
+flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of 200 ft. On the
+four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures, each
+14 ft. in height, to represent Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and
+on the same level with these is a clock weighing 7670 lb--one of the
+largest in the world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and
+Sailors' monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892)
+and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four corners in each of three
+sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures
+representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry and Artillery,
+also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History; the figure by which the
+monument is surmounted was designed to symbolize Michigan. A larger and
+more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county
+court house, facing Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a
+gilded dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely
+decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest architectural
+beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine Byzantine interior, St
+John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue Baptist and the First
+Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue, and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of
+Mary, both Roman Catholic. The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson
+Avenue, contains some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese
+collections, the Scripps' collection of old masters, other valuable
+paintings, and a small library; free lectures on art are given here
+through the winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908,
+including one of the best collections of state and town histories in the
+country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and relating
+principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the public. The
+city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The principal ones are the
+Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monument on the Campus Martius, and a
+statue of Mayor Pingree in West Grand Circus Park.
+
+The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about 1200
+acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in the river
+at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having an area of more
+than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of 4 1/2 acres, with its trees,
+flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant resting place in the busiest
+quarter of the city. Six miles farther out on Woodward Avenue is Palmer
+Park of about 140 acres, given to the city in 1894 and named in honour
+of the donor. Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the city, and
+there are various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are Elmwood
+(Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining in the E.
+part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in the N. part of the
+city.
+
+_Charity and Education._--Among the charitable institutions are the
+general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's); the Detroit Emergency,
+the Children's Free and the United States Marine hospitals; St Luke's
+hospital, church home, and orphanage; the House of Providence (a
+maternity hospital and infant asylum); the Woman's hospital and
+foundling's home; the Home for convalescent children, &c. In 1894 the
+mayor, Hazen Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of
+preparing, through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant
+land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other
+vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor
+commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the unemployed,
+and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan served an
+admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression, and was
+copied in other cities; it was abandoned when, with the renewal of
+industrial activity, the necessity for it ceased. The leading penal
+institution of the city is the Detroit House of Correction, noted for
+its efficient reformatory work; the inmates are employed ten hours a
+day, chiefly in making furniture. The house of correction pays the city
+a profit of $35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in
+addition to those of the general public school system, include several
+parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and commercial colleges;
+Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877; the Detroit College of
+Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan College of Medicine and Surgery,
+opened in 1888; the Detroit College of law, founded in 1891, and a city
+normal school.
+
+_Commerce._--Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and
+shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous traffic
+between the upper and lower lakes passes through the Detroit river. In
+1907 the number of vessels recorded was 34,149, with registered tonnage
+of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons of freight, valued at
+$697,311,302. This includes vessels which delivered part or all of their
+cargo at Detroit. The largest item in the freights is iron ore on
+vessels bound down. The next is coal on vessels up bound. Grain and
+lumber are the next largest items. Detroit is a port of entry, and its
+foreign commerce, chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The
+city's exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in
+1909. The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,100,659 in 1909.
+
+As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total number of
+manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with a product for the
+year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there were 2847 establishments with
+a product for the year valued at $100,892,838; or an increase of 30.4%
+in the decade. In 1900 the establishments under the factory system,
+omitting the hand trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and
+produced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments under the
+factory system numbered 1363 and the product had increased 45.7% to
+$128,761,658. In the district subsequently annexed the product in 1904
+was about $12,000,000, making a total of $140,000,000. The output for
+1906 was estimated at $180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905
+visited 1721 factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected
+1790 factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in the
+country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the value of its
+product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In 1906 the city had
+twenty automobile factories, with an output of 11,000 cars, valued at
+$12,000,000. Detroit is probably the largest manufacturer in the country
+of freight cars, stoves, pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash
+and similar alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships,
+paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods, furniture, boots
+and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt liquors and fur goods; and
+slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry.
+
+The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought into one
+association the members of three former bodies, making a compact
+organization with civic as well as commercial aims. The board has
+brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of
+the city and many of the professional men. Their united efforts have
+brought many new industries to the city, have improved industrial
+conditions, and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal
+administration. Other business organizations are the Board of Trade,
+devoted to the grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers'
+Association, which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between
+employer and employed, the Builders' & Traders' Exchange, and the Credit
+Men's Association.
+
+_Administration._--Although the city received its first charter in 1806,
+and another in 1815, the real power rested in the hands of the governor
+and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters of 1824 and 1827
+centred the government in a council and made the list of elective
+officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised in 1857 and again in 1859
+and the present charter dates from 1883. Under this charter only three
+administrative officers are elected,--the mayor, the city clerk and the
+city treasurer,--elections being biennial. The administration of the
+city departments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one
+commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and boulevards,
+police and public works departments. The four members of the health
+board are nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate.
+The school board is an independent body, consisting of one elected
+member from each ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has
+the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common
+council. In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other
+principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor and confirmed
+by the council, are controller, corporation counsel, board of three
+assessors, fire commission (four members), public lighting commission
+(six members), water commission (five members), poor commission (four
+members), and inspectors of the house of correction (four in number).
+The members of the public library commission, six in number, are elected
+by the board of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next
+fiscal year are furnished by the different departments to the controller
+in February. He transmits them to the common council with his
+recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to consider them.
+It may reduce or increase the amounts asked, and may add new items. The
+budget then goes to the board of estimates, which has a month for its
+consideration. This body consists of two members elected from each ward
+and five elected at large. The mayor and heads of departments are
+advisory members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the board
+of estimates can hold no other office and they have no appointing power,
+the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political
+motives and influences. They may reduce or cut out any estimates
+submitted, but cannot increase any or add new ones. No bonds can be
+issued without the assent of the board of estimates. The budget is
+apportioned among twelve committees which have almost invariably given
+close and conscientious examination to the actual needs of the
+departments. A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing
+the service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations.
+Prudent management under this system has placed the city in the highest
+rank financially. Its debt limit is 2% on the assessed valuation, and
+even that low maximum is not often reached. The debt in 1907 was only
+about $5,500,000, a smaller _per capita_ debt than that of any other
+city of over 100,000 inhabitants in the country; the assessed valuation
+was $330,000,000; the city tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of
+assessed valuation. Both the council and the estimators are hampered in
+their work by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries
+and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the
+legislature, which has also determined many affairs of a purely
+administrative character.
+
+Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership. On account
+of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private company, the city
+bought the water-works as long ago as 1836. The works have been twice
+moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the
+city. In 1907 there were six engines in the works with a pumping
+capacity of 152,000,000 gallons daily. The daily average of water used
+during the preceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water is pumped
+from Lake St Clair and is of exceptional purity. The city began its own
+public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the river near
+the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public buildings, but
+makes no provision for commercial business. The lighting is excellent,
+and the cost is probably less than could be obtained from a private
+company. The street lighting is done partly from pole and arm lights,
+but largely from steel towers from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with
+strong reflected lights at the top. The city also owns two portable
+asphalt plants, and thus makes a saving in the cost of street repairing
+and resurfacing. With a view of effecting the reduction of street car
+fares to three cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for
+purchasing or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme
+Court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as the
+constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal
+improvement, the state could not empower a municipality to do so.
+Certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question of
+municipal ownership of the railways.
+
+_History._--Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet de la Mothe
+Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the importance of the place
+as a strategic point for determining the control of the fur trade and
+the possession of the North-west and had received assistance from the
+French government soon after Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the
+secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged
+the English government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac
+arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at once built
+a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now Jefferson Avenue
+and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and named it Fort Pontchartrain
+in honour of the French colonial minister. Indians at once came to the
+place in large numbers, but they soon complained of the high price of
+French goods; there was serious contention between Cadillac and the
+French Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had been
+granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the Jesuits. After
+the several parties had begun to complain to the home government the
+monopoly of the fur trade was transferred to Cadillac and he was
+exhorted to cease quarrelling with the Jesuits. Although the
+inhabitants then increased to 200 or more, dissatisfaction with the
+paternal rule of the founder increased until 1710, when he was made
+governor of Louisiana. The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn;
+by the second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and
+for several years following the population was greatly reduced and the
+post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the Mississippi
+country was opened, the population once more increased, and again in
+1748, when the settlement of the Ohio Valley began, the governor-general
+of Canada offered special inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit,
+with the result that the population was soon more than 1000 and the
+cultivation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however, the
+place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers and an
+English element was introduced into the population which up to this time
+had been almost exclusively French. Three years later, during the
+conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly escaped capture and then
+suffered from a siege lasting from the 9th of May until the 12th of
+October. Under English rule it continued from this time on as a military
+post with its population usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new
+fort was built and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of
+Independence the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions
+to ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which
+concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United States in
+1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the 11th of January
+1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794. It was then named Fort
+Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated as a town and received its
+present name. In 1805 all except one or two buildings were destroyed by
+fire. General William Hull (1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American
+Independence, governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander
+of the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to hear
+immediately of the declaration of war between the United States and
+Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped by Lake Erie. He
+made from Detroit on the 12th of July an awkward and futile advance into
+Canada, which, if more vigorous, might have resulted in the capture of
+Malden and the establishment of American troops in Canada, and then
+retired to his fortifications. On the 16th of August 1812, without any
+resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the city
+to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards attempted to
+justify himself by criticism of the War Department in general and in
+particular of General Henry Dearborn's armistice with Prevost, which had
+not included in its terms Hull, whom Dearborn had been sent out to
+reinforce.[1] After Perry's victory on the 14th of September on Lake
+Erie, Detroit on the 29th of September was again occupied by the forces
+of the United States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since
+then its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of
+Michigan from 1805 to 1847.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Silas Farmer, _The History of Detroit and Michigan_
+  (Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and "Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P.
+  Powell's _Historic Towns of the Western States_ (New York and London,
+  1901); D. F. Wilcox, "Municipal Government in Michigan and Ohio," in
+  _Columbia University Studies_ (New York, 1896); C. M. Burton,
+  _"Cadillac's Village" or Detroit under Cadillac_ (Detroit, 1896);
+  Francis Parkman, _A Half Century of Conflict_ (Boston, 1897); and _The
+  Conspiracy of Pontiac_ (Boston, 1898); and the annual _Reports_ of the
+  Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.).
+
+[1] Hull was tried at Albany in 1814 by court martial, General Dearborn
+presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and
+unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president
+remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution.
+
+
+DETTINGEN, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Main,
+and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg railway, 10 m. N.W. of
+Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the
+27th of June 1743, when the English, Hanoverians and Austrians (the
+"Pragmatic army"), 42,000 men under the command of George II. of
+England, routed the numerically superior French forces under the duc de
+Noailles. It was in memory of this victory that Handel composed his
+_Dettingen Te Deum_.
+
+
+DEUCALION, in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of Phthia in
+Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the mythical ancestor
+of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved to destroy all mankind by a
+flood, Deucalion constructed a boat or ark, in which, after drifting
+nine days and nights, he landed on Mount Parnassus (according to others,
+Othrys, Aetna or Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and
+inquired how to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind
+them the "bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the
+hillside. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by
+Pyrrha, women.
+
+  See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 243-415; Apollonius Rhodius
+  iii. 1085 ff.; H. Usener, _Die Sintflutsagen_ (1899).
+
+
+DEUCE (a corruption of the Fr. _deux_, two), a term applied to the "two"
+of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used in tennis when
+both sides have each scored three points in a game, or five games in a
+set; to win the game or set two points or games must then be won
+consecutively. The earliest instances in English of the use of the slang
+expression "the deuce," in exclamations and the like, date from the
+middle of the 17th century. The meaning was similar to that of "plague"
+or "mischief" in such phrases as "plague on you," "mischief take you"
+and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for "the devil" is
+later. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the most probable
+derivation is from a Low German _das daus_, i.e. the "deuce" in dice,
+the lowest and therefore the most unlucky throw. The personification,
+with a consequent change of gender, to _der daus_, came later. The word
+has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic
+mythology.
+
+
+DEUS, JOAO DE (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet of his
+generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in the province of
+Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating in the faculty of law at
+the university of Coimbra, he did not proceed to his degree but settled
+in the city, dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses,
+which circulated among professors and undergraduates in manuscript
+copies. In the volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he
+practised a rigorous self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855,
+and the first of his poems to appear in a separate form was _La Lata_,
+in 1860. In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor
+of _O Bejense_, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo, and
+four years later he edited the _Folha do Sul_. As the pungent satirical
+verses entitled _Eleicoes_ prove, he was not an ardent politician, and,
+though he was returned as Liberal deputy for the constituency of Silves
+in 1869, he acted independently of all political parties and promptly
+resigned his mandate. The renunciation implied in the act, which cut him
+off from all advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of
+his lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend
+Jose Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series of
+poems, _Flores do campo_, which is supplemented by the _Ramo de flores_
+(1869). This is Joao de Deus's masterpiece. _Pires de Marmalada_ (1869)
+is an improvisation of no great merit. The four theatrical
+pieces--_Amemos o nosso proximo_, _Ser apresentado_, _Ensaio de
+Casamento_, and _A Viuva inconsolavel_--are prose translations from
+Mery, cleverly done, but not worth the doing. _Horacio e Lydia_ (1872),
+a translation from Ronsard, is a good example of artifice in
+manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure, the Portuguese
+couplet. As an indication of a strong spiritual reaction three prose
+fragments (1873)--_Anna, Mae de Maria_, _A Virgem Maria_ and _A Mulher
+do Levita de Ephrain_--translated from Darboy's _Femmes de la Bible_,
+are full of significance. The _Folhas soltas_ (1876) is a collection of
+verse in the manner of _Flores do campo_, brilliantly effective and
+exquisitely refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his
+attention to educational problems, and in his _Cartilha maternal_ (1876)
+first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzi and
+Froebel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate was a
+misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational mission absorbed
+Joao de Deus completely, and is responsible for numerous controversial
+letters, for a translation of Theodore-Henri Barrau's treatise, _Des
+devoirs des enfants envers leurs parents_, for a prosodic dictionary
+and for many other publications of no literary value. A copy of verses
+in Antonio Vieira's _Grinalda de Maria_ (1877), the _Loas a Virgem_
+(1878) and the _Proverbios de Salomao_ are evidence of a complete return
+to orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a lamentable error of
+judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled _Cryptinas_ have
+been inserted in the completest edition of Joao de Deus's poems--_Campo
+de Flores_ (Lisbon, 1893). He died at Lisbon on the 11th of January
+1896, was accorded a public funeral and was buried in the National
+Pantheon, the Jeronymite church at Belem, where repose the remains of
+Camoens, Herculano and Garrett. His scattered minor prose writings and
+correspondence have been posthumously published by Dr Theophilo Braga
+(Lisbon, 1898).
+
+Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has been more
+widely read, more profoundly admired than Joao de Deus; yet no poet in
+any country has been more indifferent to public opinion and more
+deliberately careless of personal fame. He is not responsible for any
+single edition of his poems, which were put together by pious but
+ill-informed enthusiasts, who ascribed to him verses that he had not
+written; he kept no copies of his compositions, seldom troubled to write
+them himself, and was content for the most part to dictate them to
+others. He has no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is
+limited in theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch,
+often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced
+accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise a set of
+proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And yet, though
+he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though he wrote nothing at
+all comparable in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of _Os
+Lusiadas_, the popular instinct which links his name with that of his
+great predecessor is eminently just. For Camoens was his model; not the
+Camoens of the epic, but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets,
+where the passion of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has
+noted five stages of development in Joao de Deus's artistic life--the
+imitative, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout
+phases. Under each of these divisions is included much that is of
+extreme interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through
+the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly probable
+that _Caturras_ and _Gaspar_, pieces as witty as anything in Bocage but
+free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always interest literary
+students. But it is as the singer of love that Joao de Deus will delight
+posterity as he delighted his own generation. The elegiac music of
+_Rachel_ and of _Marina_, the melancholy of _Adeus_ and of _Remoinho_,
+the tenderness and sincerity of _Meu casta lirio_, of _Lagrima celeste_,
+of _Descalca_ and a score more songs are distinguished by the large,
+vital simplicity which withstands time. It is precisely in the quality
+of unstudied simplicity that Joao de Deus is incomparably strong. The
+temptations to a display of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a
+Portuguese poet; he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has
+before him the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an
+instrument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is Joao de
+Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge in idle ornament.
+His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweetness and of reverent
+purity; yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental,
+and, though he has not the strength for a long fight, emotion has seldom
+been set to more delicate music. Had he included among his other gifts
+the gift of selection, had he continued the poetic discipline of his
+youth instead of dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he
+performed it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man,
+there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen.
+
+  See also Maxime Formont, _Le Mouvement poetique contemporain en
+  Portugal_ (Lyon, 1892).                                (J. F.-K.)
+
+
+DEUTERONOMY, the name of one of the books of the Old Testament. This
+book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal criticism, orthodox
+scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its Mosaic authorship
+reduced it to the level of a pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at
+last triumphed over tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of
+Deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive,
+however, to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion
+regarding the composition and date of his book has passed.
+
+In the 17th century the characteristics which so clearly mark off
+Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch were frankly
+recognized, but the most advanced critics of that age were inclined to
+pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five. In the
+beginning of the 19th century de Wette startled the religious world by
+declaring that Deuteronomy, so far from being Mosaic, was not known till
+the time of Josiah. This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever
+since, this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical
+criticism. The only other single chapter of the Bible which is
+responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in
+critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy years
+after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen inferred that
+Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and therefore could not
+have been in existence in his day; for had Leviticus been the recognized
+Law-book of his nation Ezekiel could not have represented as a
+degradation the very position which that Law-book described as a special
+honour conferred on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so
+far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than
+Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much later stratum,
+and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic.
+
+The title "Deuteronomy" is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of
+the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered "and he shall write out for
+himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really means "and he [the king]
+shall write out for himself a copy of this law," where there is not the
+slightest suggestion that the author intended to describe "this law"
+delivered on the plains of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to
+the first code given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the
+phrase "this law" is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater difficulty
+than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew word for
+"copy." How much does "this law" include? It was long supposed to mean
+the whole of our present Deuteronomy; indeed, it is on that supposition
+that the traditional view of the Mosaic authorship is based. But the
+context alone can determine the question; and that is often so ambiguous
+that a sure inference is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that
+nowhere need "this law" mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably
+means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little that
+it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered stones set
+up beside an altar.
+
+Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a
+long process of development. The fact that it is legislative as well as
+hortatory is enough to prove this, for most of the laws it contains are
+found elsewhere in the Pentateuch, sometimes in less developed,
+sometimes in more developed forms, a fact which is conclusive proof of
+prolonged historical development. According to the all-pervading law of
+evolution, the less complex form must have preceded the more complex.
+Still, the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as
+easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable for its
+copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious feeling.
+
+The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot have been so
+large as our present book, for not only could it be read at a single
+sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one day. On the day it was
+found, Shaphan first read it himself, and then went to the king and read
+it aloud to him. But perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is
+that it was read publicly to the assembled people immediately before
+they, as well as their king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a
+word is said as to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by
+such a great multitude, being long or difficult.
+
+The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.),
+which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression made
+upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been produced by
+the legislative part alone. The king must have listened to the curses as
+well as the blessings in chap, xxviii., and no doubt also to the
+exhortations in chaps. v.-xi. Hence we may conclude that the original
+book consisted of a central mass of religious, civil and social laws,
+preceded by a hortatory introduction and followed by an effective
+peroration. The book read to Josiah must therefore have comprised most
+of what is found in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But
+something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present
+form, for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43
+(where the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52,
+there are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally
+acknowledged to be post-exilic.
+
+The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now
+have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv. 44, more
+historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more hortatory than
+historical. These may at first have been prefixed to separate editions
+of the legislative portion, but were eventually combined. Then, before D
+was united to P, five appendices of very various dates and embracing
+poetry as well as prose, were added so as to give a fuller account of
+the last days of Moses and thus lead up to the narrative of his death
+with which the book closes. (1) Chap. xxvii., where the elders of Israel
+are introduced for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. 1)
+and then the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer
+to laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this
+chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the laws
+codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The second
+appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us the farewell
+address of Moses and is certainly later than D. Moses is represented as
+speaking not with any hope of preventing Israel's apostasy but because
+he knows that the people will eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a
+point of view very different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap.
+xxxii. That this didactic poem must have been written late in the
+nation's history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7:
+"Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many generations." Such
+words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of Moses. It must have
+been composed in a time of natural gloom and depression, after Yahweh's
+anger had been provoked by "a very froward generation," certainly not
+before the Assyrian Empire had loomed up against the political horizon,
+aggressive and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the
+time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses, chap, xxxiii.
+The first line proves that this poem is not by D, who speaks invariably
+of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation depicted is in striking contrast
+with that of the Song. Everything is bright because of promises
+fulfilled, and the future bids fair to be brighter still. Bruston
+maintains with reason that the Blessing, strictly so called, consists
+only of vv. 6-25, and has been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the
+goodness of Jehovah to his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv.
+1-5, 26-29). The special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and
+Manasseh) in vv. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the
+time of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II. (5)
+The account of Moses' death, chap. xxxiv. This appendix, containing, as
+it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even Deuteronomy was not put
+into its present form until after the exile.
+
+From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the Covenant (Ex.
+xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E, the prophetic
+narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not quite clear whether D
+knew E as an independent work, or after its combination with J, the
+somewhat earlier prophetic narrative of the Southern kingdom, the
+combined form of which is now indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel
+certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that D quotes always from
+E and never from J, for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as
+readily be ascribed to J as to E, cf. Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut.
+x. 14 and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written
+certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J.
+
+In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas, whereas in
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere manifest. Hence this
+school of thought arose between the age of Isaiah and that of Jeremiah;
+but how long D itself may have been in existence before it was read in
+622 to Josiah cannot be determined with certainty. Many argue that D was
+written immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put
+into the temple for the purpose of being "found." This theory gives some
+plausibility to the charge that the book is a pious fraud. But the
+narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference. The more natural
+explanation is that it was written not in the early years of Josiah's
+reign, and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office, but
+some time during the long reign of Manasseh, probably when his policy
+was most reactionary and when he favoured the worship of the "host of
+heaven" and set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This
+explains why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed
+it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity should
+arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he actually foresaw
+how favourable that opportunity would prove, and that, as soon as
+discovered, his work would be promulgated as law by the king and
+willingly accepted by the people. The author believed that everything he
+wrote was in full accordance with the mind of Moses, and would
+contribute to the national weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and
+therefore he did not scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is
+not to be expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact
+year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is enough to
+determine with something like probability the century or half-century
+which best fits its historical data; and these appear to point to the
+reign of Manasseh.
+
+Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the historical
+resumes JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even verses being
+copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points out in his careful
+analysis, there are only three facts in D which are not also found in
+JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number of souls that went down
+into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark being made of acacia wood. But even
+these may have been in J or E originally, and left out when JE was
+combined with P. Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory
+parts of D between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural
+when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular; but as a
+similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally
+acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue seems anything but
+trustworthy, depending as it does on the presence or absence of a single
+Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it frequently does, in the division of
+verses which otherwise seem to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The
+inference as to diversity of authorship is much more conclusive when
+difference of standpoint can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii.
+2. The first two passages represent Moses as addressing the generation
+that was alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to
+those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later; and it
+may well be that the one author may, in the historical and hortatory
+parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other the 2nd singular;
+without the further inference being justified that every law in which
+the 2nd singular is used must be assigned to the latter, and every law
+in which the 2nd plural occurs must be due to the former.
+
+The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding characteristics,
+is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation towards which events had
+long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9 shows that even the zeal of Josiah
+could not carry out the instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's
+acceptance of D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the
+religion of Judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its
+adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them. D
+requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols, but
+of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas (stone pillars) often set
+up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21). These reforms made too heavy
+demands upon the people, as was proved by the reaction which set in at
+Josiah's death. Indeed the country people would look on the destruction
+of the high places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and
+would consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his
+sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of Jerusalem and
+the exile of the people would appear to those who had obeyed D's
+instructions as a well-merited punishment for national apostasy.
+
+Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each individual
+Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the declaration of
+the individual's duty towards God immediately follows the emphatic
+intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity. "Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our
+God, Yahweh is one: and thou shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thine
+heart and with all thy soul and with all thy strength" (vi. 4, 5).
+
+In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should never be
+forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy ever pronounced on
+any scripture was pronounced by Christ himself, when he said "on these
+words hang all the law and the prophets," and it is also well to
+remember that when tempted in the wilderness he repelled each suggestion
+of the Tempter by a quotation from Deuteronomy.
+
+Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the influence of
+the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and despite the spirit of love
+which breathes so strongly throughout the book, especially for the poor,
+the widow and the fatherless, the stranger and the homeless Levite
+(xxiv. 10-22), and the humanity shown towards both beasts and birds
+(xxii. 1, 4, 6 f., xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to
+explain the intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance
+characteristic of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as
+his own soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's
+pitiless order to that man is "Thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand
+shall be first upon him to put him to death." From this single instance
+we see not only how far mankind has travelled along the path of
+religious toleration since Deuteronomy was written, but also how very
+far the criticism implied in Christ's method of dealing with what "was
+said to them of old time" may be legitimately carried. (J. A. P.*)
+
+
+DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873), German oriental scholar,
+was born on the 28th of October 1829, at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of
+Jewish extraction. On reaching his sixteenth year he began his studies
+at the university of Berlin, paying special attention to theology and
+the Talmud. He also mastered the English language and studied English
+literature. In 1855 Deutsch was appointed assistant in the library of
+the British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and contributed no
+less than 190 papers to _Chambers's Encyclopaedia_, in addition to
+essays in Kitto's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries, and articles in
+periodicals. In October 1867 his article on "The Talmud," published in
+the _Quarterly Review_, made him known. It was translated into French,
+German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch and Danish. He died at Alexandria on the
+12th of May 1873.
+
+  His _Literary Remains_, edited by Lady Strangford, were published in
+  1874, consisting of nineteen papers on such subjects as "The Talmud,"
+  "Islam," "Semitic Culture," "Egypt, Ancient and Modern," "Semitic
+  Languages," "The Targums," "The Samaritan Pentateuch," and "Arabic
+  Poetry."
+
+
+DEUTSCHKRONE, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, between the two
+lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 m. N.W. of Schneidemuehl, a railway junction
+60 m. north of Posen. Pop. (1905) 7282. It is the seat of the public
+offices for the district, possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
+church, a synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuit
+college, and has manufactures of machinery, woollens, tiles, brandy and
+beer.
+
+
+DEUTZ (anc. _Divitio_), formerly an independent town of Germany, in the
+Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to
+Cologne, with which it has been incorporated since 1888. It contains the
+church of St Heribert, built in the 17th century, cavalry barracks,
+artillery magazines, and gas, porcelain, machine and carriage factories.
+It has a handsome railway station on the banks of the Rhine, negotiating
+the local traffic with Elberfeld and Koenigswinter. The fortifications of
+the town form part of the defences of Cologne. To the east is the
+manufacturing suburb of Kalk.
+
+The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine monastery by
+Heribert, archbishop of Cologne. Permission to fortify the town was in
+1230 granted to the citizens by the archbishop of Cologne, between whom
+and the counts of Berg it was in 1240 divided. It was burnt in 1376,
+1445 and 1583; and in 1678, after the peace of Nijmwegen, the
+fortifications were dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed
+in 1888.
+
+
+DEUX-SEVRES, an inland department of western France, formed in 1790
+mainly of the three districts of Poitou, Thouarsais, Gatine and
+Niortais, added to a small portion of Saintonge and a still smaller
+portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 339,466. It is bounded
+N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne, S.E. by Charente, S. by
+Charente-Inferieure and W. by Vendee. The department takes its name from
+two rivers--the Sevre of Niort which traverses the southern portion, and
+the Sevre of Nantes (an affluent of the Loire) which drains the
+north-west. There are three regions--the Gatine, occupying the north and
+centre of the department, the Plaine in the south and the
+Marais,--distinguished by their geological character and their general
+physical appearance. The Gatine, formed of primitive rocks (granite and
+schists), is the continuation of the "Bocage" of Vendee and
+Maine-et-Loire. Its surface is irregular and covered with hedges and
+clumps of wood or forests. The systematic application of lime has much
+improved the soil, which is naturally poor. The Plaine, resting on
+oolite limestone, is treeless but fertile. The Marais, a low-lying
+district in the extreme south-west, consists of alluvial clays which also
+are extremely productive when properly drained. The highest points,
+several of which exceed 700 ft., are found in a line of hills which
+begins in the centre of the department, to the south of Parthenay, and
+stretches north-west into the neighbouring department of Vendee. It
+divides the region drained by the Sevre Nantaise and the Thouet (both
+affluents of the Loire) in the north from the basins of the Sevre
+Niortaise and the Charente in the south. The climate is mild, the annual
+temperature at Niort being 54 deg. Fahr., and the rainfall nearly 25 in.
+The winters are colder in the Gatine, the summers warmer in the Plaine.
+
+Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sevres, which is primarily an
+agricultural department, consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the
+main cereals. Potatoes and mangold-wurzels are the chief root-crops.
+Niort is a centre for the growing Of vegetables (onions, asparagus,
+artichokes, &c.) and of angelica. Considerable quantities of beetroot
+are raised to supply the distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp, rape and
+flax are also cultivated. Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of
+Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the south. The
+department is well known for the Parthenay breed of cattle and the
+Poitou breed of horses; and the mules reared in the southern
+arrondissements are much sought after both in France and in Spain. The
+system of co-operative dairying is practised in some localities. The
+apple-trees of the Gatine and the walnut-trees of the Plaine bring a
+good return. Coal is mined, and the department produces building-stone
+and lime. A leading industry is the manufacture of textiles (serges,
+druggets, linen, handkerchiefs, flannels, swan-skins and knitted goods).
+Tanning and leather-dressing are carried on at Niort and other places,
+and gloves are made at Niort. Wool and cotton spinning, hat and shoe
+making, distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also
+main industries. The department exports cattle and sheep to Paris and
+Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and its industrial
+products.
+
+The Sevre Niortaise and its tributary the Mignon furnish 19 m. of
+navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouest-Etat railway.
+It contains a large proportion of Protestants, especially in the
+south-east. The four arrondissements are Niort, Bressuire, Melle and
+Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and the communes 356. Deux-Sevres is
+part of the region of the IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the
+academie (educational circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its
+court of appeal.
+
+Niort (the capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent, Thouars
+and Oiron are the principal places in the department. Several other
+towns contain features of interest. Among these are Airvault, where
+there is a church of the 12th and 14th centuries which once belonged to
+the abbey of St Pierre, and an ancient bridge built by the monks;
+Celles-sur-Belle, where there is an old church rebuilt by Louis XI., and
+again in the 17th century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a fine
+Romanesque church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of the
+most ancient abbeys of Gaul.
+
+
+DEVA (Sanskrit "heavenly"), in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, spirits of
+the light and air, and minor deities generally beneficent. In Persian
+mythology, however, the word is used for evil spirits or demons.
+According to Zoroaster the devas were created by Ahriman.
+
+
+DEVA (mod. _Chester_), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain on the Dee.
+It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and held probably till the
+end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison was the Legio XX. Valeria
+Victrix, with which another legion (II. Adjutrix) was associated for a
+few years, about A.D. 75-85. It never developed, like many Roman
+legionary fortresses, into a town, but remained military throughout.
+Parts of its north and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate)
+and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area.
+
+  See F. J. Haverfield, _Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester_
+  (Chester, 1900), Introduction.
+
+
+DEVADATTA, the son of Suklodana, who was younger brother to the father
+of the Buddha (_Mah[=a]vastu_, iii. 76). Both he and his brother
+[=A]nanda, who were considerably younger than the Buddha, joined the
+brotherhood in the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry. Four other
+cousins of theirs, chiefs of the S[=a]kiya clan, and a barber named
+Up[=a]li, were admitted to the order at the same time; and at their own
+request the barber was admitted first, so that as their senior in the
+order he should take precedence of them (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 228). All
+the others continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years
+afterwards, having gained over the crown prince of Magadha,
+Aj[=a]tasattu, to his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting of
+the order, that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the leadership
+to him, Devadatta (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 238; _J[=a]taka_, i. 142). This
+proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition to have
+successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his aged father
+and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death of the
+Buddha (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 241-250; _J[=a]taka_, vi. 131), shortly
+afterwards, relying upon the feeling of the people in favour of
+asceticism, he brought forward four propositions for ascetic rules to be
+imposed on the order. These being refused, he appealed to the people,
+started an order of his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's
+community to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the
+success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be referred
+to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the _Anguttara_ (see _Dialogues
+of the Buddha_ i. 222), for Devadatta's family name was Gotama. But his
+community was certainly still in existence in the 4th century A.D., for
+it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien, the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's
+translation, p. 62). And it possibly lasted till the 7th century, for
+Hsuean Tsang mentions that in a monastery in Bengal the monks then
+followed a certain regulation of Devadatta's (T. Watters, _On Yuan
+Chwang_, ii. 191). There is no mention in the canon as to how or when
+Devadatta died; but the commentary on the _J[=a]taka_, written in the
+5th century A.D., has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by
+the earth near S[=a]vatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha
+(_J[=a]taka_, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to both
+the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and T. Watters,
+_On Yuan Chwang_, i. 390). It is a striking example of the way in which
+such legends grow, that it is only the latest of these authorities,
+Hsuean Tsang, who says that, though ostensibly approaching the Buddha
+with a view to reconciliation, Devadatta had concealed poison in his
+nail with the object of murdering the Buddha.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Vinaya Texts_, translated by Rhys Davids and H.
+  Oldenberg (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); _The J[=a]taka_, edited by V.
+  Fausboell (7 vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_
+  (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushell, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905); _Fa Hian_,
+  translated by J. Legge (Oxford, 1886); _Mah[=a]vastu_ (ed. Tenant, 3
+  vols., Paris, 1882-1897).                               (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+DEVAPRAYAG (DEOPRAYAG), a village in Tehri State of the United
+Provinces, India. It is situated at the spot where the rivers Alaknanda
+and Bhagirathi unite and form the Ganges, and as one of the five sacred
+confluences in the hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout
+Hindus. Devaprayag stands at an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a
+hill which rises above it 800 ft. On a terrace in the upper part of the
+village is the temple of Raghunath, built of huge uncemented stones,
+pyramidical in form and capped by a white cupola.
+
+
+DEVENS, CHARLES (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist, was born in
+Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 4th of April 1820. He graduated at
+Harvard College in 1838, and at the Harvard law school in 1840, and was
+admitted to the bar in Franklin county, Mass., where he practised from
+1841 to 1849. In the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the state senate,
+and from 1849 to 1853 was United States marshal for Massachusetts, in
+which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the fugitive slave,
+Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained to do, much against
+his personal desire; and subsequently he attempted in vain to purchase
+Sims's freedom, and many years later appointed him to a position in the
+department of justice at Washington. Devens practised law at Worcester
+from 1853 until 1861, and throughout the Civil War served in the Federal
+army, becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier-general
+of volunteers in April 1862. At the battle of Ball's Bluff (1861) he was
+severely wounded; he was again wounded at Fair Oaks (1862) and at
+Chancellorsville (1863), where he commanded a division. He later
+distinguished himself at Cold Harbor, and commanded a division in
+Grant's final campaign in Virginia (1864-65), his troops being the first
+to occupy Richmond after its fall. Breveted major-general in 1865, he
+remained in the army for a year as commander of the military district of
+Charleston, South Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetts superior
+court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate justice of the supreme
+court of the state from 1873 to 1877, and again from 1881 to 1891. From
+1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet
+of President Hayes. He died at Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January
+1891.
+
+  See his _Orations and Addresses_, with a memoir by John Codman Ropes
+  (Boston, 1891).
+
+
+DEVENTER, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the right bank
+of the Ysel, at the confluence of the Schipbeek, and a junction station
+10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also connected by steam tramway S.E.
+with Brokulo. Pop. (1900) 26,212. Deventer is a neat and prosperous town
+situated in the midst of prettily wooded environs, and containing many
+curious old buildings. There are three churches of special interest: the
+Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies the site
+of an older structure of which the 11th-century crypt remains; the Roman
+Catholic Broederkerk, or Brothers' Church, containing among its relics
+three ancient gospels said to have been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin),
+the English apostle of the Frisians and Westphalians (d. c. 773); and
+the Bergkerk, dedicated in 1206, which has two late Romanesque towers.
+The town hall (1693) contains a remarkable painting of the town council
+by Terburg. In the fine square called the Brink is the old weigh-house,
+now a school (gymnasium), built in 1528, with a large external staircase
+(1644). The gymnasium is descended from the Latin school of which the
+celebrated Alexander Hegius was master in the third quarter of the 15th
+century, when the young Erasmus was sent to it, and at which Adrian
+Floreizoon, afterwards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil
+about the same time. Another famous educational institution was the
+"Athenaeum" or high school, founded in 1630, at which Henri Renery (d.
+1639) taught philosophy, while Johann Friedrich Gronov (Gronovius)
+(1611-1671) taught rhetoric and history in the middle of the same
+century. The "Athenaeum" disappeared in 1876. In modern times Deventer
+possessed a famous teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch
+translator of Shakespeare. The town library, also called the library of
+the Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and _incunabula_, and a 13th-century
+copy of _Reynard the Fox_. The archives of the town are of considerable
+value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade, Deventer has important
+iron foundries and carpet factories (the royal manufactory of Smyrna
+carpets being especially famous); while cotton-printing, rope-making and
+the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on. A public official
+is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread
+known as "_Deventer Koek_," which has a reputation throughout Holland.
+In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of Deventer, some
+14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870.
+
+In the 14th century Deventer was the centre of the famous religious and
+educational movement associated with the name of GERHARD GROOT (q.v.),
+who was a native of the town (see BROTHERS OF COMMON LIFE).
+
+
+DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1902), Irish poet and critic, was born at
+Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the 10th of January 1814, being the
+third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt (1788-1846). In 1832 his father
+dropped the final name by royal licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet.
+Wordsworth called his sonnets the "most perfect of the age." These and
+his drama, _Mary Tudor_, were published by his son in 1875 and 1884.
+Aubrey de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his
+twenty-eighth year published _The Waldenses_, which he followed up in
+the next year by _The Search after Proserpine_. Thenceforward he was
+continually engaged, till his death on the 20th of January 1902, in the
+production of poetry and criticism. His best-known works are: in verse,
+_The Sisters_ (1861); _The Infant Bridal_ (1864); _Irish Odes_ (1869);
+_Legends of St Patrick_ (1872); and _Legends of the Saxon Saints_
+(1879); and in prose, _Essays chiefly on Poetry_ (1887); and _Essays
+chiefly Literary and Ethical_ (1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume
+of travel-sketches, and two dramas in verse, _Alexander the Great_
+(1874); and _St Thomas of Canterbury_ (1876); both of which, though they
+contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic
+spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry are "high
+seriousness" and a fine religious enthusiasm. His research in questions
+of faith led him to the Roman Church; and in many of his poems, notably
+in the volume of sonnets called _St Peter's Chains_ (1888), he made rich
+additions to devotional verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose
+calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his
+affection for Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and
+weight to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will
+be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study of
+Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many
+followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers; but
+after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on "Celtic Literature," nothing
+perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival than Aubrey de Vere's tender
+insight into the Irish character, and his stirring reproductions of the
+early Irish epic poetry.
+
+  A volume of _Selections_ from his poems was edited in 1894 (New York
+  and London) by G. E. Woodberry.
+
+
+DEVICE, a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also a pattern or
+design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem, often combined with a
+motto or legend. "Device" and its doublet "devise" come from the two Old
+French forms _devis_ and _devise_ of the Latin _divisa_, things divided,
+from _dividere_, to separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out,
+apportion. "Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term
+for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention restricted
+to a disposition of real property, the term "bequest" being used of
+personalty (see WILL). This use is directly due to the Medieval Latin
+meaning of _dividere_ = _testamento disponere_. In its verbal form,
+"devise" is used not only in the legal sense, but also in the sense of
+to plan, arrange, scheme.
+
+
+DEVIL (Gr. [Greek: diabolos], "slanderer," from [Greek: diaballein], to
+slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the supreme
+spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used for minor evil
+spirits in much the same sense as "demon." From the various
+characteristics associated with this idea, the term has come to be
+applied by analogy in many different senses. From the idea of evil as
+degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure, the term is applied to
+persons in evil plight, or of slight consideration. In English legal
+phraseology "devil" and "devilling" are used of barristers who act as
+substitutes for others. Any remuneration which the legal "devil" may
+receive is purely a matter of private arrangement between them. In the
+chancery division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of
+one half of the fee which the client pays; "in the king's bench division
+remuneration for 'devilling' of briefs or assisting in drafting and
+opinions is not common" (see _Annual Practice_, 1907, p. 717). In a
+similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by
+a literary hack or "devil." The term "printer's devil" for the errand
+boy in a printing office probably combines this idea with that of his
+being black with ink. The common notions of the devil as black,
+ill-favoured, malicious, destructive and the like, have occasioned the
+application of the term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the
+devil-fish, the coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth
+or separating wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or
+fried. In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the
+word, as used in mythology and religion.
+
+The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all
+phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good or evil, produce
+pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction in the character of
+these agencies is gradually recognized; the agents of good become gods,
+those of evil, demons. A tendency towards the simplification and
+organization of the evil as of the good forces, leads towards belief in
+outstanding leaders among the forces of evil. When the divine is most
+completely conceived as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and
+over against God stands Satan, or the devil.
+
+Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian monotheism that
+this belief in the devil has been most fully developed, yet there are
+approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In Babylonian mythology
+"the old serpent goddess 'the lady Nina' was transformed into the
+embodiment of all that was hostile to the powers of heaven" (Sayce's
+_Hibbert Lectures_, p. 283), and was confounded with the dragon Tiamat,
+"a terrible monster, reappearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab
+and Leviathan, the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man"
+(Tennant's _The Fall and Original Sin_, p. 43), and according to Gunkel
+(_Schoepfung und Chaos_, p. 383) "the original of the 'old serpent' of
+Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with an army of
+monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat of the luminous
+gods. While the Greek mythology described the Titans as "enchained once
+for all in their dark dungeons" yet Prometheus' threat remained to
+disturb the tranquillity of the Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology
+the army of darkness is led by Hel, the personification of twilight,
+sunk to the goddess who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and
+Loki, originally the god of fire, but afterwards "looked upon as the
+father of the evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her
+adornments, who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the
+death of Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts,
+Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver the
+celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the caverns of the
+clouds. In the _Trimurti_, Brahm[=a] (the impersonal) is manifested as
+Brahm[=a] (the personal creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Siva (the
+destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the belief in the god of Vedic times
+Rudra, who is represented as "the wild hunter who storms over the earth
+with his bands, and lays low with arrows the men who displease him"
+(Chantepie de la Saussaye's _Religionsgeschichte_, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p.
+25). The evil character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali
+(the black) is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The
+opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in Zoroastrianism.
+Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is Ahriman, the source of all
+evil; and the opposition runs through the whole universe (D'Alviella's
+_Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 158-164).
+
+The conception of _Satan_ (Heb. [Hebrew: Satan], the adversary, Gr.
+[Greek: Satanas], or [Greek: Satan], 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the
+post-exilic period of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of
+the influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots
+in much older beliefs. An "evil spirit" possesses Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 14),
+but it is "from the Lord." The same agency produces discord between
+Abimelech and the Shechemites (Judges ix. 23). "A lying spirit in the
+mouth of all his prophets" as Yahweh's messenger entices Ahab to his
+doom (1 Kings xxii. 22). Growing human corruption is traced to the
+fleshy union of angels and women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil,
+whether as misfortune or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (1 Sam.
+xviii. 10; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1; 1 Kings xxii. 20; Isa. vi. 10, lxiii. 17).
+After the Exile there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence
+by the introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all
+evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of God and
+man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands as the adversary
+of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by Yahweh for desiring that
+Jerusalem should be further punished. In the book of Job he presents
+himself before the Lord among the sons of God (ii. 1), yet he is
+represented both as accuser and tempter. He disbelieves in Job's
+integrity, and desires him to be so tried that he may fall into sin.
+While, according to 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, God himself tests David in regard to
+the numbering of the people, according to 1 Chron. xxi. 1 it is Satan
+who tempts him.
+
+The development of the conception continued in later Judaism, which was
+probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism. It is doubtful,
+however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book of Tobit is the same as
+the A[=e]shma Da[=e]wa of the Bundahesh. He is the evil spirit who slew
+the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8), and the name probably means
+"Destroyer." In the book of Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a
+rival kingdom of evil, but here are also mentioned Satans, who are
+distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function,
+to tempt, to accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly
+(Ecclesiasticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii.
+(Wisdom ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom
+lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14); Gen. iii. is probably
+referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, "a serpent speaking with the
+words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert wisdom." The _Book of
+the Secrets of Enoch_ not only identifies Satan with the Serpent, but
+also describes his revolt against God, and expulsion from heaven. In the
+Jewish _Targums_ Sammael, "the highest angel that stands before God's
+throne, caused the serpent to seduce the woman"; he coalesces with
+Satan, and has inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is
+ascribed to a union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's
+standing before God he is greatly feared.
+
+This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced in the
+New Testament. Satan is the [Greek: diabolos] (Matt. xiii. 39; John
+xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10), slanderer or accuser,
+the [Greek: peirazon] (Matt. iv. 3; 1 Thess. iii. 5), the tempter, the
+[Greek: poneros] (Matt. v. 37; John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil
+one, and the [Greek: echthros] (Matt. xiii. 39), the enemy. He is
+apparently identified with Beelzebub (or Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26,
+27. Jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons belonging to a
+kingdom of evil under the leadership of Satan "the prince of demons"
+(Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in demonic possessions it is his
+function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 11, vi. 7; Luke x. 17-20). But he
+himself conquers Satan in resisting his temptations (Matt. iv. 1-11).
+Simon is warned against him, and Judas yields to him as tempter (Luke
+xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's cures are represented as a triumph
+over Satan (Luke x. 18). This Jewish doctrine is found in Paul's letters
+also. Satan rules over a world of evil, supernatural agencies, whose
+dwelling is in the lower heavens (Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince
+of the power of the air" (ii. 2). He is the tempter (1 Thess. iii. 5; 1
+Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x. 10), to whom the offender is to be
+handed over for bodily destruction (v. 5), identified with the serpent
+(Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and probably with Beliar or Belial (vi.
+15); and the surrender of man to him brought death into the world (Rom.
+v. 17). Paul's own "stake in the flesh" is Satan's messenger (2 Cor.
+xii. 7). According to Hebrews Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by
+dying (ii. 14). Revelation describes the war in heaven between God with
+his angels and Satan or the dragon, the "old serpent," the deceiver of
+the whole world (xii. 9), with his hosts of darkness. After the
+overthrow of the Beast and the kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned
+in the bottomless pit a thousand years (xx. 2). Again loosed to deceive
+the nations, he is finally cast into the lake of fire and brimstone (xx.
+10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2 Peter ii. 4). In John's Gospel and Epistles
+Satan is opposed to Christ. Sinner and murderer from the beginning (1
+John iii. 8) and liar by nature (John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin
+(viii. 34), causes death (verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30),
+but has no power over Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. 11; 1
+John v. 18). He will be destroyed by Christ with all his works (John
+xvi. 33; 1 John iii. 8).
+
+In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic Age "the
+present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon, was just as
+generally presupposed as man's need of redemption, which was regarded as
+a result of that dominion. The tenacity of this belief may be explained
+among other things by the living impression of the polytheism that
+surrounded the communities on every side. By means of this assumption
+too, humanity seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for
+redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range"
+(Harnack's _History of Dogma_, i. p. 181). While Christ's First Advent
+delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow would be
+completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics held that "the present
+world sprang from a fall of man, or from an undertaking hostile to God,
+and is, therefore, the product of an evil or intermediate being" (p.
+257). Some taught that while the future had been assigned by God to
+Christ, the devil had received the present age (p. 309). The fathers
+traced all doctrines not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and
+the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil
+transforming himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes
+Satan's fall to "pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation"; and
+traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in resisting his
+temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline passages, represents
+the death of Christ "as a ransom paid to the 'apostasy' for men who had
+fallen into captivity" (ii. 290). He does not admit that Satan has any
+lawful claim on man, or that God practised a deceit on him, as later
+fathers taught. This theory of the _atonement_ was formulated by Origen.
+"By his successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God
+offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped, as
+Christ overcame both him and death" (p. 367). It was held by Gregory of
+Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase _pia fraus_, Augustine, Leo I., and
+Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst form. "The humanity of Christ
+was the bait; the fish, the devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging
+on the invisible hook, Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the
+relation of the work of Christ to Satan retires into the background,
+Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view.
+It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the Lombard
+asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard represents man's
+bondage to Satan "as righteously permitted as a just retribution for
+sin," he being "the executioner of the divine justice." Another theory
+of Origen's found less acceptance. The devil, as a being resulting from
+God's will, cannot always remain a devil. The possibility of his
+redemption, however, was in the 5th century branded as a heresy. Persian
+dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the doctrine
+of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy views of
+Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to this
+influence. Mani taught that Satan with his demons, sprung from the
+kingdom of darkness, attacked the realm of light, the earth, defeated
+man sent against him by the God of light, but was overthrown by the God
+of light, who then delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). "During the
+middle ages," says Tulloch, "the belief in the devil was
+absorbing--saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant
+conflict with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the
+13th to the 15th century, passed into Protestantism. Luther was always
+conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan. "As I found he was
+about to begin again," says Luther, "I gathered together my books, and
+got into bed. Another time in the night I heard him above my cell
+walking on the cloister, but as I knew it was the devil I paid no
+attention to him and went to sleep." He held that this world will pass
+away with its pleasures, as there can be no real improvement in it, for
+the devil continues in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii.
+191). I. A. Dorner (_Christian Doctrine_, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant
+doctrine as follows:--"He is brought into relation with natural
+sinfulness, and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to
+him. The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery to
+Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the
+extra-Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and by his
+word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating anything is
+also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting substances is
+conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judgment that his power is
+wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered up to eternal punishment."
+This belief in the devil was specially strong in Scotland among both
+clergy and laity in the 17th century. "The devil was always and
+literally at hand," says Buckle, "he was haunting them, speaking to
+them, and tempting them. Go where they would he was there."
+
+In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on
+this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of demonic possession, and
+held that Christ in his language accommodated himself to the views of
+the sick whom he was seeking to cure. Kant regarded the devil as a
+personification of the radical evil in man. Daub in his _Judas
+Ishcarioth_ argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute evil, and
+the absolute evil as real must be in a person. Schelling regarded the
+devil as, not a person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the
+freedom of man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the
+common belief. "The problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in
+Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self-knowledge." Dorner has
+formulated a theory which explains the development of the conception of
+Satan in the Holy Scriptures as in correspondence with an evolution in
+the character of Satan. "Satan appears in Scripture under four leading
+characters:--first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to
+decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts
+criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine, which
+brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he is described,
+especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of God and man." He
+supposes "a change in Satan in the course of the history of the divine
+revelation, in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn
+enemy of God and man, especially in the New Testament times, in which,
+on the other hand, his power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues
+that "the world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits
+breaches everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance" (pp. 99, 102).
+H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. "The evil
+principle," he says, "has in itself no personality, but attains a
+progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no individual
+personality, save only in individual creatures, who in an especial
+manner make themselves its organs; but among these is one creature in
+whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and
+head of the kingdom of evil" (_Dogmatics_, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no
+place in his constructive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but
+recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another
+constitutes a kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E.
+Garvie, _The Ritschlian Theology_, p. 304). Kaftan affirms that a
+"doctrine about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as
+faith can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the
+dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left to the
+immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will on account of
+the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would be arrogant to wish
+to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the thought that Satan also
+stands under the commission of the Almighty God, and that no one must
+suppose that by leading back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get
+rid of his own guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith"
+(_Dogmatik_, p. 348). In the book entitled _Evil and Evolution_ there is
+"an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient
+mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil is best
+explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan, who in the
+process of evolution interferes with the divine designs, an interference
+which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible.
+Satan is, however, held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom
+been estranged from, and opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be
+conquered by moral means. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic
+possession maintains that "the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son
+of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession" (p.
+150), and argues that, as "the Incarnation indicated the establishment
+of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took place "a counter
+movement among the powers of darkness," of which "genuine demonic
+possession was one of the manifestations" (p. 249).
+
+Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently affirmed
+that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an essential
+article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an indispensable
+element of Christian experience. On the one hand science has so
+explained many of the processes of outer nature and of the inner life of
+man as to leave no room for Satanic agency. On the other hand the modern
+view of the inspiration of the Scriptures does not necessitate the
+acceptance of the doctrine of the Scriptures on this subject as finally
+and absolutely authoritative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter
+may be accounted for as either an accommodation to the views of those
+with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the limitation
+of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the Incarnation, for it
+cannot be contended that as revealer of God and redeemer of men it was
+imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in
+this respect. The possibility of the existence of evil spirits,
+organized under one leader Satan to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be
+denied; the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may,
+however, be doubted; the necessity of any such belief for Christian
+thought and life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also DEMONOLOGY;
+POSSESSION.)                                                (A. E. G.*)
+
+
+DEVIZES, a market town and municipal borough in the Devizes
+parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by S. of London
+by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6532. Its castle was built on
+a tongue of land flanked by two deep ravines, and behind this the town
+grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its
+main streets, in which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate
+from the market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord
+Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town on the N.,
+passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-nine locks. St
+John's church, one of the most interesting in Wiltshire, is cruciform,
+with a massive central tower, based upon two round and two pointed
+arches. It was originally Norman of the 12th century, and the chancel
+arch and low vaulted chancel, in this style, are very fine. In the
+interior several ancient monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are
+preserved, besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich
+ceilings of oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly
+Norman, but was rebuilt in the 15th and again in the 19th century. Its
+lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof, and the
+south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves its Norman mouldings.
+The woollen industries of Devizes have lost their prosperity; but there
+is a large grain trade, with engineering works, breweries, and
+manufactures of silk, snuff, tobacco and agricultural implements. The
+town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors.
+Area, 906 acres.
+
+Devizes (_Divisis_, _la Devise_, _De Vies_) does not appear in any
+historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the
+construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger, bishop of
+Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important political centre,
+and led to its speedy development. After the disgrace of Roger in 1139
+the castle was seized by the Crown; in the 14th century it formed part
+of the dowry of the queens of England, and figured prominently in
+history until its capture and demolition by Cromwell in the Civil War of
+the 17th century. Devizes became a borough by prescription, and the
+first charter from Matilda, confirmed by successive later sovereigns,
+merely grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of
+undisturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause conferring on the town the
+liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II. instituted a coroner. A gild
+merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward II. and Edward III., and in
+1614 was divided into the three companies of drapers, mercers and
+leathersellers. The present governing charters were issued by James I.
+and Charles I., the latter being little more than a confirmation of the
+former, which instituted a common council consisting of a mayor, a town
+clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses. These charters were surrendered
+to Charles II., and a new one was conferred by James II., but abandoned
+three years later in favour of the original grant. Devizes returned two
+members to parliament from 1295, until deprived of one member by the
+Representation of the People Act of 1867, and of the other by the
+Redistribution Act of 1885. The woollen manufacture was the staple
+industry of the town from the reign of Edward III. until the middle of
+the 18th century, when complaints as to the decay of trade began to be
+prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth the market was held on Monday, and
+there were two annual fairs at the feasts of the Purification of the
+Virgin and the Decollation of John the Baptist. The market was
+transferred to Thursday in the next reign, and the fairs in the 18th
+century had become seven in number.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Wiltshire_; _History of Devizes_ (Devizes,
+  1859).
+
+
+DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68), the name applied to the war which arose
+out of Louis XIV.'s claims to certain Spanish territories in right of
+his wife Maria Theresa, upon whom the ownership was alleged to have
+"devolved." (See, for the military operations, DUTCH WARS.) The war was
+ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668.
+
+
+DEVON, EARLS OF. From the family of De Redvers (De Ripuariis; Riviers),
+who had been earls of Devon from about 1100, this title passed to Hugh
+de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340), the representative of a prominent family in
+the county (see Gibbon's "digression" in chap. lxi. of the _Decline and
+Fall_, ed. Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay
+(1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of Towton.
+It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward Courtenay (d. 1509), whose
+son Sir William (d. 1511) married Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too
+great proximity to the throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry
+(c. 1498-1539) was restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in
+1525 was created marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of
+William Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture
+on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son Edward
+(1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant in the Courtenay
+family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the
+House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon was restored to the peerage,
+still being held by the head of the Courtenays. The earlier earls of
+Devon were referred to occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the
+former variant has prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the
+earldom and dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND
+DUKES OF, and also the article COURTENAY).
+
+
+DEVONIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name applied to series of stratified
+fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed during the Devonian
+period, that is, in the interval of time between the close of the
+Silurian period and the beginning of the Carboniferous; it includes the
+marine Devonian and an estuarine Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The
+name "Devonian" was introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A.
+Sedgwick to describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W.
+Lonsdale had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be
+intermediate between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two
+workers also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the
+continent, where already several others, F. Roemer, H. E. Beyrich, &c.,
+were endeavouring to elucidate the succession of strata in this portion
+of the "Transition Series." The labours of these earlier workers,
+including in addition to those already mentioned, the brothers F. and G.
+von Sandberger, A. Dumont, J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de
+Verneuil and H. von Dechen, although somewhat modified by later
+students, formed the foundation upon which the modern classification of
+the Devonian rocks is based.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution of Devonian Rocks]
+
+                   _Stratigraphy of the Devonian Facies._
+
+  Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall that
+  the Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central Europe
+  that the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and here, too,
+  their geological position was first indicated by the founders of the
+  system, Sedgwick and Murchison.
+
+  _Continental Europe._--Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the
+  centre of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south of
+  Belgium across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best known from
+  the picturesque gorges which have been cut through them by the Rhine
+  below Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves. They reappear from under
+  younger formations in Brittany, in the Harz and Thuringia, and are
+  exposed in Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, North Moravia and eastern
+  Galicia. The principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical
+  areas are indicated in Table I.
+
+  This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata,
+  is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet
+  represents the _Stringocephalus_ limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards
+  into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical
+  modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general
+  palaeontological characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony,
+  Silesia, the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have
+  been detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of
+  the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods,
+  lamellibranchs and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of
+  the Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales,
+  limestones and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but
+  containing ores of silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other
+  metals, may be referable to the Devonian system.
+
+  In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of a
+  vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional
+  seams of limestone, and in particular with one thick central
+  calcareous zone. These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by
+  numerous broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (_Phacops_,
+  _Homalonotus_, &c.) which, though generically like those of the
+  Silurian system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous
+  zone abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous
+  brachiopods. In the highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods
+  (_Clymenia_) occurs in some of the limestones, while the shales are
+  crowded with a small but characteristic ostracod crustacean
+  (_Cypridina_). Here and there traces of fishes have been found, more
+  especially in the Eifel, but seldom in such a state of preservation as
+  to warrant their being assigned to any definite place in the
+  zoological scale. Subsequently, however, E. Beyrich has described from
+  Gerolstein in the Eifel an undoubted species of _Pterichthys_, which,
+  as it cannot be certainly identified with any known form, he names _P.
+  Rhenanus_. A _Coccosteus_ has been described by F. A. Roemer from the
+  Harz, and still later one has been cited from Bicken near Herborn by
+  V. Koenen; but, as Beyrich points out, there may be some doubt as to
+  whether the latter is not a _Pterichthys_. A _Ctenacanthus_, seemingly
+  undistinguishable from the _C. Bohemicus_ of Barrande's Etage G, has
+  also been obtained from the Lower Devonian "Nereitenschichten" of
+  Thuringia. The characteristic _Holoptychius nobilissimus_ has been
+  detected in the Psammite de Condroz, which in Belgium forms a
+  characteristic sandy portion of the Upper Devonian rocks. These are
+  interesting facts, as helping to link the Devonian and Old Red
+  Sandstone types together. But they are as yet too few and unsupported
+  to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations between these
+  types.
+
+  It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red
+  Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones
+  and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the
+  fish-bearing sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was
+  shown in the great work _Russia and the Ural Mountains_ by Murchison,
+  De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper
+  Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent of
+  surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development arises
+  not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal character
+  of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described elsewhere, they
+  remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they were
+  originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they present but
+  a meagre representative of the massive Devonian greywacke and
+  limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Yet vast
+  though the area is over which they form the surface rock, it is
+  probably only a small portion of their total extent; for they are
+  found turned up from under the newer formations along the flank of the
+  Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread continuously across
+  the whole breadth of Russia in Europe. Though almost everywhere
+  undisturbed, they afford evidence of some terrestrial oscillation
+  between the time of their formation and that of the Silurian rocks on
+  which they rest, for they are found gradually to overlap Upper and
+  Lower Silurian formations.
+
+                                  TABLE I.
+
+       +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+       |             |                   |                              | Brittany and |                 |                 |
+       |  Stages.    |     Ardennes.     |           Rhineland.         |   Normandy.  |    Bohemia.     |      Harz.      |
+     / +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+    |  |             | Limestone of      | Cypridina slates.            | Slates of    |                 | Cypridina       |
+ U  |  |             |  Etroeungt.       | Poen sandstone (Sauerland).   |  Rostellec.  |                 |  slates.        |
+ P  |  | Famennien   | Psammites of      | Crumbly limestone (Kramen-   |              |                 | Clymenia        |
+ P  |  | (Clymenia   |  Condroz (sandy   |  zelkalk) with Clymenia.     |              |                 |  limestone and  |
+ E  |  |  beds).     |  series).         | Neheim slates in Sauerland,  |              |                 |  limestone of   |
+ R  |  |             | Slates of Famenne |  and diabases, tuffs, &c.,   |              |                 |  Altenau.       |
+    |  |             |  (shaly series).  |  in Dillmulde, &c.           |              |                 |                 |
+ D /   +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+ E \   |             | Slates of         | Adorf limestone of Waldeck   | Limestone of |                 | Iberg limestone |
+ V  |  |             |  Matagne.         |  and shales with Goniatites  |  Cop-Choux   |                 |  and Winterberg |
+ O  |  | Frasnien    | Limestones, marls |  (Eifel and Aix) =           |  and green   |                 |  limestone;     |
+ N  |  |(Intumesce-  |  and shale of     |  Budesheimer shales.         |  slates of   |                 |  also Adorf     |
+ I  |  | cens beds). |  Frasne, and      | Marls, limestone and dolomite|  Travuliors. |                 |  limestone and  |
+ A  |  |             |  red marble of    |  with Rhynchonella cuboides  |              |                 |  shales         |
+ N  |  |             |  Flanders.        |  (Flinz in part).            |              |                 |  (Budesheim).   |
+ .  |  |             |                   | Iberg limestone of Dillmulde.|              |                 |                 |
+     \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+     / |             | Limestone of      | Stringocephalus limestone,   |Limestones    | H_{2} (of       | Stringocephalus |
+ M  |  |             |  Givet.           |  ironstone of Brilon and     | of Chalonnes,|  Barrande) dark |  shales with    |
+ I  |  |  Giverien   |                   |  Lahnmulde.                  | Montjean and |  plant-bearing  |  Flaser and     |
+ D  |  |(Stringocep- |                   | Upper Lenne shales, crinoidal| l'Ecochere.  |  shales.        |  Knollenkalk.   |
+ D  |  | halus beds).|                   |  limestone of Eifel, red     |              |                 | Wissenbach      |
+ L  |  |             |                   |  sandstones of Aix.          |              |                 |  slates.        |
+ E  |  |             |                   | Tuffs and diabases of Brilon |              | H_{1}.          |                 |
+    |  |             |                   |  and Lahnmulde.              |              |                 |                 |
+ D /   |             |                   | Red conglomerate of Aix.     |              |                 |                 |
+ E \   +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+ V  |  |             | Calceola slates   | Calceola beds, Wissenbach    | Slates of    | G_{3} Cephalo-  | Calceola beds.  |
+ O  |  |             |  and limestones   |  slates, Lower Lenne beds,   |  Porsguen,   |  pod limestone. | Nereite slates, |
+ N  |  | Eifelien    |  of  Couvin.      |  Guentroder limestone and     |  greywacke   | G_{2} Tentacu-  |  slates of      |
+ I  |  |  (Calceola  | Greywacke  with   |  clay slate of Lahnmulde,    |  of Fret.    |  lite limestone.|  Wieda and      |
+ A  |  |   beds).    |  Spirifer         |  Dillmulde, Wildungen,       |              | G_{3} Knollen-  |  limestones of  |
+ N  |  |             |  cultrijugatus.   |  Griefenstein limestone,     |              |  kalk and       |  Hasselfeld.    |
+ .  |  |             |                   |  Ballersbach limestone.      |              |  mottled Mnenian|                 |
+     \ |             |                   |                              |              |  limestone.     |                 |
+       +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+     / | Coblentzien |Greywacke of       | Upper Coblentz slates.       | Limestones   |                 | Haupt quartzite |
+ L  |  |             |  Hierges.         | Red sandstone of Eifel,      |  of Erbray,  |                 |  (of Lossen) =  |
+ O  |  |             |Shales and conglom-|  Coblentz quartzite, lower   |  Brulon, Vire|                 |  Rammelsberg    |
+ W  |  |             | erate of Burnot   |  Coblentz slates.            |  and Nehou,  |                 |  slates, Schal- |
+ E  |  |             | with quartzite,   | Hunsrueck and Siegener        |  greywacke   |                 |  lker slates =  |
+ R  |  |             | of Bierle and     |  greywacke and slates.       |  of Faou,    |                 |  Kahleberg      |
+    |  |             | red  slates of    | Taunus quartzite and         |  sandstone   |                 |  sandstone.     |
+ D  |  |             | Vireux, greywacke |  greywacke.                  |  of Gahard.  | F-{2} of        | Hercynian slates|
+ E /   |             | of Montigny,      |                              |              |  Barrande.      |  and lime-      |
+ V \   |             | sandstone of Anor.|                              |              | White Konjeprus |  stones.        |
+ O  |  +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+  Limestone with |                 |
+ N  |  | Gedinnien   |Slates of St Hubert| Slates of Gedinne.           | Slates and   |  Hercynian      |                 |
+ I  |  |             | and Fooz, slates  |                              |  quartzites  |  fauna.         |                 |
+ A  |  |             | of Mondrepuits,   |                              |  of Plou-    |                 |                 |
+ N  |  |             | arkose of Weis-   |                              |  gastel.     |                 |                 |
+ .  |  |             | mes, conglomerate |                              |              |                 |                 |
+    |  |             | of Fepin.         |                              |              |                 |                 |
+     \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+
+  The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact,
+  first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite
+  within themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red
+  Sandstone types. In some districts they consist largely of limestones,
+  in others of red sandstones and marls. In the former they present
+  molluscs and other marine organisms of known Devonian species; in the
+  latter they afford remains of fishes, some of which are specifically
+  identical with those of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The
+  distribution of these two palaeontological types in Russia is traced
+  by Murchison to the lithological characters of the rocks, and
+  consequent original diversities of physical conditions, rather than to
+  differences of age. Indeed cases occur where in the same band of rock
+  Devonian shells and Old Red Sandstone fishes lie commingled. In the
+  belt of the formation which extends southwards from Archangel and the
+  White Sea, the strata consist of sands and marls, and contain only
+  fish remains. Traced through the Baltic provinces, they are found to
+  pass into red and green marls, clays, thin limestones and sandstones,
+  with beds of gypsum. In some of the calcareous bands such fossils
+  occur as _Orthis striatula_, _Spiriferina prisca_, _Leptaena
+  productoides_, _Spirifer calcaratus_, _Spirorbis omphaloides_ and
+  _Orthoceras subfusiforme_. In the higher beds _Holoptychius_ and other
+  well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone occur. Followed still
+  farther to the south, as far as the watershed between Orel and
+  Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red colour and sandy
+  character, and become thin-bedded yellow limestones, and dolomites
+  with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt deposits are indicated
+  by occasional saline springs. It is evident that the geographical
+  conditions of the Russian area during the Devonian period must have
+  closely resembled those of the Rhine basin and central England during
+  the Triassic period. The Russian Devonian rocks have been classified
+  in Table II. There is an unquestionable passage of the uppermost
+  Devonian rocks of Russia into the base of the Carboniferous system.
+
+                               TABLE II.
+
+       +---------------------------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+       |     North-West Russia.          | Central Russia. |  Petchoraland.   |       Ural Region.          |
+     / +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+ U  |  | Red sandstone | Limestones with | Limestones with | Domanik slates   | Cypridina slates, Clymenia  |
+ P  |  |  (Old Red).   |  Spirifer       |  Arca oreliana. |  and limestones  |  limestones (Famennien).    |
+ P <   |               |  Verneuili and  | Limestones with |  with Sp.        | Limestones with Gephyoceras |
+ E  |  |               |  Sp. Archiaci.  |  Sp. Verneuili  |  Verneuili.      |  intumescens and            |
+ R  |  |               |                 |  and Sp.        |                  |  Rhynchonella cuboides      |
+    |  |               |                 |  Archiaci.      |                  |  (Frasnien).                |
+     \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+ M   / |    Dolomites and limestones     |            Marl with               | Limestones and slates with  |
+ I  |  |             with                |        Spirifer Anossofi           |  Sp. Anossofi (Givetien).   |
+ D <   |       Spirifer Anossofi.        |           and corals.              | Limestones and slates with  |
+ D  |  |                                                                      |  Pentamerus baschkiricus    |
+ L  |  |                      Lower sandstone (Old Red).                      |  (Eifelien).                |
+ E   \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+     / |                                 |                 |                  | Limestones and slates of    |
+ L  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  the Yuresan and Ufa rivers,|
+ O  |  |            Absent.              |                 |                  |  slate and quartzite,       |
+ W <   |                                 |                 |                  |  marble of Byclaya and      |
+ E  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  of Bogoslovsk, phyllitic   |
+ R  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  schists and quartzite.     |
+     \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+
+  The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very
+  different from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name
+  "Hercynian" has been applied, and the correlation of the strata has
+  been a source of prolonged discussion among continental geologists. A
+  similar fauna appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia, in Brittany
+  (limestone of Erbray) and in the Urals. The Upper Devonian of the Harz
+  passes up into the Culm.
+
+  In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is
+  represented by _Clymenia_ limestone and _Cypridina_ slates with Adorf
+  limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The
+  middle division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaculite and
+  Nereite shales and limestones below. The upper part of the Lower
+  Devonian, the sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably upon
+  Silurian rocks. In the Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones, the
+  equivalents of the Iberg limestone, which attain an enormous
+  thickness; these are underlain by coral limestones with fossils
+  similar to those of the Konjeprus limestone of Bohemia; below these
+  are shales and nodular limestones with goniatites. The Devonian rocks
+  of Poland are sandy in the lower, and more calcareous in the upper
+  parts. They are of interest because while the upper portions agree
+  closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top of the Coblentzien
+  upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red Sandstone fishes
+  (_Coccosteus_, &c.) are found. In France Devonian rocks are found well
+  developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table, also in Normandy and
+  Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the middle and upper divisions
+  are known. In south France in the neighbourhood of Cabrieres, about
+  Montpellier and in the Montagne Noire, all three divisions are found
+  in a highly calcareous condition. Devonian rocks are recognized,
+  though frequently much metamorphosed, on both the northern and
+  southern flanks of the Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they
+  are extensively developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft.
+  thick, all three divisions and most of the central European
+  subdivisions are present. In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of
+  Spain bear a marked resemblance to those of Brittany.
+
+  _Asia._--From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have been
+  traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai Mountains
+  they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age with a fauna
+  possessing Hercynian features. The same features are observed in the
+  Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan. Well-developed
+  quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of Yarkand and
+  Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are widespread in China.
+  Upper Devonian rocks are recorded from Persia, and from the Hindu Kush
+  on the right bank of the Chitral river.
+
+  _England._--In England the original Devonian rocks are developed in
+  Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire these rocks
+  consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south Devon there
+  are, in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and intercalations
+  of lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the stratigraphy in this
+  region is a difficult matter, partly on account of the absence of good
+  exposures with fossils, and partly through the disturbed condition of
+  the rocks. The system has been subdivided as shown in Table III.
+
+                                   TABLE III.
+
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+          |    North Devon and West     |                               |
+          |          Somerset.          |         South Devon.          |
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+        / | Pilton group. Grits, slates | Ashburton slates.             |
+   U   |  |  and thin limestones.       | Livaton slates.               |
+   P   |  | Baggy group. Sandstones     | Red and green Entomis slates  |
+   P  <   |  and slates.                |  (Famennien).                 |
+   E   |  | Pickwell Down group.        | Red and grey slates with      |
+   R   |  |  Dark slates and grits.     |  tuffs.                       |
+   .   |  | Morte slates (?).           | Chudleigh goniatite limestone |
+        \ |                             |  Petherwyn beds (Frasnien).   |
+   M      +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   I    / | Ilfracombe slates with      | Torquay and Plymouth          |
+   D   |  |  lenticles of limestone.    |  limestones and Ashprington   |
+   D  <   | Combe Martin grits and      |  volcanic series. (Givetien   |
+   L   |  |  slates.                    |  and Eifelien.)               |
+   E   |  |                             | Slates and limestones of      |
+   .    \ |                             |  Hope's Nose.                 |
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   L    / | Hangman grits and slates.   | Looe beds (Cornwall).         |
+   O   |  | Lynton group, grits and     | Meadfoot, Cockington and      |
+   W  <   |  calcareous slates.         |  Warberry series of slates    |
+   E   |  | Foreland grits and slates.  |  and greywackes. (Coblentzien |
+   R   |  |                             |  and Gedinnien.)              |
+   .    \ +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+  The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the Rhenish
+  and south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the Devonian rocks
+  pass upward without break into the Culm.
+
+  _North America._--In North America the Devonian rocks are extensively
+  developed; they have been studied most closely in the New York region,
+  where they are classified according to Table IV.
+
+  The classification below is not capable of application over the states
+  generally and further details are required from many of the regions
+  where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but everywhere the broad
+  threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland the following
+  arrangement has been adopted--(1) Helderberg = Coeymans; (2) Oriskany;
+  (3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings = Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire
+  = Catskill in part. In the interior the Helderbergian is missing and
+  the system commences with (1) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton,
+  (4) Portage (and Genesee), (5) Chemung.
+
+  The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the
+  continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and in Canada
+  (Gaspe, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal); an Appalachian belt,
+  and a lower Mississippian region. The series as a whole is mainly
+  calcareous (2000 ft. in Gaspe), and thins out towards the west. The
+  fauna has Hercynian affinities. The Oriskany formation consists
+  largely of coarse sandstones; it is thin in New York, but in Maryland
+  and Virginia it is several hundred feet thick. It is more widespread
+  than the underlying Helderbergian. The Lower Devonian appears to be
+  thick in northern Maine and in Gaspe, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia,
+  but neither the palaeontology nor the stratigraphy has been completely
+  worked out.
+
+  In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base, Esopus
+  and Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the
+  Appalachian region; but the Onondaga limestones are much more
+  extensive. The Erian series is often described as the Hamilton series
+  outside the New York district, where the _Marcellus_ shales are
+  grouped together with the Hamilton shales, and numerous local
+  subdivisions are included, as in Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The
+  rocks are mostly shales or slates, but limestones predominate in the
+  western development. In Pennsylvania the Hamilton series is from 1500
+  ft. to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more calcareous western extension it
+  is much thinner. The _Marcellus_ shales are bituminous in places.
+
+  The Senecan series is composed of shallow-water deposits; the Tully
+  limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a layer
+  of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The bituminous
+  Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.); 25 ft. on Lake
+  Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage formation reach 1000
+  ft. to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the Chautauquan series the
+  Chemung formation is not always clearly separable from the Portage
+  beds, it is a sandstone and conglomerate formation which reaches its
+  maximum thickness (8000 ft.) in Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly
+  towards the west. In the Catskill region the Upper Devonian has an Old
+  Red facies--red shales and sandstones with a freshwater and brackish
+  fauna.
+
+                                     TABLE IV.
+
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+         |               |                               |  Probable   |
+         |  Groups.      |    Formations.                |  European   |
+         |               |                               | Equivalent. |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+       / | Chautauquan.  | Chemung beds with Catskill    | Famennien.  |
+  U   |  |               |  as a local facies.           |             |
+  P   |  |               |                               |             |
+  P  <   |             ( | Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca  | Frasnien.   |
+  E   |  |             ( |  and Oneonta shales as local  |             |
+  R   |  | Senecan.    < |  facies).                     |             |
+  .   |  |             ( | Genesee shales.               |             |
+       \ |             ( | Tully limestone.              |             |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+  M    / | Erian.      ( | Hamilton shale.               | Givetien.   |
+  I   |  |             ( | Marcellus shale.              |             |
+  D   |  |               |                               |             |
+  D  <   |             ( | Onondaga (Corniferous)        | Eifelien.   |
+  L   |  | Ulsterian.  ( |   limestone.                  |             |
+  E   |  |             < | Schoharie grit.               |             |
+  .    \ |             ( | Esopus grit (Caudagalli grit).|             |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+  L    / | Oriskanian.   | Oriskany sandstone.           | Coblentzien.|
+  O   |  |               |                               |             |
+  W   |  |             ( | Kingston beds.                | Gedinnien.  |
+  E  <   |Helderbe-    ( | Becraft limestone.            |             |
+  R   |  |   rgian.    < | New Scotland beds.            |             |
+  .   |  |             ( | Coeymans limestone.           |             |
+       \ +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+
+  Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short
+  distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated
+  Devonian rocks in many parts of the continent. In the Great Plains
+  this system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado,
+  Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona; Devonian rocks
+  occur between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains, in the Arbuckle
+  Mountains of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the western interior limestones
+  predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are found at Eureka, Nevada,
+  beneath 2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific coast metamorphism of the
+  rocks is common, and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them.
+
+  In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern
+  region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along the
+  course of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence they
+  stretch out into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much that is
+  now classed as Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil evidence to be
+  Carboniferous.
+
+  _South America, Africa, Australia, &c._--In South America the Devonian
+  is well developed; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and the
+  Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about the junction
+  of the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has affinities with
+  the Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied to the South
+  American Devonian is that of South Africa, where they are represented
+  by the Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In Australia we find Lower
+  Devonian consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks;
+  and a Middle division with coral limestones in Victoria, New South
+  Wales and Queensland; an Upper division has also been observed. In New
+  Zealand the Devonian is well exposed in the Reefton mining field; and
+  it has been suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may
+  belong to this system.
+
+           _Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies._
+
+  The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald Geikie,
+  "consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down
+  conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off
+  in the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while
+  they are separated from each other by an unconformability." The Old
+  Red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated
+  lakes or lagoons, approximately parallel to one another, with a
+  general alignment in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas of deposit
+  Sir A. Geikie has assigned convenient distinctive names.
+
+  In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a
+  pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative of a
+  prolonged interval of erosion. In the central valley between the base
+  of the Highlands and the southern uplands lay "Lake Caledonia." Here
+  the lower division is made up of some 20,000 ft. of shallow-water
+  deposits, reddish-brown, yellow and grey sandstones and conglomerates,
+  with occasional "cornstones," and thin limestones. The grey flagstones
+  with shales are almost confined to Forfarshire, and are known as the
+  "Arbroath flags." Interbedded volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites,
+  diabases, with agglomerates and tuffs constitute an important feature,
+  and attain a thickness of 6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A
+  line of old volcanic vents may be traced in a direction roughly
+  parallel to the trend of the great central valley. On the northern
+  side of the Highlands was "Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than
+  the foregoing lake, though its boundaries are not determinable. It lay
+  over Moray Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended
+  from Caithness to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even
+  have stretched across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in
+  Sognefjord and Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some
+  parts of northern Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the
+  Caithness flags, dark grey and bituminous, which, with the red
+  sandstones and conglomerates at their base, probably attain a
+  thickness of 16,000 ft. The somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led
+  Murchison to class the flags as Middle Devonian. In the Shetland
+  Islands contemporaneous volcanic rocks have been observed. Over the
+  west of Argyllshire lay "Lake Lorne"; here the volcanic rocks
+  predominate, they are intercalated with shallow-water deposits. A
+  similar set of rocks occupy the Cheviot district.
+
+  The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in
+  Shropshire and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales,
+  sandstones and marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few fossils,
+  and no break has yet been found in the series. In Scotland this series
+  was deposited in basins which correspond only partially with those of
+  the earlier period. They are well developed in central Scotland over
+  the lowlands bordering the Moray Firth. Interbedded lavas and tuffs
+  are found in the island of Hoy. An interesting feature of this series
+  is the occurrence of great crowds of fossil fishes in some localities,
+  notably at Dura Den in Fife. In the north of England this series rests
+  unconformably upon the Lower Old Red and the Silurian.
+
+  Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmorland, and
+  also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey, a brecciated
+  conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit
+  in places, has often been classed with the Old Red Sandstone, but in
+  parts, at least, it is more likely to belong to the base of the
+  Carboniferous system. In Ireland the lower division appears to be
+  represented by the Dingle beds and Glengariff grits, while the Kerry
+  rocks and the Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the equivalents of the upper
+  division. Rocks of Old Red type, both lower and upper, are found in
+  Spitzbergen and in Bear Island. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the
+  Old Red facies is extensively developed. The Gaspe sandstones have
+  been estimated at 7036 ft. thick. In parts of western Russia Old Red
+  Sandstone fossils are found in beds intercalated with others
+  containing marine fauna of the Devonian facies.
+
+              _Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas._
+
+  The two types of sediment formed during this period--the _marine_
+  Devonian and the _lagoonal_ Old Red Sandstone--representing as they do
+  two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical
+  condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubtless
+  at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off no
+  less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have
+  records; but this period is the earliest in which these variations of
+  environment are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break
+  between the older Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous above
+  is not strongly marked; and in certain areas a very close relationship
+  can be shown to exist between the older Devonian and the former, and
+  the younger Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless, taken as a whole,
+  the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality.
+
+  The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are presented by
+  corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant individually and
+  varied in form; and they are so distinctive of the period that no
+  Devonian species has yet been found either in the Silurian or in the
+  Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present day, and
+  contributed to the formation of limestone masses in Devonshire, on the
+  continent of Europe and in North America. Rugose and tabulate forms
+  prevailed; among the former the cyathophyllids (_Cyathophyllum_) were
+  important, _Phillipsastraea_, _Zaphrentis_, _Acervularia_ and the
+  curious _Calceola_ (_sandalina_), an operculate genus which has given
+  palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis, for it has been
+  regarded as a pelecypod (hippurite) and a brachiopod. The tabulate
+  corals were represented by _Favosites_, _Michelinia_, _Pleurodictyum_,
+  _Fistulipora_, _Pachypora_ and others. _Heliolites_ and _Plasmopora_
+  represent the alcyonarians. Stromatoporoids were important reef
+  builders. A well-known fossil is _Receptaculites_, a genus to which it
+  has been difficult to assign a definite place; it has been thought to
+  be a sponge, it may be a calcareous alga, or a curious representative
+  of the foraminifera.
+
+  In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their
+  development: they compose three-quarters of the known fauna, and more
+  than 1100 species have been described. Changes were taking place from
+  the beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera;
+  several Silurian forms dropped out, and new types were coming in. A
+  noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the
+  genus _Spirifer_, other spiriferids were _Ambocoelia_, _Uncites_,
+  _Verneuilia_. Orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance, while
+  the productids (_Productella_, _Chonetes_, _Strophalosia_) were
+  increasing. The strophomenids were still flourishing, represented by
+  the genera _Leptaena_, _Stropheodonta_, _Kayserella_, and others. The
+  ancient _Lingula_, along with _Crania_ and _Orbiculoidea_, occur among
+  the inarticulate forms. Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is
+  _Atrypa reticularis_. The athyrids were very numerous (_Athyris_,
+  _Retzia_, _Merista_, _Meristella_, _Kayserina_, &c.); and the
+  rhynchonellids were well represented by _Pugnax_, _Hypothyris_, and
+  several other genera. The important group of terebratulids appears in
+  this system; amongst them _Stringocephalus_ is an eminently
+  characteristic Devonian brachiopod; others are _Dielasma_,
+  _Cryptonella_, _Rensselaeria_ and _Oriskania_.
+
+  The pelecypod molluscs were represented by _Pterinea_, abundant in the
+  lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by
+  _Cucullella_, _Buchiola_ and _Curtonotus_ in the upper members of the
+  system. Other genera are _Actinodesma_, _Cardiola_, _Nucula_,
+  _Megalodon_, _Aviculopecten_, &c. Gasteropods were becoming more
+  important, but the simple capulid forms prevailed: _Platyceras_
+  (_Capulus_), _Straparollus_, _Pleurotomaria_, _Murchisonia_,
+  _Macrocheilina_, _Euomphalus_. Among the pteropods, _Tentaculites_ was
+  very abundant in some quarters; others were _Conularia_ and
+  _Styliolina_. In the Devonian period the cephalopods began to make a
+  distinct advance in numbers, and in development. The goniatites appear
+  with the genera _Anarcestes_, _Agoniatites_, _Tornoceras_, _Bactrites_
+  and others; and in the upper strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the
+  later ammonoids, began to take definite shape. While several new
+  nautiloids (_Homaloceras_, _Ryticeras_, &c.) made their appearance
+  several of the older genera still lived on (_Orthoceras_,
+  _Poterioceras_, _Actinoceras_).
+
+  Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian sea, though
+  they were relatively scarce in others; they include the genera
+  _Melocrinus_, _Haplocrinus_, _Cupressocrinus_, _Calceocrinus_ and
+  _Eleuthrocrinus_. The cystideans were falling off (_Proteocystis_,
+  _Tiaracrinus_), but blastoids were in the ascendant (_Nucleocrinus_,
+  _Codaster_, &c.). Both brittle-stars, _Ophiura_, _Palaeophiura_,
+  _Eugaster_, and true starfishes, _Palaeaster_, _Aspidosoma_, were
+  present, as well as urchins (_Lepidocentrus_).
+
+  When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct
+  assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly
+  lacustrine or lagoonal with a eurypteridian facies. The trilobites had
+  already begun to decline in importance, and as happens not
+  infrequently with degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to
+  develop strange eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their
+  genera. A number of Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period,
+  and some gradually developed into new and distinctive forms; such were
+  _Proetus_, _Harpes_, _Cheirurus_, _Bronteus_ and others. Distinct
+  species of _Phacops_ mark the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively,
+  while the genus _Dalmania_ (_Odontochile_) was represented by species
+  with an almost world-wide range. The Ostracod _Entomis_ (_Cypridina_)
+  was extremely abundant in places--_Cypridinen-Schiefer_--while the
+  true _Cypridina_ was also present along with _Beyrichia_,
+  _Leperditia_, &c. The Phyllocarids, _Echinocaris_, _Eleuthrocaris_,
+  _Tropidocaris_, are common in the United States. It is in the Old Red
+  Sandstone that the eurypterids are best preserved; foremost among
+  these was _Pterygotus_; _P. anglicus_ has been found in Scotland with
+  a length of nearly 6 ft.; _Eurypterus_, _Slimonia_, _Stylonurus_ were
+  other genera.
+
+  Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and
+  neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder believed he
+  had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a stridulating organ
+  was present. A species of _Ephemera_, allied to the modern may-fly,
+  had a spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the Scottish Old Red
+  Sandstone myriapods, _Kampecaris_ and _Archidesmus_, have been
+  described; they are somewhat simpler than more recent forms, each
+  segment being separate, and supplied with only one pair of walking
+  legs. Spiders and scorpions also lived upon the land.
+
+  The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red strata,
+  coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed by some of the
+  forms, has caused the period to be described as the "age of fishes."
+  As in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above, we find one
+  assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater or brackish
+  conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine
+  Devonian; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there
+  seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of
+  living in either environment, whatever may have been the real
+  condition of the Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious
+  ostracoderms, a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the
+  characteristics of fishes, but more probably belonging to a distinct
+  class of organisms, which appears to link the vertebrates with the
+  arthropods. They had come into existence late in Silurian times; but
+  it is in the Old Red strata that their remains are most fully
+  preserved. They were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of
+  Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada, and are represented by
+  such forms as _Pteraspis_, _Cephalaspis_, _Cyathaspis_, _Tremataspis_,
+  _Bothriolepis_ and _Pterichthys_.
+
+  In the lower members of the Old Red series _Dipterus_, and in the
+  upper members _Phaneropleuron_, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes;
+  and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious
+  forms still survive in the African _Protopterus_, the Australian
+  _Ceratodus_ and the South American _Lepidosiren_,--all freshwater
+  fishes. Distantly related to the lung-fishes were the singular
+  arthrodirans, a group possessing the unusual faculty of moving the
+  head in a vertical plane. These comprise the wide-ranging _Coccosteus_
+  with _Homosteus_ and _Dinichthys_, the largest fish of the period. The
+  latter probably reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with
+  exceedingly powerful jaws provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were
+  fairly prominent denizens of the sea; some were armed with cutting
+  teeth, others with crushing dental plates; and although they were on
+  the whole marine fishes, they were evidently able to live in fresher
+  waters, like some of their modern representatives, for their remains,
+  mostly teeth and large dermal spines, are found both in the Devonian
+  and Old Red rocks. _Mesacanthus_, _Diplacanthus_, _Climatius_,
+  _Cheiracanthus_ are characteristic genera. The crossopterygians,
+  ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of the fins, were represented
+  by _Holoptychius_ and _Glyptopomus_ in the Upper Old Red, and by such
+  genera as _Diplopterus_, _Osteolepis_, _Gyroptychius_ in the lower
+  division. The _Polypterus_ of the Nile and _Calamoichthys_ of South
+  Africa are the modern exemplars of this group. _Cheirolepis_, found in
+  the Old Red of Scotland and Canada, is the only Devonian
+  representative of the actinopterygian fishes. The cyclostome fishes
+  have, so far, been discovered only in Scotland, in the tiny
+  _Palaeospondylus_. Amphibian remains have been found in the Devonian
+  of Belgium; and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the
+  same class (_Thinopus antiquus_) have been described by Professor
+  Marsh from the Chemung formation of Pennsylvania.
+
+  _Plant Life._--In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone we
+  find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In
+  some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they
+  form thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently flourished
+  around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains were
+  buried along with the other forms of life. Lycopods and ferns were the
+  predominant types; and it is important to notice that both groups were
+  already highly developed. The ferns include the genera _Sphenopteris_,
+  _Megalopteris_, _Archaeopteris_, _Neuropteris_. Among the Lycopods are
+  _Lycopodites_, _Psilophyton_, _Lepidodendron_. Modern horsetails are
+  represented by _Calamocladus_, _Asterocalamites_, _Annularia_. Of
+  great interest are the genera _Cordaites_, _Araucarioxylon_, &c.,
+  which were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the Coniferae and
+  the Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure markings, aquatic
+  plants are not so well represented as might have been expected;
+  _Parka_, a common fossil, has been regarded as a water plant with a
+  creeping stem and two kinds of sporangia in sessile sporocarps.
+
+_Physical Conditions, &c._--Perhaps the most striking fact that is
+brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils is the
+gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took place quietly
+in every quarter of the globe shortly after the beginning of the period.
+While in most places the Lower Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian
+formations in a perfectly conformable manner, the Middle and Upper
+divisions, on account of this encroachment of the sea, rest
+unconformably upon the older rocks, the Lower division being
+unrepresented. This is true over the greater part of South America, so
+far as our limited knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North
+America, in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central
+Europe. Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the
+coast lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The
+known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas; no
+abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has pointed out the
+probability of a Eurasian sea province extending through Europe towards
+the east, across north and central Asia towards Manitoba in Canada, and
+an American sea province embracing the United States, South America and
+South Africa. At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land
+area caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before the
+beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe to eastern
+Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red Sandstone was formed.
+
+In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence of three
+zones of deposition: (1) A northern, Old Red, region, including Great
+Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and Spitzbergen; here the land was
+close at hand; great brackish lagoons prevailed, which communicated more
+or less directly with the open sea. In European Russia, during its
+general advance, the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas, only
+to be driven off again, during pauses in the relative subsidence of the
+land, when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more established
+the lagoonal conditions. These alternating phases were frequently
+repeated. (2) A middle region, covering Devonshire and Cornwall, the
+Ardennes, the northern part of the lower Rhenish mountains, and the
+upper Harz to the Polish Mittelgebirge; here we find evidence of a
+shallow sea, clastic deposits and a sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern
+region reaching from Brittany to the south of the Rhenish mountains,
+lower Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here was a deeper sea with a more
+pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind that the above-mentioned regions
+are intended to refer to the time when the extension of the Devonian sea
+was near its maximum. In the case of North America it has been shown
+that in early and middle Devonian time more or less distinct faunas
+invaded the continent from five different centres, viz. the Helderberg,
+the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern Hamilton and the north-western
+Hamilton; these reached the interior approximately in the order given.
+
+Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas had
+mingled one with another and a more generalized life assemblage had been
+evolved, we find many forms with a very wide range, indicating great
+uniformity of conditions. Thus we find identical species of brachiopods
+inhabiting the Devonian seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany,
+Russia, southern Asia and China; such are, _Hypothyris_ (_Rhynchonella_)
+_cuboides_, _Spirifer disjunctus_ and others. The fauna of the
+_Calceola_ shales can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and
+Siberia; the _Stringocephalus_ limestones are represented in Belgium,
+England, the Urals and Canada; and the (_Gephyroceras_) _intumescens_
+shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba.
+
+The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no violent crustal
+movements seem to have taken place, and while some changes of level
+occurred towards its close in Great Britain, Bohemia and Russia,
+generally the passage from Devonian to Carboniferous conditions was
+quite gradual. In later periods these rocks have suffered considerable
+movement and metamorphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and
+in the Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over
+the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly
+widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period. In the
+Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness (6000 ft.) of
+igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates
+and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle
+division. In west central Europe volcanic rocks are found at many
+horizons, the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs,
+_schalstein_. Felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the Middle Devonian of
+Australia. Contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the
+American Devonian, but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to
+be some.
+
+There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it is
+interesting to observe that local glacial conditions _may_ have existed
+in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated
+boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other hand, the
+prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm
+temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas.
+
+The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some importance: in many
+of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead, copper, iron are
+exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in New Zealand, gold veins
+occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is found in China and a little coal in
+Germany, while the Upper Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of
+western Pennsylvania and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle
+division is oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central
+Tennessee, and in England the marls of the "Old Red" are employed for
+brick-making.
+
+  REFERENCES.--The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is very
+  extensive; important papers have been contributed by the following
+  geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Beclard, E. W. Benecke, L.
+  Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W. Dawson, A.
+  Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Frech, J. Fournet, Sir A.
+  Geikie, G. Guerich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch, A. von
+  Koenen, Hugh Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de Rouville, C.
+  Schuchert, T. Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E. Ussher, P. N.
+  Wenjukoff, G. F. Whidborne, J. F. Whiteaves and H. S. Williams.
+  Sedgwick and Murchison's original description appeared in the _Trans.
+  Geol. Soc._ (2nd series, vol. v., 1839). Good general accounts will be
+  found in Sir A. Geikie's _Text-Book of Geology_ (vol. ii., 4th ed.,
+  1903), in E. Kayser's _Lehrbuch der Geologie_ (vol. ii., 2nd ed.,
+  1902), and, for North America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's _Geology_
+  (vol. ii., 1906). See the _Index to the Geological Magazine_
+  (1864-1903), and in subsequent annual volumes; _Geological Literature
+  added to the Geological Society's Library_ (London), annually since
+  1893; and the _Neues Jahrbuch fuer Min., Geologie und Palaeontologie_
+  (Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The U.S. Geological Survey publishes at
+  intervals a _Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, &c._,
+  and this (e.g. Bulletin 301,--the _Bibliog. and Index_ for 1901-1905)
+  contains numerous references for the Devonian system in North America.
+                                                              (J. A. H.)
+
+
+DEVONPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Devonshire,
+England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and Plymouth, the seat of one of
+the royal dockyards, and an important naval and military station. Pop.
+(1901) 70,437. It is situated immediately above the N.W. angle of
+Plymouth Sound, occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse
+Pool on the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great
+Western and the London & South Western railways. The town proper was
+formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch excavated out of the
+limestone, but these are in great part demolished. Adjoining Devonport
+are East Stonehouse (an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice
+Town, the two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected in
+1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is distinguished by
+a Doric portico; while near it are the public library, in Egyptian
+style, and a conspicuous Doric column built of Devonshire granite. This
+monument, which is 100 ft. high, was raised in commemoration of the
+naming of the town in 1824. Other institutions are the Naval Engineering
+College, Keyham (1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899,
+the majority of the students being connected with the dockyard; the
+naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and the naval and
+military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was formerly defended by a
+battery (now a naval signalling station), stands the military residence,
+or Government House, occupied by the commander of the Plymouth Coast
+Defences; and near at hand is the principal naval residence, the naval
+commander-in-chief's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the
+Hamoaze to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in
+the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devonport, however,
+is the royal dockyard, originally established by William III. in 1689
+and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock. It is situated within the old
+town boundary and contains four docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham
+steamyard, situated higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and
+connected with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further
+extensions were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as
+Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard comprised two
+basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the southern 7 acres in area,
+and three docks, having floor-lengths of 295, 347 and 413 ft., together
+with iron and brass foundries, machinery shops, engineer students' shop,
+&c. The new extensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 21st of
+February 1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in
+front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of 77 acres of
+mudflats lying below high-water mark. The scheme presented three leading
+features--a tidal basin, a group of three graving docks with entrance
+lock, and a large enclosed basin with a coaling depot at the north end.
+The tidal basin, close to the old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long
+with a mean width of 590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth
+being 32 ft. at low water of spring tides. It affords access to two
+graving docks, one with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20 1/2 ft. of water
+over the sill, and the other with a length of 741 ft. and 32 ft. of
+water over the sill. Each of these can be subdivided by means of an
+intermediate caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an entrance to
+the closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the closed
+basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock. The
+closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft. long,
+measures 1550 ft. by 1000 ft. and has an area of 35 1/2 acres, with a depth
+of 32 ft. at low-water springs; it has a direct entrance from the
+Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The foundations of the walls are carried
+down to the rock, which in some places lies covered with mud 100 ft. or
+more below coping level. Compressed air is used to work the sliding
+caissons which close the entrances of the docks and closed basin. A
+ropery at Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy.
+
+By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a parliamentary
+borough including East Stonehouse and returning two members. The ground
+on which it stands is for the most part the property of the St Aubyn
+family (Barons St Levan), whose steward holds a court leet and a court
+baron annually. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and
+forty-eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres.
+
+
+DEVONPORT, EAST and WEST, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, situated on
+both sides of the mouth of the river Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of
+Hobart. Pop. (1901), East Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is
+regular communication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it
+ranks as the third port in Tasmania. A celebrated regatta is held on the
+Mersey annually on New Year's day.
+
+
+DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Devonshire title, now in the
+Cavendish family, had previously been held by Charles Blount
+(1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson of the 4th Lord Mountjoy
+(d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he was created earl of Devonshire in
+1603 for his services in Ireland, where he became famous in subduing the
+rebellion between 1600 and 1603; but the title became extinct at his
+death. In the Cavendish line the 1st earl of Devonshire was William (d.
+1626), second son of Sir William Cavendish (q.v.), and of Elizabeth
+Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury. He was
+created earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was succeeded by
+William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by his son William
+(1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of the original members of
+the Royal Society, who married a daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury.
+
+WILLIAM CAVENDISH, 1st duke of Devonshire (1640-1707), English
+statesman, eldest son of the earl of Devonshire last mentioned, was born
+on the 25th of January 1640. After completing his education he made the
+tour of Europe according to the custom of young men of his rank, being
+accompanied on his travels by Dr Killigrew. On his return he obtained,
+in 1661, a seat in parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became
+conspicuous as one of the most determined and daring opponents of the
+general policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee
+appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord treasurer
+Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for Derby, and made a privy councillor
+by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from the board with his friend Lord
+Russell, when he found that the Roman Catholic interest uniformly
+prevailed. He carried up to the House of Lords the articles of
+impeachment against Lord Chief-Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and
+illegal proceedings in the court of King's bench; and when the king
+declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of
+York, afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons that a bill
+might be brought in for the association of all his majesty's Protestant
+subjects. He also openly denounced the king's counsellors, and voted for
+an address to remove them. He appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his
+trial, at a time when it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice
+than a witness. After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof
+of his attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell in
+the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his escape.
+In November 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father.
+He opposed arbitrary government under James II. with the same
+consistency and high spirit as during the previous reign. He was
+withdrawn from public life for a time, however, in consequence of a
+hasty and imprudent act of which his enemies knew how to avail
+themselves. Fancying that he had received an insulting look in the
+presence chamber from Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance
+at court the king encouraged, he immediately avenged the affront by
+challenging the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking
+him with his cane. This offence was punished by a fine of L30,000, which
+was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely fortune. Not
+being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's bench, from which he
+was released only on signing a bond for the whole amount. This was
+afterwards cancelled by King William. After his discharge the earl went
+for a time to Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of
+a new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by Verrio,
+Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again brought him into
+prominence. He was one of the seven who signed the original paper
+inviting the prince of Orange from Holland, and was the first nobleman
+who appeared in arms to receive him at his landing. He received the
+order of the Garter on the occasion of the coronation, and was made lord
+high steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William on
+his visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington and duke of
+Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on the same day on which the
+head of the house of Russell was created duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote
+Macaulay, "the two great houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long
+been closely connected by friendship and by marriage, by common
+opinions, common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same
+day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to confer."
+His last public service was assisting to conclude the union with
+Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son, the marquis of
+Hartington, had been appointed among the commissioners by Queen Anne. He
+died on the 18th of August 1707, and ordered the following inscription
+to be put on his monument:-
+
+                          Willielmus Dux Devon,
+                   Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus,
+                      Inimicus et Invisus Tyrannis.
+
+He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of Ormonde, and he
+was succeeded by his eldest son William as 2nd duke, and by the latter's
+son William as 3rd duke (viceroy of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's
+son William (1720-1764) succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the
+daughter and heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and Cork, who
+brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and from
+November 1756 to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly in order that
+Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of Newcastle, should be in
+power. His son William (1748-1811), 5th duke, is memorable as the
+husband of the beautiful Georgiana Spencer, duchess of Devonshire
+(1757-1806), and of the intellectual Elizabeth Foster, duchess of
+Devonshire (1758-1824), both of whom Gainsborough painted. His son
+William, 6th duke (1790-1858), who died unmarried, was sent on a special
+mission to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and
+became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was he who
+employed Sir Joseph Paxton at Chatsworth. The title passed in 1858 to
+his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of Burlington, as 7th duke, a
+man who, without playing a prominent part in public affairs, exercised
+great influence, not only by his position but by his distinguished
+abilities. At Cambridge in 1829 he was second wrangler, first Smith's
+prizeman, and eighth classic, and subsequently he became chancellor of
+the university.
+
+SPENCER COMPTON CAVENDISH, 8th duke (1833-1908), born on the 23rd of
+July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke (then earl of Burlington) and his
+wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord
+Cavendish, as he then was, took his degree at Trinity College,
+Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to the special mission to Russia for
+the new tsar's accession; and in 1857 he was returned to parliament as
+Liberal member for North Lancashire. At the opening of the new
+parliament of 1859 the marquis of Hartington (as he had now become)
+moved the amendment to the address which overthrew the government of
+Lord Derby. In 1863 he became first a lord of the admiralty, and then
+under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the Russell-Gladstone
+administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he entered it as war
+secretary. He retired with his colleagues in July 1866; but upon Mr
+Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he became postmaster-general, an
+office which he exchanged in 1871 for that of secretary for Ireland.
+When Mr Gladstone, after his defeat and resignation in 1874, temporarily
+withdrew from the leadership of the Liberal party in January 1875, Lord
+Hartington was chosen Liberal leader in the House of Commons, Lord
+Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W. E. Forster, who had taken a
+much more prominent part in public life, was the only other possible
+nominee, but he declined to stand. Lord Hartington's rank no doubt told
+in his favour, and Mr Forster's education bill had offended the
+Nonconformist members, who would probably have withheld their support.
+Lord Hartington's prudent management in difficult circumstances laid his
+followers under great obligations, since not only was the opposite party
+in the ascendant, but his own former chief was indulging in the freedom
+of independence. After the complete defeat of the Conservatives in the
+general election of 1880, a large proportion of the party would have
+rejoiced if Lord Hartington could have taken the Premiership instead of
+Mr Gladstone, and the queen, in strict conformity with constitutional
+usage (though Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have had
+the preference), sent for him as leader of the Opposition. Mr Gladstone,
+however, was clearly master of the situation: no cabinet could be formed
+without him, nor could he reasonably be expected to accept a subordinate
+post. Lord Hartington, therefore, gracefully abdicated the leadership,
+and became secretary of state for India, from which office, in December
+1882, he passed to the war office. His administration was memorable for
+the expeditions of General Gordon and Lord Wolseley to Khartum, and a
+considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly
+responsible for the "betrayal of Gordon." His lethargic manner, apart
+from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in their
+minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government
+acted "too late"; but Gladstone and Lord Granville were no less
+responsible than he. In June 1885 he resigned along with his colleagues,
+and in December was elected for the Rossendale Division of Lancashire,
+created by the new reform bill. Immediately afterwards the great
+political opportunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr
+Gladstone's conversion to home rule for Ireland. Lord Hartington's
+refusal to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the
+chief of the new Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and
+influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved the
+first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera house, and
+also, in the House of Commons, moved the rejection of Mr Gladstone's
+Bill on the second reading. During the memorable electoral contest which
+followed, no election excited more interest than Lord Hartington's for
+the Rossendale division, where he was returned by a majority of nearly
+1500 votes. In the new parliament he held a position much resembling
+that which Sir Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the
+leader of a small, compact party, the standing and ability of whose
+members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally esteemed
+and trusted beyond any other man in the country, yet in his own opinion
+forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's offers to serve under him
+as prime minister (both after the general election, and again when Lord
+Randolph Churchill resigned) were declined, and Lord Hartington
+continued to discharge the delicate duties of the leader of a middle
+party with no less judgment than he had shown when leading the Liberals
+during the interregnum of 1875-1880. It was not until 1895, when the
+differences between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become
+almost obliterated by changed circumstances, and the habit of acting
+together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the death of
+his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's third ministry
+as president of the council. The duke thus was the nominal
+representative of education in the cabinet at a time when educational
+questions were rapidly becoming of great importance; and his own
+technical knowledge of this difficult and intricate question being
+admittedly superficial, a good deal of criticism from time to time
+resulted. He had however by this time an established position in public
+life, and a reputation for weight of character, which procured for him
+universal respect and confidence, and exempted him from bitter attack,
+even from his most determined political opponents. Wealth and rank
+combined with character to place him in a measure above party; and his
+succession to his father as chancellor of the university of Cambridge in
+1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the country. In the same year
+he had married the widow of the 7th duke of Manchester.
+
+He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council till
+the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on account of differences with
+Mr BALFOUR (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards free trade. As Mr
+Chamberlain had retired from the cabinet, and the duke had not thought
+it necessary to join Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in resigning a
+fortnight earlier, the defection was unanticipated and was sharply
+criticized by Mr Balfour, who, in the rearrangement of his ministry, had
+only just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish, to
+be secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the conclusion
+that while he himself was substantially a free-trader,[1] Mr Balfour did
+not mean the same thing by the term. He necessarily became the leader of
+the Free Trade Unionists who were neither Balfourites nor
+Chamberlainites, and his weight was thrown into the scale against any
+association of Unionism with the constructive policy of tariff reform,
+which he identified with sheer Protection. A struggle at once began
+within the Liberal Unionist organization between those who followed the
+duke and those who followed Mr CHAMBERLAIN (q.v.); but the latter were
+in the majority and a reorganization in the Liberal Unionist Association
+took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a separate
+body. The duke then became president of the new organizations, the
+Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist Free Trade Club. In the
+subsequent developments the duke played a dignified but somewhat silent
+part, and the Unionist rout in 1906 was not unaffected by his open
+hostility to any taint of compromise with the tariff reform movement.
+But in the autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of
+cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and
+spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on the
+24th of March 1908.
+
+The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial magnate,
+and an Englishman with thoroughly national tastes for sport, his weighty
+and disinterested character made him a statesman of the first rank in
+his time, in spite of the absence of showy or brilliant qualities. He
+had no self-seeking ambitions, and on three occasions preferred not to
+become prime minister. Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he
+was not an orator, nor "clever"; and he lacked all subtlety of
+intellect; but he was conspicuous for solidity of mind and
+straightforwardness of action, and for conscientious application as an
+administrator, whether in his public or private life. The fact that he
+once yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly quoted as
+characteristic; but he combined a great fund of common sense and
+knowledge of the average opinion with a patriotic sense of duty towards
+the state. Throughout his career he remained an old-fashioned Liberal,
+or rather Whig, of a type which in his later years was becoming
+gradually more and more rare.
+
+There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as 9th duke by
+his nephew VICTOR CHRISTIAN CAVENDISH (b. 1868), who had been Liberal
+Unionist member for West Derbyshire since 1891, and was treasurer of the
+household (1900 to 1903) and financial secretary to the treasury (1903
+to 1905); in 1892 he married a daughter of the marquess of Lansdowne, by
+whom he had two sons.                                          (H. CH.)
+
+[1] His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: "I believe that
+our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advantageous
+to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on
+which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any
+departure from it, for sufficient reasons."
+
+
+DEVONSHIRE (DEVON), a south-western county of England, bounded N.W. and
+N. by the Bristol Channel, N.E. by Somerset and Dorset, S.E. and S. by
+the English Channel, and W. by Cornwall. The area, 2604.9 sq. m., is
+exceeded only by those of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English
+counties. Nearly the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly. The
+county contains the highest land in England south of Derbyshire
+(excepting points on the south Welsh border); and the scenery, much
+varied, is in most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad
+uplands of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend
+into North Devon, and are still the haunt of red deer, and of the small
+hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dartmoor, the
+streams are rich in trout. Dartmoor, the principal physical feature of
+the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of moorland which rises in the
+southern part. Its highest point, 2039 ft., is found in the
+north-western portion. Its rough wastes contrast finely with the wild
+but wooded region which immediately surrounds the granite of which it is
+composed, and with the rich cultivated country lying beyond. Especially
+noteworthy in this fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful district
+of apple orchards, lying between the Erme and the Dart; the rich
+meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale of Exeter; and the red rocks
+near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a characteristic charm to the
+Devonshire landscape are the number of picturesque old cottages roofed
+with thatch; and the deep lanes, sunk below the common level of the
+ground, bordered by tall hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs.
+The north and south coasts of the county differ much in character, but
+both have grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by any in England
+or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of colour.
+As a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers flow seaward
+are densely wooded, and the country immediately inland is of great
+beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which constitutes the boundary between
+Devon and Cornwall, and flows into the English Channel, after forming in
+its estuary the harbours of Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers
+rise on Dartmoor. These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling
+into the English Channel, and the Taw flowing north towards Bideford
+Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives part of
+its waters from Dartmoor through the Okement, but itself rises in the
+angle of high land near Hartland point on the north coast, and makes a
+wide sweep southward. The lesser Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme
+and the Vealm, all running south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in
+Somersetshire; but the main part of its course is through Devonshire
+(where it gives name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the
+English Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the Creedy and the
+Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south, and
+the Axe, for part of its course, divides the counties of Devon and
+Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow; while the rivers
+of Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid course.
+
+  _Geology._--The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks in
+  Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a series of slates, grits and
+  greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian
+  cherts as at Codden Hill; beds of "culm," an impure variety of coal,
+  are found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at
+  Bampton, Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western
+  boundary. North and south of the Culm an older series of slates, grits
+  and limestones appears; it was considered so characteristic of the
+  county that it was called the DEVONIAN SYSTEM (q.v.), the marine
+  equivalent of the Old Red Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It lies
+  in the form of a trough with its axis running east and west. In the
+  central hollow the Culm reposes, while the northern and southern rims
+  rise to the surface respectively north of the latitude of Barnstaple
+  and South Molton and south of the latitude of Tavistock. These
+  Devonian rocks have been subdivided into upper, middle and lower
+  divisions, but the stratigraphy is difficult to follow as the beds
+  have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of contorted strata may be
+  seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in the south, at Bolt
+  Head and Start Point they have undergone severe metamorphism.
+  Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but in the south
+  important masses occur, in the middle and at the base of the upper
+  subdivisions, about Plymouth, Torquay, Brixham and between Newton
+  Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these limestones, which are
+  largely quarried and when polished are known as Devonshire marbles.
+
+  On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set
+  of rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently
+  towards the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of the
+  younger rocks is a series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and
+  marls which are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some geologists
+  have been classed as Permian. These red rocks are beautifully exposed
+  on the coast by Dawlish and Teignmouth, and they extend inland,
+  producing a red soil, past Exeter and Tiverton. A long narrow strip of
+  the same formation reaches out westward on the top of the Culm as far
+  as Jacobstow. Farther east, the Bunter pebble beds are represented by
+  the well-known pebble deposit of Budleigh Salterton, whence they are
+  traceable inland towards Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper
+  marls and sandstones, well exposed at Sidmouth, where the upper
+  Greensand plateau is clearly seen to overlie them. The Greensand
+  covers all the high ground northward from Sidmouth as far as the
+  Blackdown Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the Chalk is seen, and at
+  the latter place is a famous landslip on the coast, caused by the
+  springs which issue from the Greensand below the Chalk. The Lower
+  Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was formerly in
+  considerable demand. At the extreme east of the county, Rhaetic and
+  Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a "bone" bed bearing
+  the remains of saurians and fish.
+
+  Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm and
+  Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times and subsequently exposed
+  by denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity are abundant in
+  the masses of diabase, dolerite, &c., at Bradford and Trusham, south
+  of Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington. Perhaps the most
+  interesting is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent Tor near Tavistock.
+  An Eocene deposit, the product of the denudation of the Dartmoor
+  Hills, lies in a small basin at Bovey Tracey (see BOVEY BEDS); it
+  yields beds of lignite and valuable clays.
+
+  Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near
+  Torquay and at other points, and a submerged forest lies in the bay
+  south of the same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian
+  limestone at Kent's Hole near Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are famous
+  for the remains of extinct mammals; bones of the elephant, rhinoceros,
+  bear and hyaena have been found as well as flint implements of early
+  man.
+
+  _Minerals._--Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near the
+  north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been worked on Dartmoor (in stream
+  works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much worked before the
+  end of the 18th century. Tin occurs in the granite of Dartmoor, and
+  along its borders, but rather where the Devonian than where the
+  Carboniferous rocks border the granite. It is found most plentifully
+  in the district which surrounds Tavistock, which, for tin and other
+  ores, is in effect the great mining district of the county. Here,
+  about 4 m. from Tavistock, are the Devon Great Consols mines, which
+  from 1843 to 1871 were among the richest copper mines in the world,
+  and by far the largest and most profitable in the kingdom. The divided
+  profits during this period amounted to L1,192,960. But the mining
+  interests of Devonshire are affected by the same causes, and in the
+  same way, as those of Cornwall. The quantity of ore has greatly
+  diminished, and the cost of raising it from the deep mines prevents
+  competition with foreign markets. In many mines tin underlies the
+  general depth of the copper, and is worked when the latter has been
+  exhausted. The mineral products of the Tavistock district are various,
+  and besides tin and copper, ores of zinc and iron are largely
+  distributed. Great quantities of refined arsenic have been produced at
+  the Devon Great Consols mine, by elimination from the iron pyrites
+  contained in the various lodes. Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood
+  of Exeter, in the valley of the Teign and in N. Devon; but the most
+  profitable mines, which are shallow, are, like those of tin and
+  copper, in the Tavistock district.
+
+  The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles,
+  building stones, slates and potters' clay. Among building stones, the
+  granite of Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried near
+  Princetown, near Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor and
+  elsewhere. The annual export is considerable. Hard traps, which occur
+  in many places, are also much used, as are the limestones of
+  Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The Roborough stone, used from an early
+  period in Devonshire churches, is found near Tavistock, and is a hard,
+  porphyritic elvan, taking a fine polish. Excellent roofing slates
+  occur in the Devonian series round the southern part of Dartmoor. The
+  chief quarries are near Ashburton and Plymouth (Cann quarry). Potters'
+  clay is worked at King's Teignton, whence it is largely exported; at
+  Bovey Tracey; and at Watcombe near Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of
+  the finest quality. China clay or kaolin is found on the southern side
+  of Dartmoor, at Lee Moor, and near Trowlesworthy. There is a large
+  deposit of umber close to Ashburton.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate varies greatly in different
+parts of the county, but everywhere it is more humid than that of the
+eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The mean annual temperature
+somewhat exceeds that of the midlands, but the average summer heat is
+rather less than that of the southern counties to the east. The air of
+the Dartmoor highlands is sharp and bracing. Mists are frequent, and
+snow often lies long. On the south coast frost is little known, and many
+half hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles, geraniums and
+heliotropes, live through the winter without protection. The climate of
+Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places on this coast is
+very equable, the mean temperature in January being 43.6 deg. at Plymouth.
+The north coast, exposed to the storms and swell of the Atlantic, is
+more bracing; although there also, in the more sheltered nooks (as at
+Combe Martin), myrtles of great size and age flower freely, and produce
+their annual crop of berries.
+
+Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county is under
+cultivation; the cultivated area falling a little below the average of
+the English counties. There are, however, about 160,000 acres of hill
+pasture in addition to the area in permanent pasture, which is more than
+one-half that of the cultivated area. The Devon breed of cattle is well
+adapted both for fattening and for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept
+in great numbers on the hill pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief
+cattle-farming and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for
+two products of the dairy--the clotted cream to which it gives its name,
+and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats occupy about three times
+the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk of the acreage under green
+crops is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangold. Orchards occupy a
+large acreage, and consist chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every farm
+maintaining one for the manufacture of cider.
+
+_Fisheries._--Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable than those
+of Cornwall, large quantities of the pilchard and herrings caught in
+Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much of the fishing is carried on
+within the three-mile limit; and it may be asserted that trawling is the
+main feature of the Devonshire industry, whereas seining and driving
+characterize that of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice,
+soles, turbot, shrimps, lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with,
+besides herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After
+Plymouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are
+lesser stations in every bay and estuary.
+
+_Other Industries._--The principal industrial works in the county are
+the various Government establishments at Plymouth and Devonport. Among
+other industries may be noted the lace-works at Tiverton; the
+manufacture of pillow-lace for which Honiton and its neighbourhood has
+long been famous; and the potteries and terra-cotta works of Bovey
+Tracey and Watcombe. Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh
+and Ashburton, and boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is
+employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &c., in the great
+prison of Dartmoor.
+
+_Communications._--The main line of the Great Western railway, entering
+the county in the east from Taunton, runs to Exeter, skirts the coast as
+far as Teignmouth, and continues a short distance inland by Newton Abbot
+to Plymouth, after which it crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great
+bridge to Saltash in Cornwall. Branches serve Torquay and other seaside
+resorts of the south coast; and among other branches are those from
+Taunton to Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to Tavistock and
+Launceston. The main line of the London & South-Western railway between
+Exeter and Plymouth skirts the north and west of Dartmoor by Okehampton
+and Tavistock. A branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple, Ilfracombe,
+Bideford and Torrington, while the Lynton & Barnstaple and the Bideford,
+Westward Ho & Appledore lines serve the districts indicated by their
+names. The branch line to Princetown from the Plymouth-Tavistock line of
+the Great Western company in part follows the line of a very early
+railway--that constructed to connect Plymouth with the Dartmoor prison
+in 1819-1825, which was worked with horse cars. The only waterways of
+any importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to Gunnislake (3 m.
+S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal, noteworthy as one of the
+oldest in England, for it was originally cut in the reign of Elizabeth.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891 of 631,808, and 1901 of
+661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168 acres. The
+county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Barnstaple (pop.
+14,137), Bideford (8754), Dartmouth (6579), Devonport, a county borough
+(70,437), Exeter, a city and county borough (47,185), Torrington,
+officially Great Torrington (3241), Honiton (3271), Okehampton (2569),
+Plymouth, a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848), Tiverton
+(10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (4035). The other urban districts are
+Ashburton (2628), Bampton (1657), Brixham (8092), Buckfastleigh (2520),
+Budleigh Salterton (1883), Crediton (3974), Dawlish (4003), East
+Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485), Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy
+(1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivybridge (1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton
+(1641), Newton Abbot (12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495),
+Paignton (8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201),
+Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The county is in the western
+circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one court of quarter
+sessions, and is divided into twenty-four petty sessional divisions. The
+boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford, Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth, South
+Molton, and Tiverton have separate commissions of the peace and courts
+of quarter sessions, and those of Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay
+and Totnes have commissions of the peace only. There are 461 civil
+parishes. Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of
+small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro; and there are 516
+ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
+county. The parliamentary divisions are the Eastern or Honiton,
+North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North-western or
+Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes, Torquay, and Mid
+or Ashburton, each returning one member; and the county also contains
+the parliamentary boroughs of Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two
+members, and that of Exeter, returning one member.
+
+_History._--The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun some time
+before the 8th century, for in 700 there existed at Exeter a famous
+Saxon school. By this time, however, the Saxons had become Christians,
+and established their supremacy, not by destructive inroads, but by a
+gradual process of colonization, settling among the native Welsh and
+allowing them to hold lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of
+the district which is now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must
+have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter, remained
+partly Welsh until the time of AEthelstan. At the beginning of the 9th
+century Wessex was divided into definite _pagi_, probably corresponding
+to the later shires, and the Saxon Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name
+in 823, when a battle was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the
+people of Devonshire at Camelford. During the Danish invasions of the
+9th century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In 851 the
+invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of Devon, and in 878,
+when the Danes under Hubba were harrying the coast with a squadron of
+twenty-three ships, they were again defeated with great slaughter by the
+fyrd. The modern hundreds of Devonshire correspond in position very
+nearly with those given in the Domesday Survey, though the names have in
+many cases been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places
+of meeting. The hundred of Bampton formerly included estates west of the
+Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge. Ten of the modern
+hundreds have been formed by the union of two or more Domesday hundreds,
+while the Domesday hundred of Liston has had the new hundred of
+Tavistock severed from it since 1114. Many of the hundreds were
+separated by tracts of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire
+contained a vast extent, until in 1204 the inhabitants paid 5000 marks
+to have the county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor
+and Exmoor.
+
+Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric of
+Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached to the newly created
+diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund constituted
+Devonshire a separate diocese, and placed the see at Crediton. About
+1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall were united, and in 1049
+the see was fixed at Exeter. The archdeaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple
+and Totnes are all mentioned in the 12th century and formerly comprised
+twenty-four deaneries. The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and
+Ottery have been created since the 16th century, while those of
+Tamerton, Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre have been abolished,
+bringing the present number to twenty-three.
+
+At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an active hostility
+to Harold, and the easy submission which it rendered to the Conqueror
+accounts for the exceptionally large number of Englishmen who are found
+retaining lands after the Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman
+barons were known as honours, chief among them being Plympton,
+Okehampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of Plympton was
+bestowed in the 12th century on the Redvers family, together with the
+earldom of Devon; in the 13th century it passed to the Courtenay family,
+who had already become possessed of the honour of Okehampton, and who in
+1335 obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in the
+14th century on the Holland family, which became extinct in the reign of
+Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh, who was born at
+Budleigh, had long held considerable estates in the county.
+
+Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being at first
+hereditary, but afterwards held for one year only. In 1320 complaint was
+made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in the hands of the great
+lords, who did not appoint a sufficiency of bailiffs for their proper
+government. The miners of Devon had independent courts, known as
+stannary courts, for the regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary
+towns being Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient
+miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor.
+
+The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen by Baldwin
+de Redvers, and in the 14th and 15th centuries the French made frequent
+attacks on the Devonshire coast, being repulsed in 1404 by the people of
+Dartmouth. In the Wars of the Roses the county was much divided, and
+frequent skirmishes took place between the earl of Devon and Lord
+Bonville, the respective champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist
+parties. Great disturbances in the county followed the Reformation of
+the 16th century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say mass at
+Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county as a
+whole favoured the parliament, but the prevailing desire was for peace,
+and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities in Devonshire and
+Cornwall was agreed upon. Skirmishes, however, continued until the
+capture of Dartmouth and Exeter in 1646 put an end to the struggle. In
+1688 the prince of Orange landed at Torbay and was entertained for
+several days at Ford and at Exeter.
+
+The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time immemorial, and in the
+14th century mines of tin, copper, lead, gold and silver are mentioned.
+Agriculturally the county was always poor, and before the
+disafforestation rendered especially so through the ravages committed by
+the herds of wild deer. At the time of the Domesday Survey the salt
+industry was important, and there were ninety-nine mills in the county
+and thirteen fisheries. From an early period the chief manufacture was
+that of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manufacture
+of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire. About 1505
+Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an improved method of spinning
+into the county, and cider-making is mentioned in the 16th century. In
+1680 the lace industry was already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St
+Mary, and flax, hemp and malt were largely produced in the 17th and 18th
+centuries.
+
+Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295
+Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock, Torrington and Totnes were also
+represented. In 1831 the county with its boroughs returned a total of
+twenty-six members, but under the Reform Act of 1832 it returned four
+members in two divisions, and with ten boroughs was represented by a
+total of eighteen members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six
+members in three divisions, and four of the boroughs were disfranchised,
+making a total of seventeen members.
+
+_Antiquities._--In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich as
+Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest interest, the
+most peculiar of which are the long parallel alignments of upright
+stones, which, on a small scale, resemble those of Carnac in Brittany.
+On Dartmoor the lines are invariably straight, and are found in direct
+connexion with cairns, and with circles which are probably sepulchral.
+These stone avenues are very numerous. Of the so-called sacred circles
+the best examples are the "Longstones" on Scorhill Down, and the "Grey
+Wethers" under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest cromlech is the
+"Spinster's Rock" at Drewsteignton, a three-pillared cromlech which may
+well be compared with those of Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or
+single upright stones; a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of
+the Teign, near the Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit
+of nearly every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on
+Heltor, above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably evident that these
+have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite, and
+that the dolmen in the Teign is due to the action of the river. Clusters
+of hut foundations, circular, and formed of rude granite blocks, are
+frequent; the best example of such a primitive village is at Batworthy,
+near Chagford; the type resembles that of East Cornwall. Walled
+enclosures, or pounds, occur in many places; Grimspound is the most
+remarkable. Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor
+in many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of great slabs of
+granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor. Scattered
+over the county are numerous large hill castles and camps,--all
+earthworks, and all apparently of the British period. Roman relics have
+been found from time to time at Exeter (_Isca Damnoniorum_), the only
+large Roman station in the county.
+
+The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period, dating
+from the middle of the 14th to the end of the 15th century. Exeter
+cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except the Norman
+towers) being very beautiful Decorated work. The special features of
+Devonshire churches, however, are the richly carved pulpits and chancel
+screens of wood, in which this county exceeded every other in England,
+with the exception of Norfolk and Suffolk. The designs are rich and
+varied, and the skill displayed often very great. Granite crosses are
+frequent, the finest and earliest being that of Coplestone, near
+Crediton. Monastic remains are scanty; the principal are those at Tor,
+Buckfast, Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings the
+houses of Wear Gilford, Bradley and Dartington of the 15th century;
+Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan), and Forde (Jacobean),
+deserve notice. The ruined castles of Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter,
+with its vast British earthworks, Berry Pomeroy (Henry III., with ruins
+of a large Tudor mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 15th
+century), are all interesting and picturesque.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--T. Westcote, _Survey of Devon_, written about 1630, and
+  first printed in 1845; J. Prince, _Worthies of Devon_ (Exeter, 1701);
+  Sir W. Pole, _Collections towards a History of the County of Devon_
+  (London, 1791); R. Polwhele, _History of Devonshire_ (3 vols. Exeter,
+  1797, 1798-1800); T. Moore, _History of Devon from the Earliest Period
+  to the Present Time_ (vols, i., ii., London, 1829-1831); G. Oliver,
+  _Historic Collections relating to the Monasteries in Devon_ (Exeter,
+  1820); D. and S. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_ (vol. vi., London, 1822);
+  _Ecclesiastical Antiquities in Devon_ (Exeter, 1844); Mrs Bray,
+  _Traditions of Devonshire_, in a series of letters to Robert Southey
+  (London, 1838); G. C. Boase, _Devonshire Bibliography_ (London, 1883);
+  Sir W. R. Drake, _Devonshire Notes and Notelets_ (London, 1888); S.
+  Hewett, _Peasant Speech of Devon_ (London, 1892); R. N. Worth,
+  _History of Devonshire_ (London, 1886, new edition, 1895); C. Worthy,
+  _Devonshire Parishes_ (Exeter, 1887); _Devonshire Wills_ (London,
+  1896); _Victoria County History, Devonshire_.
+
+
+DEVRIENT, the name of a family of German actors.
+
+LUDWIG DEVRIENT (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the 15th of December
+1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He was apprenticed to an
+upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employment, joined a travelling
+theatrical company, and made his first appearance on the stage at Gera
+in 1804 as the messenger in Schiller's _Braut von Messina_. By the
+interest of Count Bruehl, he appeared at Rudolstadt as Franz Moor in
+Schiller's _Raeuber_, so successfully that he obtained a permanent
+engagement at the ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played until 1809.
+He then received a call to Breslau, where he remained for six years. So
+brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of Shakespeare's
+plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation; yet that great
+artist was generous enough to recommend the young actor as his only
+possible successor. On Iffland's death Devrient was summoned to Berlin,
+where he was for fifteen years the popular idol. He died there on the
+30th of December 1832. Ludwig Devrient was equally great in comedy and
+tragedy. Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard II. were
+among his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his _Reminiscences_ has given a
+graphic picture of him and the "demoniac fascination" of his acting.
+
+  See Z. Funck, _Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und
+  Devrients_ (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in _Devrient-Novellen_ (3rd ed.,
+  Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel _Devrient und Hoffmann_
+  (Berlin, 1873), and Eduard Devrient's _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1861).
+
+Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother, a
+merchant, were also connected with the stage. KARL AUGUST DEVRIENT
+(1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the 5th of April 1797. After being for
+a short time in business, he entered a cavalry regiment as volunteer and
+fought at Waterloo. He then joined the stage, making his first
+appearance on the stage in 1819 at Brunswick. In 1821 he received an
+engagement at the court theatre in Dresden, where, in 1823, he married
+Wilhelmine Schroeder (see SCHROeDER-DEVRIENT). In 1835 he joined the
+company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His best parts were
+Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the 5th of April 1872. His brother
+PHILIPP EDUARD DEVRIENT (1801-1877), born at Berlin on the 11th of
+August 1801, was for a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to
+theatrical management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director of the court
+theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began a thorough
+reorganization of the theatre, and in the course of seventeen years of
+assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high position, but enriched
+its repertory by many noteworthy librettos, among which _Die Gunst des
+Augenblicks_ and _Verirrungen_ are the best known. But his chief work is
+his history of the German stage--_Geschichte der deutschen
+Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1848-1874). He died on the 4th of October
+1877. A complete edition of his works--_Dramatische und dramaturgische
+Schriften_--was published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873).
+
+The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of Ludwig Devrient
+was GUSTAV EMIL DEVRIENT (1803-1872), born in Berlin on the 4th of
+September 1803. He made his first appearance on the stage in 1821, at
+Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's _Jungfrau von Orleans_. After a short
+engagement in Leipzig, he received in 1829 a call to Hamburg, but after
+two years accepted a permanent appointment at the court theatre in
+Dresden, to which he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief
+characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play), Marquis
+Posa (in Schiller's _Don Carlos_), and Goethe's Torquato Tasso. He acted
+several times in London, where his Hamlet was considered finer than
+Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on the 7th of August 1872.
+
+OTTO DEVRIENT (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on the 3rd of
+October 1838, was the son of Philipp Eduard Devrient. He joined the
+stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively in Stuttgart, Berlin
+and Leipzig, until he received a fixed appointment at Karlsruhe, in
+1863. In 1873 he became stage manager at Weimar, where he gained great
+praise for his _mise en scene_ of Goethe's _Faust_. After being manager
+of the theatres in Mannheim and Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in
+1883 he was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884
+he was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and in
+1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died at Stettin on the
+23rd of June 1894.
+
+
+DEW. The word "dew" (O.E. _deaw_; cf. Ger. _Tau_) is a very ancient one
+and its meaning must therefore be defined on historical principles.
+According to the _New English Dictionary_, it means "the moisture
+deposited in minute drops upon any cool surface by condensation of the
+vapour of the atmosphere; formed after a hot day, during or towards
+night and plentiful in the early morning." Huxley in his _Physiography_
+makes the addition "without production of mist." The formation of mist
+is not necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it necessarily
+prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead of
+water it is called hoarfrost. The researches of Aitken suggest that the
+words "by condensation of the vapour in the atmosphere" might be omitted
+from the definition. He has given reasons for believing that the large
+dewdrops on the leaves of plants, the most characteristic of all the
+phenomena of dew, are to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by
+the exuding of drops of water from the plant through the pores of the
+leaves themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases is the
+continuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the
+leaves with water from the soil. The process is set up in full vigour in
+the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions at the surface of
+the leaf in the hot sun, and continued after the sun has gone.
+
+On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illustrating the
+formation of dew is the production of a deposit of moisture, in minute
+drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass or polished metal vessel by
+the cooling of a liquid contained in the vessel. If the liquid is water,
+it can be cooled by pieces of ice; if volatile like ether, by bubbling
+air through it. No deposit is formed by this process until the
+temperature is reduced to a point which, from that circumstance, has
+received a special name, although it depends upon the state of the air
+round the vessel. So generally accepted is the physical analogy between
+the natural formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner
+described, that the point below which the temperature of a surface must
+be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known as the "dew-point."
+
+In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at which, _by
+being cooled without change of pressure_, the air becomes saturated with
+water vapour, not on account of any increase of supply of that compound,
+but by the diminution of the capacity of the air for holding it in the
+gaseous condition. Thus, when the dew-point temperature has been
+determined, the pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere at the time
+of the deposit is given by reference to a table of saturation pressures
+of water vapour at different temperatures. As it is a well-established
+proposition that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not
+vary while the air is being cooled without change of its total external
+pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the pressure of
+water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced. Thus the artificial
+formation of dew and consequent determination of the dew-point is a
+recognized method of measuring the pressure, and thence the amount of
+water vapour in the atmosphere. The dew-point method is indeed in some
+ways a fundamental method of hygrometry.
+
+The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the question of
+the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse. So long as the
+dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter, but when the
+dew-point begins to approach the normal temperature of the human body
+the atmosphere becomes insupportable.
+
+The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists practically in
+determining the process or processes by which leaves, blades of grass,
+stones, and other objects in the open air upon which dew may be
+observed, become cooled "below the dew-point."
+
+Formerly, from the time of Aristotle at least, dew was supposed to
+"fall." That view of the process was not extinct at the time of
+Wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without reproach. To
+Dr Charles Wells of London belongs the credit of bringing to a focus the
+ideas which originated with the study of radiation at the beginning of
+the 19th century, and which are expressed by saying that the cooling
+necessary to produce dew on exposed surfaces is to be attributed to the
+radiation from the surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an account of the
+theory of automatic cooling by radiation, which has found a place in all
+text-books of physics, in his first _Essay on Dew_ published in 1818.
+The theory is supported in that and in a second essay by a number of
+well-planned observations, and the essays are indeed models of
+scientific method. The process of the formation of dew as represented by
+Wells is a simple one. It starts from the point of view that all bodies
+are constantly radiating heat, and cool automatically unless they
+receive a corresponding amount of heat from other bodies by radiation or
+conduction. Good radiators, which are at the same time bad conductors of
+heat, such as blades of grass, lose heat rapidly on a clear night by
+radiation to the sky and become cooled below the dew-point of the
+atmosphere.
+
+The question was very fully studied by Melloni and others, but little
+more was added to the explanation given by Wells until 1885, when John
+Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question whether the water of
+dewdrops on plants or stones came from the air or the earth, and
+described a number of experiments to show that under the conditions of
+observation in Scotland, it was the earth from which the moisture was
+probably obtained, either by the operation of the vascular system of
+plants in the formation of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and
+subsequent condensation in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some
+controversy was excited by the publication of Aitken's views, and it is
+interesting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which
+is of general application in meteorological questions, namely, that the
+physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological
+phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that is
+necessary to produce dew, nor even radiation from a body which does not
+conduct heat. The body must be surrounded by an atmosphere so fully
+supplied with moisture that the dew-point can be passed by the cooling
+due to radiation. Thus the conditions favourable for the formation of
+dew are (1) a good radiating surface, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) a
+clear sky, (4) thermal insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm
+moist ground or some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in
+the surface layers of air.
+
+Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in considering the
+supply of moisture we must take into consideration the ground as well as
+the air and concern ourselves with the temperature of both. Of the five
+conditions mentioned, the first four may be considered necessary, but
+the fifth is very important for securing a copious deposit. It can
+hardly be maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply
+of water by evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a supply is
+forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited process of
+condensation which deprives the air of its moisture and is therefore
+soon terminable, we have the process of distillation which goes on as
+long as conditions are maintained. This distinction is of some practical
+importance for it indicates the protecting power of wet soil in favour
+of young plants as against night frost. If distillation between the
+ground and the leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot
+fall much below the original dew-point because the supply of water for
+condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of heat by
+radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of water from the
+atmosphere, without renewal of the supply, the dew-point will gradually
+get lower as the moisture is deposited and the process of cooling will
+go on.
+
+In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large changes
+taking place within a small range of level. It is with the layer a few
+inches thick on either side of the surface that we are principally
+concerned, and for an adequate comprehension of the conditions close
+consideration is required. To illustrate this point reference may be
+made to figs. 1 and 2, which represent the condition of affairs at 10.40
+P.M. on about the 20th of October 1885, according to observations by
+Aitken. Vertical distances represent heights in feet, while the
+temperatures of the air and the dew-point are represented by horizontal
+distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of the
+diagram. The line marked 0 is the ground level itself, a rather
+indefinite quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical
+distance represented is from 4 ft. above ground to 1 ft. below ground,
+and the special phenomena which we are considering take place in the
+layer which represents the rapid transition between the temperature of
+the ground 3 in. below the surface and that of the air a few inches
+above ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+The point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and
+dry-bulb curve will cut. If they cut above the surface, mist will
+result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be formed. Below the
+surface, it may be assumed that the air is saturated with moisture and
+any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by
+distillation. It may be remarked, by the way, that such distillation
+between soil layers of different temperatures must be productive of the
+transference of large quantities of water between different levels in
+the soil either upward or downward according to the time of year.
+
+These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and moisture of
+the ground in the phenomena which have been considered. From the surface
+there is a continual loss of heat going on by radiation and a continual
+supply of warmth and moisture from below. But while the heat can escape,
+the moisture cannot. Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as
+it approaches the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the
+effect of the moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach.
+In the case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the
+left to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well
+shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to the same
+point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if there were so
+copious a condensation from the atmosphere as actually to make the air
+drier at the surface than up above. In diagram 1, for soil, the effect
+on air temperature and moisture is shown; the two lines converge to cut
+at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground
+line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the
+surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature
+gradient.
+
+The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical countries,
+is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by gutters and spouts,
+but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total
+rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the
+Loango coast at 3 mm., but the estimate seems a high one. Measurements
+go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate
+annual deposit of dew is 1 in. to 1.5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1.2
+in. at Munich (Wollny), 0.3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1.6 in. at
+Tenbury, Worcestershire (Badgley).
+
+With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that of the
+maintenance of "dew ponds" is intimately associated. The name is given
+to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the
+south of England and elsewhere. Some of these ponds are very ancient, as
+the title of a work on _Neolithic Dewponds_ by A. J. and G. Hubbard
+indicates. Their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend
+upon dew and not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of
+water supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been
+discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence seems to
+be against the view that dew deposits make any important contribution to
+the supply of water. The construction of dew ponds is, however, still
+practised on traditional lines, and it is said that a new dew pond has
+first to be filled artificially. It does not come into existence by the
+gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For _Dew_, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells
+  (London, 1818), also "An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella (London,
+  1866), Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni, _Pogg. Ann._
+  lxxi. pp. 416, 424 and lxxiii. p. 467; Jamin, "Complements a la
+  theorie de la rosee," _Journal de physique_, viii. p. 41; J. Aitken,
+  on "Dew," _Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh_, xxxiii., part i. 2, and
+  "Nature," vol. xxxiii. p. 256; C. Tomlinson, "Remarks on a new Theory
+  of Dew," _Phil. Mag._ (1886), 5th series, vol. 21, p. 483 and vol. 22,
+  p. 270; Russell, _Nature_, vol 47, p. 210; also _Met. Zeit._ (1893),
+  p. 390; Homen, _Bodenphysikalische und meteorologische Beobachtungen_
+  (Berlin, 1894), iii.; _Taubildung_, p. 88, &c.; Rubenson, "Die
+  Temperatur-und Feuchtigkeitsverhaeltnisse in den unteren Luftschichten
+  bei der Taubildung," _Met. Zeit._ xi. (1876), p. 65; H. E. Hamberg,
+  "Temperature et humidite de l'air a differentes hauteurs a Upsal,"
+  _Soc. R. des sciences d'Upsal_ (1876); review in _Met. Zeit._ xii.
+  (1877), p. 105.
+
+  For _Dew Ponds_, see Stephen Hales, _Statical Essays_, vol. i.,
+  experiment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731); Gilbert White,
+  _Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne_, letter xxix. (London,
+  1789); Dr C. Wells, _An Essay on Dew_ (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866);
+  Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, "Prize Essay on Water Supply," _Journ. Roy.
+  Agric. Soc._, 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and
+  Symons, "Evaporation from the Surface of Water," _Brit. Assoc. Rep._
+  (1869), sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, "Hydrogeology: One of the
+  Developments of Modern Practical Geology," _Trans. Inst. Surveyors_,
+  vol. ix. pp. 153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise
+  on Dew Ponds" (London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural History of
+  Isolated Ponds," _Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society_,
+  vol. v. pp. 272-286 (1892); Professor G. S. Brady, _On the Nature and
+  Origin of Freshwater Faunas_ (1899); Professor L. C. Miall, "Dew
+  Ponds," _Reports of the British Association_ (Bradford Meeting, 1900),
+  pp. 579-585; A. J. and G. Hubbard, "Neolithic Dewponds and
+  Cattle-Ways" (London, 1904, 1907).                         (W. N. S.)
+
+
+DEWAN or DIWAN, an Oriental term for finance minister. The word is
+derived from the Arabian _diwan_, and is commonly used in India to
+denote a minister of the Mogul government, or in modern days the prime
+minister of a native state. It was in the former sense that the grant of
+the _dewanny_ to the East India Company in 1765 became the foundation of
+the British empire in India.
+
+
+DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist and physicist, was born at
+Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the 20th of September 1842. He was
+educated at Dollar Academy and Edinburgh University, being at the latter
+first a pupil, and afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then
+professor of chemistry; he also studied under Kekule at Ghent. In 1875
+he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy
+at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and in 1877 he succeeded
+Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of chemistry in the Royal
+Institution, London. He was president of the Chemical Society in 1897,
+and of the British Association in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission
+on London Water Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee on
+Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir Frederick Abel.
+His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his earlier papers, some
+deal with questions of organic chemistry, others with Graham's
+hydrogenium and its physical constants, others with high temperatures,
+e.g. the temperature of the sun and of the electric spark, others again
+with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc. With
+Professor J. G. M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the
+physiological action of light, and examined the changes which take place
+in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With
+Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he began in
+1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later of which
+were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous
+constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid of low
+temperatures; and he was joined by Professor J. A. Fleming, of
+University College, London, in the investigation of the electrical
+behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures. His name is
+most widely known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the
+so-called permanent gases and his researches at temperatures approaching
+the zero of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry
+dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the "Latent Heat
+of Liquid Gases" before the British Association. In 1878 he devoted a
+Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to the then recent work
+of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and exhibited for the first time in
+Great Britain the working of the Cailletet apparatus. Six years later,
+in the same place, he described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and
+K. S. Olszewski, and illustrated for the first time in public the
+liquefaction of oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed
+for optical projection so that the actions taking place might be visible
+to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which the
+liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling
+agent, and he showed its employment for this purpose in connexion with
+some researches on meteorites; about the same time he also obtained
+oxygen in the solid state. By 1891 he had designed and erected at the
+Royal Institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint,
+and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and
+liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea
+occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of
+liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the
+influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to preserve
+the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to keep them so
+free from ebullition that examination of their optical properties
+becomes possible. He next experimented with a high-pressure hydrogen jet
+by which low temperatures were realized through the Thomson-Joule
+effect, and the successful results thus obtained led him to build at the
+Royal Institution the large refrigerating machine by which in 1898
+hydrogen was for the first time collected in the liquid state, its
+solidification following in 1899. Later he investigated the
+gas-absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and
+applied them to the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see
+LIQUID GASES). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford medal upon
+him for his work in the production of low temperatures, and in 1899 he
+became the first recipient of the Hodgkins gold medal of the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, for his contributions to our knowledge of the
+nature and properties of atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first
+British subject to receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of
+Sciences, and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal
+of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904, and in 1908
+he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of Arts.
+
+
+DEWAS, two native states of India, in the Malwa Political Charge of
+Central India, founded in the first half of the 18th century by two
+brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into Malwa with the peshwa, Baji
+Rao, in 1728. Their descendants are known as the senior and junior
+branches of the family, and since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as
+a separate state, though the lands belonging to each are so intimately
+entangled, that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the
+main street are under different administrations and have different
+arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch has an
+area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the area of the
+junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904.
+
+
+DEWBERRY, _Rubus caesius_, a trailing plant, allied to the bramble, of
+the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods, hedges and the
+borders of fields in England and other countries of Europe. The leaves
+have three leaflets, are hairy beneath, and of a dusky green; the
+flowers which appear in June and July are white, or pale rose-coloured.
+The fruit is large, and closely embraced by the calyx, and consists of a
+few drupules, which are black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an
+agreeable acid taste.
+
+
+DEW-CLAW, the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the "false hoof" of
+the deer, sometimes also called the "nails." In dogs the dew-claw is the
+rudimentary toe or hallux (corresponding to the big toe in man) hanging
+loosely attached to the skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg.
+The origin of the word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested
+that, while the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw
+merely brushes the dew from the grass.
+
+
+D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, Bart. (1602-1650), English antiquarian, eldest son
+of Paul D'Ewes of Milden, Suffolk, and of Cecilia, daughter and heir of
+Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born on the 18th
+of December 1602, and educated at the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds,
+and at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to the Middle
+Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623, when he immediately
+began his collections of material and his studies in history and
+antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne, daughter and heir of Sir William
+Clopton, of Luton's Hall in Suffolk, through whom he obtained a large
+addition to his already considerable fortune. On the 6th of December he
+was knighted. He took an active part as a strong Puritan and member of
+the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary government
+in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member for Sudbury.
+On the 15th of July he was created a baronet by the king, but
+nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out, and
+in 1643 took the Covenant. He was one of the members expelled by Pride's
+Purge in 1648, and died on the 18th of April 1650. He had married
+secondly Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley
+in Derbyshire, by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and
+title, the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731.
+D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious scope, no less
+than the whole history of England based on original documents. But
+though excelling as a collector of materials, and as a laborious,
+conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had little power of
+generalization or construction, and died without publishing anything
+except an uninteresting tract, _The Primitive Practice for Preserving
+Truth_ (1645), and some speeches. His _Journals of all the Parliaments
+during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth_, however, a valuable work, was
+published in 1682. His large collections, including transcripts from
+ancient records, many of the originals of which are now dispersed or
+destroyed, are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His
+unprinted Diaries from 1621-1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable
+for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only authority
+for incidents and speeches during that period, and are amusing from the
+glimpses the diarist affords of his own character, his good estimation
+of himself and his little jealousies; some are in a cipher and some in
+Latin.
+
+  Extracts from his _Autobiography and Correspondence_ from the MSS. in
+  the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell-Phillips in 1845,
+  by Hearne in the appendix to his _Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II._
+  (1729), and in the _Bibliotheca topographica Britannica_, No. xv. vol.
+  vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, _College Life in the Time
+  of James I._ (1851). His Diaries have been extensively drawn upon by
+  Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his _Studies of the Great
+  Rebellion_. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the Harleian
+  Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts.
+
+
+DE WET, CHRISTIAN (1854- ), Boer general and politician, was born on the
+7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop, Smithfield district (Orange Free
+State), and later resided at Dewetsdorp. He served in the first
+Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81 as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he
+lived on his farm, becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took
+part in the earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a
+commandant and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the
+west. His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near
+Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg a little
+later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and more as the most
+formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla warfare. Sometimes
+severely handled by the British, sometimes escaping only by the
+narrowest margin of safety from the columns which attempted to surround
+him, and falling upon and annihilating isolated British posts, De Wet
+continued to the end of the war his successful career, striking heavily
+where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to
+bay. He took an active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at
+the conclusion of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer
+generals. While in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a
+modification of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote
+an account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in
+November 1902 under the title _Three Years' War_. In November, 1907 he
+was elected a member of the first parliament of the Orange River Colony
+and was appointed minister of agriculture. In 1908-9 he was a delegate
+to the Closer Union Convention.
+
+
+DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT (1780-1849), German theologian, was
+born on the 12th of January 1780, at Ulla, near Weimar, where his father
+was pastor. He was sent to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height
+of its literary glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with
+Johann Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In 1799
+he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal teachers
+being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Paulus, from the latter of whom he
+derived his tendency to free critical inquiry. Both in methods and in
+results, however, he occupied an almost solitary position among German
+theologians. Having taken his doctor's degree, he became _privat-docent_
+at Jena; in 1807 professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came
+under the influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was
+transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded university of
+Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was,
+however, dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written
+a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the murderer
+of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the
+university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving
+him of the chair, but banishing him from the Prussian kingdom. He
+retired for a time to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the
+preparation of his edition of Luther, and in writing the romance
+_Theodor oder die Weihe des Zweiflers_ (Berlin, 1822), in which he
+describes the education of an evangelical pastor. During this period he
+made his first essay in preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of
+very popular gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the
+university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before.
+Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party,
+De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and
+among the people generally. He was admitted a citizen, and became rector
+of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength,
+particularly in the theological faculty. He died on the 16th of June
+1849.
+
+De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as "the epoch-making
+opener of the historical criticism of the Pentateuch." He prepared the
+way for the Supplement-theory. But he also made valuable contributions
+to other branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic
+faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled _Die Entsagung_
+(Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied
+ecclesiastical music and architecture. As a Biblical critic he is
+sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer
+says (_Development of Theology_, p. 102), he "occupied as free a
+position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the
+creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the
+religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with a
+more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the connexion of the
+present life of the church with the past." His works are marked by
+exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness.
+Accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress
+of criticism.
+
+  The most important of his works are:--_Beitraege zur Einleitung in das
+  Alte Testament_ (2 vols., 1806-1807); _Kommentar ueber die Psalmen_
+  (1811), which has passed through several editions, and is still
+  regarded as of high authority; _Lehrbuch der hebraeisch-juedischen
+  Archaeologie_ (1814); _Ueber Religion und Theologie_ (1815); a work of
+  great importance as showing its author's general theological position;
+  _Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik_ (1813-1816); _Lehrbuch der
+  historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel_ (1817); _Christliche
+  Sittenlehre_ (1819-1821); _Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1826);
+  _Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das
+  Leben_ (1827); _Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens_ (1846); and
+  _Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament_ (1836-1848).
+  De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825-1828).
+
+   See K. R. Hagenbach in _Herzog's Realencyklopaedie_; G. C. F. Luecke's
+  _W. M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung_ (1850); and D.
+  Schenkel's _W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie fuer
+  unsere Zeit_ (1849). Rudolf Staehelin, _De Wette nach seiner theol.
+  Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung_ (1880); F. Lichtenberger, _History of
+  German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889); Otto Pfleiderer,
+  _Development of Theology_ (1890), pp. 97 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, _Founders
+  of the Old Testament Criticism_, pp. 31 ff.
+
+
+DEWEY, DAVIS RICH (1858- ), American economist and statistician, was
+born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th of April 1858. He was
+educated at the university of Vermont and at Johns Hopkins University,
+and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was chairman of the state
+board on the question of the unemployed (1895), member of the
+Massachusetts commission on public, charitable and reformatory interests
+(1897), special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of
+a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an excellent
+_Syllabus on Political History since 1815_ (1887), a _Financial History
+of the U.S._ (1902), and _National Problems_ (1907).
+
+
+DEWEY, GEORGE (1837- ), American naval officer, was born at Montpelier,
+Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837. He studied at Norwich University,
+then at Norwich, Vermont, and graduated at the United States Naval
+Academy in 1858. He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in
+the Civil War served on the steamsloop "Mississippi" (1861-1863) during
+Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862, and at
+Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting below
+Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865 served on the
+steam-gunboat "Agawam" with the North Atlantic blockading squadron and
+took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January
+1865. In March 1865 he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the
+European squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States
+Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the "Narragansett" in
+1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned commander in 1872; was
+light-house inspector in 1876-1877; and was secretary of the light-house
+board in 1877-1882. In 1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief
+of the bureau of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of
+the light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board of
+inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of commodore in
+February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned, at his own request, to
+sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In April 1898, while with his
+fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by cable that war had begun between
+the United States and Spain, and was ordered to "capture or destroy the
+Spanish fleet" then in Philippine waters. On the 1st of May he
+overwhelmingly defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in
+Manila Bay, a victory won without the loss of a man on the American
+ships (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). Congress, in a joint resolution,
+tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and men
+under his command, and authorized "the secretary of the navy to present
+a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey, and cause to be struck
+bronze medals commemorating the battle of Manila Bay, and to distribute
+such medals to the officers and men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron
+of the United States." He was promoted rear-admiral on the 10th of May
+1898. On the 18th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the
+city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders from his
+government to maintain control, Dewey received the rank of admiral
+(March 3, 1899)--that title, formerly borne only by Farragut and Porter,
+having been revived by act of Congress (March 2, 1899),--and returned
+home, arriving in New York City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he
+received a great ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman
+Philippine Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible
+Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president of the
+Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority report on a
+few details.
+
+
+DEWEY, MELVIL (1851- ), American librarian, was born at Adams Center,
+New York, on the 10th of December 1851. He graduated in 1874 at Amherst
+College, where he was assistant librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he
+removed to Boston, where he founded and became editor of _The Library
+Journal_, which became an influential factor in the development of
+libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration. He was
+also one of the founders of the American Library Association, of which
+he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president in 1891 and 1893. In
+1883 he became librarian of Columbia College, and in the following year
+founded there the School of Library Economy, the first institution for
+the instruction of librarians ever organized. This school, which was
+very successful, was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was
+re-established as the State Library School under his direction; from
+1888 to 1906 he was director of the New York State Library and from 1888
+to 1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York,
+completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of the most
+efficient in America, and establishing the system of state travelling
+libraries and picture collections. His "Decimal System of
+Classification" for library cataloguing, first proposed in 1876, is
+extensively used.
+
+
+DEWING, THOMAS WILMER (1851- ), American figure painter, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1851. He was a pupil of Jules
+Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to 1879; was elected a full member of the
+National Academy of Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten
+American Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition
+(1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis (1904). His
+decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and finish. Among his
+portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White and of his own wife. Mrs
+Dewing (b, 1855), _nee_ Maria Oakey, a figure and flower painter, was a
+pupil of John La Farge in New York, and of Couture in Paris.
+
+
+DE WINT, PETER (1784-1849), English landscape painter, of Dutch
+extraction, son of an English physician, was born at Stone,
+Staffordshire, on the 21st of January 1784. He studied art in London,
+and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In 1812 he became a member of
+the Society of Painters in Watercolours, where he exhibited largely for
+many years, as well as at the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of
+William Hilton, R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. De
+Wint's life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he
+ranks as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his
+pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+
+DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was born at Kampen,
+and in 1761 entered the naval service at the age of twelve years. He
+distinguished himself by his zeal and courage, and at the revolution of
+1787 he had reached the rank of lieutenant. The overthrow of the
+"patriot" party forced him to fly for his safety to France. Here he
+threw himself heart and soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took
+part under Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and
+was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When Pichegru in
+1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the French army to his
+native country. The states-general now utilized the experience he had
+gained as a naval officer by giving him the post of adjunct-general for
+the reorganization of the Dutch navy. In 1796 he was appointed
+vice-admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts
+to strengthen it and improve its condition, and on the 11th of October
+1797 he ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British fleet
+under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the Dutch were
+defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner. He remained in
+England until December, when he was liberated by exchange. His conduct
+in the battle of Camperdown was declared by a court-martial to have
+nobly maintained the honour of the Dutch flag.
+
+From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador to the French
+republic, and was then once more appointed commander of the fleet. He
+was sent with a strong squadron to the Mediterranean to repress the
+Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a treaty of peace with the Tripolitan
+government. He enjoyed the confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of
+Holland, and, after the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French
+empire, in an equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was
+created marshal and count of Huessen, and given the command of the armed
+forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the grand cross of the
+Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector-general of the northern
+coasts, and in 1811 he placed him at the head of the fleet he had
+collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards De Winter was seized with
+illness and compelled to betake himself to Paris, where he died on the
+2nd of June 1812. He had a splendid public funeral and was buried in the
+Pantheon. His heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the Nicolaas
+Kerk at Kampen.
+
+
+DE WITT, CORNELIUS (1623-1672), brother of JOHN DE WITT (q.v.), was born
+at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgomaster of Dort and member of the
+states of Holland and West Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the
+important post of _ruwaard_ or governor of the land of Putten and
+bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater
+brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout his career
+with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by the
+states of Holland to accompany Admiral de Ruyter in his famous
+expedition to Chatham. Cornelius de Witt on this occasion distinguished
+himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De
+Ruyter in 1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at
+Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled by
+illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that the
+Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother were the
+objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account of his imprisonment,
+trial and death, is given below.
+
+
+DE WITT, JOHN (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at Dort, on the
+24th of September 1625. He was a member of one of the old burgher-regent
+families of his native town. His father, Jacob de Witt, was six times
+burgomaster of Dort, and for many years sat as a representative of the
+town in the states of Holland. He was a strenuous adherent of the
+republican or oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the
+princes of the house of Orange, who represented the federal principle
+and had the support of the masses of the people. John was educated at
+Leiden, and early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in
+mathematics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother
+Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on his
+return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate. In 1650 he
+was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which made him the leader
+and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of Holland. In this
+same year the states of Holland found themselves engaged in a struggle
+for provincial supremacy, on the question of the disbanding of troops,
+with the youthful prince of Orange, William II. William, with the
+support of the states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders
+of the states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle;
+among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William, at the
+moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction. He left only a
+posthumous child, afterwards William III. of Orange, and the principles
+advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed, and the authority of the states of
+Holland became predominant in the republic.
+
+At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence, sagacity
+and business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of Dort that
+on the 23rd of July 1653 he was appointed to the office of grand
+pensionary (_Raadpensionaris_) of Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He
+was re-elected in 1658, 1663 and 1668, and held office until his death
+in 1672. During this period of nineteen years the general conduct of
+public affairs and administration, and especially of foreign affairs,
+such was the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was
+largely placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to the
+brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been caused by the
+keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states. The Dutch were
+unprepared, and suffered severely through the loss of their carrying
+trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about peace as soon as possible.
+The first demands of Cromwell were impossible, for they aimed at the
+absorption of the two republics into a single state, but at last in the
+autumn of 1654 peace was concluded, by which the Dutch made large
+concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to English ships in
+the narrow seas. The treaty included a secret article, which the
+states-general refused to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in
+inducing the states of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of
+Holland pledged themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a
+captain-general of the union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called,
+was aimed at the young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the
+Stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was
+personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his
+ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that he
+prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter.
+
+The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently successful.
+He restored the finances of the state, and extended its commercial
+supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he sustained Denmark against
+Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an advantageous peace with Portugal. The
+accession of Charles II. to the English throne led to the rescinding of
+the Act of Seclusion; nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the
+prince of Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This
+led to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to a
+renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial rights, and
+war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and courage displayed by the
+grand pensionary during the course of this fiercely contested naval
+struggle could scarcely have been surpassed. He himself on more than one
+occasion went to sea with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came
+in contact by the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action
+and inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an
+organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship
+of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty of peace signed at
+Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of _uti possidetis_, were so
+honourable to the United Provinces. A still greater triumph of
+diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the Triple Alliance (January 17,
+1668) between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden, which checked the
+attempt of Louis XIV. to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in
+the name of his wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was
+but temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take vengeance
+for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III. was growing to
+manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout the country spared no
+efforts to undermine the authority of De Witt, and secure for the young
+prince of Orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors.
+
+In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded the United
+Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically no resistance was
+possible. The unanimous voice of the people called William III. to the
+head of affairs, and there were violent demonstrations against John de
+Witt. His brother Cornelius was (July 24) arrested on a charge of
+conspiring against the prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt
+resigned the post of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with
+such distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the 19th of
+August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banishment. He
+was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother came to visit him in
+the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this collected outside, and finally
+burst into the prison, seized the two brothers and literally tore them
+to pieces. Their mangled remains were hung up by the feet to a
+lamp-post. Thus perished, by the savage act of an infuriated mob, one of
+the greatest statesmen of his age.
+
+John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influential
+burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two sons and three
+daughters.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Geddes, _History of the Administration of John de
+  Witt_, (vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefevre-Pontalis, _Jean de
+  Witt, grand pensionnaire de Hollande_ (2 vols., Paris, 1884); P.
+  Simons, _Johan de Witt en zijn tijd_ (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842);
+  W. C. Knottenbelt, _Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt_
+  (Amsterdam, 1862); _J. de Witt, Brieven ... gewisselt tusschen den
+  Heer Johan de Witt ... ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d.
+  Vereen. Nederlanden so in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken,
+  Poolen, enz. 1652-69_ (6 vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); _Brieven ...
+  1650-1657 (1658) eerste deel bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W.
+  Kernkamp_ (Amsterdam, 1906).
+
+
+DEWLAP (from the O.E. _laeppa_, a lappet, or hanging fold; the first
+syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explanation that the word
+means "the fold which brushes the dew" is not borne out, according to
+the _New English Dictionary_, by the equivalent words such as the
+Danish _doglaeb_, in Scandinavian languages), the loose fold of skin
+hanging from the neck of cattle, also applied to similar folds in the
+necks of other animals and fowls, as the dog, turkey, &c. The American
+practice of branding cattle by making a cut in the neck is known as a
+"dewlap brand." The skin of the neck in human beings often becomes
+pendulous with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by the same
+name.
+
+
+DEWSBURY, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the
+West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of
+Leeds, on the Great Northern, London & North-Western, and Lancashire &
+Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 28,060. The parish church of All Saints
+was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the 18th century;
+the portions still preserved of the original structure are mainly Early
+English. The chief industries are the making of blankets, carpets,
+druggets and worsted yarn; and there are iron foundries and machinery
+works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary borough
+includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and returns one
+member. The municipal borough, incorporated in 1862, is under a mayor, 6
+aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1471 acres. Paulinus, first
+archbishop of York, about the year 627 preached in the district of
+Dewsbury, where Edwin, king of Northumbria, whom he converted to
+Christianity, had a royal mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are
+remains of a Cistercian convent of the 12th century, in an extensive
+park, where tradition relates that Robin Hood died and was buried.
+
+
+DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek historian,
+statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian family
+of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon basileus and eponymus in
+Athens. When the Heruli overran Greece and captured Athens (269),
+Dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of
+patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up
+in his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording his
+services, has been preserved (_Corpus Inscrr. Atticarum_, iii. No. 716).
+It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to his military
+achievements. Photius (_cod._ 82) mentions three historical works by
+Dexippus, of which considerable fragments remain: (1) [Greek: Ta met'
+Alexandron], an epitome of a similarly named work by Arrian; (2) [Greek:
+Skuthika], a history of the wars of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians)
+in the 3rd century; (3) [Greek: Chronike historia], a chronological
+history from the earliest times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270),
+frequently referred to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work
+was continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks very
+highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a level with
+Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments (C. W.
+Mueller, _F.H.G._ iii. 666-687).
+
+
+DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821-1890), American clergyman and author, was
+born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the 13th of August 1821. He
+graduated at Yale in 1840 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in
+1844; was pastor of a Congregational church in Manchester, New
+Hampshire, in 1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational
+church, Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the _Congregationalist_
+in 1851-1866, of the _Congregational Quarterly_ in 1859-1866, and of the
+_Congregationalist_, with which the _Recorder_ was merged, from 1867
+until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the 13th of November 1890. He
+was an authority on the history of Congregationalism and was lecturer on
+that subject at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879; he left
+his fine library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among
+his works are: _Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is, How it
+works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church Government, and
+its consequent Demands_ (1865), _The Church Polity of the Puritans the
+Polity of the New Testament_ (1870), _As to Roger Williams and His
+"Banishment" from the Massachusetts Colony_ (1876), _Congregationalism
+of the Last Three Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature_ (1880), his
+most important work, _A Handbook of Congregationalism_ (1880), _The True
+Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptist"_ (1881), _Common Sense as to
+Woman Suffrage_ (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets bearing on early
+church history in New England, especially Baptist controversies. His
+_The England and Holland of the Pilgrims_ was completed by his son,
+Morton Dexter (b. 1846), and published in 1905.
+
+
+DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747-1806), American merchant, remarkable for his
+eccentricities, was born at Malden, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of
+February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities
+of the depreciated continental currency, which was ultimately redeemed
+by the Federal government at par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter
+and built extraordinary houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New
+Hampshire. He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior
+pictures, besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal
+statues carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of himself was
+included in the collection, and had for an inscription "I am the first
+in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest philosopher in the
+Western World." He wrote a book entitled _Pickle for the Knowing Ones_.
+It was wholly without punctuation marks, and as this aroused comment, he
+published a second edition, at the end of which was a page displaying
+nothing but commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to
+"peper and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping
+enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried out in
+a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the 26th of October
+1806.
+
+
+DEXTRINE (BRITISH GUM, STARCH GUM, LEIOCOME), (C_{6}H_{10}O_{5})_{x}, a
+substance produced from starch by the action of dilute acids, or by
+roasting it at a temperature between 170 deg. and 240 deg. C. It is
+manufactured by spraying starch with 2% nitric acid, drying in air, and
+then heating to about 110 deg. Different modifications are known, e.g.
+amylodextrine, erythrodextrine and achroodextrine. Its name has reference
+to its powerful dextrorotatory action on polarized light. Pure dextrine
+is an insipid, odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is
+sometimes yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves
+in water and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated from its
+solutions as the hydrated compound, C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}.H_{2}O. Diastase
+converts it eventually into maltose, C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}; and by boiling
+with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is transformed
+into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}. It does not
+ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce Fehling's solution.
+If heated with strong nitric acid it gives oxalic, and not mucic acid.
+Dextrine much resembles gum arabic, for which it is generally
+substituted. It is employed for sizing paper, for stiffening cotton
+goods, and for thickening colours in calico printing, also in the making
+of lozenges, adhesive stamps and labels, and surgical bandages.
+
+  See Otto Lueger, _Lexikon der gesamten Technik_.
+
+
+DEY (an adaptation of the Turk, d[=a]i, a maternal uncle), an
+honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men,
+and appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their
+commanding officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries
+became in the 17th century rulers of that country (see ALGERIA:
+HISTORY). From the middle of the 16th century to the end of the
+17th century the ruler of Tunisia was also called dey, a title
+frequently used during the same period by the sovereigns of
+Tripoli.
+
+
+DHAMMAP[=A]LA, the name of one of the early disciples of the Buddha, and
+therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by Buddhist
+novices on their entering the brotherhood. The most famous of the
+Bhikshus so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half
+of the 5th century A.D. at the Badara Tittha Vih[=a]ra, near the east
+coast of India, just a little south of where Madras now stands. It is to
+him we owe the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books,
+consisting almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on the
+Netti, perhaps the oldest P[=a]li work outside the canon. Extracts from
+the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven others, have
+been published by the P[=a]li Text Society. These works show great
+learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But as Dhammap[=a]la
+confines himself rigidly either to questions of the meaning of words,
+or to discussions of the ethical import of his texts, very little can be
+gathered from his writings of value for the social history of his time.
+For the right interpretation of the difficult texts on which he
+comments, they are indispensable. Though in all probability a Tamil by
+birth, he declares, in the opening lines of those of his works that have
+been edited, that he followed the tradition of the Great Minster at
+Anur[=a]dhapura in Ceylon, and the works themselves confirm this in
+every respect. Hsuean Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint
+story of a Dhammap[=a]la of K[=a]nchipura (the modern Konjevaram). He
+was a son of a high official, and betrothed to a daughter of the king,
+but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast, entered the order, and
+attained to reverence and distinction. It is most likely that this
+story, whether legendary or not (and Hsuean Tsang heard the story at
+K[=a]nchipura nearly two centuries after the date of Dhammap[=a]la),
+referred to this author. But it may also refer, as Hsuean Tsang refers
+it, to another author of the same name. Other unpublished works, besides
+those mentioned above, have been ascribed to Dhammap[=a]la, but it is
+very doubtful whether they are really by him.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_ (ed. Rhys Davids and
+  Bushell, London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in _Zeitschrift der
+  deutschen morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft_ (1898), pp. 97 foll.; _Netti_
+  (ed. E. Hardy, London, P[=a]li Text Society, 1902), especially the
+  Introduction, passim; _Theri G[=a]th[=a] Commentary_, _Peta Vatthu
+  Commentary_, and _Vim[=a]na Vatthu Commentary_, all three published by
+  the P[=a]li Text Society.                              (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+DHANIS, FRANCIS, BARON (1861-1909), Belgian administrator, was born in
+London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen years of his life at
+Greenock, where he received his early education. He was the son of a
+Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady named Maher. The name Dhanis is
+supposed to be a variation of D'Anvers. Having completed his education
+at the Ecole Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment
+of grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he
+reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the Congo,
+and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well in founding new
+stations north of the Congo that, when the government decided to put an
+end to the Arab domination on the Upper Congo, he was selected to
+command the chief expedition sent against the slave dealers. The
+campaign began in April 1892, and it was not brought to a successful
+conclusion till January 1894. The story of this war has been told in
+detail by Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book _The Fall of
+the Congo Arabs_. The principal achievements of the campaign were the
+captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at Nyangwe,
+Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis was raised to the rank
+of baron, and in 1895 was made vice-governor of the Congo State. In 1896
+he took command of an expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely
+composed of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted, and
+who had been irritated by the execution of some of their chiefs for
+indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and murdered many of
+their white officers. Dhanis found himself confronted with a more
+formidable adversary than even the Arabs in these well-armed and
+half-disciplined mercenaries. During two years (1897-1898) he was
+constantly engaged in a life-and-death struggle with them. Eventually he
+succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous
+soldiers. Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less
+striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both think that
+the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in
+bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899 Baron Dhanis returned to
+Belgium with the honorary rank of vice governor-general. He died on the
+14th of November 1909.
+
+
+DHAR, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency, Central India. It
+includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories, and has an area of 1775 sq.
+m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta. The founder of the present ruling
+family was Anand Rao Punwar, a descendant of the great Paramara clan of
+Rajputs who from the 9th to the 13th century, when they were driven out
+by the Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar. In
+1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the peshwa, the
+victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the
+family which seven centuries before had been expelled from this very
+city and country. Towards the close of the 18th and in the early part of
+the 19th century, the state was subject to a series of spoliations by
+Sindia and Holkar, and was only preserved from destruction by the
+talents and courage of the adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a
+treaty of 1819 Dhar passed under British protection, and bound itself to
+act in subordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion
+in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar, then a
+minor, with the exception of the detached district of Bairusia, which
+was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand Rao, who received the personal
+title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in 1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded
+by Udaji Rao Punwar. In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state
+includes the ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of
+Malwa.
+
+THE TOWN OF DHAR is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901)
+17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees surrounded by
+barren hills, and possesses, besides its old walls, many interesting
+buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan, some of them containing records of a
+great historical importance. The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built
+by Dilawar Khan in 1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives
+its name from an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at
+the beginning of the 13th century in commemoration of a victory, and
+bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town
+of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft. high, is now
+overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an enclosure containing four
+tombs, the most notable being that of Shaikh Kamal Maulvi
+(Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous 13th-century Mussulman saint
+Nizam-ud-din Auliya.[1] The mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built
+out of Hindu remains in the 14th or 15th century: its name is derived
+from the slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit
+grammar, with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the
+town stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to have
+been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the 14th century. It
+contains the palace of the raja. Of modern institutions may be mentioned
+the high school, public library, hospital, and the chapel, school and
+hospital of the Canadian Presbyterian mission. There is also a
+government opium depot for the payment of duty, the town being a
+considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain.
+
+  The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari (the
+  city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the capital
+  of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who transferred his
+  headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th century.
+  During the rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous throughout
+  India as a centre of culture and learning; but, after suffering
+  various vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the Mussulmans at
+  the beginning of the 14th century. At the close of the century Dilawar
+  Khan, the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been appointed governor
+  in 1399, practically established his independence, his son Hoshang
+  Shah being the first Mahommedan king of Malwa. Under this dynasty Dhar
+  was second in importance to the capital Mandu. Subsequently, in the
+  time of Akbar, Dhar fell under the dominion of the Moguls, in whose
+  hands it remained till 1730, when it was conquered by the Mahrattas.
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908).
+
+[1] Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near Delhi,
+was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret society of
+Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed to have been the
+founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special reverence for his
+memory.
+
+
+DHARAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Surat political agency
+division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The population in 1901
+was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during the decade; the estimated
+gross revenue is L25,412; and the tribute L600. Its chief is a Sesodia
+Rajput. The state has been surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay
+system. It contains one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272
+villages. Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very
+unhealthy, is capable of cultivation; the rest is covered with rocky
+hills, forest and brushwood.
+
+
+DHARMSALA, a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab, India, situated
+on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of Kangra town, at an elevation
+of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971. The scenery of Dharmsala is of
+peculiar grandeur. The spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with
+oak and other trees; behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain
+tower towards the jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half
+the year; while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra
+valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the Kangra
+district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the centre of a
+European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied by Gurkha
+regiments. The station was destroyed by the earthquake of April 1905, in
+which 1625 persons, including 25 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha
+garrison, perished (_Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1908).
+
+
+DHARWAR, a town and district of British India, in the southern division
+of Bombay. The town has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. The
+population in 1901 was 31,279. It has several ginning factories and a
+cotton-mill; two high schools, one maintained by the Government and the
+other by the Basel German Mission.
+
+The DISTRICT OF DHARWAR has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the north and
+north-east are great plains of black soil, favourable to cotton-growing;
+in the south and west are successive ranges of low hills, with flat
+fertile valleys between them. The whole district lies high and has no
+large rivers.
+
+In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of 6% in the
+decade. The most influential classes of the community are Brahmans and
+Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968, or 46% of the Hindu population;
+they worship the symbol of Siva, and males and females both carry this
+emblem about their person in a silver case. The principal crops are
+millets, pulse and cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and
+Gadag, junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the
+district in several directions.
+
+The early history of the territory comprised within the district of
+Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription
+slabs and memorial stones which abound there. From these it is clear
+that the country fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties
+that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of the Chalukyan dynasty, whether
+temples or inscriptions, being especially abundant. In the 14th century
+the district was first overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was
+annexed to the newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an
+official of which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built
+the fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of
+Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years practically
+independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573 the fort was captured
+by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was annexed to his dominions. In
+1685 the fort was taken by the emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the
+break-up of the Mogul empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of
+Poona. In 1764 the province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in
+1778 captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the
+Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817, Dharwar was
+incorporated with the territory of the East India Company.
+
+
+DHOLPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area
+of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country, without any special
+manufactures. All along the bank of the river Chambal the country is
+deeply intersected by ravines; low ranges of hills in the western
+portion of the state supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and
+easily-worked red sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was
+270,973, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The estimated revenue
+is L83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway from
+Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely from drought.
+In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief amounted to L8190.
+
+The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,310. The
+present town, which dates from the 16th century, stands somewhat to the
+north of the site of the older Hindu town built, it is supposed, in the
+11th century by the Tonwar Rajput Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named
+after him Dholdera or Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the
+town may be mentioned the fortified _sarai_ built in the reign of Akbar,
+within which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one of
+his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is growing in
+importance as a centre of trade.
+
+Little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of
+Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the Tonwar
+Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th to the 12th century.
+In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in 1501 the fort of Dholpur was
+taken by the Mahommedans under Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred
+to a Mussulman governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort
+was captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed under the
+sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the province of Agra.
+During the dissensions which followed the death of Aurangzeb in 1707,
+Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria obtained possession of Dholpur, and his
+family retained it till 1761, after which it was taken successively by
+the Jat raja, Suraj Mal of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by
+Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored to Sindhia
+by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence of new arrangements
+was again occupied by the British. Finally, in 1806, the territories of
+Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat
+Singh, ancestor of the present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his
+state of Gohad, which was ceded to Sindhia.
+
+The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia Jats, who
+are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo-Scythian wave of
+invasion which swept over northern India about A.D. 100. An ancestor of
+the family appears to have held certain territories at Bamraoli near
+Agra c. 1195. His descendant in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished
+himself in an expedition against the freebooters of the Deccan, was
+rewarded by the sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the
+title of _rana_. In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces
+against Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion
+of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories then in
+his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected from invasion
+by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently withdrawn, the rana having
+been guilty of treachery, and in 1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing
+the fortress of Gwalior, and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the
+whole of Gohad. In 1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by
+the British government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the
+rana agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of
+Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief binding
+himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the paramount power, and
+to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the British
+government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana of Dholpur, was
+succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh, who showed great loyalty
+during the Mutiny of 1857, was created a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869.
+He was succeeded in 1873 by his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the
+C.B. and frontier medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in
+1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883).
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908) and authorities there
+  given.
+
+
+DHOW, the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the Arabian
+Sea. The language to which the word belongs is unknown. According to the
+_New English Dictionary_ the place of origin may be the Persian Gulf,
+assuming that the word is identical with the tava mentioned by
+Athanasius Nikitin (_India in the 15th Century_, Hakluyt Society, 1858).
+Though the word is used generally of any craft along the East African
+coast, it is usually applied to the vessel of about 150 to 200 tons
+burden with a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows
+generally have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous
+length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is
+carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels employed in
+the slave trade from the east coast of Africa.
+
+
+DHRANGADRA, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay,
+situated in the north of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area is 1156
+sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The estimated gross revenue is L38,000 and
+the tribute L3000. A state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to
+the town of Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in
+1898. Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor; the
+manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand-mills. The chief
+town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of 14,770.
+
+The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with the
+predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala Rajputs,
+who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in the 8th century. Raj
+Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji (b. 1837), who succeeded his father
+in 1869, was distinguished for the enlightened character of his
+administration, especially in the matter of establishing schools and
+internal communications. He was created a K.C.S.I in 1877. He died in
+1900, and was succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b.
+1872).
+
+
+DHULEEP SINGH (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born in February
+1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the 18th of September 1843, under
+the regency of his mother the rani Jindan, a woman of great capacity and
+strong will, but extremely inimical to the British. He was acknowledged
+by Ranjit Singh and recognized by the British government. After six
+years of peace the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were
+defeated in four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore,
+the capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but it
+was administered to a great extent by the British government in his
+name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the British,
+and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite of the valour of the
+Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat, and in March 1849 Dhuleep
+Singh was deposed, a pension of L40,000 a year being granted to him and
+his dependants. He became a Christian and elected to live in England. On
+coming of age he made an arrangement with the British government by
+which his income was reduced to L25,000 in consideration of advances for
+the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at Elvedon in Suffolk.
+While passing through Alexandria in 1864 he met Miss Bamba Mueller, the
+daughter of a German merchant who had married an Abyssinian. The
+maharaja had been interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he
+met Miss Mueller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching.
+She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were the
+issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the maharaja
+married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady, Miss Ada Douglas
+Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja was passionately fond of
+sport, and his shooting parties were celebrated, while he himself became
+a _persona grata_ in English society. The result, however, was financial
+difficulty, and in 1882 he appealed to the government for assistance,
+making various claims based upon the alleged possession of private
+estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor diamond
+to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, whereupon he started for
+India, after drawing up a proclamation to his former subjects. But as it
+was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the Punjab, he remained for
+some time as a guest at the residency at Aden, and was allowed to
+receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity,
+which actually took place within the residency itself. As the climate
+began to affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and
+returned to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his
+claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but when that
+expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where he lived for the
+rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the Indian government.
+His death from an attack of apoplexy took place at Paris on the 22nd of
+October 1893. The maharaja's eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay
+Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges,
+Cambridge. In 1888 he obtained a commission in the 1st Royal Dragoon
+Guards. In 1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the
+earl of Coventry.                                              (G.F.B.)
+
+
+DHULIA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of West
+Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the Panjhra river.
+Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds,
+and weaving of cotton. A railway connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the
+main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.
+
+
+DIABASE, in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite. It
+was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks of this group
+differed from their Tertiary and Recent representatives in certain
+essential respects, but this is now admitted to be untenable, and the
+differences are known to be merely the result of the longer exposure to
+decomposition, pressure and shearing, which the older rocks have
+experienced. Their olivine tends to become serpentinized; their augite
+changes to chlorite and uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation
+of zeolites, calcite, sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green
+colour (from the development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence
+the older name of "greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them
+become somewhat schistose from pressure ("greenstone-schists,"
+meta-diabase, &c.). Although the original definition of the group can no
+longer be justified, the name is so well established in current usage
+that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and dolerite are
+employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of rocks.
+
+  The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz.
+  olivine, augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities
+  of hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite.
+
+  There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine;
+  quartz-diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende
+  diabases (or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is
+  characteristic of another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially
+  those which contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the
+  intersertal dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases,
+  hypersthene-diabases and the rocks which have been described as
+  tholeites. Porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites,
+  some of which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant
+  fine-grained or partly glassy ground-mass (_diabas-mandelstein_,
+  amygdaloidal diabase). The somewhat ill-defined spilites are regarded
+  by many as modifications of diabase-porphyrite. In the intersertal and
+  porphyrite diabases, fresh or devitrified glassy base is not
+  infrequent. It is especially conspicuous in some tholeites
+  (hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks consist of
+  augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a brown,
+  vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte
+  (sordawilite, &c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite
+  sills and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites
+  of grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green
+  augite (variolites).
+
+  To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the
+  diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary dolerites. In
+  the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more common than in the
+  newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous
+  habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in most cases secondary
+  after pyroxene, and is then known as uralite; often it forms
+  pseudomorphs which retain the shape of the original augite. Where
+  diabases have been crushed or sheared, hornblende readily develops at
+  the expense of pyroxene, sometimes replacing it completely. In the
+  later stages of alteration the amphibole becomes compact and well
+  crystallized; the rocks consist of green hornblende and plagioclase
+  felspar, and are then generally known as epidiorites or amphibolites.
+  At the same time a schistose structure is produced. But transition
+  forms are very common, having more or less of the augite remaining,
+  surrounded by newly formed hornblende which at first is rather fibrous
+  and tends to spread outwards through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite
+  also is abundant both in sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it
+  calcite may make its appearance, or the lime set free from the augite
+  may combine with the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to
+  form incrustations or borders of sphene around the original crystals
+  of ilmenite. Epidote is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which
+  results from the decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the
+  pyroxenes. Many diabases, especially those of the teschenite
+  sub-group, are filled with zeolites.
+
+  Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts
+  of the globe. Popular names for them are "whinstone," "greenstone,"
+  "toadstone" and "trap." They form excellent road-mending stones and
+  are much quarried for this purpose, being tough, durable and resistant
+  to wear, so long as they are not extremely decomposed. Many of them
+  are to be preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle.
+  The quality of the Cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly
+  improved by a smaller amount of recrystallization where they have been
+  heated by contact with intrusive masses of granite. (J. S. F.)
+
+
+DIABETES (from Gr. [Greek: dia], through, and [Greek: bainein], to
+pass), a constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive
+discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described, viz.
+Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only increased
+in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less amount of
+sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the urine is simply
+increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal ingredient. This latter,
+however, must be distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular
+kidney, lardaceous disease of the kidney, and also occurring in certain
+cases of hysteria.
+
+_Diabetes mellitus_ is the disease to which the term is most commonly
+applied, and is by far the more serious and important ailment. It is one
+of the diseases due to altered metabolism (see METABOLIC DISEASES). It
+is markedly hereditary, much more prevalent in towns and especially
+modern city life than in more primitive rustic communities, and most
+common among the Jews. The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually
+considered one cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour
+its occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so often
+met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself.
+No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of
+life. It attacks males twice as frequently as females, and fair more
+frequently than dark people.
+
+The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the patient may
+suffer for a length of time before he thinks it necessary to apply for
+medical aid. The first symptoms which attract attention are failure of
+strength, and emaciation, along with great thirst and an increased
+amount and frequent passage of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2
+to 3 pints in the 24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or
+even more. It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than
+normal urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific
+gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable
+irritation of the urinary passages.
+
+By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic
+urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar,
+while the amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by
+certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar passed may vary from
+a few ounces to two or more pounds per diem, and it is found to be
+markedly increased after saccharine or starchy food has been taken.
+Sugar may also be found in the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all
+the excretions of persons suffering from this disease. One of the most
+distressing symptoms is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly
+seeking to allay, the quantity of liquid consumed being in general
+enormous, and there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious
+appetite. The mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may
+be evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the general
+health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and more emaciated.
+He suffers from increasing muscular weakness, the temperature of his
+body is lowered, and the skin is dry and harsh. There is often a
+peculiar flush on the face, not limited to the malar eminences, but
+extending up to the roots of the hair. The teeth are loosened or decay,
+there is a tendency to bleeding from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms,
+constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There
+is in general great mental depression or irritability.
+
+Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of
+young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be rapid. The
+complications of the disease are many and serious. It may cause impaired
+vision by weakening the muscles of accommodation, or by lessening the
+sensitiveness of the retina to light. Also cataract is very common. Skin
+affections of all kinds may occur and prove very intractable. Boils,
+carbuncles, cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life
+advances, though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women.
+Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and gangrene
+of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis in the latter
+disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney diseases and heart
+failure due to fatty heart are all of common occurrence. Also patients
+seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric fever, though the
+attack usually runs a mild course. The sugar temporarily disappears
+during the fever. But the most serious complication of all is known as
+diabetic coma, which is very commonly the final cause of death. The
+onset is often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a
+rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either
+constipation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal
+pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true coma,
+though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The patient suffers
+from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath and skin have a sweet
+ethereal odour. The condition may last from twenty-four hours to three
+days, but is almost invariably the precursor of death.
+
+Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being exceedingly
+rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25% of phthisis or pneumonia, and
+the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral haemorrhage, gangrene, &c.
+The most favourable cases are those in which the patient is advanced in
+years, those in which it is associated with obesity or gout, and where
+the social conditions are favourable. A few cures have been recorded in
+which the disease supervened after some acute illness. The unfavourable
+cases are those in which there is a family history of the disease and in
+which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be done by appropriate
+treatment to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to prolong life.
+
+There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that of
+drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by the
+idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition between very
+wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has
+been proved beyond question that certain kinds of food have a powerful
+influence in aggravating the disease, more particularly those consisting
+largely of saccharine and starchy matter; and it may be stated generally
+that the various methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as
+far as possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is
+recommended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous
+foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be avoided;
+while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream, cheese, eggs,
+butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be taken with advantage.
+As a substitute for ordinary bread, which most persons find it difficult
+to do without for any length of time, bran bread, gluten bread and
+almond biscuits. A patient must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to
+a carbohydrate-free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable
+to bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite gradually,
+one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of the diet,
+whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully
+noted meanwhile. The treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes, sugar
+and fruit, and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by
+some diabetic substitute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to
+its lowest point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount
+of carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect on the
+glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be worked out
+experimentally for each individual patient. But in every case, if
+drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma supervene, all restrictions
+must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate freely allowed. The question of
+alcohol is one which must be largely determined by the previous history
+of the patient, but a small quantity will help to make up the
+deficiencies of a diet poor in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky,
+and Hollands gin, are usually free from sugar, and some of the light
+Bordeaux wines contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given
+as cream, fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless,
+but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and endive
+yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to 1 1/2 ozs. daily without
+increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked or raw, are
+allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form. The question of
+milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid
+diet, allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended.
+Thirst is relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria. But
+hypodermic injections of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva, and
+thus relieve the dryness of the mouth. Constipation appears to increase
+the thirst, and must always be carefully guarded against. The best
+remedies are the aperient mineral waters.
+
+Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes, but few of
+them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy. Opium is often
+found of great service, its administration being followed by marked
+amelioration in all the symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar
+action. In the severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of
+little or no use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin
+hydrochloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more
+power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium and
+aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the sugar
+excretion without counterbalancing bad effects.
+
+In _diabetes insipidus_ there is constant thirst and an excessive flow
+of urine, which, however, is not found to contain any abnormal
+constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to those of
+diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked, the disease
+being in general very slow in its progress. In some cases the health
+appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely a direct cause of death,
+but from its debilitating effects may predispose to serious and fatal
+complications. It is best treated by tonics and generous diet. Valerian
+has been found beneficial, the powdered root being given in 5-grain
+doses.
+
+
+DIABOLO, a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones
+joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught by means of a
+cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game appears originally to
+have come from China, where a top (_Kouengen_), made of two hollow
+pierced cylinders of metal or wood, joined by a rod--and often of
+immense size,--was made by rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was
+used by pedlars to attract customers. From China it was introduced by
+missionaries to Europe; and a form of the game, known as "the devil on
+two sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the end of
+the 18th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with improvements in
+it. But its principal vogue was in France in 1812, where the top was
+called "le diable." Amusing old prints exist (see _Fry's Magazine_,
+March and December 1907), depicting examples of the popular craze in
+France at the time. The _diable_ of those days resembled a globular
+wooden dumb-bell with a short waist, and the sonorous hum when
+spinning--the _bruit du diable_--was a pronounced feature. At intervals
+during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a
+top of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that
+the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer, Gustave
+Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game, had
+experimented for some time with new forms of top with a view to bringing
+it again into popularity; and having devised the double-cone shape, and
+added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends
+of the double-cone, with other improvements, he named it "diabolo." The
+use of celluloid in preference to metal or wood as its material appears
+to have been due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by
+the inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and catching
+the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions, both as an
+exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in "diabolo tennis" and other
+ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and the chief French
+seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906, its vogue spread in
+1907 so that in France and England it became the fashionable "rage"
+among both children and adults.
+
+The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor C. V. Boys in
+the _Proc. Phys. Soc._ (London), Nov. 1907.
+
+
+DIACONICON, in the Greek Church, the name given to a chamber on the
+south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils, vessels, &c.,
+of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II. (565-574), owing to
+a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and protheses were located in
+apses at the east end of the aisles. Before that time there was only one
+apse. In the churches in central Syria of slightly earlier date, the
+diaconicon is rectangular, the side apses at Kalat-Seman having been
+added at a later date.
+
+
+DIADOCHI (Gr. [Greek: diadechesthai], to receive from another), i.e.
+"Successors," the name given to the Macedonian generals who fought for
+the empire of Alexander after his death in 323 B.C. The name includes
+Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, Antipater and his son
+Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into
+which the Macedonian empire was divided under these rulers are known as
+Hellenistic. The chief were Asia Minor and Syria under the SELEUCID
+DYNASTY (q.v.), Egypt under the PTOLEMIES (q.v.), Macedonia under the
+successors of Antigonus Gonatas, PERGAMUM (q.v.) under the Attalid
+dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were merged in the Roman empire. (See
+MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.)
+
+
+DIAGONAL (Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: gonia], a corner), in
+geometry, a line joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a
+rectilinear figure.
+
+
+DIAGORAS, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist, flourished
+in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious in his youth and a
+writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became an atheist because a great
+wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods. In consequence of his
+blasphemous speeches, and especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he
+was condemned to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head
+(Aristoph. _Clouds_, 830; _Birds_, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth,
+where he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called
+[Greek Phrygioi logoi] or [Greek: Apopyrgizontes], in which he probably
+attacked the Phrygian divinities.
+
+
+DIAGRAM (Gr. [Greek: diagramma], from [Greek: diagraphein], to mark out
+by lines), a figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical relations
+between the parts of the figure illustrate relations between other
+objects. They may be classed according to the manner in which they are
+intended to be used, and also according to the kind of analogy which we
+recognize between the diagram and the thing represented. The diagrams in
+mathematical treatises are intended to help the reader to follow the
+mathematical reasoning. The construction of the figure is defined in
+words so that even if no figure were drawn the reader could draw one for
+himself. The diagram is a good one if those features which form the
+subject of the proposition are clearly represented.
+
+Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way--namely, for
+purposes of measurement. The plans and designs drawn by architects and
+engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by
+measuring certain distances on the diagram. For such purposes it is
+essential that the drawing be as accurate as possible. We therefore
+class diagrams as diagrams of illustration, which merely suggest certain
+relations to the mind of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale,
+from which measurements are intended to be made. There are some diagrams
+or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of no importance,
+provided their connexions are properly shown. Of this kind are the
+diagrams of electrical connexions, and those belonging to that
+department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis,
+periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness.
+
+_Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic._--Diagrams may
+also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which no symbols
+are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular
+points of the diagrams, and mixed diagrams, in which certain magnitudes
+are represented, not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by
+symbols, such as numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the
+height of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by
+marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on
+the map. There is another method in which a line called a contour line
+is drawn through all the places in the map whose height above the sea is
+a certain number of feet, and the number of feet is written at some
+point or points of this line. By the use of a series of contour lines,
+the height of a great number of places can be indicated on a map by
+means of a small number of written symbols. Still this method is not a
+purely graphical method, but a partly symbolical method of expressing
+the third dimension of objects on a diagram in two dimensions.
+
+In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the
+relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables, we must use
+more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of construction we use plans and
+elevations and sections through different planes, to specify the form of
+objects having three dimensions. In such systems of diagrams we have to
+indicate that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another
+diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding points in
+the different diagrams with the same letter. If the diagrams are drawn
+on the same piece of paper we may indicate corresponding points by
+drawing a line from one to the other, taking care that this line of
+correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for a real line in
+either diagram. (See GEOMETRY: _Descriptive_.)
+
+In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of which the
+form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are projections of the
+bodies taken from two points so near each other that, by viewing the two
+diagrams simultaneously, one with each eye, we identify the
+corresponding points intuitively. The method in which we simultaneously
+contemplate two figures, and recognize a correspondence between certain
+points in the one figure and certain points in the other, is one of the
+most powerful and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in
+pure geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures
+have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes spoken of as
+the method or principle of Duality. GEOMETRY: _Projective_.)
+
+                        DIAGRAMS IN MECHANICS.
+
+  The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the
+  use of a series of diagrams representing the configuration,
+  displacement and acceleration of the parts of the system.
+
+  _Diagram of Configuration._--In considering a material system it is
+  often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at
+  any given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The
+  position of any particle of the system is defined by drawing a
+  straight line or vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the
+  given particle. The position of the particle with respect to the
+  origin is determined by the magnitude and direction of this vector. If
+  in the diagram we draw from the origin (which need not be the same
+  point of space as the origin for the material system) a vector equal
+  and parallel to the vector which determines the position of the
+  particle, the end of this vector will indicate the position of the
+  particle in the diagram of configuration. If this is done for all the
+  particles we shall have a system of points in the diagram of
+  configuration, each of which corresponds to a particle of the material
+  system, and the relative positions of any pair of these points will be
+  the same as the relative positions of the material particles which
+  correspond to them.
+
+  We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the
+  vectors are supposed to be drawn--one for the material system, the
+  other for the diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn
+  from them, may now be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the
+  material system and on the other a set of points, each point
+  corresponding to a particle of the system, and the whole representing
+  the configuration of the system at a given instant.
+
+  This is called a diagram of configuration.
+
+  _Diagram of Displacement._--Let us next consider two diagrams of
+  configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different
+  instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second
+  the final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration to
+  the other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at present
+  consider the length of time during which the displacement was
+  effected, nor the intermediate stages through which it passed, but
+  only the final result--a change of configuration. To study this change
+  we construct a diagram of displacement.
+
+  Let A, B, C be the points in the initial diagram of configuration, and
+  A', B', C' be the corresponding points in the final diagram of
+  configuration. From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement, draw
+  a vector oa equal and parallel to AA', ob equal and parallel to BB',
+  oc to CC', and so on. The points a, b, c, &c., will be such that the
+  vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so on.
+  The diagram containing the points a, b, c, &c., is therefore called
+  the diagram of displacement.
+
+  In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed
+  that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system.
+  For we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to AA', which we
+  cannot do unless we know the absolute final position of A, with
+  respect to its initial position. In this diagram of displacement there
+  is therefore, besides the points a, b, c, &c., an _origin_, o, which
+  represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary
+  because the two configurations do not exist at the same time; and
+  therefore to express their relative position we require to know a
+  point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time.
+
+  But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume
+  a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space.
+  Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and equal to BA
+  in the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel and equal to
+  A'B' in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the position
+  of the point b relative to a will be the same by this construction as
+  by the former construction, only we must observe that in this second
+  construction we use only vectors such as AB, A'B', which represent the
+  relative position of points both of which exist simultaneously,
+  instead of vectors such as AA', BB', which express the position of a
+  point at one instant relative to its position at a former instant, and
+  which therefore cannot be determined by observation, because the two
+  ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously.
+
+  It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by
+  the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates that we
+  have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But no such point
+  occurs in the second construction, because we use such vectors only as
+  we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of displacements _without
+  an origin_ represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know
+  about the displacement of the material system.
+
+  _Diagram of Velocity._--If the relative velocities of the points of
+  the system are constant, then the diagram of displacement
+  corresponding to an interval of a unit of time between the initial and
+  the final configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If
+  the relative velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in
+  which the velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system
+  at the given instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The
+  diagram of displacements for this imaginary system is the required
+  diagram of relative velocities of the actual system at the given
+  instant. It is easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any
+  one point relative to any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity
+  of any of them.
+
+  _Diagram of Acceleration._--By the same process by which we formed the
+  diagram of displacements from the two diagrams of initial and final
+  configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity
+  from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This diagram
+  may be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval of
+  time. And by the same process by which we deduced the diagram of
+  velocities from that of displacements we may deduce the diagram of
+  rates of acceleration from that of total acceleration.
+
+  We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kinematics
+  because they are found to be of use especially when we have to deal
+  with material systems containing a great number of parts, as in the
+  kinetic theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then appears as
+  a region of space swarming with points representing molecules, and the
+  only way in which we can investigate it is by considering the number
+  of such points in unit of volume in different parts of that region,
+  and calling this the _density_ of the gas.
+
+  In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region
+  containing points equal in number but distributed in a different
+  manner, and the number of points in any given portion of the region
+  expresses the number of molecules whose velocities lie within given
+  limits. We may speak of this as the velocity-density.
+
+  _Diagrams of Stress._--Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to
+  statical questions, because the state of the system is constant, so
+  that we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corresponding to
+  the successive states of the system. The most useful of these
+  applications, collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates to the
+  equilibrium of plane framed structures familiarly represented in
+  bridges and roof-trusses. Two diagrams are used, one called the
+  diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of stress. The
+  structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links
+  jointed together at their extremities. In practice these joints have
+  friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so that the force acting at
+  the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly through the axis of the
+  joint; but as it is unsafe to make the stability of the structure
+  depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we assume in our
+  calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and therefore
+  that the force acting on the end of any link passes through the axis
+  of the joint.
+
+  The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in
+  the diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in the
+  actual structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the frame
+  it is represented by a straight line joining the points representing
+  the two joints. If no force acts on the link except the two forces
+  acting through the centres of the joints, these two forces must be
+  equal and opposite, and their direction must coincide with the
+  straight line joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting
+  on either extremity of the link is directed towards the other
+  extremity, the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is
+  called a "strut." If it is directed away from the other extremity, the
+  stress on the link is called tension and the link is called a "tie."
+  In this case, therefore, the only stress acting in a link is a
+  pressure or a tension in the direction of the straight line which
+  represents it in the diagram of the frame, and all that we have to do
+  is to find the magnitude of this stress. In the actual structure
+  gravity acts on every part of the link, but in the diagram we
+  substitute for the actual weight of the different parts of the link
+  two weights which have the same resultant acting at the extremities of
+  the link.
+
+  We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without
+  weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of
+  the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If any link has
+  more than two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an
+  imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which has only two
+  joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a system of points,
+  certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines, and each point is
+  in general acted on by a weight or other force acting between it and
+  some point external to the system. To complete the diagram we may
+  represent these external forces as links, that is to say, straight
+  lines joining the points of the frame to points external to the frame.
+  Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point of
+  application of the weight with the centre of the earth.
+
+  But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in
+  the lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together
+  with the real frame and the links representing external forces, which
+  join points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up
+  together a complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of
+  points connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may in
+  this way reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points
+  with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of
+  these points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each
+  of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining
+  the points, so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might
+  do this by calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure
+  or the tension which acts in it.
+
+  We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are
+  represented graphically as regards direction and position, but
+  symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be
+  represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the
+  direction of the force containing as many units of length as there are
+  units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an
+  arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to
+  this method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram
+  of configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as a
+  record of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces,
+  but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of
+  the calculation.
+
+  But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set
+  of forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel
+  and proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon
+  the forces are in equilibrium. (See MECHANICS.) We might in this way
+  form a series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame.
+  But in so doing we give up the principle of drawing the line
+  representing a force from the point of application of the force, for
+  all the sides of the polygon cannot pass through the same point, as
+  the forces do. We also represent every stress twice over, for it
+  appears as a side of both the polygons corresponding to the two joints
+  between which it acts. But if we can arrange the polygons in such a
+  way that the sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress
+  coincide with each other, we may form a diagram in which every stress
+  is represented in direction and magnitude, though not in position, by
+  a single line which is the common boundary of the two polygons which
+  represent the joints at the extremities of the corresponding piece of
+  the frame.
+
+  We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is
+  made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in
+  which every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude
+  by a straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is
+  manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the
+  corresponding polygon is closed or not.
+
+  The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of
+  stress are as follows:--To every link in the frame corresponds a
+  straight line in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude
+  and direction the stress acting in that link; and to every joint of
+  the frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces
+  acting at that joint are represented by the sides of the polygon taken
+  in a certain cyclical order, the cyclical order of the sides of the
+  two adjacent polygons being such that their common side is traced in
+  opposite directions in going round the two polygons.
+
+  The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the
+  direction of the force acting on that joint of the frame which
+  corresponds to the polygon, and due to that link of the frame which
+  corresponds to the side. This determines whether the stress of the
+  link is a pressure or a tension. If we know whether the stress of any
+  one link is a pressure or a tension, this determines the cyclical
+  order of the sides of the two polygons corresponding to the ends of
+  the links, and therefore the cyclical order of all the polygons, and
+  the nature of the stress in every link of the frame.
+
+  _Reciprocal Diagrams._--When to every point of concourse of the lines
+  in the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton
+  of the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal.
+
+  The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other
+  cases than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in his
+  _Applied Mechanics_ (1857). The method was independently applied to a
+  large number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman in the
+  office of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk Maxwell in his
+  lectures in King's College, London. In the _Phil. Mag._ for 1864 the
+  latter pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and
+  in a paper on "Reciprocal Figures, Frames and Diagrams of Forces,"
+  _Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed the relation of the
+  method to Airy's function of stress and to other mathematical methods.
+  Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a number of applications of the
+  method to practice (_Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxv.).
+
+  L. Cremona (_Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica_, 1872)
+  deduced the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the
+  two components of a wrench as developed by Moebius. Karl Culmann, in
+  his _Graphische Statik_ (1st ed. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), made great
+  use of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not
+  reciprocal. Maurice Levy in his _Statique graphique_ (1874) has
+  treated the whole subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R.
+  H. Bow, in his _The Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed
+  Structures_ (1873), materially simplified the process of drawing a
+  diagram of stress reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of
+  equilibrating external forces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of Configuration.]
+
+  Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or
+  the links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow places
+  a letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the
+  frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as
+  separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one link
+  of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection of
+  the links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of
+  each of the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of
+  stress, as the opposite sides of the parallelogram which corresponds
+  to the point of intersection.
+
+  This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of
+  configuration (fig. 1), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the
+  linkwork which Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane.
+
+  In fig. 1 the real joints are distinguished from the places where one
+  link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T,
+  V. The four links RSTV form a "contraparallelogram" in which RS = TV
+  and RV = ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar to each other. A
+  fourth triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the
+  quadruplane. The four points O, P, N, Q form a parallelogram whose
+  angle POQ is constant and equal to [pi] - SOR. The product of the
+  distances OP and OQ is constant. The linkwork may be fixed at O. If
+  any figure is traced by P, Q will trace the inverse figure, but turned
+  round O through the constant angle POQ. In the diagram forces Pp, Qq
+  are balanced by the force Co at the fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq
+  are necessarily inversely as OP and OQ, and make equal angles with
+  those lines.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Diagram of Stress.]
+
+  Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the
+  diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a
+  point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress in
+  the link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented in
+  the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding to
+  those areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by lines
+  crossing it, the stress in each part is represented by a different
+  line for each part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link
+  these lines are all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress
+  in RV is represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE
+  and AB. If two areas have no part of their boundary in common the
+  letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined
+  by a straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn between
+  them, it would represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of
+  all the stresses in the links which are cut by any line, straight or
+  curved, joining the two areas. For instance the areas F and C in fig.
+  1 have no common boundary, and the points F and C in fig. 2 are not
+  joined by a straight line. But every path from the area F to the area
+  C in fig. 1 passes through a series of other areas, and each passage
+  from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a line drawn in
+  the diagram of stress. Hence the whole path from F to C in fig. 1
+  corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and extending from F
+  to C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the
+  path is represented by FC in fig. 2.
+
+  Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on BRIDGES
+  (q.v.).
+
+                 _Automatic Description of Diagrams._
+
+  There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates
+  of a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values
+  of two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move, say
+  horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing point is
+  made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying as the
+  value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out a curve
+  on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any given time
+  may be determined. This principle is applied to the automatic
+  registration of phenomena of all kinds, from those of meteorology and
+  terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon-shot, the vibrations
+  of sounding bodies, the motions of animals, voluntary and involuntary,
+  and the currents in electric telegraphs.
+
+  In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a
+  constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to that of the
+  piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is proportional
+  to the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the
+  curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and the pressure of
+  the steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not only supplies a
+  record of the pressure of the steam at each stage of the stroke of the
+  engine, but indicates the work done by the steam in each stroke by the
+  area enclosed by the curve traced on the diagram.          (J. C. M.)
+
+
+DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a branch of
+applied mathematics which treats of the construction of sun-dials, that
+is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the
+divisions of the day (Lat. _dies_) by the motion of the shadow of some
+object on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the
+earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun;
+though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division
+into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the
+greatest elevation.
+
+_History._--The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah
+xxxviii. 8: "Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which
+is gone down in the _sun-dial_ of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date
+of this would be about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know
+nothing of the character or construction of the instrument. The earliest
+of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the
+hemicycle, or hemisphere, of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who
+probably lived about 300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed
+with its rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed
+in any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the horizon
+the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere, and
+the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular
+arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts, determined twelve equal
+intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this were done at the
+time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as
+might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the
+corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow of
+the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of
+time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide
+each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal parts were
+called _temporary hours_; and, since the duration of daylight varies
+from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from those
+of another; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that
+time, and especially in countries where the variation between the
+longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our
+climates.
+
+The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as
+appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same
+construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials have in modern
+times been found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is
+supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says
+that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The
+second and third were found in 1751--one at Castel-Nuovo and the other
+at Rignano; and a fourth was found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in
+his _Abhandlungen von den Sonnenuhren der Alten_ (Leipzig, 1777), says
+that this dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore
+be the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of
+Alexandria.
+
+Herodotus recorded that the Greeks derived from the Babylonians the use
+of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry
+enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some
+of which remain to us, and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but
+also of great ingenuity.
+
+Ptolemy's _Almagest_ treats of the construction of dials by means of his
+_analemma_, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical
+problems. The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular
+dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west,
+north or south, and these are the only ones he treats of. It is certain,
+however, that the ancients were able to construct declining dials, as is
+shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics--the Tower of
+the Winds at Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which
+the eight principal winds are represented, and over them eight different
+dials--four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the
+intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subsequent to
+that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower in the sixth
+chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials, and as he has
+described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that the
+dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary
+hours or, as the Greeks called them, _hectemoria_.
+
+The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this
+Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius
+Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees
+less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The
+first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by
+order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on
+gnomonics, this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we
+remember that the dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of
+Memphis, and consequently less adapted to its position than that of
+Catania to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not
+cultivated in Italy.
+
+The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great importance
+to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the Greeks,
+but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions. One
+of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the
+13th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and
+other surfaces. He even introduced _equal_ or _equinoctial hours_, but
+the idea was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in
+use.
+
+Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l
+Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by _equal_ hours was
+generally adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics
+from the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century is almost a blank,
+and during that time the change took place. We can see, however, that
+the change would necessarily follow the introduction of clocks and other
+mechanical methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were,
+the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in
+winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary
+hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now,
+we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of
+France about the year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new
+sun-dials came into general use during the 14th and 15th centuries.
+
+Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was SEBASTIAN
+MUeNSTER (q.v.), who published his _Horologiographia_ at Basel in 1531.
+He gives a number of correct rules, but without demonstrations. Among
+his inventions was a moon-dial,[1] but this does not admit of much
+accuracy.
+
+During the 17th century dialling was discussed at great length by many
+writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto volume of 800 pages
+entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be
+considered to contain all that was known at that time.
+
+In the 18th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and
+these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament
+to a garden, or in remote country districts where the old dial on the
+church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by
+its side. The art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little
+more than a mathematical recreation.
+
+  _General Principles._--The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth
+  are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded.
+  That the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in
+  twenty-four hours, and that it is carried round the sun in one year at
+  a nearly uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing these facts.
+  But the effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit our
+  purpose better, and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the
+  ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent
+  confirmation, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and
+  stars revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once
+  a day--the sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some
+  four minutes longer--so that at the end of the year it finds itself
+  again in the same place, having made a complete revolution of the
+  heavens relatively to the stars from west to east.
+
+  The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line
+  through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small,
+  compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a
+  parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely
+  look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in
+  the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and
+  6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An
+  axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole,
+  its elevation being equal to the latitude of the place.
+
+  The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would that
+  of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes, spoken
+  of above, were always the same. But this is constantly altering, so
+  that the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also consequently
+  as measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a strictly uniform
+  pace. This irregularity, which is slight, would be of little
+  consequence in the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and watches
+  being mechanical measures of time could not, except by extreme
+  complication, be made to follow this irregularity, even if desirable.
+
+  The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the
+  length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in
+  the year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly;
+  but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will
+  be sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock-the greatest
+  accumulated difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in
+  November, but on the average much less. The four days on which the two
+  agree are April 15, June 15, September 1 and December 24.
+
+  Clock-time is called _mean time_, that marked by the sun-dial is
+  called _apparent time_, and the difference between them is the
+  _equation of time_. It is given in most calendars and almanacs,
+  frequently under the heading "clock slow," "clock fast." When the time
+  by the sun-dial is known, the equation of time will at once enable us
+  to obtain the corresponding clock-time, or vice versa.
+
+  Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the
+  apparent position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need
+  consideration in the construction of an instrument which, with the
+  best workmanship, does not after all admit of very great accuracy.
+
+  The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood. The
+  problem before us is the following:--A rod, or _style_, as it is
+  called, being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's
+  axis, we have to find how and where points or lines of reference must
+  be traced on some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the
+  shadow of the style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know
+  that at that moment it is solar noon,--that is, that the plane through
+  the style and through the sun then coincides with the meridian; again,
+  that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is 1
+  o'clock by solar time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the
+  above plane through the style and through the sun has just turned
+  through the twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution; and so on for
+  the subsequent hours,--the hours before noon being indicated in a
+  similar manner. The style and the surface on which these lines are
+  traced together constitute the dial.
+
+  The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected--whether on
+  church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall--the surface
+  must be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines.
+
+  The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the
+  accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the
+  instrument depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an
+  angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter
+  condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the
+  meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is fixed
+  to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that the
+  style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be
+  usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by
+  the style it must always be understood that the middle line of the
+  thin band of shade is meant.
+
+  The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the
+  dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate.
+
+  The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to
+  determine accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend
+  on this one. We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style
+  has been itself accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is
+  done the XII o'clock line will be found by the intersection of the
+  dial surface with the vertical plane which contains the style; and the
+  most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a
+  plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang freely, and
+  waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide on the
+  dial. This single shadow will be the XII o'clock line.
+
+  In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock
+  line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore,
+  at once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line.
+
+  The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate
+  method of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when
+  good watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the style
+  falls when 1, 2, 3, &c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the next
+  morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced; and
+  in the same manner the hours might be subdivided into halves and
+  quarters, or even into minutes.
+
+  But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II,
+  III, &c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each
+  of these lines would make with the XII o'clock line. Now, except in
+  the simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a
+  cardinal point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or
+  elaborate geometrical constructions, implying considerable
+  mathematical knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of
+  error. The chief source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the
+  data; for the position of the dial-plane would have to be found before
+  the calculations began,--that is, it would be necessary to know
+  exactly by how many degrees it declined from the south towards the
+  east or west, and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical.
+  The ancients, with the means at their disposal, could obtain these
+  results only very roughly.
+
+  Dials received different names according to their position:--
+
+  _Horizontal dials_, when traced on a horizontal plane;
+
+  _Vertical dials_, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal
+  points;
+
+  _Vertical declining dials_, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal
+  point;
+
+  _Inclining dials_, when traced on planes neither vertical nor
+  horizontal (these were further distinguished as _reclining_ when
+  leaning backwards from an observer, _proclining_ when leaning
+  forwards);
+
+  _Equinoctial dials_, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's
+  axis, &c. &c.
+
+  _Dial Construction._--A very correct view of the problem of dial
+  construction may be obtained as follows:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. 1) having an axis AB parallel to
+  the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cylinder let equidistant
+  generating-lines be traced 15 deg. apart, one of them XII ... XII being
+  in the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II,
+  &c., following in the order of the sun's motion.
+
+  Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line XII ...
+  XII at apparent noon, on the line I ... I at one hour after noon, on
+  II ... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the cylinder be
+  cut by any plane MN representing the plane on which the dial is to be
+  traced, the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane and fall on
+  the lines AXII AI, AII, &c.
+
+  The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made
+  by AI, AII, &c. with AXII; the line AXII itself, being in the
+  vertical plane through AB, may be supposed known.
+
+  For the purposes of actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere
+  will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it
+  to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock
+  line in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south
+  dial.
+
+  _Horizontal Dial._--Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed
+  transparent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of
+  the heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore
+  coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then the
+  circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with the
+  horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next divide
+  the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, bc, cd, &c. ... of
+  15 deg. each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the various
+  points of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp, Pcp, &c.
+  ... These will exactly correspond to the equidistant generating lines
+  on the cylinder in the previous construction, and the shadow of the
+  style will fall on these circles after successive intervals of 1,2, 3,
+  &c., hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle in the points
+  B, C, D, &c., then EB, EC, ED, &c. ... will be the I, II, III, &c.,
+  hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal dial consists
+  in calculating the angles which these lines make with the XII o'clock
+  line EA, whose position is known. The spherical triangles PAB, PAC,
+  &c., enable us to do this readily. They are all right-angled at A, the
+  side PA is the latitude of the place, and the angles APB, APC, &c.,
+  are respectively 15 deg., 30 deg., &c., then
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15 deg. sin _latitude_,
+                  tan AC = tan 30 deg. sin _latitude_,
+                           &c. &c.
+
+  These determine the sides AB, AC, &c., that is, the angles AEB, AEC,
+  &c., required.
+
+  The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian EA of
+  11 deg. 51' on a London dial, of 12 deg. 31' at Edinburgh, of 11 deg. 23'
+  at Paris, 12 deg. 0' at Berlin, 9 deg. 55' at New York and 9 deg. 19' at
+  San Francisco. In the same way may be found the angles made by the other
+  hour-lines.
+
+  The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant
+  from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further, because all
+  the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these. In the first
+  place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian, and therefore
+  two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-lines equidistant
+  from the meridian; thus the XI o'clock line and the I o'clock line
+  must make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the same as the II
+  o'clock, and so on. And next, the 24 great circles, which were drawn
+  to determine these lines, are in reality only 12; for clearly the
+  great circle which gives I o'clock after midnight, and that which
+  gives I o'clock after noon, are one and the same, and so also for the
+  other hours. Therefore the hour-lines between VI in the evening and VI
+  the next morning are the prolongations of the remaining twelve.
+
+  Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and
+  retain only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on
+  it, and we shall have the horizontal dial.
+
+  On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock,
+  and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for
+  extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh the limits
+  will be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within the
+  Arctic circle, the whole circuit will be required.
+
+  Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal
+  plate from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate, which
+  is sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have an
+  acute angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly
+  fixed in a vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide
+  with the meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thickness
+  of the plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles.
+  Since there are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two
+  half dials, because a little consideration will show that, owing to
+  the thickness of the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast
+  a shadow. Thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours
+  before 6 o'clock in the morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the western
+  edge will be used. At noon it will change again to the eastern edge
+  until 6 o'clock in the evening, and finally the western edge for the
+  remaining hours of daylight.
+
+  The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles
+  meet the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be careful
+  to draw only those lines for which the corresponding style is able to
+  give a shadow as explained above. The dial will thus have the
+  appearance of a single dial plate, and there will be no confusion (see
+  fig. 3).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  The line of demarcation between the shadow and the light will be
+  better defined than when a wire style is used; but the indications by
+  this double dial will always be one minute too fast in the morning and
+  one minute too slow in the afternoon. This is owing to the magnitude
+  of the sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined
+  shadows are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require
+  them, but by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward one
+  in the afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to advance
+  through a space equal to its half-breadth.
+
+  Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate is
+  of metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be
+  purchased ready for placing on the pedestal,--the dial with all the
+  hour-lines traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its
+  proper position, if not even cast in the same piece with the dial
+  plate.
+
+  When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be
+  perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling will be
+  done with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected
+  either in the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate
+  till the time given by the shadow (making the _one_ minute correction
+  mentioned above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time is
+  known. It is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so built
+  up beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the latitude
+  of some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines will be
+  drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a dial can
+  therefore not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although it would,
+  without appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose latitude did
+  not differ more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London, and it would be
+  safe to employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire.
+
+  If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in
+  latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a
+  place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of
+  time would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following
+  table will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of
+  the angle of the style,--all angles on the dial being readily measured
+  with an ordinary protractor. It extends from 50 deg. lat. to 59 1/2 deg.
+  lat., and therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and Ireland:--
+
+  +--------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+  |  LAT.  |XI. A.M.| X. A.M.| IX. A.M.|VIII. A.M.|VII. A.M.|VI. A.M.|
+  |        | I. P.M.|II. P.M.|III. P.M.|IIII. P.M.|  V. P.M.|VI. P.M.|
+  |        |        |        |         |          |         |        |
+  |deg.    |deg.    |deg.    | deg.    | deg.     | deg.    |deg.    |
+  |    min.|    min.|    min.|     min.|      min.|     min.|    min.|
+  +--------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+  | 50   0 | 11  36 | 23  51 |  37  27 |  53   0  |  70  43 | 90   0 |
+  | 50  30 | 11  41 | 24   1 |  37  39 |  53  12  |  70  51 | 90   0 |
+  | 51   0 | 11  46 | 24  10 |  37  51 |  53  23  |  70  59 | 90   0 |
+  | 51  30 | 11  51 | 24  19 |  38   3 |  53  35  |  71   6 | 90   0 |
+  | 52   0 | 11  55 | 24  28 |  38  14 |  53  46  |  71  13 | 90   0 |
+  | 52  30 | 12   0 | 24  37 |  38  25 |  53  57  |  71  20 | 90   0 |
+  | 53   0 | 12   5 | 24  45 |  38  37 |  54   8  |  71  27 | 90   0 |
+  | 53  30 | 12   9 | 24  54 |  38  48 |  54  19  |  71  34 | 90   0 |
+  | 54   0 | 12  14 | 25   2 |  38  58 |  54  29  |  71  40 | 90   0 |
+  | 54  30 | 12  18 | 25  10 |  39   9 |  54  39  |  71  47 | 90   0 |
+  | 55   0 | 12  23 | 25  19 |  39  19 |  54  49  |  71  53 | 90   0 |
+  | 55  30 | 12  27 | 25  27 |  39  30 |  54  59  |  71  59 | 90   0 |
+  | 56   0 | 12  31 | 25  35 |  39  40 |  55   9  |  72   5 | 90   0 |
+  | 56  30 | 12  36 | 25  43 |  39  50 |  55  18  |  72  11 | 90   0 |
+  | 57   0 | 12  40 | 25  50 |  39  59 |  55  27  |  72  17 | 90   0 |
+  | 57  30 | 12  44 | 25  58 |  40   9 |  55  36  |  72  22 | 90   0 |
+  | 58   0 | 12  48 | 26   5 |  40  18 |  55  45  |  72  28 | 90   0 |
+  | 58  30 | 12  52 | 26  13 |  40  27 |  55  54  |  72  33 | 90   0 |
+  | 59   0 | 12  56 | 26  20 |  40  36 |  56   2  |  72  39 | 90   0 |
+  | 59  30 | 13   0 | 26  27 |  40  45 |  56  11  |  72  44 | 90   0 |
+  +--------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+
+  _Vertical South Dial._--Let us take again our imaginary transparent
+  sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis.
+  Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the
+  meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane
+  facing south. This will cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA, which,
+  being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south, will
+  be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial circle,
+  obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the axis PEp.
+  The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the vertical line
+  EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and the line
+  EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the intersection of two
+  great circles ZM, QM, each at right angles to the vertical plane QZP,
+  will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem, divide
+  the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15 deg. each, beginning at
+  a, viz. ab, bc, &c.,--each quadrant aM, MQ, &c., containing 6,--then
+  through each point of division and through the axis Pp draw a plane
+  cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles. As the sun
+  revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will successively fall
+  on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these circles cross
+  the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &c., the shadow of the
+  lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB, EC, &c.,
+  which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial,
+  Ep being the style.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on
+  each side of noon; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than
+  6 o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the
+  dial before that time, and is no longer available.
+
+  It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c., may be calculated.
+
+  The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c., will give us a simple rule.
+  These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP,
+  is the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the
+  latitude and 90 deg.; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &c., are 15
+  deg., 30 deg., &c., respectively. Then
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15 deg. sin _co-latitude_;
+
+  or more simply,
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15 deg. cos _latitude_,
+                  tan AC = tan 30 deg. cos _latitude_,
+                           &c. &c.
+
+  and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB, AEC,
+  &c., required.
+
+  In this ease the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the
+  opposite result to that of the horizontal dial.
+
+  _Inclining, Reclining, &c., Dials._--We shall not enter into the
+  calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before
+  supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and
+  all the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these
+  hour-circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines
+  just as in the previous cases; but the triangles will no longer be
+  right-angled, and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the
+  chances of error being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing
+  the dial plane in its true position on the sphere, since that true
+  position will have to be found from observations which can be only
+  roughly performed.
+
+  In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is not a
+  plane, and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the
+  only safe practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points
+  (one is sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the
+  moment when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and
+  afterwards connect these points with the centre by a continuous line.
+  Of course the style must have been accurately fixed in its true
+  position before we begin.
+
+  _Equatorial Dial._--The name equatorial dial is given to one whose
+  plane is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the
+  equator. It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided
+  into 24 equal ares is placed at right angles to the style, and hour
+  divisions are marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style
+  point accurately to the pole, and that the noon division coincide with
+  the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall on the other
+  divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be marked on
+  both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite sides
+  in the summer and in the winter months, changing at each equinox.
+
+  _To find the Meridian Plane._--We have, so far, assumed the meridian
+  plane to be accurately known; we shall proceed to describe some of the
+  methods by which it may be found.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approximation.
+  It is well known that the needle of the compass, when free to move
+  horizontally, oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction
+  termed the magnetic meridian. This does not coincide with the true
+  north and south line, but the difference between them is generally
+  known with tolerable accuracy, and is called the variation of the
+  compass. The variation differs widely at different parts of the
+  surface of the earth, and is not stationary at any particular place,
+  though the change is slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation
+  which takes place about the mean position, but too small to need
+  notice here (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL).
+
+  With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass
+  can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian,
+  but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further
+  alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has
+  been made.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  A very simple practical method is the following:--
+
+  Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position
+  that it may receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the
+  afternoon. Then carefully level the surface by means of a
+  spirit-level. This must be done very accurately, and the table in that
+  position made perfectly secure, so that there be no danger of its
+  shifting during the day.
+
+  Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly
+  fixed. The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface,
+  should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H
+  for centre, describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD,
+  EF, &c.
+
+  A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet
+  line at some convenient height above H.
+
+  Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the bead P
+  as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It will be
+  found to describe a curve ACE ... FDB, approaching the point H as the
+  sun advances towards noon, and receding from it afterwards. (The curve
+  is a conic section--an hyperbola in these regions.) At the moment when
+  it crosses the arc AB, mark the point A; AP is then the direction of
+  the sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH is the altitude of
+  the sun. In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses the same
+  arc; then the angle PBH is the altitude. But the right-angled
+  triangles PHA, PHB are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the
+  same altitudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after
+  noon. It follows that, _if the sun has not changed its declination_
+  during the interval, the two positions will be symmetrically placed
+  one on each side of the meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and
+  bisecting it in M, HM will be the meridian line.
+
+  Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c., will furnish its
+  meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the
+  mean of the positions thus found must be taken.
+
+  The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its
+  declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and
+  may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at
+  the end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder
+  of the year the change of declination is so slow that we may safely
+  neglect it. The most favourable times are at the end of June and at
+  the end of December, when the sun's declination is almost stationary.
+  If the line HM be produced both ways to the edges of the table, then
+  the two points on the ground vertically below those on the edges may
+  be found by a plummet, and, if permanent marks be made there, the
+  meridian plane, which is the vertical plane passing through these two
+  points, will have its position perfectly secured.
+
+  _To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position._--Before giving
+  any other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the
+  construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be
+  accurately placed in its true position. The angle which the style
+  makes with a hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place,
+  is known, and the north and south direction is also roughly given by
+  the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted
+  approximately--correctly, indeed, as to its inclination--but probably
+  requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine
+  plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be
+  properly adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls
+  exactly on the plumb-line,--or, which is the same thing, if both
+  shadows coincide on the dial.
+
+  This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane,
+  whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the
+  ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not
+  generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian
+  plane, and that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a
+  plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow
+  of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. A signal
+  from the observer there to the observer at the dial enables the latter
+  to adjust the style as directed above.
+
+  _Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane._--We have dwelt at some
+  length on these practical operations because they are simple and
+  tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant,
+  nor telescope--nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of
+  shadow lines.
+
+  The Pole star, or _Ursae Minoris_, may also be employed for finding
+  the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star
+  is now only about 1 deg. 14' from the pole; if therefore a plumb-line
+  be suspended at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his
+  position till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane
+  through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian
+  plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would
+  be strictly coincident. This would be when the star crosses the
+  meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we
+  wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times of
+  the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the
+  _Nautical Almanac_, and a watch would be necessary to know when the
+  instant arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate,
+  because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes
+  in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the
+  azimuth.
+
+  The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both
+  calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star [eta] _Ursae
+  Majoris_, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest
+  from the "pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours
+  from the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which
+  joins the two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole
+  star, at a distance of about 1 deg. 14' from the pole, is crossing the
+  meridian above the pole, the star [eta] _Ursae Majoris_, whose polar
+  distance is about 40 deg., has not yet reached the meridian below the
+  pole.
+
+  When [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ reaches the meridian, which will be within
+  half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian; but its
+  slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now
+  at some instant between these two times--much nearer the latter than
+  the former--the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly
+  vertical; and at this instant, which the observer determines by seeing
+  that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither of the
+  stars is strictly in the meridian; but the deviation from it is so
+  small that it may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the
+  plumb-line taken for meridian plane.
+
+  In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane
+  by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet at
+  a short distance in front of the eye; this second plummet, being
+  suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as
+  always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian plane
+  will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground, one
+  under each plummet.
+
+  This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the
+  upper transit of _Polaris_; for, at the lower transit, the other star
+  [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and
+  the observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible
+  when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half of
+  the year is lost to this method.
+
+  Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40 deg. N., for
+  there the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit;--we
+  may even say not lower than 45 deg. N., for the star must be at least
+  5 deg. above the horizon before it becomes distinctly visible.
+
+  There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed, but
+  none so convenient as these two, on account of _Polaris_ with its very
+  slow motion being one of the pair.
+
+  _To place the Style in its True Position without previous
+  Determination of the Meridian Plane._--The various methods given above
+  for finding the meridian plane have for ultimate object the
+  determination of the plane, not on its own account, but as an element
+  for fixing the instant of noon, whereby the style may be properly
+  placed.
+
+  We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we
+  determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a
+  good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instrument
+  for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined
+  in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The
+  simplest and most practically useful methods will be found described
+  and investigated in any work on astronomy.
+
+  For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the
+  forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the
+  sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions
+  of the horizon--but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of
+  the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than
+  10 o'clock--take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same
+  moment, marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so observed
+  being properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &c., will, together
+  with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination, taken from
+  the _Nautical Almanac_, enable us to calculate the time. This will be
+  the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we require.
+  Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we see
+  at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time; we know,
+  therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon
+  arrives, and waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its
+  proper position as explained before.
+
+  We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and
+  observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time
+  from some observatory where the work is done; and, allowing for the
+  change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we
+  have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar
+  noon as in the previous case.
+
+  In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in
+  devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced.
+  Sometimes the shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder,
+  or on a sphere, or on a combination of these. A universal dial was
+  constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross; another universal
+  dial showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons. These
+  universal dials required adjusting before use, and for this a
+  mariner's compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it would be
+  tedious and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a
+  rule, the more complex the less accurate.
+
+  Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable
+  centres. They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the
+  style had to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-_lines_
+  they had hour-_points_; and the style, instead of being parallel to
+  the axis of the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon.
+  There was no practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse;
+  and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new
+  mathematical problems.
+
+  _Portable Dials._--The dials so far described have been fixed dials,
+  for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were
+  to be fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made
+  generally of a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and
+  these, so long as the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a
+  watch.
+
+  The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with
+  that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and
+  the same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are
+  essential points of difference between them, besides those which are
+  at once apparent.
+
+  In the fixed dial the result depends on the _uniform_ angular motion
+  of the sun round the fixed style; and a small error in the assumed
+  position of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the
+  instrument, or to some small neglected correction, has only a trifling
+  effect on the time. This is owing to the angular displacement of the
+  sun being so rapid--a quarter of a degree every minute--that for the
+  ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required, as a
+  displacement of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one degree,
+  can be readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial
+  this is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now
+  available, because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may
+  refer it. In the new position, to which the observer has gone, the
+  zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically
+  find; and the basis for the determination of the time is the
+  constantly but _very irregularly_ varying zenith distance of the sun.
+
+  At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only
+  method available for finding local time; but the perfection which has
+  been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to
+  reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however,
+  to be taken. The observations must not be made within a couple of
+  hours of noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor
+  too near the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions there;
+  and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portable dial.
+
+  To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials,
+  let us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54 deg. lat., and a
+  mean declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at 6
+  o'clock, and at noon have an altitude of 36 deg.,--that is, the portable
+  dial will indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each
+  minute, or two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The vertical
+  motion of the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon, but even there
+  it will be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or half the rate of
+  the fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed throughout the
+  day.
+
+  Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude
+  for which they are available, and they should not be used more than 4
+  or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were constructed.
+
+  We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use.
+
+  _Dial on a Cylinder._--A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in.
+  high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of
+  tolerably easy rotation. A hole in the lid receives the style shaped
+  somewhat like a bayonet; and the straight part of the style, which, on
+  account of the two bends, is lower than the lid, projects horizontally
+  out from the cylinder to a distance of 1 or 1 1/2 in. When not in use the
+  style would be taken out and placed inside the cylinder.
+
+  A horizontal circle is traced on the cylinder opposite the projecting
+  style, and this circle is divided into 36 approximately equidistant
+  intervals.[2] These intervals represent spaces of time, and to each
+  division is assigned a date, so that each month has three dates marked
+  as follows:-January 10, 20, 31; February 10, 20, 28; March 10, 20, 31;
+  April 10, 20, 30, and so on,--always the 10th, the 20th, and the last
+  day of each month.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis of
+  the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily
+  understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as
+  to bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then
+  placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned
+  round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the
+  vertical line below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite
+  point of this line, the position of which point will depend on the
+  length of the style--that is, the distance of its end from the surface
+  of the cylinder--and on the altitude of the sun at that instant.
+  Suppose that the observations are continued all day, the cylinder
+  being very gradually turned so that the style may always face the sun,
+  and suppose that marks are made on the vertical line to show the
+  extremity of the shadow at each exact hour from sun-rise to
+  sun-set-these times being taken from a good fixed sun-dial,--then it is
+  obvious that the next year, on the _same date_, the sun's declination
+  being about the same, and the observer in about the same latitude, the
+  marks made the previous year will serve to tell the time all that day.
+
+  What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the
+  instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which
+  would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation, cannot
+  be the method employed.
+
+  The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation.
+  Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken
+  from the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place
+  and the length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for
+  computing the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark
+  below the style for each successive hour.
+
+  We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at
+  the same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if
+  the dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results
+  will be sufficiently approximate.
+
+  When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective
+  dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding hour-points,
+  will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down,
+  the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper position between
+  the two divisions. The horizontality of the surface on which the
+  instrument rests is a very necessary condition, especially in summer,
+  when, the shadow of the style being long, the extreme end will shift
+  rapidly for a small deviation from the vertical, and render the
+  reading uncertain. The dial can also be used by holding it up by a
+  small ring in the top of the lid, and probably the vertically is
+  better ensured in that way.
+
+  _Portable Dial on a Card._--This neat and very ingenious dial is
+  attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and probably
+  dates from the early part of the 17th century. Ozanam says that it was
+  sometimes called the _capuchin_, from some fancied resemblance to a
+  cowl thrown back.
+
+  _Construction._--Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the
+  card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it; with C as
+  centre, and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB
+  below the horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at
+  the points r, s, t, &c., and through these points draw perpendiculars
+  to the diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line
+  through r will be the XI ... I line, the line through s the X ... II
+  line, and so on; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself; by
+  subdivision of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &c., we may draw the
+  hour-lines corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where
+  it can be done without confusion.
+
+  Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the place,
+  and let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at right angles
+  to AD.
+
+  With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of circle
+  RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on it,
+  extending from 0 deg. at S to 23 1/2 deg. on each side at R and T. Next
+  determine the points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn from A
+  to the degree divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully mark
+  these crossings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination, south
+  declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the other
+  hemisphere of the earth this would be reversed; the north declinations
+  would be on the upper half.
+
+  Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations of
+  that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the days
+  of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and place
+  these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without confusion,
+  opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the _sun-line_ at the
+  top of the card parallel to the line ACB; and, near the extremity, to
+  the right, draw any small figure intended to form, as it were, a door
+  of which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken that this hinge is
+  exactly at right angles to the _sun-line_. Make a fine open slit c d
+  right through the card and extending from the hinge to a short
+  distance on the door,--the centre line of this slit coinciding
+  accurately with the _sun-line_. Now, cut the door completely through
+  the card; except, of course, along the hinge, which, when the card is
+  thick, should be partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the
+  opening. Cut the card right through along the line FDG, and pass a
+  thread carrying a little plummet W and a _very_ small bead P; the bead
+  having sufficient friction with the thread to retain any position when
+  acted on only by its own weight, but sliding easily along the thread
+  when moved by the hand. At the back of the card the thread terminates
+  in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through; or better, because
+  giving more friction and a better hold, it passes through the centre
+  of a small disk of card--a fraction of an inch in diameter--and, by a
+  knot, is made fast at the back of the disk.
+
+  To complete the construction,--with the centres F and G, and radii FA
+  and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the hour-lines;
+  for in an observation the bead will always be found between them. The
+  forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated in the
+  figure. The dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon and
+  afternoon; but extraneous circumstances, as, for instance, whether the
+  sun is rising or falling, will settle that point, except when close to
+  noon, where it will always be uncertain.
+
+  To _rectify_ the dial (using the old expression, which means to
+  prepare the dial for an observation),--open the small door, by turning
+  it about its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the
+  thread in the line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it
+  over the point A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincide
+  with A.
+
+  To find the hour of the day,--hold the dial in a vertical position in
+  such a way that its plane may pass through the sun. The verticality is
+  ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without
+  pressing. Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical
+  plane), until the central line of sunshine, passing through the open
+  slit of the door, just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against
+  which the bead P then rests indicates the time.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  The _sun-line_ drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used as
+  a _shadow-line_. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the
+  prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was
+  gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly
+  coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a
+  degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of
+  the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb
+  of the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre.
+  Now, even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a
+  considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much time
+  will the indication of the dial be in error.
+
+  The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be
+  free from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of
+  the sun.
+
+  The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere
+  toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educational
+  value which is not to be measured by the roughness of the results
+  obtained.
+
+  The theory of this instrument is as follows:--Let H (fig. 9) be the
+  point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that
+  the angle DAH is the north declination of the sun,--P, the bead,
+  resting against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the
+  hour-angle from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this
+  hour-angle is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC, a
+  north declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the
+  _sun-line_, or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle
+  PHQ will be equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC, for
+  the pair of lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to the
+  sun-line and the horizontal.
+
+  Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and N
+  respectively.
+
+  Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following values
+  will be readily deduced from the figure:--
+
+  AD = a cos _decl._ DH = a sin _decl._ PQ = a sin _alt._
+
+     CX = AC = AD cos _lat._ = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+     PN = CV = CX cos ACX = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._ cos ACX.
+     NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = sin _decl._ sin _lat._
+       (:. the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.)
+
+  And since           PQ = NQ + PN,
+  we have, by simple substitution,
+  a sin _alt._ = a sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + a cos _del._ cos _lat._
+  cos ACX; or, dividing by a throughout,
+
+  sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+                                                        cos ACX ... (1)
+  which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead.
+
+  To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let fig. 10
+  represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole, Z the
+  zenith and S the sun.
+
+  From the spherical triangle PZS, we have
+      cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP + sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS
+          but ZS = zenith distance = 90 deg. - altitude
+              ZP = 90 deg. - PR        = 90 deg.- latitude
+              PS = polar distance  = 90 deg. - declination,
+  therefore, by substitution
+
+  sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+                                                       cos ZPS ... (2)
+  and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun.
+
+  A comparison of the two formulae (1) and (2) shows that the hour-angle
+  given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and
+  proves the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or
+  at sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree.
+  If, then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the
+  sun-line, at a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at
+  c, the time of sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the
+  central line of light were made to fall on cm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  LITERATURE.--The following list includes the principal writers on
+  dialling whose works have come down, to us, and to these we must refer
+  for descriptions of the various constructions, some simple and direct,
+  others fanciful and intricate, which have been at different times
+  employed: Ptolemy, _Analemma_, restored by Commandine; Vitruvius,
+  _Architecture_; Sebastian Muenster, _Horologiographia_; Orontius
+  Fineus, _De horologiis solaribus_; Mutio Oddi da Urbino, _Horologi
+  solari_; Dryander, _De horologiorum compositione_; Conrad Gesner,
+  _Pandectae_; Andreas Schoener, _Gnomonicae_; F. Commandine,
+  _Horologiorum descriptio_; Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, _De gnomonum usu_;
+  Georgius Schomberg, _Exegesis fundamentorum gnomonicorum_; Joan.
+  Solomon de Caus, _Horologes solaires_; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, _Praxis
+  horologiorum_; Desargues, _Maniere universelle pour poser l'essieu_,
+  &c.; Ath. Kircher, _Ars magna lucis et Umbrae_; Hallum, _Explicatio
+  horologii in horto regio Londini_; Joan. Mark, _Tractatus
+  horologiorum_; Clavius, _Gnomonices de horologiis_. Also among more
+  modern writers, Deschales, Ozanam, Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire,
+  Walper; in German, Paterson, Michael, Mueller; in English, Foster,
+  Wells, Collins, Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn, Emerson and Ferguson. See
+  also Hans Loeschner, _Ueber Sonnenuhren_ (2nd ed., Graz, 1906).  (H. G.)
+
+[1] In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an
+elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 17th or beginning of the
+18th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it available
+as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known.
+
+[2] Strict equality is not necessary, as the observations made are on
+the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to the
+others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go completely
+and exactly round the cylinder, although they were always so drawn, and
+both these conditions were insisted upon in the directions for the
+construction.
+
+
+DIALECT (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], conversation, manner of speaking,
+[Greek: dialegesthai], to converse), a particular or characteristic
+manner of speech, and hence any variety of a language. In its widest
+sense languages which are branches of a common or parent language may be
+said to be "dialects" of that language; thus Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and
+Doric are dialects of Greek, though there may never have at any time
+been a separate language of which they were variations; so the various
+Romance languages, Italian, French, Spanish, &c., were dialects of
+Latin. Again, where there have existed side by side, as in England,
+various branches of a language, such as the languages of the Angles, the
+Jutes or the Saxons, and the descendant of one particular language, from
+many causes, has obtained the predominance, the traces of the other
+languages remain in the "dialects" of the districts where once the
+original language prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from the
+historical point of view, to say that "dialect" varieties of a language
+represent degradations of the standard language. A "literary" accepted
+language, such as modern English, represents the original language
+spoken in the Midlands, with accretions of Norman, French, and later
+literary and scientific additions from classical and other sources,
+while the present-day "dialects" preserve, in inflections, pronunciation
+and particular words, traces of the original variety of the language not
+incorporated in the standard language of the country. See the various
+articles on languages (English, French, &c).
+
+
+DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], discourse,
+debate; [Greek: e dialektike], sc. [Greek: techne], the art of debate),
+a logical term, generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous
+sense for verbal or purely abstract disputation devoid of practical
+value. According to Aristotle, Zeno of Elea "invented" dialectic, the
+art of disputation by question and answer, while Plato developed it
+metaphysically in connexion with his doctrine of "Ideas" as the art of
+analysing ideas in themselves and in relation to the ultimate idea of
+the Good (_Repub._ vii.). The special function of the so-called
+"Socratic dialectic" was to show the inadequacy of popular beliefs.
+Aristotle himself used "dialectic," as opposed to "science," for that
+department of mental activity which examines the presuppositions lying
+at the back of all the particular sciences. Each particular science has
+its own subject matter and special principles ([Greek: idiai archai]) on
+which the superstructure of its special discoveries is based. The
+Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals with the universal laws ([Greek:
+koinai archai]) of reasoning, which can be applied to the particular
+arguments of all the sciences. The sciences, for example, all seek to
+define their own species; dialectic, on the other hand, sets forth the
+conditions which all definitions must satisfy whatever their subject
+matter. Again, the sciences all seek to educe general laws; dialectic
+investigates the nature of such laws, and the kind and degree of
+necessity to which they can attain. To this general subject matter
+Aristotle gives the name "Topics" ([Greek: topoi], loci, communes loci).
+"Dialectic" in this sense is the equivalent of "logic." Aristotle also
+uses the term for the science of probable reasoning as opposed to
+demonstrative reasoning ([Greek: apodeiktike]). The Stoics divided
+[Greek: logike] (logic) into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time
+till the end of the middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with, or
+a part of, logic.
+
+In modern philosophy the word has received certain special meanings. In
+Kantian terminology _Dialektik_ is the name of that portion of the
+_Kritik d. reinen Vernunft_ in which Kant discusses the impossibility of
+applying to "things-in-themselves" the principles which are found to
+govern phenomena. In the system of Hegel the word resumes its original
+Socratic sense, as the name of that intellectual process whereby the
+inadequacy of popular conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history,
+therefore, "dialectic" has been connected with that which is remote
+from, or alien to, unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or
+transcendental, rather than with the facts of common experience and
+material things.
+
+
+DIALLAGE, an important mineral of the pyroxene group, distinguished by
+its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The chemical composition
+is the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiO_{3})_{2}, but it sometimes contains
+the molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"')_{2} SiO_{6} and Na Fe"'
+(SiO_{3})_{2}, in addition, when it approaches to augite in composition.
+Diallage is in fact an altered form of these varieties of pyroxene; the
+particular kind of alteration which they have undergone being known as
+"schillerization." This, as described by Prof. J. W. Judd, consists in
+the development of a fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary
+twinning and the separation of secondary products along these and other
+planes of chemical weakness ("solution planes") in the crystal. The
+secondary products consist of mixtures of various hydrated oxides--opal,
+goethite, limonite, &c--and appear as microscopic inclusions filling or
+partly filling cavities, which have definite outlines with respect to
+the enclosing crystal and are known as negative crystals. It is to the
+reflection and interference of light from these minute inclusions that
+the peculiar bronzy sheen or "schiller" of the mineral is due. The most
+pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid; another,
+less distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third parallel to
+the plane of symmetry; these planes of secondary parting are in addition
+to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all pyroxenes. Frequently the
+material is interlaminated with a rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an
+amphibole (smaragdite or uralite), the latter being an alteration
+product of the diallage.
+
+Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes brown, in
+colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller on the laminated
+surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific gravity 3.2 to 3.35. It
+does not occur in distinct crystals with definite outlines, but only as
+lamellar masses in deep-seated igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of
+which it is an essential constituent. It occurs also in some peridotites
+and serpentines, and rarely in volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline
+schists. Masses of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained
+gabbros of the Island of Skye, Le Prese near Bornio in Valtellina,
+Lombardy, Prato near Florence, and many other localities.
+
+The name diallage, from diallage, "difference," in allusion to the
+dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally applied by R.
+J. Hauey in 1801, included other minerals (the orthorhombic pyroxenes
+hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and the smaragdite variety of
+hornblende) which exhibit the same peculiarities of schiller structure;
+it is now limited to the monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like
+the minerals of similar appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut
+and polished for ornamental purposes.                        (L. J. S.)
+
+
+DIALOGUE, properly the conversation between two or more persons,
+reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the Greeks for
+purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction, and scarcely
+modified since the days of its invention. A dialogue is in reality a
+little drama without a theatre, and with scarcely any change of scene.
+It should be illuminated with those qualities which La Fontaine
+applauded in the dialogue of Plato, namely vivacity, fidelity of tone,
+and accuracy in the opposition of opinions. It has always been a
+favourite with those writers who have something to censure or to impart,
+but who love to stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to
+pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than
+indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing and noting
+down the undulations of human thought that it almost escapes analysis.
+All that is recorded, in any literature, of what pretend to be the
+actual words spoken by living or imaginary people is of the nature of
+dialogue. One branch of letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it.
+But in its technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek
+philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the
+extreme refinement of an art.
+
+The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form is
+commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose earliest
+experiment in it is believed to survive in the _Laches_. The Platonic
+dialogue, however, was founded on the mime, which had been cultivated
+half a century earlier by the Sicilian poets, Sophron and Epicharmus.
+The works of these writers, which Plato admired and imitated, are lost,
+but it is believed that they were little plays, usually with only two
+performers. The recently discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us
+some idea of their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced
+it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing
+element of character-drawing. He must have begun this about the year
+405, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection,
+especially in the cycle directly inspired by the death of Socrates. All
+his philosophical writings, except the _Apology_, are cast in this form.
+As the greatest of all masters of Greek prose style, Plato lifted his
+favourite instrument, the dialogue, to its highest splendour, and to
+this day he remains by far its most distinguished proficient. In the 2nd
+century a.d. Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his
+ironic dialogues "Of the Gods," "Of the Dead," "Of Love" and "Of the
+Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and philosophical
+error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he merely paints scenes
+of modern life. The title of Lucian's most famous collection was
+borrowed in the 17th century by two French writers of eminence, each of
+whom prepared _Dialogues des morts_. These were Fontenelle (1683) and
+Fenelon (1712). In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not
+been extensively employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713, for his
+Platonic treatise, _Hylas and Philonous_. Landor's _Imaginary
+Conversations_ (1821-1828) is the most famous example of it in the 19th
+century, although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In
+Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works
+published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of
+Valdes (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are
+celebrated. In Italian, collections of dialogues, on the model of Plato,
+have been composed by Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by
+Galiani (1770), by Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. In
+our own day, the French have returned to the original application of
+dialogue, and the inventions of "Gyp," of Henri Lavedan and of others,
+in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told in
+conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes
+of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with them. This kind of
+dialogue has been employed in English, and with conspicuous cleverness
+by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but it does not seem so easily appreciated by
+English as by French readers. (E.G.)
+
+
+DIALYSIS (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: luein], to
+loosen), in chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for
+separating colloidal and crystalline substances. He found that solutions
+could be divided into two classes according to their action upon a
+porous diaphragm such as parchment. If a solution, say of salt, be
+placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom, termed a "dialyser,"
+and the drum and its contents placed in a larger vessel of water, the
+salt will pass through the membrane. If the salt solution be replaced by
+one of glue, gelatin or gum, it will be found that the membrane is
+impermeable to these solutes. To the first class Graham gave the name
+"crystalloids," and to the second "colloids." This method is
+particularly effective in the preparation of silicic acid. By adding
+hydrochloric acid to a dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, no
+precipitate will fall and the solution will contain hydrochloric acid,
+an alkaline chloride, and silicic acid. If the solution be transferred
+to a dialyser, the hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass
+through the parchment, while the silicic acid will be retained.
+
+
+DIAMAGNETISM. Substances which, like iron, are attracted by the pole of
+an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as magnetic, all others being
+regarded as non-magnetic. It was noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that
+a number of so-called non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac,
+were influenced by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed
+the opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted
+upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more or less
+magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (_Experimental Researches_, vol. iii.)
+that while practically all natural substances are indeed acted upon by a
+sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only a comparatively small
+number that are attracted like iron, the great majority being repelled.
+Bodies of the latter class were termed by Faraday _diamagnetics_. The
+strongest diamagnetic substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility
+being--0.000014, and its permeability 0.9998. The diamagnetic quality of
+this metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet, and its
+repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once recognized before
+the date of Faraday's experiments. The metals gold, silver, copper,
+lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and
+platinum are attracted by a very strong pole. (See MAGNETISM.)
+
+
+DIAMANTE, FRA, Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato about 1400. He
+was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine community of that
+order, and was the friend and assistant of Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite
+convent of Prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been
+suppressed, and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving
+the destruction of the paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra
+Filippo in the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of
+the cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to
+Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings of the
+commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined to petition
+the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to Prato,--a proof
+that his share in the work was so important that his recall involved the
+suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted Fra Filippo in the execution
+of the frescoes still to be seen in the cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra
+Diamante completed in 1470 after his master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo
+left a son ten years old to the care of Diamante, who, having received
+200 ducats from the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work
+done in the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as
+Vasari says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small
+portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however, would
+depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra Diamante, and the
+terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo. Fra Diamante must have been
+nearly seventy when he completed the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact
+year of his death is not known.
+
+
+DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA (1640?-1684?), Spanish dramatist, was born at
+Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and began writing for the stage
+in 1657. He became a knight of Santiago in 1660; the date of his death
+is unknown, but no reference to him as a living author occurs after
+1684. Like many other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is
+deficient in originality, and his style is riddled with affectations;
+_La Desgraciada Raquel_, which was long considered to be his best play,
+is really Mira de Amescua's _Judia de Toledo_ under another title; and
+the earliest of Diamante's surviving pieces, _El Honrador de su padre_
+(1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille's Cid.
+Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of French
+dramatic methods into Spain.
+
+
+DIAMANTINA (formerly called _Tejuco_), a mining town of the state of
+Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly on a steep
+hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio Jequitinhonha (where
+diamond-washing was once carried on), and partly on the level plain
+above. The town is roughly but substantially built, with broad streets
+and large squares. It is the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal
+seminary, and has many churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous;
+they include a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum
+and a secondary school. There are several small manufactures, including
+cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on. The surrounding
+region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the lateral ranges of the
+Serra do Espinhaco, is rough and barren, but rich in minerals,
+principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is the commercial centre of an
+extensive region, and has long been noted for its wealth. The date of
+the discovery of diamonds, upon which its wealth and importance chiefly
+depend, is uncertain, but the official announcement was made in 1729,
+and in the following year the mines were declared crown property, with a
+crown reservation, known as the "forbidden district," 42 leagues in
+circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining was forbidden
+within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe
+restrictions. There are no trustworthy returns of the value of the
+output, but in 1849 the total was estimated up to that date at
+300,000,000 francs (see DIAMOND). The present name of the town was
+assumed (instead of Tejuco) in 1838, when it was made a _cidade_.
+
+
+DIAMANTINO, a small town of the state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the
+Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction with the Paraguay, in
+14 deg. 24' 33" S., 56 deg. 8' 30" W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality
+2147, mostly Indians. It stands in a broken sterile region 1837 ft. above
+sea-level and at the foot of the great Matto Grosso plateau. The first
+mining settlement dates from 1730, when gold was found in the vicinity.
+On the discovery of diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large
+population and for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet
+expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined.
+Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of export.
+
+
+DIAMETER (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: metron], measure),
+in geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic
+section and terminated by the curve; the "principal diameters" of the
+ellipse and hyperbola coincide with the "axes" and are at ...
+                          (_continued in volume 8, slice 4, page 0158._)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+DETERMINANT, formula = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" - a"bc' - a"b'c.
+changed to = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c.
+
+DETMOLD, added missing comma after 'Detmold possesses a natural history
+museum'.
+
+DEVENTER, 'The "Athenaeum" disappeared' corrected from the original
+'disappered'.
+
+DEVIL, replaced comma with a period after 'according to 1 Chron. xxi'.
+
+DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF, 'In November 1684' originally 'Novembr'.
+
+DIAGRAM, 'found to be of use especially' originally 'epsecially'.
+
+DIAL, table angles on the dial, column IX. A.M. III. P.M. bottom entry
+corrected from '45 45' to '40 45'.
+
+DIAGRAM, missing closing parenthesis added after 'to mark out by lines'.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 30073.txt or 30073.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/0/7/30073/
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/30073.zip b/30073.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbcbfba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/30073.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e892210
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #30073 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/30073)
diff --git a/old/30073-8.txt b/old/30073-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8837cd5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7837 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3
+       "Destructors" to "Diameter"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 24, 2009 [EBook #30073]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+  are listed at the end of the text. Due to space constraints, italics
+  denoting underscores were not used in the tables.
+
+
+                          THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
+
+      A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+                              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+                           VOLUME VIII slice III
+
+                           Destructor to Diameter
+
+
+
+
+DESTRUCTOR (_continued from volume 8, slice 2, page 0108._)
+  ... in main flues, &c. (g) The chimney draught must be assisted with
+  forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of 1½ in. to 2 in.
+  under grates by water-gauge. (h) Where a destructor is required to
+  work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its
+  efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view
+  in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary
+  consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace
+  so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the temperature of
+  the gases is reduced before the organic matter has been thoroughly
+  burned. (i) Where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a
+  large percentage of CO_{2} should be sought in the furnaces with as
+  little excess of air as possible, and the flue gases should be
+  utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates, and the feed-water
+  to the boilers. (j) Ample boiler capacity and hot-water storage
+  feed-tanks should be included in the design where steam-power is
+  required.
+
+  [Sidenote: Cost.]
+
+  As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few
+  trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends, amongst
+  other things, upon the difficulty of preparing the site, upon the
+  nature of the foundations required, the height of the chimney-shaft,
+  the length of the inclined or approach roadway, and the varying prices
+  of labour and materials in different localities. As an example may be
+  mentioned the case of Bristol, where, in 1892, the total cost of
+  constructing a 16-cell Fryer destructor was £11,418, of which £2909
+  was expended on foundations, and £1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost
+  of the destructor proper, buildings and approach road was therefore
+  £6820, or about £426 per cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in
+  destructors depends mainly upon--(a) The price of labour in the
+  locality, and the number of "shifts" or changes of workmen per day;
+  (b) the type of furnace adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be
+  consumed; (d) the interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The
+  cost of burning ton for ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces,
+  including labour and repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion
+  destructors. The average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four
+  different towns throughout England, exclusive of interest on the cost
+  of the works, is 1s. 1½d. per ton burned; the minimum cost is 6d. per
+  ton at Bradford, and the maximum cost 2s. 10d. per ton at Battersea.
+  At Shoreditch the cost per ton for the year ending on the 25th of
+  March 1899, including labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &c. (but
+  exclusive of interest on cost of works), was 2s. 6.9d. The quantity of
+  refuse burned per cell per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up
+  to 20 tons. The ordinary low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft.
+  grate area, burns about 20 lb. of refuse per square foot of grate
+  area per hour, or between 5 and 6 tons per cell per 24 hours. The
+  Meldrum destructor furnaces at Rochdale burn as much as 66 lb. per
+  square foot of grate area per hour, and the Beaman and Deas destructor
+  at Llandudno 71.7 lb. per square foot per hour. The amount, however,
+  always depends materially on the care observed in stoking, the nature
+  of the material, the frequency of removal of clinker, and on the
+  question whether the whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is
+  thoroughly cremated.
+
+  [Sidenote: Residues:]
+
+  The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from
+  22 to 37% of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30% is a very usual
+  amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists of about 8% of straw,
+  paper, shavings, &c., the residue contains about 29% clinker, 2.7%
+  fine ash, .5% flue dust, and .6% old tins, making a total residue of
+  32.8%. As the residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the
+  total bulk of the refuse dealt with, it is a question of the utmost
+  importance that some profitable, or at least inexpensive, means should
+  be devised for its regular disposal. Among other purposes, it has been
+  used for bottoming for macadamized roads, for the manufacture of
+  concrete, for making paving slabs, for forming suburban footpaths or
+  cinder footwalks, and for the manufacture of mortar. The last is a
+  very general, and in many places profitable, mode of disposal. An
+  entirely new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of good
+  well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion with the construction
+  of bacteria beds for sewage disposal, and in many districts its value
+  has, by this means, become greatly enhanced.
+
+  [Sidenote: Forced draught.]
+
+  Through defects in the design and management of many of the early
+  destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these have,
+  to some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute.
+  Although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this
+  respect, that is by no means the case with the modern improved type of
+  high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great
+  prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of
+  a refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to
+  the inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and worked, will
+  give rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the midst of a
+  populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect cremation of the refuse
+  and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential. This is
+  supplied either as air draught delivered from a rapidly revolving fan,
+  or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall steam jet or the Meldrum blower.
+  With a forced blast less air is required to obtain complete combustion
+  than by chimney draught. The forced draught grate requires little more
+  than the quantity theoretically necessary, while with chimney draught
+  more than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied. With
+  forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is attained, and if it
+  is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter the furnaces
+  during stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of pressure in
+  the cells during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to
+  prevent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The forced draught
+  pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The efficiency of the
+  combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the
+  "Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the
+  proportion of CO_{2} passing away in the waste gases; the higher the
+  percentage of CO_{2} the more efficient the furnace, provided there is
+  no formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete
+  combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO_{2} for refuse burning is
+  about 20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting
+  secondary air over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the
+  air-pressure in the ash-pit, an amount approximating to this
+  percentage may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly
+  worked. If the proportion of free oxygen (i.e. excess of air) is
+  large, more air is passed through the furnace than is required for
+  complete combustion, and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste
+  of heat. The position of the econometer in testing should be as near
+  the furnace as possible, as there may be considerable air leakage
+  through the brickwork of the flues.
+
+  The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the inlet
+  air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of which
+  is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue.
+
+  [Sidenote: Calorific value.]
+
+  The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and gases
+  perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature varying
+  from 1250° to 2000° F., and the maintenance of such temperatures has
+  very naturally suggested the possibility of utilizing this heat-energy
+  for the production of steam-power. Experience shows that a
+  considerable amount of energy may be derived from steam-raising
+  destructor stations, amply justifying a reasonable increase of
+  expenditure on plant and labour. The actual calorific value of the
+  refuse material necessarily varies, but, as a general average, with
+  suitably designed and properly managed plant, an evaporation of 1 lb.
+  of water per pound of refuse burned is a result which may be readily
+  attained, and affords a basis of calculation which engineers may
+  safely adopt in practice. Many destructor steam-raising plants,
+  however, give considerably higher results, evaporations approaching 2
+  lb. of water per pound of refuse being often met with under
+  favourable conditions.
+
+  From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the
+  calorific value of unscreened house refuse varies from 1 to 2 lb. of
+  water evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion
+  depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with.
+  Taking the evaporative power of coal at 10 lb. of water per pound of
+  coal, this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from {1/10} to
+  {1/5} that of coal; or, with coal at 20s. per ton, refuse has a
+  commercial value of from 2s. to 4s. per ton. In London the quantity of
+  house refuse amounts to about 1¼ million tons per annum, which is
+  equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be
+  burned in furnaces giving an evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound
+  of refuse, it would yield a total power annually of about 138 million
+  brake horse-power hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 20s. per ton
+  for this amount of power even when calculated upon the very low
+  estimate of 2 lb.[1] of coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at
+  over £123,000. On the same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town,
+  with, say, a population of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5
+  cwt. per head per annum, would afford 112 indicated horse-power per
+  ton burned, and the total indicated horse-power hours per annum would
+  be
+
+       70,000 × 5 cwt.
+       --------------- × 112 = 1,960,000 I.H.P. hours annually.
+              20
+
+  If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the
+  electrical horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of
+  90%)
+
+       1,960,000 × 90
+       -------------- = 1,764,000 E.H.P. hours per annum;
+            100
+
+  and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be
+
+                 1,764,000 × 746 = 1,315,944,000.
+
+  Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give
+  1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power
+  lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have
+
+   1,184,349,600 watt-hours
+   ------------------------ = 39,478,320 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum;
+           30 watts
+
+               39,478,320
+  that is, ----------------- = 563 8-c.p. lamp hours per annum per
+           70,000 population           head of population.
+
+  Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20% on
+  three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would be 478
+  8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population: i.e. if the
+  power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it would supply
+  electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of the
+  population for about 1{1/3} hours for every night of the year.
+
+  [Sidenote: Difficulties.]
+
+  In actual practice, when the electric energy is for the purposes of
+  lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the
+  thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want of adequate
+  means of storage either of the thermal or of the electric energy. A
+  destructor station usually yields a fairly definite amount of thermal
+  energy uniformly throughout the 24 hours, while the consumption of
+  electric-lighting current is extremely irregular, the maximum demand
+  being about four times the mean demand. The period during which the
+  demand exceeds the mean is comparatively short, and does not exceed
+  about 6 hours out of the 24, while for a portion of the time the
+  demand may not exceed {1/20}th of the maximum. This difficulty, at
+  first regarded as somewhat grave, is substantially minimized by the
+  provision of ample boiler capacity, or by the introduction of feed
+  thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during
+  the hours of light load (say 18 out of the 24), so that at the time of
+  maximum load the boiler may be filled directly from these vessels,
+  which work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler.
+  Further, the difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at
+  stations where there is a fair day load which practically ceases at
+  about the hour when the illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing
+  the demand upon both destructor and electric plant throughout the 24
+  hours. This arises in cases where current is consumed during the day
+  for motors, fans, lifts, electric tramways, and other like purposes,
+  and, as the employment of electric energy for these services is
+  rapidly becoming general, no difficulty need be anticipated in the
+  successful working of combined destructor and electric plants where
+  these conditions prevail. The more uniform the electrical demand
+  becomes, the more fully may the power from a destructor station be
+  utilized.
+
+  In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse
+  destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with
+  various other classes of power-using undertakings, including tramways,
+  water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and
+  clinker-crushing works and others; and the increasingly large sums
+  which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this
+  character is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value of
+  such combinations where these several classes of work must be carried
+  on.
+
+  For further information on the subject, reference should be made to
+  William H. Maxwell, _Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with an
+  exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants_ (London, 1899), with
+  a special _Supplement_ embodying later results (London, 1905).
+
+  See also the _Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal
+  and County Engineers_, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214
+  and xxv. p. 138; also the _Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
+  Engineers_, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413,
+  cxxxviii. p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp.
+  369 and 498, cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300.           (W. H. MA.)
+
+[1] With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4 lb. of coal per
+brake horse-power per hour is a very usual performance.
+
+
+DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN, 3rd BARON (1835-1895), English
+poet, eldest son of George Fleming Leicester (afterwards Warren), 2nd
+Baron De Tabley, was born on the 26th of April 1835. He was educated at
+Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with
+second classes in classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn
+of 1858 he went to Turkey as unpaid attaché to Lord Stratford de
+Redcliffe, and two years later was called to the bar. He became an
+officer in the Cheshire Yeomanry, and unsuccessfully contested
+Mid-Cheshire in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in
+1871 he removed to London, where he became a close friend of Tennyson
+for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the title in 1887 he
+was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a recluse. It was not till
+1892 that he returned to London life, and enjoyed a sort of renaissance
+of reputation and friendship. During the later years of his life Lord De
+Tabley made many new friends, besides reopening old associations, and he
+almost seemed to be gathering around him a small literary company when
+his health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde, in
+his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire.
+Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a poet,
+De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at one time an
+authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels; published _A Guide to the
+Study of Book Plates_ (1880); and the fruit of his careful researches in
+botany was printed posthumously in his elaborate _Flora of Cheshire_
+(1899). Poetry, however, was his first and last passion, and to that he
+devoted the best energies of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards
+poetry came from his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a
+close companionship during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as
+Tennyson lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees.
+Fortescue was killed by falling from the mast of Lord Drogheda's yacht
+in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De Tabley into deep
+depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley issued four little volumes
+of pseudonymous verse (by G. F. Preston), in the production of which he
+had been greatly stimulated by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he
+assumed a pseudonym--his _Praeterita_ (1863) bearing the name of William
+Lancaster. In the next year he published _Eclogues and Monodramas_,
+followed in 1865 by _Studies in Verse_. These volumes all displayed
+technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was not till the
+publication of _Philoctetes_ in 1866 that De Tabley met with any wide
+recognition. _Philoctetes_ bore the initials "M.A.," which, to the
+author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning Matthew Arnold. He at once
+disclosed his identity, and received the congratulations of his friends,
+among whom were Tennyson, Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published
+_Orestes_, in 1870 _Rehearsals_ and in 1873 _Searching the Net_. These
+last two bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat
+disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876 _The Soldier
+of Fortune_, a drama on which he had bestowed much careful labour,
+proved a complete failure, he retired altogether from the literary
+arena. It was not until 1893 that he was persuaded to return, and the
+immediate success in that year of his _Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical_,
+encouraged him to publish a second series in 1895, the year of his
+death. The genuine interest with which these volumes were welcomed did
+much to lighten the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life.
+His posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics of De
+Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style, derived from
+close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and colour. His passion
+for detail was both a strength and a weakness: it lent a loving fidelity
+to his description of natural objects, but it sometimes involved him in
+a loss of simple effect from over-elaboration of treatment. He was
+always a student of the classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration
+directly from them. He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a
+brother poet well said, "still climbed the clear cold altitudes of
+song." His ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally
+ice-bound at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and
+bright, vivid outlines.
+
+  See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his _Critical Kit-Kats_ (1896).
+                                                                (A. WA.)
+
+
+DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE ÉDOUARD (1848- ), French painter, was born in
+Paris on the 5th of October 1848. After working as a pupil of
+Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the Salon of 1867, a picture
+representing "A Corner of Meissonier's Studio." Military life was from
+the first a principal attraction to the young painter, and he gained his
+reputation by depicting the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail
+truthfully rendered. He exhibited "A Halt" (1868); "Soldiers at rest,
+during the Manoeuvres at the Camp of Saint Maur" (1869); "Engagement
+between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814" (1870). The war of
+1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which gained him
+repeated successes. Among his more important pictures may be named "The
+Conquerors" (1872); "The Retreat" (1873); "The Charge of the 9th
+Regiment of Cuirassiers in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870"
+(1874); "The Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A
+Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877); "Bonaparte in
+Egypt" (1878); the "Inauguration of the New Opera House"--a
+water-colour; the "Defence of Champigny by Faron's Division" (1879). He
+also worked with Alphonse de Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In
+1884 he exhibited at the Salon the "Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic
+study, and "The Dream" (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille recorded
+other events in the military history of his country: the "Sortie of the
+Garrison of Huningue" (now in the Luxemburg), the "Vincendon Brigade,"
+and "Bizerte," reminiscences of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit
+to Russia, Detaille exhibited "The Cossacks of the Ataman" and "The
+Hereditary Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other
+important works are: "Victims to Duty," "The Prince of Wales and the
+Duke of Connaught" and "Pasteur's Funeral." In his picture of "Châlons,
+9th October 1896," exhibited in the Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the
+emperor and empress of Russia at a review, with M. Félix Faure. Detaille
+became a member of the French Institute in 1898.
+
+   See Marius Vachon, _Detaille_ (Paris, 1898); Frédéric Masson,
+  _Édouard Detaille and his work_ (Paris and London, 1891); J. Claretie,
+  _Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains_ (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy,
+  _Les Jeunes peintres militaires_ (Paris, 1878).
+
+
+DETAINER (from _detain_, Lat. _detinere_), in law, the act of keeping a
+person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a person's goods, or
+other real or personal property. A writ of detainer was a form for the
+beginning of a personal action against a person already lodged within
+the walls of a prison; it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838.
+
+
+DETERMINANT, in mathematics, a function which presents itself in the
+solution of a system of simple equations.
+
+1. Considering the equations
+
+                   ax  + by  + cz  = d,
+                   a'x + b'y + c'z = d',
+                   a"x + b"y + c"z = d",
+
+and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross
+multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in such a
+manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient of y becomes =
+0, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = 0; the factors in question
+are b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c (values which, as at once seen,
+have the desired property); we thus obtain an equation which contains on
+the left-hand side only a multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a
+constant term; the coefficient of x has the value
+
+          a(b'c" - b"c') + a'(b"c - bc") + a"(bc' - b'c),
+
+and this function, represented in the form
+
+                         |a,  b,  c |,
+                         |a', b', c'|
+                         |a", b", c"|
+
+is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 3², it is
+called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed that the
+resulting equation is
+
+                |a,  b,  c | x = |d,  b,  c |
+                |a', b', c'|     |d', b', c'|
+                |a", b", c"|     |d", b", c"|
+
+where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function with d,
+d', d" in place of a, a', a" respectively, and is of course also a
+determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c
+used in the process are themselves the determinants of the second order
+
+                |b', c'|, |b", c"|, |b,  c |.
+                |b", c"|  |b,  c |  |b', c'|
+
+We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation of the
+determinants of the orders 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., each from the preceding one,
+viz. we have
+
+  |a|      = a,
+
+  |a,  b | = a|b'| - a'|b|.
+  |a', b'|
+
+  |a,  b,  c | = a|b', c'| + a'|b", c"| + a"|b,  c |,
+  |a', b', c'|    |b", c"|     |b , c |     |b', c'|
+  |a", b", c"|
+
+  |a,   b  , c  , d  | = a|b',  c',  d' | - a'|b" , c" , d" | +
+  |a',  b' , c' , d' |    |b",  c",  d" |     |b"', c"', d"'|
+  |a",  b" , c" , d" |    |b"', c"', d"'|     |b  , c  , d  |
+  |a"', b"', c"', d"'|
+
+                      + a"|b"', c"', d"'| - a"'|b , c,  d |,
+                          |b  , c  , d  |      |b', c', d'|
+                          |b' , c' , d' |      |b", c", d"|
+
+and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd order, but
+alternately + and - for a determinant of an even order.
+
+2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results:--
+
+A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3...n products which
+can be formed with n elements out of n² elements arranged in the form of
+a square, no two of the n elements being in the same line or in the same
+column, and each such product having the coefficient ± unity.
+
+The products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible
+manner the columns (or the lines) of the determinant, and then taking
+for the factors the n elements in the dexter diagonal. And we thence
+derive the rule for the signs, viz. considering the primitive
+arrangement of the columns as positive, then an arrangement obtained
+therefrom by a single interchange (inversion, or derangement) of two
+columns is regarded as negative; and so in general an arrangement is
+positive or negative according as it is derived from the primitive
+arrangement by an even or an odd number of interchanges. [This implies
+the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive
+arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even number of
+interchanges,--a theorem the verification of which may be easily
+obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular case of the general
+one), an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number
+of interchanges.] And this being so, each product has the sign belonging
+to the corresponding arrangement of the columns; in particular, a
+determinant contains with the sign + the product of the elements in its
+dexter diagonal. It is to be observed that the rule gives as many
+positive as negative arrangements, the number of each being = ½ 1.2...n.
+
+The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving to the
+columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers 1, 2, 3 ... n, to
+obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement we take, as often as
+a lower number succeeds a higher one, the sign -, and, compounding
+together all these minus signs, obtain the proper sign, + or - as the
+case may be.
+
+Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123, 231, 312
+are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the developed expression
+of the foregoing determinant of the third order is
+
+           = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c.
+
+3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function[1] of the
+elements of each column thereof, and also a linear function of the
+elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the determinant retains
+the same value, only its sign being altered, when any two columns are
+interchanged, or when any two lines are interchanged; more generally,
+when the columns are permuted in any manner, or when the lines are
+permuted in any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with
+the sign + or - according as the new arrangement (considered as derived
+from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative according to the
+foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that, if two columns are
+identical, or if two lines are identical, the value of the determinant
+is = 0. It may be added, that if the lines are converted into columns,
+and the columns into lines, in such a way as to leave the dexter
+diagonal unaltered, the value of the determinant is unaltered; the
+determinant is in this case said to be _transposed_.
+
+4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of the n²
+elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or say, for
+shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only the sign is
+altered when any two columns are interchanged; these properties
+completely determine the function, except as to a common factor which
+may multiply all the terms. If, to get rid of this arbitrary common
+factor, we assume that the product of the elements in the dexter
+diagonal has the coefficient +1, we have a complete definition of the
+determinant, and it is interesting to show how from these properties,
+assumed for the definition of the determinant, it at once appears that
+the determinant is a function serving for the solution of a system of
+linear equations. Observe that the properties show at once that if any
+column is = 0 (that is, if the elements in the column are each = 0),
+then the determinant is = 0; and further, that if any two columns are
+identical, then the determinant is = 0.
+
+5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the
+beginning of this article, consider the determinant
+
+                 |ax  + by  + cz  - d , b , c |;
+                 |a'x + b'y + c'z - d', b', c'|
+                 |a"x + b"y + c"z - d", b", c"|
+
+it appears that this is
+
+  = x|a , b , c | + y|b , b , c | + z|c , b , c | - |d , b , c |;
+     |a', b', c'|    |b', b', c'|    |c', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+     |a", b", c"|    |b", b", c"|    |c", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+viz. the second and third terms each vanishing, it is
+
+                = x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c |.
+                   |a', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+                   |a", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the
+original determinant is = 0, and therefore the determinant itself is = 0;
+that is, the linear equations give
+
+                x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c | = 0;
+                 |a', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+                 |a", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+which is the result obtained above.
+
+We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there is a
+more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the new
+equation
+
+            [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z = [delta];
+
+a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have
+
+           |[alpha], [beta], [gamma], [delta]| = 0;
+           |   a   ,    b  ,    c   , d      |
+           |   a'  ,    b' ,    c'  , d'     |
+           |   a"  ,    b" ,    c"  , d"     |
+
+or, as this may be written,
+
+     |[alpha], [beta], [gamma]    | - [delta]| a , b , c | = 0:
+     |   a   ,   b   ,    c   , d |          | a', b', c'|
+     |   a'  ,   b'  ,    c'  , d'|          | a", b", c"|
+     |   a"  ,   b"  ,    c"  , d"|          |           |
+
+which, considering [delta] as standing herein for its value [alpha]x +
+[beta]y + [gamma]z, is a consequence of the original equations only: we
+have thus an expression for [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z, an arbitrary
+linear function of the unknown quantities x, y, z; and by comparing the
+coefficients of [alpha], [beta], [gamma] on the two sides respectively,
+we have the values of x, y, z; in fact, these quantities, each
+multiplied by
+
+                      |a , b , c |,
+                      |a', b', c'|
+                      |a", b", c"|
+
+are in the first instance obtained in the forms
+
+       |1             |, |    1         |, |        1     |;
+       |a , b , c , d |  |a , b , c , d |  |a , b , c , d |
+       |a', b', c', d'|  |a', b', c', d'|  |a', b', c', d'|
+       |a", b", c", d"|  |a", b", c", d"|  |a", b", c", d"|
+
+but these are
+
+         = |b , c , d |, - |c , d , a |, |d , a , b |,
+           |b', c', d'|    |c', d', a'|  |d', a', b'|
+           |b", c", d"|    |c", d", a"|  |d", a", b"|
+
+or, what is the same thing,
+
+         = |b , c , d |, |c , a , d |, |a , b , d |
+           |b', c', d'|  |c', a', d'|  |a', b', d'|
+           |b", c", d"|  |c", a", d"|  |a", b", d"|
+
+respectively.
+
+6. _Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order._--The theorem
+is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition of a
+determinant. It is most simply expressed thus--
+
+              ([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"),
+                     ([beta],[beta]',[beta]"),
+                           ([gamma],[gamma]',[gamma]")
+              +---------------------------------------+
+  (a , b , c )|          "       "       "            | =
+  (a', b', c')|          "       "       "            |
+  (a", b", c")|          "       "       "            |
+
+                        = |a , b , c |. |[alpha] , [beta] , [gamma] |,
+                          |a', b', c'|  |[alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'|
+                          |a", b", c"|  |[alpha]", [beta]", [gamma]"|
+
+where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant, the
+terms of the first line being (a, b, c)([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"),
+that is, a[alpha] + b[alpha]' + c[alpha]", (a, b, c)([beta], [beta]',
+[beta]"), that is, a[beta] + b[beta]' + c[beta]", (a, b, c)([gamma],
+[gamma]', [gamma]"), that is a[gamma] + b[gamma]' + c[gamma]"; and
+similarly the terms in the second and third lines are the life functions
+with (a', b', c') and (a", b", c") respectively.
+
+There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns; the
+result would hold good if on the left-hand side we had written ([alpha],
+[beta], [gamma]), ([alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'), ([alpha]", [beta]",
+[gamma]"), or what is the same thing, if on the right-hand side we had
+transposed the second determinant; and either of these changes would, it
+might be thought, increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason
+which need not be explained,[2] the form actually adopted is the
+preferable one.
+
+To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant on the
+left-hand side, _qua_ linear function of its columns, may be broken up
+into a sum of (3³ =) 27 determinants, each of which is either of some
+such form as
+
+         = [alpha][beta][gamma]'|a , a , b |,
+                                |a', a', b'|
+                                |a", a", b"|
+
+
+where the term [alpha][beta][gamma]' is not a term of the
+[alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant, and its coefficient (as a determinant
+with two identical columns) vanishes; or else it is of a form such as
+
+         = [alpha][beta]'[gamma]"|a , b , c |,
+                                 |a', b', c'|
+                                 |a", b", c"|
+
+that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the
+abc-determinant last written down; the sum of all other factors ±
+[alpha][beta]'[gamma]" is the [alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant of the
+formula; and the final result then is, that the determinant on the
+left-hand side is equal to the product on the right-hand side of the
+formula.
+
+7. _Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary
+Determinants._--Consider, for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth
+order, 5 = 2 + 3, and let the top two lines be
+
+                        a , b , c , d , e
+                        a', b', c', d', e'
+
+then, if we consider how these elements enter into the determinant, it
+is at once seen that they enter only through the determinants of the
+second order |a , b |, &c., which can be formed by selecting any two
+             |a', b'|
+columns at pleasure. Moreover, representing the remaining three lines by
+
+                   a" , b" , c" , d" , e"
+                   a"', b"', c"', d"', e"'
+                   a"", b"", c"", d"", e""
+
+it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant
+formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant of the
+third order formed with the complementary three columns of the second
+set; and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a
+sum of all the products of the form
+
+                 = |a , b |  |c" , d" , e" |,
+                   |a', b"|  |c"', d"', e"'|
+                             |c"", d"", e""|
+
+the sign ± being in each case such that the sign of the term ±
+ab'c"d'"e"" obtained from the diagonal elements of the component
+determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the determinant of
+the fifth order; for the product written down the sign is obviously +.
+
+Observe that for a determinant of the n-th order, taking the
+decomposition to be 1 + (n - 1), we fall back upon the equations given
+at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a determinant.
+
+8. Any determinant |a , b | formed out of the elements of the original
+                   |a', b'|
+determinant, by selecting the lines and columns at pleasure, is termed a
+_minor_ of the original determinant; and when the number of lines and
+columns, or order of the determinant, is n-1, then such determinant is
+called a _first minor_; the number of the first minors is = n², the
+first minors, in fact, corresponding to the several elements of the
+determinant--that is, the coefficient therein of any term whatever is
+the corresponding first minor. The first minors, each divided by the
+determinant itself, form a system of elements _inverse_ to the elements
+of the determinant.
+
+A determinant is _symmetrical_ when every two elements symmetrically
+situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal to each other; if
+they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum of the two elements be
+= 0), this relation not extending to the diagonal elements themselves,
+which remain arbitrary, then the determinant is _skew_; but if the
+relation does extend to the diagonal terms (that is, if these are each =
+0), then the determinant is _skew symmetrical_; thus the determinants
+
+  |a, h, g|; |    a ,     [nu],  - [mu]|; |     0,      [nu],  - [mu]|
+  |h, b, f|  |- [nu],        b,[lambda]|  |- [nu],         0,[lambda]|
+  |g, f, c|  |  [mu],-[lambda],      c |  |  [mu],- [lambda],       0|
+
+are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical:
+
+The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments, and
+applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of mathematics. For
+further developments of the theory of determinants see ALGEBRAIC FORMS.
+                                                                (A. CA.)
+
+  9. _History._--These functions were originally known as "resultants,"
+  a name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but now replaced by
+  the title "determinants," a name first applied to certain forms of
+  them by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the theory of determinants
+  is to be found in the writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693),
+  who incidentally discovered certain properties when reducing the
+  eliminant of a system of linear equations. Gabriel Cramer, in a note
+  to his _Analyse des lignes courbes algébriques_ (1750), gave the rule
+  which establishes the sign of a product as _plus_ or _minus_ according
+  as the number of displacements from the typical form has been even or
+  odd. Determinants were also employed by Étienne Bezout in 1764, but
+  the first connected account of these functions was published in 1772
+  by Charles Auguste Vandermonde. Laplace developed a theorem of
+  Vandermonde for the expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph
+  Louis Lagrange, in his memoir on _Pyramids_, used determinants of the
+  third order, and proved that the square of a determinant was also a
+  determinant. Although he obtained results now identified with
+  determinants, Lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically.
+  In 1801 Gauss published his _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_, which,
+  although written in an obscure form, gave a new impetus to
+  investigations on this and kindred subjects. To Gauss is due the
+  establishment of the important theorem, that the product of two
+  determinants both of the second and third orders is a determinant. The
+  formulation of the general theory is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy,
+  whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries made in the
+  following decades by Hoëné-Wronski and J. Binet in France, Carl Gustav
+  Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur Cayley in
+  England. Jacobi's researches were published in _Crelle's Journal_
+  (1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and enriched by
+  new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacobi is
+  indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The far-reaching
+  discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the most important
+  developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new fields were opened up,
+  and have been diligently explored by many mathematicians.
+  Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley; axisymmetric-determinants by
+  Jacobi, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester and O. Hesse, and centro-symmetric
+  determinants by W. R. F. Scott and G. Zehfuss. Continuants have been
+  discussed by Sylvester; alternants by Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H.
+  Nagelbach and G. Garbieri; circulants by E. Catalan, W. Spottiswoode
+  and J. W. L. Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B. Christoffel and G.
+  Frobenius. Determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been
+  studied by V. von Zeipel; the expression of definite integrals as
+  determinants by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the expression of
+  continued fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V. Nachreiner, S.
+  Günther and E. Fürstenau. (See T. Muir, _Theory of Determinants_,
+  1906).
+
+[1] The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest
+sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is that
+the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a', a", ... of any
+column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa + A'a' + A"a" + ...
+without any term independent of a, a', a" ...
+
+[2] The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for the
+multiplication of two matrices.
+
+
+DETERMINISM (Lat. _determinare_, to prescribe or limit), in ethics, the
+name given to the theory that all moral choice, so called, is the
+determined or necessary result of psychological and other conditions. It
+is opposed to the various doctrines of Free-Will, known as voluntarism,
+libertarianism, indeterminism, and is from the ethical standpoint more
+or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism. There are various degrees
+of determinism. It may be held that every action is causally connected
+not only externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also
+internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if we could
+know exactly all these conditions, we should be able to forecast with
+mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue. In this
+theory the agent cannot be held responsible for his action in any sense.
+It is the extreme antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the
+doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative
+courses (the _liberum arbitrium indifferentiae_). Since, however, the
+evidence of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the
+individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself as
+being free within certain limitations to make his own choice of
+alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that there may be
+in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes
+solely an element of freedom. This view is corroborated by the
+phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent feels that he ought to, and
+could, have chosen a different course of action. These two kinds of
+determinism are sometimes distinguished as "hard" and "soft"
+determinism. The controversy between determinism and libertarianism
+hinges largely on the significance of the word "motive"; indeed in no
+other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by
+purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How far, and in
+what sense, can action which is determined by motives be said to be
+free? For a long time the advocates of free-will, in their eagerness to
+preserve moral responsibility, went so far as to deny all motives as
+influencing moral action. Such a contention, however, clearly defeats
+its own object by reducing all action to chance. On the other hand, the
+scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the
+distinction between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives,
+character and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product
+of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does it
+become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in his motives
+and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards outward surroundings,
+in his appetites and aversions, inherited tendency and environment have
+been found to play a very large part; indeed many thinkers hold that the
+whole of a man's development, mental as well as physical, is determined
+by external conditions.
+
+In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed,
+but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament assumes
+throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been argued by
+theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge, coupled with
+that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily implies that all
+human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world. Such an
+inference is, however, clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of
+sin, repentance and the atonement, as also with that of eternal reward
+and punishment, which postulates a real measure of human responsibility.
+
+For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles, WILL,
+PREDESTINATION (for the theological problems), ETHICS.
+
+
+DETINUE (O. Fr. _detenue_, from _detenir_, to hold back), in law, an
+action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property in goods
+seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and refuses to
+redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue, the
+judgment is that he recover the chattel or, if it cannot be had, its
+value, which is assessed by the judge and jury, and also certain damages
+for detaining the same. An order for the restitution of the specific
+goods may be enforced by a special writ of execution, called a writ of
+delivery. (See CONTRACT; TROVER.)
+
+
+DETMOLD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of
+Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the Teutoburger
+Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Altenbeken line of the Prussian
+state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164. The residential château of the
+princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550), in the Renaissance style, is an
+imposing building, lying with its pretty gardens nearly in the centre of
+the town; whilst at the entrance to the large park on the south is the
+New Palace (1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house.
+Detmold possesses a natural history museum, theatre, high school,
+library, the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876)
+was born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe
+(1801-1836), also a native, died. The leading industries are
+linen-weaving, tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of
+marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town is the
+Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's colossal statue of Hermann or
+Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold (Thiatmelli) was in 783
+the scene of a conflict between the Saxons and the troops of
+Charlemagne.
+
+
+DETROIT, the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite Windsor, Canada, about 4 m.
+W. from the outlet of Lake St Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop.
+(1880) 116,340; (1890) 205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were
+foreign-born and 4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the
+foreign-born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German Poles,
+25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians, 6347 were
+English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by the Michigan Central,
+the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the
+Père Marquette, the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo &
+Ironton and the Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2 m. to 3
+m., and the other 6 m. from the centre of the city, connect the factory
+districts with the main railway lines. Trains are ferried across the
+river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to Cleveland,
+Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important places between,
+and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also the S. terminus for
+several lines to more remote lake ports, and electric lines extend from
+here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac, Jackson, Toledo and Grand Rapids.
+
+The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase from 29 sq.
+m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in proportion to its
+population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of the
+United States. Baltimore, for example, had in 1904 nearly 70% more
+inhabitants (estimated), while its area at that time was a little less
+and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter less than that of Detroit. The ground
+within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is
+quite level, but rises gradually from the river bank, which is only a
+few feet in height. The Detroit river, along which the city extends for
+about 10 m., is here ½ m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its current is
+quite rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth it has a
+width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of islands,
+which during the summer are popular resorts. The city has a 3 m.
+frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the Detroit, with a 16 ft.
+channel. Before the fire by which the city was destroyed in 1805, the
+streets were only 12 ft. wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty. But
+when the rebuilding began, several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide
+were--through the influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one
+of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the
+city of Washington--made to radiate from two central points. From a half
+circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues 120 ft. and 200 ft.
+wide. About ¼ m. toward the river from this was established another
+focal point called the Campus Martius, 600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at
+which commence radiating or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide.
+Running north from the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand
+Circus is Woodward Avenue, 120 ft. wide, dividing the present city, as
+it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the river is
+Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these avenues is the
+principal retail street along its lower portion, and is a residence
+avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the principal wholesale street
+at the lower end, and a fine residence avenue E. of this. Many of the
+other residence streets are 80 ft. wide. The setting of shade trees was
+early encouraged, and large elms and maples abound. The intersections of
+the diagonal streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as
+well as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly
+with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much used, and
+kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other American cities of
+equal size are the streets and avenues kept so clean. The Grand
+Boulevard, 150 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 12 m. in length, has been
+constructed around the city except along the river front. A very large
+proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit own their homes: there are no
+large congested tenement-house districts; and many streets in various
+parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often
+having a garden plot in front.
+
+Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871), overlooking
+the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in three storeys; the
+flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of 200 ft. On the
+four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures, each
+14 ft. in height, to represent Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and
+on the same level with these is a clock weighing 7670 lb--one of the
+largest in the world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and
+Sailors' monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892)
+and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four corners in each of three
+sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures
+representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry and Artillery,
+also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History; the figure by which the
+monument is surmounted was designed to symbolize Michigan. A larger and
+more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county
+court house, facing Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a
+gilded dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely
+decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest architectural
+beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine Byzantine interior, St
+John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue Baptist and the First
+Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue, and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of
+Mary, both Roman Catholic. The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson
+Avenue, contains some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese
+collections, the Scripps' collection of old masters, other valuable
+paintings, and a small library; free lectures on art are given here
+through the winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908,
+including one of the best collections of state and town histories in the
+country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and relating
+principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the public. The
+city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The principal ones are the
+Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monument on the Campus Martius, and a
+statue of Mayor Pingree in West Grand Circus Park.
+
+The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about 1200
+acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in the river
+at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having an area of more
+than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of 4½ acres, with its trees,
+flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant resting place in the busiest
+quarter of the city. Six miles farther out on Woodward Avenue is Palmer
+Park of about 140 acres, given to the city in 1894 and named in honour
+of the donor. Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the city, and
+there are various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are Elmwood
+(Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining in the E.
+part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in the N. part of the
+city.
+
+_Charity and Education._--Among the charitable institutions are the
+general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's); the Detroit Emergency,
+the Children's Free and the United States Marine hospitals; St Luke's
+hospital, church home, and orphanage; the House of Providence (a
+maternity hospital and infant asylum); the Woman's hospital and
+foundling's home; the Home for convalescent children, &c. In 1894 the
+mayor, Hazen Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of
+preparing, through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant
+land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other
+vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor
+commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the unemployed,
+and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan served an
+admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression, and was
+copied in other cities; it was abandoned when, with the renewal of
+industrial activity, the necessity for it ceased. The leading penal
+institution of the city is the Detroit House of Correction, noted for
+its efficient reformatory work; the inmates are employed ten hours a
+day, chiefly in making furniture. The house of correction pays the city
+a profit of $35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in
+addition to those of the general public school system, include several
+parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and commercial colleges;
+Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877; the Detroit College of
+Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan College of Medicine and Surgery,
+opened in 1888; the Detroit College of law, founded in 1891, and a city
+normal school.
+
+_Commerce._--Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and
+shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous traffic
+between the upper and lower lakes passes through the Detroit river. In
+1907 the number of vessels recorded was 34,149, with registered tonnage
+of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons of freight, valued at
+$697,311,302. This includes vessels which delivered part or all of their
+cargo at Detroit. The largest item in the freights is iron ore on
+vessels bound down. The next is coal on vessels up bound. Grain and
+lumber are the next largest items. Detroit is a port of entry, and its
+foreign commerce, chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The
+city's exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in
+1909. The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,100,659 in 1909.
+
+As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total number of
+manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with a product for the
+year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there were 2847 establishments with
+a product for the year valued at $100,892,838; or an increase of 30.4%
+in the decade. In 1900 the establishments under the factory system,
+omitting the hand trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and
+produced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments under the
+factory system numbered 1363 and the product had increased 45.7% to
+$128,761,658. In the district subsequently annexed the product in 1904
+was about $12,000,000, making a total of $140,000,000. The output for
+1906 was estimated at $180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905
+visited 1721 factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected
+1790 factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in the
+country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the value of its
+product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In 1906 the city had
+twenty automobile factories, with an output of 11,000 cars, valued at
+$12,000,000. Detroit is probably the largest manufacturer in the country
+of freight cars, stoves, pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash
+and similar alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships,
+paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods, furniture, boots
+and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt liquors and fur goods; and
+slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry.
+
+The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought into one
+association the members of three former bodies, making a compact
+organization with civic as well as commercial aims. The board has
+brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of
+the city and many of the professional men. Their united efforts have
+brought many new industries to the city, have improved industrial
+conditions, and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal
+administration. Other business organizations are the Board of Trade,
+devoted to the grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers'
+Association, which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between
+employer and employed, the Builders' & Traders' Exchange, and the Credit
+Men's Association.
+
+_Administration._--Although the city received its first charter in 1806,
+and another in 1815, the real power rested in the hands of the governor
+and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters of 1824 and 1827
+centred the government in a council and made the list of elective
+officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised in 1857 and again in 1859
+and the present charter dates from 1883. Under this charter only three
+administrative officers are elected,--the mayor, the city clerk and the
+city treasurer,--elections being biennial. The administration of the
+city departments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one
+commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and boulevards,
+police and public works departments. The four members of the health
+board are nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate.
+The school board is an independent body, consisting of one elected
+member from each ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has
+the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common
+council. In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other
+principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor and confirmed
+by the council, are controller, corporation counsel, board of three
+assessors, fire commission (four members), public lighting commission
+(six members), water commission (five members), poor commission (four
+members), and inspectors of the house of correction (four in number).
+The members of the public library commission, six in number, are elected
+by the board of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next
+fiscal year are furnished by the different departments to the controller
+in February. He transmits them to the common council with his
+recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to consider them.
+It may reduce or increase the amounts asked, and may add new items. The
+budget then goes to the board of estimates, which has a month for its
+consideration. This body consists of two members elected from each ward
+and five elected at large. The mayor and heads of departments are
+advisory members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the board
+of estimates can hold no other office and they have no appointing power,
+the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political
+motives and influences. They may reduce or cut out any estimates
+submitted, but cannot increase any or add new ones. No bonds can be
+issued without the assent of the board of estimates. The budget is
+apportioned among twelve committees which have almost invariably given
+close and conscientious examination to the actual needs of the
+departments. A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing
+the service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations.
+Prudent management under this system has placed the city in the highest
+rank financially. Its debt limit is 2% on the assessed valuation, and
+even that low maximum is not often reached. The debt in 1907 was only
+about $5,500,000, a smaller _per capita_ debt than that of any other
+city of over 100,000 inhabitants in the country; the assessed valuation
+was $330,000,000; the city tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of
+assessed valuation. Both the council and the estimators are hampered in
+their work by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries
+and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the
+legislature, which has also determined many affairs of a purely
+administrative character.
+
+Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership. On account
+of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private company, the city
+bought the water-works as long ago as 1836. The works have been twice
+moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the
+city. In 1907 there were six engines in the works with a pumping
+capacity of 152,000,000 gallons daily. The daily average of water used
+during the preceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water is pumped
+from Lake St Clair and is of exceptional purity. The city began its own
+public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the river near
+the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public buildings, but
+makes no provision for commercial business. The lighting is excellent,
+and the cost is probably less than could be obtained from a private
+company. The street lighting is done partly from pole and arm lights,
+but largely from steel towers from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with
+strong reflected lights at the top. The city also owns two portable
+asphalt plants, and thus makes a saving in the cost of street repairing
+and resurfacing. With a view of effecting the reduction of street car
+fares to three cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for
+purchasing or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme
+Court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as the
+constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal
+improvement, the state could not empower a municipality to do so.
+Certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question of
+municipal ownership of the railways.
+
+_History._--Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet de la Mothe
+Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the importance of the place
+as a strategic point for determining the control of the fur trade and
+the possession of the North-west and had received assistance from the
+French government soon after Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the
+secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged
+the English government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac
+arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at once built
+a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now Jefferson Avenue
+and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and named it Fort Pontchartrain
+in honour of the French colonial minister. Indians at once came to the
+place in large numbers, but they soon complained of the high price of
+French goods; there was serious contention between Cadillac and the
+French Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had been
+granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the Jesuits. After
+the several parties had begun to complain to the home government the
+monopoly of the fur trade was transferred to Cadillac and he was
+exhorted to cease quarrelling with the Jesuits. Although the
+inhabitants then increased to 200 or more, dissatisfaction with the
+paternal rule of the founder increased until 1710, when he was made
+governor of Louisiana. The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn;
+by the second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and
+for several years following the population was greatly reduced and the
+post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the Mississippi
+country was opened, the population once more increased, and again in
+1748, when the settlement of the Ohio Valley began, the governor-general
+of Canada offered special inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit,
+with the result that the population was soon more than 1000 and the
+cultivation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however, the
+place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers and an
+English element was introduced into the population which up to this time
+had been almost exclusively French. Three years later, during the
+conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly escaped capture and then
+suffered from a siege lasting from the 9th of May until the 12th of
+October. Under English rule it continued from this time on as a military
+post with its population usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new
+fort was built and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of
+Independence the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions
+to ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which
+concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United States in
+1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the 11th of January
+1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794. It was then named Fort
+Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated as a town and received its
+present name. In 1805 all except one or two buildings were destroyed by
+fire. General William Hull (1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American
+Independence, governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander
+of the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to hear
+immediately of the declaration of war between the United States and
+Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped by Lake Erie. He
+made from Detroit on the 12th of July an awkward and futile advance into
+Canada, which, if more vigorous, might have resulted in the capture of
+Malden and the establishment of American troops in Canada, and then
+retired to his fortifications. On the 16th of August 1812, without any
+resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the city
+to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards attempted to
+justify himself by criticism of the War Department in general and in
+particular of General Henry Dearborn's armistice with Prevost, which had
+not included in its terms Hull, whom Dearborn had been sent out to
+reinforce.[1] After Perry's victory on the 14th of September on Lake
+Erie, Detroit on the 29th of September was again occupied by the forces
+of the United States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since
+then its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of
+Michigan from 1805 to 1847.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Silas Farmer, _The History of Detroit and Michigan_
+  (Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and "Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P.
+  Powell's _Historic Towns of the Western States_ (New York and London,
+  1901); D. F. Wilcox, "Municipal Government in Michigan and Ohio," in
+  _Columbia University Studies_ (New York, 1896); C. M. Burton,
+  _"Cadillac's Village" or Detroit under Cadillac_ (Detroit, 1896);
+  Francis Parkman, _A Half Century of Conflict_ (Boston, 1897); and _The
+  Conspiracy of Pontiac_ (Boston, 1898); and the annual _Reports_ of the
+  Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.).
+
+[1] Hull was tried at Albany in 1814 by court martial, General Dearborn
+presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and
+unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president
+remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution.
+
+
+DETTINGEN, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Main,
+and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg railway, 10 m. N.W. of
+Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the
+27th of June 1743, when the English, Hanoverians and Austrians (the
+"Pragmatic army"), 42,000 men under the command of George II. of
+England, routed the numerically superior French forces under the duc de
+Noailles. It was in memory of this victory that Handel composed his
+_Dettingen Te Deum_.
+
+
+DEUCALION, in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of Phthia in
+Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the mythical ancestor
+of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved to destroy all mankind by a
+flood, Deucalion constructed a boat or ark, in which, after drifting
+nine days and nights, he landed on Mount Parnassus (according to others,
+Othrys, Aetna or Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and
+inquired how to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind
+them the "bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the
+hillside. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by
+Pyrrha, women.
+
+  See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 243-415; Apollonius Rhodius
+  iii. 1085 ff.; H. Usener, _Die Sintflutsagen_ (1899).
+
+
+DEUCE (a corruption of the Fr. _deux_, two), a term applied to the "two"
+of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used in tennis when
+both sides have each scored three points in a game, or five games in a
+set; to win the game or set two points or games must then be won
+consecutively. The earliest instances in English of the use of the slang
+expression "the deuce," in exclamations and the like, date from the
+middle of the 17th century. The meaning was similar to that of "plague"
+or "mischief" in such phrases as "plague on you," "mischief take you"
+and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for "the devil" is
+later. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the most probable
+derivation is from a Low German _das daus_, i.e. the "deuce" in dice,
+the lowest and therefore the most unlucky throw. The personification,
+with a consequent change of gender, to _der daus_, came later. The word
+has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic
+mythology.
+
+
+DEUS, JOÃO DE (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet of his
+generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in the province of
+Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating in the faculty of law at
+the university of Coimbra, he did not proceed to his degree but settled
+in the city, dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses,
+which circulated among professors and undergraduates in manuscript
+copies. In the volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he
+practised a rigorous self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855,
+and the first of his poems to appear in a separate form was _La Lata_,
+in 1860. In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor
+of _O Bejense_, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo, and
+four years later he edited the _Folha do Sul_. As the pungent satirical
+verses entitled _Eleições_ prove, he was not an ardent politician, and,
+though he was returned as Liberal deputy for the constituency of Silves
+in 1869, he acted independently of all political parties and promptly
+resigned his mandate. The renunciation implied in the act, which cut him
+off from all advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of
+his lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend
+José Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series of
+poems, _Flores do campo_, which is supplemented by the _Ramo de flores_
+(1869). This is João de Deus's masterpiece. _Pires de Marmalada_ (1869)
+is an improvisation of no great merit. The four theatrical
+pieces--_Amemos o nosso proximo_, _Ser apresentado_, _Ensaio de
+Casamento_, and _A Viúva inconsolavel_--are prose translations from
+Méry, cleverly done, but not worth the doing. _Horacio e Lydia_ (1872),
+a translation from Ronsard, is a good example of artifice in
+manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure, the Portuguese
+couplet. As an indication of a strong spiritual reaction three prose
+fragments (1873)--_Anna, Mãe de Maria_, _A Virgem Maria_ and _A Mulher
+do Levita de Ephrain_--translated from Darboy's _Femmes de la Bible_,
+are full of significance. The _Folhas soltas_ (1876) is a collection of
+verse in the manner of _Flores do campo_, brilliantly effective and
+exquisitely refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his
+attention to educational problems, and in his _Cartilha maternal_ (1876)
+first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzi and
+Fröbel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate was a
+misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational mission absorbed
+João de Deus completely, and is responsible for numerous controversial
+letters, for a translation of Théodore-Henri Barrau's treatise, _Des
+devoirs des enfants envers leurs parents_, for a prosodic dictionary
+and for many other publications of no literary value. A copy of verses
+in Antonio Vieira's _Grinalda de Maria_ (1877), the _Loas á Virgem_
+(1878) and the _Proverbios de Salomão_ are evidence of a complete return
+to orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a lamentable error of
+judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled _Cryptinas_ have
+been inserted in the completest edition of João de Deus's poems--_Campo
+de Flores_ (Lisbon, 1893). He died at Lisbon on the 11th of January
+1896, was accorded a public funeral and was buried in the National
+Pantheon, the Jeronymite church at Belem, where repose the remains of
+Camoens, Herculano and Garrett. His scattered minor prose writings and
+correspondence have been posthumously published by Dr Theophilo Braga
+(Lisbon, 1898).
+
+Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has been more
+widely read, more profoundly admired than João de Deus; yet no poet in
+any country has been more indifferent to public opinion and more
+deliberately careless of personal fame. He is not responsible for any
+single edition of his poems, which were put together by pious but
+ill-informed enthusiasts, who ascribed to him verses that he had not
+written; he kept no copies of his compositions, seldom troubled to write
+them himself, and was content for the most part to dictate them to
+others. He has no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is
+limited in theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch,
+often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced
+accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise a set of
+proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And yet, though
+he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though he wrote nothing at
+all comparable in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of _Os
+Lusiadas_, the popular instinct which links his name with that of his
+great predecessor is eminently just. For Camoens was his model; not the
+Camoens of the epic, but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets,
+where the passion of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has
+noted five stages of development in João de Deus's artistic life--the
+imitative, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout
+phases. Under each of these divisions is included much that is of
+extreme interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through
+the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly probable
+that _Caturras_ and _Gaspar_, pieces as witty as anything in Bocage but
+free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always interest literary
+students. But it is as the singer of love that João de Deus will delight
+posterity as he delighted his own generation. The elegiac music of
+_Rachel_ and of _Marina_, the melancholy of _Adeus_ and of _Remoinho_,
+the tenderness and sincerity of _Meu casta lirio_, of _Lagrima celeste_,
+of _Descalça_ and a score more songs are distinguished by the large,
+vital simplicity which withstands time. It is precisely in the quality
+of unstudied simplicity that João de Deus is incomparably strong. The
+temptations to a display of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a
+Portuguese poet; he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has
+before him the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an
+instrument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is João de
+Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge in idle ornament.
+His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweetness and of reverent
+purity; yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental,
+and, though he has not the strength for a long fight, emotion has seldom
+been set to more delicate music. Had he included among his other gifts
+the gift of selection, had he continued the poetic discipline of his
+youth instead of dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he
+performed it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man,
+there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen.
+
+  See also Maxime Formont, _Le Mouvement poétique contemporain en
+  Portugal_ (Lyon, 1892).                                (J. F.-K.)
+
+
+DEUTERONOMY, the name of one of the books of the Old Testament. This
+book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal criticism, orthodox
+scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its Mosaic authorship
+reduced it to the level of a pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at
+last triumphed over tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of
+Deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive,
+however, to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion
+regarding the composition and date of his book has passed.
+
+In the 17th century the characteristics which so clearly mark off
+Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch were frankly
+recognized, but the most advanced critics of that age were inclined to
+pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five. In the
+beginning of the 19th century de Wette startled the religious world by
+declaring that Deuteronomy, so far from being Mosaic, was not known till
+the time of Josiah. This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever
+since, this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical
+criticism. The only other single chapter of the Bible which is
+responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in
+critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy years
+after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen inferred that
+Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and therefore could not
+have been in existence in his day; for had Leviticus been the recognized
+Law-book of his nation Ezekiel could not have represented as a
+degradation the very position which that Law-book described as a special
+honour conferred on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so
+far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than
+Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much later stratum,
+and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic.
+
+The title "Deuteronomy" is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of
+the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered "and he shall write out for
+himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really means "and he [the king]
+shall write out for himself a copy of this law," where there is not the
+slightest suggestion that the author intended to describe "this law"
+delivered on the plains of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to
+the first code given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the
+phrase "this law" is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater difficulty
+than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew word for
+"copy." How much does "this law" include? It was long supposed to mean
+the whole of our present Deuteronomy; indeed, it is on that supposition
+that the traditional view of the Mosaic authorship is based. But the
+context alone can determine the question; and that is often so ambiguous
+that a sure inference is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that
+nowhere need "this law" mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably
+means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little that
+it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered stones set
+up beside an altar.
+
+Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a
+long process of development. The fact that it is legislative as well as
+hortatory is enough to prove this, for most of the laws it contains are
+found elsewhere in the Pentateuch, sometimes in less developed,
+sometimes in more developed forms, a fact which is conclusive proof of
+prolonged historical development. According to the all-pervading law of
+evolution, the less complex form must have preceded the more complex.
+Still, the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as
+easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable for its
+copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious feeling.
+
+The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot have been so
+large as our present book, for not only could it be read at a single
+sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one day. On the day it was
+found, Shaphan first read it himself, and then went to the king and read
+it aloud to him. But perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is
+that it was read publicly to the assembled people immediately before
+they, as well as their king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a
+word is said as to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by
+such a great multitude, being long or difficult.
+
+The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.),
+which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression made
+upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been produced by
+the legislative part alone. The king must have listened to the curses as
+well as the blessings in chap, xxviii., and no doubt also to the
+exhortations in chaps. v.-xi. Hence we may conclude that the original
+book consisted of a central mass of religious, civil and social laws,
+preceded by a hortatory introduction and followed by an effective
+peroration. The book read to Josiah must therefore have comprised most
+of what is found in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But
+something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present
+form, for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43
+(where the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52,
+there are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally
+acknowledged to be post-exilic.
+
+The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now
+have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv. 44, more
+historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more hortatory than
+historical. These may at first have been prefixed to separate editions
+of the legislative portion, but were eventually combined. Then, before D
+was united to P, five appendices of very various dates and embracing
+poetry as well as prose, were added so as to give a fuller account of
+the last days of Moses and thus lead up to the narrative of his death
+with which the book closes. (1) Chap. xxvii., where the elders of Israel
+are introduced for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. 1)
+and then the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer
+to laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this
+chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the laws
+codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The second
+appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us the farewell
+address of Moses and is certainly later than D. Moses is represented as
+speaking not with any hope of preventing Israel's apostasy but because
+he knows that the people will eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a
+point of view very different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap.
+xxxii. That this didactic poem must have been written late in the
+nation's history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7:
+"Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many generations." Such
+words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of Moses. It must have
+been composed in a time of natural gloom and depression, after Yahweh's
+anger had been provoked by "a very froward generation," certainly not
+before the Assyrian Empire had loomed up against the political horizon,
+aggressive and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the
+time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses, chap, xxxiii.
+The first line proves that this poem is not by D, who speaks invariably
+of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation depicted is in striking contrast
+with that of the Song. Everything is bright because of promises
+fulfilled, and the future bids fair to be brighter still. Bruston
+maintains with reason that the Blessing, strictly so called, consists
+only of vv. 6-25, and has been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the
+goodness of Jehovah to his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv.
+1-5, 26-29). The special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and
+Manasseh) in vv. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the
+time of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II. (5)
+The account of Moses' death, chap. xxxiv. This appendix, containing, as
+it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even Deuteronomy was not put
+into its present form until after the exile.
+
+From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the Covenant (Ex.
+xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E, the prophetic
+narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not quite clear whether D
+knew E as an independent work, or after its combination with J, the
+somewhat earlier prophetic narrative of the Southern kingdom, the
+combined form of which is now indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel
+certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that D quotes always from
+E and never from J, for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as
+readily be ascribed to J as to E, cf. Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut.
+x. 14 and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written
+certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J.
+
+In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas, whereas in
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere manifest. Hence this
+school of thought arose between the age of Isaiah and that of Jeremiah;
+but how long D itself may have been in existence before it was read in
+622 to Josiah cannot be determined with certainty. Many argue that D was
+written immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put
+into the temple for the purpose of being "found." This theory gives some
+plausibility to the charge that the book is a pious fraud. But the
+narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference. The more natural
+explanation is that it was written not in the early years of Josiah's
+reign, and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office, but
+some time during the long reign of Manasseh, probably when his policy
+was most reactionary and when he favoured the worship of the "host of
+heaven" and set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This
+explains why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed
+it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity should
+arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he actually foresaw
+how favourable that opportunity would prove, and that, as soon as
+discovered, his work would be promulgated as law by the king and
+willingly accepted by the people. The author believed that everything he
+wrote was in full accordance with the mind of Moses, and would
+contribute to the national weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and
+therefore he did not scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is
+not to be expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact
+year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is enough to
+determine with something like probability the century or half-century
+which best fits its historical data; and these appear to point to the
+reign of Manasseh.
+
+Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the historical
+résumés JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even verses being
+copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points out in his careful
+analysis, there are only three facts in D which are not also found in
+JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number of souls that went down
+into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark being made of acacia wood. But even
+these may have been in J or E originally, and left out when JE was
+combined with P. Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory
+parts of D between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural
+when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular; but as a
+similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally
+acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue seems anything but
+trustworthy, depending as it does on the presence or absence of a single
+Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it frequently does, in the division of
+verses which otherwise seem to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The
+inference as to diversity of authorship is much more conclusive when
+difference of standpoint can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii.
+2. The first two passages represent Moses as addressing the generation
+that was alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to
+those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later; and it
+may well be that the one author may, in the historical and hortatory
+parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other the 2nd singular;
+without the further inference being justified that every law in which
+the 2nd singular is used must be assigned to the latter, and every law
+in which the 2nd plural occurs must be due to the former.
+
+The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding characteristics,
+is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation towards which events had
+long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9 shows that even the zeal of Josiah
+could not carry out the instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's
+acceptance of D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the
+religion of Judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its
+adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them. D
+requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols, but
+of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas (stone pillars) often set
+up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21). These reforms made too heavy
+demands upon the people, as was proved by the reaction which set in at
+Josiah's death. Indeed the country people would look on the destruction
+of the high places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and
+would consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his
+sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of Jerusalem and
+the exile of the people would appear to those who had obeyed D's
+instructions as a well-merited punishment for national apostasy.
+
+Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each individual
+Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the declaration of
+the individual's duty towards God immediately follows the emphatic
+intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity. "Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our
+God, Yahweh is one: and thou shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thine
+heart and with all thy soul and with all thy strength" (vi. 4, 5).
+
+In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should never be
+forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy ever pronounced on
+any scripture was pronounced by Christ himself, when he said "on these
+words hang all the law and the prophets," and it is also well to
+remember that when tempted in the wilderness he repelled each suggestion
+of the Tempter by a quotation from Deuteronomy.
+
+Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the influence of
+the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and despite the spirit of love
+which breathes so strongly throughout the book, especially for the poor,
+the widow and the fatherless, the stranger and the homeless Levite
+(xxiv. 10-22), and the humanity shown towards both beasts and birds
+(xxii. 1, 4, 6 f., xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to
+explain the intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance
+characteristic of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as
+his own soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's
+pitiless order to that man is "Thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand
+shall be first upon him to put him to death." From this single instance
+we see not only how far mankind has travelled along the path of
+religious toleration since Deuteronomy was written, but also how very
+far the criticism implied in Christ's method of dealing with what "was
+said to them of old time" may be legitimately carried. (J. A. P.*)
+
+
+DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873), German oriental scholar,
+was born on the 28th of October 1829, at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of
+Jewish extraction. On reaching his sixteenth year he began his studies
+at the university of Berlin, paying special attention to theology and
+the Talmud. He also mastered the English language and studied English
+literature. In 1855 Deutsch was appointed assistant in the library of
+the British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and contributed no
+less than 190 papers to _Chambers's Encyclopaedia_, in addition to
+essays in Kitto's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries, and articles in
+periodicals. In October 1867 his article on "The Talmud," published in
+the _Quarterly Review_, made him known. It was translated into French,
+German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch and Danish. He died at Alexandria on the
+12th of May 1873.
+
+  His _Literary Remains_, edited by Lady Strangford, were published in
+  1874, consisting of nineteen papers on such subjects as "The Talmud,"
+  "Islam," "Semitic Culture," "Egypt, Ancient and Modern," "Semitic
+  Languages," "The Targums," "The Samaritan Pentateuch," and "Arabic
+  Poetry."
+
+
+DEUTSCHKRONE, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, between the two
+lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 m. N.W. of Schneidemühl, a railway junction
+60 m. north of Posen. Pop. (1905) 7282. It is the seat of the public
+offices for the district, possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
+church, a synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuit
+college, and has manufactures of machinery, woollens, tiles, brandy and
+beer.
+
+
+DEUTZ (anc. _Divitio_), formerly an independent town of Germany, in the
+Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to
+Cologne, with which it has been incorporated since 1888. It contains the
+church of St Heribert, built in the 17th century, cavalry barracks,
+artillery magazines, and gas, porcelain, machine and carriage factories.
+It has a handsome railway station on the banks of the Rhine, negotiating
+the local traffic with Elberfeld and Königswinter. The fortifications of
+the town form part of the defences of Cologne. To the east is the
+manufacturing suburb of Kalk.
+
+The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine monastery by
+Heribert, archbishop of Cologne. Permission to fortify the town was in
+1230 granted to the citizens by the archbishop of Cologne, between whom
+and the counts of Berg it was in 1240 divided. It was burnt in 1376,
+1445 and 1583; and in 1678, after the peace of Nijmwegen, the
+fortifications were dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed
+in 1888.
+
+
+DEUX-SÈVRES, an inland department of western France, formed in 1790
+mainly of the three districts of Poitou, Thouarsais, Gâtine and
+Niortais, added to a small portion of Saintonge and a still smaller
+portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 339,466. It is bounded
+N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne, S.E. by Charente, S. by
+Charente-Inférieure and W. by Vendée. The department takes its name from
+two rivers--the Sèvre of Niort which traverses the southern portion, and
+the Sèvre of Nantes (an affluent of the Loire) which drains the
+north-west. There are three regions--the Gâtine, occupying the north and
+centre of the department, the Plaine in the south and the
+Marais,--distinguished by their geological character and their general
+physical appearance. The Gâtine, formed of primitive rocks (granite and
+schists), is the continuation of the "Bocage" of Vendée and
+Maine-et-Loire. Its surface is irregular and covered with hedges and
+clumps of wood or forests. The systematic application of lime has much
+improved the soil, which is naturally poor. The Plaine, resting on
+oolite limestone, is treeless but fertile. The Marais, a low-lying
+district in the extreme south-west, consists of alluvial clays which also
+are extremely productive when properly drained. The highest points,
+several of which exceed 700 ft., are found in a line of hills which
+begins in the centre of the department, to the south of Parthenay, and
+stretches north-west into the neighbouring department of Vendée. It
+divides the region drained by the Sèvre Nantaise and the Thouet (both
+affluents of the Loire) in the north from the basins of the Sèvre
+Niortaise and the Charente in the south. The climate is mild, the annual
+temperature at Niort being 54° Fahr., and the rainfall nearly 25 in. The
+winters are colder in the Gâtine, the summers warmer in the Plaine.
+
+Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sèvres, which is primarily an
+agricultural department, consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the
+main cereals. Potatoes and mangold-wurzels are the chief root-crops.
+Niort is a centre for the growing Of vegetables (onions, asparagus,
+artichokes, &c.) and of angelica. Considerable quantities of beetroot
+are raised to supply the distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp, rape and
+flax are also cultivated. Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of
+Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the south. The
+department is well known for the Parthenay breed of cattle and the
+Poitou breed of horses; and the mules reared in the southern
+arrondissements are much sought after both in France and in Spain. The
+system of co-operative dairying is practised in some localities. The
+apple-trees of the Gâtine and the walnut-trees of the Plaine bring a
+good return. Coal is mined, and the department produces building-stone
+and lime. A leading industry is the manufacture of textiles (serges,
+druggets, linen, handkerchiefs, flannels, swan-skins and knitted goods).
+Tanning and leather-dressing are carried on at Niort and other places,
+and gloves are made at Niort. Wool and cotton spinning, hat and shoe
+making, distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also
+main industries. The department exports cattle and sheep to Paris and
+Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and its industrial
+products.
+
+The Sèvre Niortaise and its tributary the Mignon furnish 19 m. of
+navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouest-État railway.
+It contains a large proportion of Protestants, especially in the
+south-east. The four arrondissements are Niort, Bressuire, Melle and
+Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and the communes 356. Deux-Sèvres is
+part of the region of the IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the
+académie (educational circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its
+court of appeal.
+
+Niort (the capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent, Thouars
+and Oiron are the principal places in the department. Several other
+towns contain features of interest. Among these are Airvault, where
+there is a church of the 12th and 14th centuries which once belonged to
+the abbey of St Pierre, and an ancient bridge built by the monks;
+Celles-sur-Belle, where there is an old church rebuilt by Louis XI., and
+again in the 17th century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a fine
+Romanesque church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of the
+most ancient abbeys of Gaul.
+
+
+DEVA (Sanskrit "heavenly"), in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, spirits of
+the light and air, and minor deities generally beneficent. In Persian
+mythology, however, the word is used for evil spirits or demons.
+According to Zoroaster the devas were created by Ahriman.
+
+
+DEVA (mod. _Chester_), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain on the Dee.
+It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and held probably till the
+end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison was the Legio XX. Valeria
+Victrix, with which another legion (II. Adjutrix) was associated for a
+few years, about A.D. 75-85. It never developed, like many Roman
+legionary fortresses, into a town, but remained military throughout.
+Parts of its north and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate)
+and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area.
+
+  See F. J. Haverfield, _Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester_
+  (Chester, 1900), Introduction.
+
+
+DEVADATTA, the son of Suklodana, who was younger brother to the father
+of the Buddha (_Mah[=a]vastu_, iii. 76). Both he and his brother
+[=A]nanda, who were considerably younger than the Buddha, joined the
+brotherhood in the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry. Four other
+cousins of theirs, chiefs of the S[=a]kiya clan, and a barber named
+Up[=a]li, were admitted to the order at the same time; and at their own
+request the barber was admitted first, so that as their senior in the
+order he should take precedence of them (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 228). All
+the others continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years
+afterwards, having gained over the crown prince of Magadha,
+Aj[=a]tasattu, to his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting of
+the order, that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the leadership
+to him, Devadatta (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 238; _J[=a]taka_, i. 142). This
+proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition to have
+successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his aged father
+and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death of the
+Buddha (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 241-250; _J[=a]taka_, vi. 131), shortly
+afterwards, relying upon the feeling of the people in favour of
+asceticism, he brought forward four propositions for ascetic rules to be
+imposed on the order. These being refused, he appealed to the people,
+started an order of his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's
+community to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the
+success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be referred
+to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the _Anguttara_ (see _Dialogues
+of the Buddha_ i. 222), for Devadatta's family name was Gotama. But his
+community was certainly still in existence in the 4th century A.D., for
+it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien, the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's
+translation, p. 62). And it possibly lasted till the 7th century, for
+Hsüan Tsang mentions that in a monastery in Bengal the monks then
+followed a certain regulation of Devadatta's (T. Watters, _On Yuan
+Chwang_, ii. 191). There is no mention in the canon as to how or when
+Devadatta died; but the commentary on the _J[=a]taka_, written in the
+5th century A.D., has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by
+the earth near S[=a]vatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha
+(_J[=a]taka_, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to both
+the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and T. Watters,
+_On Yuan Chwang_, i. 390). It is a striking example of the way in which
+such legends grow, that it is only the latest of these authorities,
+Hsüan Tsang, who says that, though ostensibly approaching the Buddha
+with a view to reconciliation, Devadatta had concealed poison in his
+nail with the object of murdering the Buddha.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Vinaya Texts_, translated by Rhys Davids and H.
+  Oldenberg (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); _The J[=a]taka_, edited by V.
+  Fausböll (7 vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_
+  (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushell, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905); _Fa Hian_,
+  translated by J. Legge (Oxford, 1886); _Mah[=a]vastu_ (ed. Tenant, 3
+  vols., Paris, 1882-1897).                               (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+DEVAPRAYAG (DEOPRAYAG), a village in Tehri State of the United
+Provinces, India. It is situated at the spot where the rivers Alaknanda
+and Bhagirathi unite and form the Ganges, and as one of the five sacred
+confluences in the hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout
+Hindus. Devaprayag stands at an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a
+hill which rises above it 800 ft. On a terrace in the upper part of the
+village is the temple of Raghunath, built of huge uncemented stones,
+pyramidical in form and capped by a white cupola.
+
+
+DEVENS, CHARLES (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist, was born in
+Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 4th of April 1820. He graduated at
+Harvard College in 1838, and at the Harvard law school in 1840, and was
+admitted to the bar in Franklin county, Mass., where he practised from
+1841 to 1849. In the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the state senate,
+and from 1849 to 1853 was United States marshal for Massachusetts, in
+which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the fugitive slave,
+Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained to do, much against
+his personal desire; and subsequently he attempted in vain to purchase
+Sims's freedom, and many years later appointed him to a position in the
+department of justice at Washington. Devens practised law at Worcester
+from 1853 until 1861, and throughout the Civil War served in the Federal
+army, becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier-general
+of volunteers in April 1862. At the battle of Ball's Bluff (1861) he was
+severely wounded; he was again wounded at Fair Oaks (1862) and at
+Chancellorsville (1863), where he commanded a division. He later
+distinguished himself at Cold Harbor, and commanded a division in
+Grant's final campaign in Virginia (1864-65), his troops being the first
+to occupy Richmond after its fall. Breveted major-general in 1865, he
+remained in the army for a year as commander of the military district of
+Charleston, South Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetts superior
+court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate justice of the supreme
+court of the state from 1873 to 1877, and again from 1881 to 1891. From
+1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet
+of President Hayes. He died at Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January
+1891.
+
+  See his _Orations and Addresses_, with a memoir by John Codman Ropes
+  (Boston, 1891).
+
+
+DEVENTER, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the right bank
+of the Ysel, at the confluence of the Schipbeek, and a junction station
+10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also connected by steam tramway S.E.
+with Brokulo. Pop. (1900) 26,212. Deventer is a neat and prosperous town
+situated in the midst of prettily wooded environs, and containing many
+curious old buildings. There are three churches of special interest: the
+Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies the site
+of an older structure of which the 11th-century crypt remains; the Roman
+Catholic Broederkerk, or Brothers' Church, containing among its relics
+three ancient gospels said to have been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin),
+the English apostle of the Frisians and Westphalians (d. c. 773); and
+the Bergkerk, dedicated in 1206, which has two late Romanesque towers.
+The town hall (1693) contains a remarkable painting of the town council
+by Terburg. In the fine square called the Brink is the old weigh-house,
+now a school (gymnasium), built in 1528, with a large external staircase
+(1644). The gymnasium is descended from the Latin school of which the
+celebrated Alexander Hegius was master in the third quarter of the 15th
+century, when the young Erasmus was sent to it, and at which Adrian
+Floreizoon, afterwards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil
+about the same time. Another famous educational institution was the
+"Athenaeum" or high school, founded in 1630, at which Henri Renery (d.
+1639) taught philosophy, while Johann Friedrich Gronov (Gronovius)
+(1611-1671) taught rhetoric and history in the middle of the same
+century. The "Athenaeum" disappeared in 1876. In modern times Deventer
+possessed a famous teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch
+translator of Shakespeare. The town library, also called the library of
+the Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and _incunabula_, and a 13th-century
+copy of _Reynard the Fox_. The archives of the town are of considerable
+value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade, Deventer has important
+iron foundries and carpet factories (the royal manufactory of Smyrna
+carpets being especially famous); while cotton-printing, rope-making and
+the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on. A public official
+is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread
+known as "_Deventer Koek_," which has a reputation throughout Holland.
+In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of Deventer, some
+14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870.
+
+In the 14th century Deventer was the centre of the famous religious and
+educational movement associated with the name of GERHARD GROOT (q.v.),
+who was a native of the town (see BROTHERS OF COMMON LIFE).
+
+
+DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1902), Irish poet and critic, was born at
+Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the 10th of January 1814, being the
+third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt (1788-1846). In 1832 his father
+dropped the final name by royal licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet.
+Wordsworth called his sonnets the "most perfect of the age." These and
+his drama, _Mary Tudor_, were published by his son in 1875 and 1884.
+Aubrey de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his
+twenty-eighth year published _The Waldenses_, which he followed up in
+the next year by _The Search after Proserpine_. Thenceforward he was
+continually engaged, till his death on the 20th of January 1902, in the
+production of poetry and criticism. His best-known works are: in verse,
+_The Sisters_ (1861); _The Infant Bridal_ (1864); _Irish Odes_ (1869);
+_Legends of St Patrick_ (1872); and _Legends of the Saxon Saints_
+(1879); and in prose, _Essays chiefly on Poetry_ (1887); and _Essays
+chiefly Literary and Ethical_ (1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume
+of travel-sketches, and two dramas in verse, _Alexander the Great_
+(1874); and _St Thomas of Canterbury_ (1876); both of which, though they
+contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic
+spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry are "high
+seriousness" and a fine religious enthusiasm. His research in questions
+of faith led him to the Roman Church; and in many of his poems, notably
+in the volume of sonnets called _St Peter's Chains_ (1888), he made rich
+additions to devotional verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose
+calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his
+affection for Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and
+weight to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will
+be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study of
+Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many
+followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers; but
+after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on "Celtic Literature," nothing
+perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival than Aubrey de Vere's tender
+insight into the Irish character, and his stirring reproductions of the
+early Irish epic poetry.
+
+  A volume of _Selections_ from his poems was edited in 1894 (New York
+  and London) by G. E. Woodberry.
+
+
+DEVICE, a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also a pattern or
+design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem, often combined with a
+motto or legend. "Device" and its doublet "devise" come from the two Old
+French forms _devis_ and _devise_ of the Latin _divisa_, things divided,
+from _dividere_, to separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out,
+apportion. "Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term
+for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention restricted
+to a disposition of real property, the term "bequest" being used of
+personalty (see WILL). This use is directly due to the Medieval Latin
+meaning of _dividere_ = _testamento disponere_. In its verbal form,
+"devise" is used not only in the legal sense, but also in the sense of
+to plan, arrange, scheme.
+
+
+DEVIL (Gr. [Greek: diabolos], "slanderer," from [Greek: diaballein], to
+slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the supreme
+spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used for minor evil
+spirits in much the same sense as "demon." From the various
+characteristics associated with this idea, the term has come to be
+applied by analogy in many different senses. From the idea of evil as
+degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure, the term is applied to
+persons in evil plight, or of slight consideration. In English legal
+phraseology "devil" and "devilling" are used of barristers who act as
+substitutes for others. Any remuneration which the legal "devil" may
+receive is purely a matter of private arrangement between them. In the
+chancery division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of
+one half of the fee which the client pays; "in the king's bench division
+remuneration for 'devilling' of briefs or assisting in drafting and
+opinions is not common" (see _Annual Practice_, 1907, p. 717). In a
+similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by
+a literary hack or "devil." The term "printer's devil" for the errand
+boy in a printing office probably combines this idea with that of his
+being black with ink. The common notions of the devil as black,
+ill-favoured, malicious, destructive and the like, have occasioned the
+application of the term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the
+devil-fish, the coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth
+or separating wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or
+fried. In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the
+word, as used in mythology and religion.
+
+The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all
+phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good or evil, produce
+pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction in the character of
+these agencies is gradually recognized; the agents of good become gods,
+those of evil, demons. A tendency towards the simplification and
+organization of the evil as of the good forces, leads towards belief in
+outstanding leaders among the forces of evil. When the divine is most
+completely conceived as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and
+over against God stands Satan, or the devil.
+
+Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian monotheism that
+this belief in the devil has been most fully developed, yet there are
+approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In Babylonian mythology
+"the old serpent goddess 'the lady Nina' was transformed into the
+embodiment of all that was hostile to the powers of heaven" (Sayce's
+_Hibbert Lectures_, p. 283), and was confounded with the dragon Tiamat,
+"a terrible monster, reappearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab
+and Leviathan, the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man"
+(Tennant's _The Fall and Original Sin_, p. 43), and according to Gunkel
+(_Schöpfung und Chaos_, p. 383) "the original of the 'old serpent' of
+Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with an army of
+monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat of the luminous
+gods. While the Greek mythology described the Titans as "enchained once
+for all in their dark dungeons" yet Prometheus' threat remained to
+disturb the tranquillity of the Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology
+the army of darkness is led by Hel, the personification of twilight,
+sunk to the goddess who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and
+Loki, originally the god of fire, but afterwards "looked upon as the
+father of the evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her
+adornments, who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the
+death of Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts,
+Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver the
+celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the caverns of the
+clouds. In the _Trimurti_, Brahm[=a] (the impersonal) is manifested as
+Brahm[=a] (the personal creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Siva (the
+destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the belief in the god of Vedic times
+Rudra, who is represented as "the wild hunter who storms over the earth
+with his bands, and lays low with arrows the men who displease him"
+(Chantepie de la Saussaye's _Religionsgeschichte_, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p.
+25). The evil character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali
+(the black) is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The
+opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in Zoroastrianism.
+Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is Ahriman, the source of all
+evil; and the opposition runs through the whole universe (D'Alviella's
+_Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 158-164).
+
+The conception of _Satan_ (Heb. [Hebrew: Satan], the adversary, Gr.
+[Greek: Satanas], or [Greek: Satan], 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the
+post-exilic period of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of
+the influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots
+in much older beliefs. An "evil spirit" possesses Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 14),
+but it is "from the Lord." The same agency produces discord between
+Abimelech and the Shechemites (Judges ix. 23). "A lying spirit in the
+mouth of all his prophets" as Yahweh's messenger entices Ahab to his
+doom (1 Kings xxii. 22). Growing human corruption is traced to the
+fleshy union of angels and women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil,
+whether as misfortune or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (1 Sam.
+xviii. 10; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1; 1 Kings xxii. 20; Isa. vi. 10, lxiii. 17).
+After the Exile there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence
+by the introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all
+evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of God and
+man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands as the adversary
+of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by Yahweh for desiring that
+Jerusalem should be further punished. In the book of Job he presents
+himself before the Lord among the sons of God (ii. 1), yet he is
+represented both as accuser and tempter. He disbelieves in Job's
+integrity, and desires him to be so tried that he may fall into sin.
+While, according to 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, God himself tests David in regard to
+the numbering of the people, according to 1 Chron. xxi. 1 it is Satan
+who tempts him.
+
+The development of the conception continued in later Judaism, which was
+probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism. It is doubtful,
+however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book of Tobit is the same as
+the A[=e]shma Da[=e]wa of the Bundahesh. He is the evil spirit who slew
+the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8), and the name probably means
+"Destroyer." In the book of Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a
+rival kingdom of evil, but here are also mentioned Satans, who are
+distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function,
+to tempt, to accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly
+(Ecclesiasticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii.
+(Wisdom ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom
+lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14); Gen. iii. is probably
+referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, "a serpent speaking with the
+words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert wisdom." The _Book of
+the Secrets of Enoch_ not only identifies Satan with the Serpent, but
+also describes his revolt against God, and expulsion from heaven. In the
+Jewish _Targums_ Sammael, "the highest angel that stands before God's
+throne, caused the serpent to seduce the woman"; he coalesces with
+Satan, and has inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is
+ascribed to a union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's
+standing before God he is greatly feared.
+
+This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced in the
+New Testament. Satan is the [Greek: diabolos] (Matt. xiii. 39; John
+xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10), slanderer or accuser,
+the [Greek: peirazôn] (Matt. iv. 3; 1 Thess. iii. 5), the tempter, the
+[Greek: ponêros] (Matt. v. 37; John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil
+one, and the [Greek: echthros] (Matt. xiii. 39), the enemy. He is
+apparently identified with Beelzebub (or Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26,
+27. Jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons belonging to a
+kingdom of evil under the leadership of Satan "the prince of demons"
+(Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in demonic possessions it is his
+function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 11, vi. 7; Luke x. 17-20). But he
+himself conquers Satan in resisting his temptations (Matt. iv. 1-11).
+Simon is warned against him, and Judas yields to him as tempter (Luke
+xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's cures are represented as a triumph
+over Satan (Luke x. 18). This Jewish doctrine is found in Paul's letters
+also. Satan rules over a world of evil, supernatural agencies, whose
+dwelling is in the lower heavens (Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince
+of the power of the air" (ii. 2). He is the tempter (1 Thess. iii. 5; 1
+Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x. 10), to whom the offender is to be
+handed over for bodily destruction (v. 5), identified with the serpent
+(Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and probably with Beliar or Belial (vi.
+15); and the surrender of man to him brought death into the world (Rom.
+v. 17). Paul's own "stake in the flesh" is Satan's messenger (2 Cor.
+xii. 7). According to Hebrews Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by
+dying (ii. 14). Revelation describes the war in heaven between God with
+his angels and Satan or the dragon, the "old serpent," the deceiver of
+the whole world (xii. 9), with his hosts of darkness. After the
+overthrow of the Beast and the kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned
+in the bottomless pit a thousand years (xx. 2). Again loosed to deceive
+the nations, he is finally cast into the lake of fire and brimstone (xx.
+10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2 Peter ii. 4). In John's Gospel and Epistles
+Satan is opposed to Christ. Sinner and murderer from the beginning (1
+John iii. 8) and liar by nature (John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin
+(viii. 34), causes death (verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30),
+but has no power over Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. 11; 1
+John v. 18). He will be destroyed by Christ with all his works (John
+xvi. 33; 1 John iii. 8).
+
+In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic Age "the
+present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon, was just as
+generally presupposed as man's need of redemption, which was regarded as
+a result of that dominion. The tenacity of this belief may be explained
+among other things by the living impression of the polytheism that
+surrounded the communities on every side. By means of this assumption
+too, humanity seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for
+redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range"
+(Harnack's _History of Dogma_, i. p. 181). While Christ's First Advent
+delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow would be
+completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics held that "the present
+world sprang from a fall of man, or from an undertaking hostile to God,
+and is, therefore, the product of an evil or intermediate being" (p.
+257). Some taught that while the future had been assigned by God to
+Christ, the devil had received the present age (p. 309). The fathers
+traced all doctrines not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and
+the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil
+transforming himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes
+Satan's fall to "pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation"; and
+traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in resisting his
+temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline passages, represents
+the death of Christ "as a ransom paid to the 'apostasy' for men who had
+fallen into captivity" (ii. 290). He does not admit that Satan has any
+lawful claim on man, or that God practised a deceit on him, as later
+fathers taught. This theory of the _atonement_ was formulated by Origen.
+"By his successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God
+offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped, as
+Christ overcame both him and death" (p. 367). It was held by Gregory of
+Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase _pia fraus_, Augustine, Leo I., and
+Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst form. "The humanity of Christ
+was the bait; the fish, the devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging
+on the invisible hook, Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the
+relation of the work of Christ to Satan retires into the background,
+Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view.
+It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the Lombard
+asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard represents man's
+bondage to Satan "as righteously permitted as a just retribution for
+sin," he being "the executioner of the divine justice." Another theory
+of Origen's found less acceptance. The devil, as a being resulting from
+God's will, cannot always remain a devil. The possibility of his
+redemption, however, was in the 5th century branded as a heresy. Persian
+dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the doctrine
+of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy views of
+Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to this
+influence. Mani taught that Satan with his demons, sprung from the
+kingdom of darkness, attacked the realm of light, the earth, defeated
+man sent against him by the God of light, but was overthrown by the God
+of light, who then delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). "During the
+middle ages," says Tulloch, "the belief in the devil was
+absorbing--saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant
+conflict with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the
+13th to the 15th century, passed into Protestantism. Luther was always
+conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan. "As I found he was
+about to begin again," says Luther, "I gathered together my books, and
+got into bed. Another time in the night I heard him above my cell
+walking on the cloister, but as I knew it was the devil I paid no
+attention to him and went to sleep." He held that this world will pass
+away with its pleasures, as there can be no real improvement in it, for
+the devil continues in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii.
+191). I. A. Dorner (_Christian Doctrine_, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant
+doctrine as follows:--"He is brought into relation with natural
+sinfulness, and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to
+him. The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery to
+Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the
+extra-Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and by his
+word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating anything is
+also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting substances is
+conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judgment that his power is
+wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered up to eternal punishment."
+This belief in the devil was specially strong in Scotland among both
+clergy and laity in the 17th century. "The devil was always and
+literally at hand," says Buckle, "he was haunting them, speaking to
+them, and tempting them. Go where they would he was there."
+
+In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on
+this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of demonic possession, and
+held that Christ in his language accommodated himself to the views of
+the sick whom he was seeking to cure. Kant regarded the devil as a
+personification of the radical evil in man. Daub in his _Judas
+Ishcarioth_ argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute evil, and
+the absolute evil as real must be in a person. Schelling regarded the
+devil as, not a person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the
+freedom of man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the
+common belief. "The problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in
+Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self-knowledge." Dorner has
+formulated a theory which explains the development of the conception of
+Satan in the Holy Scriptures as in correspondence with an evolution in
+the character of Satan. "Satan appears in Scripture under four leading
+characters:--first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to
+decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts
+criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine, which
+brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he is described,
+especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of God and man." He
+supposes "a change in Satan in the course of the history of the divine
+revelation, in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn
+enemy of God and man, especially in the New Testament times, in which,
+on the other hand, his power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues
+that "the world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits
+breaches everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance" (pp. 99, 102).
+H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. "The evil
+principle," he says, "has in itself no personality, but attains a
+progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no individual
+personality, save only in individual creatures, who in an especial
+manner make themselves its organs; but among these is one creature in
+whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and
+head of the kingdom of evil" (_Dogmatics_, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no
+place in his constructive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but
+recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another
+constitutes a kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E.
+Garvie, _The Ritschlian Theology_, p. 304). Kaftan affirms that a
+"doctrine about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as
+faith can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the
+dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left to the
+immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will on account of
+the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would be arrogant to wish
+to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the thought that Satan also
+stands under the commission of the Almighty God, and that no one must
+suppose that by leading back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get
+rid of his own guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith"
+(_Dogmatik_, p. 348). In the book entitled _Evil and Evolution_ there is
+"an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient
+mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil is best
+explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan, who in the
+process of evolution interferes with the divine designs, an interference
+which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible.
+Satan is, however, held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom
+been estranged from, and opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be
+conquered by moral means. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic
+possession maintains that "the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son
+of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession" (p.
+150), and argues that, as "the Incarnation indicated the establishment
+of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took place "a counter
+movement among the powers of darkness," of which "genuine demonic
+possession was one of the manifestations" (p. 249).
+
+Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently affirmed
+that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an essential
+article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an indispensable
+element of Christian experience. On the one hand science has so
+explained many of the processes of outer nature and of the inner life of
+man as to leave no room for Satanic agency. On the other hand the modern
+view of the inspiration of the Scriptures does not necessitate the
+acceptance of the doctrine of the Scriptures on this subject as finally
+and absolutely authoritative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter
+may be accounted for as either an accommodation to the views of those
+with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the limitation
+of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the Incarnation, for it
+cannot be contended that as revealer of God and redeemer of men it was
+imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in
+this respect. The possibility of the existence of evil spirits,
+organized under one leader Satan to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be
+denied; the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may,
+however, be doubted; the necessity of any such belief for Christian
+thought and life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also DEMONOLOGY;
+POSSESSION.)                                                (A. E. G.*)
+
+
+DEVIZES, a market town and municipal borough in the Devizes
+parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by S. of London
+by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6532. Its castle was built on
+a tongue of land flanked by two deep ravines, and behind this the town
+grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its
+main streets, in which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate
+from the market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord
+Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town on the N.,
+passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-nine locks. St
+John's church, one of the most interesting in Wiltshire, is cruciform,
+with a massive central tower, based upon two round and two pointed
+arches. It was originally Norman of the 12th century, and the chancel
+arch and low vaulted chancel, in this style, are very fine. In the
+interior several ancient monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are
+preserved, besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich
+ceilings of oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly
+Norman, but was rebuilt in the 15th and again in the 19th century. Its
+lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof, and the
+south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves its Norman mouldings.
+The woollen industries of Devizes have lost their prosperity; but there
+is a large grain trade, with engineering works, breweries, and
+manufactures of silk, snuff, tobacco and agricultural implements. The
+town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors.
+Area, 906 acres.
+
+Devizes (_Divisis_, _la Devise_, _De Vies_) does not appear in any
+historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the
+construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger, bishop of
+Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important political centre,
+and led to its speedy development. After the disgrace of Roger in 1139
+the castle was seized by the Crown; in the 14th century it formed part
+of the dowry of the queens of England, and figured prominently in
+history until its capture and demolition by Cromwell in the Civil War of
+the 17th century. Devizes became a borough by prescription, and the
+first charter from Matilda, confirmed by successive later sovereigns,
+merely grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of
+undisturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause conferring on the town the
+liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II. instituted a coroner. A gild
+merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward II. and Edward III., and in
+1614 was divided into the three companies of drapers, mercers and
+leathersellers. The present governing charters were issued by James I.
+and Charles I., the latter being little more than a confirmation of the
+former, which instituted a common council consisting of a mayor, a town
+clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses. These charters were surrendered
+to Charles II., and a new one was conferred by James II., but abandoned
+three years later in favour of the original grant. Devizes returned two
+members to parliament from 1295, until deprived of one member by the
+Representation of the People Act of 1867, and of the other by the
+Redistribution Act of 1885. The woollen manufacture was the staple
+industry of the town from the reign of Edward III. until the middle of
+the 18th century, when complaints as to the decay of trade began to be
+prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth the market was held on Monday, and
+there were two annual fairs at the feasts of the Purification of the
+Virgin and the Decollation of John the Baptist. The market was
+transferred to Thursday in the next reign, and the fairs in the 18th
+century had become seven in number.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Wiltshire_; _History of Devizes_ (Devizes,
+  1859).
+
+
+DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68), the name applied to the war which arose
+out of Louis XIV.'s claims to certain Spanish territories in right of
+his wife Maria Theresa, upon whom the ownership was alleged to have
+"devolved." (See, for the military operations, DUTCH WARS.) The war was
+ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668.
+
+
+DEVON, EARLS OF. From the family of De Redvers (De Ripuariis; Riviers),
+who had been earls of Devon from about 1100, this title passed to Hugh
+de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340), the representative of a prominent family in
+the county (see Gibbon's "digression" in chap. lxi. of the _Decline and
+Fall_, ed. Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay
+(1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of Towton.
+It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward Courtenay (d. 1509), whose
+son Sir William (d. 1511) married Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too
+great proximity to the throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry
+(c. 1498-1539) was restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in
+1525 was created marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of
+William Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture
+on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son Edward
+(1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant in the Courtenay
+family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the
+House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon was restored to the peerage,
+still being held by the head of the Courtenays. The earlier earls of
+Devon were referred to occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the
+former variant has prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the
+earldom and dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND
+DUKES OF, and also the article COURTENAY).
+
+
+DEVONIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name applied to series of stratified
+fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed during the Devonian
+period, that is, in the interval of time between the close of the
+Silurian period and the beginning of the Carboniferous; it includes the
+marine Devonian and an estuarine Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The
+name "Devonian" was introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A.
+Sedgwick to describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W.
+Lonsdale had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be
+intermediate between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two
+workers also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the
+continent, where already several others, F. Roemer, H. E. Beyrich, &c.,
+were endeavouring to elucidate the succession of strata in this portion
+of the "Transition Series." The labours of these earlier workers,
+including in addition to those already mentioned, the brothers F. and G.
+von Sandberger, A. Dumont, J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de
+Verneuil and H. von Dechen, although somewhat modified by later
+students, formed the foundation upon which the modern classification of
+the Devonian rocks is based.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution of Devonian Rocks]
+
+                   _Stratigraphy of the Devonian Facies._
+
+  Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall that
+  the Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central Europe
+  that the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and here, too,
+  their geological position was first indicated by the founders of the
+  system, Sedgwick and Murchison.
+
+  _Continental Europe._--Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the
+  centre of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south of
+  Belgium across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best known from
+  the picturesque gorges which have been cut through them by the Rhine
+  below Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves. They reappear from under
+  younger formations in Brittany, in the Harz and Thuringia, and are
+  exposed in Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, North Moravia and eastern
+  Galicia. The principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical
+  areas are indicated in Table I.
+
+  This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata,
+  is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet
+  represents the _Stringocephalus_ limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards
+  into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical
+  modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general
+  palaeontological characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony,
+  Silesia, the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have
+  been detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of
+  the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods,
+  lamellibranchs and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of
+  the Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales,
+  limestones and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but
+  containing ores of silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other
+  metals, may be referable to the Devonian system.
+
+  In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of a
+  vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional
+  seams of limestone, and in particular with one thick central
+  calcareous zone. These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by
+  numerous broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (_Phacops_,
+  _Homalonotus_, &c.) which, though generically like those of the
+  Silurian system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous
+  zone abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous
+  brachiopods. In the highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods
+  (_Clymenia_) occurs in some of the limestones, while the shales are
+  crowded with a small but characteristic ostracod crustacean
+  (_Cypridina_). Here and there traces of fishes have been found, more
+  especially in the Eifel, but seldom in such a state of preservation as
+  to warrant their being assigned to any definite place in the
+  zoological scale. Subsequently, however, E. Beyrich has described from
+  Gerolstein in the Eifel an undoubted species of _Pterichthys_, which,
+  as it cannot be certainly identified with any known form, he names _P.
+  Rhenanus_. A _Coccosteus_ has been described by F. A. Roemer from the
+  Harz, and still later one has been cited from Bicken near Herborn by
+  V. Koenen; but, as Beyrich points out, there may be some doubt as to
+  whether the latter is not a _Pterichthys_. A _Ctenacanthus_, seemingly
+  undistinguishable from the _C. Bohemicus_ of Barrande's Étage G, has
+  also been obtained from the Lower Devonian "Nereitenschichten" of
+  Thuringia. The characteristic _Holoptychius nobilissimus_ has been
+  detected in the Psammite de Condroz, which in Belgium forms a
+  characteristic sandy portion of the Upper Devonian rocks. These are
+  interesting facts, as helping to link the Devonian and Old Red
+  Sandstone types together. But they are as yet too few and unsupported
+  to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations between these
+  types.
+
+  It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red
+  Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones
+  and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the
+  fish-bearing sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was
+  shown in the great work _Russia and the Ural Mountains_ by Murchison,
+  De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper
+  Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent of
+  surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development arises
+  not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal character
+  of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described elsewhere, they
+  remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they were
+  originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they present but
+  a meagre representative of the massive Devonian greywacke and
+  limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Yet vast
+  though the area is over which they form the surface rock, it is
+  probably only a small portion of their total extent; for they are
+  found turned up from under the newer formations along the flank of the
+  Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread continuously across
+  the whole breadth of Russia in Europe. Though almost everywhere
+  undisturbed, they afford evidence of some terrestrial oscillation
+  between the time of their formation and that of the Silurian rocks on
+  which they rest, for they are found gradually to overlap Upper and
+  Lower Silurian formations.
+
+                                  TABLE I.
+
+       +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+       |             |                   |                              | Brittany and |                 |                 |
+       |  Stages.    |     Ardennes.     |           Rhineland.         |   Normandy.  |    Bohemia.     |      Harz.      |
+     / +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+    |  |             | Limestone of      | Cypridina slates.            | Slates of    |                 | Cypridina       |
+ U  |  |             |  Etroeungt.       | Pön sandstone (Sauerland).   |  Rostellec.  |                 |  slates.        |
+ P  |  | Famennien   | Psammites of      | Crumbly limestone (Kramen-   |              |                 | Clymenia        |
+ P  |  | (Clymenia   |  Condroz (sandy   |  zelkalk) with Clymenia.     |              |                 |  limestone and  |
+ E  |  |  beds).     |  series).         | Neheim slates in Sauerland,  |              |                 |  limestone of   |
+ R  |  |             | Slates of Famenne |  and diabases, tuffs, &c.,   |              |                 |  Altenau.       |
+    |  |             |  (shaly series).  |  in Dillmulde, &c.           |              |                 |                 |
+ D /   +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+ E \   |             | Slates of         | Adorf limestone of Waldeck   | Limestone of |                 | Iberg limestone |
+ V  |  |             |  Matagne.         |  and shales with Goniatites  |  Cop-Choux   |                 |  and Winterberg |
+ O  |  | Frasnien    | Limestones, marls |  (Eifel and Aix) =           |  and green   |                 |  limestone;     |
+ N  |  |(Intumesce-  |  and shale of     |  Budesheimer shales.         |  slates of   |                 |  also Adorf     |
+ I  |  | cens beds). |  Frasne, and      | Marls, limestone and dolomite|  Travuliors. |                 |  limestone and  |
+ A  |  |             |  red marble of    |  with Rhynchonella cuboides  |              |                 |  shales         |
+ N  |  |             |  Flanders.        |  (Flinz in part).            |              |                 |  (Budesheim).   |
+ .  |  |             |                   | Iberg limestone of Dillmulde.|              |                 |                 |
+     \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+     / |             | Limestone of      | Stringocephalus limestone,   |Limestones    | H_{2} (of       | Stringocephalus |
+ M  |  |             |  Givet.           |  ironstone of Brilon and     | of Chalonnes,|  Barrande) dark |  shales with    |
+ I  |  |  Givérien   |                   |  Lahnmulde.                  | Montjean and |  plant-bearing  |  Flaser and     |
+ D  |  |(Stringocep- |                   | Upper Lenne shales, crinoidal| l'Ecochère.  |  shales.        |  Knollenkalk.   |
+ D  |  | halus beds).|                   |  limestone of Eifel, red     |              |                 | Wissenbach      |
+ L  |  |             |                   |  sandstones of Aix.          |              |                 |  slates.        |
+ E  |  |             |                   | Tuffs and diabases of Brilon |              | H_{1}.          |                 |
+    |  |             |                   |  and Lahnmulde.              |              |                 |                 |
+ D /   |             |                   | Red conglomerate of Aix.     |              |                 |                 |
+ E \   +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+ V  |  |             | Calceola slates   | Calceola beds, Wissenbach    | Slates of    | G_{3} Cephalo-  | Calceola beds.  |
+ O  |  |             |  and limestones   |  slates, Lower Lenne beds,   |  Porsguen,   |  pod limestone. | Nereite slates, |
+ N  |  | Eifélien    |  of  Couvin.      |  Güntroder limestone and     |  greywacke   | G_{2} Tentacu-  |  slates of      |
+ I  |  |  (Calceola  | Greywacke  with   |  clay slate of Lahnmulde,    |  of Fret.    |  lite limestone.|  Wieda and      |
+ A  |  |   beds).    |  Spirifer         |  Dillmulde, Wildungen,       |              | G_{3} Knollen-  |  limestones of  |
+ N  |  |             |  cultrijugatus.   |  Griefenstein limestone,     |              |  kalk and       |  Hasselfeld.    |
+ .  |  |             |                   |  Ballersbach limestone.      |              |  mottled Mnenian|                 |
+     \ |             |                   |                              |              |  limestone.     |                 |
+       +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+     / | Coblentzien |Greywacke of       | Upper Coblentz slates.       | Limestones   |                 | Haupt quartzite |
+ L  |  |             |  Hierges.         | Red sandstone of Eifel,      |  of Erbray,  |                 |  (of Lossen) =  |
+ O  |  |             |Shales and conglom-|  Coblentz quartzite, lower   |  Brulon, Viré|                 |  Rammelsberg    |
+ W  |  |             | erate of Burnot   |  Coblentz slates.            |  and Néhou,  |                 |  slates, Schal- |
+ E  |  |             | with quartzite,   | Hunsrück and Siegener        |  greywacke   |                 |  lker slates =  |
+ R  |  |             | of Bierlé and     |  greywacke and slates.       |  of Faou,    |                 |  Kahleberg      |
+    |  |             | red  slates of    | Taunus quartzite and         |  sandstone   |                 |  sandstone.     |
+ D  |  |             | Vireux, greywacke |  greywacke.                  |  of Gahard.  | F-{2} of        | Hercynian slates|
+ E /   |             | of Montigny,      |                              |              |  Barrande.      |  and lime-      |
+ V \   |             | sandstone of Anor.|                              |              | White Konjeprus |  stones.        |
+ O  |  +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+  Limestone with |                 |
+ N  |  | Gédinnien   |Slates of St Hubert| Slates of Gédinne.           | Slates and   |  Hercynian      |                 |
+ I  |  |             | and Fooz, slates  |                              |  quartzites  |  fauna.         |                 |
+ A  |  |             | of Mondrepuits,   |                              |  of Plou-    |                 |                 |
+ N  |  |             | arkose of Weis-   |                              |  gastel.     |                 |                 |
+ .  |  |             | mes, conglomerate |                              |              |                 |                 |
+    |  |             | of Fèpin.         |                              |              |                 |                 |
+     \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+
+  The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact,
+  first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite
+  within themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red
+  Sandstone types. In some districts they consist largely of limestones,
+  in others of red sandstones and marls. In the former they present
+  molluscs and other marine organisms of known Devonian species; in the
+  latter they afford remains of fishes, some of which are specifically
+  identical with those of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The
+  distribution of these two palaeontological types in Russia is traced
+  by Murchison to the lithological characters of the rocks, and
+  consequent original diversities of physical conditions, rather than to
+  differences of age. Indeed cases occur where in the same band of rock
+  Devonian shells and Old Red Sandstone fishes lie commingled. In the
+  belt of the formation which extends southwards from Archangel and the
+  White Sea, the strata consist of sands and marls, and contain only
+  fish remains. Traced through the Baltic provinces, they are found to
+  pass into red and green marls, clays, thin limestones and sandstones,
+  with beds of gypsum. In some of the calcareous bands such fossils
+  occur as _Orthis striatula_, _Spiriferina prisca_, _Leptaena
+  productoides_, _Spirifer calcaratus_, _Spirorbis omphaloides_ and
+  _Orthoceras subfusiforme_. In the higher beds _Holoptychius_ and other
+  well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone occur. Followed still
+  farther to the south, as far as the watershed between Orel and
+  Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red colour and sandy
+  character, and become thin-bedded yellow limestones, and dolomites
+  with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt deposits are indicated
+  by occasional saline springs. It is evident that the geographical
+  conditions of the Russian area during the Devonian period must have
+  closely resembled those of the Rhine basin and central England during
+  the Triassic period. The Russian Devonian rocks have been classified
+  in Table II. There is an unquestionable passage of the uppermost
+  Devonian rocks of Russia into the base of the Carboniferous system.
+
+                               TABLE II.
+
+       +---------------------------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+       |     North-West Russia.          | Central Russia. |  Petchoraland.   |       Ural Region.          |
+     / +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+ U  |  | Red sandstone | Limestones with | Limestones with | Domanik slates   | Cypridina slates, Clymenia  |
+ P  |  |  (Old Red).   |  Spirifer       |  Arca oreliana. |  and limestones  |  limestones (Famennien).    |
+ P <   |               |  Verneuili and  | Limestones with |  with Sp.        | Limestones with Gephyoceras |
+ E  |  |               |  Sp. Archiaci.  |  Sp. Verneuili  |  Verneuili.      |  intumescens and            |
+ R  |  |               |                 |  and Sp.        |                  |  Rhynchonella cuboides      |
+    |  |               |                 |  Archiaci.      |                  |  (Frasnien).                |
+     \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+ M   / |    Dolomites and limestones     |            Marl with               | Limestones and slates with  |
+ I  |  |             with                |        Spirifer Anossofi           |  Sp. Anossofi (Givétien).   |
+ D <   |       Spirifer Anossofi.        |           and corals.              | Limestones and slates with  |
+ D  |  |                                                                      |  Pentamerus baschkiricus    |
+ L  |  |                      Lower sandstone (Old Red).                      |  (Eifélien).                |
+ E   \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+     / |                                 |                 |                  | Limestones and slates of    |
+ L  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  the Yuresan and Ufa rivers,|
+ O  |  |            Absent.              |                 |                  |  slate and quartzite,       |
+ W <   |                                 |                 |                  |  marble of Byclaya and      |
+ E  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  of Bogoslovsk, phyllitic   |
+ R  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  schists and quartzite.     |
+     \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+
+  The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very
+  different from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name
+  "Hercynian" has been applied, and the correlation of the strata has
+  been a source of prolonged discussion among continental geologists. A
+  similar fauna appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia, in Brittany
+  (limestone of Erbray) and in the Urals. The Upper Devonian of the Harz
+  passes up into the Culm.
+
+  In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is
+  represented by _Clymenia_ limestone and _Cypridina_ slates with Adorf
+  limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The
+  middle division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaculite and
+  Nereite shales and limestones below. The upper part of the Lower
+  Devonian, the sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably upon
+  Silurian rocks. In the Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones, the
+  equivalents of the Iberg limestone, which attain an enormous
+  thickness; these are underlain by coral limestones with fossils
+  similar to those of the Konjeprus limestone of Bohemia; below these
+  are shales and nodular limestones with goniatites. The Devonian rocks
+  of Poland are sandy in the lower, and more calcareous in the upper
+  parts. They are of interest because while the upper portions agree
+  closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top of the Coblentzien
+  upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red Sandstone fishes
+  (_Coccosteus_, &c.) are found. In France Devonian rocks are found well
+  developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table, also in Normandy and
+  Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the middle and upper divisions
+  are known. In south France in the neighbourhood of Cabrières, about
+  Montpellier and in the Montagne Noire, all three divisions are found
+  in a highly calcareous condition. Devonian rocks are recognized,
+  though frequently much metamorphosed, on both the northern and
+  southern flanks of the Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they
+  are extensively developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft.
+  thick, all three divisions and most of the central European
+  subdivisions are present. In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of
+  Spain bear a marked resemblance to those of Brittany.
+
+  _Asia._--From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have been
+  traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai Mountains
+  they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age with a fauna
+  possessing Hercynian features. The same features are observed in the
+  Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan. Well-developed
+  quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of Yarkand and
+  Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are widespread in China.
+  Upper Devonian rocks are recorded from Persia, and from the Hindu Kush
+  on the right bank of the Chitral river.
+
+  _England._--In England the original Devonian rocks are developed in
+  Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire these rocks
+  consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south Devon there
+  are, in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and intercalations
+  of lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the stratigraphy in this
+  region is a difficult matter, partly on account of the absence of good
+  exposures with fossils, and partly through the disturbed condition of
+  the rocks. The system has been subdivided as shown in Table III.
+
+                                   TABLE III.
+
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+          |    North Devon and West     |                               |
+          |          Somerset.          |         South Devon.          |
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+        / | Pilton group. Grits, slates | Ashburton slates.             |
+   U   |  |  and thin limestones.       | Livaton slates.               |
+   P   |  | Baggy group. Sandstones     | Red and green Entomis slates  |
+   P  <   |  and slates.                |  (Famennien).                 |
+   E   |  | Pickwell Down group.        | Red and grey slates with      |
+   R   |  |  Dark slates and grits.     |  tuffs.                       |
+   .   |  | Morte slates (?).           | Chudleigh goniatite limestone |
+        \ |                             |  Petherwyn beds (Frasnien).   |
+   M      +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   I    / | Ilfracombe slates with      | Torquay and Plymouth          |
+   D   |  |  lenticles of limestone.    |  limestones and Ashprington   |
+   D  <   | Combe Martin grits and      |  volcanic series. (Givétien   |
+   L   |  |  slates.                    |  and Eifélien.)               |
+   E   |  |                             | Slates and limestones of      |
+   .    \ |                             |  Hope's Nose.                 |
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   L    / | Hangman grits and slates.   | Looe beds (Cornwall).         |
+   O   |  | Lynton group, grits and     | Meadfoot, Cockington and      |
+   W  <   |  calcareous slates.         |  Warberry series of slates    |
+   E   |  | Foreland grits and slates.  |  and greywackes. (Coblentzien |
+   R   |  |                             |  and Gédinnien.)              |
+   .    \ +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+  The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the Rhenish
+  and south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the Devonian rocks
+  pass upward without break into the Culm.
+
+  _North America._--In North America the Devonian rocks are extensively
+  developed; they have been studied most closely in the New York region,
+  where they are classified according to Table IV.
+
+  The classification below is not capable of application over the states
+  generally and further details are required from many of the regions
+  where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but everywhere the broad
+  threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland the following
+  arrangement has been adopted--(1) Helderberg = Coeymans; (2) Oriskany;
+  (3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings = Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire
+  = Catskill in part. In the interior the Helderbergian is missing and
+  the system commences with (1) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton,
+  (4) Portage (and Genesee), (5) Chemung.
+
+  The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the
+  continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and in Canada
+  (Gaspé, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal); an Appalachian belt,
+  and a lower Mississippian region. The series as a whole is mainly
+  calcareous (2000 ft. in Gaspé), and thins out towards the west. The
+  fauna has Hercynian affinities. The Oriskany formation consists
+  largely of coarse sandstones; it is thin in New York, but in Maryland
+  and Virginia it is several hundred feet thick. It is more widespread
+  than the underlying Helderbergian. The Lower Devonian appears to be
+  thick in northern Maine and in Gaspé, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia,
+  but neither the palaeontology nor the stratigraphy has been completely
+  worked out.
+
+  In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base, Esopus
+  and Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the
+  Appalachian region; but the Onondaga limestones are much more
+  extensive. The Erian series is often described as the Hamilton series
+  outside the New York district, where the _Marcellus_ shales are
+  grouped together with the Hamilton shales, and numerous local
+  subdivisions are included, as in Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The
+  rocks are mostly shales or slates, but limestones predominate in the
+  western development. In Pennsylvania the Hamilton series is from 1500
+  ft. to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more calcareous western extension it
+  is much thinner. The _Marcellus_ shales are bituminous in places.
+
+  The Senecan series is composed of shallow-water deposits; the Tully
+  limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a layer
+  of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The bituminous
+  Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.); 25 ft. on Lake
+  Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage formation reach 1000
+  ft. to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the Chautauquan series the
+  Chemung formation is not always clearly separable from the Portage
+  beds, it is a sandstone and conglomerate formation which reaches its
+  maximum thickness (8000 ft.) in Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly
+  towards the west. In the Catskill region the Upper Devonian has an Old
+  Red facies--red shales and sandstones with a freshwater and brackish
+  fauna.
+
+                                     TABLE IV.
+
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+         |               |                               |  Probable   |
+         |  Groups.      |    Formations.                |  European   |
+         |               |                               | Equivalent. |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+       / | Chautauquan.  | Chemung beds with Catskill    | Famennien.  |
+  U   |  |               |  as a local facies.           |             |
+  P   |  |               |                               |             |
+  P  <   |             ( | Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca  | Frasnien.   |
+  E   |  |             ( |  and Oneonta shales as local  |             |
+  R   |  | Senecan.    < |  facies).                     |             |
+  .   |  |             ( | Genesee shales.               |             |
+       \ |             ( | Tully limestone.              |             |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+  M    / | Erian.      ( | Hamilton shale.               | Givétien.   |
+  I   |  |             ( | Marcellus shale.              |             |
+  D   |  |               |                               |             |
+  D  <   |             ( | Onondaga (Corniferous)        | Eifélien.   |
+  L   |  | Ulsterian.  ( |   limestone.                  |             |
+  E   |  |             < | Schoharie grit.               |             |
+  .    \ |             ( | Esopus grit (Caudagalli grit).|             |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+  L    / | Oriskanian.   | Oriskany sandstone.           | Coblentzien.|
+  O   |  |               |                               |             |
+  W   |  |             ( | Kingston beds.                | Gédinnien.  |
+  E  <   |Helderbe-    ( | Becraft limestone.            |             |
+  R   |  |   rgian.    < | New Scotland beds.            |             |
+  .   |  |             ( | Coeymans limestone.           |             |
+       \ +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+
+  Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short
+  distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated
+  Devonian rocks in many parts of the continent. In the Great Plains
+  this system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado,
+  Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona; Devonian rocks
+  occur between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains, in the Arbuckle
+  Mountains of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the western interior limestones
+  predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are found at Eureka, Nevada,
+  beneath 2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific coast metamorphism of the
+  rocks is common, and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them.
+
+  In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern
+  region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along the
+  course of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence they
+  stretch out into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much that is
+  now classed as Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil evidence to be
+  Carboniferous.
+
+  _South America, Africa, Australia, &c._--In South America the Devonian
+  is well developed; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and the
+  Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about the junction
+  of the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has affinities with
+  the Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied to the South
+  American Devonian is that of South Africa, where they are represented
+  by the Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In Australia we find Lower
+  Devonian consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks;
+  and a Middle division with coral limestones in Victoria, New South
+  Wales and Queensland; an Upper division has also been observed. In New
+  Zealand the Devonian is well exposed in the Reefton mining field; and
+  it has been suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may
+  belong to this system.
+
+           _Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies._
+
+  The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald Geikie,
+  "consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down
+  conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off
+  in the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while
+  they are separated from each other by an unconformability." The Old
+  Red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated
+  lakes or lagoons, approximately parallel to one another, with a
+  general alignment in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas of deposit
+  Sir A. Geikie has assigned convenient distinctive names.
+
+  In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a
+  pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative of a
+  prolonged interval of erosion. In the central valley between the base
+  of the Highlands and the southern uplands lay "Lake Caledonia." Here
+  the lower division is made up of some 20,000 ft. of shallow-water
+  deposits, reddish-brown, yellow and grey sandstones and conglomerates,
+  with occasional "cornstones," and thin limestones. The grey flagstones
+  with shales are almost confined to Forfarshire, and are known as the
+  "Arbroath flags." Interbedded volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites,
+  diabases, with agglomerates and tuffs constitute an important feature,
+  and attain a thickness of 6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A
+  line of old volcanic vents may be traced in a direction roughly
+  parallel to the trend of the great central valley. On the northern
+  side of the Highlands was "Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than
+  the foregoing lake, though its boundaries are not determinable. It lay
+  over Moray Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended
+  from Caithness to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even
+  have stretched across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in
+  Sognefjord and Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some
+  parts of northern Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the
+  Caithness flags, dark grey and bituminous, which, with the red
+  sandstones and conglomerates at their base, probably attain a
+  thickness of 16,000 ft. The somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led
+  Murchison to class the flags as Middle Devonian. In the Shetland
+  Islands contemporaneous volcanic rocks have been observed. Over the
+  west of Argyllshire lay "Lake Lorne"; here the volcanic rocks
+  predominate, they are intercalated with shallow-water deposits. A
+  similar set of rocks occupy the Cheviot district.
+
+  The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in
+  Shropshire and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales,
+  sandstones and marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few fossils,
+  and no break has yet been found in the series. In Scotland this series
+  was deposited in basins which correspond only partially with those of
+  the earlier period. They are well developed in central Scotland over
+  the lowlands bordering the Moray Firth. Interbedded lavas and tuffs
+  are found in the island of Hoy. An interesting feature of this series
+  is the occurrence of great crowds of fossil fishes in some localities,
+  notably at Dura Den in Fife. In the north of England this series rests
+  unconformably upon the Lower Old Red and the Silurian.
+
+  Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmorland, and
+  also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey, a brecciated
+  conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit
+  in places, has often been classed with the Old Red Sandstone, but in
+  parts, at least, it is more likely to belong to the base of the
+  Carboniferous system. In Ireland the lower division appears to be
+  represented by the Dingle beds and Glengariff grits, while the Kerry
+  rocks and the Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the equivalents of the upper
+  division. Rocks of Old Red type, both lower and upper, are found in
+  Spitzbergen and in Bear Island. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the
+  Old Red facies is extensively developed. The Gaspé sandstones have
+  been estimated at 7036 ft. thick. In parts of western Russia Old Red
+  Sandstone fossils are found in beds intercalated with others
+  containing marine fauna of the Devonian facies.
+
+              _Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas._
+
+  The two types of sediment formed during this period--the _marine_
+  Devonian and the _lagoonal_ Old Red Sandstone--representing as they do
+  two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical
+  condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubtless
+  at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off no
+  less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have
+  records; but this period is the earliest in which these variations of
+  environment are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break
+  between the older Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous above
+  is not strongly marked; and in certain areas a very close relationship
+  can be shown to exist between the older Devonian and the former, and
+  the younger Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless, taken as a whole,
+  the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality.
+
+  The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are presented by
+  corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant individually and
+  varied in form; and they are so distinctive of the period that no
+  Devonian species has yet been found either in the Silurian or in the
+  Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present day, and
+  contributed to the formation of limestone masses in Devonshire, on the
+  continent of Europe and in North America. Rugose and tabulate forms
+  prevailed; among the former the cyathophyllids (_Cyathophyllum_) were
+  important, _Phillipsastraea_, _Zaphrentis_, _Acervularia_ and the
+  curious _Calceola_ (_sandalina_), an operculate genus which has given
+  palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis, for it has been
+  regarded as a pelecypod (hippurite) and a brachiopod. The tabulate
+  corals were represented by _Favosites_, _Michelinia_, _Pleurodictyum_,
+  _Fistulipora_, _Pachypora_ and others. _Heliolites_ and _Plasmopora_
+  represent the alcyonarians. Stromatoporoids were important reef
+  builders. A well-known fossil is _Receptaculites_, a genus to which it
+  has been difficult to assign a definite place; it has been thought to
+  be a sponge, it may be a calcareous alga, or a curious representative
+  of the foraminifera.
+
+  In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their
+  development: they compose three-quarters of the known fauna, and more
+  than 1100 species have been described. Changes were taking place from
+  the beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera;
+  several Silurian forms dropped out, and new types were coming in. A
+  noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the
+  genus _Spirifer_, other spiriferids were _Ambocoelia_, _Uncites_,
+  _Verneuilia_. Orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance, while
+  the productids (_Productella_, _Chonetes_, _Strophalosia_) were
+  increasing. The strophomenids were still flourishing, represented by
+  the genera _Leptaena_, _Stropheodonta_, _Kayserella_, and others. The
+  ancient _Lingula_, along with _Crania_ and _Orbiculoidea_, occur among
+  the inarticulate forms. Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is
+  _Atrypa reticularis_. The athyrids were very numerous (_Athyris_,
+  _Retzia_, _Merista_, _Meristella_, _Kayserina_, &c.); and the
+  rhynchonellids were well represented by _Pugnax_, _Hypothyris_, and
+  several other genera. The important group of terebratulids appears in
+  this system; amongst them _Stringocephalus_ is an eminently
+  characteristic Devonian brachiopod; others are _Dielasma_,
+  _Cryptonella_, _Rensselaeria_ and _Oriskania_.
+
+  The pelecypod molluscs were represented by _Pterinea_, abundant in the
+  lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by
+  _Cucullella_, _Buchiola_ and _Curtonotus_ in the upper members of the
+  system. Other genera are _Actinodesma_, _Cardiola_, _Nucula_,
+  _Megalodon_, _Aviculopecten_, &c. Gasteropods were becoming more
+  important, but the simple capulid forms prevailed: _Platyceras_
+  (_Capulus_), _Straparollus_, _Pleurotomaria_, _Murchisonia_,
+  _Macrocheilina_, _Euomphalus_. Among the pteropods, _Tentaculites_ was
+  very abundant in some quarters; others were _Conularia_ and
+  _Styliolina_. In the Devonian period the cephalopods began to make a
+  distinct advance in numbers, and in development. The goniatites appear
+  with the genera _Anarcestes_, _Agoniatites_, _Tornoceras_, _Bactrites_
+  and others; and in the upper strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the
+  later ammonoids, began to take definite shape. While several new
+  nautiloids (_Homaloceras_, _Ryticeras_, &c.) made their appearance
+  several of the older genera still lived on (_Orthoceras_,
+  _Poterioceras_, _Actinoceras_).
+
+  Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian sea, though
+  they were relatively scarce in others; they include the genera
+  _Melocrinus_, _Haplocrinus_, _Cupressocrinus_, _Calceocrinus_ and
+  _Eleuthrocrinus_. The cystideans were falling off (_Proteocystis_,
+  _Tiaracrinus_), but blastoids were in the ascendant (_Nucleocrinus_,
+  _Codaster_, &c.). Both brittle-stars, _Ophiura_, _Palaeophiura_,
+  _Eugaster_, and true starfishes, _Palaeaster_, _Aspidosoma_, were
+  present, as well as urchins (_Lepidocentrus_).
+
+  When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct
+  assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly
+  lacustrine or lagoonal with a eurypteridian facies. The trilobites had
+  already begun to decline in importance, and as happens not
+  infrequently with degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to
+  develop strange eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their
+  genera. A number of Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period,
+  and some gradually developed into new and distinctive forms; such were
+  _Proëtus_, _Harpes_, _Cheirurus_, _Bronteus_ and others. Distinct
+  species of _Phacops_ mark the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively,
+  while the genus _Dalmania_ (_Odontochile_) was represented by species
+  with an almost world-wide range. The Ostracod _Entomis_ (_Cypridina_)
+  was extremely abundant in places--_Cypridinen-Schiefer_--while the
+  true _Cypridina_ was also present along with _Beyrichia_,
+  _Leperditia_, &c. The Phyllocarids, _Echinocaris_, _Eleuthrocaris_,
+  _Tropidocaris_, are common in the United States. It is in the Old Red
+  Sandstone that the eurypterids are best preserved; foremost among
+  these was _Pterygotus_; _P. anglicus_ has been found in Scotland with
+  a length of nearly 6 ft.; _Eurypterus_, _Slimonia_, _Stylonurus_ were
+  other genera.
+
+  Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and
+  neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder believed he
+  had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a stridulating organ
+  was present. A species of _Ephemera_, allied to the modern may-fly,
+  had a spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the Scottish Old Red
+  Sandstone myriapods, _Kampecaris_ and _Archidesmus_, have been
+  described; they are somewhat simpler than more recent forms, each
+  segment being separate, and supplied with only one pair of walking
+  legs. Spiders and scorpions also lived upon the land.
+
+  The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red strata,
+  coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed by some of the
+  forms, has caused the period to be described as the "age of fishes."
+  As in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above, we find one
+  assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater or brackish
+  conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine
+  Devonian; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there
+  seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of
+  living in either environment, whatever may have been the real
+  condition of the Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious
+  ostracoderms, a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the
+  characteristics of fishes, but more probably belonging to a distinct
+  class of organisms, which appears to link the vertebrates with the
+  arthropods. They had come into existence late in Silurian times; but
+  it is in the Old Red strata that their remains are most fully
+  preserved. They were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of
+  Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada, and are represented by
+  such forms as _Pteraspis_, _Cephalaspis_, _Cyathaspis_, _Tremataspis_,
+  _Bothriolepis_ and _Pterichthys_.
+
+  In the lower members of the Old Red series _Dipterus_, and in the
+  upper members _Phaneropleuron_, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes;
+  and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious
+  forms still survive in the African _Protopterus_, the Australian
+  _Ceratodus_ and the South American _Lepidosiren_,--all freshwater
+  fishes. Distantly related to the lung-fishes were the singular
+  arthrodirans, a group possessing the unusual faculty of moving the
+  head in a vertical plane. These comprise the wide-ranging _Coccosteus_
+  with _Homosteus_ and _Dinichthys_, the largest fish of the period. The
+  latter probably reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with
+  exceedingly powerful jaws provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were
+  fairly prominent denizens of the sea; some were armed with cutting
+  teeth, others with crushing dental plates; and although they were on
+  the whole marine fishes, they were evidently able to live in fresher
+  waters, like some of their modern representatives, for their remains,
+  mostly teeth and large dermal spines, are found both in the Devonian
+  and Old Red rocks. _Mesacanthus_, _Diplacanthus_, _Climatius_,
+  _Cheiracanthus_ are characteristic genera. The crossopterygians,
+  ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of the fins, were represented
+  by _Holoptychius_ and _Glyptopomus_ in the Upper Old Red, and by such
+  genera as _Diplopterus_, _Osteolepis_, _Gyroptychius_ in the lower
+  division. The _Polypterus_ of the Nile and _Calamoichthys_ of South
+  Africa are the modern exemplars of this group. _Cheirolepis_, found in
+  the Old Red of Scotland and Canada, is the only Devonian
+  representative of the actinopterygian fishes. The cyclostome fishes
+  have, so far, been discovered only in Scotland, in the tiny
+  _Palaeospondylus_. Amphibian remains have been found in the Devonian
+  of Belgium; and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the
+  same class (_Thinopus antiquus_) have been described by Professor
+  Marsh from the Chemung formation of Pennsylvania.
+
+  _Plant Life._--In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone we
+  find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In
+  some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they
+  form thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently flourished
+  around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains were
+  buried along with the other forms of life. Lycopods and ferns were the
+  predominant types; and it is important to notice that both groups were
+  already highly developed. The ferns include the genera _Sphenopteris_,
+  _Megalopteris_, _Archaeopteris_, _Neuropteris_. Among the Lycopods are
+  _Lycopodites_, _Psilophyton_, _Lepidodendron_. Modern horsetails are
+  represented by _Calamocladus_, _Asterocalamites_, _Annularia_. Of
+  great interest are the genera _Cordaites_, _Araucarioxylon_, &c.,
+  which were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the Coniferae and
+  the Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure markings, aquatic
+  plants are not so well represented as might have been expected;
+  _Parka_, a common fossil, has been regarded as a water plant with a
+  creeping stem and two kinds of sporangia in sessile sporocarps.
+
+_Physical Conditions, &c._--Perhaps the most striking fact that is
+brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils is the
+gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took place quietly
+in every quarter of the globe shortly after the beginning of the period.
+While in most places the Lower Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian
+formations in a perfectly conformable manner, the Middle and Upper
+divisions, on account of this encroachment of the sea, rest
+unconformably upon the older rocks, the Lower division being
+unrepresented. This is true over the greater part of South America, so
+far as our limited knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North
+America, in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central
+Europe. Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the
+coast lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The
+known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas; no
+abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has pointed out the
+probability of a Eurasian sea province extending through Europe towards
+the east, across north and central Asia towards Manitoba in Canada, and
+an American sea province embracing the United States, South America and
+South Africa. At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land
+area caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before the
+beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe to eastern
+Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red Sandstone was formed.
+
+In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence of three
+zones of deposition: (1) A northern, Old Red, region, including Great
+Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and Spitzbergen; here the land was
+close at hand; great brackish lagoons prevailed, which communicated more
+or less directly with the open sea. In European Russia, during its
+general advance, the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas, only
+to be driven off again, during pauses in the relative subsidence of the
+land, when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more established
+the lagoonal conditions. These alternating phases were frequently
+repeated. (2) A middle region, covering Devonshire and Cornwall, the
+Ardennes, the northern part of the lower Rhenish mountains, and the
+upper Harz to the Polish Mittelgebirge; here we find evidence of a
+shallow sea, clastic deposits and a sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern
+region reaching from Brittany to the south of the Rhenish mountains,
+lower Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here was a deeper sea with a more
+pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind that the above-mentioned regions
+are intended to refer to the time when the extension of the Devonian sea
+was near its maximum. In the case of North America it has been shown
+that in early and middle Devonian time more or less distinct faunas
+invaded the continent from five different centres, viz. the Helderberg,
+the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern Hamilton and the north-western
+Hamilton; these reached the interior approximately in the order given.
+
+Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas had
+mingled one with another and a more generalized life assemblage had been
+evolved, we find many forms with a very wide range, indicating great
+uniformity of conditions. Thus we find identical species of brachiopods
+inhabiting the Devonian seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany,
+Russia, southern Asia and China; such are, _Hypothyris_ (_Rhynchonella_)
+_cuboides_, _Spirifer disjunctus_ and others. The fauna of the
+_Calceola_ shales can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and
+Siberia; the _Stringocephalus_ limestones are represented in Belgium,
+England, the Urals and Canada; and the (_Gephyroceras_) _intumescens_
+shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba.
+
+The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no violent crustal
+movements seem to have taken place, and while some changes of level
+occurred towards its close in Great Britain, Bohemia and Russia,
+generally the passage from Devonian to Carboniferous conditions was
+quite gradual. In later periods these rocks have suffered considerable
+movement and metamorphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and
+in the Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over
+the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly
+widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period. In the
+Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness (6000 ft.) of
+igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates
+and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle
+division. In west central Europe volcanic rocks are found at many
+horizons, the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs,
+_schalstein_. Felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the Middle Devonian of
+Australia. Contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the
+American Devonian, but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to
+be some.
+
+There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it is
+interesting to observe that local glacial conditions _may_ have existed
+in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated
+boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other hand, the
+prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm
+temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas.
+
+The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some importance: in many
+of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead, copper, iron are
+exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in New Zealand, gold veins
+occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is found in China and a little coal in
+Germany, while the Upper Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of
+western Pennsylvania and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle
+division is oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central
+Tennessee, and in England the marls of the "Old Red" are employed for
+brick-making.
+
+  REFERENCES.--The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is very
+  extensive; important papers have been contributed by the following
+  geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Béclard, E. W. Benecke, L.
+  Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W. Dawson, A.
+  Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Frech, J. Fournet, Sir A.
+  Geikie, G. Gürich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch, A. von
+  Koenen, Hugh Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de Rouville, C.
+  Schuchert, T. Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E. Ussher, P. N.
+  Wenjukoff, G. F. Whidborne, J. F. Whiteaves and H. S. Williams.
+  Sedgwick and Murchison's original description appeared in the _Trans.
+  Geol. Soc._ (2nd series, vol. v., 1839). Good general accounts will be
+  found in Sir A. Geikie's _Text-Book of Geology_ (vol. ii., 4th ed.,
+  1903), in E. Kayser's _Lehrbuch der Geologie_ (vol. ii., 2nd ed.,
+  1902), and, for North America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's _Geology_
+  (vol. ii., 1906). See the _Index to the Geological Magazine_
+  (1864-1903), and in subsequent annual volumes; _Geological Literature
+  added to the Geological Society's Library_ (London), annually since
+  1893; and the _Neues Jahrbuch für Min., Geologie und Paläontologie_
+  (Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The U.S. Geological Survey publishes at
+  intervals a _Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, &c._,
+  and this (e.g. Bulletin 301,--the _Bibliog. and Index_ for 1901-1905)
+  contains numerous references for the Devonian system in North America.
+                                                              (J. A. H.)
+
+
+DEVONPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Devonshire,
+England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and Plymouth, the seat of one of
+the royal dockyards, and an important naval and military station. Pop.
+(1901) 70,437. It is situated immediately above the N.W. angle of
+Plymouth Sound, occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse
+Pool on the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great
+Western and the London & South Western railways. The town proper was
+formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch excavated out of the
+limestone, but these are in great part demolished. Adjoining Devonport
+are East Stonehouse (an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice
+Town, the two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected in
+1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is distinguished by
+a Doric portico; while near it are the public library, in Egyptian
+style, and a conspicuous Doric column built of Devonshire granite. This
+monument, which is 100 ft. high, was raised in commemoration of the
+naming of the town in 1824. Other institutions are the Naval Engineering
+College, Keyham (1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899,
+the majority of the students being connected with the dockyard; the
+naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and the naval and
+military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was formerly defended by a
+battery (now a naval signalling station), stands the military residence,
+or Government House, occupied by the commander of the Plymouth Coast
+Defences; and near at hand is the principal naval residence, the naval
+commander-in-chief's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the
+Hamoaze to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in
+the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devonport, however,
+is the royal dockyard, originally established by William III. in 1689
+and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock. It is situated within the old
+town boundary and contains four docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham
+steamyard, situated higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and
+connected with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further
+extensions were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as
+Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard comprised two
+basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the southern 7 acres in area,
+and three docks, having floor-lengths of 295, 347 and 413 ft., together
+with iron and brass foundries, machinery shops, engineer students' shop,
+&c. The new extensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 21st of
+February 1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in
+front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of 77 acres of
+mudflats lying below high-water mark. The scheme presented three leading
+features--a tidal basin, a group of three graving docks with entrance
+lock, and a large enclosed basin with a coaling depôt at the north end.
+The tidal basin, close to the old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long
+with a mean width of 590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth
+being 32 ft. at low water of spring tides. It affords access to two
+graving docks, one with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20½ ft. of water
+over the sill, and the other with a length of 741 ft. and 32 ft. of
+water over the sill. Each of these can be subdivided by means of an
+intermediate caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an entrance to
+the closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the closed
+basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock. The
+closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft. long,
+measures 1550 ft. by 1000 ft. and has an area of 35½ acres, with a depth
+of 32 ft. at low-water springs; it has a direct entrance from the
+Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The foundations of the walls are carried
+down to the rock, which in some places lies covered with mud 100 ft. or
+more below coping level. Compressed air is used to work the sliding
+caissons which close the entrances of the docks and closed basin. A
+ropery at Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy.
+
+By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a parliamentary
+borough including East Stonehouse and returning two members. The ground
+on which it stands is for the most part the property of the St Aubyn
+family (Barons St Levan), whose steward holds a court leet and a court
+baron annually. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and
+forty-eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres.
+
+
+DEVONPORT, EAST and WEST, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, situated on
+both sides of the mouth of the river Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of
+Hobart. Pop. (1901), East Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is
+regular communication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it
+ranks as the third port in Tasmania. A celebrated regatta is held on the
+Mersey annually on New Year's day.
+
+
+DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Devonshire title, now in the
+Cavendish family, had previously been held by Charles Blount
+(1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson of the 4th Lord Mountjoy
+(d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he was created earl of Devonshire in
+1603 for his services in Ireland, where he became famous in subduing the
+rebellion between 1600 and 1603; but the title became extinct at his
+death. In the Cavendish line the 1st earl of Devonshire was William (d.
+1626), second son of Sir William Cavendish (q.v.), and of Elizabeth
+Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury. He was
+created earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was succeeded by
+William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by his son William
+(1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of the original members of
+the Royal Society, who married a daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury.
+
+WILLIAM CAVENDISH, 1st duke of Devonshire (1640-1707), English
+statesman, eldest son of the earl of Devonshire last mentioned, was born
+on the 25th of January 1640. After completing his education he made the
+tour of Europe according to the custom of young men of his rank, being
+accompanied on his travels by Dr Killigrew. On his return he obtained,
+in 1661, a seat in parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became
+conspicuous as one of the most determined and daring opponents of the
+general policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee
+appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord treasurer
+Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for Derby, and made a privy councillor
+by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from the board with his friend Lord
+Russell, when he found that the Roman Catholic interest uniformly
+prevailed. He carried up to the House of Lords the articles of
+impeachment against Lord Chief-Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and
+illegal proceedings in the court of King's bench; and when the king
+declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of
+York, afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons that a bill
+might be brought in for the association of all his majesty's Protestant
+subjects. He also openly denounced the king's counsellors, and voted for
+an address to remove them. He appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his
+trial, at a time when it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice
+than a witness. After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof
+of his attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell in
+the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his escape.
+In November 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father.
+He opposed arbitrary government under James II. with the same
+consistency and high spirit as during the previous reign. He was
+withdrawn from public life for a time, however, in consequence of a
+hasty and imprudent act of which his enemies knew how to avail
+themselves. Fancying that he had received an insulting look in the
+presence chamber from Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance
+at court the king encouraged, he immediately avenged the affront by
+challenging the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking
+him with his cane. This offence was punished by a fine of £30,000, which
+was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely fortune. Not
+being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's bench, from which he
+was released only on signing a bond for the whole amount. This was
+afterwards cancelled by King William. After his discharge the earl went
+for a time to Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of
+a new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by Verrio,
+Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again brought him into
+prominence. He was one of the seven who signed the original paper
+inviting the prince of Orange from Holland, and was the first nobleman
+who appeared in arms to receive him at his landing. He received the
+order of the Garter on the occasion of the coronation, and was made lord
+high steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William on
+his visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington and duke of
+Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on the same day on which the
+head of the house of Russell was created duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote
+Macaulay, "the two great houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long
+been closely connected by friendship and by marriage, by common
+opinions, common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same
+day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to confer."
+His last public service was assisting to conclude the union with
+Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son, the marquis of
+Hartington, had been appointed among the commissioners by Queen Anne. He
+died on the 18th of August 1707, and ordered the following inscription
+to be put on his monument:-
+
+                          Willielmus Dux Devon,
+                   Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus,
+                      Inimicus et Invisus Tyrannis.
+
+He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of Ormonde, and he
+was succeeded by his eldest son William as 2nd duke, and by the latter's
+son William as 3rd duke (viceroy of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's
+son William (1720-1764) succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the
+daughter and heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and Cork, who
+brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and from
+November 1756 to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly in order that
+Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of Newcastle, should be in
+power. His son William (1748-1811), 5th duke, is memorable as the
+husband of the beautiful Georgiana Spencer, duchess of Devonshire
+(1757-1806), and of the intellectual Elizabeth Foster, duchess of
+Devonshire (1758-1824), both of whom Gainsborough painted. His son
+William, 6th duke (1790-1858), who died unmarried, was sent on a special
+mission to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and
+became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was he who
+employed Sir Joseph Paxton at Chatsworth. The title passed in 1858 to
+his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of Burlington, as 7th duke, a
+man who, without playing a prominent part in public affairs, exercised
+great influence, not only by his position but by his distinguished
+abilities. At Cambridge in 1829 he was second wrangler, first Smith's
+prizeman, and eighth classic, and subsequently he became chancellor of
+the university.
+
+SPENCER COMPTON CAVENDISH, 8th duke (1833-1908), born on the 23rd of
+July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke (then earl of Burlington) and his
+wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord
+Cavendish, as he then was, took his degree at Trinity College,
+Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to the special mission to Russia for
+the new tsar's accession; and in 1857 he was returned to parliament as
+Liberal member for North Lancashire. At the opening of the new
+parliament of 1859 the marquis of Hartington (as he had now become)
+moved the amendment to the address which overthrew the government of
+Lord Derby. In 1863 he became first a lord of the admiralty, and then
+under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the Russell-Gladstone
+administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he entered it as war
+secretary. He retired with his colleagues in July 1866; but upon Mr
+Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he became postmaster-general, an
+office which he exchanged in 1871 for that of secretary for Ireland.
+When Mr Gladstone, after his defeat and resignation in 1874, temporarily
+withdrew from the leadership of the Liberal party in January 1875, Lord
+Hartington was chosen Liberal leader in the House of Commons, Lord
+Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W. E. Forster, who had taken a
+much more prominent part in public life, was the only other possible
+nominee, but he declined to stand. Lord Hartington's rank no doubt told
+in his favour, and Mr Forster's education bill had offended the
+Nonconformist members, who would probably have withheld their support.
+Lord Hartington's prudent management in difficult circumstances laid his
+followers under great obligations, since not only was the opposite party
+in the ascendant, but his own former chief was indulging in the freedom
+of independence. After the complete defeat of the Conservatives in the
+general election of 1880, a large proportion of the party would have
+rejoiced if Lord Hartington could have taken the Premiership instead of
+Mr Gladstone, and the queen, in strict conformity with constitutional
+usage (though Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have had
+the preference), sent for him as leader of the Opposition. Mr Gladstone,
+however, was clearly master of the situation: no cabinet could be formed
+without him, nor could he reasonably be expected to accept a subordinate
+post. Lord Hartington, therefore, gracefully abdicated the leadership,
+and became secretary of state for India, from which office, in December
+1882, he passed to the war office. His administration was memorable for
+the expeditions of General Gordon and Lord Wolseley to Khartum, and a
+considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly
+responsible for the "betrayal of Gordon." His lethargic manner, apart
+from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in their
+minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government
+acted "too late"; but Gladstone and Lord Granville were no less
+responsible than he. In June 1885 he resigned along with his colleagues,
+and in December was elected for the Rossendale Division of Lancashire,
+created by the new reform bill. Immediately afterwards the great
+political opportunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr
+Gladstone's conversion to home rule for Ireland. Lord Hartington's
+refusal to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the
+chief of the new Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and
+influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved the
+first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera house, and
+also, in the House of Commons, moved the rejection of Mr Gladstone's
+Bill on the second reading. During the memorable electoral contest which
+followed, no election excited more interest than Lord Hartington's for
+the Rossendale division, where he was returned by a majority of nearly
+1500 votes. In the new parliament he held a position much resembling
+that which Sir Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the
+leader of a small, compact party, the standing and ability of whose
+members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally esteemed
+and trusted beyond any other man in the country, yet in his own opinion
+forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's offers to serve under him
+as prime minister (both after the general election, and again when Lord
+Randolph Churchill resigned) were declined, and Lord Hartington
+continued to discharge the delicate duties of the leader of a middle
+party with no less judgment than he had shown when leading the Liberals
+during the interregnum of 1875-1880. It was not until 1895, when the
+differences between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become
+almost obliterated by changed circumstances, and the habit of acting
+together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the death of
+his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's third ministry
+as president of the council. The duke thus was the nominal
+representative of education in the cabinet at a time when educational
+questions were rapidly becoming of great importance; and his own
+technical knowledge of this difficult and intricate question being
+admittedly superficial, a good deal of criticism from time to time
+resulted. He had however by this time an established position in public
+life, and a reputation for weight of character, which procured for him
+universal respect and confidence, and exempted him from bitter attack,
+even from his most determined political opponents. Wealth and rank
+combined with character to place him in a measure above party; and his
+succession to his father as chancellor of the university of Cambridge in
+1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the country. In the same year
+he had married the widow of the 7th duke of Manchester.
+
+He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council till
+the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on account of differences with
+Mr BALFOUR (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards free trade. As Mr
+Chamberlain had retired from the cabinet, and the duke had not thought
+it necessary to join Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in resigning a
+fortnight earlier, the defection was unanticipated and was sharply
+criticized by Mr Balfour, who, in the rearrangement of his ministry, had
+only just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish, to
+be secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the conclusion
+that while he himself was substantially a free-trader,[1] Mr Balfour did
+not mean the same thing by the term. He necessarily became the leader of
+the Free Trade Unionists who were neither Balfourites nor
+Chamberlainites, and his weight was thrown into the scale against any
+association of Unionism with the constructive policy of tariff reform,
+which he identified with sheer Protection. A struggle at once began
+within the Liberal Unionist organization between those who followed the
+duke and those who followed Mr CHAMBERLAIN (q.v.); but the latter were
+in the majority and a reorganization in the Liberal Unionist Association
+took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a separate
+body. The duke then became president of the new organizations, the
+Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist Free Trade Club. In the
+subsequent developments the duke played a dignified but somewhat silent
+part, and the Unionist rout in 1906 was not unaffected by his open
+hostility to any taint of compromise with the tariff reform movement.
+But in the autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of
+cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and
+spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on the
+24th of March 1908.
+
+The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial magnate,
+and an Englishman with thoroughly national tastes for sport, his weighty
+and disinterested character made him a statesman of the first rank in
+his time, in spite of the absence of showy or brilliant qualities. He
+had no self-seeking ambitions, and on three occasions preferred not to
+become prime minister. Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he
+was not an orator, nor "clever"; and he lacked all subtlety of
+intellect; but he was conspicuous for solidity of mind and
+straightforwardness of action, and for conscientious application as an
+administrator, whether in his public or private life. The fact that he
+once yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly quoted as
+characteristic; but he combined a great fund of common sense and
+knowledge of the average opinion with a patriotic sense of duty towards
+the state. Throughout his career he remained an old-fashioned Liberal,
+or rather Whig, of a type which in his later years was becoming
+gradually more and more rare.
+
+There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as 9th duke by
+his nephew VICTOR CHRISTIAN CAVENDISH (b. 1868), who had been Liberal
+Unionist member for West Derbyshire since 1891, and was treasurer of the
+household (1900 to 1903) and financial secretary to the treasury (1903
+to 1905); in 1892 he married a daughter of the marquess of Lansdowne, by
+whom he had two sons.                                          (H. CH.)
+
+[1] His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: "I believe that
+our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advantageous
+to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on
+which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any
+departure from it, for sufficient reasons."
+
+
+DEVONSHIRE (DEVON), a south-western county of England, bounded N.W. and
+N. by the Bristol Channel, N.E. by Somerset and Dorset, S.E. and S. by
+the English Channel, and W. by Cornwall. The area, 2604.9 sq. m., is
+exceeded only by those of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English
+counties. Nearly the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly. The
+county contains the highest land in England south of Derbyshire
+(excepting points on the south Welsh border); and the scenery, much
+varied, is in most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad
+uplands of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend
+into North Devon, and are still the haunt of red deer, and of the small
+hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dartmoor, the
+streams are rich in trout. Dartmoor, the principal physical feature of
+the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of moorland which rises in the
+southern part. Its highest point, 2039 ft., is found in the
+north-western portion. Its rough wastes contrast finely with the wild
+but wooded region which immediately surrounds the granite of which it is
+composed, and with the rich cultivated country lying beyond. Especially
+noteworthy in this fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful district
+of apple orchards, lying between the Erme and the Dart; the rich
+meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale of Exeter; and the red rocks
+near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a characteristic charm to the
+Devonshire landscape are the number of picturesque old cottages roofed
+with thatch; and the deep lanes, sunk below the common level of the
+ground, bordered by tall hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs.
+The north and south coasts of the county differ much in character, but
+both have grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by any in England
+or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of colour.
+As a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers flow seaward
+are densely wooded, and the country immediately inland is of great
+beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which constitutes the boundary between
+Devon and Cornwall, and flows into the English Channel, after forming in
+its estuary the harbours of Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers
+rise on Dartmoor. These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling
+into the English Channel, and the Taw flowing north towards Bideford
+Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives part of
+its waters from Dartmoor through the Okement, but itself rises in the
+angle of high land near Hartland point on the north coast, and makes a
+wide sweep southward. The lesser Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme
+and the Vealm, all running south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in
+Somersetshire; but the main part of its course is through Devonshire
+(where it gives name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the
+English Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the Creedy and the
+Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south, and
+the Axe, for part of its course, divides the counties of Devon and
+Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow; while the rivers
+of Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid course.
+
+  _Geology._--The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks in
+  Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a series of slates, grits and
+  greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian
+  cherts as at Codden Hill; beds of "culm," an impure variety of coal,
+  are found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at
+  Bampton, Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western
+  boundary. North and south of the Culm an older series of slates, grits
+  and limestones appears; it was considered so characteristic of the
+  county that it was called the DEVONIAN SYSTEM (q.v.), the marine
+  equivalent of the Old Red Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It lies
+  in the form of a trough with its axis running east and west. In the
+  central hollow the Culm reposes, while the northern and southern rims
+  rise to the surface respectively north of the latitude of Barnstaple
+  and South Molton and south of the latitude of Tavistock. These
+  Devonian rocks have been subdivided into upper, middle and lower
+  divisions, but the stratigraphy is difficult to follow as the beds
+  have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of contorted strata may be
+  seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in the south, at Bolt
+  Head and Start Point they have undergone severe metamorphism.
+  Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but in the south
+  important masses occur, in the middle and at the base of the upper
+  subdivisions, about Plymouth, Torquay, Brixham and between Newton
+  Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these limestones, which are
+  largely quarried and when polished are known as Devonshire marbles.
+
+  On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set
+  of rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently
+  towards the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of the
+  younger rocks is a series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and
+  marls which are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some geologists
+  have been classed as Permian. These red rocks are beautifully exposed
+  on the coast by Dawlish and Teignmouth, and they extend inland,
+  producing a red soil, past Exeter and Tiverton. A long narrow strip of
+  the same formation reaches out westward on the top of the Culm as far
+  as Jacobstow. Farther east, the Bunter pebble beds are represented by
+  the well-known pebble deposit of Budleigh Salterton, whence they are
+  traceable inland towards Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper
+  marls and sandstones, well exposed at Sidmouth, where the upper
+  Greensand plateau is clearly seen to overlie them. The Greensand
+  covers all the high ground northward from Sidmouth as far as the
+  Blackdown Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the Chalk is seen, and at
+  the latter place is a famous landslip on the coast, caused by the
+  springs which issue from the Greensand below the Chalk. The Lower
+  Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was formerly in
+  considerable demand. At the extreme east of the county, Rhaetic and
+  Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a "bone" bed bearing
+  the remains of saurians and fish.
+
+  Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm and
+  Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times and subsequently exposed
+  by denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity are abundant in
+  the masses of diabase, dolerite, &c., at Bradford and Trusham, south
+  of Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington. Perhaps the most
+  interesting is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent Tor near Tavistock.
+  An Eocene deposit, the product of the denudation of the Dartmoor
+  Hills, lies in a small basin at Bovey Tracey (see BOVEY BEDS); it
+  yields beds of lignite and valuable clays.
+
+  Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near
+  Torquay and at other points, and a submerged forest lies in the bay
+  south of the same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian
+  limestone at Kent's Hole near Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are famous
+  for the remains of extinct mammals; bones of the elephant, rhinoceros,
+  bear and hyaena have been found as well as flint implements of early
+  man.
+
+  _Minerals._--Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near the
+  north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been worked on Dartmoor (in stream
+  works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much worked before the
+  end of the 18th century. Tin occurs in the granite of Dartmoor, and
+  along its borders, but rather where the Devonian than where the
+  Carboniferous rocks border the granite. It is found most plentifully
+  in the district which surrounds Tavistock, which, for tin and other
+  ores, is in effect the great mining district of the county. Here,
+  about 4 m. from Tavistock, are the Devon Great Consols mines, which
+  from 1843 to 1871 were among the richest copper mines in the world,
+  and by far the largest and most profitable in the kingdom. The divided
+  profits during this period amounted to £1,192,960. But the mining
+  interests of Devonshire are affected by the same causes, and in the
+  same way, as those of Cornwall. The quantity of ore has greatly
+  diminished, and the cost of raising it from the deep mines prevents
+  competition with foreign markets. In many mines tin underlies the
+  general depth of the copper, and is worked when the latter has been
+  exhausted. The mineral products of the Tavistock district are various,
+  and besides tin and copper, ores of zinc and iron are largely
+  distributed. Great quantities of refined arsenic have been produced at
+  the Devon Great Consols mine, by elimination from the iron pyrites
+  contained in the various lodes. Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood
+  of Exeter, in the valley of the Teign and in N. Devon; but the most
+  profitable mines, which are shallow, are, like those of tin and
+  copper, in the Tavistock district.
+
+  The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles,
+  building stones, slates and potters' clay. Among building stones, the
+  granite of Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried near
+  Princetown, near Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor and
+  elsewhere. The annual export is considerable. Hard traps, which occur
+  in many places, are also much used, as are the limestones of
+  Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The Roborough stone, used from an early
+  period in Devonshire churches, is found near Tavistock, and is a hard,
+  porphyritic elvan, taking a fine polish. Excellent roofing slates
+  occur in the Devonian series round the southern part of Dartmoor. The
+  chief quarries are near Ashburton and Plymouth (Cann quarry). Potters'
+  clay is worked at King's Teignton, whence it is largely exported; at
+  Bovey Tracey; and at Watcombe near Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of
+  the finest quality. China clay or kaolin is found on the southern side
+  of Dartmoor, at Lee Moor, and near Trowlesworthy. There is a large
+  deposit of umber close to Ashburton.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate varies greatly in different
+parts of the county, but everywhere it is more humid than that of the
+eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The mean annual temperature
+somewhat exceeds that of the midlands, but the average summer heat is
+rather less than that of the southern counties to the east. The air of
+the Dartmoor highlands is sharp and bracing. Mists are frequent, and
+snow often lies long. On the south coast frost is little known, and many
+half hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles, geraniums and
+heliotropes, live through the winter without protection. The climate of
+Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places on this coast is
+very equable, the mean temperature in January being 43.6° at Plymouth.
+The north coast, exposed to the storms and swell of the Atlantic, is
+more bracing; although there also, in the more sheltered nooks (as at
+Combe Martin), myrtles of great size and age flower freely, and produce
+their annual crop of berries.
+
+Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county is under
+cultivation; the cultivated area falling a little below the average of
+the English counties. There are, however, about 160,000 acres of hill
+pasture in addition to the area in permanent pasture, which is more than
+one-half that of the cultivated area. The Devon breed of cattle is well
+adapted both for fattening and for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept
+in great numbers on the hill pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief
+cattle-farming and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for
+two products of the dairy--the clotted cream to which it gives its name,
+and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats occupy about three times
+the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk of the acreage under green
+crops is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangold. Orchards occupy a
+large acreage, and consist chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every farm
+maintaining one for the manufacture of cider.
+
+_Fisheries._--Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable than those
+of Cornwall, large quantities of the pilchard and herrings caught in
+Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much of the fishing is carried on
+within the three-mile limit; and it may be asserted that trawling is the
+main feature of the Devonshire industry, whereas seining and driving
+characterize that of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice,
+soles, turbot, shrimps, lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with,
+besides herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After
+Plymouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are
+lesser stations in every bay and estuary.
+
+_Other Industries._--The principal industrial works in the county are
+the various Government establishments at Plymouth and Devonport. Among
+other industries may be noted the lace-works at Tiverton; the
+manufacture of pillow-lace for which Honiton and its neighbourhood has
+long been famous; and the potteries and terra-cotta works of Bovey
+Tracey and Watcombe. Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh
+and Ashburton, and boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is
+employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &c., in the great
+prison of Dartmoor.
+
+_Communications._--The main line of the Great Western railway, entering
+the county in the east from Taunton, runs to Exeter, skirts the coast as
+far as Teignmouth, and continues a short distance inland by Newton Abbot
+to Plymouth, after which it crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great
+bridge to Saltash in Cornwall. Branches serve Torquay and other seaside
+resorts of the south coast; and among other branches are those from
+Taunton to Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to Tavistock and
+Launceston. The main line of the London & South-Western railway between
+Exeter and Plymouth skirts the north and west of Dartmoor by Okehampton
+and Tavistock. A branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple, Ilfracombe,
+Bideford and Torrington, while the Lynton & Barnstaple and the Bideford,
+Westward Ho & Appledore lines serve the districts indicated by their
+names. The branch line to Princetown from the Plymouth-Tavistock line of
+the Great Western company in part follows the line of a very early
+railway--that constructed to connect Plymouth with the Dartmoor prison
+in 1819-1825, which was worked with horse cars. The only waterways of
+any importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to Gunnislake (3 m.
+S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal, noteworthy as one of the
+oldest in England, for it was originally cut in the reign of Elizabeth.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891 of 631,808, and 1901 of
+661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168 acres. The
+county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Barnstaple (pop.
+14,137), Bideford (8754), Dartmouth (6579), Devonport, a county borough
+(70,437), Exeter, a city and county borough (47,185), Torrington,
+officially Great Torrington (3241), Honiton (3271), Okehampton (2569),
+Plymouth, a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848), Tiverton
+(10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (4035). The other urban districts are
+Ashburton (2628), Bampton (1657), Brixham (8092), Buckfastleigh (2520),
+Budleigh Salterton (1883), Crediton (3974), Dawlish (4003), East
+Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485), Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy
+(1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivybridge (1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton
+(1641), Newton Abbot (12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495),
+Paignton (8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201),
+Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The county is in the western
+circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one court of quarter
+sessions, and is divided into twenty-four petty sessional divisions. The
+boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford, Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth, South
+Molton, and Tiverton have separate commissions of the peace and courts
+of quarter sessions, and those of Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay
+and Totnes have commissions of the peace only. There are 461 civil
+parishes. Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of
+small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro; and there are 516
+ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
+county. The parliamentary divisions are the Eastern or Honiton,
+North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North-western or
+Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes, Torquay, and Mid
+or Ashburton, each returning one member; and the county also contains
+the parliamentary boroughs of Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two
+members, and that of Exeter, returning one member.
+
+_History._--The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun some time
+before the 8th century, for in 700 there existed at Exeter a famous
+Saxon school. By this time, however, the Saxons had become Christians,
+and established their supremacy, not by destructive inroads, but by a
+gradual process of colonization, settling among the native Welsh and
+allowing them to hold lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of
+the district which is now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must
+have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter, remained
+partly Welsh until the time of Æthelstan. At the beginning of the 9th
+century Wessex was divided into definite _pagi_, probably corresponding
+to the later shires, and the Saxon Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name
+in 823, when a battle was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the
+people of Devonshire at Camelford. During the Danish invasions of the
+9th century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In 851 the
+invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of Devon, and in 878,
+when the Danes under Hubba were harrying the coast with a squadron of
+twenty-three ships, they were again defeated with great slaughter by the
+fyrd. The modern hundreds of Devonshire correspond in position very
+nearly with those given in the Domesday Survey, though the names have in
+many cases been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places
+of meeting. The hundred of Bampton formerly included estates west of the
+Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge. Ten of the modern
+hundreds have been formed by the union of two or more Domesday hundreds,
+while the Domesday hundred of Liston has had the new hundred of
+Tavistock severed from it since 1114. Many of the hundreds were
+separated by tracts of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire
+contained a vast extent, until in 1204 the inhabitants paid 5000 marks
+to have the county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor
+and Exmoor.
+
+Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric of
+Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached to the newly created
+diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund constituted
+Devonshire a separate diocese, and placed the see at Crediton. About
+1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall were united, and in 1049
+the see was fixed at Exeter. The archdeaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple
+and Totnes are all mentioned in the 12th century and formerly comprised
+twenty-four deaneries. The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and
+Ottery have been created since the 16th century, while those of
+Tamerton, Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre have been abolished,
+bringing the present number to twenty-three.
+
+At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an active hostility
+to Harold, and the easy submission which it rendered to the Conqueror
+accounts for the exceptionally large number of Englishmen who are found
+retaining lands after the Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman
+barons were known as honours, chief among them being Plympton,
+Okehampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of Plympton was
+bestowed in the 12th century on the Redvers family, together with the
+earldom of Devon; in the 13th century it passed to the Courtenay family,
+who had already become possessed of the honour of Okehampton, and who in
+1335 obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in the
+14th century on the Holland family, which became extinct in the reign of
+Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh, who was born at
+Budleigh, had long held considerable estates in the county.
+
+Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being at first
+hereditary, but afterwards held for one year only. In 1320 complaint was
+made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in the hands of the great
+lords, who did not appoint a sufficiency of bailiffs for their proper
+government. The miners of Devon had independent courts, known as
+stannary courts, for the regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary
+towns being Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient
+miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor.
+
+The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen by Baldwin
+de Redvers, and in the 14th and 15th centuries the French made frequent
+attacks on the Devonshire coast, being repulsed in 1404 by the people of
+Dartmouth. In the Wars of the Roses the county was much divided, and
+frequent skirmishes took place between the earl of Devon and Lord
+Bonville, the respective champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist
+parties. Great disturbances in the county followed the Reformation of
+the 16th century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say mass at
+Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county as a
+whole favoured the parliament, but the prevailing desire was for peace,
+and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities in Devonshire and
+Cornwall was agreed upon. Skirmishes, however, continued until the
+capture of Dartmouth and Exeter in 1646 put an end to the struggle. In
+1688 the prince of Orange landed at Torbay and was entertained for
+several days at Ford and at Exeter.
+
+The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time immemorial, and in the
+14th century mines of tin, copper, lead, gold and silver are mentioned.
+Agriculturally the county was always poor, and before the
+disafforestation rendered especially so through the ravages committed by
+the herds of wild deer. At the time of the Domesday Survey the salt
+industry was important, and there were ninety-nine mills in the county
+and thirteen fisheries. From an early period the chief manufacture was
+that of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manufacture
+of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire. About 1505
+Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an improved method of spinning
+into the county, and cider-making is mentioned in the 16th century. In
+1680 the lace industry was already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St
+Mary, and flax, hemp and malt were largely produced in the 17th and 18th
+centuries.
+
+Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295
+Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock, Torrington and Totnes were also
+represented. In 1831 the county with its boroughs returned a total of
+twenty-six members, but under the Reform Act of 1832 it returned four
+members in two divisions, and with ten boroughs was represented by a
+total of eighteen members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six
+members in three divisions, and four of the boroughs were disfranchised,
+making a total of seventeen members.
+
+_Antiquities._--In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich as
+Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest interest, the
+most peculiar of which are the long parallel alignments of upright
+stones, which, on a small scale, resemble those of Carnac in Brittany.
+On Dartmoor the lines are invariably straight, and are found in direct
+connexion with cairns, and with circles which are probably sepulchral.
+These stone avenues are very numerous. Of the so-called sacred circles
+the best examples are the "Longstones" on Scorhill Down, and the "Grey
+Wethers" under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest cromlech is the
+"Spinster's Rock" at Drewsteignton, a three-pillared cromlech which may
+well be compared with those of Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or
+single upright stones; a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of
+the Teign, near the Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit
+of nearly every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on
+Heltor, above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably evident that these
+have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite, and
+that the dolmen in the Teign is due to the action of the river. Clusters
+of hut foundations, circular, and formed of rude granite blocks, are
+frequent; the best example of such a primitive village is at Batworthy,
+near Chagford; the type resembles that of East Cornwall. Walled
+enclosures, or pounds, occur in many places; Grimspound is the most
+remarkable. Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor
+in many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of great slabs of
+granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor. Scattered
+over the county are numerous large hill castles and camps,--all
+earthworks, and all apparently of the British period. Roman relics have
+been found from time to time at Exeter (_Isca Damnoniorum_), the only
+large Roman station in the county.
+
+The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period, dating
+from the middle of the 14th to the end of the 15th century. Exeter
+cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except the Norman
+towers) being very beautiful Decorated work. The special features of
+Devonshire churches, however, are the richly carved pulpits and chancel
+screens of wood, in which this county exceeded every other in England,
+with the exception of Norfolk and Suffolk. The designs are rich and
+varied, and the skill displayed often very great. Granite crosses are
+frequent, the finest and earliest being that of Coplestone, near
+Crediton. Monastic remains are scanty; the principal are those at Tor,
+Buckfast, Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings the
+houses of Wear Gilford, Bradley and Dartington of the 15th century;
+Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan), and Forde (Jacobean),
+deserve notice. The ruined castles of Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter,
+with its vast British earthworks, Berry Pomeroy (Henry III., with ruins
+of a large Tudor mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 15th
+century), are all interesting and picturesque.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--T. Westcote, _Survey of Devon_, written about 1630, and
+  first printed in 1845; J. Prince, _Worthies of Devon_ (Exeter, 1701);
+  Sir W. Pole, _Collections towards a History of the County of Devon_
+  (London, 1791); R. Polwhele, _History of Devonshire_ (3 vols. Exeter,
+  1797, 1798-1800); T. Moore, _History of Devon from the Earliest Period
+  to the Present Time_ (vols, i., ii., London, 1829-1831); G. Oliver,
+  _Historic Collections relating to the Monasteries in Devon_ (Exeter,
+  1820); D. and S. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_ (vol. vi., London, 1822);
+  _Ecclesiastical Antiquities in Devon_ (Exeter, 1844); Mrs Bray,
+  _Traditions of Devonshire_, in a series of letters to Robert Southey
+  (London, 1838); G. C. Boase, _Devonshire Bibliography_ (London, 1883);
+  Sir W. R. Drake, _Devonshire Notes and Notelets_ (London, 1888); S.
+  Hewett, _Peasant Speech of Devon_ (London, 1892); R. N. Worth,
+  _History of Devonshire_ (London, 1886, new edition, 1895); C. Worthy,
+  _Devonshire Parishes_ (Exeter, 1887); _Devonshire Wills_ (London,
+  1896); _Victoria County History, Devonshire_.
+
+
+DEVRIENT, the name of a family of German actors.
+
+LUDWIG DEVRIENT (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the 15th of December
+1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He was apprenticed to an
+upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employment, joined a travelling
+theatrical company, and made his first appearance on the stage at Gera
+in 1804 as the messenger in Schiller's _Braut von Messina_. By the
+interest of Count Brühl, he appeared at Rudolstadt as Franz Moor in
+Schiller's _Räuber_, so successfully that he obtained a permanent
+engagement at the ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played until 1809.
+He then received a call to Breslau, where he remained for six years. So
+brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of Shakespeare's
+plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation; yet that great
+artist was generous enough to recommend the young actor as his only
+possible successor. On Iffland's death Devrient was summoned to Berlin,
+where he was for fifteen years the popular idol. He died there on the
+30th of December 1832. Ludwig Devrient was equally great in comedy and
+tragedy. Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard II. were
+among his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his _Reminiscences_ has given a
+graphic picture of him and the "demoniac fascination" of his acting.
+
+  See Z. Funck, _Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und
+  Devrients_ (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in _Devrient-Novellen_ (3rd ed.,
+  Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel _Devrient und Hoffmann_
+  (Berlin, 1873), and Eduard Devrient's _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1861).
+
+Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother, a
+merchant, were also connected with the stage. KARL AUGUST DEVRIENT
+(1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the 5th of April 1797. After being for
+a short time in business, he entered a cavalry regiment as volunteer and
+fought at Waterloo. He then joined the stage, making his first
+appearance on the stage in 1819 at Brunswick. In 1821 he received an
+engagement at the court theatre in Dresden, where, in 1823, he married
+Wilhelmine Schröder (see SCHRÖDER-DEVRIENT). In 1835 he joined the
+company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His best parts were
+Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the 5th of April 1872. His brother
+PHILIPP EDUARD DEVRIENT (1801-1877), born at Berlin on the 11th of
+August 1801, was for a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to
+theatrical management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director of the court
+theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began a thorough
+reorganization of the theatre, and in the course of seventeen years of
+assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high position, but enriched
+its repertory by many noteworthy librettos, among which _Die Gunst des
+Augenblicks_ and _Verirrungen_ are the best known. But his chief work is
+his history of the German stage--_Geschichte der deutschen
+Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1848-1874). He died on the 4th of October
+1877. A complete edition of his works--_Dramatische und dramaturgische
+Schriften_--was published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873).
+
+The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of Ludwig Devrient
+was GUSTAV EMIL DEVRIENT (1803-1872), born in Berlin on the 4th of
+September 1803. He made his first appearance on the stage in 1821, at
+Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's _Jungfrau von Orleans_. After a short
+engagement in Leipzig, he received in 1829 a call to Hamburg, but after
+two years accepted a permanent appointment at the court theatre in
+Dresden, to which he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief
+characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play), Marquis
+Posa (in Schiller's _Don Carlos_), and Goethe's Torquato Tasso. He acted
+several times in London, where his Hamlet was considered finer than
+Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on the 7th of August 1872.
+
+OTTO DEVRIENT (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on the 3rd of
+October 1838, was the son of Philipp Eduard Devrient. He joined the
+stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively in Stuttgart, Berlin
+and Leipzig, until he received a fixed appointment at Karlsruhe, in
+1863. In 1873 he became stage manager at Weimar, where he gained great
+praise for his _mise en scène_ of Goethe's _Faust_. After being manager
+of the theatres in Mannheim and Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in
+1883 he was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884
+he was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and in
+1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died at Stettin on the
+23rd of June 1894.
+
+
+DEW. The word "dew" (O.E. _deaw_; cf. Ger. _Tau_) is a very ancient one
+and its meaning must therefore be defined on historical principles.
+According to the _New English Dictionary_, it means "the moisture
+deposited in minute drops upon any cool surface by condensation of the
+vapour of the atmosphere; formed after a hot day, during or towards
+night and plentiful in the early morning." Huxley in his _Physiography_
+makes the addition "without production of mist." The formation of mist
+is not necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it necessarily
+prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead of
+water it is called hoarfrost. The researches of Aitken suggest that the
+words "by condensation of the vapour in the atmosphere" might be omitted
+from the definition. He has given reasons for believing that the large
+dewdrops on the leaves of plants, the most characteristic of all the
+phenomena of dew, are to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by
+the exuding of drops of water from the plant through the pores of the
+leaves themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases is the
+continuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the
+leaves with water from the soil. The process is set up in full vigour in
+the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions at the surface of
+the leaf in the hot sun, and continued after the sun has gone.
+
+On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illustrating the
+formation of dew is the production of a deposit of moisture, in minute
+drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass or polished metal vessel by
+the cooling of a liquid contained in the vessel. If the liquid is water,
+it can be cooled by pieces of ice; if volatile like ether, by bubbling
+air through it. No deposit is formed by this process until the
+temperature is reduced to a point which, from that circumstance, has
+received a special name, although it depends upon the state of the air
+round the vessel. So generally accepted is the physical analogy between
+the natural formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner
+described, that the point below which the temperature of a surface must
+be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known as the "dew-point."
+
+In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at which, _by
+being cooled without change of pressure_, the air becomes saturated with
+water vapour, not on account of any increase of supply of that compound,
+but by the diminution of the capacity of the air for holding it in the
+gaseous condition. Thus, when the dew-point temperature has been
+determined, the pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere at the time
+of the deposit is given by reference to a table of saturation pressures
+of water vapour at different temperatures. As it is a well-established
+proposition that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not
+vary while the air is being cooled without change of its total external
+pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the pressure of
+water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced. Thus the artificial
+formation of dew and consequent determination of the dew-point is a
+recognized method of measuring the pressure, and thence the amount of
+water vapour in the atmosphere. The dew-point method is indeed in some
+ways a fundamental method of hygrometry.
+
+The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the question of
+the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse. So long as the
+dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter, but when the
+dew-point begins to approach the normal temperature of the human body
+the atmosphere becomes insupportable.
+
+The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists practically in
+determining the process or processes by which leaves, blades of grass,
+stones, and other objects in the open air upon which dew may be
+observed, become cooled "below the dew-point."
+
+Formerly, from the time of Aristotle at least, dew was supposed to
+"fall." That view of the process was not extinct at the time of
+Wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without reproach. To
+Dr Charles Wells of London belongs the credit of bringing to a focus the
+ideas which originated with the study of radiation at the beginning of
+the 19th century, and which are expressed by saying that the cooling
+necessary to produce dew on exposed surfaces is to be attributed to the
+radiation from the surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an account of the
+theory of automatic cooling by radiation, which has found a place in all
+text-books of physics, in his first _Essay on Dew_ published in 1818.
+The theory is supported in that and in a second essay by a number of
+well-planned observations, and the essays are indeed models of
+scientific method. The process of the formation of dew as represented by
+Wells is a simple one. It starts from the point of view that all bodies
+are constantly radiating heat, and cool automatically unless they
+receive a corresponding amount of heat from other bodies by radiation or
+conduction. Good radiators, which are at the same time bad conductors of
+heat, such as blades of grass, lose heat rapidly on a clear night by
+radiation to the sky and become cooled below the dew-point of the
+atmosphere.
+
+The question was very fully studied by Melloni and others, but little
+more was added to the explanation given by Wells until 1885, when John
+Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question whether the water of
+dewdrops on plants or stones came from the air or the earth, and
+described a number of experiments to show that under the conditions of
+observation in Scotland, it was the earth from which the moisture was
+probably obtained, either by the operation of the vascular system of
+plants in the formation of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and
+subsequent condensation in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some
+controversy was excited by the publication of Aitken's views, and it is
+interesting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which
+is of general application in meteorological questions, namely, that the
+physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological
+phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that is
+necessary to produce dew, nor even radiation from a body which does not
+conduct heat. The body must be surrounded by an atmosphere so fully
+supplied with moisture that the dew-point can be passed by the cooling
+due to radiation. Thus the conditions favourable for the formation of
+dew are (1) a good radiating surface, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) a
+clear sky, (4) thermal insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm
+moist ground or some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in
+the surface layers of air.
+
+Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in considering the
+supply of moisture we must take into consideration the ground as well as
+the air and concern ourselves with the temperature of both. Of the five
+conditions mentioned, the first four may be considered necessary, but
+the fifth is very important for securing a copious deposit. It can
+hardly be maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply
+of water by evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a supply is
+forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited process of
+condensation which deprives the air of its moisture and is therefore
+soon terminable, we have the process of distillation which goes on as
+long as conditions are maintained. This distinction is of some practical
+importance for it indicates the protecting power of wet soil in favour
+of young plants as against night frost. If distillation between the
+ground and the leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot
+fall much below the original dew-point because the supply of water for
+condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of heat by
+radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of water from the
+atmosphere, without renewal of the supply, the dew-point will gradually
+get lower as the moisture is deposited and the process of cooling will
+go on.
+
+In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large changes
+taking place within a small range of level. It is with the layer a few
+inches thick on either side of the surface that we are principally
+concerned, and for an adequate comprehension of the conditions close
+consideration is required. To illustrate this point reference may be
+made to figs. 1 and 2, which represent the condition of affairs at 10.40
+P.M. on about the 20th of October 1885, according to observations by
+Aitken. Vertical distances represent heights in feet, while the
+temperatures of the air and the dew-point are represented by horizontal
+distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of the
+diagram. The line marked 0 is the ground level itself, a rather
+indefinite quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical
+distance represented is from 4 ft. above ground to 1 ft. below ground,
+and the special phenomena which we are considering take place in the
+layer which represents the rapid transition between the temperature of
+the ground 3 in. below the surface and that of the air a few inches
+above ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+The point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and
+dry-bulb curve will cut. If they cut above the surface, mist will
+result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be formed. Below the
+surface, it may be assumed that the air is saturated with moisture and
+any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by
+distillation. It may be remarked, by the way, that such distillation
+between soil layers of different temperatures must be productive of the
+transference of large quantities of water between different levels in
+the soil either upward or downward according to the time of year.
+
+These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and moisture of
+the ground in the phenomena which have been considered. From the surface
+there is a continual loss of heat going on by radiation and a continual
+supply of warmth and moisture from below. But while the heat can escape,
+the moisture cannot. Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as
+it approaches the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the
+effect of the moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach.
+In the case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the
+left to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well
+shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to the same
+point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if there were so
+copious a condensation from the atmosphere as actually to make the air
+drier at the surface than up above. In diagram 1, for soil, the effect
+on air temperature and moisture is shown; the two lines converge to cut
+at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground
+line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the
+surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature
+gradient.
+
+The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical countries,
+is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by gutters and spouts,
+but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total
+rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the
+Loango coast at 3 mm., but the estimate seems a high one. Measurements
+go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate
+annual deposit of dew is 1 in. to 1.5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1.2
+in. at Munich (Wollny), 0.3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1.6 in. at
+Tenbury, Worcestershire (Badgley).
+
+With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that of the
+maintenance of "dew ponds" is intimately associated. The name is given
+to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the
+south of England and elsewhere. Some of these ponds are very ancient, as
+the title of a work on _Neolithic Dewponds_ by A. J. and G. Hubbard
+indicates. Their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend
+upon dew and not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of
+water supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been
+discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence seems to
+be against the view that dew deposits make any important contribution to
+the supply of water. The construction of dew ponds is, however, still
+practised on traditional lines, and it is said that a new dew pond has
+first to be filled artificially. It does not come into existence by the
+gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For _Dew_, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells
+  (London, 1818), also "An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella (London,
+  1866), Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni, _Pogg. Ann._
+  lxxi. pp. 416, 424 and lxxiii. p. 467; Jamin, "Compléments à la
+  théorie de la rosée," _Journal de physique_, viii. p. 41; J. Aitken,
+  on "Dew," _Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh_, xxxiii., part i. 2, and
+  "Nature," vol. xxxiii. p. 256; C. Tomlinson, "Remarks on a new Theory
+  of Dew," _Phil. Mag._ (1886), 5th series, vol. 21, p. 483 and vol. 22,
+  p. 270; Russell, _Nature_, vol 47, p. 210; also _Met. Zeit._ (1893),
+  p. 390; Homén, _Bodenphysikalische und meteorologische Beobachtungen_
+  (Berlin, 1894), iii.; _Taubildung_, p. 88, &c.; Rubenson, "Die
+  Temperatur-und Feuchtigkeitsverhältnisse in den unteren Luftschichten
+  bei der Taubildung," _Met. Zeit._ xi. (1876), p. 65; H. E. Hamberg,
+  "Température et humidité de l'air à différentes hauteurs à Upsal,"
+  _Soc. R. des sciences d'Upsal_ (1876); review in _Met. Zeit._ xii.
+  (1877), p. 105.
+
+  For _Dew Ponds_, see Stephen Hales, _Statical Essays_, vol. i.,
+  experiment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731); Gilbert White,
+  _Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne_, letter xxix. (London,
+  1789); Dr C. Wells, _An Essay on Dew_ (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866);
+  Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, "Prize Essay on Water Supply," _Journ. Roy.
+  Agric. Soc._, 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and
+  Symons, "Evaporation from the Surface of Water," _Brit. Assoc. Rep._
+  (1869), sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, "Hydrogeology: One of the
+  Developments of Modern Practical Geology," _Trans. Inst. Surveyors_,
+  vol. ix. pp. 153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise
+  on Dew Ponds" (London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural History of
+  Isolated Ponds," _Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society_,
+  vol. v. pp. 272-286 (1892); Professor G. S. Brady, _On the Nature and
+  Origin of Freshwater Faunas_ (1899); Professor L. C. Miall, "Dew
+  Ponds," _Reports of the British Association_ (Bradford Meeting, 1900),
+  pp. 579-585; A. J. and G. Hubbard, "Neolithic Dewponds and
+  Cattle-Ways" (London, 1904, 1907).                         (W. N. S.)
+
+
+DEWAN or DIWAN, an Oriental term for finance minister. The word is
+derived from the Arabian _diwan_, and is commonly used in India to
+denote a minister of the Mogul government, or in modern days the prime
+minister of a native state. It was in the former sense that the grant of
+the _dewanny_ to the East India Company in 1765 became the foundation of
+the British empire in India.
+
+
+DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist and physicist, was born at
+Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the 20th of September 1842. He was
+educated at Dollar Academy and Edinburgh University, being at the latter
+first a pupil, and afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then
+professor of chemistry; he also studied under Kekulé at Ghent. In 1875
+he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy
+at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and in 1877 he succeeded
+Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of chemistry in the Royal
+Institution, London. He was president of the Chemical Society in 1897,
+and of the British Association in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission
+on London Water Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee on
+Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir Frederick Abel.
+His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his earlier papers, some
+deal with questions of organic chemistry, others with Graham's
+hydrogenium and its physical constants, others with high temperatures,
+e.g. the temperature of the sun and of the electric spark, others again
+with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc. With
+Professor J. G. M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the
+physiological action of light, and examined the changes which take place
+in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With
+Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he began in
+1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later of which
+were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous
+constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid of low
+temperatures; and he was joined by Professor J. A. Fleming, of
+University College, London, in the investigation of the electrical
+behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures. His name is
+most widely known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the
+so-called permanent gases and his researches at temperatures approaching
+the zero of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry
+dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the "Latent Heat
+of Liquid Gases" before the British Association. In 1878 he devoted a
+Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to the then recent work
+of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and exhibited for the first time in
+Great Britain the working of the Cailletet apparatus. Six years later,
+in the same place, he described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and
+K. S. Olszewski, and illustrated for the first time in public the
+liquefaction of oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed
+for optical projection so that the actions taking place might be visible
+to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which the
+liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling
+agent, and he showed its employment for this purpose in connexion with
+some researches on meteorites; about the same time he also obtained
+oxygen in the solid state. By 1891 he had designed and erected at the
+Royal Institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint,
+and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and
+liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea
+occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of
+liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the
+influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to preserve
+the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to keep them so
+free from ebullition that examination of their optical properties
+becomes possible. He next experimented with a high-pressure hydrogen jet
+by which low temperatures were realized through the Thomson-Joule
+effect, and the successful results thus obtained led him to build at the
+Royal Institution the large refrigerating machine by which in 1898
+hydrogen was for the first time collected in the liquid state, its
+solidification following in 1899. Later he investigated the
+gas-absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and
+applied them to the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see
+LIQUID GASES). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford medal upon
+him for his work in the production of low temperatures, and in 1899 he
+became the first recipient of the Hodgkins gold medal of the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, for his contributions to our knowledge of the
+nature and properties of atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first
+British subject to receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of
+Sciences, and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal
+of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904, and in 1908
+he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of Arts.
+
+
+DEWAS, two native states of India, in the Malwa Political Charge of
+Central India, founded in the first half of the 18th century by two
+brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into Malwa with the peshwa, Baji
+Rao, in 1728. Their descendants are known as the senior and junior
+branches of the family, and since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as
+a separate state, though the lands belonging to each are so intimately
+entangled, that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the
+main street are under different administrations and have different
+arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch has an
+area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the area of the
+junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904.
+
+
+DEWBERRY, _Rubus caesius_, a trailing plant, allied to the bramble, of
+the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods, hedges and the
+borders of fields in England and other countries of Europe. The leaves
+have three leaflets, are hairy beneath, and of a dusky green; the
+flowers which appear in June and July are white, or pale rose-coloured.
+The fruit is large, and closely embraced by the calyx, and consists of a
+few drupules, which are black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an
+agreeable acid taste.
+
+
+DEW-CLAW, the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the "false hoof" of
+the deer, sometimes also called the "nails." In dogs the dew-claw is the
+rudimentary toe or hallux (corresponding to the big toe in man) hanging
+loosely attached to the skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg.
+The origin of the word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested
+that, while the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw
+merely brushes the dew from the grass.
+
+
+D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, Bart. (1602-1650), English antiquarian, eldest son
+of Paul D'Ewes of Milden, Suffolk, and of Cecilia, daughter and heir of
+Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born on the 18th
+of December 1602, and educated at the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds,
+and at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to the Middle
+Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623, when he immediately
+began his collections of material and his studies in history and
+antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne, daughter and heir of Sir William
+Clopton, of Luton's Hall in Suffolk, through whom he obtained a large
+addition to his already considerable fortune. On the 6th of December he
+was knighted. He took an active part as a strong Puritan and member of
+the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary government
+in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member for Sudbury.
+On the 15th of July he was created a baronet by the king, but
+nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out, and
+in 1643 took the Covenant. He was one of the members expelled by Pride's
+Purge in 1648, and died on the 18th of April 1650. He had married
+secondly Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley
+in Derbyshire, by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and
+title, the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731.
+D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious scope, no less
+than the whole history of England based on original documents. But
+though excelling as a collector of materials, and as a laborious,
+conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had little power of
+generalization or construction, and died without publishing anything
+except an uninteresting tract, _The Primitive Practice for Preserving
+Truth_ (1645), and some speeches. His _Journals of all the Parliaments
+during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth_, however, a valuable work, was
+published in 1682. His large collections, including transcripts from
+ancient records, many of the originals of which are now dispersed or
+destroyed, are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His
+unprinted Diaries from 1621-1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable
+for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only authority
+for incidents and speeches during that period, and are amusing from the
+glimpses the diarist affords of his own character, his good estimation
+of himself and his little jealousies; some are in a cipher and some in
+Latin.
+
+  Extracts from his _Autobiography and Correspondence_ from the MSS. in
+  the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell-Phillips in 1845,
+  by Hearne in the appendix to his _Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II._
+  (1729), and in the _Bibliotheca topographica Britannica_, No. xv. vol.
+  vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, _College Life in the Time
+  of James I._ (1851). His Diaries have been extensively drawn upon by
+  Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his _Studies of the Great
+  Rebellion_. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the Harleian
+  Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts.
+
+
+DE WET, CHRISTIAN (1854- ), Boer general and politician, was born on the
+7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop, Smithfield district (Orange Free
+State), and later resided at Dewetsdorp. He served in the first
+Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81 as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he
+lived on his farm, becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took
+part in the earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a
+commandant and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the
+west. His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near
+Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg a little
+later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and more as the most
+formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla warfare. Sometimes
+severely handled by the British, sometimes escaping only by the
+narrowest margin of safety from the columns which attempted to surround
+him, and falling upon and annihilating isolated British posts, De Wet
+continued to the end of the war his successful career, striking heavily
+where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to
+bay. He took an active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at
+the conclusion of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer
+generals. While in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a
+modification of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote
+an account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in
+November 1902 under the title _Three Years' War_. In November, 1907 he
+was elected a member of the first parliament of the Orange River Colony
+and was appointed minister of agriculture. In 1908-9 he was a delegate
+to the Closer Union Convention.
+
+
+DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT (1780-1849), German theologian, was
+born on the 12th of January 1780, at Ulla, near Weimar, where his father
+was pastor. He was sent to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height
+of its literary glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with
+Johann Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In 1799
+he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal teachers
+being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Paulus, from the latter of whom he
+derived his tendency to free critical inquiry. Both in methods and in
+results, however, he occupied an almost solitary position among German
+theologians. Having taken his doctor's degree, he became _privat-docent_
+at Jena; in 1807 professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came
+under the influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was
+transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded university of
+Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was,
+however, dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written
+a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the murderer
+of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the
+university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving
+him of the chair, but banishing him from the Prussian kingdom. He
+retired for a time to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the
+preparation of his edition of Luther, and in writing the romance
+_Theodor oder die Weihe des Zweiflers_ (Berlin, 1822), in which he
+describes the education of an evangelical pastor. During this period he
+made his first essay in preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of
+very popular gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the
+university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before.
+Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party,
+De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and
+among the people generally. He was admitted a citizen, and became rector
+of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength,
+particularly in the theological faculty. He died on the 16th of June
+1849.
+
+De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as "the epoch-making
+opener of the historical criticism of the Pentateuch." He prepared the
+way for the Supplement-theory. But he also made valuable contributions
+to other branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic
+faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled _Die Entsagung_
+(Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied
+ecclesiastical music and architecture. As a Biblical critic he is
+sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer
+says (_Development of Theology_, p. 102), he "occupied as free a
+position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the
+creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the
+religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with a
+more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the connexion of the
+present life of the church with the past." His works are marked by
+exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness.
+Accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress
+of criticism.
+
+  The most important of his works are:--_Beiträge zur Einleitung in das
+  Alte Testament_ (2 vols., 1806-1807); _Kommentar über die Psalmen_
+  (1811), which has passed through several editions, and is still
+  regarded as of high authority; _Lehrbuch der hebräisch-jüdischen
+  Archäologie_ (1814); _Über Religion und Theologie_ (1815); a work of
+  great importance as showing its author's general theological position;
+  _Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik_ (1813-1816); _Lehrbuch der
+  historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel_ (1817); _Christliche
+  Sittenlehre_ (1819-1821); _Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1826);
+  _Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das
+  Leben_ (1827); _Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens_ (1846); and
+  _Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament_ (1836-1848).
+  De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825-1828).
+
+   See K. R. Hagenbach in _Herzog's Realencyklopädie_; G. C. F. Lücke's
+  _W. M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung_ (1850); and D.
+  Schenkel's _W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie für
+  unsere Zeit_ (1849). Rudolf Stähelin, _De Wette nach seiner theol.
+  Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung_ (1880); F. Lichtenberger, _History of
+  German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889); Otto Pfleiderer,
+  _Development of Theology_ (1890), pp. 97 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, _Founders
+  of the Old Testament Criticism_, pp. 31 ff.
+
+
+DEWEY, DAVIS RICH (1858- ), American economist and statistician, was
+born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th of April 1858. He was
+educated at the university of Vermont and at Johns Hopkins University,
+and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was chairman of the state
+board on the question of the unemployed (1895), member of the
+Massachusetts commission on public, charitable and reformatory interests
+(1897), special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of
+a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an excellent
+_Syllabus on Political History since 1815_ (1887), a _Financial History
+of the U.S._ (1902), and _National Problems_ (1907).
+
+
+DEWEY, GEORGE (1837- ), American naval officer, was born at Montpelier,
+Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837. He studied at Norwich University,
+then at Norwich, Vermont, and graduated at the United States Naval
+Academy in 1858. He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in
+the Civil War served on the steamsloop "Mississippi" (1861-1863) during
+Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862, and at
+Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting below
+Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865 served on the
+steam-gunboat "Agawam" with the North Atlantic blockading squadron and
+took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January
+1865. In March 1865 he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the
+European squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States
+Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the "Narragansett" in
+1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned commander in 1872; was
+light-house inspector in 1876-1877; and was secretary of the light-house
+board in 1877-1882. In 1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief
+of the bureau of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of
+the light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board of
+inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of commodore in
+February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned, at his own request, to
+sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In April 1898, while with his
+fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by cable that war had begun between
+the United States and Spain, and was ordered to "capture or destroy the
+Spanish fleet" then in Philippine waters. On the 1st of May he
+overwhelmingly defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in
+Manila Bay, a victory won without the loss of a man on the American
+ships (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). Congress, in a joint resolution,
+tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and men
+under his command, and authorized "the secretary of the navy to present
+a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey, and cause to be struck
+bronze medals commemorating the battle of Manila Bay, and to distribute
+such medals to the officers and men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron
+of the United States." He was promoted rear-admiral on the 10th of May
+1898. On the 18th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the
+city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders from his
+government to maintain control, Dewey received the rank of admiral
+(March 3, 1899)--that title, formerly borne only by Farragut and Porter,
+having been revived by act of Congress (March 2, 1899),--and returned
+home, arriving in New York City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he
+received a great ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman
+Philippine Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible
+Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president of the
+Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority report on a
+few details.
+
+
+DEWEY, MELVIL (1851- ), American librarian, was born at Adams Center,
+New York, on the 10th of December 1851. He graduated in 1874 at Amherst
+College, where he was assistant librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he
+removed to Boston, where he founded and became editor of _The Library
+Journal_, which became an influential factor in the development of
+libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration. He was
+also one of the founders of the American Library Association, of which
+he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president in 1891 and 1893. In
+1883 he became librarian of Columbia College, and in the following year
+founded there the School of Library Economy, the first institution for
+the instruction of librarians ever organized. This school, which was
+very successful, was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was
+re-established as the State Library School under his direction; from
+1888 to 1906 he was director of the New York State Library and from 1888
+to 1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York,
+completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of the most
+efficient in America, and establishing the system of state travelling
+libraries and picture collections. His "Decimal System of
+Classification" for library cataloguing, first proposed in 1876, is
+extensively used.
+
+
+DEWING, THOMAS WILMER (1851- ), American figure painter, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1851. He was a pupil of Jules
+Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to 1879; was elected a full member of the
+National Academy of Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten
+American Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition
+(1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis (1904). His
+decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and finish. Among his
+portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White and of his own wife. Mrs
+Dewing (b, 1855), _née_ Maria Oakey, a figure and flower painter, was a
+pupil of John La Farge in New York, and of Couture in Paris.
+
+
+DE WINT, PETER (1784-1849), English landscape painter, of Dutch
+extraction, son of an English physician, was born at Stone,
+Staffordshire, on the 21st of January 1784. He studied art in London,
+and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In 1812 he became a member of
+the Society of Painters in Watercolours, where he exhibited largely for
+many years, as well as at the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of
+William Hilton, R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. De
+Wint's life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he
+ranks as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his
+pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+
+DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was born at Kampen,
+and in 1761 entered the naval service at the age of twelve years. He
+distinguished himself by his zeal and courage, and at the revolution of
+1787 he had reached the rank of lieutenant. The overthrow of the
+"patriot" party forced him to fly for his safety to France. Here he
+threw himself heart and soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took
+part under Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and
+was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When Pichegru in
+1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the French army to his
+native country. The states-general now utilized the experience he had
+gained as a naval officer by giving him the post of adjunct-general for
+the reorganization of the Dutch navy. In 1796 he was appointed
+vice-admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts
+to strengthen it and improve its condition, and on the 11th of October
+1797 he ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British fleet
+under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the Dutch were
+defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner. He remained in
+England until December, when he was liberated by exchange. His conduct
+in the battle of Camperdown was declared by a court-martial to have
+nobly maintained the honour of the Dutch flag.
+
+From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador to the French
+republic, and was then once more appointed commander of the fleet. He
+was sent with a strong squadron to the Mediterranean to repress the
+Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a treaty of peace with the Tripolitan
+government. He enjoyed the confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of
+Holland, and, after the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French
+empire, in an equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was
+created marshal and count of Huessen, and given the command of the armed
+forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the grand cross of the
+Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector-general of the northern
+coasts, and in 1811 he placed him at the head of the fleet he had
+collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards De Winter was seized with
+illness and compelled to betake himself to Paris, where he died on the
+2nd of June 1812. He had a splendid public funeral and was buried in the
+Pantheon. His heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the Nicolaas
+Kerk at Kampen.
+
+
+DE WITT, CORNELIUS (1623-1672), brother of JOHN DE WITT (q.v.), was born
+at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgomaster of Dort and member of the
+states of Holland and West Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the
+important post of _ruwaard_ or governor of the land of Putten and
+bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater
+brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout his career
+with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by the
+states of Holland to accompany Admiral de Ruyter in his famous
+expedition to Chatham. Cornelius de Witt on this occasion distinguished
+himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De
+Ruyter in 1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at
+Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled by
+illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that the
+Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother were the
+objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account of his imprisonment,
+trial and death, is given below.
+
+
+DE WITT, JOHN (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at Dort, on the
+24th of September 1625. He was a member of one of the old burgher-regent
+families of his native town. His father, Jacob de Witt, was six times
+burgomaster of Dort, and for many years sat as a representative of the
+town in the states of Holland. He was a strenuous adherent of the
+republican or oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the
+princes of the house of Orange, who represented the federal principle
+and had the support of the masses of the people. John was educated at
+Leiden, and early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in
+mathematics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother
+Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on his
+return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate. In 1650 he
+was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which made him the leader
+and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of Holland. In this
+same year the states of Holland found themselves engaged in a struggle
+for provincial supremacy, on the question of the disbanding of troops,
+with the youthful prince of Orange, William II. William, with the
+support of the states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders
+of the states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle;
+among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William, at the
+moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction. He left only a
+posthumous child, afterwards William III. of Orange, and the principles
+advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed, and the authority of the states of
+Holland became predominant in the republic.
+
+At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence, sagacity
+and business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of Dort that
+on the 23rd of July 1653 he was appointed to the office of grand
+pensionary (_Raadpensionaris_) of Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He
+was re-elected in 1658, 1663 and 1668, and held office until his death
+in 1672. During this period of nineteen years the general conduct of
+public affairs and administration, and especially of foreign affairs,
+such was the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was
+largely placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to the
+brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been caused by the
+keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states. The Dutch were
+unprepared, and suffered severely through the loss of their carrying
+trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about peace as soon as possible.
+The first demands of Cromwell were impossible, for they aimed at the
+absorption of the two republics into a single state, but at last in the
+autumn of 1654 peace was concluded, by which the Dutch made large
+concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to English ships in
+the narrow seas. The treaty included a secret article, which the
+states-general refused to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in
+inducing the states of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of
+Holland pledged themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a
+captain-general of the union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called,
+was aimed at the young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the
+Stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was
+personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his
+ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that he
+prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter.
+
+The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently successful.
+He restored the finances of the state, and extended its commercial
+supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he sustained Denmark against
+Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an advantageous peace with Portugal. The
+accession of Charles II. to the English throne led to the rescinding of
+the Act of Seclusion; nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the
+prince of Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This
+led to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to a
+renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial rights, and
+war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and courage displayed by the
+grand pensionary during the course of this fiercely contested naval
+struggle could scarcely have been surpassed. He himself on more than one
+occasion went to sea with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came
+in contact by the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action
+and inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an
+organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship
+of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty of peace signed at
+Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of _uti possidetis_, were so
+honourable to the United Provinces. A still greater triumph of
+diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the Triple Alliance (January 17,
+1668) between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden, which checked the
+attempt of Louis XIV. to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in
+the name of his wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was
+but temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take vengeance
+for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III. was growing to
+manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout the country spared no
+efforts to undermine the authority of De Witt, and secure for the young
+prince of Orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors.
+
+In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded the United
+Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically no resistance was
+possible. The unanimous voice of the people called William III. to the
+head of affairs, and there were violent demonstrations against John de
+Witt. His brother Cornelius was (July 24) arrested on a charge of
+conspiring against the prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt
+resigned the post of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with
+such distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the 19th of
+August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banishment. He
+was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother came to visit him in
+the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this collected outside, and finally
+burst into the prison, seized the two brothers and literally tore them
+to pieces. Their mangled remains were hung up by the feet to a
+lamp-post. Thus perished, by the savage act of an infuriated mob, one of
+the greatest statesmen of his age.
+
+John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influential
+burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two sons and three
+daughters.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Geddes, _History of the Administration of John de
+  Witt_, (vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefèvre-Pontalis, _Jean de
+  Witt, grand pensionnaire de Hollande_ (2 vols., Paris, 1884); P.
+  Simons, _Johan de Witt en zijn tijd_ (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842);
+  W. C. Knottenbelt, _Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt_
+  (Amsterdam, 1862); _J. de Witt, Brieven ... gewisselt tusschen den
+  Heer Johan de Witt ... ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d.
+  Vereen. Nederlanden so in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken,
+  Poolen, enz. 1652-69_ (6 vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); _Brieven ...
+  1650-1657 (1658) eerste deel bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W.
+  Kernkamp_ (Amsterdam, 1906).
+
+
+DEWLAP (from the O.E. _læppa_, a lappet, or hanging fold; the first
+syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explanation that the word
+means "the fold which brushes the dew" is not borne out, according to
+the _New English Dictionary_, by the equivalent words such as the
+Danish _doglaeb_, in Scandinavian languages), the loose fold of skin
+hanging from the neck of cattle, also applied to similar folds in the
+necks of other animals and fowls, as the dog, turkey, &c. The American
+practice of branding cattle by making a cut in the neck is known as a
+"dewlap brand." The skin of the neck in human beings often becomes
+pendulous with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by the same
+name.
+
+
+DEWSBURY, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the
+West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of
+Leeds, on the Great Northern, London & North-Western, and Lancashire &
+Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 28,060. The parish church of All Saints
+was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the 18th century;
+the portions still preserved of the original structure are mainly Early
+English. The chief industries are the making of blankets, carpets,
+druggets and worsted yarn; and there are iron foundries and machinery
+works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary borough
+includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and returns one
+member. The municipal borough, incorporated in 1862, is under a mayor, 6
+aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1471 acres. Paulinus, first
+archbishop of York, about the year 627 preached in the district of
+Dewsbury, where Edwin, king of Northumbria, whom he converted to
+Christianity, had a royal mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are
+remains of a Cistercian convent of the 12th century, in an extensive
+park, where tradition relates that Robin Hood died and was buried.
+
+
+DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek historian,
+statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian family
+of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon basileus and eponymus in
+Athens. When the Heruli overran Greece and captured Athens (269),
+Dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of
+patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up
+in his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording his
+services, has been preserved (_Corpus Inscrr. Atticarum_, iii. No. 716).
+It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to his military
+achievements. Photius (_cod._ 82) mentions three historical works by
+Dexippus, of which considerable fragments remain: (1) [Greek: Ta met'
+Alexandron], an epitome of a similarly named work by Arrian; (2) [Greek:
+Skuthika], a history of the wars of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians)
+in the 3rd century; (3) [Greek: Chronikê historia], a chronological
+history from the earliest times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270),
+frequently referred to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work
+was continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks very
+highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a level with
+Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments (C. W.
+Müller, _F.H.G._ iii. 666-687).
+
+
+DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821-1890), American clergyman and author, was
+born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the 13th of August 1821. He
+graduated at Yale in 1840 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in
+1844; was pastor of a Congregational church in Manchester, New
+Hampshire, in 1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational
+church, Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the _Congregationalist_
+in 1851-1866, of the _Congregational Quarterly_ in 1859-1866, and of the
+_Congregationalist_, with which the _Recorder_ was merged, from 1867
+until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the 13th of November 1890. He
+was an authority on the history of Congregationalism and was lecturer on
+that subject at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879; he left
+his fine library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among
+his works are: _Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is, How it
+works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church Government, and
+its consequent Demands_ (1865), _The Church Polity of the Puritans the
+Polity of the New Testament_ (1870), _As to Roger Williams and His
+"Banishment" from the Massachusetts Colony_ (1876), _Congregationalism
+of the Last Three Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature_ (1880), his
+most important work, _A Handbook of Congregationalism_ (1880), _The True
+Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptist"_ (1881), _Common Sense as to
+Woman Suffrage_ (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets bearing on early
+church history in New England, especially Baptist controversies. His
+_The England and Holland of the Pilgrims_ was completed by his son,
+Morton Dexter (b. 1846), and published in 1905.
+
+
+DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747-1806), American merchant, remarkable for his
+eccentricities, was born at Malden, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of
+February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities
+of the depreciated continental currency, which was ultimately redeemed
+by the Federal government at par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter
+and built extraordinary houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New
+Hampshire. He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior
+pictures, besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal
+statues carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of himself was
+included in the collection, and had for an inscription "I am the first
+in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest philosopher in the
+Western World." He wrote a book entitled _Pickle for the Knowing Ones_.
+It was wholly without punctuation marks, and as this aroused comment, he
+published a second edition, at the end of which was a page displaying
+nothing but commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to
+"peper and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping
+enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried out in
+a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the 26th of October
+1806.
+
+
+DEXTRINE (BRITISH GUM, STARCH GUM, LEIOCOME), (C_{6}H_{10}O_{5})_{x}, a
+substance produced from starch by the action of dilute acids, or by
+roasting it at a temperature between 170° and 240° C. It is manufactured
+by spraying starch with 2% nitric acid, drying in air, and then heating
+to about 110°. Different modifications are known, e.g. amylodextrine,
+erythrodextrine and achroodextrine. Its name has reference to its
+powerful dextrorotatory action on polarized light. Pure dextrine is an
+insipid, odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is sometimes
+yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves in water
+and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated from its
+solutions as the hydrated compound, C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}.H_{2}O. Diastase
+converts it eventually into maltose, C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}; and by boiling
+with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is transformed
+into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}. It does not
+ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce Fehling's solution.
+If heated with strong nitric acid it gives oxalic, and not mucic acid.
+Dextrine much resembles gum arabic, for which it is generally
+substituted. It is employed for sizing paper, for stiffening cotton
+goods, and for thickening colours in calico printing, also in the making
+of lozenges, adhesive stamps and labels, and surgical bandages.
+
+  See Otto Lueger, _Lexikon der gesamten Technik_.
+
+
+DEY (an adaptation of the Turk, d[=a]î, a maternal uncle), an
+honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men,
+and appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their
+commanding officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries
+became in the 17th century rulers of that country (see ALGERIA:
+HISTORY). From the middle of the 16th century to the end of the
+17th century the ruler of Tunisia was also called dey, a title
+frequently used during the same period by the sovereigns of
+Tripoli.
+
+
+DHAMMAP[=A]LA, the name of one of the early disciples of the Buddha, and
+therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by Buddhist
+novices on their entering the brotherhood. The most famous of the
+Bhikshus so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half
+of the 5th century A.D. at the Badara Tittha Vih[=a]ra, near the east
+coast of India, just a little south of where Madras now stands. It is to
+him we owe the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books,
+consisting almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on the
+Netti, perhaps the oldest P[=a]li work outside the canon. Extracts from
+the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven others, have
+been published by the P[=a]li Text Society. These works show great
+learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But as Dhammap[=a]la
+confines himself rigidly either to questions of the meaning of words,
+or to discussions of the ethical import of his texts, very little can be
+gathered from his writings of value for the social history of his time.
+For the right interpretation of the difficult texts on which he
+comments, they are indispensable. Though in all probability a Tamil by
+birth, he declares, in the opening lines of those of his works that have
+been edited, that he followed the tradition of the Great Minster at
+Anur[=a]dhapura in Ceylon, and the works themselves confirm this in
+every respect. Hsüan Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint
+story of a Dhammap[=a]la of K[=a]nchipura (the modern Konjevaram). He
+was a son of a high official, and betrothed to a daughter of the king,
+but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast, entered the order, and
+attained to reverence and distinction. It is most likely that this
+story, whether legendary or not (and Hsüan Tsang heard the story at
+K[=a]nchipura nearly two centuries after the date of Dhammap[=a]la),
+referred to this author. But it may also refer, as Hsüan Tsang refers
+it, to another author of the same name. Other unpublished works, besides
+those mentioned above, have been ascribed to Dhammap[=a]la, but it is
+very doubtful whether they are really by him.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_ (ed. Rhys Davids and
+  Bushell, London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in _Zeitschrift der
+  deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_ (1898), pp. 97 foll.; _Netti_
+  (ed. E. Hardy, London, P[=a]li Text Society, 1902), especially the
+  Introduction, passim; _Therî G[=a]th[=a] Commentary_, _Peta Vatthu
+  Commentary_, and _Vim[=a]na Vatthu Commentary_, all three published by
+  the P[=a]li Text Society.                              (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+DHANIS, FRANCIS, BARON (1861-1909), Belgian administrator, was born in
+London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen years of his life at
+Greenock, where he received his early education. He was the son of a
+Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady named Maher. The name Dhanis is
+supposed to be a variation of D'Anvers. Having completed his education
+at the École Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment
+of grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he
+reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the Congo,
+and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well in founding new
+stations north of the Congo that, when the government decided to put an
+end to the Arab domination on the Upper Congo, he was selected to
+command the chief expedition sent against the slave dealers. The
+campaign began in April 1892, and it was not brought to a successful
+conclusion till January 1894. The story of this war has been told in
+detail by Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book _The Fall of
+the Congo Arabs_. The principal achievements of the campaign were the
+captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at Nyangwe,
+Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis was raised to the rank
+of baron, and in 1895 was made vice-governor of the Congo State. In 1896
+he took command of an expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely
+composed of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted, and
+who had been irritated by the execution of some of their chiefs for
+indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and murdered many of
+their white officers. Dhanis found himself confronted with a more
+formidable adversary than even the Arabs in these well-armed and
+half-disciplined mercenaries. During two years (1897-1898) he was
+constantly engaged in a life-and-death struggle with them. Eventually he
+succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous
+soldiers. Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less
+striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both think that
+the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in
+bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899 Baron Dhanis returned to
+Belgium with the honorary rank of vice governor-general. He died on the
+14th of November 1909.
+
+
+DHAR, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency, Central India. It
+includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories, and has an area of 1775 sq.
+m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta. The founder of the present ruling
+family was Anand Rao Punwar, a descendant of the great Paramara clan of
+Rajputs who from the 9th to the 13th century, when they were driven out
+by the Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar. In
+1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the peshwa, the
+victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the
+family which seven centuries before had been expelled from this very
+city and country. Towards the close of the 18th and in the early part of
+the 19th century, the state was subject to a series of spoliations by
+Sindia and Holkar, and was only preserved from destruction by the
+talents and courage of the adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a
+treaty of 1819 Dhar passed under British protection, and bound itself to
+act in subordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion
+in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar, then a
+minor, with the exception of the detached district of Bairusia, which
+was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand Rao, who received the personal
+title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in 1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded
+by Udaji Rao Punwar. In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state
+includes the ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of
+Malwa.
+
+THE TOWN OF DHAR is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901)
+17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees surrounded by
+barren hills, and possesses, besides its old walls, many interesting
+buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan, some of them containing records of a
+great historical importance. The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built
+by Dilawar Khan in 1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives
+its name from an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at
+the beginning of the 13th century in commemoration of a victory, and
+bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town
+of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft. high, is now
+overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an enclosure containing four
+tombs, the most notable being that of Shaikh Kamal Maulvi
+(Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous 13th-century Mussulman saint
+Nizam-ud-din Auliya.[1] The mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built
+out of Hindu remains in the 14th or 15th century: its name is derived
+from the slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit
+grammar, with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the
+town stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to have
+been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the 14th century. It
+contains the palace of the raja. Of modern institutions may be mentioned
+the high school, public library, hospital, and the chapel, school and
+hospital of the Canadian Presbyterian mission. There is also a
+government opium depot for the payment of duty, the town being a
+considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain.
+
+  The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari (the
+  city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the capital
+  of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who transferred his
+  headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th century.
+  During the rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous throughout
+  India as a centre of culture and learning; but, after suffering
+  various vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the Mussulmans at
+  the beginning of the 14th century. At the close of the century Dilawar
+  Khan, the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been appointed governor
+  in 1399, practically established his independence, his son Hoshang
+  Shah being the first Mahommedan king of Malwa. Under this dynasty Dhar
+  was second in importance to the capital Mandu. Subsequently, in the
+  time of Akbar, Dhar fell under the dominion of the Moguls, in whose
+  hands it remained till 1730, when it was conquered by the Mahrattas.
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908).
+
+[1] Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near Delhi,
+was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret society of
+Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed to have been the
+founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special reverence for his
+memory.
+
+
+DHARAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Surat political agency
+division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The population in 1901
+was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during the decade; the estimated
+gross revenue is £25,412; and the tribute £600. Its chief is a Sesodia
+Rajput. The state has been surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay
+system. It contains one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272
+villages. Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very
+unhealthy, is capable of cultivation; the rest is covered with rocky
+hills, forest and brushwood.
+
+
+DHARMSALA, a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab, India, situated
+on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of Kangra town, at an elevation
+of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971. The scenery of Dharmsala is of
+peculiar grandeur. The spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with
+oak and other trees; behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain
+tower towards the jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half
+the year; while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra
+valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the Kangra
+district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the centre of a
+European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied by Gurkha
+regiments. The station was destroyed by the earthquake of April 1905, in
+which 1625 persons, including 25 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha
+garrison, perished (_Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1908).
+
+
+DHARWAR, a town and district of British India, in the southern division
+of Bombay. The town has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. The
+population in 1901 was 31,279. It has several ginning factories and a
+cotton-mill; two high schools, one maintained by the Government and the
+other by the Basel German Mission.
+
+The DISTRICT OF DHARWAR has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the north and
+north-east are great plains of black soil, favourable to cotton-growing;
+in the south and west are successive ranges of low hills, with flat
+fertile valleys between them. The whole district lies high and has no
+large rivers.
+
+In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of 6% in the
+decade. The most influential classes of the community are Brahmans and
+Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968, or 46% of the Hindu population;
+they worship the symbol of Siva, and males and females both carry this
+emblem about their person in a silver case. The principal crops are
+millets, pulse and cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and
+Gadag, junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the
+district in several directions.
+
+The early history of the territory comprised within the district of
+Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription
+slabs and memorial stones which abound there. From these it is clear
+that the country fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties
+that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of the Chalukyan dynasty, whether
+temples or inscriptions, being especially abundant. In the 14th century
+the district was first overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was
+annexed to the newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an
+official of which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built
+the fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of
+Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years practically
+independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573 the fort was captured
+by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was annexed to his dominions. In
+1685 the fort was taken by the emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the
+break-up of the Mogul empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of
+Poona. In 1764 the province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in
+1778 captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the
+Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817, Dharwar was
+incorporated with the territory of the East India Company.
+
+
+DHOLPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area
+of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country, without any special
+manufactures. All along the bank of the river Chambal the country is
+deeply intersected by ravines; low ranges of hills in the western
+portion of the state supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and
+easily-worked red sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was
+270,973, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The estimated revenue
+is £83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway from
+Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely from drought.
+In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief amounted to £8190.
+
+The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,310. The
+present town, which dates from the 16th century, stands somewhat to the
+north of the site of the older Hindu town built, it is supposed, in the
+11th century by the Tonwar Rajput Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named
+after him Dholdera or Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the
+town may be mentioned the fortified _sarai_ built in the reign of Akbar,
+within which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one of
+his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is growing in
+importance as a centre of trade.
+
+Little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of
+Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the Tonwar
+Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th to the 12th century.
+In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in 1501 the fort of Dholpur was
+taken by the Mahommedans under Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred
+to a Mussulman governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort
+was captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed under the
+sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the province of Agra.
+During the dissensions which followed the death of Aurangzeb in 1707,
+Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria obtained possession of Dholpur, and his
+family retained it till 1761, after which it was taken successively by
+the Jat raja, Suraj Mal of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by
+Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored to Sindhia
+by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence of new arrangements
+was again occupied by the British. Finally, in 1806, the territories of
+Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat
+Singh, ancestor of the present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his
+state of Gohad, which was ceded to Sindhia.
+
+The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia Jats, who
+are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo-Scythian wave of
+invasion which swept over northern India about A.D. 100. An ancestor of
+the family appears to have held certain territories at Bamraoli near
+Agra c. 1195. His descendant in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished
+himself in an expedition against the freebooters of the Deccan, was
+rewarded by the sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the
+title of _rana_. In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces
+against Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion
+of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories then in
+his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected from invasion
+by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently withdrawn, the rana having
+been guilty of treachery, and in 1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing
+the fortress of Gwalior, and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the
+whole of Gohad. In 1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by
+the British government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the
+rana agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of
+Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief binding
+himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the paramount power, and
+to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the British
+government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana of Dholpur, was
+succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh, who showed great loyalty
+during the Mutiny of 1857, was created a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869.
+He was succeeded in 1873 by his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the
+C.B. and frontier medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in
+1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883).
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908) and authorities there
+  given.
+
+
+DHOW, the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the Arabian
+Sea. The language to which the word belongs is unknown. According to the
+_New English Dictionary_ the place of origin may be the Persian Gulf,
+assuming that the word is identical with the tava mentioned by
+Athanasius Nikitin (_India in the 15th Century_, Hakluyt Society, 1858).
+Though the word is used generally of any craft along the East African
+coast, it is usually applied to the vessel of about 150 to 200 tons
+burden with a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows
+generally have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous
+length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is
+carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels employed in
+the slave trade from the east coast of Africa.
+
+
+DHRANGADRA, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay,
+situated in the north of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area is 1156
+sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The estimated gross revenue is £38,000 and
+the tribute £3000. A state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to
+the town of Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in
+1898. Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor; the
+manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand-mills. The chief
+town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of 14,770.
+
+The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with the
+predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala Rajputs,
+who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in the 8th century. Raj
+Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji (b. 1837), who succeeded his father
+in 1869, was distinguished for the enlightened character of his
+administration, especially in the matter of establishing schools and
+internal communications. He was created a K.C.S.I in 1877. He died in
+1900, and was succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b.
+1872).
+
+
+DHULEEP SINGH (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born in February
+1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the 18th of September 1843, under
+the regency of his mother the rani Jindan, a woman of great capacity and
+strong will, but extremely inimical to the British. He was acknowledged
+by Ranjit Singh and recognized by the British government. After six
+years of peace the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were
+defeated in four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore,
+the capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but it
+was administered to a great extent by the British government in his
+name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the British,
+and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite of the valour of the
+Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat, and in March 1849 Dhuleep
+Singh was deposed, a pension of £40,000 a year being granted to him and
+his dependants. He became a Christian and elected to live in England. On
+coming of age he made an arrangement with the British government by
+which his income was reduced to £25,000 in consideration of advances for
+the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at Elvedon in Suffolk.
+While passing through Alexandria in 1864 he met Miss Bamba Müller, the
+daughter of a German merchant who had married an Abyssinian. The
+maharaja had been interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he
+met Miss Müller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching.
+She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were the
+issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the maharaja
+married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady, Miss Ada Douglas
+Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja was passionately fond of
+sport, and his shooting parties were celebrated, while he himself became
+a _persona grata_ in English society. The result, however, was financial
+difficulty, and in 1882 he appealed to the government for assistance,
+making various claims based upon the alleged possession of private
+estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor diamond
+to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, whereupon he started for
+India, after drawing up a proclamation to his former subjects. But as it
+was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the Punjab, he remained for
+some time as a guest at the residency at Aden, and was allowed to
+receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity,
+which actually took place within the residency itself. As the climate
+began to affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and
+returned to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his
+claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but when that
+expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where he lived for the
+rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the Indian government.
+His death from an attack of apoplexy took place at Paris on the 22nd of
+October 1893. The maharaja's eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay
+Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges,
+Cambridge. In 1888 he obtained a commission in the 1st Royal Dragoon
+Guards. In 1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the
+earl of Coventry.                                              (G.F.B.)
+
+
+DHULIA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of West
+Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the Panjhra river.
+Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds,
+and weaving of cotton. A railway connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the
+main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.
+
+
+DIABASE, in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite. It
+was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks of this group
+differed from their Tertiary and Recent representatives in certain
+essential respects, but this is now admitted to be untenable, and the
+differences are known to be merely the result of the longer exposure to
+decomposition, pressure and shearing, which the older rocks have
+experienced. Their olivine tends to become serpentinized; their augite
+changes to chlorite and uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation
+of zeolites, calcite, sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green
+colour (from the development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence
+the older name of "greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them
+become somewhat schistose from pressure ("greenstone-schists,"
+meta-diabase, &c.). Although the original definition of the group can no
+longer be justified, the name is so well established in current usage
+that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and dolerite are
+employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of rocks.
+
+  The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz.
+  olivine, augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities
+  of hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite.
+
+  There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine;
+  quartz-diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende
+  diabases (or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is
+  characteristic of another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially
+  those which contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the
+  intersertal dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases,
+  hypersthene-diabases and the rocks which have been described as
+  tholeites. Porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites,
+  some of which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant
+  fine-grained or partly glassy ground-mass (_diabas-mandelstein_,
+  amygdaloidal diabase). The somewhat ill-defined spilites are regarded
+  by many as modifications of diabase-porphyrite. In the intersertal and
+  porphyrite diabases, fresh or devitrified glassy base is not
+  infrequent. It is especially conspicuous in some tholeites
+  (hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks consist of
+  augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a brown,
+  vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte
+  (sordawilite, &c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite
+  sills and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites
+  of grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green
+  augite (variolites).
+
+  To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the
+  diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary dolerites. In
+  the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more common than in the
+  newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous
+  habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in most cases secondary
+  after pyroxene, and is then known as uralite; often it forms
+  pseudomorphs which retain the shape of the original augite. Where
+  diabases have been crushed or sheared, hornblende readily develops at
+  the expense of pyroxene, sometimes replacing it completely. In the
+  later stages of alteration the amphibole becomes compact and well
+  crystallized; the rocks consist of green hornblende and plagioclase
+  felspar, and are then generally known as epidiorites or amphibolites.
+  At the same time a schistose structure is produced. But transition
+  forms are very common, having more or less of the augite remaining,
+  surrounded by newly formed hornblende which at first is rather fibrous
+  and tends to spread outwards through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite
+  also is abundant both in sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it
+  calcite may make its appearance, or the lime set free from the augite
+  may combine with the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to
+  form incrustations or borders of sphene around the original crystals
+  of ilmenite. Epidote is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which
+  results from the decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the
+  pyroxenes. Many diabases, especially those of the teschenite
+  sub-group, are filled with zeolites.
+
+  Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts
+  of the globe. Popular names for them are "whinstone," "greenstone,"
+  "toadstone" and "trap." They form excellent road-mending stones and
+  are much quarried for this purpose, being tough, durable and resistant
+  to wear, so long as they are not extremely decomposed. Many of them
+  are to be preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle.
+  The quality of the Cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly
+  improved by a smaller amount of recrystallization where they have been
+  heated by contact with intrusive masses of granite. (J. S. F.)
+
+
+DIABETES (from Gr. [Greek: dia], through, and [Greek: bainein], to
+pass), a constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive
+discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described, viz.
+Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only increased
+in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less amount of
+sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the urine is simply
+increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal ingredient. This latter,
+however, must be distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular
+kidney, lardaceous disease of the kidney, and also occurring in certain
+cases of hysteria.
+
+_Diabetes mellitus_ is the disease to which the term is most commonly
+applied, and is by far the more serious and important ailment. It is one
+of the diseases due to altered metabolism (see METABOLIC DISEASES). It
+is markedly hereditary, much more prevalent in towns and especially
+modern city life than in more primitive rustic communities, and most
+common among the Jews. The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually
+considered one cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour
+its occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so often
+met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself.
+No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of
+life. It attacks males twice as frequently as females, and fair more
+frequently than dark people.
+
+The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the patient may
+suffer for a length of time before he thinks it necessary to apply for
+medical aid. The first symptoms which attract attention are failure of
+strength, and emaciation, along with great thirst and an increased
+amount and frequent passage of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2
+to 3 pints in the 24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or
+even more. It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than
+normal urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific
+gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable
+irritation of the urinary passages.
+
+By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic
+urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar,
+while the amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by
+certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar passed may vary from
+a few ounces to two or more pounds per diem, and it is found to be
+markedly increased after saccharine or starchy food has been taken.
+Sugar may also be found in the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all
+the excretions of persons suffering from this disease. One of the most
+distressing symptoms is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly
+seeking to allay, the quantity of liquid consumed being in general
+enormous, and there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious
+appetite. The mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may
+be evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the general
+health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and more emaciated.
+He suffers from increasing muscular weakness, the temperature of his
+body is lowered, and the skin is dry and harsh. There is often a
+peculiar flush on the face, not limited to the malar eminences, but
+extending up to the roots of the hair. The teeth are loosened or decay,
+there is a tendency to bleeding from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms,
+constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There
+is in general great mental depression or irritability.
+
+Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of
+young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be rapid. The
+complications of the disease are many and serious. It may cause impaired
+vision by weakening the muscles of accommodation, or by lessening the
+sensitiveness of the retina to light. Also cataract is very common. Skin
+affections of all kinds may occur and prove very intractable. Boils,
+carbuncles, cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life
+advances, though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women.
+Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and gangrene
+of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis in the latter
+disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney diseases and heart
+failure due to fatty heart are all of common occurrence. Also patients
+seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric fever, though the
+attack usually runs a mild course. The sugar temporarily disappears
+during the fever. But the most serious complication of all is known as
+diabetic coma, which is very commonly the final cause of death. The
+onset is often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a
+rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either
+constipation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal
+pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true coma,
+though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The patient suffers
+from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath and skin have a sweet
+ethereal odour. The condition may last from twenty-four hours to three
+days, but is almost invariably the precursor of death.
+
+Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being exceedingly
+rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25% of phthisis or pneumonia, and
+the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral haemorrhage, gangrene, &c.
+The most favourable cases are those in which the patient is advanced in
+years, those in which it is associated with obesity or gout, and where
+the social conditions are favourable. A few cures have been recorded in
+which the disease supervened after some acute illness. The unfavourable
+cases are those in which there is a family history of the disease and in
+which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be done by appropriate
+treatment to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to prolong life.
+
+There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that of
+drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by the
+idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition between very
+wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has
+been proved beyond question that certain kinds of food have a powerful
+influence in aggravating the disease, more particularly those consisting
+largely of saccharine and starchy matter; and it may be stated generally
+that the various methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as
+far as possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is
+recommended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous
+foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be avoided;
+while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream, cheese, eggs,
+butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be taken with advantage.
+As a substitute for ordinary bread, which most persons find it difficult
+to do without for any length of time, bran bread, gluten bread and
+almond biscuits. A patient must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to
+a carbohydrate-free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable
+to bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite gradually,
+one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of the diet,
+whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully
+noted meanwhile. The treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes, sugar
+and fruit, and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by
+some diabetic substitute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to
+its lowest point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount
+of carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect on the
+glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be worked out
+experimentally for each individual patient. But in every case, if
+drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma supervene, all restrictions
+must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate freely allowed. The question of
+alcohol is one which must be largely determined by the previous history
+of the patient, but a small quantity will help to make up the
+deficiencies of a diet poor in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky,
+and Hollands gin, are usually free from sugar, and some of the light
+Bordeaux wines contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given
+as cream, fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless,
+but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and endive
+yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to 1½ ozs. daily without
+increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked or raw, are
+allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form. The question of
+milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid
+diet, allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended.
+Thirst is relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria. But
+hypodermic injections of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva, and
+thus relieve the dryness of the mouth. Constipation appears to increase
+the thirst, and must always be carefully guarded against. The best
+remedies are the aperient mineral waters.
+
+Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes, but few of
+them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy. Opium is often
+found of great service, its administration being followed by marked
+amelioration in all the symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar
+action. In the severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of
+little or no use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin
+hydrochloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more
+power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium and
+aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the sugar
+excretion without counterbalancing bad effects.
+
+In _diabetes insipidus_ there is constant thirst and an excessive flow
+of urine, which, however, is not found to contain any abnormal
+constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to those of
+diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked, the disease
+being in general very slow in its progress. In some cases the health
+appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely a direct cause of death,
+but from its debilitating effects may predispose to serious and fatal
+complications. It is best treated by tonics and generous diet. Valerian
+has been found beneficial, the powdered root being given in 5-grain
+doses.
+
+
+DIABOLO, a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones
+joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught by means of a
+cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game appears originally to
+have come from China, where a top (_Kouengen_), made of two hollow
+pierced cylinders of metal or wood, joined by a rod--and often of
+immense size,--was made by rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was
+used by pedlars to attract customers. From China it was introduced by
+missionaries to Europe; and a form of the game, known as "the devil on
+two sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the end of
+the 18th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with improvements in
+it. But its principal vogue was in France in 1812, where the top was
+called "le diable." Amusing old prints exist (see _Fry's Magazine_,
+March and December 1907), depicting examples of the popular craze in
+France at the time. The _diable_ of those days resembled a globular
+wooden dumb-bell with a short waist, and the sonorous hum when
+spinning--the _bruit du diable_--was a pronounced feature. At intervals
+during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a
+top of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that
+the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer, Gustave
+Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game, had
+experimented for some time with new forms of top with a view to bringing
+it again into popularity; and having devised the double-cone shape, and
+added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends
+of the double-cone, with other improvements, he named it "diabolo." The
+use of celluloid in preference to metal or wood as its material appears
+to have been due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by
+the inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and catching
+the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions, both as an
+exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in "diabolo tennis" and other
+ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and the chief French
+seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906, its vogue spread in
+1907 so that in France and England it became the fashionable "rage"
+among both children and adults.
+
+The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor C. V. Boys in
+the _Proc. Phys. Soc._ (London), Nov. 1907.
+
+
+DIACONICON, in the Greek Church, the name given to a chamber on the
+south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils, vessels, &c.,
+of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II. (565-574), owing to
+a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and protheses were located in
+apses at the east end of the aisles. Before that time there was only one
+apse. In the churches in central Syria of slightly earlier date, the
+diaconicon is rectangular, the side apses at Kalat-Seman having been
+added at a later date.
+
+
+DIADOCHI (Gr. [Greek: diadechesthai], to receive from another), i.e.
+"Successors," the name given to the Macedonian generals who fought for
+the empire of Alexander after his death in 323 B.C. The name includes
+Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, Antipater and his son
+Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into
+which the Macedonian empire was divided under these rulers are known as
+Hellenistic. The chief were Asia Minor and Syria under the SELEUCID
+DYNASTY (q.v.), Egypt under the PTOLEMIES (q.v.), Macedonia under the
+successors of Antigonus Gonatas, PERGAMUM (q.v.) under the Attalid
+dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were merged in the Roman empire. (See
+MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.)
+
+
+DIAGONAL (Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: gônia], a corner), in
+geometry, a line joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a
+rectilinear figure.
+
+
+DIAGORAS, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist, flourished
+in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious in his youth and a
+writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became an atheist because a great
+wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods. In consequence of his
+blasphemous speeches, and especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he
+was condemned to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head
+(Aristoph. _Clouds_, 830; _Birds_, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth,
+where he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called
+[Greek Phrygioi logoi] or [Greek: Apopyrgizontes], in which he probably
+attacked the Phrygian divinities.
+
+
+DIAGRAM (Gr. [Greek: diagramma], from [Greek: diagraphein], to mark out
+by lines), a figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical relations
+between the parts of the figure illustrate relations between other
+objects. They may be classed according to the manner in which they are
+intended to be used, and also according to the kind of analogy which we
+recognize between the diagram and the thing represented. The diagrams in
+mathematical treatises are intended to help the reader to follow the
+mathematical reasoning. The construction of the figure is defined in
+words so that even if no figure were drawn the reader could draw one for
+himself. The diagram is a good one if those features which form the
+subject of the proposition are clearly represented.
+
+Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way--namely, for
+purposes of measurement. The plans and designs drawn by architects and
+engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by
+measuring certain distances on the diagram. For such purposes it is
+essential that the drawing be as accurate as possible. We therefore
+class diagrams as diagrams of illustration, which merely suggest certain
+relations to the mind of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale,
+from which measurements are intended to be made. There are some diagrams
+or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of no importance,
+provided their connexions are properly shown. Of this kind are the
+diagrams of electrical connexions, and those belonging to that
+department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis,
+periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness.
+
+_Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic._--Diagrams may
+also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which no symbols
+are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular
+points of the diagrams, and mixed diagrams, in which certain magnitudes
+are represented, not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by
+symbols, such as numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the
+height of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by
+marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on
+the map. There is another method in which a line called a contour line
+is drawn through all the places in the map whose height above the sea is
+a certain number of feet, and the number of feet is written at some
+point or points of this line. By the use of a series of contour lines,
+the height of a great number of places can be indicated on a map by
+means of a small number of written symbols. Still this method is not a
+purely graphical method, but a partly symbolical method of expressing
+the third dimension of objects on a diagram in two dimensions.
+
+In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the
+relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables, we must use
+more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of construction we use plans and
+elevations and sections through different planes, to specify the form of
+objects having three dimensions. In such systems of diagrams we have to
+indicate that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another
+diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding points in
+the different diagrams with the same letter. If the diagrams are drawn
+on the same piece of paper we may indicate corresponding points by
+drawing a line from one to the other, taking care that this line of
+correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for a real line in
+either diagram. (See GEOMETRY: _Descriptive_.)
+
+In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of which the
+form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are projections of the
+bodies taken from two points so near each other that, by viewing the two
+diagrams simultaneously, one with each eye, we identify the
+corresponding points intuitively. The method in which we simultaneously
+contemplate two figures, and recognize a correspondence between certain
+points in the one figure and certain points in the other, is one of the
+most powerful and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in
+pure geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures
+have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes spoken of as
+the method or principle of Duality. GEOMETRY: _Projective_.)
+
+                        DIAGRAMS IN MECHANICS.
+
+  The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the
+  use of a series of diagrams representing the configuration,
+  displacement and acceleration of the parts of the system.
+
+  _Diagram of Configuration._--In considering a material system it is
+  often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at
+  any given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The
+  position of any particle of the system is defined by drawing a
+  straight line or vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the
+  given particle. The position of the particle with respect to the
+  origin is determined by the magnitude and direction of this vector. If
+  in the diagram we draw from the origin (which need not be the same
+  point of space as the origin for the material system) a vector equal
+  and parallel to the vector which determines the position of the
+  particle, the end of this vector will indicate the position of the
+  particle in the diagram of configuration. If this is done for all the
+  particles we shall have a system of points in the diagram of
+  configuration, each of which corresponds to a particle of the material
+  system, and the relative positions of any pair of these points will be
+  the same as the relative positions of the material particles which
+  correspond to them.
+
+  We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the
+  vectors are supposed to be drawn--one for the material system, the
+  other for the diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn
+  from them, may now be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the
+  material system and on the other a set of points, each point
+  corresponding to a particle of the system, and the whole representing
+  the configuration of the system at a given instant.
+
+  This is called a diagram of configuration.
+
+  _Diagram of Displacement._--Let us next consider two diagrams of
+  configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different
+  instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second
+  the final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration to
+  the other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at present
+  consider the length of time during which the displacement was
+  effected, nor the intermediate stages through which it passed, but
+  only the final result--a change of configuration. To study this change
+  we construct a diagram of displacement.
+
+  Let A, B, C be the points in the initial diagram of configuration, and
+  A', B', C' be the corresponding points in the final diagram of
+  configuration. From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement, draw
+  a vector oa equal and parallel to AA', ob equal and parallel to BB',
+  oc to CC', and so on. The points a, b, c, &c., will be such that the
+  vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so on.
+  The diagram containing the points a, b, c, &c., is therefore called
+  the diagram of displacement.
+
+  In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed
+  that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system.
+  For we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to AA', which we
+  cannot do unless we know the absolute final position of A, with
+  respect to its initial position. In this diagram of displacement there
+  is therefore, besides the points a, b, c, &c., an _origin_, o, which
+  represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary
+  because the two configurations do not exist at the same time; and
+  therefore to express their relative position we require to know a
+  point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time.
+
+  But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume
+  a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space.
+  Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and equal to BA
+  in the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel and equal to
+  A'B' in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the position
+  of the point b relative to a will be the same by this construction as
+  by the former construction, only we must observe that in this second
+  construction we use only vectors such as AB, A'B', which represent the
+  relative position of points both of which exist simultaneously,
+  instead of vectors such as AA', BB', which express the position of a
+  point at one instant relative to its position at a former instant, and
+  which therefore cannot be determined by observation, because the two
+  ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously.
+
+  It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by
+  the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates that we
+  have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But no such point
+  occurs in the second construction, because we use such vectors only as
+  we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of displacements _without
+  an origin_ represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know
+  about the displacement of the material system.
+
+  _Diagram of Velocity._--If the relative velocities of the points of
+  the system are constant, then the diagram of displacement
+  corresponding to an interval of a unit of time between the initial and
+  the final configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If
+  the relative velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in
+  which the velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system
+  at the given instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The
+  diagram of displacements for this imaginary system is the required
+  diagram of relative velocities of the actual system at the given
+  instant. It is easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any
+  one point relative to any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity
+  of any of them.
+
+  _Diagram of Acceleration._--By the same process by which we formed the
+  diagram of displacements from the two diagrams of initial and final
+  configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity
+  from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This diagram
+  may be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval of
+  time. And by the same process by which we deduced the diagram of
+  velocities from that of displacements we may deduce the diagram of
+  rates of acceleration from that of total acceleration.
+
+  We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kinematics
+  because they are found to be of use especially when we have to deal
+  with material systems containing a great number of parts, as in the
+  kinetic theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then appears as
+  a region of space swarming with points representing molecules, and the
+  only way in which we can investigate it is by considering the number
+  of such points in unit of volume in different parts of that region,
+  and calling this the _density_ of the gas.
+
+  In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region
+  containing points equal in number but distributed in a different
+  manner, and the number of points in any given portion of the region
+  expresses the number of molecules whose velocities lie within given
+  limits. We may speak of this as the velocity-density.
+
+  _Diagrams of Stress._--Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to
+  statical questions, because the state of the system is constant, so
+  that we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corresponding to
+  the successive states of the system. The most useful of these
+  applications, collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates to the
+  equilibrium of plane framed structures familiarly represented in
+  bridges and roof-trusses. Two diagrams are used, one called the
+  diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of stress. The
+  structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links
+  jointed together at their extremities. In practice these joints have
+  friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so that the force acting at
+  the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly through the axis of the
+  joint; but as it is unsafe to make the stability of the structure
+  depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we assume in our
+  calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and therefore
+  that the force acting on the end of any link passes through the axis
+  of the joint.
+
+  The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in
+  the diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in the
+  actual structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the frame
+  it is represented by a straight line joining the points representing
+  the two joints. If no force acts on the link except the two forces
+  acting through the centres of the joints, these two forces must be
+  equal and opposite, and their direction must coincide with the
+  straight line joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting
+  on either extremity of the link is directed towards the other
+  extremity, the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is
+  called a "strut." If it is directed away from the other extremity, the
+  stress on the link is called tension and the link is called a "tie."
+  In this case, therefore, the only stress acting in a link is a
+  pressure or a tension in the direction of the straight line which
+  represents it in the diagram of the frame, and all that we have to do
+  is to find the magnitude of this stress. In the actual structure
+  gravity acts on every part of the link, but in the diagram we
+  substitute for the actual weight of the different parts of the link
+  two weights which have the same resultant acting at the extremities of
+  the link.
+
+  We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without
+  weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of
+  the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If any link has
+  more than two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an
+  imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which has only two
+  joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a system of points,
+  certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines, and each point is
+  in general acted on by a weight or other force acting between it and
+  some point external to the system. To complete the diagram we may
+  represent these external forces as links, that is to say, straight
+  lines joining the points of the frame to points external to the frame.
+  Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point of
+  application of the weight with the centre of the earth.
+
+  But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in
+  the lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together
+  with the real frame and the links representing external forces, which
+  join points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up
+  together a complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of
+  points connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may in
+  this way reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points
+  with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of
+  these points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each
+  of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining
+  the points, so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might
+  do this by calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure
+  or the tension which acts in it.
+
+  We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are
+  represented graphically as regards direction and position, but
+  symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be
+  represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the
+  direction of the force containing as many units of length as there are
+  units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an
+  arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to
+  this method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram
+  of configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as a
+  record of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces,
+  but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of
+  the calculation.
+
+  But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set
+  of forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel
+  and proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon
+  the forces are in equilibrium. (See MECHANICS.) We might in this way
+  form a series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame.
+  But in so doing we give up the principle of drawing the line
+  representing a force from the point of application of the force, for
+  all the sides of the polygon cannot pass through the same point, as
+  the forces do. We also represent every stress twice over, for it
+  appears as a side of both the polygons corresponding to the two joints
+  between which it acts. But if we can arrange the polygons in such a
+  way that the sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress
+  coincide with each other, we may form a diagram in which every stress
+  is represented in direction and magnitude, though not in position, by
+  a single line which is the common boundary of the two polygons which
+  represent the joints at the extremities of the corresponding piece of
+  the frame.
+
+  We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is
+  made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in
+  which every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude
+  by a straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is
+  manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the
+  corresponding polygon is closed or not.
+
+  The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of
+  stress are as follows:--To every link in the frame corresponds a
+  straight line in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude
+  and direction the stress acting in that link; and to every joint of
+  the frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces
+  acting at that joint are represented by the sides of the polygon taken
+  in a certain cyclical order, the cyclical order of the sides of the
+  two adjacent polygons being such that their common side is traced in
+  opposite directions in going round the two polygons.
+
+  The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the
+  direction of the force acting on that joint of the frame which
+  corresponds to the polygon, and due to that link of the frame which
+  corresponds to the side. This determines whether the stress of the
+  link is a pressure or a tension. If we know whether the stress of any
+  one link is a pressure or a tension, this determines the cyclical
+  order of the sides of the two polygons corresponding to the ends of
+  the links, and therefore the cyclical order of all the polygons, and
+  the nature of the stress in every link of the frame.
+
+  _Reciprocal Diagrams._--When to every point of concourse of the lines
+  in the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton
+  of the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal.
+
+  The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other
+  cases than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in his
+  _Applied Mechanics_ (1857). The method was independently applied to a
+  large number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman in the
+  office of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk Maxwell in his
+  lectures in King's College, London. In the _Phil. Mag._ for 1864 the
+  latter pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and
+  in a paper on "Reciprocal Figures, Frames and Diagrams of Forces,"
+  _Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed the relation of the
+  method to Airy's function of stress and to other mathematical methods.
+  Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a number of applications of the
+  method to practice (_Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxv.).
+
+  L. Cremona (_Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica_, 1872)
+  deduced the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the
+  two components of a wrench as developed by Möbius. Karl Culmann, in
+  his _Graphische Statik_ (1st ed. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), made great
+  use of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not
+  reciprocal. Maurice Levy in his _Statique graphique_ (1874) has
+  treated the whole subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R.
+  H. Bow, in his _The Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed
+  Structures_ (1873), materially simplified the process of drawing a
+  diagram of stress reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of
+  equilibrating external forces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of Configuration.]
+
+  Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or
+  the links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow places
+  a letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the
+  frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as
+  separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one link
+  of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection of
+  the links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of
+  each of the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of
+  stress, as the opposite sides of the parallelogram which corresponds
+  to the point of intersection.
+
+  This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of
+  configuration (fig. 1), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the
+  linkwork which Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane.
+
+  In fig. 1 the real joints are distinguished from the places where one
+  link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T,
+  V. The four links RSTV form a "contraparallelogram" in which RS = TV
+  and RV = ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar to each other. A
+  fourth triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the
+  quadruplane. The four points O, P, N, Q form a parallelogram whose
+  angle POQ is constant and equal to [pi] - SOR. The product of the
+  distances OP and OQ is constant. The linkwork may be fixed at O. If
+  any figure is traced by P, Q will trace the inverse figure, but turned
+  round O through the constant angle POQ. In the diagram forces Pp, Qq
+  are balanced by the force Co at the fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq
+  are necessarily inversely as OP and OQ, and make equal angles with
+  those lines.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Diagram of Stress.]
+
+  Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the
+  diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a
+  point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress in
+  the link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented in
+  the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding to
+  those areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by lines
+  crossing it, the stress in each part is represented by a different
+  line for each part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link
+  these lines are all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress
+  in RV is represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE
+  and AB. If two areas have no part of their boundary in common the
+  letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined
+  by a straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn between
+  them, it would represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of
+  all the stresses in the links which are cut by any line, straight or
+  curved, joining the two areas. For instance the areas F and C in fig.
+  1 have no common boundary, and the points F and C in fig. 2 are not
+  joined by a straight line. But every path from the area F to the area
+  C in fig. 1 passes through a series of other areas, and each passage
+  from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a line drawn in
+  the diagram of stress. Hence the whole path from F to C in fig. 1
+  corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and extending from F
+  to C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the
+  path is represented by FC in fig. 2.
+
+  Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on BRIDGES
+  (q.v.).
+
+                 _Automatic Description of Diagrams._
+
+  There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates
+  of a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values
+  of two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move, say
+  horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing point is
+  made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying as the
+  value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out a curve
+  on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any given time
+  may be determined. This principle is applied to the automatic
+  registration of phenomena of all kinds, from those of meteorology and
+  terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon-shot, the vibrations
+  of sounding bodies, the motions of animals, voluntary and involuntary,
+  and the currents in electric telegraphs.
+
+  In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a
+  constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to that of the
+  piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is proportional
+  to the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the
+  curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and the pressure of
+  the steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not only supplies a
+  record of the pressure of the steam at each stage of the stroke of the
+  engine, but indicates the work done by the steam in each stroke by the
+  area enclosed by the curve traced on the diagram.          (J. C. M.)
+
+
+DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a branch of
+applied mathematics which treats of the construction of sun-dials, that
+is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the
+divisions of the day (Lat. _dies_) by the motion of the shadow of some
+object on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the
+earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun;
+though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division
+into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the
+greatest elevation.
+
+_History._--The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah
+xxxviii. 8: "Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which
+is gone down in the _sun-dial_ of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date
+of this would be about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know
+nothing of the character or construction of the instrument. The earliest
+of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the
+hemicycle, or hemisphere, of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who
+probably lived about 300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed
+with its rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed
+in any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the horizon
+the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere, and
+the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular
+arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts, determined twelve equal
+intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this were done at the
+time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as
+might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the
+corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow of
+the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of
+time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide
+each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal parts were
+called _temporary hours_; and, since the duration of daylight varies
+from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from those
+of another; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that
+time, and especially in countries where the variation between the
+longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our
+climates.
+
+The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as
+appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same
+construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials have in modern
+times been found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is
+supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says
+that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The
+second and third were found in 1751--one at Castel-Nuovo and the other
+at Rignano; and a fourth was found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in
+his _Abhandlungen von den Sonnenuhren der Alten_ (Leipzig, 1777), says
+that this dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore
+be the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of
+Alexandria.
+
+Herodotus recorded that the Greeks derived from the Babylonians the use
+of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry
+enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some
+of which remain to us, and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but
+also of great ingenuity.
+
+Ptolemy's _Almagest_ treats of the construction of dials by means of his
+_analemma_, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical
+problems. The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular
+dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west,
+north or south, and these are the only ones he treats of. It is certain,
+however, that the ancients were able to construct declining dials, as is
+shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics--the Tower of
+the Winds at Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which
+the eight principal winds are represented, and over them eight different
+dials--four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the
+intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subsequent to
+that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower in the sixth
+chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials, and as he has
+described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that the
+dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary
+hours or, as the Greeks called them, _hectemoria_.
+
+The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this
+Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius
+Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees
+less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The
+first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by
+order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on
+gnomonics, this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we
+remember that the dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of
+Memphis, and consequently less adapted to its position than that of
+Catania to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not
+cultivated in Italy.
+
+The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great importance
+to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the Greeks,
+but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions. One
+of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the
+13th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and
+other surfaces. He even introduced _equal_ or _equinoctial hours_, but
+the idea was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in
+use.
+
+Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l
+Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by _equal_ hours was
+generally adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics
+from the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century is almost a blank,
+and during that time the change took place. We can see, however, that
+the change would necessarily follow the introduction of clocks and other
+mechanical methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were,
+the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in
+winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary
+hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now,
+we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of
+France about the year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new
+sun-dials came into general use during the 14th and 15th centuries.
+
+Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was SEBASTIAN
+MÜNSTER (q.v.), who published his _Horologiographia_ at Basel in 1531.
+He gives a number of correct rules, but without demonstrations. Among
+his inventions was a moon-dial,[1] but this does not admit of much
+accuracy.
+
+During the 17th century dialling was discussed at great length by many
+writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto volume of 800 pages
+entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be
+considered to contain all that was known at that time.
+
+In the 18th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and
+these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament
+to a garden, or in remote country districts where the old dial on the
+church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by
+its side. The art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little
+more than a mathematical recreation.
+
+  _General Principles._--The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth
+  are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded.
+  That the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in
+  twenty-four hours, and that it is carried round the sun in one year at
+  a nearly uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing these facts.
+  But the effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit our
+  purpose better, and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the
+  ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent
+  confirmation, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and
+  stars revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once
+  a day--the sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some
+  four minutes longer--so that at the end of the year it finds itself
+  again in the same place, having made a complete revolution of the
+  heavens relatively to the stars from west to east.
+
+  The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line
+  through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small,
+  compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a
+  parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely
+  look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in
+  the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and
+  6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An
+  axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole,
+  its elevation being equal to the latitude of the place.
+
+  The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would that
+  of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes, spoken
+  of above, were always the same. But this is constantly altering, so
+  that the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also consequently
+  as measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a strictly uniform
+  pace. This irregularity, which is slight, would be of little
+  consequence in the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and watches
+  being mechanical measures of time could not, except by extreme
+  complication, be made to follow this irregularity, even if desirable.
+
+  The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the
+  length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in
+  the year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly;
+  but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will
+  be sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock-the greatest
+  accumulated difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in
+  November, but on the average much less. The four days on which the two
+  agree are April 15, June 15, September 1 and December 24.
+
+  Clock-time is called _mean time_, that marked by the sun-dial is
+  called _apparent time_, and the difference between them is the
+  _equation of time_. It is given in most calendars and almanacs,
+  frequently under the heading "clock slow," "clock fast." When the time
+  by the sun-dial is known, the equation of time will at once enable us
+  to obtain the corresponding clock-time, or vice versa.
+
+  Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the
+  apparent position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need
+  consideration in the construction of an instrument which, with the
+  best workmanship, does not after all admit of very great accuracy.
+
+  The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood. The
+  problem before us is the following:--A rod, or _style_, as it is
+  called, being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's
+  axis, we have to find how and where points or lines of reference must
+  be traced on some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the
+  shadow of the style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know
+  that at that moment it is solar noon,--that is, that the plane through
+  the style and through the sun then coincides with the meridian; again,
+  that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is 1
+  o'clock by solar time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the
+  above plane through the style and through the sun has just turned
+  through the twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution; and so on for
+  the subsequent hours,--the hours before noon being indicated in a
+  similar manner. The style and the surface on which these lines are
+  traced together constitute the dial.
+
+  The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected--whether on
+  church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall--the surface
+  must be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines.
+
+  The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the
+  accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the
+  instrument depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an
+  angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter
+  condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the
+  meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is fixed
+  to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that the
+  style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be
+  usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by
+  the style it must always be understood that the middle line of the
+  thin band of shade is meant.
+
+  The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the
+  dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate.
+
+  The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to
+  determine accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend
+  on this one. We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style
+  has been itself accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is
+  done the XII o'clock line will be found by the intersection of the
+  dial surface with the vertical plane which contains the style; and the
+  most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a
+  plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang freely, and
+  waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide on the
+  dial. This single shadow will be the XII o'clock line.
+
+  In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock
+  line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore,
+  at once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line.
+
+  The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate
+  method of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when
+  good watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the style
+  falls when 1, 2, 3, &c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the next
+  morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced; and
+  in the same manner the hours might be subdivided into halves and
+  quarters, or even into minutes.
+
+  But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II,
+  III, &c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each
+  of these lines would make with the XII o'clock line. Now, except in
+  the simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a
+  cardinal point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or
+  elaborate geometrical constructions, implying considerable
+  mathematical knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of
+  error. The chief source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the
+  data; for the position of the dial-plane would have to be found before
+  the calculations began,--that is, it would be necessary to know
+  exactly by how many degrees it declined from the south towards the
+  east or west, and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical.
+  The ancients, with the means at their disposal, could obtain these
+  results only very roughly.
+
+  Dials received different names according to their position:--
+
+  _Horizontal dials_, when traced on a horizontal plane;
+
+  _Vertical dials_, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal
+  points;
+
+  _Vertical declining dials_, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal
+  point;
+
+  _Inclining dials_, when traced on planes neither vertical nor
+  horizontal (these were further distinguished as _reclining_ when
+  leaning backwards from an observer, _proclining_ when leaning
+  forwards);
+
+  _Equinoctial dials_, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's
+  axis, &c. &c.
+
+  _Dial Construction._--A very correct view of the problem of dial
+  construction may be obtained as follows:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. 1) having an axis AB parallel to
+  the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cylinder let equidistant
+  generating-lines be traced 15° apart, one of them XII ... XII being in
+  the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II, &c.,
+  following in the order of the sun's motion.
+
+  Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line XII ...
+  XII at apparent noon, on the line I ... I at one hour after noon, on
+  II ... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the cylinder be
+  cut by any plane MN representing the plane on which the dial is to be
+  traced, the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane and fall on
+  the lines AXII AI, AII, &c.
+
+  The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made
+  by AI, AII, &c. with AXII; the line AXII itself, being in the
+  vertical plane through AB, may be supposed known.
+
+  For the purposes of actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere
+  will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it
+  to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock
+  line in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south
+  dial.
+
+  _Horizontal Dial._--Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed
+  transparent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of
+  the heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore
+  coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then the
+  circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with the
+  horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next divide
+  the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, bc, cd, &c. ... of
+  15° each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the various
+  points of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp, Pcp, &c.
+  ... These will exactly correspond to the equidistant generating lines
+  on the cylinder in the previous construction, and the shadow of the
+  style will fall on these circles after successive intervals of 1,2, 3,
+  &c., hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle in the points
+  B, C, D, &c., then EB, EC, ED, &c. ... will be the I, II, III, &c.,
+  hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal dial consists
+  in calculating the angles which these lines make with the XII o'clock
+  line EA, whose position is known. The spherical triangles PAB, PAC,
+  &c., enable us to do this readily. They are all right-angled at A, the
+  side PA is the latitude of the place, and the angles APB, APC, &c.,
+  are respectively 15°, 30°, &c., then
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15° sin _latitude_,
+                  tan AC = tan 30° sin _latitude_,
+                           &c. &c.
+
+  These determine the sides AB, AC, &c., that is, the angles AEB, AEC,
+  &c., required.
+
+  The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian EA of
+  11° 51' on a London dial, of 12° 31' at Edinburgh, of 11° 23' at
+  Paris, 12° 0' at Berlin, 9° 55' at New York and 9° 19' at San
+  Francisco. In the same way may be found the angles made by the other
+  hour-lines.
+
+  The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant
+  from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further, because all
+  the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these. In the first
+  place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian, and therefore
+  two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-lines equidistant
+  from the meridian; thus the XI o'clock line and the I o'clock line
+  must make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the same as the II
+  o'clock, and so on. And next, the 24 great circles, which were drawn
+  to determine these lines, are in reality only 12; for clearly the
+  great circle which gives I o'clock after midnight, and that which
+  gives I o'clock after noon, are one and the same, and so also for the
+  other hours. Therefore the hour-lines between VI in the evening and VI
+  the next morning are the prolongations of the remaining twelve.
+
+  Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and
+  retain only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on
+  it, and we shall have the horizontal dial.
+
+  On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock,
+  and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for
+  extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh the limits
+  will be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within the
+  Arctic circle, the whole circuit will be required.
+
+  Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal
+  plate from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate, which
+  is sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have an
+  acute angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly
+  fixed in a vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide
+  with the meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thickness
+  of the plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles.
+  Since there are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two
+  half dials, because a little consideration will show that, owing to
+  the thickness of the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast
+  a shadow. Thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours
+  before 6 o'clock in the morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the western
+  edge will be used. At noon it will change again to the eastern edge
+  until 6 o'clock in the evening, and finally the western edge for the
+  remaining hours of daylight.
+
+  The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles
+  meet the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be careful
+  to draw only those lines for which the corresponding style is able to
+  give a shadow as explained above. The dial will thus have the
+  appearance of a single dial plate, and there will be no confusion (see
+  fig. 3).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  The line of demarcation between the shadow and the light will be
+  better defined than when a wire style is used; but the indications by
+  this double dial will always be one minute too fast in the morning and
+  one minute too slow in the afternoon. This is owing to the magnitude
+  of the sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined
+  shadows are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require
+  them, but by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward one
+  in the afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to advance
+  through a space equal to its half-breadth.
+
+  Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate is
+  of metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be
+  purchased ready for placing on the pedestal,--the dial with all the
+  hour-lines traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its
+  proper position, if not even cast in the same piece with the dial
+  plate.
+
+  When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be
+  perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling will be
+  done with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected
+  either in the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate
+  till the time given by the shadow (making the _one_ minute correction
+  mentioned above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time is
+  known. It is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so built
+  up beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the latitude
+  of some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines will be
+  drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a dial can
+  therefore not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although it would,
+  without appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose latitude did
+  not differ more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London, and it would be
+  safe to employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire.
+
+  If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in
+  latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a
+  place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of
+  time would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following
+  table will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of
+  the angle of the style,--all angles on the dial being readily measured
+  with an ordinary protractor. It extends from 50° lat. to 59½° lat.,
+  and therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and  Ireland:--
+
+  +-------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+  |  LAT. |XI. A.M.| X. A.M.| IX. A.M.|VIII. A.M.|VII. A.M.|VI. A.M.|
+  |       | I. P.M.|II. P.M.|III. P.M.|IIII. P.M.|  V. P.M.|VI. P.M.|
+  +-------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+  | 50° 0'| 11° 36'| 23° 51'|  37° 27'|  53°  0' |  70° 43'| 90°  0'|
+  | 50 30 | 11  41 | 24   1 |  37  39 |  53  12  |  70  51 | 90   0 |
+  | 51  0 | 11  46 | 24  10 |  37  51 |  53  23  |  70  59 | 90   0 |
+  | 51 30 | 11  51 | 24  19 |  38   3 |  53  35  |  71   6 | 90   0 |
+  | 52  0 | 11  55 | 24  28 |  38  14 |  53  46  |  71  13 | 90   0 |
+  | 52 30 | 12   0 | 24  37 |  38  25 |  53  57  |  71  20 | 90   0 |
+  | 53  0 | 12   5 | 24  45 |  38  37 |  54   8  |  71  27 | 90   0 |
+  | 53 30 | 12   9 | 24  54 |  38  48 |  54  19  |  71  34 | 90   0 |
+  | 54  0 | 12  14 | 25   2 |  38  58 |  54  29  |  71  40 | 90   0 |
+  | 54 30 | 12  18 | 25  10 |  39   9 |  54  39  |  71  47 | 90   0 |
+  | 55  0 | 12  23 | 25  19 |  39  19 |  54  49  |  71  53 | 90   0 |
+  | 55 30 | 12  27 | 25  27 |  39  30 |  54  59  |  71  59 | 90   0 |
+  | 56  0 | 12  31 | 25  35 |  39  40 |  55   9  |  72   5 | 90   0 |
+  | 56 30 | 12  36 | 25  43 |  39  50 |  55  18  |  72  11 | 90   0 |
+  | 57  0 | 12  40 | 25  50 |  39  59 |  55  27  |  72  17 | 90   0 |
+  | 57 30 | 12  44 | 25  58 |  40   9 |  55  36  |  72  22 | 90   0 |
+  | 58  0 | 12  48 | 26   5 |  40  18 |  55  45  |  72  28 | 90   0 |
+  | 58 30 | 12  52 | 26  13 |  40  27 |  55  54  |  72  33 | 90   0 |
+  | 59  0 | 12  56 | 26  20 |  40  36 |  56   2  |  72  39 | 90   0 |
+  | 59 30 | 13   0 | 26  27 |  40  45 |  56  11  |  72  44 | 90   0 |
+  +-------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+
+  _Vertical South Dial._--Let us take again our imaginary transparent
+  sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis.
+  Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the
+  meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane
+  facing south. This will cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA, which,
+  being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south, will
+  be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial circle,
+  obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the axis PEp.
+  The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the vertical line
+  EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and the line
+  EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the intersection of two
+  great circles ZM, QM, each at right angles to the vertical plane QZP,
+  will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem, divide
+  the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15° each, beginning at a,
+  viz. ab, bc, &c.,--each quadrant aM, MQ, &c., containing 6,--then
+  through each point of division and through the axis Pp draw a plane
+  cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles. As the sun
+  revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will successively fall
+  on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these circles cross
+  the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &c., the shadow of the
+  lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB, EC, &c.,
+  which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial,
+  Ep being the style.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on
+  each side of noon; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than
+  6 o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the
+  dial before that time, and is no longer available.
+
+  It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c., may be calculated.
+
+  The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c., will give us a simple rule.
+  These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP,
+  is the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the
+  latitude and 90°; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &c., are 15°,
+  30°, &c., respectively. Then
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15° sin _co-latitude_;
+
+  or more simply,
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15° cos _latitude_,
+                  tan AC = tan 30° cos _latitude_,
+                           &c. &c.
+
+  and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB, AEC,
+  &c., required.
+
+  In this ease the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the
+  opposite result to that of the horizontal dial.
+
+  _Inclining, Reclining, &c., Dials._--We shall not enter into the
+  calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before
+  supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and
+  all the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these
+  hour-circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines
+  just as in the previous cases; but the triangles will no longer be
+  right-angled, and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the
+  chances of error being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing
+  the dial plane in its true position on the sphere, since that true
+  position will have to be found from observations which can be only
+  roughly performed.
+
+  In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is not a
+  plane, and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the
+  only safe practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points
+  (one is sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the
+  moment when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and
+  afterwards connect these points with the centre by a continuous line.
+  Of course the style must have been accurately fixed in its true
+  position before we begin.
+
+  _Equatorial Dial._--The name equatorial dial is given to one whose
+  plane is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the
+  equator. It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided
+  into 24 equal ares is placed at right angles to the style, and hour
+  divisions are marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style
+  point accurately to the pole, and that the noon division coincide with
+  the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall on the other
+  divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be marked on
+  both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite sides
+  in the summer and in the winter months, changing at each equinox.
+
+  _To find the Meridian Plane._--We have, so far, assumed the meridian
+  plane to be accurately known; we shall proceed to describe some of the
+  methods by which it may be found.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approximation.
+  It is well known that the needle of the compass, when free to move
+  horizontally, oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction
+  termed the magnetic meridian. This does not coincide with the true
+  north and south line, but the difference between them is generally
+  known with tolerable accuracy, and is called the variation of the
+  compass. The variation differs widely at different parts of the
+  surface of the earth, and is not stationary at any particular place,
+  though the change is slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation
+  which takes place about the mean position, but too small to need
+  notice here (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL).
+
+  With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass
+  can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian,
+  but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further
+  alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has
+  been made.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  A very simple practical method is the following:--
+
+  Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position
+  that it may receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the
+  afternoon. Then carefully level the surface by means of a
+  spirit-level. This must be done very accurately, and the table in that
+  position made perfectly secure, so that there be no danger of its
+  shifting during the day.
+
+  Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly
+  fixed. The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface,
+  should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H
+  for centre, describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD,
+  EF, &c.
+
+  A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet
+  line at some convenient height above H.
+
+  Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the bead P
+  as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It will be
+  found to describe a curve ACE ... FDB, approaching the point H as the
+  sun advances towards noon, and receding from it afterwards. (The curve
+  is a conic section--an hyperbola in these regions.) At the moment when
+  it crosses the arc AB, mark the point A; AP is then the direction of
+  the sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH is the altitude of
+  the sun. In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses the same
+  arc; then the angle PBH is the altitude. But the right-angled
+  triangles PHA, PHB are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the
+  same altitudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after
+  noon. It follows that, _if the sun has not changed its declination_
+  during the interval, the two positions will be symmetrically placed
+  one on each side of the meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and
+  bisecting it in M, HM will be the meridian line.
+
+  Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c., will furnish its
+  meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the
+  mean of the positions thus found must be taken.
+
+  The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its
+  declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and
+  may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at
+  the end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder
+  of the year the change of declination is so slow that we may safely
+  neglect it. The most favourable times are at the end of June and at
+  the end of December, when the sun's declination is almost stationary.
+  If the line HM be produced both ways to the edges of the table, then
+  the two points on the ground vertically below those on the edges may
+  be found by a plummet, and, if permanent marks be made there, the
+  meridian plane, which is the vertical plane passing through these two
+  points, will have its position perfectly secured.
+
+  _To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position._--Before giving
+  any other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the
+  construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be
+  accurately placed in its true position. The angle which the style
+  makes with a hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place,
+  is known, and the north and south direction is also roughly given by
+  the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted
+  approximately--correctly, indeed, as to its inclination--but probably
+  requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine
+  plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be
+  properly adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls
+  exactly on the plumb-line,--or, which is the same thing, if both
+  shadows coincide on the dial.
+
+  This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane,
+  whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the
+  ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not
+  generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian
+  plane, and that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a
+  plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow
+  of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. A signal
+  from the observer there to the observer at the dial enables the latter
+  to adjust the style as directed above.
+
+  _Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane._--We have dwelt at some
+  length on these practical operations because they are simple and
+  tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant,
+  nor telescope--nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of
+  shadow lines.
+
+  The Pole star, or _Ursae Minoris_, may also be employed for finding
+  the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star
+  is now only about 1° 14' from the pole; if therefore a plumb-line be
+  suspended at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his
+  position till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane
+  through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian
+  plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would
+  be strictly coincident. This would be when the star crosses the
+  meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we
+  wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times of
+  the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the
+  _Nautical Almanac_, and a watch would be necessary to know when the
+  instant arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate,
+  because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes
+  in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the
+  azimuth.
+
+  The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both
+  calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star [eta] _Ursae
+  Majoris_, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest
+  from the "pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours
+  from the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which
+  joins the two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole
+  star, at a distance of about 1° 14' from the pole, is crossing the
+  meridian above the pole, the star [eta] _Ursae Majoris_, whose polar
+  distance is about 40°, has not yet reached the meridian below the
+  pole.
+
+  When [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ reaches the meridian, which will be within
+  half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian; but its
+  slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now
+  at some instant between these two times--much nearer the latter than
+  the former--the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly
+  vertical; and at this instant, which the observer determines by seeing
+  that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither of the
+  stars is strictly in the meridian; but the deviation from it is so
+  small that it may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the
+  plumb-line taken for meridian plane.
+
+  In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane
+  by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet at
+  a short distance in front of the eye; this second plummet, being
+  suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as
+  always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian plane
+  will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground, one
+  under each plummet.
+
+  This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the
+  upper transit of _Polaris_; for, at the lower transit, the other star
+  [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and
+  the observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible
+  when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half of
+  the year is lost to this method.
+
+  Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40° N., for there
+  the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit;--we may even
+  say not lower than 45° N., for the star must be at least 5° above the
+  horizon before it becomes distinctly visible.
+
+  There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed, but
+  none so convenient as these two, on account of _Polaris_ with its very
+  slow motion being one of the pair.
+
+  _To place the Style in its True Position without previous
+  Determination of the Meridian Plane._--The various methods given above
+  for finding the meridian plane have for ultimate object the
+  determination of the plane, not on its own account, but as an element
+  for fixing the instant of noon, whereby the style may be properly
+  placed.
+
+  We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we
+  determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a
+  good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instrument
+  for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined
+  in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The
+  simplest and most practically useful methods will be found described
+  and investigated in any work on astronomy.
+
+  For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the
+  forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the
+  sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions
+  of the horizon--but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of
+  the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than
+  10 o'clock--take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same
+  moment, marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so observed
+  being properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &c., will, together
+  with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination, taken from
+  the _Nautical Almanac_, enable us to calculate the time. This will be
+  the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we require.
+  Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we see
+  at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time; we know,
+  therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon
+  arrives, and waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its
+  proper position as explained before.
+
+  We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and
+  observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time
+  from some observatory where the work is done; and, allowing for the
+  change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we
+  have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar
+  noon as in the previous case.
+
+  In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in
+  devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced.
+  Sometimes the shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder,
+  or on a sphere, or on a combination of these. A universal dial was
+  constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross; another universal
+  dial showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons. These
+  universal dials required adjusting before use, and for this a
+  mariner's compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it would be
+  tedious and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a
+  rule, the more complex the less accurate.
+
+  Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable
+  centres. They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the
+  style had to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-_lines_
+  they had hour-_points_; and the style, instead of being parallel to
+  the axis of the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon.
+  There was no practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse;
+  and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new
+  mathematical problems.
+
+  _Portable Dials._--The dials so far described have been fixed dials,
+  for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were
+  to be fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made
+  generally of a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and
+  these, so long as the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a
+  watch.
+
+  The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with
+  that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and
+  the same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are
+  essential points of difference between them, besides those which are
+  at once apparent.
+
+  In the fixed dial the result depends on the _uniform_ angular motion
+  of the sun round the fixed style; and a small error in the assumed
+  position of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the
+  instrument, or to some small neglected correction, has only a trifling
+  effect on the time. This is owing to the angular displacement of the
+  sun being so rapid--a quarter of a degree every minute--that for the
+  ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required, as a
+  displacement of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one degree,
+  can be readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial
+  this is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now
+  available, because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may
+  refer it. In the new position, to which the observer has gone, the
+  zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically
+  find; and the basis for the determination of the time is the
+  constantly but _very irregularly_ varying zenith distance of the sun.
+
+  At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only
+  method available for finding local time; but the perfection which has
+  been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to
+  reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however,
+  to be taken. The observations must not be made within a couple of
+  hours of noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor
+  too near the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions there;
+  and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portable dial.
+
+  To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials,
+  let us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54° lat., and a mean
+  declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at 6 o'clock,
+  and at noon have an altitude of 36°,--that is, the portable dial will
+  indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each minute, or
+  two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The vertical motion
+  of the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon, but even there it
+  will be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or half the rate of
+  the fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed throughout the
+  day.
+
+  Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude
+  for which they are available, and they should not be used more than 4
+  or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were constructed.
+
+  We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use.
+
+  _Dial on a Cylinder._--A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in.
+  high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of
+  tolerably easy rotation. A hole in the lid receives the style shaped
+  somewhat like a bayonet; and the straight part of the style, which, on
+  account of the two bends, is lower than the lid, projects horizontally
+  out from the cylinder to a distance of 1 or 1½ in. When not in use the
+  style would be taken out and placed inside the cylinder.
+
+  A horizontal circle is traced on the cylinder opposite the projecting
+  style, and this circle is divided into 36 approximately equidistant
+  intervals.[2] These intervals represent spaces of time, and to each
+  division is assigned a date, so that each month has three dates marked
+  as follows:-January 10, 20, 31; February 10, 20, 28; March 10, 20, 31;
+  April 10, 20, 30, and so on,--always the 10th, the 20th, and the last
+  day of each month.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis of
+  the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily
+  understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as
+  to bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then
+  placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned
+  round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the
+  vertical line below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite
+  point of this line, the position of which point will depend on the
+  length of the style--that is, the distance of its end from the surface
+  of the cylinder--and on the altitude of the sun at that instant.
+  Suppose that the observations are continued all day, the cylinder
+  being very gradually turned so that the style may always face the sun,
+  and suppose that marks are made on the vertical line to show the
+  extremity of the shadow at each exact hour from sun-rise to
+  sun-set-these times being taken from a good fixed sun-dial,--then it is
+  obvious that the next year, on the _same date_, the sun's declination
+  being about the same, and the observer in about the same latitude, the
+  marks made the previous year will serve to tell the time all that day.
+
+  What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the
+  instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which
+  would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation, cannot
+  be the method employed.
+
+  The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation.
+  Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken
+  from the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place
+  and the length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for
+  computing the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark
+  below the style for each successive hour.
+
+  We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at
+  the same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if
+  the dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results
+  will be sufficiently approximate.
+
+  When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective
+  dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding hour-points,
+  will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down,
+  the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper position between
+  the two divisions. The horizontality of the surface on which the
+  instrument rests is a very necessary condition, especially in summer,
+  when, the shadow of the style being long, the extreme end will shift
+  rapidly for a small deviation from the vertical, and render the
+  reading uncertain. The dial can also be used by holding it up by a
+  small ring in the top of the lid, and probably the vertically is
+  better ensured in that way.
+
+  _Portable Dial on a Card._--This neat and very ingenious dial is
+  attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and probably
+  dates from the early part of the 17th century. Ozanam says that it was
+  sometimes called the _capuchin_, from some fancied resemblance to a
+  cowl thrown back.
+
+  _Construction._--Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the
+  card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it; with C as
+  centre, and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB
+  below the horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at
+  the points r, s, t, &c., and through these points draw perpendiculars
+  to the diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line
+  through r will be the XI ... I line, the line through s the X ... II
+  line, and so on; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself; by
+  subdivision of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &c., we may draw the
+  hour-lines corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where
+  it can be done without confusion.
+
+  Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the place,
+  and let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at right angles
+  to AD.
+
+  With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of circle
+  RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on it,
+  extending from 0° at S to 23½° on each side at R and T. Next determine
+  the points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn from A to the
+  degree divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully mark these
+  crossings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination, south
+  declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the other
+  hemisphere of the earth this would be reversed; the north declinations
+  would be on the upper half.
+
+  Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations of
+  that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the days
+  of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and place
+  these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without confusion,
+  opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the _sun-line_ at the
+  top of the card parallel to the line ACB; and, near the extremity, to
+  the right, draw any small figure intended to form, as it were, a door
+  of which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken that this hinge is
+  exactly at right angles to the _sun-line_. Make a fine open slit c d
+  right through the card and extending from the hinge to a short
+  distance on the door,--the centre line of this slit coinciding
+  accurately with the _sun-line_. Now, cut the door completely through
+  the card; except, of course, along the hinge, which, when the card is
+  thick, should be partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the
+  opening. Cut the card right through along the line FDG, and pass a
+  thread carrying a little plummet W and a _very_ small bead P; the bead
+  having sufficient friction with the thread to retain any position when
+  acted on only by its own weight, but sliding easily along the thread
+  when moved by the hand. At the back of the card the thread terminates
+  in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through; or better, because
+  giving more friction and a better hold, it passes through the centre
+  of a small disk of card--a fraction of an inch in diameter--and, by a
+  knot, is made fast at the back of the disk.
+
+  To complete the construction,--with the centres F and G, and radii FA
+  and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the hour-lines;
+  for in an observation the bead will always be found between them. The
+  forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated in the
+  figure. The dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon and
+  afternoon; but extraneous circumstances, as, for instance, whether the
+  sun is rising or falling, will settle that point, except when close to
+  noon, where it will always be uncertain.
+
+  To _rectify_ the dial (using the old expression, which means to
+  prepare the dial for an observation),--open the small door, by turning
+  it about its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the
+  thread in the line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it
+  over the point A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincide
+  with A.
+
+  To find the hour of the day,--hold the dial in a vertical position in
+  such a way that its plane may pass through the sun. The verticality is
+  ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without
+  pressing. Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical
+  plane), until the central line of sunshine, passing through the open
+  slit of the door, just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against
+  which the bead P then rests indicates the time.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  The _sun-line_ drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used as
+  a _shadow-line_. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the
+  prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was
+  gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly
+  coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a
+  degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of
+  the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb
+  of the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre.
+  Now, even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a
+  considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much time
+  will the indication of the dial be in error.
+
+  The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be
+  free from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of
+  the sun.
+
+  The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere
+  toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educational
+  value which is not to be measured by the roughness of the results
+  obtained.
+
+  The theory of this instrument is as follows:--Let H (fig. 9) be the
+  point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that
+  the angle DAH is the north declination of the sun,--P, the bead,
+  resting against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the
+  hour-angle from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this
+  hour-angle is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC, a
+  north declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the
+  _sun-line_, or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle
+  PHQ will be equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC, for
+  the pair of lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to the
+  sun-line and the horizontal.
+
+  Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and N
+  respectively.
+
+  Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following values
+  will be readily deduced from the figure:--
+
+  AD = a cos _decl._ DH = a sin _decl._ PQ = a sin _alt._
+
+     CX = AC = AD cos _lat._ = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+     PN = CV = CX cos ACX = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._ cos ACX.
+     NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = sin _decl._ sin _lat._
+       (:. the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.)
+
+  And since           PQ = NQ + PN,
+  we have, by simple substitution,
+  a sin _alt._ = a sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + a cos _del._ cos _lat._
+  cos ACX; or, dividing by a throughout,
+
+  sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+                                                        cos ACX ... (1)
+  which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead.
+
+  To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let fig. 10
+  represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole, Z the
+  zenith and S the sun.
+
+  From the spherical triangle PZS, we have
+      cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP + sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS
+          but ZS = zenith distance = 90° - altitude
+              ZP = 90° - PR        = 90°- latitude
+              PS = polar distance  = 90° - declination,
+  therefore, by substitution
+
+  sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+                                                       cos ZPS ... (2)
+  and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun.
+
+  A comparison of the two formulae (1) and (2) shows that the hour-angle
+  given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and
+  proves the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or
+  at sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree.
+  If, then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the
+  sun-line, at a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at
+  c, the time of sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the
+  central line of light were made to fall on cm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  LITERATURE.--The following list includes the principal writers on
+  dialling whose works have come down, to us, and to these we must refer
+  for descriptions of the various constructions, some simple and direct,
+  others fanciful and intricate, which have been at different times
+  employed: Ptolemy, _Analemma_, restored by Commandine; Vitruvius,
+  _Architecture_; Sebastian Münster, _Horologiographia_; Orontius
+  Fineus, _De horologiis solaribus_; Mutio Oddi da Urbino, _Horologi
+  solari_; Dryander, _De horologiorum compositione_; Conrad Gesner,
+  _Pandectae_; Andreas Schöner, _Gnomonicae_; F. Commandine,
+  _Horologiorum descriptio_; Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, _De gnomonum usu_;
+  Georgius Schomberg, _Exegesis fundamentorum gnomonicorum_; Joan.
+  Solomon de Caus, _Horologes solaires_; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, _Praxis
+  horologiorum_; Desargues, _Manière universelle pour poser l'essieu_,
+  &c.; Ath. Kircher, _Ars magna lucis et Umbrae_; Hallum, _Explicatio
+  horologii in horto regio Londini_; Joan. Mark, _Tractatus
+  horologiorum_; Clavius, _Gnomonices de horologiis_. Also among more
+  modern writers, Deschales, Ozanam, Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire,
+  Walper; in German, Paterson, Michael, Müller; in English, Foster,
+  Wells, Collins, Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn, Emerson and Ferguson. See
+  also Hans Löschner, _Über Sonnenuhren_ (2nd ed., Graz, 1906).  (H. G.)
+
+[1] In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an
+elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 17th or beginning of the
+18th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it available
+as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known.
+
+[2] Strict equality is not necessary, as the observations made are on
+the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to the
+others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go completely
+and exactly round the cylinder, although they were always so drawn, and
+both these conditions were insisted upon in the directions for the
+construction.
+
+
+DIALECT (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], conversation, manner of speaking,
+[Greek: dialegesthai], to converse), a particular or characteristic
+manner of speech, and hence any variety of a language. In its widest
+sense languages which are branches of a common or parent language may be
+said to be "dialects" of that language; thus Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and
+Doric are dialects of Greek, though there may never have at any time
+been a separate language of which they were variations; so the various
+Romance languages, Italian, French, Spanish, &c., were dialects of
+Latin. Again, where there have existed side by side, as in England,
+various branches of a language, such as the languages of the Angles, the
+Jutes or the Saxons, and the descendant of one particular language, from
+many causes, has obtained the predominance, the traces of the other
+languages remain in the "dialects" of the districts where once the
+original language prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from the
+historical point of view, to say that "dialect" varieties of a language
+represent degradations of the standard language. A "literary" accepted
+language, such as modern English, represents the original language
+spoken in the Midlands, with accretions of Norman, French, and later
+literary and scientific additions from classical and other sources,
+while the present-day "dialects" preserve, in inflections, pronunciation
+and particular words, traces of the original variety of the language not
+incorporated in the standard language of the country. See the various
+articles on languages (English, French, &c).
+
+
+DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], discourse,
+debate; [Greek: ê dialektikê], sc. [Greek: technê], the art of debate),
+a logical term, generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous
+sense for verbal or purely abstract disputation devoid of practical
+value. According to Aristotle, Zeno of Elea "invented" dialectic, the
+art of disputation by question and answer, while Plato developed it
+metaphysically in connexion with his doctrine of "Ideas" as the art of
+analysing ideas in themselves and in relation to the ultimate idea of
+the Good (_Repub._ vii.). The special function of the so-called
+"Socratic dialectic" was to show the inadequacy of popular beliefs.
+Aristotle himself used "dialectic," as opposed to "science," for that
+department of mental activity which examines the presuppositions lying
+at the back of all the particular sciences. Each particular science has
+its own subject matter and special principles ([Greek: idiai archai]) on
+which the superstructure of its special discoveries is based. The
+Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals with the universal laws ([Greek:
+koinai archai]) of reasoning, which can be applied to the particular
+arguments of all the sciences. The sciences, for example, all seek to
+define their own species; dialectic, on the other hand, sets forth the
+conditions which all definitions must satisfy whatever their subject
+matter. Again, the sciences all seek to educe general laws; dialectic
+investigates the nature of such laws, and the kind and degree of
+necessity to which they can attain. To this general subject matter
+Aristotle gives the name "Topics" ([Greek: topoi], loci, communes loci).
+"Dialectic" in this sense is the equivalent of "logic." Aristotle also
+uses the term for the science of probable reasoning as opposed to
+demonstrative reasoning ([Greek: apodeiktikê]). The Stoics divided
+[Greek: logikê] (logic) into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time
+till the end of the middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with, or
+a part of, logic.
+
+In modern philosophy the word has received certain special meanings. In
+Kantian terminology _Dialektik_ is the name of that portion of the
+_Kritik d. reinen Vernunft_ in which Kant discusses the impossibility of
+applying to "things-in-themselves" the principles which are found to
+govern phenomena. In the system of Hegel the word resumes its original
+Socratic sense, as the name of that intellectual process whereby the
+inadequacy of popular conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history,
+therefore, "dialectic" has been connected with that which is remote
+from, or alien to, unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or
+transcendental, rather than with the facts of common experience and
+material things.
+
+
+DIALLAGE, an important mineral of the pyroxene group, distinguished by
+its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The chemical composition
+is the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiO_{3})_{2}, but it sometimes contains
+the molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"')_{2} SiO_{6} and Na Fe"'
+(SiO_{3})_{2}, in addition, when it approaches to augite in composition.
+Diallage is in fact an altered form of these varieties of pyroxene; the
+particular kind of alteration which they have undergone being known as
+"schillerization." This, as described by Prof. J. W. Judd, consists in
+the development of a fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary
+twinning and the separation of secondary products along these and other
+planes of chemical weakness ("solution planes") in the crystal. The
+secondary products consist of mixtures of various hydrated oxides--opal,
+göthite, limonite, &c--and appear as microscopic inclusions filling or
+partly filling cavities, which have definite outlines with respect to
+the enclosing crystal and are known as negative crystals. It is to the
+reflection and interference of light from these minute inclusions that
+the peculiar bronzy sheen or "schiller" of the mineral is due. The most
+pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid; another,
+less distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third parallel to
+the plane of symmetry; these planes of secondary parting are in addition
+to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all pyroxenes. Frequently the
+material is interlaminated with a rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an
+amphibole (smaragdite or uralite), the latter being an alteration
+product of the diallage.
+
+Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes brown, in
+colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller on the laminated
+surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific gravity 3.2 to 3.35. It
+does not occur in distinct crystals with definite outlines, but only as
+lamellar masses in deep-seated igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of
+which it is an essential constituent. It occurs also in some peridotites
+and serpentines, and rarely in volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline
+schists. Masses of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained
+gabbros of the Island of Skye, Le Prese near Bornio in Valtellina,
+Lombardy, Prato near Florence, and many other localities.
+
+The name diallage, from diallage, "difference," in allusion to the
+dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally applied by R.
+J. Haüy in 1801, included other minerals (the orthorhombic pyroxenes
+hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and the smaragdite variety of
+hornblende) which exhibit the same peculiarities of schiller structure;
+it is now limited to the monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like
+the minerals of similar appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut
+and polished for ornamental purposes.                        (L. J. S.)
+
+
+DIALOGUE, properly the conversation between two or more persons,
+reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the Greeks for
+purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction, and scarcely
+modified since the days of its invention. A dialogue is in reality a
+little drama without a theatre, and with scarcely any change of scene.
+It should be illuminated with those qualities which La Fontaine
+applauded in the dialogue of Plato, namely vivacity, fidelity of tone,
+and accuracy in the opposition of opinions. It has always been a
+favourite with those writers who have something to censure or to impart,
+but who love to stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to
+pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than
+indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing and noting
+down the undulations of human thought that it almost escapes analysis.
+All that is recorded, in any literature, of what pretend to be the
+actual words spoken by living or imaginary people is of the nature of
+dialogue. One branch of letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it.
+But in its technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek
+philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the
+extreme refinement of an art.
+
+The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form is
+commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose earliest
+experiment in it is believed to survive in the _Laches_. The Platonic
+dialogue, however, was founded on the mime, which had been cultivated
+half a century earlier by the Sicilian poets, Sophron and Epicharmus.
+The works of these writers, which Plato admired and imitated, are lost,
+but it is believed that they were little plays, usually with only two
+performers. The recently discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us
+some idea of their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced
+it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing
+element of character-drawing. He must have begun this about the year
+405, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection,
+especially in the cycle directly inspired by the death of Socrates. All
+his philosophical writings, except the _Apology_, are cast in this form.
+As the greatest of all masters of Greek prose style, Plato lifted his
+favourite instrument, the dialogue, to its highest splendour, and to
+this day he remains by far its most distinguished proficient. In the 2nd
+century a.d. Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his
+ironic dialogues "Of the Gods," "Of the Dead," "Of Love" and "Of the
+Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and philosophical
+error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he merely paints scenes
+of modern life. The title of Lucian's most famous collection was
+borrowed in the 17th century by two French writers of eminence, each of
+whom prepared _Dialogues des morts_. These were Fontenelle (1683) and
+Fénelon (1712). In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not
+been extensively employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713, for his
+Platonic treatise, _Hylas and Philonous_. Landor's _Imaginary
+Conversations_ (1821-1828) is the most famous example of it in the 19th
+century, although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In
+Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works
+published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of
+Valdés (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are
+celebrated. In Italian, collections of dialogues, on the model of Plato,
+have been composed by Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by
+Galiani (1770), by Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. In
+our own day, the French have returned to the original application of
+dialogue, and the inventions of "Gyp," of Henri Lavedan and of others,
+in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told in
+conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes
+of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with them. This kind of
+dialogue has been employed in English, and with conspicuous cleverness
+by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but it does not seem so easily appreciated by
+English as by French readers. (E.G.)
+
+
+DIALYSIS (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: luein], to
+loosen), in chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for
+separating colloidal and crystalline substances. He found that solutions
+could be divided into two classes according to their action upon a
+porous diaphragm such as parchment. If a solution, say of salt, be
+placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom, termed a "dialyser,"
+and the drum and its contents placed in a larger vessel of water, the
+salt will pass through the membrane. If the salt solution be replaced by
+one of glue, gelatin or gum, it will be found that the membrane is
+impermeable to these solutes. To the first class Graham gave the name
+"crystalloids," and to the second "colloids." This method is
+particularly effective in the preparation of silicic acid. By adding
+hydrochloric acid to a dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, no
+precipitate will fall and the solution will contain hydrochloric acid,
+an alkaline chloride, and silicic acid. If the solution be transferred
+to a dialyser, the hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass
+through the parchment, while the silicic acid will be retained.
+
+
+DIAMAGNETISM. Substances which, like iron, are attracted by the pole of
+an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as magnetic, all others being
+regarded as non-magnetic. It was noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that
+a number of so-called non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac,
+were influenced by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed
+the opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted
+upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more or less
+magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (_Experimental Researches_, vol. iii.)
+that while practically all natural substances are indeed acted upon by a
+sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only a comparatively small
+number that are attracted like iron, the great majority being repelled.
+Bodies of the latter class were termed by Faraday _diamagnetics_. The
+strongest diamagnetic substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility
+being--0.000014, and its permeability 0.9998. The diamagnetic quality of
+this metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet, and its
+repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once recognized before
+the date of Faraday's experiments. The metals gold, silver, copper,
+lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and
+platinum are attracted by a very strong pole. (See MAGNETISM.)
+
+
+DIAMANTE, FRA, Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato about 1400. He
+was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine community of that
+order, and was the friend and assistant of Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite
+convent of Prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been
+suppressed, and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving
+the destruction of the paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra
+Filippo in the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of
+the cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to
+Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings of the
+commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined to petition
+the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to Prato,--a proof
+that his share in the work was so important that his recall involved the
+suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted Fra Filippo in the execution
+of the frescoes still to be seen in the cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra
+Diamante completed in 1470 after his master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo
+left a son ten years old to the care of Diamante, who, having received
+200 ducats from the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work
+done in the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as
+Vasari says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small
+portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however, would
+depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra Diamante, and the
+terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo. Fra Diamante must have been
+nearly seventy when he completed the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact
+year of his death is not known.
+
+
+DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA (1640?-1684?), Spanish dramatist, was born at
+Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and began writing for the stage
+in 1657. He became a knight of Santiago in 1660; the date of his death
+is unknown, but no reference to him as a living author occurs after
+1684. Like many other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is
+deficient in originality, and his style is riddled with affectations;
+_La Desgraciada Raquel_, which was long considered to be his best play,
+is really Mira de Amescua's _Judía de Toledo_ under another title; and
+the earliest of Diamante's surviving pieces, _El Honrador de su padre_
+(1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille's Cid.
+Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of French
+dramatic methods into Spain.
+
+
+DIAMANTINA (formerly called _Tejuco_), a mining town of the state of
+Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly on a steep
+hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio Jequitinhonha (where
+diamond-washing was once carried on), and partly on the level plain
+above. The town is roughly but substantially built, with broad streets
+and large squares. It is the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal
+seminary, and has many churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous;
+they include a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum
+and a secondary school. There are several small manufactures, including
+cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on. The surrounding
+region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the lateral ranges of the
+Serra do Espinhaço, is rough and barren, but rich in minerals,
+principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is the commercial centre of an
+extensive region, and has long been noted for its wealth. The date of
+the discovery of diamonds, upon which its wealth and importance chiefly
+depend, is uncertain, but the official announcement was made in 1729,
+and in the following year the mines were declared crown property, with a
+crown reservation, known as the "forbidden district," 42 leagues in
+circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining was forbidden
+within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe
+restrictions. There are no trustworthy returns of the value of the
+output, but in 1849 the total was estimated up to that date at
+300,000,000 francs (see DIAMOND). The present name of the town was
+assumed (instead of Tejuco) in 1838, when it was made a _cidade_.
+
+
+DIAMANTINO, a small town of the state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the
+Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction with the Paraguay, in
+14° 24' 33" S., 56° 8' 30" W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality 2147,
+mostly Indians. It stands in a broken sterile region 1837 ft. above
+sea-level and at the foot of the great Matto Grosso plateau. The first
+mining settlement dates from 1730, when gold was found in the vicinity.
+On the discovery of diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large
+population and for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet
+expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined.
+Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of export.
+
+
+DIAMETER (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: metron], measure),
+in geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic
+section and terminated by the curve; the "principal diameters" of the
+ellipse and hyperbola coincide with the "axes" and are at ...
+                          (_continued in volume 8, slice 4, page 0158._)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+DETERMINANT, formula = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" - a"bc' - a"b'c.
+changed to = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c.
+
+DETMOLD, added missing comma after 'Detmold possesses a natural history
+museum'.
+
+DEVENTER, 'The "Athenaeum" disappeared' corrected from the original
+'disappered'.
+
+DEVIL, replaced comma with a period after 'according to 1 Chron. xxi'.
+
+DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF, 'In November 1684' originally 'Novembr'.
+
+DIAGRAM, 'found to be of use especially' originally 'epsecially'.
+
+DIAL, table angles on the dial, column IX. A.M. III. P.M. bottom entry
+corrected from '45 45' to '40 45'.
+
+DIAGRAM, missing closing parenthesis added after 'to mark out by lines'.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 30073-8.txt or 30073-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/0/7/30073/
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/old/30073-8.zip b/old/30073-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab4beac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-8.zip
diff --git a/old/30073-h.zip b/old/30073-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa3b6a9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h.zip
diff --git a/old/30073-h/30073-h.htm b/old/30073-h/30073-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..781e327
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/30073-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,8849 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+    "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
+
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, Volume VIII slice III - Destructor to Diameter
+    </title>
+
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+    body { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; line-height: 1.4em; color: black; background-color: #f5f5f5}
+    p {  margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; }
+    p.noind {  margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; }
+
+    H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         }
+    hr                   {width: 70%; height: 5px; color: #dcdcdc; }
+    hr.full              {width: 100%;}
+    hr.short             {text-align: center; width: 20%;}
+    hr.art               {width: 40%; height: 5px; color: #778899; margin-top: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 1.5em; }
+    hr.foot              {margin-left: 2em; text-align: left; width: 16%; color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; }
+
+    table.allbnomar { border : 1px solid black; border-collapse: collapse; }
+    table.allb    { border : 1px solid black; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 4em  }
+    table.allbctr { border : 1px solid black; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+    table.nob     { margin-left: 4em }
+    table.nobctr  { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+
+    table.math    { margin-left:10%;vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+    table.math0   { vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+    table.math0l  { vertical-align: middle; text-align: left; }
+    table.mathc   { vertical-align: middle; text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+    table.math15  { margin-left:15%;vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+    table.math15l { margin-left: 15%; vertical-align: middle; text-align: left; }
+    table.maths   { font-size:smaller; vertical-align: middle; text-align:center; }
+
+    td            { white-space: nowrap; }
+    td.norm       { white-space: normal; }
+    td.denom      { border-top: 1px solid black; }
+    td.allb       { border : 1px solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.allbw      { text-align: left; white-space: nowrap;
+                    border : 1px solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+
+    td.allbr2     { border-left : 1px solid black; border-top : 1px solid black; border-bottom : thin solid black;
+			border-right : medium double black; border-right : medium double black;  padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.caption    { font-size: 0.8em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; }
+    td.spac       { padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; }
+      .lsp        { padding-left: 1em; text-align: left; }
+      .lsp4       { padding-left: 4em; text-align: left; }
+    td.nspac      { padding-left: 0em; padding-right: 0em; }
+    td.nob        { padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.ttitle     { background-color: #778899; color: white;
+                    border : 1px solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.vertb      { border-left : 1px solid black; border-right : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.vertbr2    { border-left : 1px solid black; border-right : medium double black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.leftb      { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; border-left: black 1px solid }
+    td.rightb     { border-right: black 1px solid; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em }
+    td.leftb1     { padding-right: 0; padding-left: 0; border-left: black 1px solid }
+    td.rightb1    { border-right: black 1px solid; padding-right: 0; padding-left: 0 }
+    td.leftb2     { padding-right: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; border-left: black 1px solid; text-align: left }
+    td.rightb2    { border-right: black 1px solid; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-left: 0; text-align: right }
+    td.botb       { border-bottom : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    td.botb1      { border-bottom : 1px solid black; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0; }
+    td.vertbotb   { border-left : thin solid black; border-right : thin solid black; border-bottom : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; }
+    td.verttopb   { border-left : thin solid black; border-right : thin solid black; border-top : thin solid black; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; }
+    table p       { margin: 0;}
+
+    a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+    a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+    a:hover {color:red}
+    link {color:blue; text-decoration:none}
+
+    .author   {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em;}
+    .center   {text-align: center; }
+    .cenhead  {text-align: center;  margin-top: 1em;}
+    .right    {text-align: right; }
+    .t        {padding-top: 1.5em; }
+    .tr       {vertical-align: top;}
+    .tc       {vertical-align: top;}
+    .tr p     {text-align: right;}
+    .tc p     {text-align: center;}
+    .m        {vertical-align: middle; }
+    .mr       {vertical-align: middle;}
+    .mc       {vertical-align: middle;}
+    .mr p     {text-align: right;}
+    .mc p     {text-align: center;}
+    .b        {vertical-align: bottom; }
+    .vol      {font-size: small;}
+    .grk      {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;}
+
+    sup       {font-style: normal; font-size: small;}
+    sub       {font-style: normal; font-size: 0.7em;}
+    pre       {font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace; margin-left: 1em;}
+    .sc       {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .scac     {font-size: small;}
+    blockquote       {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; }
+    blockquote.b2n   {margin-left: 4em; margin-right: 4em; }
+    blockquote.small {font-size: small; }
+    span.pagenum {position: absolute; right: 1%; text-align: right; font-size: 9pt; font-style: normal; color: #708090}
+    .sidenote {width: 16%; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em;
+	font-size: smaller; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0; background-color: #dcdcdc }
+    .note     {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; }
+    span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;}
+    span.special {text-decoration: none;}
+    span.small   {font-size:small;}
+    span.intlim  {font-size:small; position:relative; top:-2ex; left:-0.4em;}
+    span.lower   {position:relative; top:0.5ex;}
+    span.over    {text-decoration: overline;}
+    span.under   {text-decoration: underline;}
+    span.bq      {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; }
+    span.spc     { padding-left: 2em; }
+    .nobo	 {border: thin;}
+    .red 	 {color: red;}
+
+    .figright1 { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 3em; font-size: 0.8em; padding-bottom: 1em; margin: 0px; padding-top: 1em; text-align: center }
+    .figleft1 { padding-right: 3em; padding-left: 0.5em; font-size: 0.8em; padding-bottom: 1em; margin: 0px; padding-top: 1em; text-align: center }
+
+    .figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center; padding-top: 1.5em;}
+    img.middle { border: none; vertical-align: middle }
+    .third     { width:33%; float:left; }
+    .quarter   { width:25%; float:left; }
+
+    .above, .below { font-size: 50%; }
+    .above { vertical-align: 1.3ex; }
+    .below { vertical-align: -0.3ex; }
+    .condenced { line-height: 1.2em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; }
+
+    </style>
+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3
+       "Destructors" to "Diameter"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 24, 2009 [EBook #30073]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h3>VOLUME VIII slice III<br /><br />
+Destructor to Diameter</h3>
+<hr />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page109"></a>[Page 109]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>DESTRUCTOR</b> (<i>continued from volume 8 slice 2 page 108.</i>)</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p class="noind">... in main flues, &amp;c. (g) The chimney draught must be assisted with
+forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of 1&frac12; in. to
+2 in. under grates by water-gauge. (h) Where a destructor is required to
+work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its
+efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view
+in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary
+consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace
+so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the temperature of the
+gases is reduced before the organic matter has been thoroughly burned.
+(i) Where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a large
+percentage of CO<sub>2</sub> should be sought in the furnaces with as little excess
+of air as possible, and the flue gases should be utilized in heating the
+air-supply to the grates, and the feed-water to the boilers. (j) Ample
+boiler capacity and hot-water storage feed-tanks should be included in
+the design where steam-power is required.</p>
+
+<p>As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few
+trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends, <span class="sidenote">Cost.</span>
+amongst other things, upon the difficulty of preparing the site, upon
+the nature of the foundations required, the height of the chimney-shaft,
+the length of the inclined or approach roadway, and the varying prices
+of labour and materials in different localities. As an example may be
+mentioned the case of Bristol, where, in 1892, the total cost of
+constructing a 16-cell Fryer destructor was £11,418, of which £2909 was
+expended on foundations, and £1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost of the
+destructor proper, buildings and approach road was therefore £6820, or
+about £426 per cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in destructors
+depends mainly upon&mdash;(a) The price of labour in the locality, and the
+number of "shifts" or changes of workmen per day; (b) the type of
+furnace adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be consumed; (d) the
+interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The cost of burning ton for
+ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces, including labour and
+repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion destructors. The average
+cost of burning refuse at twenty-four different towns throughout
+England, exclusive of interest on the cost of the works, is 1s.
+1&frac12;d. per ton burned; the minimum cost is 6d. per ton at Bradford,
+and the maximum cost 2s. 10d. per ton at Battersea. At Shoreditch the
+cost per ton for the year ending on the 25th of March 1899, including
+labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &amp;c. (but exclusive of interest
+on cost of works), was 2s. 6.9d. The quantity of refuse burned per cell
+per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up to 20 tons. The ordinary
+low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft. grate area, burns about 20
+lb. of refuse per square foot of grate area per hour, or between 5 and 6
+tons per cell per 24 hours. The Meldrum destructor furnaces at Rochdale
+burn as much as 66 lb. per square foot of grate area per hour, and the
+Beaman and Deas destructor at Llandudno 71.7 lb. per square foot per
+hour. The amount, however, always depends materially on the care
+observed in stoking, the nature of the material, the frequency of
+removal of clinker, and on the question whether the whole of the refuse
+passed into the furnace is thoroughly cremated.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from
+22 to 37% of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30% is a very <span class="sidenote">Residues:</span>
+usual amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists of about 8% of
+straw, paper, shavings, &amp;c., the residue contains about 29% clinker,
+2.7% fine ash, .5% flue dust, and .6% old tins, making a total residue
+of 32.8%. As the residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the
+total bulk of the refuse dealt with, it is a question of the utmost
+importance that some profitable, or at least inexpensive, means should
+be devised for its regular disposal. Among other purposes, it has been
+used for bottoming for macadamized roads, for the manufacture of
+concrete, for making paving slabs, for forming suburban footpaths or
+cinder footwalks, and for the manufacture of mortar. The last is a very
+general, and in many places profitable, mode of disposal. An entirely
+new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of good well-vitrified
+destructor clinker in connexion with the construction of bacteria beds
+for sewage disposal, and in many districts its value has, by this means,
+become greatly enhanced.</p>
+
+<p>Through defects in the design and management of many of the early
+destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these have, to
+some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute. Although
+some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this respect, that
+is by no means the case with the modern improved type of
+high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great
+prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of a
+refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to the
+inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and worked, will give
+rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the midst of a
+populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect cremation of the refuse
+and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential. <span class="sidenote">Forced draught.</span>
+This is supplied either as air draught delivered from a rapidly
+revolving fan, or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall steam jet or the
+Meldrum blower. With a forced blast less air is required to obtain
+complete combustion than by chimney draught. The forced draught grate
+requires little more than the quantity theoretically necessary, while
+with chimney draught more than double the theoretical amount of air must
+be supplied. With forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is
+attained, and if it is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter
+the furnaces during stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of
+pressure in the cells during clinkering should be maintained just
+sufficient to prevent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The
+forced draught pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The
+efficiency of the combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by
+the "Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the
+proportion of CO<sub>2</sub> passing away in the waste gases; the higher the
+percentage of CO<sub>2</sub> the more efficient the furnace, provided there is no
+formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete
+combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO<sub>2</sub> for refuse burning is about
+20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting secondary air
+over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the air-pressure in the
+ash-pit, an amount approximating to this percentage may be attained in a
+well-designed furnace if properly worked. If the proportion of free
+oxygen (i.e. excess of air) is large, more air is passed through the
+furnace than is required for complete combustion, and the heating of
+this excess is clearly a waste of heat. The position of the econometer
+in testing should be as near the furnace as possible, as there may be
+considerable air leakage through the brickwork of the flues.</p>
+
+<p>The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the
+inlet air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of
+which is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue.</p>
+
+<p>The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and
+gases perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature
+<span class="sidenote">Calorific value.</span>varying from 1250° to 2000° F., and the maintenance of
+such temperatures has very naturally suggested the possibility
+of utilizing this heat-energy for the production of
+steam-power. Experience shows that a considerable amount of
+energy may be derived from steam-raising destructor stations, amply
+justifying a reasonable increase of expenditure on plant and labour.
+The actual calorific value of the refuse material necessarily varies,
+but, as a general average, with suitably designed and properly
+managed plant, an evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound of refuse
+burned is a result which may be readily attained, and affords a basis
+of calculation which engineers may safely adopt in practice. Many
+destructor steam-raising plants, however, give considerably higher
+results, evaporations approaching 2 lb. of water per pound of refuse
+being often met with under favourable conditions.</p>
+
+<p>From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the calorific
+value of unscreened house refuse varies from 1 to 2 lb. of water
+evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion depending
+upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with. Taking the
+evaporative power of coal at 10 lb. of water per pound of coal, this
+gives for domestic house refuse a value of from <b><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">10</span></b> to
+<b><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">5</span></b> that of coal; or, with coal at 20s. per ton, refuse has a
+commercial value of from 2s. to 4s. per ton. In London the quantity of
+house refuse amounts to about 1¼ million tons per annum, which is
+equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be burned
+in furnaces giving an evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound of refuse,
+it would yield a total power annually of about 138 million brake
+horse-power hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 20s. per ton for this
+amount of power even when calculated upon the very low estimate of 2
+lb.<a name="FnAnchor_1" href="#Footnote_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> of coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at over £123,000.
+On the same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town, with, say, a
+population of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5 cwt. per head per
+annum, would afford 112 indicated horse-power per ton burned, and the
+total indicated horse-power hours per annum would be</p>
+
+<table class="math" summary="math">
+ <tr><td>70,000 × 5 cwt.</td>
+ <td rowspan="2">× 112 = 1,960,000 I.H.P. hours annually.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom">20</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the electrical
+horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of 90%)</p>
+
+<table class="math" summary="math">
+ <tr><td>1,960,000 × 90</td>
+ <td rowspan="2">= 1,764,000 E.H.P. hours per annum;</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom">100</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 12em; ">1,764,000 × 746 = 1,315,944,000.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give
+1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power
+lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have</p>
+
+<table class="math" summary="math">
+ <tr><td>1,184,349,600 watt-hours</td>
+ <td rowspan="2">= 39,478,320 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum;</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom">30 watts</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="math" summary="math">
+ <tr><td rowspan="2">that is,</td>
+ <td>39,478,320</td>
+ <td rowspan="2">563 8-c.p. lamp hours per annum per head of population.</td></tr>
+ <tr><td class="denom">70,000 population</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20% on
+three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would be 478
+8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population: i.e. if the
+power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it would supply
+electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of the population
+for about 1<b><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;<span class="below">3</span></b> hours for every night of the year.</p>
+
+<p>In actual practice, when the electric energy is for the purposes of
+lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the
+<span class="sidenote">Difficulties.</span>thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want of
+adequate means of storage either of the thermal or of the electric
+energy. A destructor station usually yields a fairly definite amount of
+thermal energy uniformly throughout the 24 hours, while the consumption
+of electric-lighting current is extremely <span class="pagenum"><a name="page110"></a>[Page 110]</span> irregular, the
+maximum demand being about four times the mean demand. The period during
+which the demand exceeds the mean is comparatively short, and does not
+exceed about 6 hours out of the 24, while for a portion of the time the
+demand may not exceed <b><span class="above">1</span>&#8260;
+<span class="below">20</span></b>th of the maximum. This difficulty, at
+first regarded as somewhat grave, is substantially minimized by the
+provision of ample boiler capacity, or by the introduction of feed
+thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during the
+hours of light load (say 18 out of the 24), so that at the time of
+maximum load the boiler may be filled directly from these vessels, which
+work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler. Further, the
+difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at stations where
+there is a fair day load which practically ceases at about the hour when
+the illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing the demand upon both
+destructor and electric plant throughout the 24 hours. This arises in
+cases where current is consumed during the day for motors, fans, lifts,
+electric tramways, and other like purposes, and, as the employment of
+electric energy for these services is rapidly becoming general, no
+difficulty need be anticipated in the successful working of combined
+destructor and electric plants where these conditions prevail. The more
+uniform the electrical demand becomes, the more fully may the power from
+a destructor station be utilized.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse
+destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with various
+other classes of power-using undertakings, including tramways,
+water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and clinker-crushing
+works and others; and the increasingly large sums which are being yearly
+expended in combined undertakings of this character is perhaps the
+strongest evidence of the practical value of such combinations where
+these several classes of work must be carried on.</p>
+
+<p>For further information on the subject, reference should be made to
+William H. Maxwell, <i>Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with an
+exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants</i> (London, 1899), with a
+special <i>Supplement</i> embodying later results (London, 1905).</p>
+
+<p>See also the <i>Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal
+and County Engineers</i>, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214
+and xxv. p. 138; also the <i>Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
+Engineers</i>, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413, cxxxviii.
+p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp. 369 and 498,
+cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300.</p>
+<div class="author">(<span class="sc">W. H. Ma.</span>)</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" href="#FnAnchor_1">[1]</a> With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4 lb. of coal
+per brake horse-power per hour is a very usual performance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><b>DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN,</b> <span class="sc">3rd
+Baron</span> (1835-1895), English poet, eldest son of George Fleming
+Leicester (afterwards Warren), 2nd Baron De Tabley, was born on
+the 26th of April 1835. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church,
+Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with second classes in
+classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn of 1858
+he went to Turkey as unpaid attaché to Lord Stratford de Redcliffe,
+and two years later was called to the bar. He became an officer in
+the Cheshire Yeomanry, and unsuccessfully contested Mid-Cheshire
+in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in 1871
+he removed to London, where he became a close friend of
+Tennyson for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the
+title in 1887 he was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a
+recluse. It was not till 1892 that he returned to London life,
+and enjoyed a sort of renaissance of reputation and friendship.
+During the later years of his life Lord De Tabley made many new
+friends, besides reopening old associations, and he almost seemed
+to be gathering around him a small literary company when his
+health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde,
+in his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire.
+Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a
+poet, De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at
+one time an authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels;
+published <i>A Guide to the Study of Book Plates</i> (1880); and the
+fruit of his careful researches in botany was printed posthumously
+in his elaborate <i>Flora of Cheshire</i> (1899). Poetry, however, was
+his first and last passion, and to that he devoted the best energies
+of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards poetry came from
+his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a close companionship
+during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as Tennyson
+lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees.
+Fortescue was killed by falling from the mast of Lord Drogheda's
+yacht in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De
+Tabley into deep depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley
+issued four little volumes of pseudonymous verse (by G. F.
+Preston), in the production of which he had been greatly stimulated
+by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he assumed a
+pseudonym&mdash;his <i>Praeterita</i> (1863) bearing the name of William
+Lancaster. In the next year he published <i>Eclogues and Monodramas</i>,
+followed in 1865 by <i>Studies in Verse</i>. These volumes all
+displayed technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was
+not till the publication of <i>Philoctetes</i> in 1866 that De Tabley met
+with any wide recognition. <i>Philoctetes</i> bore the initials "M.A.,"
+which, to the author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning
+Matthew Arnold. He at once disclosed his identity, and received
+the congratulations of his friends, among whom were Tennyson,
+Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published <i>Orestes</i>, in 1870
+<i>Rehearsals</i> and in 1873 <i>Searching the Net</i>. These last two
+bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat
+disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876
+<i>The Soldier of Fortune</i>, a drama on which he had bestowed much
+careful labour, proved a complete failure, he retired altogether
+from the literary arena. It was not until 1893 that he was
+persuaded to return, and the immediate success in that year of
+his <i>Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical</i>, encouraged him to publish a
+second series in 1895, the year of his death. The genuine interest
+with which these volumes were welcomed did much to lighten
+the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life. His
+posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics
+of De Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style,
+derived from close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and
+colour. His passion for detail was both a strength and a weakness:
+it lent a loving fidelity to his description of natural objects,
+but it sometimes involved him in a loss of simple effect from
+over-elaboration of treatment. He was always a student of the
+classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration directly from them.
+He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a brother poet
+well said, "still climbed the clear cold altitudes of song." His
+ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally ice-bound
+at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and bright,
+vivid outlines.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his <i>Critical Kit-Kats</i> (1896).</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(A. Wa.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><b>DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE ÉDOUARD</b> (1848-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>),
+French painter, was born in Paris on the 5th of October 1848.
+After working as a pupil of Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the
+Salon of 1867, a picture representing "A Corner of Meissonier's
+Studio." Military life was from the first a principal attraction
+to the young painter, and he gained his reputation by depicting
+the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail truthfully rendered.
+He exhibited "A Halt" (1868); "Soldiers at rest, during the
+Man&oelig;uvres at the Camp of Saint Maur" (1869); "Engagement
+between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814" (1870). The
+war of 1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which
+gained him repeated successes. Among his more important
+pictures may be named "The Conquerors" (1872); "The
+Retreat" (1873); "The Charge of the 9th Regiment of Cuirassiers
+in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870" (1874); "The
+Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A
+Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877);
+"Bonaparte in Egypt" (1878); the "Inauguration of the New
+Opera House"&mdash;a water-colour; the "Defence of Champigny
+by Faron's Division" (1879). He also worked with Alphonse de
+Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In 1884 he exhibited
+at the Salon the "Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic study,
+and "The Dream" (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille
+recorded other events in the military history of his country:
+the "Sortie of the Garrison of Huningue" (now in the Luxemburg),
+the "Vincendon Brigade," and "Bizerte," reminiscences
+of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit to Russia, Detaille
+exhibited "The Cossacks of the Ataman" and "The Hereditary
+Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other
+important works are: "Victims to Duty," "The Prince of
+Wales and the Duke of Connaught" and "Pasteur's Funeral."
+In his picture of "Châlons, 9th October 1896," exhibited in the
+Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the emperor and empress of
+Russia at a review, with M. Félix Faure. Detaille became a
+member of the French Institute in 1898.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Marius Vachon, <i>Detaille</i> (Paris, 1898); Frédéric Masson,
+<i>Édouard Detaille and his work</i> (Paris and London, 1891); J. Claretie,
+<i>Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains</i> (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy,
+<i>Les Jeunes peintres militaires</i> (Paris, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page111"></a>[Page 111]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>DETAINER</b> (from <i>detain</i>, Lat. <i>detinere</i>), in law, the act of
+keeping a person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a
+person's goods, or other real or personal property. A writ of
+detainer was a form for the beginning of a personal action
+against a person already lodged within the walls of a prison;
+it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><b>DETERMINANT,</b> in mathematics, a function which presents
+itself in the solution of a system of simple equations.</p>
+
+<p>1. Considering the equations</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>ax</td><td>+</td><td>by</td><td>+</td><td>cz</td><td>=</td><td>d,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;x</td><td>+</td><td>b&prime;y</td><td>+</td><td>c&prime;z</td><td>=</td><td>d&prime;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;x</td><td>+</td><td>b&Prime;y</td><td>+</td><td>c&Prime;z</td><td>=</td><td>d&Prime;,</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross
+multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in
+such a manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient
+of y becomes = 0, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = 0;
+the factors in question are b&prime;c&Prime; - b&Prime;c&prime;, b&Prime;c - bc&Prime;, bc&prime; - b&prime;c (values
+which, as at once seen, have the desired property); we thus
+obtain an equation which contains on the left-hand side only a
+multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a constant term; the
+coefficient of x has the value</p>
+
+<p class="center">a(b&prime;c&Prime; - b&Prime;c&prime;) + a&prime;(b&Prime;c - bc&Prime;) + a&Prime;(bc&prime; - b&prime;c),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and this function, represented in the form</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 3², it is
+called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed that the
+resulting equation is</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;x =&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>d,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td></td>
+ <td>d&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td></td>
+ <td>d&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function
+with d, d&prime;, d&Prime; in place of a, a&prime;, a&Prime; respectively, and is of course also
+a determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c&Prime; - b&Prime;c&prime;, b&Prime;c - bc&Prime;,
+bc&prime; - b&prime;c used in the process are themselves the determinants of
+the second order</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>b,</td><td>c</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation
+of the determinants of the orders 1, 2, 3, 4, &amp;c., each from the
+preceding one, viz. we have</p>
+
+<table class="math0l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1">&nbsp;</td><td>a</td><td class="rightb1">&nbsp;</td><td style="padding-left: 7em; ">= a,</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<table class="math0l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td style="padding-left: 5em; ">= a</td><td class="leftb1">&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;</td><td class="rightb1">&nbsp;</td>
+ <td style="padding-left: 6em; ">- a&prime;</td><td class="leftb1">&nbsp;</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1">&nbsp;</td><td>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<table class="math0l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td style="padding-left: 2em; ">= a&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td style="padding-left: 2em; ">+ a&prime;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td style="padding-left: 2em; ">+ a&Prime;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b,</td><td>c</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p><br /></p>
+
+<table class="math0l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;= a&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;- a&prime;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;+ a&Prime;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;&prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;- a&prime;&Prime;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>c&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>d&prime;&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>c&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>d&prime;&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>b&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>c&prime;&Prime;,</td><td>d&prime;&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd order, but
+alternately + and - for a determinant of an even order.</p>
+
+<p>2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3...n products which
+can be formed with n elements out of n² elements arranged in the form of
+a square, no two of the n elements being in the same line or in the same
+column, and each such product having the coefficient ± unity.</p>
+
+<p>The products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible
+manner the columns (or the lines) of the determinant, and then taking
+for the factors the n elements in the dexter diagonal. And we thence
+derive the rule for the signs, viz. considering the primitive
+arrangement of the columns as positive, then an arrangement obtained
+therefrom by a single interchange (inversion, or derangement) of two
+columns is regarded as negative; and so in general an arrangement is
+positive or negative according as it is derived from the primitive
+arrangement by an even or an odd number of interchanges. [This implies
+the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive
+arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even number of
+interchanges,&mdash;a theorem the verification of which may be easily
+obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular case of the general
+one), an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number
+of interchanges.] And this being so, each product has the sign belonging
+to the corresponding arrangement of the columns; in particular, a
+determinant contains with the sign + the product of the elements in its
+dexter diagonal. It is to be observed that the rule gives as many
+positive as negative arrangements, the number of each being = ½ 1.2...n.</p>
+
+<p>The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving
+to the columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers
+1, 2, 3 ... n, to obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement
+we take, as often as a lower number succeeds a higher one, the
+sign -, and, compounding together all these minus signs, obtain
+the proper sign, + or - as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123,
+231, 312 are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the
+developed expression of the foregoing determinant of the third
+order is</p>
+
+<p class="center">= ab&prime;c&Prime; - ab&Prime;c&prime; + a&prime;b&Prime;c - a&prime;bc&Prime; <span class="correction" title="originally minus sign">+</span> a&Prime;bc&prime; - a&Prime;b&prime;c.</p>
+
+<p>3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function<a name="FnAnchor_2" href="#Footnote_2"><sup>[1]</sup></a>
+of the elements of each column thereof, and also a linear function
+of the elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the determinant
+retains the same value, only its sign being altered,
+when any two columns are interchanged, or when any two
+lines are interchanged; more generally, when the columns are
+permuted in any manner, or when the lines are permuted in
+any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with
+the sign + or - according as the new arrangement (considered
+as derived from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative
+according to the foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that,
+if two columns are identical, or if two lines are identical, the
+value of the determinant is = 0. It may be added, that if the
+lines are converted into columns, and the columns into lines, in
+such a way as to leave the dexter diagonal unaltered, the value
+of the determinant is unaltered; the determinant is in this case
+said to be <i>transposed</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of
+the n² elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or
+say, for shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only
+the sign is altered when any two columns are interchanged;
+these properties completely determine the function, except as to
+a common factor which may multiply all the terms. If, to get
+rid of this arbitrary common factor, we assume that the product
+of the elements in the dexter diagonal has the coefficient +1, we
+have a complete definition of the determinant, and it is interesting
+to show how from these properties, assumed for the definition
+of the determinant, it at once appears that the determinant is a
+function serving for the solution of a system of linear equations.
+Observe that the properties show at once that if any column is
+= 0 (that is, if the elements in the column are each = 0), then
+the determinant is = 0; and further, that if any two columns
+are identical, then the determinant is = 0.</p>
+
+<p>5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the
+beginning of this article, consider the determinant</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>ax</td><td>+</td><td>by</td><td>+</td><td>cz</td><td>-</td><td>d,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;x</td><td>+</td><td>b&prime;y</td><td>+</td><td>c&prime;z</td><td>-</td><td>d&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;x</td><td>+</td><td>b&Prime;y</td><td>+</td><td>c&Prime;z</td><td>-</td><td>d&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">it appears that this is</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>= x</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;+ y&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;+ z&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>c,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;-&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>d,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>b&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">viz. the second and third terms each vanishing, it is</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>= x</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;-&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>d,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112"></a>[Page 112]</span> original determinant is = 0, and therefore the determinant
+itself is = 0; that is, the linear equations give</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>x</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;-&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>d,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;= 0;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">which is the result obtained above.</p>
+
+<p>We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there
+is a more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the
+new equation</p>
+
+<p class="center">&alpha;x + &beta;y + &gamma;z = &delta;;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have</p>
+
+<table class="math15l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&alpha;,</td><td>&beta;,</td><td>&gamma;,</td><td>&delta;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;= 0;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">or, as this may be written,</p>
+
+<table class="math15l" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&alpha;,</td><td>&beta;,</td><td>&gamma;,</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;- &delta;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;= 0;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td>
+ <td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">which, considering &delta; as standing herein for its value
+&alpha;x + &beta;y + &gamma;z, is a consequence of the original
+equations only: we have thus an expression for &alpha;x + &beta;y +
+&gamma;z, an arbitrary linear function of the unknown quantities x, y,
+z; and by comparing the coefficients of &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma; on the
+two sides respectively, we have the values of x, y, z; in fact, these
+quantities, each multiplied by</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">are in the first instance obtained in the forms</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>1</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="4">&nbsp;</td><td>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">but these are</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>=&nbsp;</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;-&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>c,</td><td>d,</td><td>a</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>d,</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;,</td><td>a&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&prime;,</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;,</td><td>a&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>d&Prime;,</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">or, what is the same thing,</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>=&nbsp;</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>c,</td><td>a,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>d</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&prime;,</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&Prime;,</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">respectively.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order.</i>&mdash;The
+theorem is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition
+of a determinant. It is most simply expressed thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="botb1">(&alpha;, &alpha;&prime;, &alpha;&Prime;),</td>
+ <td class="botb1">(&beta;, &beta;&prime;, &beta;&Prime;),</td>
+ <td class="botb1">(&gamma;, &gamma;&prime;, &gamma;&Prime;)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>(a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td>)</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;=&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;.&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>&alpha;,</td><td>&beta;,</td><td>&gamma;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>(a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>)</td>
+ <td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&alpha;&prime;,</td><td>&beta;&prime;,</td><td>&gamma;&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>(a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>)</td>
+ <td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td style="text-align: center; ">"</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&alpha;&Prime;,</td><td>&beta;&Prime;,</td><td>&gamma;&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant,
+the terms of the first line being (a, b, c)(&alpha;, &alpha;&prime;, &alpha;&Prime;),
+that is, a&alpha; + b&alpha;&prime; + c&alpha;&Prime;, (a, b, c)(&beta;, &beta;&prime;, &beta;&Prime;),
+that is, a&beta; + b&beta;&prime; + c&beta;&Prime;, (a, b, c)(&gamma;, &gamma;&prime;, &gamma;&Prime;),
+that is a&gamma; + b&gamma;&prime; + c&gamma;&Prime;; and similarly the terms in the second and
+third lines are the life functions with (a&prime;, b&prime;, c&prime;) and (a&Prime;, b&Prime;, c&Prime;)
+respectively.</p>
+
+<p>There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns; the
+result would hold good if on the left-hand side we had written (&alpha;,
+&beta;, &gamma;), (&alpha;&prime;, &beta;&prime;, &gamma;&prime;),
+(&alpha;&Prime;, &beta;&Prime;, &gamma;&Prime;), or what is the same
+thing, if on the right-hand side we had transposed the second
+determinant; and either of these changes would, it might be thought,
+increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason which need not be
+explained,<a name="FnAnchor_3" href="#Footnote_3"><sup>[2]</sup></a> the form actually adopted is the preferable one.</p>
+
+<p>To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant
+on the left-hand side, <i>qua</i> linear function of its columns, may be
+broken up into a sum of (3³ =) 27 determinants, each of which is
+either of some such form as</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>= &alpha;&beta;&gamma;&prime;&nbsp;</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">where the term &alpha;&beta;&gamma;' is not a term of the &alpha;&beta;&gamma;-determinant, and its
+coefficient (as a determinant with two identical columns) vanishes;
+or else it is of a form such as</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>= &alpha;&beta;&prime;&gamma;&Prime;&nbsp;</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the
+abc-determinant last written down; the sum of all other factors
+± &alpha;&beta;&prime;&gamma;&Prime; is the &alpha;&beta;&gamma;-determinant of the formula; and the final
+result then is, that the determinant on the left-hand side is equal
+to the product on the right-hand side of the formula.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary Determinants.</i>&mdash;Consider,
+for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth
+order, 5 = 2 + 3, and let the top two lines be</p>
+
+<table class="math0l" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; " summary="math">
+<tr><td>a,</td><td>b,</td><td>c,</td><td>d,</td><td>e</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;,</td><td>c&prime;,</td><td>d&prime;,</td><td>e&prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">then, if we consider how these elements enter into the determinant, it
+is at once seen that they enter only through the determinants of the
+second order</p>
+
+<table class="math0l" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; " summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">&amp;c., which can be formed by selecting any two columns at pleasure.
+Moreover, representing the remaining three lines by</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td>a&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>c&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant
+formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant of the
+third order formed with the complementary three columns of the second
+set; and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a
+sum of all the products of the form</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>c&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&Prime;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;&prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>c&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>d&Prime;&Prime;,</td><td>e&Prime;&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">the sign ± being in each case such that the sign of the term
+± ab&prime;c&Prime;d&prime;&Prime;e&Prime;&Prime; obtained from the diagonal elements of the component
+determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the
+determinant of the fifth order; for the product written down
+the sign is obviously +.</p>
+
+<p>Observe that for a determinant of the n-th order, taking the
+decomposition to be 1&nbsp;+&nbsp;(n&nbsp;-&nbsp;1), we fall back upon the equations
+given at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a
+determinant.</p>
+
+<table class="math0l" style="margin-left: 1em; " summary="math">
+<tr><td>8. Any determinant&nbsp;</td><td class="leftb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>b</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;formed out of the elements of the original determinant, by selecting the</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>a&prime;,</td><td>b&prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind" style="margin-top: 0; ">lines and columns at
+pleasure, is termed a <i>minor</i> of the original determinant; and
+when the number of lines and columns, or order of the determinant,
+is n-1, then such determinant is called a <i>first minor</i>; the
+number of the first minors is = n², the first minors, in fact, corresponding
+to the several elements of the determinant&mdash;that is,
+the coefficient therein of any term whatever is the corresponding
+first minor. The first minors, each divided by the determinant
+itself, form a system of elements <i>inverse</i> to the elements of the
+determinant.</p>
+
+<p>A determinant is <i>symmetrical</i> when every two elements
+symmetrically situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal
+to each other; if they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum
+of the two elements be = 0), this relation not extending to the
+diagonal elements themselves, which remain arbitrary, then the
+determinant is <i>skew</i>; but if the relation does extend to the
+diagonal terms (that is, if these are each = 0), then the determinant
+is <i>skew symmetrical</i>; thus the determinants</p>
+
+<table class="mathc" style="text-align: right; " summary="math">
+<tr><td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>h,</td><td>g</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>a,</td><td>&nu;,</td><td>-&mu;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>;&nbsp;</td>
+ <td class="leftb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td><td>0,</td><td>&nu;,</td><td>-&mu;</td><td class="rightb1" rowspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>h,</td><td>b,</td><td>f</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>-&nu;,</td><td>b,</td><td>&lambda;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>-&nu;,</td><td>0,</td><td>&lambda;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>g,</td><td>f,</td><td>c</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&mu;,</td><td>-&lambda;,</td><td>c</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+ <td>&mu;,</td><td>-&lambda;,</td><td>0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical:
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113"></a>[Page 113]</span>
+The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments,
+and applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of
+mathematics. For further developments of the theory of determinants
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algebraic Forms</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(<span class="sc">A. Ca.</span>)</div>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>9. <i>History.</i>&mdash;These functions were originally known as "resultants," a
+name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but now replaced by the
+title "determinants," a name first applied to certain forms of them by
+Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the theory of determinants is to be
+found in the writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693), who
+incidentally discovered certain properties when reducing the eliminant
+of a system of linear equations. Gabriel Cramer, in a note to his
+<i>Analyse des lignes courbes algébriques</i> (1750), gave the rule which
+establishes the sign of a product as <i>plus</i> or <i>minus</i> according as the
+number of displacements from the typical form has been even or odd.
+Determinants were also employed by Étienne Bezout in 1764, but the first
+connected account of these functions was published in 1772 by Charles
+Auguste Vandermonde. Laplace developed a theorem of Vandermonde for the
+expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph Louis Lagrange, in his
+memoir on <i>Pyramids</i>, used determinants of the third order, and proved
+that the square of a determinant was also a determinant. Although he
+obtained results now identified with determinants, Lagrange did not
+discuss these functions systematically. In 1801 Gauss published his
+<i>Disquisitiones arithmeticae</i>, which, although written in an obscure
+form, gave a new impetus to investigations on this and kindred subjects.
+To Gauss is due the establishment of the important theorem, that the
+product of two determinants both of the second and third orders is a
+determinant. The formulation of the general theory is due to Augustin
+Louis Cauchy, whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries
+made in the following decades by Hoëné-Wronski and J. Binet in France,
+Carl Gustav Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur
+Cayley in England. Jacobi's researches were published in <i>Crelle's
+Journal</i> (1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and
+enriched by new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacobi
+is indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The
+far-reaching discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the
+most important developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new fields
+were opened up, and have been diligently explored by many
+mathematicians. Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley;
+axisymmetric-determinants by Jacobi, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester and O.
+Hesse, and centro-symmetric determinants by W. R. F. Scott and G.
+Zehfuss. Continuants have been discussed by Sylvester; alternants by
+Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H. Nagelbach and G. Garbieri; circulants by E.
+Catalan, W. Spottiswoode and J. W. L. Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B.
+Christoffel and G. Frobenius. Determinants composed of binomial
+coefficients have been studied by V. von Zeipel; the expression of
+definite integrals as determinants by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the
+expression of continued fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V.
+Nachreiner, S. Günther and E. Fürstenau. (See T. Muir, <i>Theory of
+Determinants</i>, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" href="#FnAnchor_2">[1]</a> The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest
+sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is
+that the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a&prime;, a&Prime;, ... of
+any column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa + A&prime;a&prime; + A&Prime;a&Prime; +
+... without any term independent of a, a&prime;, a&Prime; ...</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" href="#FnAnchor_3">[2]</a> The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for
+the multiplication of two matrices.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DETERMINISM</b> (Lat. <i>determinare</i>, to prescribe or limit), in ethics, the
+name given to the theory that all moral choice, so called, is the
+determined or necessary result of psychological and other conditions. It
+is opposed to the various doctrines of Free-Will, known as voluntarism,
+libertarianism, indeterminism, and is from the ethical standpoint more
+or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism. There are various degrees
+of determinism. It may be held that every action is causally connected
+not only externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also
+internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if we could
+know exactly all these conditions, we should be able to forecast with
+mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue. In this
+theory the agent cannot be held responsible for his action in any sense.
+It is the extreme antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the
+doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative
+courses (the <i>liberum arbitrium indifferentiae</i>). Since, however, the
+evidence of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the
+individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself as
+being free within certain limitations to make his own choice of
+alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that there may be
+in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes
+solely an element of freedom. This view is corroborated by the
+phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent feels that he ought to, and
+could, have chosen a different course of action. These two kinds of
+determinism are sometimes distinguished as "hard" and "soft"
+determinism. The controversy between determinism and libertarianism
+hinges largely on the significance of the word "motive"; indeed in no
+other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by
+purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How far, and in
+what sense, can action which is determined by motives be said to be
+free? For a long time the advocates of free-will, in their eagerness to
+preserve moral responsibility, went so far as to deny all motives as
+influencing moral action. Such a contention, however, clearly defeats
+its own object by reducing all action to chance. On the other hand, the
+scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the
+distinction between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives,
+character and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product
+of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does it
+become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in his motives
+and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards outward surroundings,
+in his appetites and aversions, inherited tendency and environment have
+been found to play a very large part; indeed many thinkers hold that the
+whole of a man's development, mental as well as physical, is determined
+by external conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed,
+but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament assumes
+throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been argued by
+theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge, coupled with
+that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily implies that all
+human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world. Such an
+inference is, however, clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of
+sin, repentance and the atonement, as also with that of eternal reward
+and punishment, which postulates a real measure of human responsibility.</p>
+
+<p>For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Will</a>,
+<a href="#artlinks">Predestination</a></span> (for the theological problems), <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DETINUE</b> (O. Fr. <i>detenue</i>, from <i>detenir</i>, to hold back), in law, an
+action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property in goods
+seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and refuses to
+redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue, the
+judgment is that he recover the chattel or, if it cannot be had, its
+value, which is assessed by the judge and jury, and also certain damages
+for detaining the same. An order for the restitution of the specific
+goods may be enforced by a special writ of execution, called a writ of
+delivery. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contract</a>; <a href="#artlinks">Trover</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DETMOLD,</b> a town of Germany, capital of the principality
+of Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the
+Teutoburger Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Altenbeken
+line of the Prussian state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164.
+The residential château of the princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550),
+in the Renaissance style, is an imposing building, lying with its
+pretty gardens nearly in the centre of the town; whilst at
+the entrance to the large park on the south is the New Palace
+(1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house. Detmold
+possesses a natural history <span class="correction" title="added the comma">museum,</span> theatre, high school, library,
+the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876) was
+born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe
+(1801-1836), also a native, died. The leading industries are linen-weaving,
+tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of
+marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town
+is the Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's colossal statue of
+Hermann or Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold
+(Thiatmelli) was in 783 the scene of a conflict between the
+Saxons and the troops of Charlemagne.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DETROIT,</b> the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite Windsor, Canada, about 4 m.
+W. from the outlet of Lake St Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop.
+(1880) 116,340; (1890) 205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were
+foreign-born and 4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the
+foreign-born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German Poles,
+25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians, 6347 were
+English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by the Michigan Central,
+the Lake Shore &amp; Michigan Southern, the Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the
+Père Marquette, the Detroit &amp; Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo
+&amp; Ironton and the Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2
+m. to 3 m., and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page114"></a>[Page 114]</span> the other 6 m. from the centre of the city,
+connect the factory districts with the main railway lines. Trains are
+ferried across the river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to
+Cleveland, Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important
+places between, and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also the S.
+terminus for several lines to more remote lake ports, and electric lines
+extend from here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac, Jackson, Toledo and
+Grand Rapids.
+</p>
+
+<p>The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase from 29 sq.
+m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in proportion to its
+population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of the
+United States. Baltimore, for example, had in 1904 nearly 70% more
+inhabitants (estimated), while its area at that time was a little less
+and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter less than that of Detroit. The ground
+within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is
+quite level, but rises gradually from the river bank, which is only a
+few feet in height. The Detroit river, along which the city extends for
+about 10 m., is here &frac12; m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its
+current is quite rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth
+it has a width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of
+islands, which during the summer are popular resorts. The city has a 3
+m. frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the Detroit, with a 16 ft.
+channel. Before the fire by which the city was destroyed in 1805, the
+streets were only 12 ft. wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty. But
+when the rebuilding began, several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide
+were&mdash;through the influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one
+of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the
+city of Washington&mdash;made to radiate from two central points. From a half
+circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues 120 ft. and 200 ft.
+wide. About ¼ m. toward the river from this was established another
+focal point called the Campus Martius, 600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at
+which commence radiating or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide.
+Running north from the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand
+Circus is Woodward Avenue, 120 ft. wide, dividing the present city, as
+it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the river is
+Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these avenues is the
+principal retail street along its lower portion, and is a residence
+avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the principal wholesale street
+at the lower end, and a fine residence avenue E. of this. Many of the
+other residence streets are 80 ft. wide. The setting of shade trees was
+early encouraged, and large elms and maples abound. The intersections of
+the diagonal streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as
+well as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly
+with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much used, and
+kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other American cities of
+equal size are the streets and avenues kept so clean. The Grand
+Boulevard, 150 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 12 m. in length, has been
+constructed around the city except along the river front. A very large
+proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit own their homes: there are no
+large congested tenement-house districts; and many streets in various
+parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often
+having a garden plot in front.
+</p>
+
+<p>Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871), overlooking
+the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in three storeys; the
+flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of 200 ft. On the
+four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures, each
+14 ft. in height, to represent Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and
+on the same level with these is a clock weighing 7670 lb&mdash;one of the
+largest in the world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and
+Sailors' monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892)
+and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four corners in each of three
+sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures
+representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry and Artillery,
+also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History; the figure by which the
+monument is surmounted was designed to symbolize Michigan. A larger and
+more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county
+court house, facing Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a
+gilded dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely
+decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest architectural
+beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine Byzantine interior, St
+John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue Baptist and the First
+Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue, and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of
+Mary, both Roman Catholic. The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson
+Avenue, contains some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese
+collections, the Scripps' collection of old masters, other valuable
+paintings, and a small library; free lectures on art are given here
+through the winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908,
+including one of the best collections of state and town histories in the
+country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and relating
+principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the public. The
+city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The principal ones are the
+Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monument on the Campus Martius, and a
+statue of Mayor Pingree in West Grand Circus Park.
+</p>
+
+<p>The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about 1200
+acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in the river
+at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having an area of more
+than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of 4&frac12; acres, with its
+trees, flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant resting place in the
+busiest quarter of the city. Six miles farther out on Woodward Avenue is
+Palmer Park of about 140 acres, given to the city in 1894 and named in
+honour of the donor. Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the
+city, and there are various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are
+Elmwood (Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining
+in the E. part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in the N.
+part of the city.</p>
+
+<p><i>Charity and Education.</i>&mdash;Among the charitable institutions are the
+general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's); the Detroit Emergency,
+the Children's Free and the United States Marine hospitals; St Luke's
+hospital, church home, and orphanage; the House of Providence (a
+maternity hospital and infant asylum); the Woman's hospital and
+foundling's home; the Home for convalescent children, &amp;c. In 1894
+the mayor, Hazen Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of
+preparing, through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant
+land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other
+vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor
+commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the unemployed,
+and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan served an
+admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression, and was
+copied in other cities; it was abandoned when, with the renewal of
+industrial activity, the necessity for it ceased. The leading penal
+institution of the city is the Detroit House of Correction, noted for
+its efficient reformatory work; the inmates are employed ten hours a
+day, chiefly in making furniture. The house of correction pays the city
+a profit of $35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in
+addition to those of the general public school system, include several
+parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and commercial colleges;
+Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877; the Detroit College of
+Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan College of Medicine and Surgery,
+opened in 1888; the Detroit College of law, founded in 1891, and a city
+normal school.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and
+shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous traffic
+between the upper and lower lakes passes through the Detroit river. In
+1907 the number of vessels recorded was 34,149, with registered tonnage
+of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons of freight, valued at
+$697,311,302. This includes vessels which delivered part or all of their
+cargo at Detroit. The largest item in the freights is iron ore on
+vessels bound down. The next is coal on vessels up bound. Grain and
+lumber are the next largest items. Detroit is a port of entry, and its
+foreign commerce, chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The
+city's exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>[Page 115]</span> 1909. The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,100,659 in
+1909.</p>
+
+<p>As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total number of
+manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with a product for the
+year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there were 2847 establishments with
+a product for the year valued at $100,892,838; or an increase of 30.4%
+in the decade. In 1900 the establishments under the factory system,
+omitting the hand trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and
+produced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments under the
+factory system numbered 1363 and the product had increased 45.7% to
+$128,761,658. In the district subsequently annexed the product in 1904
+was about $12,000,000, making a total of $140,000,000. The output for
+1906 was estimated at $180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905
+visited 1721 factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected
+1790 factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in the
+country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the value of its
+product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In 1906 the city had
+twenty automobile factories, with an output of 11,000 cars, valued at
+$12,000,000. Detroit is probably the largest manufacturer in the country
+of freight cars, stoves, pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash
+and similar alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships,
+paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods, furniture, boots
+and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt liquors and fur goods; and
+slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry.</p>
+
+<p>The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought into one
+association the members of three former bodies, making a compact
+organization with civic as well as commercial aims. The board has
+brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of
+the city and many of the professional men. Their united efforts have
+brought many new industries to the city, have improved industrial
+conditions, and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal
+administration. Other business organizations are the Board of Trade,
+devoted to the grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers'
+Association, which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between
+employer and employed, the Builders' &amp; Traders' Exchange, and the
+Credit Men's Association.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration.</i>&mdash;Although the city received its first charter in 1806,
+and another in 1815, the real power rested in the hands of the governor
+and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters of 1824 and 1827
+centred the government in a council and made the list of elective
+officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised in 1857 and again in 1859
+and the present charter dates from 1883. Under this charter only three
+administrative officers are elected,&mdash;the mayor, the city clerk and the
+city treasurer,&mdash;elections being biennial. The administration of the
+city departments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one
+commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and boulevards,
+police and public works departments. The four members of the health
+board are nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate.
+The school board is an independent body, consisting of one elected
+member from each ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has
+the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common
+council. In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other
+principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor and confirmed
+by the council, are controller, corporation counsel, board of three
+assessors, fire commission (four members), public lighting commission
+(six members), water commission (five members), poor commission (four
+members), and inspectors of the house of correction (four in number).
+The members of the public library commission, six in number, are elected
+by the board of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next
+fiscal year are furnished by the different departments to the controller
+in February. He transmits them to the common council with his
+recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to consider them.
+It may reduce or increase the amounts asked, and may add new items. The
+budget then goes to the board of estimates, which has a month for its
+consideration. This body consists of two members elected from each ward
+and five elected at large. The mayor and heads of departments are
+advisory members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the board
+of estimates can hold no other office and they have no appointing power,
+the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political
+motives and influences. They may reduce or cut out any estimates
+submitted, but cannot increase any or add new ones. No bonds can be
+issued without the assent of the board of estimates. The budget is
+apportioned among twelve committees which have almost invariably given
+close and conscientious examination to the actual needs of the
+departments. A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing
+the service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations.
+Prudent management under this system has placed the city in the highest
+rank financially. Its debt limit is 2% on the assessed valuation, and
+even that low maximum is not often reached. The debt in 1907 was only
+about $5,500,000, a smaller <i>per capita</i> debt than that of any other
+city of over 100,000 inhabitants in the country; the assessed valuation
+was $330,000,000; the city tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of
+assessed valuation. Both the council and the estimators are hampered in
+their work by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries
+and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the
+legislature, which has also determined many affairs of a purely
+administrative character.</p>
+
+<p>Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership. On account
+of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private company, the city
+bought the water-works as long ago as 1836. The works have been twice
+moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the
+city. In 1907 there were six engines in the works with a pumping
+capacity of 152,000,000 gallons daily. The daily average of water used
+during the preceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water is pumped
+from Lake St Clair and is of exceptional purity. The city began its own
+public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the river near
+the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public buildings, but
+makes no provision for commercial business. The lighting is excellent,
+and the cost is probably less than could be obtained from a private
+company. The street lighting is done partly from pole and arm lights,
+but largely from steel towers from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with
+strong reflected lights at the top. The city also owns two portable
+asphalt plants, and thus makes a saving in the cost of street repairing
+and resurfacing. With a view of effecting the reduction of street car
+fares to three cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for
+purchasing or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme
+Court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as the
+constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal
+improvement, the state could not empower a municipality to do so.
+Certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question of
+municipal ownership of the railways.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet de la Mothe
+Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the importance of the place
+as a strategic point for determining the control of the fur trade and
+the possession of the North-west and had received assistance from the
+French government soon after Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the
+secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged
+the English government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac
+arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at once built
+a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now Jefferson Avenue
+and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and named it Fort Pontchartrain
+in honour of the French colonial minister. Indians at once came to the
+place in large numbers, but they soon complained of the high price of
+French goods; there was serious contention between Cadillac and the
+French Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had been
+granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the Jesuits. After
+the several parties had begun to complain to the home government the
+monopoly of the fur trade was transferred to Cadillac and he was
+exhorted to cease quarrelling with the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page116"></a>[Page 116]</span> Jesuits. Although the
+inhabitants then increased to 200 or more, dissatisfaction with the
+paternal rule of the founder increased until 1710, when he was made
+governor of Louisiana. The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn;
+by the second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and
+for several years following the population was greatly reduced and the
+post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the Mississippi
+country was opened, the population once more increased, and again in
+1748, when the settlement of the Ohio Valley began, the governor-general
+of Canada offered special inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit,
+with the result that the population was soon more than 1000 and the
+cultivation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however, the
+place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers and an
+English element was introduced into the population which up to this time
+had been almost exclusively French. Three years later, during the
+conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly escaped capture and then
+suffered from a siege lasting from the 9th of May until the 12th of
+October. Under English rule it continued from this time on as a military
+post with its population usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new
+fort was built and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of
+Independence the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions
+to ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which
+concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United States in
+1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the 11th of January
+1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794. It was then named Fort
+Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated as a town and received its
+present name. In 1805 all except one or two buildings were destroyed by
+fire. General William Hull (1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American
+Independence, governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander
+of the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to hear
+immediately of the declaration of war between the United States and
+Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped by Lake Erie. He
+made from Detroit on the 12th of July an awkward and futile advance into
+Canada, which, if more vigorous, might have resulted in the capture of
+Malden and the establishment of American troops in Canada, and then
+retired to his fortifications. On the 16th of August 1812, without any
+resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the city
+to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards attempted to
+justify himself by criticism of the War Department in general and in
+particular of General Henry Dearborn's armistice with Prevost, which had
+not included in its terms Hull, whom Dearborn had been sent out to
+reinforce.<a name="FnAnchor_4" href="#Footnote_4"><sup>[1]</sup></a> After Perry's victory on the 14th of September on Lake
+Erie, Detroit on the 29th of September was again occupied by the forces
+of the United States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since
+then its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of
+Michigan from 1805 to 1847.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Silas Farmer, <i>The History of Detroit and Michigan</i>
+(Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and "Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P.
+Powell's <i>Historic Towns of the Western States</i> (New York and London,
+1901); D. F. Wilcox, "Municipal Government in Michigan and
+Ohio," in <i>Columbia University Studies</i> (New York, 1896); C. M.
+Burton, <i>"Cadillac's Village" or Detroit under Cadillac</i> (Detroit,
+1896); Francis Parkman, <i>A Half Century of Conflict</i> (Boston, 1897);
+and <i>The Conspiracy of Pontiac</i> (Boston, 1898); and the annual
+<i>Reports</i> of the Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_4" href="#FnAnchor_4">[1]</a> Hull was tried at Albany in 1814 by court martial, General Dearborn
+presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and
+unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president
+remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DETTINGEN,</b> a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Main,
+and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg railway, 10 m. N.W. of
+Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the
+27th of June 1743, when the English, Hanoverians and Austrians (the
+"Pragmatic army"), 42,000 men under the command of George II. of
+England, routed the numerically superior French forces under the duc de
+Noailles. It was in memory of this victory that Handel composed his
+<i>Dettingen Te Deum</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUCALION,</b> in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of Phthia in
+Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the mythical ancestor
+of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved to destroy all mankind by a
+flood, Deucalion constructed a boat or ark, in which, after drifting
+nine days and nights, he landed on Mount Parnassus (according to others,
+Othrys, Aetna or Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and
+inquired how to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind
+them the "bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the
+hillside. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by
+Pyrrha, women.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, <i>Metam</i>. i. 243-415; Apollonius
+Rhodius iii. 1085 ff.; H. Usener, <i>Die Sintflutsagen</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUCE</b> (a corruption of the Fr. <i>deux</i>, two), a term applied to the "two"
+of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used in tennis when
+both sides have each scored three points in a game, or five games in a
+set; to win the game or set two points or games must then be won
+consecutively. The earliest instances in English of the use of the slang
+expression "the deuce," in exclamations and the like, date from the
+middle of the 17th century. The meaning was similar to that of "plague"
+or "mischief" in such phrases as "plague on you," "mischief take you"
+and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for "the devil" is
+later. According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> the most probable
+derivation is from a Low German <i>das daus</i>, i.e. the "deuce" in dice,
+the lowest and therefore the most unlucky throw. The personification,
+with a consequent change of gender, to <i>der daus</i>, came later. The word
+has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic
+mythology.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUS, JOÃO DE</b> (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet of his
+generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in the province of
+Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating in the faculty of law at
+the university of Coimbra, he did not proceed to his degree but settled
+in the city, dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses,
+which circulated among professors and undergraduates in manuscript
+copies. In the volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he
+practised a rigorous self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855,
+and the first of his poems to appear in a separate form was <i>La Lata</i>,
+in 1860. In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor
+of <i>O Bejense</i>, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo, and
+four years later he edited the <i>Folha do Sul</i>. As the pungent satirical
+verses entitled <i>Eleições</i> prove, he was not an ardent politician, and,
+though he was returned as Liberal deputy for the constituency of Silves
+in 1869, he acted independently of all political parties and promptly
+resigned his mandate. The renunciation implied in the act, which cut him
+off from all advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of
+his lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend
+José Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series of
+poems, <i>Flores do campo</i>, which is supplemented by the <i>Ramo de flores</i>
+(1869). This is João de Deus's masterpiece. <i>Pires de Marmalada</i> (1869)
+is an improvisation of no great merit. The four theatrical
+pieces&mdash;<i>Amemos o nosso proximo</i>, <i>Ser apresentado</i>, <i>Ensaio de
+Casamento</i>, and <i>A Viúva inconsolavel</i>&mdash;are prose translations from
+Méry, cleverly done, but not worth the doing. <i>Horacio e Lydia</i> (1872),
+a translation from Ronsard, is a good example of artifice in
+manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure, the Portuguese
+couplet. As an indication of a strong spiritual reaction three prose
+fragments (1873)&mdash;<i>Anna, Mãe de Maria</i>, <i>A Virgem Maria</i> and <i>A Mulher
+do Levita de Ephrain</i>&mdash;translated from Darboy's <i>Femmes de la Bible</i>,
+are full of significance. The <i>Folhas soltas</i> (1876) is a collection of
+verse in the manner of <i>Flores do campo</i>, brilliantly effective and
+exquisitely refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his
+attention to educational problems, and in his <i>Cartilha maternal</i> (1876)
+first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzi and
+Fröbel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate was a
+misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational mission absorbed
+João de Deus completely, and is responsible for numerous controversial
+letters, for a translation of Théodore-Henri Barrau's treatise, <i>Des
+devoirs des enfants envers leurs</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page117"></a>[Page 117]</span> <i>parents</i>, for a prosodic
+dictionary and for many other publications of no literary value. A copy
+of verses in Antonio Vieira's <i>Grinalda de Maria</i> (1877), the <i>Loas á
+Virgem</i> (1878) and the <i>Proverbios de Salomão</i> are evidence of a
+complete return to orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a
+lamentable error of judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled
+<i>Cryptinas</i> have been inserted in the completest edition of João de
+Deus's poems&mdash;<i>Campo de Flores</i> (Lisbon, 1893). He died at Lisbon on the
+11th of January 1896, was accorded a public funeral and was buried in
+the National Pantheon, the Jeronymite church at Belem, where repose the
+remains of Camoens, Herculano and Garrett. His scattered minor prose
+writings and correspondence have been posthumously published by Dr
+Theophilo Braga (Lisbon, 1898).</p>
+
+<p>Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has been more
+widely read, more profoundly admired than João de Deus; yet no poet in
+any country has been more indifferent to public opinion and more
+deliberately careless of personal fame. He is not responsible for any
+single edition of his poems, which were put together by pious but
+ill-informed enthusiasts, who ascribed to him verses that he had not
+written; he kept no copies of his compositions, seldom troubled to write
+them himself, and was content for the most part to dictate them to
+others. He has no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is
+limited in theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch,
+often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced
+accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise a set of
+proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And yet, though
+he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though he wrote nothing at
+all comparable in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of <i>Os
+Lusiadas</i>, the popular instinct which links his name with that of his
+great predecessor is eminently just. For Camoens was his model; not the
+Camoens of the epic, but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets,
+where the passion of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has
+noted five stages of development in João de Deus's artistic life&mdash;the
+imitative, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout
+phases. Under each of these divisions is included much that is of
+extreme interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through
+the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly probable
+that <i>Caturras</i> and <i>Gaspar</i>, pieces as witty as anything in Bocage but
+free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always interest literary
+students. But it is as the singer of love that João de Deus will delight
+posterity as he delighted his own generation. The elegiac music of
+<i>Rachel</i> and of <i>Marina</i>, the melancholy of <i>Adeus</i> and of <i>Remoinho</i>,
+the tenderness and sincerity of <i>Meu casta lirio</i>, of <i>Lagrima celeste</i>,
+of <i>Descalça</i> and a score more songs are distinguished by the large,
+vital simplicity which withstands time. It is precisely in the quality
+of unstudied simplicity that João de Deus is incomparably strong. The
+temptations to a display of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a
+Portuguese poet; he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has
+before him the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an
+instrument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is João de
+Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge in idle ornament.
+His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweetness and of reverent
+purity; yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental,
+and, though he has not the strength for a long fight, emotion has seldom
+been set to more delicate music. Had he included among his other gifts
+the gift of selection, had he continued the poetic discipline of his
+youth instead of dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he
+performed it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man,
+there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See also Maxime Formont, <i>Le Mouvement poétique contemporain
+en Portugal</i> (Lyon, 1892).</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(J. F.-K.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUTERONOMY,</b> the name of one of the books of the Old Testament. This
+book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal criticism, orthodox
+scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its Mosaic authorship
+reduced it to the level of a pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at
+last triumphed over tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of
+Deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive,
+however, to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion
+regarding the composition and date of his book has passed.</p>
+
+<p>In the 17th century the characteristics which so clearly mark off
+Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch were frankly
+recognized, but the most advanced critics of that age were inclined to
+pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five. In the
+beginning of the 19th century de Wette startled the religious world by
+declaring that Deuteronomy, so far from being Mosaic, was not known till
+the time of Josiah. This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever
+since, this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical
+criticism. The only other single chapter of the Bible which is
+responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in
+critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy years
+after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen inferred that
+Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and therefore could not
+have been in existence in his day; for had Leviticus been the recognized
+Law-book of his nation Ezekiel could not have represented as a
+degradation the very position which that Law-book described as a special
+honour conferred on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so
+far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than
+Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much later stratum,
+and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic.</p>
+
+<p>The title "Deuteronomy" is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of
+the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered "and he shall write out for
+himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really means "and he [the king]
+shall write out for himself a copy of this law," where there is not the
+slightest suggestion that the author intended to describe "this law"
+delivered on the plains of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to
+the first code given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the
+phrase "this law" is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater difficulty
+than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew word for
+"copy." How much does "this law" include? It was long supposed to mean
+the whole of our present Deuteronomy; indeed, it is on that supposition
+that the traditional view of the Mosaic authorship is based. But the
+context alone can determine the question; and that is often so ambiguous
+that a sure inference is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that
+nowhere need "this law" mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably
+means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little that
+it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered stones set
+up beside an altar.</p>
+
+<p>Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a
+long process of development. The fact that it is legislative as well as
+hortatory is enough to prove this, for most of the laws it contains are
+found elsewhere in the Pentateuch, sometimes in less developed,
+sometimes in more developed forms, a fact which is conclusive proof of
+prolonged historical development. According to the all-pervading law of
+evolution, the less complex form must have preceded the more complex.
+Still, the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as
+easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable for its
+copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious feeling.</p>
+
+<p>The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot have been so
+large as our present book, for not only could it be read at a single
+sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one day. On the day it was
+found, Shaphan first read it himself, and then went to the king and read
+it aloud to him. But perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is
+that it was read publicly to the assembled people immediately before
+they, as well as their king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a
+word is said as to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by
+such a great multitude, being long or difficult.</p>
+
+<p>The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.),
+which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression made
+upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been produced by
+the legislative part alone. The king must have listened to the curses as
+well as the blessings in chap, xxviii., and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page118"></a>[Page 118]</span> no doubt also to
+the exhortations in chaps. v.-xi. Hence we may conclude that the
+original book consisted of a central mass of religious, civil and social
+laws, preceded by a hortatory introduction and followed by an effective
+peroration. The book read to Josiah must therefore have comprised most
+of what is found in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But
+something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present
+form, for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43
+(where the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52,
+there are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally
+acknowledged to be post-exilic.</p>
+
+<p>The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now
+have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv. 44, more
+historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more hortatory than
+historical. These may at first have been prefixed to separate editions
+of the legislative portion, but were eventually combined. Then, before D
+was united to P, five appendices of very various dates and embracing
+poetry as well as prose, were added so as to give a fuller account of
+the last days of Moses and thus lead up to the narrative of his death
+with which the book closes. (1) Chap. xxvii., where the elders of Israel
+are introduced for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. 1)
+and then the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer
+to laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this
+chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the laws
+codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The second
+appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us the farewell
+address of Moses and is certainly later than D. Moses is represented as
+speaking not with any hope of preventing Israel's apostasy but because
+he knows that the people will eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a
+point of view very different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap.
+xxxii. That this didactic poem must have been written late in the
+nation's history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7:
+"Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many generations." Such
+words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of Moses. It must have
+been composed in a time of natural gloom and depression, after Yahweh's
+anger had been provoked by "a very froward generation," certainly not
+before the Assyrian Empire had loomed up against the political horizon,
+aggressive and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the
+time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses, chap, xxxiii.
+The first line proves that this poem is not by D, who speaks invariably
+of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation depicted is in striking contrast
+with that of the Song. Everything is bright because of promises
+fulfilled, and the future bids fair to be brighter still. Bruston
+maintains with reason that the Blessing, strictly so called, consists
+only of vv. 6-25, and has been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the
+goodness of Jehovah to his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv.
+1-5, 26-29). The special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and
+Manasseh) in vv. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the
+time of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II. (5)
+The account of Moses' death, chap. xxxiv. This appendix, containing, as
+it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even Deuteronomy was not put
+into its present form until after the exile.</p>
+
+<p>From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the Covenant (Ex.
+xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E, the prophetic
+narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not quite clear whether D
+knew E as an independent work, or after its combination with J, the
+somewhat earlier prophetic narrative of the Southern kingdom, the
+combined form of which is now indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel
+certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that D quotes always from
+E and never from J, for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as
+readily be ascribed to J as to E, cf. Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut.
+x. 14 and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written
+certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J.</p>
+
+<p>In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas, whereas in
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere manifest. Hence this
+school of thought arose between the age of Isaiah and that of Jeremiah;
+but how long D itself may have been in existence before it was read in
+622 to Josiah cannot be determined with certainty. Many argue that D was
+written immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put
+into the temple for the purpose of being "found." This theory gives some
+plausibility to the charge that the book is a pious fraud. But the
+narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference. The more natural
+explanation is that it was written not in the early years of Josiah's
+reign, and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office, but
+some time during the long reign of Manasseh, probably when his policy
+was most reactionary and when he favoured the worship of the "host of
+heaven" and set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This
+explains why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed
+it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity should
+arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he actually foresaw
+how favourable that opportunity would prove, and that, as soon as
+discovered, his work would be promulgated as law by the king and
+willingly accepted by the people. The author believed that everything he
+wrote was in full accordance with the mind of Moses, and would
+contribute to the national weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and
+therefore he did not scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is
+not to be expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact
+year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is enough to
+determine with something like probability the century or half-century
+which best fits its historical data; and these appear to point to the
+reign of Manasseh.</p>
+
+<p>Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the historical
+résumés JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even verses being
+copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points out in his careful
+analysis, there are only three facts in D which are not also found in
+JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number of souls that went down
+into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark being made of acacia wood. But even
+these may have been in J or E originally, and left out when JE was
+combined with P. Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory
+parts of D between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural
+when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular; but as a
+similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally
+acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue seems anything but
+trustworthy, depending as it does on the presence or absence of a single
+Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it frequently does, in the division of
+verses which otherwise seem to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The
+inference as to diversity of authorship is much more conclusive when
+difference of standpoint can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii.
+2. The first two passages represent Moses as addressing the generation
+that was alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to
+those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later; and it
+may well be that the one author may, in the historical and hortatory
+parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other the 2nd singular;
+without the further inference being justified that every law in which
+the 2nd singular is used must be assigned to the latter, and every law
+in which the 2nd plural occurs must be due to the former.</p>
+
+<p>The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding characteristics,
+is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation towards which events had
+long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9 shows that even the zeal of Josiah
+could not carry out the instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's
+acceptance of D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the
+religion of Judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its
+adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them. D
+requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols, but
+of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas (stone pillars) often set
+up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21). These reforms made too heavy
+demands upon the people, as was proved by the reaction which set in at
+Josiah's death. Indeed the country people would look on the destruction
+of the high places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and
+would consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119"></a>[Page 119]</span> sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of
+Jerusalem and the exile of the people would appear to those who had
+obeyed D's instructions as a well-merited punishment for national
+apostasy.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each
+individual Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the
+declaration of the individual's duty towards God immediately
+follows the emphatic intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity.
+"Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our God, Yahweh is one: and thou
+shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thine heart and with all thy
+soul and with all thy strength" (vi. 4, 5).</p>
+
+<p>In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should
+never be forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy
+ever pronounced on any scripture was pronounced by Christ
+himself, when he said "on these words hang all the law and the
+prophets," and it is also well to remember that when tempted in
+the wilderness he repelled each suggestion of the Tempter by a
+quotation from Deuteronomy.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the
+influence of the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and
+despite the spirit of love which breathes so strongly throughout
+the book, especially for the poor, the widow and the fatherless,
+the stranger and the homeless Levite (xxiv. 10-22), and the
+humanity shown towards both beasts and birds (xxii. 1, 4, 6 f.,
+xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to explain the
+intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance characteristic
+of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as his own
+soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's pitiless
+order to that man is "Thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand
+shall be first upon him to put him to death." From this single
+instance we see not only how far mankind has travelled along the
+path of religious toleration since Deuteronomy was written, but
+also how very far the criticism implied in Christ's method of
+dealing with what "was said to them of old time" may be
+legitimately carried.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(J. A. P.*)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM</b> (1829-1873), German oriental scholar,
+was born on the 28th of October 1829, at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of
+Jewish extraction. On reaching his sixteenth year he began his studies
+at the university of Berlin, paying special attention to theology and
+the Talmud. He also mastered the English language and studied English
+literature. In 1855 Deutsch was appointed assistant in the library of
+the British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and contributed no
+less than 190 papers to <i>Chambers's Encyclopaedia</i>, in addition to
+essays in Kitto's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries, and articles in
+periodicals. In October 1867 his article on "The Talmud," published in
+the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, made him known. It was translated into French,
+German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch and Danish. He died at Alexandria on the
+12th of May 1873.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>His <i>Literary Remains</i>, edited by Lady Strangford, were published in
+1874, consisting of nineteen papers on such subjects as "The Talmud,"
+"Islam," "Semitic Culture," "Egypt, Ancient and Modern," "Semitic
+Languages," "The Targums," "The Samaritan Pentateuch," and "Arabic
+Poetry."</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUTSCHKRONE,</b> a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, between the two
+lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 m. N.W. of Schneidemühl, a railway junction
+60 m. north of Posen. Pop. (1905) 7282. It is the seat of the public
+offices for the district, possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
+church, a synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuit
+college, and has manufactures of machinery, woollens, tiles, brandy and
+beer.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUTZ</b> (anc. <i>Divitio</i>), formerly an independent town of Germany, in the
+Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to
+Cologne, with which it has been incorporated since 1888. It contains the
+church of St Heribert, built in the 17th century, cavalry barracks,
+artillery magazines, and gas, porcelain, machine and carriage factories.
+It has a handsome railway station on the banks of the Rhine, negotiating
+the local traffic with Elberfeld and Königswinter. The fortifications of
+the town form part of the defences of Cologne. To the east is the
+manufacturing suburb of Kalk.</p>
+
+<p>The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine monastery by
+Heribert, archbishop of Cologne. Permission to fortify the town was in
+1230 granted to the citizens by the archbishop of Cologne, between whom
+and the counts of Berg it was in 1240 divided. It was burnt in 1376,
+1445 and 1583; and in 1678, after the peace of Nijmwegen, the
+fortifications were dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed
+in 1888.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEUX-SÈVRES,</b> an inland department of western France, formed in 1790
+mainly of the three districts of Poitou, Thouarsais, Gâtine and
+Niortais, added to a small portion of Saintonge and a still smaller
+portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 339,466. It is bounded
+N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne, S.E. by Charente, S. by
+Charente-Inférieure and W. by Vendée. The department takes its name from
+two rivers&mdash;the Sèvre of Niort which traverses the southern portion, and
+the Sèvre of Nantes (an affluent of the Loire) which drains the
+north-west. There are three regions&mdash;the Gâtine, occupying the north and
+centre of the department, the Plaine in the south and the
+Marais,&mdash;distinguished by their geological character and their general
+physical appearance. The Gâtine, formed of primitive rocks (granite and
+schists), is the continuation of the "Bocage" of Vendée and
+Maine-et-Loire. Its surface is irregular and covered with hedges and
+clumps of wood or forests. The systematic application of lime has much
+improved the soil, which is naturally poor. The Plaine, resting on
+oolite limestone, is treeless but fertile. The Marais, a low-lying
+district in the extreme southwest, consists of alluvial clays which also
+are extremely productive when properly drained. The highest points,
+several of which exceed 700 ft., are found in a line of hills which
+begins in the centre of the department, to the south of Parthenay, and
+stretches north-west into the neighbouring department of Vendée. It
+divides the region drained by the Sèvre Nantaise and the Thouet (both
+affluents of the Loire) in the north from the basins of the Sèvre
+Niortaise and the Charente in the south. The climate is mild, the annual
+temperature at Niort being 54° Fahr., and the rainfall nearly 25 in. The
+winters are colder in the Gâtine, the summers warmer in the Plaine.</p>
+
+<p>Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sèvres, which is primarily an
+agricultural department, consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the
+main cereals. Potatoes and mangold-wurzels are the chief root-crops.
+Niort is a centre for the growing Of vegetables (onions, asparagus,
+artichokes, &amp;c.) and of angelica. Considerable quantities of
+beetroot are raised to supply the distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp,
+rape and flax are also cultivated. Vineyards are numerous in the
+neighbourhood of Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the
+south. The department is well known for the Parthenay breed of cattle
+and the Poitou breed of horses; and the mules reared in the southern
+arrondissements are much sought after both in France and in Spain. The
+system of co-operative dairying is practised in some localities. The
+apple-trees of the Gâtine and the walnut-trees of the Plaine bring a
+good return. Coal is mined, and the department produces building-stone
+and lime. A leading industry is the manufacture of textiles (serges,
+druggets, linen, handkerchiefs, flannels, swan-skins and knitted goods).
+Tanning and leather-dressing are carried on at Niort and other places,
+and gloves are made at Niort. Wool and cotton spinning, hat and shoe
+making, distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also
+main industries. The department exports cattle and sheep to Paris and
+Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and its industrial
+products.</p>
+
+<p>The Sèvre Niortaise and its tributary the Mignon furnish 19 m. of
+navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouest-État railway.
+It contains a large proportion of Protestants, especially in the
+south-east. The four arrondissements are Niort, Bressuire, Melle and
+Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and the communes 356. Deux-Sèvres is
+part of the region of the IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the
+académie (educational circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its
+court of appeal.</p>
+
+<p>Niort (the capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent, Thouars
+and Oiron are the principal places in the department. Several other
+towns contain features of interest. Among these <span class="pagenum"><a name="page120"></a>[Page 120]</span> are
+Airvault, where there is a church of the 12th and 14th centuries which
+once belonged to the abbey of St Pierre, and an ancient bridge built by
+the monks; Celles-sur-Belle, where there is an old church rebuilt by
+Louis XI., and again in the 17th century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a
+fine Romanesque church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of
+the most ancient abbeys of Gaul.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVA</b> (Sanskrit "heavenly"), in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, spirits of
+the light and air, and minor deities generally beneficent. In Persian
+mythology, however, the word is used for evil spirits or demons.
+According to Zoroaster the devas were created by Ahriman.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVA</b> (mod. <i>Chester</i>), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain on the Dee.
+It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and held probably till the
+end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison was the Legio XX. Valeria
+Victrix, with which another legion (II. Adjutrix) was associated for a
+few years, about A.D. 75-85. It never developed, like many Roman
+legionary fortresses, into a town, but remained military throughout.
+Parts of its north and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate)
+and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See F. J. Haverfield, <i>Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester</i>
+(Chester, 1900), Introduction.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVADATTA,</b> the son of Suklodana, who was younger brother to the father
+of the Buddha (<i>Mah&#x0101;vastu</i>, iii. 76). Both he and his brother
+&#x0100;nanda, who were considerably younger than the Buddha, joined the
+brotherhood in the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry. Four other
+cousins of theirs, chiefs of the S&#x0101;kiya clan, and a barber named
+Up&#x0101;li, were admitted to the order at the same time; and at their own
+request the barber was admitted first, so that as their senior in the
+order he should take precedence of them (<i>Vinaya Texts</i>, iii. 228). All
+the others continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years
+afterwards, having gained over the crown prince of Magadha,
+Aj&#x0101;tasattu, to his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting
+of the order, that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the
+leadership to him, Devadatta (<i>Vinaya Texts</i>, iii. 238; <i>J&#x0101;taka</i>, i.
+142). This proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition
+to have successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his aged
+father and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death
+of the Buddha (<i>Vinaya Texts</i>, iii. 241-250; <i>J&#x0101;taka</i>, vi. 131),
+shortly afterwards, relying upon the feeling of the people in favour of
+asceticism, he brought forward four propositions for ascetic rules to be
+imposed on the order. These being refused, he appealed to the people,
+started an order of his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's
+community to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the
+success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be referred
+to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the <i>Anguttara</i> (see <i>Dialogues
+of the Buddha</i> i. 222), for Devadatta's family name was Gotama. But his
+community was certainly still in existence in the 4th century A.D., for
+it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien, the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's
+translation, p. 62). And it possibly lasted till the 7th century, for
+Hsüan Tsang mentions that in a monastery in Bengal the monks then
+followed a certain regulation of Devadatta's (T. Watters, <i>On Yuan
+Chwang</i>, ii. 191). There is no mention in the canon as to how or when
+Devadatta died; but the commentary on the <i>J&#x0101;taka</i>, written in the
+5th century A.D., has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by
+the earth near S&#x0101;vatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha
+(<i>J&#x0101;taka</i>, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to both
+the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and T. Watters,
+<i>On Yuan Chwang</i>, i. 390). It is a striking example of the way in which
+such legends grow, that it is only the latest of these authorities,
+Hsüan Tsang, who says that, though ostensibly approaching the Buddha
+with a view to reconciliation, Devadatta had concealed poison in his
+nail with the object of murdering the Buddha.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Vinaya Texts</i>, translated by Rhys Davids and H. Oldenberg
+(3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); <i>The J&#x0101;taka</i>, edited by V. Fausböll (7
+vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Watters, <i>On Yuan Chwang</i> (ed. Rhys Davids
+and Bushell, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905); <i>Fa Hian</i>, translated by J.
+Legge (Oxford, 1886); <i>Mah&#x0101;vastu</i> (ed. Tenant, 3 vols., Paris,
+1882-1897).</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(T. W. R. D.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVAPRAYAG</b> (<span class="sc">Deoprayag</span>), a village in Tehri State of the United
+Provinces, India. It is situated at the spot where the rivers Alaknanda
+and Bhagirathi unite and form the Ganges, and as one of the five sacred
+confluences in the hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout
+Hindus. Devaprayag stands at an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a
+hill which rises above it 800 ft. On a terrace in the upper part of the
+village is the temple of Raghunath, built of huge uncemented stones,
+pyramidical in form and capped by a white cupola.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVENS, CHARLES</b> (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist, was born in
+Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 4th of April 1820. He graduated at
+Harvard College in 1838, and at the Harvard law school in 1840, and was
+admitted to the bar in Franklin county, Mass., where he practised from
+1841 to 1849. In the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the state senate,
+and from 1849 to 1853 was United States marshal for Massachusetts, in
+which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the fugitive slave,
+Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained to do, much against
+his personal desire; and subsequently he attempted in vain to purchase
+Sims's freedom, and many years later appointed him to a position in the
+department of justice at Washington. Devens practised law at Worcester
+from 1853 until 1861, and throughout the Civil War served in the Federal
+army, becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier-general
+of volunteers in April 1862. At the battle of Ball's Bluff (1861) he was
+severely wounded; he was again wounded at Fair Oaks (1862) and at
+Chancellorsville (1863), where he commanded a division. He later
+distinguished himself at Cold Harbor, and commanded a division in
+Grant's final campaign in Virginia (1864-65), his troops being the first
+to occupy Richmond after its fall. Breveted major-general in 1865, he
+remained in the army for a year as commander of the military district of
+Charleston, South Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetts superior
+court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate justice of the supreme
+court of the state from 1873 to 1877, and again from 1881 to 1891. From
+1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet
+of President Hayes. He died at Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January
+1891.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See his <i>Orations and Addresses</i>, with a memoir by John Codman Ropes
+(Boston, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVENTER,</b> a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the right bank
+of the Ysel, at the confluence of the Schipbeek, and a junction station
+10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also connected by steam tramway S.E.
+with Brokulo. Pop. (1900) 26,212. Deventer is a neat and prosperous town
+situated in the midst of prettily wooded environs, and containing many
+curious old buildings. There are three churches of special interest: the
+Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies the site
+of an older structure of which the 11th-century crypt remains; the Roman
+Catholic Broederkerk, or Brothers' Church, containing among its relics
+three ancient gospels said to have been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin),
+the English apostle of the Frisians and Westphalians (d. c. 773); and
+the Bergkerk, dedicated in 1206, which has two late Romanesque towers.
+The town hall (1693) contains a remarkable painting of the town council
+by Terburg. In the fine square called the Brink is the old weigh-house,
+now a school (gymnasium), built in 1528, with a large external staircase
+(1644). The gymnasium is descended from the Latin school of which the
+celebrated Alexander Hegius was master in the third quarter of the 15th
+century, when the young Erasmus was sent to it, and at which Adrian
+Floreizoon, afterwards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil
+about the same time. Another famous educational institution was the
+"Athenaeum" or high school, founded in 1630, at which Henri Renery (d.
+1639) taught philosophy, while Johann Friedrich Gronov (Gronovius)
+(1611-1671) taught rhetoric and history in the middle of the same
+century. The "Athenaeum" <span class="correction" title="corrected from disappered">disappeared</span> in 1876. In modern times Deventer
+possessed a famous teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch
+translator of Shakespeare. The town library, also called the library of
+the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page121"></a>[Page 121]</span> Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and <i>incunabula</i>, and a
+13th-century copy of <i>Reynard the Fox</i>. The archives of the town are of
+considerable value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade, Deventer
+has important iron foundries and carpet factories (the royal manufactory
+of Smyrna carpets being especially famous); while cotton-printing,
+rope-making and the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on. A
+public official is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of
+gingerbread known as "<i>Deventer Koek</i>," which has a reputation
+throughout Holland. In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of
+Deventer, some 14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870.</p>
+
+<p>In the 14th century Deventer was the centre of the famous religious and
+educational movement associated with the name of <a>Gerhard Groot</a> (q.v.),
+who was a native of the town (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brothers of Common Life</a></span>.).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS</b> (1814-1902), Irish poet and critic, was born at
+Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the 10th of January 1814, being the
+third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt (1788-1846). In 1832 his father
+dropped the final name by royal licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet.
+Wordsworth called his sonnets the "most perfect of the age." These and
+his drama, <i>Mary Tudor</i>, were published by his son in 1875 and 1884.
+Aubrey de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his
+twenty-eighth year published <i>The Waldenses</i>, which he followed up in
+the next year by <i>The Search after Proserpine</i>. Thenceforward he was
+continually engaged, till his death on the 20th of January 1902, in the
+production of poetry and criticism. His best-known works are: in verse,
+<i>The Sisters</i> (1861); <i>The Infant Bridal</i> (1864); <i>Irish Odes</i> (1869);
+<i>Legends of St Patrick</i> (1872); and <i>Legends of the Saxon Saints</i>
+(1879); and in prose, <i>Essays chiefly on Poetry</i> (1887); and <i>Essays
+chiefly Literary and Ethical</i> (1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume
+of travel-sketches, and two dramas in verse, <i>Alexander the Great</i>
+(1874); and <i>St Thomas of Canterbury</i> (1876); both of which, though they
+contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic
+spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry are "high
+seriousness" and a fine religious enthusiasm. His research in questions
+of faith led him to the Roman Church; and in many of his poems, notably
+in the volume of sonnets called <i>St Peter's Chains</i> (1888), he made rich
+additions to devotional verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose
+calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his
+affection for Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and
+weight to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will
+be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study of
+Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many
+followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers; but
+after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on "Celtic Literature," nothing
+perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival than Aubrey de Vere's tender
+insight into the Irish character, and his stirring reproductions of the
+early Irish epic poetry.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>A volume of <i>Selections</i> from his poems was edited in 1894 (New
+York and London) by G. E. Woodberry.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVICE,</b> a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also a pattern or
+design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem, often combined with a
+motto or legend. "Device" and its doublet "devise" come from the two Old
+French forms <i>devis</i> and <i>devise</i> of the Latin <i>divisa</i>, things divided,
+from <i>dividere</i>, to separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out,
+apportion. "Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term
+for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention restricted
+to a disposition of real property, the term "bequest" being used of
+personalty (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Will</a></span>). This use is directly due to the Medieval Latin
+meaning of <i>dividere</i> = <i>testamento disponere</i>. In its verbal form,
+"devise" is used not only in the legal sense, but also in the sense of
+to plan, arrange, scheme.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVIL</b> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="diabolos">&delta;&iota;&#x3ac;&beta;&omicron;&lambda;&omicron;&sigmaf;</span>, "slanderer,"
+from <span class="grk" title="diaballein">&delta;&iota;&alpha;&beta;&#x3ac;&lambda;&lambda;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;</span>, to
+slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the supreme
+spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used for minor evil
+spirits in much the same sense as "demon." From the various
+characteristics associated with this idea, the term has come to be
+applied by analogy in many different senses. From the idea of evil as
+degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure, the term is applied to
+persons in evil plight, or of slight consideration. In English legal
+phraseology "devil" and "devilling" are used of barristers who act as
+substitutes for others. Any remuneration which the legal "devil" may
+receive is purely a matter of private arrangement between them. In the
+chancery division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of
+one half of the fee which the client pays; "in the king's bench division
+remuneration for 'devilling' of briefs or assisting in drafting and
+opinions is not common" (see <i>Annual Practice</i>, 1907, p. 717). In a
+similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by
+a literary hack or "devil." The term "printer's devil" for the errand
+boy in a printing office probably combines this idea with that of his
+being black with ink. The common notions of the devil as black,
+ill-favoured, malicious, destructive and the like, have occasioned the
+application of the term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the
+devil-fish, the coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth
+or separating wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or
+fried. In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the
+word, as used in mythology and religion.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all
+phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good or evil, produce
+pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction in the character of
+these agencies is gradually recognized; the agents of good become gods,
+those of evil, demons. A tendency towards the simplification and
+organization of the evil as of the good forces, leads towards belief in
+outstanding leaders among the forces of evil. When the divine is most
+completely conceived as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and
+over against God stands Satan, or the devil.</p>
+
+<p>Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian monotheism
+that this belief in the devil has been most fully developed,
+yet there are approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In
+Babylonian mythology "the old serpent goddess 'the lady Nina'
+was transformed into the embodiment of all that was hostile to
+the powers of heaven" (Sayce's <i>Hibbert Lectures</i>, p. 283), and was
+confounded with the dragon Tiamat, "a terrible monster, reappearing
+in the Old Testament writings as Rahab and Leviathan,
+the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man" (Tennant's
+<i>The Fall and Original Sin</i>, p. 43), and according to Gunkel
+(<i>Schöpfung und Chaos</i>, p. 383) "the original of the 'old serpent'
+of Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with
+an army of monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat
+of the luminous gods. While the Greek mythology described
+the Titans as "enchained once for all in their dark dungeons"
+yet Prometheus' threat remained to disturb the tranquillity of the
+Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology the army of darkness
+is led by Hel, the personification of twilight, sunk to the goddess
+who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and Loki, originally
+the god of fire, but afterwards "looked upon as the father of the
+evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her adornments,
+who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the death of
+Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts,
+Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver
+the celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the
+caverns of the clouds. In the <i>Trimurti</i>, Brahm&#x0103; (the impersonal)
+is manifested as Brahm&#x0101; (the personal creator), Vishnu (the
+preserver), and Siva (the destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the
+belief in the god of Vedic times Rudra, who is represented as
+"the wild hunter who storms over the earth with his bands, and
+lays low with arrows the men who displease him" (Chantepie de
+la Saussaye's <i>Religionsgeschichte</i>, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. 25). The evil
+character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali (the black)
+is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The
+opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in
+Zoroastrianism. Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is
+Ahriman, the source of all evil; and the opposition runs through
+the whole universe (D'Alviella's <i>Hibbert Lectures</i>, pp. 158-164).</p>
+
+<p>The conception of <i>Satan</i> (Heb. <span title="Satan">&#x05e9;&#x05d8;&#x05df;</span>, the adversary, Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="Satanas">&Sigma;&alpha;&tau;&alpha;&nu;&#8118;&sigmaf;</span>, or <span class="grk" title="Satan">&Sigma;&alpha;&tau;&#8118;&nu;</span>, 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the post-exilic period
+of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122"></a>[Page 122]</span>
+influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots
+in much older beliefs. An "evil spirit" possesses Saul (1 Sam.
+xvi. 14), but it is "from the Lord." The same agency produces
+discord between Abimelech and the Shechemites (Judges ix. 23).
+"A lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets" as Yahweh's
+messenger entices Ahab to his doom (1 Kings xxii. 22). Growing
+human corruption is traced to the fleshy union of angels and
+women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil, whether as misfortune
+or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (1 Sam. xviii. 10; 2 Sam.
+xxiv. 1; 1 Kings xxii. 20; Isa. vi. 10, lxiii. 17). After the Exile
+there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence by the
+introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all
+evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of
+God and man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands
+as the adversary of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by
+Yahweh for desiring that Jerusalem should be further punished.
+In the book of Job he presents himself before the Lord among the
+sons of God (ii. 1), yet he is represented both as accuser and tempter.
+He disbelieves in Job's integrity, and desires him to be so tried that
+he may fall into sin. While, according to 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, God himself
+tests David in regard to the numbering of the people, according to 1
+Chron. <span class="correction" title="replaced comma with a period">xxi.</span> 1 it is Satan who tempts him.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the conception continued in later Judaism, which was
+probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism. It is doubtful,
+however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book of Tobit is the same as
+the A&#x113;shma Da&#x113;wa of the Bundahesh. He is the evil spirit who slew
+the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8), and the name probably means
+"Destroyer." In the book of Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a
+rival kingdom of evil, but here are also mentioned Satans, who are
+distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function,
+to tempt, to accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly
+(Ecclesiasticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii.
+(Wisdom ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom
+lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14); Gen. iii. is probably
+referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, "a serpent speaking with the
+words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert wisdom." The <i>Book of
+the Secrets of Enoch</i> not only identifies Satan with the Serpent, but
+also describes his revolt against God, and expulsion from heaven. In the
+Jewish <i>Targums</i> Sammael, "the highest angel that stands before God's
+throne, caused the serpent to seduce the woman"; he coalesces with
+Satan, and has inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is
+ascribed to a union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's
+standing before God he is greatly feared.</p>
+
+<p>This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced in the
+New Testament. Satan is the <span class="grk"
+title="diabolos">&delta;&iota;&#x3ac;&beta;&omicron;&lambda;&omicron;&sigmaf;</span>
+(Matt. xiii. 39; John xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10),
+slanderer or accuser, the <span
+class="grk" title="peirazôn">&pi;&epsilon;&iota;&rho;&#x3ac;&zeta;&omega;&nu;</span> (Matt.
+iv. 3; 1 Thess. iii. 5), the tempter, the <span class="grk"
+title="ponêros">&pi;&omicron;&nu;&eta;&rho;&#x3cc;&sigmaf;</span> (Matt. v. 37;
+John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil one, and the <span class="grk"
+title="echthros">&#7952;&chi;&theta;&rho;&#x3cc;&sigmaf;</span> (Matt. xiii.
+39), the enemy. He is apparently identified with Beelzebub (or
+Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26, 27. Jesus appears to recognize the
+existence of demons belonging to a kingdom of evil under the leadership
+of Satan "the prince of demons" (Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in
+demonic possessions it is his function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 11,
+vi. 7; Luke x. 17-20). But he himself conquers Satan in resisting his
+temptations (Matt. iv. 1-11). Simon is warned against him, and Judas
+yields to him as tempter (Luke xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's cures
+are represented as a triumph over Satan (Luke x. 18). This Jewish
+doctrine is found in Paul's letters also. Satan rules over a world of
+evil, supernatural agencies, whose dwelling is in the lower heavens
+(Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince of the power of the air" (ii. 2).
+He is the tempter (1 Thess. iii. 5; 1 Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x.
+10), to whom the offender is to be handed over for bodily destruction
+(v. 5), identified with the serpent (Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and
+probably with Beliar or Belial (vi. 15); and the surrender of man to him
+brought death into the world (Rom. v. 17). Paul's own "stake in the
+flesh" is Satan's messenger (2 Cor. xii. 7). According to Hebrews
+Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by dying (ii. 14). Revelation
+describes the war in heaven between God with his angels and Satan or
+the dragon, the "old serpent," the deceiver of the whole world (xii. 9),
+with his hosts of darkness. After the overthrow of the Beast and the
+kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned in the bottomless pit a thousand
+years (xx. 2). Again loosed to deceive the nations, he is finally cast
+into the lake of fire and brimstone (xx. 10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2
+Peter ii. 4). In John's Gospel and Epistles Satan is opposed to Christ.
+Sinner and murderer from the beginning (1 John iii. 8) and liar by
+nature (John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin (viii. 34), causes death
+(verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30), but has no power over
+Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. 11; 1 John v. 18). He will be
+destroyed by Christ with all his works (John xvi. 33; 1 John iii. 8).</p>
+
+<p>In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic Age "the
+present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon, was just as
+generally presupposed as man's need of redemption, which was regarded as
+a result of that dominion. The tenacity of this belief may be explained
+among other things by the living impression of the polytheism that
+surrounded the communities on every side. By means of this assumption
+too, humanity seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for
+redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range"
+(Harnack's <i>History of Dogma</i>, i. p. 181). While Christ's First Advent
+delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow would be
+completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics held that "the present
+world sprang from a fall of man, or from an undertaking hostile to God,
+and is, therefore, the product of an evil or intermediate being" (p.
+257). Some taught that while the future had been assigned by God to
+Christ, the devil had received the present age (p. 309). The fathers
+traced all doctrines not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and
+the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil
+transforming himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes
+Satan's fall to "pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation"; and
+traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in resisting his
+temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline passages, represents
+the death of Christ "as a ransom paid to the 'apostasy' for men who had
+fallen into captivity" (ii. 290). He does not admit that Satan has any
+lawful claim on man, or that God practised a deceit on him, as later
+fathers taught. This theory of the <i>atonement</i> was formulated by Origen.
+"By his successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God
+offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped, as
+Christ overcame both him and death" (p. 367). It was held by Gregory of
+Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase <i>pia fraus</i>, Augustine, Leo I., and
+Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst form. "The humanity of Christ
+was the bait; the fish, the devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging
+on the invisible hook, Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the
+relation of the work of Christ to Satan retires into the background,
+Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view.
+It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the Lombard
+asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard represents man's
+bondage to Satan "as righteously permitted as a just retribution for
+sin," he being "the executioner of the divine justice." Another theory
+of Origen's found less acceptance. The devil, as a being resulting from
+God's will, cannot always remain a devil. The possibility of his
+redemption, however, was in the 5th century branded as a heresy. Persian
+dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the doctrine
+of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy views of
+Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to this
+influence. Mani taught that Satan with his demons, sprung from the
+kingdom of darkness, attacked the realm of light, the earth, defeated
+man sent against him by the God of light, but was overthrown by the God
+of light, who then delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). "During the
+middle ages," says Tulloch, "the belief in the devil was
+absorbing&mdash;saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant
+conflict with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the
+13th to the 15th century, passed into Protestantism. Luther <span class="pagenum"><a name="page123"></a>[Page 123]</span>
+was always conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan. "As I
+found he was about to begin again," says Luther, "I gathered together my
+books, and got into bed. Another time in the night I heard him above my
+cell walking on the cloister, but as I knew it was the devil I paid no
+attention to him and went to sleep." He held that this world will pass
+away with its pleasures, as there can be no real improvement in it, for
+the devil continues in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii.
+191). I. A. Dorner (<i>Christian Doctrine</i>, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant
+doctrine as follows:&mdash;"He is brought into relation with natural
+sinfulness, and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to
+him. The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery to
+Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the
+extra-Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and by his
+word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating anything is
+also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting substances is
+conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judgment that his power is
+wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered up to eternal punishment."
+This belief in the devil was specially strong in Scotland among both
+clergy and laity in the 17th century. "The devil was always and
+literally at hand," says Buckle, "he was haunting them, speaking to
+them, and tempting them. Go where they would he was there."</p>
+
+<p>In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on
+this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of demonic possession, and
+held that Christ in his language accommodated himself to the views of
+the sick whom he was seeking to cure. Kant regarded the devil as a
+personification of the radical evil in man. Daub in his <i>Judas
+Ishcarioth</i> argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute evil, and
+the absolute evil as real must be in a person. Schelling regarded the
+devil as, not a person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the
+freedom of man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the
+common belief. "The problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in
+Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self-knowledge." Dorner has
+formulated a theory which explains the development of the conception of
+Satan in the Holy Scriptures as in correspondence with an evolution in
+the character of Satan. "Satan appears in Scripture under four leading
+characters:&mdash;first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to
+decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts
+criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine, which
+brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he is described,
+especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of God and man." He
+supposes "a change in Satan in the course of the history of the divine
+revelation, in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn
+enemy of God and man, especially in the New Testament times, in which,
+on the other hand, his power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues
+that "the world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits
+breaches everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance" (pp. 99, 102).
+H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. "The evil
+principle," he says, "has in itself no personality, but attains a
+progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no individual
+personality, save only in individual creatures, who in an especial
+manner make themselves its organs; but among these is one creature in
+whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and
+head of the kingdom of evil" (<i>Dogmatics</i>, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no
+place in his constructive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but
+recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another
+constitutes a kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E.
+Garvie, <i>The Ritschlian Theology</i>, p. 304). Kaftan affirms that a
+"doctrine about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as
+faith can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the
+dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left to the
+immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will on account of
+the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would be arrogant to wish
+to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the thought that Satan also
+stands under the commission of the Almighty God, and that no one must
+suppose that by leading back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get
+rid of his own guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith"
+(<i>Dogmatik</i>, p. 348). In the book entitled <i>Evil and Evolution</i> there is
+"an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient
+mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil is best
+explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan, who in the
+process of evolution interferes with the divine designs, an interference
+which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible.
+Satan is, however, held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom
+been estranged from, and opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be
+conquered by moral means. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic
+possession maintains that "the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son
+of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession" (p.
+150), and argues that, as "the Incarnation indicated the establishment
+of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took place "a counter
+movement among the powers of darkness," of which "genuine demonic
+possession was one of the manifestations" (p. 249).</p>
+
+<p>Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently affirmed
+that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an essential
+article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an indispensable
+element of Christian experience. On the one hand science has so
+explained many of the processes of outer nature and of the inner life of
+man as to leave no room for Satanic agency. On the other hand the modern
+view of the inspiration of the Scriptures does not necessitate the
+acceptance of the doctrine of the Scriptures on this subject as finally
+and absolutely authoritative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter
+may be accounted for as either an accommodation to the views of those
+with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the limitation
+of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the Incarnation, for it
+cannot be contended that as revealer of God and redeemer of men it was
+imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in
+this respect. The possibility of the existence of evil spirits,
+organized under one leader Satan to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be
+denied; the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may,
+however, be doubted; the necessity of any such belief for Christian
+thought and life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Demonology</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Possession</a></span>.)</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(A. E. G.*)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVIZES,</b> a market town and municipal borough in the Devizes
+parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by S. of London
+by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6532. Its castle was built on
+a tongue of land flanked by two deep ravines, and behind this the town
+grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its
+main streets, in which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate
+from the market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord
+Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town on the N.,
+passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-nine locks. St
+John's church, one of the most interesting in Wiltshire, is cruciform,
+with a massive central tower, based upon two round and two pointed
+arches. It was originally Norman of the 12th century, and the chancel
+arch and low vaulted chancel, in this style, are very fine. In the
+interior several ancient monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are
+preserved, besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich
+ceilings of oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly
+Norman, but was rebuilt in the 15th and again in the 19th century. Its
+lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof, and the
+south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves its Norman mouldings.
+The woollen industries of Devizes have lost their prosperity; but there
+is a large grain trade, with engineering works, breweries, and
+manufactures of silk, snuff, tobacco and agricultural implements. The
+town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors.
+Area, 906 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Devizes (<i>Divisis</i>, <i>la Devise</i>, <i>De Vies</i>) does not appear in any
+historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the
+construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger, bishop of
+Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important political centre,
+and led to its speedy development. After the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"></a>[Page 124]</span> disgrace of
+Roger in 1139 the castle was seized by the Crown; in the 14th century it
+formed part of the dowry of the queens of England, and figured
+prominently in history until its capture and demolition by Cromwell in
+the Civil War of the 17th century. Devizes became a borough by
+prescription, and the first charter from Matilda, confirmed by
+successive later sovereigns, merely grants exemption from certain tolls
+and the enjoyment of undisturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause
+conferring on the town the liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II.
+instituted a coroner. A gild merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward
+II. and Edward III., and in 1614 was divided into the three companies of
+drapers, mercers and leathersellers. The present governing charters were
+issued by James I. and Charles I., the latter being little more than a
+confirmation of the former, which instituted a common council consisting
+of a mayor, a town clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses. These
+charters were surrendered to Charles II., and a new one was conferred by
+James II., but abandoned three years later in favour of the original
+grant. Devizes returned two members to parliament from 1295, until
+deprived of one member by the Representation of the People Act of 1867,
+and of the other by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The woollen
+manufacture was the staple industry of the town from the reign of Edward
+III. until the middle of the 18th century, when complaints as to the
+decay of trade began to be prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth the
+market was held on Monday, and there were two annual fairs at the feasts
+of the Purification of the Virgin and the Decollation of John the
+Baptist. The market was transferred to Thursday in the next reign, and
+the fairs in the 18th century had become seven in number.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Wiltshire</i>; <i>History of Devizes</i>
+(Devizes, 1859).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVOLUTION, WAR OF</b> (1667-68), the name applied to the war which arose
+out of Louis XIV.'s claims to certain Spanish territories in right of
+his wife Maria Theresa, upon whom the ownership was alleged to have
+"devolved." (See, for the military operations, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch Wars</a></span>.) The war was
+ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVON, EARLS OF.</b> From the family of De Redvers (De Ripuariis; Riviers),
+who had been earls of Devon from about 1100, this title passed to Hugh
+de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340), the representative of a prominent family in
+the county (see Gibbon's "digression" in chap. lxi. of the <i>Decline and
+Fall</i>, ed. Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay
+(1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of Towton.
+It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward Courtenay (d. 1509), whose
+son Sir William (d. 1511) married Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too
+great proximity to the throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry
+(c. 1498-1539) was restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in
+1525 was created marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of
+William Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture
+on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son Edward
+(1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant in the Courtenay
+family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the
+House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon was restored to the peerage,
+still being held by the head of the Courtenays. The earlier earls of
+Devon were referred to occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the
+former variant has prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the
+earldom and dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Devonshire, Earls and Dukes of</a></span>, and also the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Courtenay</a></span>).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVONIAN SYSTEM,</b> in geology, the name applied to series
+of stratified fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed
+during the Devonian period, that is, in the interval of time
+between the close of the Silurian period and the beginning of the
+Carboniferous; it includes the marine Devonian and an estuarine
+Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The name "Devonian" was
+introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A. Sedgwick to
+describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W. Lonsdale
+had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be intermediate
+between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two workers
+also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the
+European continent, where already several others, F. Roemer,
+H. E. Beyrich, &amp;c., were endeavouring to elucidate the succession
+of strata in this portion of the "Transition Series." The labours
+of these earlier workers, including in addition to those already
+mentioned, the brothers F. and G. von Sandberger, A. Dumont,
+J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de Verneuil and H. von
+Dechen, although somewhat modified by later students, formed
+the foundation upon which the modern classification of the
+Devonian rocks is based.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/img124.jpg" width="650" height="507" alt="Distribution of Devonian Rocks" title="Distribution of Devonian Rocks" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p class="center"><i>Stratigraphy of the Devonian Facies.</i></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall that the
+Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central Europe that
+the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and here, too, their
+geological position was first indicated by the founders of the system,
+Sedgwick and Murchison.</p>
+
+<p><i>Continental Europe.</i>&mdash;Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the centre
+of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south of Belgium
+across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best known from the
+picturesque gorges which have been cut through them by the Rhine below
+Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves. They reappear from under younger
+formations in Brittany, in the Harz and Thuringia, and are exposed in
+Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, North Moravia and eastern Galicia. The
+principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical areas are
+indicated in Table I.</p>
+
+<p>This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata,
+is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet
+represents the <i>Stringocephalus</i> limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards
+into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical
+modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general palaeontological
+characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony, Silesia,
+the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have been
+detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of
+the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods, lamellibranchs
+and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of the
+Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales, limestones
+and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but containing ores of
+silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other metals, may be referable
+to the Devonian system.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of a vast
+thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional seams of
+limestone, and in particular with one thick central calcareous zone.
+These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by numerous
+broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (<i>Phacops</i>,
+<i>Homalonotus</i>, &amp;c.) which, though generically like those of the
+Silurian system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous zone
+abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous brachiopods. In
+the highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods (<i>Clymenia</i>) occurs
+in some of the limestones, while the shales are crowded with a small but
+characteristic ostracod crustacean (<i>Cypridina</i>). Here and there traces
+of fishes have been found, more especially in the Eifel, but seldom in
+such a state of preservation as to warrant their being assigned to any
+definite place in the zoological scale. Subsequently, however, E.
+Beyrich has described from Gerolstein in the Eifel an undoubted species
+of <i>Pterichthys</i>, which, as it cannot be certainly identified with any
+known form, he names <i>P. Rhenanus</i>. A <i>Coccosteus</i> has been described by
+F. A. Roemer from the Harz, and still later one has been cited from
+Bicken near Herborn by V. Koenen; but, as Beyrich points out, there may
+be some doubt as to whether the latter is not a <i>Pterichthys</i>. A
+<i>Ctenacanthus</i>, seemingly undistinguishable from the <i>C. Bohemicus</i> of
+Barrande's Étage G, has also been <span class="pagenum"><a name="page125"></a>[Page 125]</span> obtained from the Lower
+Devonian "Nereitenschichten" of Thuringia. The characteristic
+<i>Holoptychius nobilissimus</i> has been detected in the Psammite de
+Condroz, which in Belgium forms a characteristic sandy portion of the
+Upper Devonian rocks. These are interesting facts, as helping to link
+the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone types together. But they are as yet
+too few and unsupported to warrant any large deduction as to the
+correlations between these types.</p>
+
+<p>It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red
+Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones
+and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the fish-bearing
+sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was
+shown in the great work <i>Russia and the Ural Mountains</i> by Murchison,
+De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper
+Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent
+of surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development
+arises not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal
+character of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described elsewhere,
+they remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they
+were originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they
+present but a meagre representative of the massive Devonian greywacke
+and limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of
+Britain. Yet vast though the area is over which they form the
+surface rock, it is probably only a small portion of their total extent;
+for they are found turned up from under the newer formations along
+the flank of the Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread
+continuously across the whole breadth of Russia in Europe. Though
+almost everywhere undisturbed, they afford evidence of some
+terrestrial oscillation between the time of their formation and that
+of the Silurian rocks on which they rest, for they are found gradually
+to overlap Upper and Lower Silurian formations.</p>
+
+<p class="center sc t">Table I.</p>
+
+<table style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-bottom: 2em;" title="TABLE I."
+summary="TABLE I.">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Stages.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Ardennes.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Rhineland.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Brittany and <br />Normandy.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Bohemia.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Harz.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Upper <br />Devonian.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Famennienc <br />
+         &nbsp;(<i>Clymenia</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;beds).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestone of Etr&oelig;ungt.<br />
+         Psammites of Condroz <br />
+         &nbsp;(sandy series). <br />
+         Slates of Famenne <br />
+         &nbsp;(shaly series).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Cypridina</i> slates. <br />
+         Pön sandstone (Sauerland). <br />
+         Crumbly limestone (Kramen- <br />
+         &nbsp;zelkalk) with <i>Clymenia</i>. <br />
+         Neheim slates in Sauerland, <br />
+         &nbsp;and diabases, tuffs, &amp;c., in <br />
+         &nbsp;Dillmulde, &amp;c.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates of Rostellec.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         &nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Cypridina</i> slates. <br />
+         <i>Clymenia</i> limestone <br />
+         &nbsp;and limestone of <br />
+         &nbsp;Altenau.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Frasnien <br />
+         (<i>Intumes</i>- <br />
+         <i>cens</i> beds).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates of Matagne. <br />
+         Limestones, marls and <br />
+         &nbsp;shale of Frasne, and <br />
+         &nbsp;red marble of <br />
+         &nbsp;Flanders.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Adorf limestone of Waldeck <br />
+         &nbsp;and shales with <i>Goniatites</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;(Eifel and Aix) = <br />
+         &nbsp;Budesheimer shales. <br />
+         Marls, limestone and dolomite <br />
+         &nbsp;with <i>Rhynchonella cuboides</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;(Flinz in part). <br />
+         Iberg limestone of Dillmulde.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestone of Cop- <br />
+         &nbsp;Choux and green <br />
+         &nbsp;slates of Travuliors. <br /></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         &nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Iberg limestone and <br />
+         &nbsp;Winterberg lime- <br />
+         &nbsp;stone; also Adorf <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone and shales <br />
+         &nbsp;(Budesheim).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Middle <br />Devonian.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Givérien <br />
+         &nbsp;(<i>Stringo</i>- <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>cephalus</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;beds).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestone of Givet.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Stringocephalus</i> limestone, <br />
+         &nbsp;ironstone of Brilon and <br />
+         &nbsp;Lahnmulde. <br />
+         Upper Lenne shales, crinoidal <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone of Eifel, red <br />
+         &nbsp;sandstones of Aix. <br />
+         Tuffs and diabases of Brilon <br />
+         &nbsp;and Lahnmulde. <br />
+         Red conglomerate of Aix.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestones of <br />
+         &nbsp;Chalonnes, Montjean <br />
+         &nbsp;and l'Ecochère.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         H<sub>2</sub> (of Barrande) <br />
+         &nbsp;dark plant-bearing <br />
+         &nbsp;shales. <br />
+          <br />
+          <br />
+         H<sub>1</sub>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Stringocephalus</i> shales <br />
+         &nbsp;with Flaser and <br />
+         &nbsp;Knollenkalk. <br />
+         Wissenbach slates.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Eifélien<br />
+         &nbsp;(<i>Calceola</i><br />
+         &nbsp;beds).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Calceola slates and <br />
+         &nbsp;limestones of  Couvin. <br />
+         Greywacke with <i>Spirifer <br />
+         &nbsp;cultrijugatus</i>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Calceola</i> beds, Wissenbach <br />
+         &nbsp;slates, Lower Lenne beds, <br />
+         &nbsp;Güntroder limestone and <br />
+         &nbsp;clay slate of Lahnmulde, <br />
+         &nbsp;Dillmulde, Wildungen, <br />
+         &nbsp;Griefenstein limestone, <br />
+         &nbsp;Ballersbach limestone.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates of Porsguen, <br />
+         &nbsp;greywacke of Fret.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         G<sub>3</sub> Cephalopod <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone. <br />
+         G<sub>2</sub> Tentaculite <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone. <br />
+         G<sub>3</sub> Knollenkalk <br />
+         &nbsp;and mottled <br />
+         &nbsp;Mnenian <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Calceola</i> beds. <br />
+         Nereite slates, slates <br />
+         &nbsp;of Wieda and lime- <br />
+         &nbsp;stones of Hasselfeld.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Lower <br />Devonian.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Coblentzien</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Greywacke of Hierges. <br />
+         Shales and conglomer- <br />
+         &nbsp;ate of Burnot with <br />
+         &nbsp;quartzite, of Bierlé <br />
+         &nbsp;and red slates of <br />
+         &nbsp;Vireux, greywacke <br />
+         &nbsp;of Vireux, greywacke <br />
+         &nbsp;of Montigny, sand- <br />
+         &nbsp;stone of Anor.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Upper Coblentz slates. <br />
+         Red sandstone of Eifel, <br />
+         &nbsp;Coblentz quartzite, lower <br />
+         &nbsp;Coblentz slates. <br />
+         Hunsrück and Siegener <br />
+         &nbsp;greywacke and slates. <br />
+         Taunus quartzite and <br />
+         &nbsp;greywacke.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestones <br />
+         &nbsp;of Erbray, Brulon, <br />
+         &nbsp;Viré and Néhou, <br />
+         &nbsp;greywacke of Faou, <br />
+         &nbsp;sandstone of <br />
+         &nbsp;Gahard.</td>
+    <td class="allbw" rowspan="2">
+         F<sub>2</sub> of Barrande. <br />
+         White Konjeprus <br />
+         &nbsp;Limestone with <br />
+         &nbsp;Hercynian fauna.</td>
+    <td class="allbw" rowspan="2">
+         Haupt quartzite (of <br />
+         &nbsp;Lossen) = Rammelsberg <br />
+         &nbsp;slates, Schallker slates = <br />
+         &nbsp;Kahleberg sandstone. <br />
+         Hercynian slates and <br />
+         &nbsp;limestones.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Gédinnien</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates of St Hubert and <br />
+         &nbsp;and Fooz, slates of <br />
+         &nbsp;Mondrepuits, arkose of <br />
+         &nbsp;Weismes, conglomerate <br />
+         &nbsp;of Fèpin.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates of Gédinne.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Slates and quartzites <br />
+         &nbsp;of Plougastel.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact,
+first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite within
+themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red Sandstone
+types. In some districts they consist largely of limestones, in others
+of red sandstones and marls. In the former they present molluscs and
+other marine organisms of known Devonian species; in the latter they
+afford remains of fishes, some of which are specifically identical with
+those of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The distribution of these
+two palaeontological types in Russia is traced by Murchison to the
+lithological characters of the rocks, and consequent original
+diversities of physical conditions, rather than to differences of age.
+Indeed cases occur where in the same band of rock Devonian shells and
+Old Red Sandstone fishes lie commingled. In the belt of the formation
+which extends southwards from Archangel and the White Sea, the strata
+consist of sands and marls, and contain only fish remains. Traced
+through the Baltic provinces, they are found to pass into red and green
+marls, clays, thin limestones and sandstones, with beds of gypsum. In
+some of the calcareous bands such fossils occur as <i>Orthis striatula</i>,
+<i>Spiriferina prisca</i>, <i>Leptaena productoides</i>, <i>Spirifer calcaratus</i>,
+<i>Spirorbis omphaloides</i> and <i>Orthoceras subfusiforme</i>. In the higher
+beds <i>Holoptychius</i> and other well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone
+occur. Followed still farther to the south, as far as the watershed
+between Orel and Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red colour and
+sandy character, and become thin-bedded yellow limestones, and dolomites
+with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt deposits are indicated by
+occasional saline springs. It is evident <span class="pagenum"><a name="page126"></a>[Page 126]</span> that the
+geographical conditions of the Russian area during the Devonian period
+must have closely resembled those of the Rhine basin and central England
+during the Triassic period. The Russian Devonian rocks have been
+classified in Table II. There is an unquestionable passage of the
+uppermost Devonian rocks of Russia into the base of the Carboniferous
+system.</p>
+
+<p class="center sc t">Table II.</p>
+
+<table style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-bottom: 2em;" title="TABLE II."
+summary="TABLE II.">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+         North-West Russia.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Central Russia.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Petchoraland.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Ural Region.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle"><span class="sc">Upper.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Red sandstone <br />
+         &nbsp;(Old Red).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestones with <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Spirifer Verneuili</i> and <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Sp. Archiaci</i>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestones with <i>Arca</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>oreliana</i> <br />
+         Limestones with <i>Sp.</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Verneuili</i> and <i>Sp.</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Archiaci</i>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Domanik slates and <br />
+         &nbsp;limestones with <i>Sp.</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Verneuili</i>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         <i>Cypridina</i> slates, <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Clymenia</i> limestones <br />
+         &nbsp;(Famennien). <br />
+         Limestones with <br />
+         &nbsp;<i>Gephyoceras intumescens</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;and <i>Rhynchonella cuboides</i> <br />
+         &nbsp;(Frasnien).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Middle.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+         Dolomites and limestones <br />
+         with <br />
+         <i>Spirifer Anossofi</i>.</td>
+    <td class="allbw" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+         Marl with <br />
+         <i>Spirifer Anossofi</i> <br />
+         and corals.</td>
+    <td class="allbw" rowspan="2">
+         Limestones and slates <br />
+         &nbsp;with Sp. Anossofi <br />
+         &nbsp;(Givétien). <br />
+         Limestones and slates with <br />
+         &nbsp;Pentamerus baschkiricus <br />
+         &nbsp;(Eifélien).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="allbw" style="text-align: center; " colspan="4">
+         Lower sandstone (Old Red).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle"><span class="sc">Lower.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+         Absent.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="allbw">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Limestones and slates of the <br />
+         Yuresan and Ufa rivers, <br />
+         slate and quartzite, <br />
+         marble of Byclaya and <br />
+         of Bogoslovsk, phyllitic <br />
+         schists and quartzite.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very different
+from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name "Hercynian" has
+been applied, and the correlation of the strata has been a source of
+prolonged discussion among continental geologists. A similar fauna
+appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia, in Brittany (limestone of Erbray)
+and in the Urals. The Upper Devonian of the Harz passes up into the
+Culm.</p>
+
+<p>In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is
+represented by <i>Clymenia</i> limestone and <i>Cypridina</i> slates with Adorf
+limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The middle
+division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaculite and Nereite
+shales and limestones below. The upper part of the Lower Devonian, the
+sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably upon Silurian rocks. In the
+Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones, the equivalents of the Iberg
+limestone, which attain an enormous thickness; these are underlain by
+coral limestones with fossils similar to those of the Konjeprus
+limestone of Bohemia; below these are shales and nodular limestones with
+goniatites. The Devonian rocks of Poland are sandy in the lower, and
+more calcareous in the upper parts. They are of interest because while
+the upper portions agree closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top
+of the Coblentzien upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red
+Sandstone fishes (<i>Coccosteus</i>, &amp;c.) are found. In France Devonian
+rocks are found well developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table,
+also in Normandy and Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the middle
+and upper divisions are known. In south France in the neighbourhood of
+Cabrières, about Montpellier and in the Montagne Noire, all three
+divisions are found in a highly calcareous condition. Devonian rocks are
+recognized, though frequently much metamorphosed, on both the northern
+and southern flanks of the Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they
+are extensively developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft.
+thick, all three divisions and most of the central European subdivisions
+are present. In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of Spain bear a
+marked resemblance to those of Brittany.</p>
+
+<p><i>Asia.</i>&mdash;From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have been
+traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai Mountains
+they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age with a fauna
+possessing Hercynian features. The same features are observed in the
+Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan. Well-developed
+quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of Yarkand and
+Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are widespread in China. Upper
+Devonian rocks are recorded from Persia, and from the Hindu Kush on the
+right bank of the Chitral river.</p>
+
+<p><i>England.</i>&mdash;In England the original Devonian rocks are developed in
+Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire these rocks
+consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south Devon there are,
+in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and intercalations of
+lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the stratigraphy in this region
+is a difficult matter, partly on account of the absence of good
+exposures with fossils, and partly through the disturbed condition of
+the rocks. The system has been subdivided as shown in Table III.</p>
+
+<p class="center sc t">Table III.</p>
+
+<table style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-bottom: 2em;" title="TABLE III."
+summary="TABLE III.">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         North Devon and West <br />
+         Somerset.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         South Devon.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle"><span class="sc">Upper.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Pilton group. Grits, slates <br />
+         &nbsp;and thin limestones. <br />
+         Baggy group. Sandstones <br />
+         &nbsp;and slates. <br />
+         Pickwell Down group. <br />
+         &nbsp;Dark slates and grits. <br />
+         Morte slates (?).</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Ashburton slates. <br />
+         Livaton slates. <br />
+         Red and green <i>Entomis</i> slates <br />
+         &nbsp;(Famennien). <br />
+         Red and grey slates with <br />
+         &nbsp;tuffs. <br />
+         Chudleigh goniatite limestone <br />
+         &nbsp;Petherwyn beds (Frasnien).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle"><span class="sc">Middle.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Ilfracombe slates with <br />
+         &nbsp;lenticles of limestone. <br />
+         Combe Martin grits and <br />
+         &nbsp;slates.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Torquay and Plymouth <br />
+         &nbsp;limestones and Ashprington <br />
+         &nbsp;volcanic series. (Givétien <br />
+         &nbsp;and Eifélien.) <br />
+         Slates and limestones of <br />
+         &nbsp;Hope's Nose.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle"><span class="sc">Lower.</span></td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Hangman grits and slates. <br />
+         Lynton group, grits and <br />
+         &nbsp;calcareous slates. <br />
+         Foreland grits and slates.</td>
+    <td class="allbw">
+         Looe beds (Cornwall). <br />
+         Meadfoot, Cockington and <br />
+         &nbsp;Warberry series of slates <br />
+         &nbsp;and greywackes. (Coblentzien <br />
+         &nbsp;and Gédinnien.)</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the Rhenish and
+south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the Devonian rocks pass
+upward without break into the Culm.</p>
+
+<p><i>North America.</i>&mdash;In North America the Devonian rocks are extensively
+developed; they have been studied most closely in the New York region,
+where they are classified according to Table IV.</p>
+
+<p>The classification below is not capable of application over the states
+generally and further details are required from many of the regions
+where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but everywhere the broad
+threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland the following
+arrangement has been adopted&mdash;(1) Helderberg = Coeymans; (2) Oriskany;
+(3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings = Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire =
+Catskill in part. In the interior the Helderbergian is missing and the
+system commences with (1) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton, (4)
+Portage (and Genesee), (5) Chemung.</p>
+
+<p>The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the
+continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and in Canada
+(Gaspé, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal); an Appalachian belt,
+and a lower Mississippian region. The series as a whole is mainly
+calcareous (2000 ft. in Gaspé), and thins out towards the west. The
+fauna has Hercynian affinities. The Oriskany formation consists largely
+of coarse sandstones; it is thin in New York, but in Maryland and
+Virginia it is several hundred feet thick. It is more widespread than
+the underlying Helderbergian. The Lower Devonian appears to be thick in
+northern Maine and in Gaspé, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, but neither
+the palaeontology nor the stratigraphy has been completely worked out.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>[Page 127]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base, Esopus and
+Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the Appalachian
+region; but the Onondaga limestones are much more extensive. The Erian
+series is often described as the Hamilton series outside the New York
+district, where the <i>Marcellus</i> shales are grouped together with the
+Hamilton shales, and numerous local subdivisions are included, as in
+Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The rocks are mostly shales or slates, but
+limestones predominate in the western development. In Pennsylvania the
+Hamilton series is from 1500 ft. to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more
+calcareous western extension it is much thinner. The <i>Marcellus</i> shales
+are bituminous in places.</p>
+
+<p>The Senecan series is composed of shallow-water deposits; the Tully
+limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a layer of
+pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The bituminous
+Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.); 25 ft. on Lake
+Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage formation reach 1000 ft.
+to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the Chautauquan series the Chemung
+formation is not always clearly separable from the Portage beds, it is a
+sandstone and conglomerate formation which reaches its maximum thickness
+(8000 ft.) in Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly towards the west. In the
+Catskill region the Upper Devonian has an Old Red facies&mdash;red shales and
+sandstones with a freshwater and brackish fauna.</p>
+
+<p class="center sc t">Table IV.</p>
+
+<table style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-bottom: 2em; " title="TABLE IV."
+summary="TABLE IV.">
+  <tr>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Groups.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Formations.</td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; ">
+         Probable <br />
+         European <br />
+         Equivalent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr style="background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; ">
+    <td  class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Upper.</span></td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Chautauquan.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Chemung beds with Catskill <br />
+         &nbsp;as a local facies.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Famennien.</td>
+  </tr>
+   <tr style="background-color: #d3d3d3; color: black; ">
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Senecan.</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca <br />
+         &nbsp;and Oneonta shales as local <br />
+         &nbsp;facies). <br />
+         Genesee shales. <br />
+         Tully limestone.</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Frasnien.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr style="background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; ">
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Middle.</span></td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Erian.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Hamilton shale. <br />
+         Marcellus shale.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Givétien.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr style="background-color: #d3d3d3; color: black; ">
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Ulsterian.</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Onondaga (Corniferous) <br />
+         &nbsp;limestone. <br />
+         Schoharie grit. <br />
+         Esopus grit (Caudagalli grit).</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Eifélien.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr style="background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; ">
+    <td class="ttitle" rowspan="2"><span class="sc">Lower.</span></td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Oriskanian.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Oriskany sandstone.</td>
+    <td class="verttopb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Coblentzien.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr style="background-color: #d3d3d3; color: black; ">
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Helderbergian.</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Kingston beds. <br />
+         Becraft limestone. <br />
+         New Scotland beds. <br />
+         Coeymans limestone.</td>
+    <td class="vertbotb" style="white-space: nowrap; ">
+         Gédinnien.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short
+distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated
+Devonian rocks in many parts of the continent. In the Great Plains this
+system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado, Utah,
+Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona; Devonian rocks occur
+between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains, in the Arbuckle Mountains
+of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the western interior limestones
+predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are found at Eureka, Nevada, beneath
+2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific coast metamorphism of the rocks is
+common, and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them.</p>
+
+<p>In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern
+region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along the course
+of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence they stretch out
+into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much that is now classed as
+Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil evidence to be Carboniferous.</p>
+
+<p><i>South America, Africa, Australia, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;In South America the
+Devonian is well developed; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and the
+Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about the junction of
+the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has affinities with the
+Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied to the South American
+Devonian is that of South Africa, where they are represented by the
+Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In Australia we find Lower Devonian
+consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks; and a Middle
+division with coral limestones in Victoria, New South Wales and
+Queensland; an Upper division has also been observed. In New Zealand the
+Devonian is well exposed in the Reefton mining field; and it has been
+suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may belong to this
+system.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald Geikie,
+"consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down
+conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off in
+the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while they
+are separated from each other by an unconformability." The Old Red
+strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated lakes or
+lagoons, approximately parallel to one another, with a general alignment
+in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas of deposit Sir A. Geikie has
+assigned convenient distinctive names.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a
+pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative of a prolonged
+interval of erosion. In the central valley between the base of the
+Highlands and the southern uplands lay "Lake Caledonia." Here the lower
+division is made up of some 20,000 ft. of shallow-water deposits,
+reddish-brown, yellow and grey sandstones and conglomerates, with
+occasional "cornstones," and thin limestones. The grey flagstones with
+shales are almost confined to Forfarshire, and are known as the
+"Arbroath flags." Interbedded volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites,
+diabases, with agglomerates and tuffs constitute an important feature,
+and attain a thickness of 6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A
+line of old volcanic vents may be traced in a direction roughly parallel
+to the trend of the great central valley. On the northern side of the
+Highlands was "Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than the foregoing
+lake, though its boundaries are not determinable. It lay over Moray
+Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended from Caithness
+to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even have stretched
+across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in Sognefjord and
+Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some parts of northern
+Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the Caithness flags, dark
+grey and bituminous, which, with the red sandstones and conglomerates at
+their base, probably attain a thickness of 16,000 ft. The somewhat
+peculiar fauna of this series led Murchison to class the flags as Middle
+Devonian. In the Shetland Islands contemporaneous volcanic rocks have
+been observed. Over the west of Argyllshire lay "Lake Lorne"; here the
+volcanic rocks predominate, they are intercalated with shallow-water
+deposits. A similar set of rocks occupy the Cheviot district.</p>
+
+<p>The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in Shropshire
+and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales, sandstones and
+marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few fossils, and no break has
+yet been found in the series. In Scotland this series was deposited in
+basins which correspond only partially with those of the earlier period.
+They are well developed in central Scotland over the lowlands bordering
+the Moray Firth. Interbedded lavas and tuffs are found in the island of
+Hoy. An interesting feature of this series is the occurrence of great
+crowds of fossil fishes in some localities, notably at Dura Den in Fife.
+In the north of England this series rests unconformably upon the Lower
+Old Red and the Silurian.</p>
+
+<p>Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmorland, and
+also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey, a brecciated
+conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit in
+places, has often been classed with the Old Red Sandstone, but in parts,
+at least, it is more likely to belong to the base of the Carboniferous
+system. In Ireland the lower division appears to be represented by the
+Dingle beds and Glengariff grits, while the Kerry rocks and the
+Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the equivalents of the upper division. Rocks
+of Old Red type, both lower and upper, are found in Spitzbergen and in
+Bear Island. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the Old Red facies is
+extensively developed. The Gaspé sandstones have been estimated at 7036
+ft. thick. In parts of western Russia Old Red Sandstone fossils are
+found in beds intercalated with others containing marine fauna of the
+Devonian facies.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas.</i></p>
+
+<p>The two types of sediment formed during this period&mdash;the <i>marine</i>
+Devonian and the <i>lagoonal</i> Old Red Sandstone&mdash;representing as they do
+two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical
+condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubtless
+at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off no
+less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have records;
+but this period is the earliest in which these variations of environment
+are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break between the older
+Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous above is not strongly
+marked; and in certain areas a very close relationship can be shown to
+exist between the older Devonian and the former, and the younger
+Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, the life of
+this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality.</p>
+
+<p>The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are presented by
+corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant individually and varied
+in form; and they are so distinctive of the period that no Devonian
+species has yet been found either in the Silurian or in the
+Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present day, and contributed
+to the formation of limestone masses in Devonshire, on the continent of
+Europe and in North America. Rugose and tabulate forms prevailed; among
+the former the cyathophyllids (<i>Cyathophyllum</i>) were important,
+<i>Phillipsastraea</i>, <i>Zaphrentis</i>, <i>Acervularia</i> and the curious
+<i>Calceola</i> (<i>sandalina</i>), an operculate genus which has given
+palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis, for it has been regarded
+as a pelecypod (hippurite) and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page128"></a>[Page 128]</span> a brachiopod. The tabulate
+corals were represented by <i>Favosites</i>, <i>Michelinia</i>, <i>Pleurodictyum</i>,
+<i>Fistulipora</i>, <i>Pachypora</i> and others. <i>Heliolites</i> and <i>Plasmopora</i>
+represent the alcyonarians. Stromatoporoids were important reef
+builders. A well-known fossil is <i>Receptaculites</i>, a genus to which it
+has been difficult to assign a definite place; it has been thought to be
+a sponge, it may be a calcareous alga, or a curious representative of
+the foraminifera.</p>
+
+<p>In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their
+development: they compose three-quarters of the known fauna, and more
+than 1100 species have been described. Changes were taking place from
+the beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera;
+several Silurian forms dropped out, and new types were coming in. A
+noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the
+genus <i>Spirifer</i>, other spiriferids were <i>Ambocoelia</i>, <i>Uncites</i>,
+<i>Verneuilia</i>. Orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance, while
+the productids (<i>Productella</i>, <i>Chonetes</i>, <i>Strophalosia</i>) were
+increasing. The strophomenids were still flourishing, represented by the
+genera <i>Leptaena</i>, <i>Stropheodonta</i>, <i>Kayserella</i>, and others. The
+ancient <i>Lingula</i>, along with <i>Crania</i> and <i>Orbiculoidea</i>, occur among
+the inarticulate forms. Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is
+<i>Atrypa reticularis</i>. The athyrids were very numerous (<i>Athyris</i>,
+<i>Retzia</i>, <i>Merista</i>, <i>Meristella</i>, <i>Kayserina</i>, &amp;c.); and the
+rhynchonellids were well represented by <i>Pugnax</i>, <i>Hypothyris</i>, and
+several other genera. The important group of terebratulids appears in
+this system; amongst them <i>Stringocephalus</i> is an eminently
+characteristic Devonian brachiopod; others are <i>Dielasma</i>,
+<i>Cryptonella</i>, <i>Rensselaeria</i> and <i>Oriskania</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The pelecypod molluscs were represented by <i>Pterinea</i>, abundant in the
+lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by <i>Cucullella</i>,
+<i>Buchiola</i> and <i>Curtonotus</i> in the upper members of the system. Other
+genera are <i>Actinodesma</i>, <i>Cardiola</i>, <i>Nucula</i>, <i>Megalodon</i>,
+<i>Aviculopecten</i>, &amp;c. Gasteropods were becoming more important, but
+the simple capulid forms prevailed: <i>Platyceras</i> (<i>Capulus</i>),
+<i>Straparollus</i>, <i>Pleurotomaria</i>, <i>Murchisonia</i>, <i>Macrocheilina</i>,
+<i>Euomphalus</i>. Among the pteropods, <i>Tentaculites</i> was very abundant in
+some quarters; others were <i>Conularia</i> and <i>Styliolina</i>. In the Devonian
+period the cephalopods began to make a distinct advance in numbers, and
+in development. The goniatites appear with the genera <i>Anarcestes</i>,
+<i>Agoniatites</i>, <i>Tornoceras</i>, <i>Bactrites</i> and others; and in the upper
+strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the later ammonoids, began to take
+definite shape. While several new nautiloids (<i>Homaloceras</i>,
+<i>Ryticeras</i>, &amp;c.) made their appearance several of the older genera
+still lived on (<i>Orthoceras</i>, <i>Poterioceras</i>, <i>Actinoceras</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian sea, though
+they were relatively scarce in others; they include the genera
+<i>Melocrinus</i>, <i>Haplocrinus</i>, <i>Cupressocrinus</i>, <i>Calceocrinus</i> and
+<i>Eleuthrocrinus</i>. The cystideans were falling off (<i>Proteocystis</i>,
+<i>Tiaracrinus</i>), but blastoids were in the ascendant (<i>Nucleocrinus</i>,
+<i>Codaster</i>, &amp;c.). Both brittle-stars, <i>Ophiura</i>, <i>Palaeophiura</i>,
+<i>Eugaster</i>, and true starfishes, <i>Palaeaster</i>, <i>Aspidosoma</i>, were
+present, as well as urchins (<i>Lepidocentrus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct
+assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly lacustrine
+or lagoonal with a eurypteridian facies. The trilobites had already
+begun to decline in importance, and as happens not infrequently with
+degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to develop strange
+eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their genera. A number of
+Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period, and some gradually
+developed into new and distinctive forms; such were <i>Proëtus</i>, <i>Harpes</i>,
+<i>Cheirurus</i>, <i>Bronteus</i> and others. Distinct species of <i>Phacops</i> mark
+the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively, while the genus <i>Dalmania</i>
+(<i>Odontochile</i>) was represented by species with an almost world-wide
+range. The Ostracod <i>Entomis</i> (<i>Cypridina</i>) was extremely abundant in
+places&mdash;<i>Cypridinen-Schiefer</i>&mdash;while the true <i>Cypridina</i> was also
+present along with <i>Beyrichia</i>, <i>Leperditia</i>, &amp;c. The Phyllocarids,
+<i>Echinocaris</i>, <i>Eleuthrocaris</i>, <i>Tropidocaris</i>, are common in the United
+States. It is in the Old Red Sandstone that the eurypterids are best
+preserved; foremost among these was <i>Pterygotus</i>; <i>P. anglicus</i> has been
+found in Scotland with a length of nearly 6 ft.; <i>Eurypterus</i>,
+<i>Slimonia</i>, <i>Stylonurus</i> were other genera.</p>
+
+<p>Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and
+neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder believed he
+had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a stridulating organ was
+present. A species of <i>Ephemera</i>, allied to the modern may-fly, had a
+spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the Scottish Old Red Sandstone
+myriapods, <i>Kampecaris</i> and <i>Archidesmus</i>, have been described; they are
+somewhat simpler than more recent forms, each segment being separate,
+and supplied with only one pair of walking legs. Spiders and scorpions
+also lived upon the land.</p>
+
+<p>The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red strata,
+coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed by some of the
+forms, has caused the period to be described as the "age of fishes." As
+in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above, we find one
+assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater or brackish
+conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine
+Devonian; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there
+seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of living
+in either environment, whatever may have been the real condition of the
+Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious ostracoderms, a
+remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the characteristics of
+fishes, but more probably belonging to a distinct class of organisms,
+which appears to link the vertebrates with the arthropods. They had come
+into existence late in Silurian times; but it is in the Old Red strata
+that their remains are most fully preserved. They were abundant in the
+fresh or brackish waters of Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada,
+and are represented by such forms as <i>Pteraspis</i>, <i>Cephalaspis</i>,
+<i>Cyathaspis</i>, <i>Tremataspis</i>, <i>Bothriolepis</i> and <i>Pterichthys</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the lower members of the Old Red series <i>Dipterus</i>, and in the upper
+members <i>Phaneropleuron</i>, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes; and it is
+of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious forms still
+survive in the African <i>Protopterus</i>, the Australian <i>Ceratodus</i> and the
+South American <i>Lepidosiren</i>,&mdash;all freshwater fishes. Distantly related
+to the lung-fishes were the singular arthrodirans, a group possessing
+the unusual faculty of moving the head in a vertical plane. These
+comprise the wide-ranging <i>Coccosteus</i> with <i>Homosteus</i> and
+<i>Dinichthys</i>, the largest fish of the period. The latter probably
+reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with exceedingly powerful jaws
+provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were fairly prominent denizens
+of the sea; some were armed with cutting teeth, others with crushing
+dental plates; and although they were on the whole marine fishes, they
+were evidently able to live in fresher waters, like some of their modern
+representatives, for their remains, mostly teeth and large dermal
+spines, are found both in the Devonian and Old Red rocks. <i>Mesacanthus</i>,
+<i>Diplacanthus</i>, <i>Climatius</i>, <i>Cheiracanthus</i> are characteristic genera.
+The crossopterygians, ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of the
+fins, were represented by <i>Holoptychius</i> and <i>Glyptopomus</i> in the Upper
+Old Red, and by such genera as <i>Diplopterus</i>, <i>Osteolepis</i>,
+<i>Gyroptychius</i> in the lower division. The <i>Polypterus</i> of the Nile and
+<i>Calamoichthys</i> of South Africa are the modern exemplars of this group.
+<i>Cheirolepis</i>, found in the Old Red of Scotland and Canada, is the only
+Devonian representative of the actinopterygian fishes. The cyclostome
+fishes have, so far, been discovered only in Scotland, in the tiny
+<i>Palaeospondylus</i>. Amphibian remains have been found in the Devonian of
+Belgium; and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the same
+class (<i>Thinopus antiquus</i>) have been described by Professor Marsh from
+the Chemung formation of Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plant Life.</i>&mdash;In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone we
+find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In some
+regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they form
+thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently flourished around
+the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains were buried
+along with the other forms of life. Lycopods and ferns were the
+predominant types; and it is important to notice that both groups were
+already highly developed. The ferns include the genera <i>Sphenopteris</i>,
+<i>Megalopteris</i>, <i>Archaeopteris</i>, <i>Neuropteris</i>. Among the Lycopods are
+<i>Lycopodites</i>, <i>Psilophyton</i>, <i>Lepidodendron</i>. Modern horsetails are
+represented by <i>Calamocladus</i>, <i>Asterocalamites</i>, <i>Annularia</i>. Of great
+interest are the genera <i>Cordaites</i>, <i>Araucarioxylon</i>, &amp;c., which
+were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the Coniferae and the
+Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure markings, aquatic plants
+are not so well represented as might have been expected; <i>Parka</i>, a
+common fossil, has been regarded as a water plant with a creeping stem
+and two kinds of sporangia in sessile sporocarps.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Physical Conditions, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;Perhaps the most striking fact that is
+brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils is the
+gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took place quietly
+in every quarter of the globe shortly after the beginning of the period.
+While in most places the Lower Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian
+formations in a perfectly conformable manner, the Middle and Upper
+divisions, on account of this encroachment of the sea, rest
+unconformably upon the older rocks, the Lower division being
+unrepresented. This is true over the greater part of South America, so
+far as our limited knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North
+America, in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central
+Europe. Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the
+coast lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The
+known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas; no
+abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has pointed out the
+probability of a Eurasian sea province extending through Europe towards
+the east, across north and central Asia towards Manitoba in Canada, and
+an American sea province embracing the United States, South America and
+South Africa. At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land
+area caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before the
+beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe to eastern
+Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red Sandstone was formed.</p>
+
+<p>In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence of three
+zones of deposition: (1) A northern, Old Red, region, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page129"></a>[Page 129]</span>
+including Great Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and Spitzbergen;
+here the land was close at hand; great brackish lagoons prevailed, which
+communicated more or less directly with the open sea. In European
+Russia, during its general advance, the sea occasionally gained access
+to wide areas, only to be driven off again, during pauses in the
+relative subsidence of the land, when the continued terrigenous
+sedimentation once more established the lagoonal conditions. These
+alternating phases were frequently repeated. (2) A middle region,
+covering Devonshire and Cornwall, the Ardennes, the northern part of the
+lower Rhenish mountains, and the upper Harz to the Polish Mittelgebirge;
+here we find evidence of a shallow sea, clastic deposits and a
+sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern region reaching from Brittany to the
+south of the Rhenish mountains, lower Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here
+was a deeper sea with a more pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind
+that the above-mentioned regions are intended to refer to the time when
+the extension of the Devonian sea was near its maximum. In the case of
+North America it has been shown that in early and middle Devonian time
+more or less distinct faunas invaded the continent from five different
+centres, viz. the Helderberg, the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern
+Hamilton and the north-western Hamilton; these reached the interior
+approximately in the order given.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas had
+mingled one with another and a more generalized life assemblage had been
+evolved, we find many forms with a very wide range, indicating great
+uniformity of conditions. Thus we find identical species of brachiopods
+inhabiting the Devonian seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany,
+Russia, southern Asia and China; such are, <i>Hypothyris</i> (<i>Rhynchonella</i>)
+<i>cuboides</i>, <i>Spirifer disjunctus</i> and others. The fauna of the
+<i>Calceola</i> shales can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and
+Siberia; the <i>Stringocephalus</i> limestones are represented in Belgium,
+England, the Urals and Canada; and the (<i>Gephyroceras</i>) <i>intumescens</i>
+shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba.</p>
+
+<p>The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no violent crustal
+movements seem to have taken place, and while some changes of level
+occurred towards its close in Great Britain, Bohemia and Russia,
+generally the passage from Devonian to Carboniferous conditions was
+quite gradual. In later periods these rocks have suffered considerable
+movement and metamorphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and
+in the Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over
+the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly
+widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period. In the
+Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness (6000 ft.) of
+igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates
+and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle
+division. In west central Europe volcanic rocks are found at many
+horizons, the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs,
+<i>schalstein</i>. Felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the Middle Devonian of
+Australia. Contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the
+American Devonian, but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to
+be some.</p>
+
+<p>There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it is
+interesting to observe that local glacial conditions <i>may</i> have existed
+in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated
+boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other hand, the
+prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm
+temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas.</p>
+
+<p>The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some importance: in many
+of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead, copper, iron are
+exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in New Zealand, gold veins
+occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is found in China and a little coal in
+Germany, while the Upper Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of
+western Pennsylvania and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle
+division is oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central
+Tennessee, and in England the marls of the "Old Red" are employed for
+brick-making.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">References.</span>&mdash;The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is very
+extensive; important papers have been contributed by the following
+geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Béclard, E. W. Benecke, L.
+Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W. Dawson, A.
+Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Frech, J. Fournet, Sir A. Geikie,
+G. Gürich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch, A. von Koenen, Hugh
+Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de Rouville, C. Schuchert, T.
+Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E. Ussher, P. N. Wenjukoff, G. F.
+Whidborne, J. F. Whiteaves and H. S. Williams. Sedgwick and Murchison's
+original description appeared in the <i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i> (2nd series,
+vol. v., 1839). Good general accounts will be found in Sir A. Geikie's
+<i>Text-Book of Geology</i> (vol. ii., 4th ed., 1903), in E. Kayser's
+<i>Lehrbuch der Geologie</i> (vol. ii., 2nd ed., 1902), and, for North
+America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's <i>Geology</i> (vol. ii., 1906). See
+the <i>Index to the Geological Magazine</i> (1864-1903), and in subsequent
+annual volumes; <i>Geological Literature added to the Geological Society's
+Library</i> (London), annually since 1893; and the <i>Neues Jahrbuch für
+Min., Geologie und Paläontologie</i> (Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The
+U.S. Geological Survey publishes at intervals a <i>Bibliography and Index
+of North American Geology, &amp;c.</i>, and this (e.g. Bulletin 301,&mdash;the
+<i>Bibliog. and Index</i> for 1901-1905) contains numerous references for the
+Devonian system in North America.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(J. A. H.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVONPORT,</b> a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Devonshire,
+England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and Plymouth, the seat of one of
+the royal dockyards, and an important naval and military station. Pop.
+(1901) 70,437. It is situated immediately above the N.W. angle of
+Plymouth Sound, occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse
+Pool on the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great
+Western and the London &amp; South Western railways. The town proper was
+formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch excavated out of the
+limestone, but these are in great part demolished. Adjoining Devonport
+are East Stonehouse (an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice
+Town, the two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected in
+1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is distinguished by
+a Doric portico; while near it are the public library, in Egyptian
+style, and a conspicuous Doric column built of Devonshire granite. This
+monument, which is 100 ft. high, was raised in commemoration of the
+naming of the town in 1824. Other institutions are the Naval Engineering
+College, Keyham (1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899,
+the majority of the students being connected with the dockyard; the
+naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and the naval and
+military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was formerly defended by a
+battery (now a naval signalling station), stands the military residence,
+or Government House, occupied by the commander of the Plymouth Coast
+Defences; and near at hand is the principal naval residence, the naval
+commander-in-chief's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the
+Hamoaze to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in
+the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devonport, however,
+is the royal dockyard, originally established by William III. in 1689
+and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock. It is situated within the old
+town boundary and contains four docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham
+steamyard, situated higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and
+connected with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further
+extensions were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as
+Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard comprised two
+basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the southern 7 acres in area,
+and three docks, having floor-lengths of 295, 347 and 413 ft., together
+with iron and brass foundries, machinery shops, engineer students' shop,
+&amp;c. The new extensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 21st of
+February 1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in
+front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of 77 acres of
+mudflats lying below high-water mark. The scheme presented three leading
+features&mdash;a tidal basin, a group of three graving docks with entrance
+lock, and a large enclosed basin with a coaling depôt at the north end.
+The tidal basin, close to the old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long
+with a mean width of 590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth
+being 32 ft. at low water of spring tides. It affords access to two
+graving docks, one with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20&frac12; ft. of
+water over the sill, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>[Page 130]</span> the other with a length of 741 ft.
+and 32 ft. of water over the sill. Each of these can be subdivided by
+means of an intermediate caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an
+entrance to the closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the
+closed basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock.
+The closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft. long,
+measures 1550 ft. by 1000 ft. and has an area of 35&frac12; acres, with
+a depth of 32 ft. at low-water springs; it has a direct entrance from
+the Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The foundations of the walls are
+carried down to the rock, which in some places lies covered with mud 100
+ft. or more below coping level. Compressed air is used to work the
+sliding caissons which close the entrances of the docks and closed
+basin. A ropery at Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the
+navy.</p>
+
+<p>By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a parliamentary
+borough including East Stonehouse and returning two members. The ground
+on which it stands is for the most part the property of the St Aubyn
+family (Barons St Levan), whose steward holds a court leet and a court
+baron annually. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and
+forty-eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVONPORT, EAST</b> and <b>WEST</b>, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, situated on
+both sides of the mouth of the river Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of
+Hobart. Pop. (1901), East Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is
+regular communication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it
+ranks as the third port in Tasmania. A celebrated regatta is held on the
+Mersey annually on New Year's day.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF.</b> The Devonshire title, now in the
+Cavendish family, had previously been held by Charles Blount
+(1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson of the 4th Lord Mountjoy
+(d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he was created earl of Devonshire in
+1603 for his services in Ireland, where he became famous in subduing the
+rebellion between 1600 and 1603; but the title became extinct at his
+death. In the Cavendish line the 1st earl of Devonshire was William (d.
+1626), second son of Sir William Cavendish (q.v.), and of Elizabeth
+Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury. He was
+created earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was succeeded by
+William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by his son William
+(1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of the original members of
+the Royal Society, who married a daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">William Cavendish</span>, 1st duke of Devonshire (1640-1707), English
+statesman, eldest son of the earl of Devonshire last mentioned, was born
+on the 25th of January 1640. After completing his education he made the
+tour of Europe according to the custom of young men of his rank, being
+accompanied on his travels by Dr Killigrew. On his return he obtained,
+in 1661, a seat in parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became
+conspicuous as one of the most determined and daring opponents of the
+general policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee
+appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord treasurer
+Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for Derby, and made a privy councillor
+by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from the board with his friend Lord
+Russell, when he found that the Roman Catholic interest uniformly
+prevailed. He carried up to the House of Lords the articles of
+impeachment against Lord Chief-Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and
+illegal proceedings in the court of King's bench; and when the king
+declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of
+York, afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons that a bill
+might be brought in for the association of all his majesty's Protestant
+subjects. He also openly denounced the king's counsellors, and voted for
+an address to remove them. He appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his
+trial, at a time when it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice
+than a witness. After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof
+of his attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell in
+the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his escape.
+In <span class="correction" title="originally 'Novembr'">November</span> 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father.
+He opposed arbitrary government under James II. with the same
+consistency and high spirit as during the previous reign. He was
+withdrawn from public life for a time, however, in consequence of a
+hasty and imprudent act of which his enemies knew how to avail
+themselves. Fancying that he had received an insulting look in the
+presence chamber from Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance
+at court the king encouraged, he immediately avenged the affront by
+challenging the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking
+him with his cane. This offence was punished by a fine of £30,000, which
+was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely fortune. Not
+being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's bench, from which he
+was released only on signing a bond for the whole amount. This was
+afterwards cancelled by King William. After his discharge the earl went
+for a time to Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of
+a new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by Verrio,
+Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again brought him into
+prominence. He was one of the seven who signed the original paper
+inviting the prince of Orange from Holland, and was the first nobleman
+who appeared in arms to receive him at his landing. He received the
+order of the Garter on the occasion of the coronation, and was made lord
+high steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William on
+his visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington and duke of
+Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on the same day on which the
+head of the house of Russell was created duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote
+Macaulay, "the two great houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long
+been closely connected by friendship and by marriage, by common
+opinions, common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same
+day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to confer."
+His last public service was assisting to conclude the union with
+Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son, the marquis of
+Hartington, had been appointed among the commissioners by Queen Anne. He
+died on the 18th of August 1707, and ordered the following inscription
+to be put on his monument:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">Willielmus Dux Devon, <br />
+Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus, <br />
+Inimicus et Invisus Tyrannis.</p>
+
+<p>He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of Ormonde, and he
+was succeeded by his eldest son William as 2nd duke, and by the latter's
+son William as 3rd duke (viceroy of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's
+son William (1720-1764) succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the
+daughter and heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and Cork, who
+brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and from
+November 1756 to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly in order that
+Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of Newcastle, should be in
+power. His son William (1748-1811), 5th duke, is memorable as the
+husband of the beautiful Georgiana Spencer, duchess of Devonshire
+(1757-1806), and of the intellectual Elizabeth Foster, duchess of
+Devonshire (1758-1824), both of whom Gainsborough painted. His son
+William, 6th duke (1790-1858), who died unmarried, was sent on a special
+mission to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and
+became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was he who
+employed Sir Joseph Paxton at Chatsworth. The title passed in 1858 to
+his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of Burlington, as 7th duke, a
+man who, without playing a prominent part in public affairs, exercised
+great influence, not only by his position but by his distinguished
+abilities. At Cambridge in 1829 he was second wrangler, first Smith's
+prizeman, and eighth classic, and subsequently he became chancellor of
+the university.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Spencer Compton Cavendish</span>, 8th duke (1833-1908), born on the 23rd of
+July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke (then earl of Burlington) and his
+wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord
+Cavendish, as he then was, took his degree at Trinity College,
+Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to the special mission to Russia for
+the new tsar's accession; and in 1857 he was returned to parliament as
+Liberal member for North Lancashire. At the opening of the new
+parliament of 1859 the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page131"></a>[Page 131]</span> marquis of Hartington (as he had now
+become) moved the amendment to the address which overthrew the
+government of Lord Derby. In 1863 he became first a lord of the
+admiralty, and then under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the
+Russell-Gladstone administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he
+entered it as war secretary. He retired with his colleagues in July
+1866; but upon Mr Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he became
+postmaster-general, an office which he exchanged in 1871 for that of
+secretary for Ireland. When Mr Gladstone, after his defeat and
+resignation in 1874, temporarily withdrew from the leadership of the
+Liberal party in January 1875, Lord Hartington was chosen Liberal leader
+in the House of Commons, Lord Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W.
+E. Forster, who had taken a much more prominent part in public life, was
+the only other possible nominee, but he declined to stand. Lord
+Hartington's rank no doubt told in his favour, and Mr Forster's
+education bill had offended the Nonconformist members, who would
+probably have withheld their support. Lord Hartington's prudent
+management in difficult circumstances laid his followers under great
+obligations, since not only was the opposite party in the ascendant, but
+his own former chief was indulging in the freedom of independence. After
+the complete defeat of the Conservatives in the general election of
+1880, a large proportion of the party would have rejoiced if Lord
+Hartington could have taken the Premiership instead of Mr Gladstone, and
+the queen, in strict conformity with constitutional usage (though
+Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have had the
+preference), sent for him as leader of the Opposition. Mr Gladstone,
+however, was clearly master of the situation: no cabinet could be formed
+without him, nor could he reasonably be expected to accept a subordinate
+post. Lord Hartington, therefore, gracefully abdicated the leadership,
+and became secretary of state for India, from which office, in December
+1882, he passed to the war office. His administration was memorable for
+the expeditions of General Gordon and Lord Wolseley to Khartum, and a
+considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly
+responsible for the "betrayal of Gordon." His lethargic manner, apart
+from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in their
+minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government
+acted "too late"; but Gladstone and Lord Granville were no less
+responsible than he. In June 1885 he resigned along with his colleagues,
+and in December was elected for the Rossendale Division of Lancashire,
+created by the new reform bill. Immediately afterwards the great
+political opportunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr
+Gladstone's conversion to home rule for Ireland. Lord Hartington's
+refusal to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the
+chief of the new Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and
+influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved the
+first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera house, and
+also, in the House of Commons, moved the rejection of Mr Gladstone's
+Bill on the second reading. During the memorable electoral contest which
+followed, no election excited more interest than Lord Hartington's for
+the Rossendale division, where he was returned by a majority of nearly
+1500 votes. In the new parliament he held a position much resembling
+that which Sir Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the
+leader of a small, compact party, the standing and ability of whose
+members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally esteemed
+and trusted beyond any other man in the country, yet in his own opinion
+forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's offers to serve under him
+as prime minister (both after the general election, and again when Lord
+Randolph Churchill resigned) were declined, and Lord Hartington
+continued to discharge the delicate duties of the leader of a middle
+party with no less judgment than he had shown when leading the Liberals
+during the interregnum of 1875-1880. It was not until 1895, when the
+differences between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become
+almost obliterated by changed circumstances, and the habit of acting
+together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the death of
+his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's third ministry
+as president of the council. The duke thus was the nominal
+representative of education in the cabinet at a time when educational
+questions were rapidly becoming of great importance; and his own
+technical knowledge of this difficult and intricate question being
+admittedly superficial, a good deal of criticism from time to time
+resulted. He had however by this time an established position in public
+life, and a reputation for weight of character, which procured for him
+universal respect and confidence, and exempted him from bitter attack,
+even from his most determined political opponents. Wealth and rank
+combined with character to place him in a measure above party; and his
+succession to his father as chancellor of the university of Cambridge in
+1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the country. In the same year
+he had married the widow of the 7th duke of Manchester.</p>
+
+<p>He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council till
+the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on account of differences with
+Mr <a>Balfour</a> (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards free trade. As Mr
+Chamberlain had retired from the cabinet, and the duke had not thought
+it necessary to join Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in resigning a
+fortnight earlier, the defection was unanticipated and was sharply
+criticized by Mr Balfour, who, in the rearrangement of his ministry, had
+only just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish, to
+be secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the conclusion
+that while he himself was substantially a free-trader,<a name="FnAnchor_5" href="#Footnote_5"><sup>[1]</sup></a> Mr Balfour did
+not mean the same thing by the term. He necessarily became the leader of
+the Free Trade Unionists who were neither Balfourites nor
+Chamberlainites, and his weight was thrown into the scale against any
+association of Unionism with the constructive policy of tariff reform,
+which he identified with sheer Protection. A struggle at once began
+within the Liberal Unionist organization between those who followed the
+duke and those who followed Mr <a>Chamberlain</a> (q.v.); but the latter were
+in the majority and a reorganization in the Liberal Unionist Association
+took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a separate
+body. The duke then became president of the new organizations, the
+Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist Free Trade Club. In the
+subsequent developments the duke played a dignified but somewhat silent
+part, and the Unionist rout in 1906 was not unaffected by his open
+hostility to any taint of compromise with the tariff reform movement.
+But in the autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of
+cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and
+spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on the
+24th of March 1908.</p>
+
+<p>The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial magnate,
+and an Englishman with thoroughly national tastes for sport, his weighty
+and disinterested character made him a statesman of the first rank in
+his time, in spite of the absence of showy or brilliant qualities. He
+had no self-seeking ambitions, and on three occasions preferred not to
+become prime minister. Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he
+was not an orator, nor "clever"; and he lacked all subtlety of
+intellect; but he was conspicuous for solidity of mind and
+straightforwardness of action, and for conscientious application as an
+administrator, whether in his public or private life. The fact that he
+once yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly quoted as
+characteristic; but he combined a great fund of common sense and
+knowledge of the average opinion with a patriotic sense of duty towards
+the state. Throughout his career he remained an old-fashioned Liberal,
+or rather Whig, of a type which in his later years was becoming
+gradually more and more rare.</p>
+
+<p>There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as 9th duke by
+his nephew <span class="sc">Victor Christian Cavendish</span> (b. 1868), who had been Liberal
+Unionist member for West Derbyshire since 1891, and was treasurer of the
+household (1900 to 1903) and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>[Page 132]</span> financial secretary to the
+treasury (1903 to 1905); in 1892 he married a daughter of the marquess
+of Lansdowne, by whom he had two sons.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(H. Ch.)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_5" href="#FnAnchor_5">[1]</a> His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: "I believe that
+our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advantageous
+to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on
+which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any
+departure from it, for sufficient reasons."</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVONSHIRE</b> (<span class="sc">Devon</span>), a south-western county of England, bounded N.W. and
+N. by the Bristol Channel, N.E. by Somerset and Dorset, S.E. and S. by
+the English Channel, and W. by Cornwall. The area, 2604.9 sq. m., is
+exceeded only by those of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English
+counties. Nearly the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly. The
+county contains the highest land in England south of Derbyshire
+(excepting points on the south Welsh border); and the scenery, much
+varied, is in most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad
+uplands of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend
+into North Devon, and are still the haunt of red deer, and of the small
+hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dartmoor, the
+streams are rich in trout. Dartmoor, the principal physical feature of
+the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of moorland which rises in the
+southern part. Its highest point, 2039 ft., is found in the
+north-western portion. Its rough wastes contrast finely with the wild
+but wooded region which immediately surrounds the granite of which it is
+composed, and with the rich cultivated country lying beyond. Especially
+noteworthy in this fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful district
+of apple orchards, lying between the Erme and the Dart; the rich
+meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale of Exeter; and the red rocks
+near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a characteristic charm to the
+Devonshire landscape are the number of picturesque old cottages roofed
+with thatch; and the deep lanes, sunk below the common level of the
+ground, bordered by tall hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs.
+The north and south coasts of the county differ much in character, but
+both have grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by any in England
+or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of colour.
+As a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers flow seaward
+are densely wooded, and the country immediately inland is of great
+beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which constitutes the boundary between
+Devon and Cornwall, and flows into the English Channel, after forming in
+its estuary the harbours of Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers
+rise on Dartmoor. These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling
+into the English Channel, and the Taw flowing north towards Bideford
+Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives part of
+its waters from Dartmoor through the Okement, but itself rises in the
+angle of high land near Hartland point on the north coast, and makes a
+wide sweep southward. The lesser Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme
+and the Vealm, all running south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in
+Somersetshire; but the main part of its course is through Devonshire
+(where it gives name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the
+English Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the Creedy and the
+Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south, and
+the Axe, for part of its course, divides the counties of Devon and
+Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow; while the rivers
+of Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid course.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks in
+Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a series of slates, grits and
+greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian
+cherts as at Codden Hill; beds of "culm," an impure variety of coal, are
+found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at Bampton,
+Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western boundary. North
+and south of the Culm an older series of slates, grits and limestones
+appears; it was considered so characteristic of the county that it was
+called the <a>Devonian system</a> (q.v.), the marine equivalent of the Old Red
+Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It lies in the form of a trough with
+its axis running east and west. In the central hollow the Culm reposes,
+while the northern and southern rims rise to the surface respectively
+north of the latitude of Barnstaple and South Molton and south of the
+latitude of Tavistock. These Devonian rocks have been subdivided into
+upper, middle and lower divisions, but the stratigraphy is difficult to
+follow as the beds have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of
+contorted strata may be seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in
+the south, at Bolt Head and Start Point they have undergone severe
+metamorphism. Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but in
+the south important masses occur, in the middle and at the base of the
+upper subdivisions, about Plymouth, Torquay, Brixham and between Newton
+Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these limestones, which are
+largely quarried and when polished are known as Devonshire marbles.</p>
+
+<p>On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set of
+rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently towards
+the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of the younger
+rocks is a series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and marls which
+are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some geologists have been
+classed as Permian. These red rocks are beautifully exposed on the coast
+by Dawlish and Teignmouth, and they extend inland, producing a red soil,
+past Exeter and Tiverton. A long narrow strip of the same formation
+reaches out westward on the top of the Culm as far as Jacobstow. Farther
+east, the Bunter pebble beds are represented by the well-known pebble
+deposit of Budleigh Salterton, whence they are traceable inland towards
+Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper marls and sandstones, well
+exposed at Sidmouth, where the upper Greensand plateau is clearly seen
+to overlie them. The Greensand covers all the high ground northward from
+Sidmouth as far as the Blackdown Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the
+Chalk is seen, and at the latter place is a famous landslip on the
+coast, caused by the springs which issue from the Greensand below the
+Chalk. The Lower Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was
+formerly in considerable demand. At the extreme east of the county,
+Rhaetic and Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a "bone"
+bed bearing the remains of saurians and fish.</p>
+
+<p>Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm and
+Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times and subsequently exposed by
+denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity are abundant in the
+masses of diabase, dolerite, &amp;c., at Bradford and Trusham, south of
+Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington. Perhaps the most interesting
+is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent Tor near Tavistock. An Eocene
+deposit, the product of the denudation of the Dartmoor Hills, lies in a
+small basin at Bovey Tracey (see <a>Bovey Beds</a>); it yields beds of lignite
+and valuable clays.</p>
+
+<p>Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near Torquay
+and at other points, and a submerged forest lies in the bay south of the
+same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian limestone at Kent's
+Hole near Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are famous for the remains of
+extinct mammals; bones of the elephant, rhinoceros, bear and hyaena have
+been found as well as flint implements of early man.</p>
+
+<p><i>Minerals.</i>&mdash;Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near the
+north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been worked on Dartmoor (in stream
+works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much worked before the end
+of the 18th century. Tin occurs in the granite of Dartmoor, and along
+its borders, but rather where the Devonian than where the Carboniferous
+rocks border the granite. It is found most plentifully in the district
+which surrounds Tavistock, which, for tin and other ores, is in effect
+the great mining district of the county. Here, about 4 m. from
+Tavistock, are the Devon Great Consols mines, which from 1843 to 1871
+were among the richest copper mines in the world, and by far the largest
+and most profitable in the kingdom. The divided profits during this
+period amounted to £1,192,960. But the mining interests of Devonshire
+are affected by the same causes, and in the same way, as those of
+Cornwall. The quantity of ore has greatly diminished, and the cost of
+raising it from the deep mines prevents competition with foreign
+markets. In many mines tin underlies the general depth of the copper,
+and is worked when the latter has been exhausted. The mineral products
+of the Tavistock district are various, and besides tin and copper, ores
+of zinc and iron are largely distributed. Great quantities of refined
+arsenic have been produced at the Devon Great Consols mine, by
+elimination from the iron pyrites contained in the various lodes.
+Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood of Exeter, in the valley of the
+Teign and in N. Devon; but the most profitable mines, which are shallow,
+are, like those of tin and copper, in the Tavistock district.</p>
+
+<p>The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles, building
+stones, slates and potters' clay. Among building stones, the granite of
+Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried near Princetown,
+near Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor and elsewhere. The annual
+export is considerable. Hard traps, which occur in many places, are also
+much used, as are the limestones of Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The
+Roborough stone, used from an early period in Devonshire churches, is
+found near Tavistock, and is a hard, porphyritic elvan, taking a fine
+polish. Excellent roofing slates occur in the Devonian series round the
+southern part of Dartmoor. The chief quarries are near Ashburton and
+Plymouth (Cann quarry). Potters' clay is worked at King's Teignton,
+whence it is largely exported; at Bovey Tracey; and at Watcombe near
+Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of the finest quality. China clay or
+kaolin is found on the southern side of Dartmoor, at Lee Moor, and near
+Trowlesworthy. There is a large deposit of umber close to Ashburton.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>&mdash;The climate varies greatly in different
+parts of the county, but everywhere it is more humid <span class="pagenum"><a name="page133"></a>[Page 133]</span> than
+that of the eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The mean annual
+temperature somewhat exceeds that of the midlands, but the average
+summer heat is rather less than that of the southern counties to the
+east. The air of the Dartmoor highlands is sharp and bracing. Mists are
+frequent, and snow often lies long. On the south coast frost is little
+known, and many half hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles,
+geraniums and heliotropes, live through the winter without protection.
+The climate of Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places
+on this coast is very equable, the mean temperature in January being
+43.6° at Plymouth. The north coast, exposed to the storms and swell of
+the Atlantic, is more bracing; although there also, in the more
+sheltered nooks (as at Combe Martin), myrtles of great size and age
+flower freely, and produce their annual crop of berries.</p>
+
+<p>Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county is under
+cultivation; the cultivated area falling a little below the average of
+the English counties. There are, however, about 160,000 acres of hill
+pasture in addition to the area in permanent pasture, which is more than
+one-half that of the cultivated area. The Devon breed of cattle is well
+adapted both for fattening and for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept
+in great numbers on the hill pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief
+cattle-farming and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for
+two products of the dairy&mdash;the clotted cream to which it gives its name,
+and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats occupy about three times
+the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk of the acreage under green
+crops is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangold. Orchards occupy a
+large acreage, and consist chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every farm
+maintaining one for the manufacture of cider.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fisheries.</i>&mdash;Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable than those
+of Cornwall, large quantities of the pilchard and herrings caught in
+Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much of the fishing is carried on
+within the three-mile limit; and it may be asserted that trawling is the
+main feature of the Devonshire industry, whereas seining and driving
+characterize that of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice,
+soles, turbot, shrimps, lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with,
+besides herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After
+Plymouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are
+lesser stations in every bay and estuary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Industries.</i>&mdash;The principal industrial works in the county
+are the various Government establishments at Plymouth and
+Devonport. Among other industries may be noted the lace-works
+at Tiverton; the manufacture of pillow-lace for which
+Honiton and its neighbourhood has long been famous; and the
+potteries and terra-cotta works of Bovey Tracey and Watcombe.
+Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh and
+Ashburton, and boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is
+employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &amp;c., in the
+great prison of Dartmoor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The main line of the Great Western railway, entering
+the county in the east from Taunton, runs to Exeter, skirts the coast as
+far as Teignmouth, and continues a short distance inland by Newton Abbot
+to Plymouth, after which it crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great
+bridge to Saltash in Cornwall. Branches serve Torquay and other seaside
+resorts of the south coast; and among other branches are those from
+Taunton to Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to Tavistock and
+Launceston. The main line of the London &amp; South-Western railway
+between Exeter and Plymouth skirts the north and west of Dartmoor by
+Okehampton and Tavistock. A branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple,
+Ilfracombe, Bideford and Torrington, while the Lynton &amp; Barnstaple
+and the Bideford, Westward Ho &amp; Appledore lines serve the districts
+indicated by their names. The branch line to Princetown from the
+Plymouth-Tavistock line of the Great Western company in part follows the
+line of a very early railway&mdash;that constructed to connect Plymouth with
+the Dartmoor prison in 1819-1825, which was worked with horse cars. The
+only waterways of any importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to
+Gunnislake (3 m. S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal,
+noteworthy as one of the oldest in England, for it was originally cut in
+the reign of Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The area of the ancient county is
+1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891 of 631,808, and 1901 of
+661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168 acres. The
+county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Barnstaple (pop.
+14,137), Bideford (8754), Dartmouth (6579), Devonport, a county borough
+(70,437), Exeter, a city and county borough (47,185), Torrington,
+officially Great Torrington (3241), Honiton (3271), Okehampton (2569),
+Plymouth, a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848), Tiverton
+(10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (4035). The other urban districts are
+Ashburton (2628), Bampton (1657), Brixham (8092), Buckfastleigh (2520),
+Budleigh Salterton (1883), Crediton (3974), Dawlish (4003), East
+Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485), Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy
+(1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivybridge (1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton
+(1641), Newton Abbot (12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495),
+Paignton (8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201),
+Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The county is in the western
+circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one court of quarter
+sessions, and is divided into twenty-four petty sessional divisions. The
+boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford, Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth, South
+Molton, and Tiverton have separate commissions of the peace and courts
+of quarter sessions, and those of Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay
+and Totnes have commissions of the peace only. There are 461 civil
+parishes. Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of
+small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro; and there are 516
+ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
+county. The parliamentary divisions are the Eastern or Honiton,
+North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North-western or
+Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes, Torquay, and Mid
+or Ashburton, each returning one member; and the county also contains
+the parliamentary boroughs of Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two
+members, and that of Exeter, returning one member.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun some time
+before the 8th century, for in 700 there existed at Exeter a famous
+Saxon school. By this time, however, the Saxons had become Christians,
+and established their supremacy, not by destructive inroads, but by a
+gradual process of colonization, settling among the native Welsh and
+allowing them to hold lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of
+the district which is now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must
+have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter, remained
+partly Welsh until the time of &AElig;thelstan. At the beginning of the 9th
+century Wessex was divided into definite <i>pagi</i>, probably corresponding
+to the later shires, and the Saxon Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name
+in 823, when a battle was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the
+people of Devonshire at Camelford. During the Danish invasions of the
+9th century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In 851 the
+invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of Devon, and in 878,
+when the Danes under Hubba were harrying the coast with a squadron of
+twenty-three ships, they were again defeated with great slaughter by the
+fyrd. The modern hundreds of Devonshire correspond in position very
+nearly with those given in the Domesday Survey, though the names have in
+many cases been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places
+of meeting. The hundred of Bampton formerly included estates west of the
+Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge. Ten of the modern
+hundreds have been formed by the union of two or more Domesday hundreds,
+while the Domesday hundred of Liston has had the new hundred of
+Tavistock severed from it since 1114. Many of the hundreds were
+separated by tracts of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire
+contained a vast extent, until in 1204 the inhabitants paid 5000 marks
+to have the county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor
+and Exmoor.</p>
+
+<p>Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric <span class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>[Page
+134]</span> of Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached to the newly
+created diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund constituted
+Devonshire a separate diocese, and placed the see at Crediton. About
+1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall were united, and in 1049
+the see was fixed at Exeter. The archdeaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple
+and Totnes are all mentioned in the 12th century and formerly comprised
+twenty-four deaneries. The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and
+Ottery have been created since the 16th century, while those of
+Tamerton, Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre have been abolished,
+bringing the present number to twenty-three.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an active hostility
+to Harold, and the easy submission which it rendered to the Conqueror
+accounts for the exceptionally large number of Englishmen who are found
+retaining lands after the Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman
+barons were known as honours, chief among them being Plympton,
+Okehampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of Plympton was
+bestowed in the 12th century on the Redvers family, together with the
+earldom of Devon; in the 13th century it passed to the Courtenay family,
+who had already become possessed of the honour of Okehampton, and who in
+1335 obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in the
+14th century on the Holland family, which became extinct in the reign of
+Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh, who was born at
+Budleigh, had long held considerable estates in the county.</p>
+
+<p>Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being at first
+hereditary, but afterwards held for one year only. In 1320 complaint was
+made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in the hands of the great
+lords, who did not appoint a sufficiency of bailiffs for their proper
+government. The miners of Devon had independent courts, known as
+stannary courts, for the regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary
+towns being Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient
+miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor.</p>
+
+<p>The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen by Baldwin
+de Redvers, and in the 14th and 15th centuries the French made frequent
+attacks on the Devonshire coast, being repulsed in 1404 by the people of
+Dartmouth. In the Wars of the Roses the county was much divided, and
+frequent skirmishes took place between the earl of Devon and Lord
+Bonville, the respective champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist
+parties. Great disturbances in the county followed the Reformation of
+the 16th century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say mass at
+Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county as a
+whole favoured the parliament, but the prevailing desire was for peace,
+and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities in Devonshire and
+Cornwall was agreed upon. Skirmishes, however, continued until the
+capture of Dartmouth and Exeter in 1646 put an end to the struggle. In
+1688 the prince of Orange landed at Torbay and was entertained for
+several days at Ford and at Exeter.</p>
+
+<p>The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time immemorial, and in the
+14th century mines of tin, copper, lead, gold and silver are mentioned.
+Agriculturally the county was always poor, and before the
+disafforestation rendered especially so through the ravages committed by
+the herds of wild deer. At the time of the Domesday Survey the salt
+industry was important, and there were ninety-nine mills in the county
+and thirteen fisheries. From an early period the chief manufacture was
+that of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manufacture
+of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire. About 1505
+Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an improved method of spinning
+into the county, and cider-making is mentioned in the 16th century. In
+1680 the lace industry was already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St
+Mary, and flax, hemp and malt were largely produced in the 17th and 18th
+centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295
+Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock, Torrington and Totnes were also
+represented. In 1831 the county with its boroughs returned a total of
+twenty-six members, but under the Reform Act of 1832 it returned four
+members in two divisions, and with ten boroughs was represented by a
+total of eighteen members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six
+members in three divisions, and four of the boroughs were disfranchised,
+making a total of seventeen members.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich as
+Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest interest, the
+most peculiar of which are the long parallel alignments of upright
+stones, which, on a small scale, resemble those of Carnac in Brittany.
+On Dartmoor the lines are invariably straight, and are found in direct
+connexion with cairns, and with circles which are probably sepulchral.
+These stone avenues are very numerous. Of the so-called sacred circles
+the best examples are the "Longstones" on Scorhill Down, and the "Grey
+Wethers" under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest cromlech is the
+"Spinster's Rock" at Drewsteignton, a three-pillared cromlech which may
+well be compared with those of Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or
+single upright stones; a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of
+the Teign, near the Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit
+of nearly every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on
+Heltor, above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably evident that these
+have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite, and
+that the dolmen in the Teign is due to the action of the river. Clusters
+of hut foundations, circular, and formed of rude granite blocks, are
+frequent; the best example of such a primitive village is at Batworthy,
+near Chagford; the type resembles that of East Cornwall. Walled
+enclosures, or pounds, occur in many places; Grimspound is the most
+remarkable. Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor
+in many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of great slabs of
+granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor. Scattered
+over the county are numerous large hill castles and camps,&mdash;all
+earthworks, and all apparently of the British period. Roman relics have
+been found from time to time at Exeter (<i>Isca Damnoniorum</i>), the only
+large Roman station in the county.</p>
+
+<p>The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period, dating
+from the middle of the 14th to the end of the 15th century. Exeter
+cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except the Norman
+towers) being very beautiful Decorated work. The special features of
+Devonshire churches, however, are the richly carved pulpits and chancel
+screens of wood, in which this county exceeded every other in England,
+with the exception of Norfolk and Suffolk. The designs are rich and
+varied, and the skill displayed often very great. Granite crosses are
+frequent, the finest and earliest being that of Coplestone, near
+Crediton. Monastic remains are scanty; the principal are those at Tor,
+Buckfast, Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings the
+houses of Wear Gilford, Bradley and Dartington of the 15th century;
+Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan), and Forde (Jacobean),
+deserve notice. The ruined castles of Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter,
+with its vast British earthworks, Berry Pomeroy (Henry III., with ruins
+of a large Tudor mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 15th
+century), are all interesting and picturesque.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;T. Westcote, <i>Survey of Devon</i>, written about 1630, and
+first printed in 1845; J. Prince, <i>Worthies of Devon</i> (Exeter, 1701);
+Sir W. Pole, <i>Collections towards a History of the County of Devon</i>
+(London, 1791); R. Polwhele, <i>History of Devonshire</i> (3 vols. Exeter,
+1797, 1798-1800); T. Moore, <i>History of Devon from the Earliest Period
+to the Present Time</i> (vols, i., ii., London, 1829-1831); G. Oliver,
+<i>Historic Collections relating to the Monasteries in Devon</i> (Exeter,
+1820); D. and S. Lysons, <i>Magna Britannia</i> (vol. vi., London, 1822);
+<i>Ecclesiastical Antiquities in Devon</i> (Exeter, 1844); Mrs Bray,
+<i>Traditions of Devonshire</i>, in a series of letters to Robert Southey
+(London, 1838); G. C. Boase, <i>Devonshire Bibliography</i> (London, 1883);
+Sir W. R. Drake, <i>Devonshire Notes and Notelets</i> (London, 1888); S.
+Hewett, <i>Peasant Speech of Devon</i> (London, 1892); R. N. Worth, <i>History
+of Devonshire</i> (London, 1886, new edition, 1895); C. Worthy, <i>Devonshire
+Parishes</i> (Exeter, 1887); <i>Devonshire Wills</i> (London, 1896); <i>Victoria
+County History, Devonshire</i>.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEVRIENT,</b> the name of a family of German actors.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Ludwig Devrient</span> (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the 15th of December
+1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He was <span class="pagenum"><a name="page135"></a>[Page 135]</span> apprenticed to
+an upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employment, joined a
+travelling theatrical company, and made his first appearance on the
+stage at Gera in 1804 as the messenger in Schiller's <i>Braut von
+Messina</i>. By the interest of Count Brühl, he appeared at Rudolstadt as
+Franz Moor in Schiller's <i>Räuber</i>, so successfully that he obtained a
+permanent engagement at the ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played
+until 1809. He then received a call to Breslau, where he remained for
+six years. So brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of
+Shakespeare's plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation;
+yet that great artist was generous enough to recommend the young actor
+as his only possible successor. On Iffland's death Devrient was summoned
+to Berlin, where he was for fifteen years the popular idol. He died
+there on the 30th of December 1832. Ludwig Devrient was equally great in
+comedy and tragedy. Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard
+II. were among his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his <i>Reminiscences</i>
+has given a graphic picture of him and the "demoniac fascination" of his
+acting.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Z. Funck, <i>Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und
+Devrients</i> (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in <i>Devrient-Novellen</i> (3rd ed.,
+Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel <i>Devrient und Hoffmann</i> (Berlin,
+1873), and Eduard Devrient's <i>Geschichte der deutschen Schauspielkunst</i>
+(Leipzig, 1861).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother, a
+merchant, were also connected with the stage. <span class="sc">Karl August Devrient</span>
+(1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the 5th of April 1797. After being for
+a short time in business, he entered a cavalry regiment as volunteer and
+fought at Waterloo. He then joined the stage, making his first
+appearance on the stage in 1819 at Brunswick. In 1821 he received an
+engagement at the court theatre in Dresden, where, in 1823, he married
+Wilhelmine Schröder (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schröder-Devrient</a></span>). In 1835 he joined the
+company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His best parts were
+Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the 5th of April 1872. His brother
+<span class="sc">Philipp Eduard Devrient</span> (1801-1877), born at Berlin on the 11th of
+August 1801, was for a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to
+theatrical management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director of the court
+theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began a thorough
+reorganization of the theatre, and in the course of seventeen years of
+assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high position, but enriched
+its repertory by many noteworthy librettos, among which <i>Die Gunst des
+Augenblicks</i> and <i>Verirrungen</i> are the best known. But his chief work is
+his history of the German stage&mdash;<i>Geschichte der deutschen
+Schauspielkunst</i> (Leipzig, 1848-1874). He died on the 4th of October
+1877. A complete edition of his works&mdash;<i>Dramatische und dramaturgische
+Schriften</i>&mdash;was published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873).</p>
+
+<p>The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of Ludwig Devrient
+was <span class="sc">Gustav Emil Devrient</span> (1803-1872), born in Berlin on the 4th of
+September 1803. He made his first appearance on the stage in 1821, at
+Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's <i>Jungfrau von Orleans</i>. After a short
+engagement in Leipzig, he received in 1829 a call to Hamburg, but after
+two years accepted a permanent appointment at the court theatre in
+Dresden, to which he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief
+characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play), Marquis
+Posa (in Schiller's <i>Don Carlos</i>), and Goethe's Torquato Tasso. He acted
+several times in London, where his Hamlet was considered finer than
+Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on the 7th of August 1872.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Otto Devrient</span> (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on the 3rd of
+October 1838, was the son of Philipp Eduard Devrient. He joined the
+stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively in Stuttgart, Berlin
+and Leipzig, until he received a fixed appointment at Karlsruhe, in
+1863. In 1873 he became stage manager at Weimar, where he gained great
+praise for his <i>mise en scène</i> of Goethe's <i>Faust</i>. After being manager
+of the theatres in Mannheim and Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in
+1883 he was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884
+he was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and in
+1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died at Stettin on the
+23rd of June 1894.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEW.</b> The word "dew" (O.E. <i>deaw</i>; cf. Ger. <i>Tau</i>) is a very ancient one
+and its meaning must therefore be defined on historical principles.
+According to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, it means "the moisture
+deposited in minute drops upon any cool surface by condensation of the
+vapour of the atmosphere; formed after a hot day, during or towards
+night and plentiful in the early morning." Huxley in his <i>Physiography</i>
+makes the addition "without production of mist." The formation of mist
+is not necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it necessarily
+prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead of
+water it is called hoarfrost. The researches of Aitken suggest that the
+words "by condensation of the vapour in the atmosphere" might be omitted
+from the definition. He has given reasons for believing that the large
+dewdrops on the leaves of plants, the most characteristic of all the
+phenomena of dew, are to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by
+the exuding of drops of water from the plant through the pores of the
+leaves themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases is the
+continuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the
+leaves with water from the soil. The process is set up in full vigour in
+the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions at the surface of
+the leaf in the hot sun, and continued after the sun has gone.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illustrating the
+formation of dew is the production of a deposit of moisture, in minute
+drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass or polished metal vessel by
+the cooling of a liquid contained in the vessel. If the liquid is water,
+it can be cooled by pieces of ice; if volatile like ether, by bubbling
+air through it. No deposit is formed by this process until the
+temperature is reduced to a point which, from that circumstance, has
+received a special name, although it depends upon the state of the air
+round the vessel. So generally accepted is the physical analogy between
+the natural formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner
+described, that the point below which the temperature of a surface must
+be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known as the "dew-point."</p>
+
+<p>In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at which, <i>by
+being cooled without change of pressure</i>, the air becomes saturated with
+water vapour, not on account of any increase of supply of that compound,
+but by the diminution of the capacity of the air for holding it in the
+gaseous condition. Thus, when the dew-point temperature has been
+determined, the pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere at the time
+of the deposit is given by reference to a table of saturation pressures
+of water vapour at different temperatures. As it is a well-established
+proposition that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not
+vary while the air is being cooled without change of its total external
+pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the pressure of
+water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced. Thus the artificial
+formation of dew and consequent determination of the dew-point is a
+recognized method of measuring the pressure, and thence the amount of
+water vapour in the atmosphere. The dew-point method is indeed in some
+ways a fundamental method of hygrometry.</p>
+
+<p>The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the question of
+the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse. So long as the
+dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter, but when the
+dew-point begins to approach the normal temperature of the human body
+the atmosphere becomes insupportable.</p>
+
+<p>The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists practically in
+determining the process or processes by which leaves, blades of grass,
+stones, and other objects in the open air upon which dew may be
+observed, become cooled "below the dew-point."</p>
+
+<p>Formerly, from the time of Aristotle at least, dew was supposed to
+"fall." That view of the process was not extinct at the time of
+Wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without reproach. To
+Dr Charles Wells of London belongs the credit of bringing to a focus the
+ideas which originated with the study of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>[Page 136]</span> radiation at the
+beginning of the 19th century, and which are expressed by saying that
+the cooling necessary to produce dew on exposed surfaces is to be
+attributed to the radiation from the surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an
+account of the theory of automatic cooling by radiation, which has found
+a place in all text-books of physics, in his first <i>Essay on Dew</i>
+published in 1818. The theory is supported in that and in a second essay
+by a number of well-planned observations, and the essays are indeed
+models of scientific method. The process of the formation of dew as
+represented by Wells is a simple one. It starts from the point of view
+that all bodies are constantly radiating heat, and cool automatically
+unless they receive a corresponding amount of heat from other bodies by
+radiation or conduction. Good radiators, which are at the same time bad
+conductors of heat, such as blades of grass, lose heat rapidly on a
+clear night by radiation to the sky and become cooled below the
+dew-point of the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>The question was very fully studied by Melloni and others, but little
+more was added to the explanation given by Wells until 1885, when John
+Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question whether the water of
+dewdrops on plants or stones came from the air or the earth, and
+described a number of experiments to show that under the conditions of
+observation in Scotland, it was the earth from which the moisture was
+probably obtained, either by the operation of the vascular system of
+plants in the formation of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and
+subsequent condensation in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some
+controversy was excited by the publication of Aitken's views, and it is
+interesting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which
+is of general application in meteorological questions, namely, that the
+physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological
+phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that is
+necessary to produce dew, nor even radiation from a body which does not
+conduct heat. The body must be surrounded by an atmosphere so fully
+supplied with moisture that the dew-point can be passed by the cooling
+due to radiation. Thus the conditions favourable for the formation of
+dew are (1) a good radiating surface, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) a
+clear sky, (4) thermal insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm
+moist ground or some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in
+the surface layers of air.</p>
+
+<p>Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in considering the
+supply of moisture we must take into consideration the ground as well as
+the air and concern ourselves with the temperature of both. Of the five
+conditions mentioned, the first four may be considered necessary, but
+the fifth is very important for securing a copious deposit. It can
+hardly be maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply
+of water by evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a supply is
+forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited process of
+condensation which deprives the air of its moisture and is therefore
+soon terminable, we have the process of distillation which goes on as
+long as conditions are maintained. This distinction is of some practical
+importance for it indicates the protecting power of wet soil in favour
+of young plants as against night frost. If distillation between the
+ground and the leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot
+fall much below the original dew-point because the supply of water for
+condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of heat by
+radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of water from the
+atmosphere, without renewal of the supply, the dew-point will gradually
+get lower as the moisture is deposited and the process of cooling will
+go on.</p>
+
+<p>In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large changes
+taking place within a small range of level. It is with the layer a few
+inches thick on either side of the surface that we are principally
+concerned, and for an adequate comprehension of the conditions close
+consideration is required. To illustrate this point reference may be
+made to figs. 1 and 2, which represent the condition of affairs at 10.40
+P.M. on about the 20th of October 1885, according to observations by
+Aitken. Vertical distances represent heights in feet, while the
+temperatures of the air and the dew-point are represented by horizontal
+distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of the
+diagram. The line marked 0 is the ground level itself, a rather
+indefinite quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical
+distance represented is from 4 ft. above ground to 1 ft. below ground,
+and the special phenomena which we are considering take place in the
+layer which represents the rapid transition between the temperature of
+the ground 3 in. below the surface and that of the air a few inches
+above ground.</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img136a.jpg" width="250" height="391" alt="Soil" title="Soil" /></td>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img136b.jpg" width="170" height="391" alt="Grass" title="Grass" /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and
+dry-bulb curve will cut. If they cut above the surface, mist will
+result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be formed. Below the
+surface, it may be assumed that the air is saturated with moisture and
+any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by
+distillation. It may be remarked, by the way, that such distillation
+between soil layers of different temperatures must be productive of the
+transference of large quantities of water between different levels in
+the soil either upward or downward according to the time of year.</p>
+
+<p>These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and moisture of
+the ground in the phenomena which have been considered. From the surface
+there is a continual loss of heat going on by radiation and a continual
+supply of warmth and moisture from below. But while the heat can escape,
+the moisture cannot. Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as
+it approaches the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the
+effect of the moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach.
+In the case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the
+left to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well
+shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to the same
+point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if there were so
+copious a condensation from the atmosphere as actually to make the air
+drier at the surface than up above. In diagram 1, for soil, the effect
+on air temperature and moisture is shown; the two lines converge to cut
+at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground
+line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the
+surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature
+gradient.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical countries,
+is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by gutters and spouts,
+but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total
+rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the
+Loango coast at 3 mm., but the estimate seems a high one. Measurements
+go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate
+annual deposit of dew is 1 in. to 1.5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1.2
+in. at Munich (Wollny), 0.3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1.6 in. at
+Tenbury, Worcestershire (Badgley).</p>
+
+<p>With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that of the
+maintenance of "dew ponds" is intimately associated. The name is given
+to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the
+south of England and elsewhere. Some of these ponds are very ancient, as
+the title of a work on <i>Neolithic Dewponds</i> by A. J. and G. Hubbard
+indicates. Their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend
+upon dew and not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of
+water supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been
+discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence seems to
+be against the view that dew deposits make any important contribution to
+the supply of water. The construction of dew ponds is, however, still
+practised on traditional lines, and it is said that a new dew pond has
+first to be filled artificially. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>[Page 137]</span> It does not come into
+existence by the gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;For <i>Dew</i>, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells (London,
+1818), also "An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella (London, 1866),
+Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni, <i>Pogg. Ann.</i> lxxi. pp.
+416, 424 and lxxiii. p. 467; Jamin, "Compléments à la théorie de la
+rosée," <i>Journal de physique</i>, viii. p. 41; J. Aitken, on "Dew," <i>Trans.
+Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh</i>, xxxiii., part i. 2, and "Nature," vol. xxxiii.
+p. 256; C. Tomlinson, "Remarks on a new Theory of Dew," <i>Phil. Mag.</i>
+(1886), 5th series, vol. 21, p. 483 and vol. 22, p. 270; Russell,
+<i>Nature</i>, vol 47, p. 210; also <i>Met. Zeit.</i> (1893), p. 390; Homén,
+<i>Bodenphysikalische und meteorologische Beobachtungen</i> (Berlin, 1894),
+iii.; <i>Taubildung</i>, p. 88, &amp;c.; Rubenson, "Die Temperatur-und
+Feuchtigkeitsverhältnisse in den unteren Luftschichten bei der
+Taubildung," <i>Met. Zeit.</i> xi. (1876), p. 65; H. E. Hamberg, "Température
+et humidité de l'air à différentes hauteurs à Upsal," <i>Soc. R. des
+sciences d'Upsal</i> (1876); review in <i>Met. Zeit.</i> xii. (1877), p. 105.</p>
+
+<p>For <i>Dew Ponds</i>, see Stephen Hales, <i>Statical Essays</i>, vol. i.,
+experiment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731); Gilbert White,
+<i>Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne</i>, letter xxix. (London,
+1789); Dr C. Wells, <i>An Essay on Dew</i> (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866);
+Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, "Prize Essay on Water Supply," <i>Journ. Roy.
+Agric. Soc.</i>, 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and Symons,
+"Evaporation from the Surface of Water," <i>Brit. Assoc. Rep.</i> (1869),
+sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, "Hydrogeology: One of the Developments of
+Modern Practical Geology," <i>Trans. Inst. Surveyors</i>, vol. ix. pp.
+153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise on Dew Ponds"
+(London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural History of Isolated Ponds,"
+<i>Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society</i>, vol. v. pp. 272-286
+(1892); Professor G. S. Brady, <i>On the Nature and Origin of Freshwater
+Faunas</i> (1899); Professor L. C. Miall, "Dew Ponds," <i>Reports of the
+British Association</i> (Bradford Meeting, 1900), pp. 579-585; A. J. and G.
+Hubbard, "Neolithic Dewponds and Cattle-Ways" (London, 1904, 1907).</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(W. N. S.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWAN</b> or <span class="sc">Diwan</span>, an Oriental term for finance minister. The word is
+derived from the Arabian <i>diwan</i>, and is commonly used in India to
+denote a minister of the Mogul government, or in modern days the prime
+minister of a native state. It was in the former sense that the grant of
+the <i>dewanny</i> to the East India Company in 1765 became the foundation of
+the British empire in India.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWAR, SIR JAMES</b> (1842-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), British chemist and physicist, was born at
+Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the 20th of September 1842. He was
+educated at Dollar Academy and Edinburgh University, being at the latter
+first a pupil, and afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then
+professor of chemistry; he also studied under Kekulé at Ghent. In 1875
+he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy
+at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and in 1877 he succeeded
+Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of chemistry in the Royal
+Institution, London. He was president of the Chemical Society in 1897,
+and of the British Association in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission
+on London Water Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee on
+Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir Frederick Abel.
+His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his earlier papers, some
+deal with questions of organic chemistry, others with Graham's
+hydrogenium and its physical constants, others with high temperatures,
+e.g. the temperature of the sun and of the electric spark, others again
+with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc. With
+Professor J. G. M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the
+physiological action of light, and examined the changes which take place
+in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With
+Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he began in
+1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later of which
+were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous
+constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid of low
+temperatures; and he was joined by Professor J. A. Fleming, of
+University College, London, in the investigation of the electrical
+behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures. His name is
+most widely known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the
+so-called permanent gases and his researches at temperatures approaching
+the zero of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry
+dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the "Latent Heat
+of Liquid Gases" before the British Association. In 1878 he devoted a
+Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to the then recent work
+of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and exhibited for the first time in
+Great Britain the working of the Cailletet apparatus. Six years later,
+in the same place, he described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and
+K. S. Olszewski, and illustrated for the first time in public the
+liquefaction of oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed
+for optical projection so that the actions taking place might be visible
+to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which the
+liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling
+agent, and he showed its employment for this purpose in connexion with
+some researches on meteorites; about the same time he also obtained
+oxygen in the solid state. By 1891 he had designed and erected at the
+Royal Institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint,
+and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and
+liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea
+occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of
+liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the
+influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to preserve
+the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to keep them so
+free from ebullition that examination of their optical properties
+becomes possible. He next experimented with a high-pressure hydrogen jet
+by which low temperatures were realized through the Thomson-Joule
+effect, and the successful results thus obtained led him to build at the
+Royal Institution the large refrigerating machine by which in 1898
+hydrogen was for the first time collected in the liquid state, its
+solidification following in 1899. Later he investigated the
+gas-absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and
+applied them to the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see
+<a>Liquid Gases</a>). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford medal upon
+him for his work in the production of low temperatures, and in 1899 he
+became the first recipient of the Hodgkins gold medal of the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, for his contributions to our knowledge of the
+nature and properties of atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first
+British subject to receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of
+Sciences, and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal
+of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904, and in 1908
+he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of Arts.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWAS,</b> two native states of India, in the Malwa Political Charge of
+Central India, founded in the first half of the 18th century by two
+brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into Malwa with the peshwa, Baji
+Rao, in 1728. Their descendants are known as the senior and junior
+branches of the family, and since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as
+a separate state, though the lands belonging to each are so intimately
+entangled, that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the
+main street are under different administrations and have different
+arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch has an
+area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the area of the
+junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWBERRY,</b> <i>Rubus caesius</i>, a trailing plant, allied to the bramble, of
+the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods, hedges and the
+borders of fields in England and other countries of Europe. The leaves
+have three leaflets, are hairy beneath, and of a dusky green; the
+flowers which appear in June and July are white, or pale rose-coloured.
+The fruit is large, and closely embraced by the calyx, and consists of a
+few drupules, which are black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an
+agreeable acid taste.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEW-CLAW,</b> the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the "false hoof" of
+the deer, sometimes also called the "nails." In dogs the dew-claw is the
+rudimentary toe or hallux (corresponding to the big toe in man) hanging
+loosely attached to the skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg.
+The origin of the word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested
+that, while the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw
+merely brushes the dew from the grass.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS,</b> Bart. (1602-1650), English antiquarian, eldest son
+of Paul D'Ewes of Milden, Suffolk, and of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page138"></a>[Page 138]</span> Cecilia, daughter
+and heir of Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born
+on the 18th of December 1602, and educated at the grammar school of Bury
+St Edmunds, and at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to
+the Middle Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623, when he
+immediately began his collections of material and his studies in history
+and antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne, daughter and heir of Sir
+William Clopton, of Luton's Hall in Suffolk, through whom he obtained a
+large addition to his already considerable fortune. On the 6th of
+December he was knighted. He took an active part as a strong Puritan and
+member of the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary
+government in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member for
+Sudbury. On the 15th of July he was created a baronet by the king, but
+nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out, and
+in 1643 took the Covenant. He was one of the members expelled by Pride's
+Purge in 1648, and died on the 18th of April 1650. He had married
+secondly Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley
+in Derbyshire, by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and
+title, the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731.
+D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious scope, no less
+than the whole history of England based on original documents. But
+though excelling as a collector of materials, and as a laborious,
+conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had little power of
+generalization or construction, and died without publishing anything
+except an uninteresting tract, <i>The Primitive Practice for Preserving
+Truth</i> (1645), and some speeches. His <i>Journals of all the Parliaments
+during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth</i>, however, a valuable work, was
+published in 1682. His large collections, including transcripts from
+ancient records, many of the originals of which are now dispersed or
+destroyed, are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His
+unprinted Diaries from 1621-1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable
+for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only authority
+for incidents and speeches during that period, and are amusing from the
+glimpses the diarist affords of his own character, his good estimation
+of himself and his little jealousies; some are in a cipher and some in
+Latin.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>Extracts from his <i>Autobiography and Correspondence</i> from the MSS. in
+the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell-Phillips in 1845,
+by Hearne in the appendix to his <i>Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II.</i>
+(1729), and in the <i>Bibliotheca topographica Britannica</i>, No. xv. vol.
+vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, <i>College Life in the Time of
+James I.</i> (1851). His Diaries have been extensively drawn upon by
+Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his <i>Studies of the Great
+Rebellion</i>. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the Harleian
+Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WET, CHRISTIAN</b> (1854-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), Boer general and politician, was born on the
+7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop, Smithfield district (Orange Free
+State), and later resided at Dewetsdorp. He served in the first
+Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81 as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he
+lived on his farm, becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took
+part in the earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a
+commandant and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the
+west. His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near
+Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg a little
+later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and more as the most
+formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla warfare. Sometimes
+severely handled by the British, sometimes escaping only by the
+narrowest margin of safety from the columns which attempted to surround
+him, and falling upon and annihilating isolated British posts, De Wet
+continued to the end of the war his successful career, striking heavily
+where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to
+bay. He took an active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at
+the conclusion of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer
+generals. While in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a
+modification of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote
+an account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in
+November 1902 under the title <i>Three Years' War</i>. In November, 1907 he
+was elected a member of the first parliament of the Orange River Colony
+and was appointed minister of agriculture. In 1908-9 he was a delegate
+to the Closer Union Convention.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT</b> (1780-1849), German theologian, was
+born on the 12th of January 1780, at Ulla, near Weimar, where his father
+was pastor. He was sent to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height
+of its literary glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with
+Johann Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In 1799
+he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal teachers
+being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Paulus, from the latter of whom he
+derived his tendency to free critical inquiry. Both in methods and in
+results, however, he occupied an almost solitary position among German
+theologians. Having taken his doctor's degree, he became <i>privat-docent</i>
+at Jena; in 1807 professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came
+under the influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was
+transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded university of
+Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was,
+however, dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written
+a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the murderer
+of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the
+university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving
+him of the chair, but banishing him from the Prussian kingdom. He
+retired for a time to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the
+preparation of his edition of Luther, and in writing the romance
+<i>Theodor oder die Weihe des Zweiflers</i> (Berlin, 1822), in which he
+describes the education of an evangelical pastor. During this period he
+made his first essay in preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of
+very popular gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the
+university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before.
+Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party,
+De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and
+among the people generally. He was admitted a citizen, and became rector
+of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength,
+particularly in the theological faculty. He died on the 16th of June
+1849.</p>
+
+<p>De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as "the epoch-making
+opener of the historical criticism of the Pentateuch." He prepared the
+way for the Supplement-theory. But he also made valuable contributions
+to other branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic
+faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled <i>Die Entsagung</i>
+(Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied
+ecclesiastical music and architecture. As a Biblical critic he is
+sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer
+says (<i>Development of Theology</i>, p. 102), he "occupied as free a
+position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the
+creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the
+religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with a
+more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the connexion of the
+present life of the church with the past." His works are marked by
+exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness.
+Accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress
+of criticism.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>The most important of his works are:&mdash;<i>Beiträge zur Einleitung in das
+Alte Testament</i> (2 vols., 1806-1807); <i>Kommentar über die Psalmen</i>
+(1811), which has passed through several editions, and is still regarded
+as of high authority; <i>Lehrbuch der hebräisch-jüdischen Archäologie</i>
+(1814); <i>Über Religion und Theologie</i> (1815); a work of great importance
+as showing its author's general theological position; <i>Lehrbuch der
+christlichen Dogmatik</i> (1813-1816); <i>Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen
+Einleitung in die Bibel</i> (1817); <i>Christliche Sittenlehre</i> (1819-1821);
+<i>Einleitung in das Neue Testament</i> (1826); <i>Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre
+Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das Leben</i> (1827); <i>Das Wesen des
+christlichen Glaubens</i> (1846); and <i>Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch
+zum Neuen Testament</i> (1836-1848). De Wette also edited Luther's works (5
+vols., 1825-1828).</p>
+
+<p>See K. R. Hagenbach in <i>Herzog's Realencyklopädie</i>; G. C. F. Lücke's <i>W.
+M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung</i> (1850); and D.
+Schenkel's <i>W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie für
+unsere Zeit</i> (1849). Rudolf Stähelin, <i>De Wette nach seiner theol.
+Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung</i> (1880); F. Lichtenberger, <i>History of German
+Theology in the Nineteenth Century</i> (1889); Otto Pfleiderer,
+<i>Development of Theology</i> (1890), pp. 97 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, <i>Founders of
+the Old Testament Criticism</i>, pp. 31 ff.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139"></a>[Page 139]</span></p>
+<p><b>DEWEY, DAVIS RICH</b> (1858-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), American economist and statistician, was
+born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th of April 1858. He was
+educated at the university of Vermont and at Johns Hopkins University,
+and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was chairman of the state
+board on the question of the unemployed (1895), member of the
+Massachusetts commission on public, charitable and reformatory interests
+(1897), special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of
+a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an excellent
+<i>Syllabus on Political History since 1815</i> (1887), a <i>Financial History
+of the U.S.</i> (1902), and <i>National Problems</i> (1907).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWEY, GEORGE</b> (1837-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), American naval officer, was born at Montpelier,
+Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837. He studied at Norwich University,
+then at Norwich, Vermont, and graduated at the United States Naval
+Academy in 1858. He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in
+the Civil War served on the steamsloop "Mississippi" (1861-1863) during
+Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862, and at
+Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting below
+Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865 served on the
+steam-gunboat "Agawam" with the North Atlantic blockading squadron and
+took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January
+1865. In March 1865 he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the
+European squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States
+Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the "Narragansett" in
+1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned commander in 1872; was
+light-house inspector in 1876-1877; and was secretary of the light-house
+board in 1877-1882. In 1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief
+of the bureau of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of
+the light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board of
+inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of commodore in
+February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned, at his own request, to
+sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In April 1898, while with his
+fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by cable that war had begun between
+the United States and Spain, and was ordered to "capture or destroy the
+Spanish fleet" then in Philippine waters. On the 1st of May he
+overwhelmingly defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in
+Manila Bay, a victory won without the loss of a man on the American
+ships (see <a>Spanish-American War</a>). Congress, in a joint resolution,
+tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and men
+under his command, and authorized "the secretary of the navy to present
+a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey, and cause to be struck
+bronze medals commemorating the battle of Manila Bay, and to distribute
+such medals to the officers and men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron
+of the United States." He was promoted rear-admiral on the 10th of May
+1898. On the 18th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the
+city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders from his
+government to maintain control, Dewey received the rank of admiral
+(March 3, 1899)&mdash;that title, formerly borne only by Farragut and Porter,
+having been revived by act of Congress (March 2, 1899),&mdash;and returned
+home, arriving in New York City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he
+received a great ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman
+Philippine Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible
+Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president of the
+Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority report on a
+few details.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWEY, MELVIL</b> (1851-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), American librarian, was born at Adams Center,
+New York, on the 10th of December 1851. He graduated in 1874 at Amherst
+College, where he was assistant librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he
+removed to Boston, where he founded and became editor of <i>The Library
+Journal</i>, which became an influential factor in the development of
+libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration. He was
+also one of the founders of the American Library Association, of which
+he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president in 1891 and 1893. In
+1883 he became librarian of Columbia College, and in the following year
+founded there the School of Library Economy, the first institution for
+the instruction of librarians ever organized. This school, which was
+very successful, was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was
+re-established as the State Library School under his direction; from
+1888 to 1906 he was director of the New York State Library and from 1888
+to 1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York,
+completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of the most
+efficient in America, and establishing the system of state travelling
+libraries and picture collections. His "Decimal System of
+Classification" for library cataloguing, first proposed in 1876, is
+extensively used.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWING, THOMAS WILMER</b> (1851-<span class="spc">&nbsp;</span>), American figure painter, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1851. He was a pupil of Jules
+Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to 1879; was elected a full member of the
+National Academy of Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten
+American Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition
+(1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis (1904). His
+decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and finish. Among his
+portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White and of his own wife. Mrs
+Dewing (b, 1855), <i>née</i> Maria Oakey, a figure and flower painter, was a
+pupil of John La Farge in New York, and of Couture in Paris.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WINT, PETER</b> (1784-1849), English landscape painter, of Dutch
+extraction, son of an English physician, was born at Stone,
+Staffordshire, on the 21st of January 1784. He studied art in London,
+and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In 1812 he became a member of
+the Society of Painters in Watercolours, where he exhibited largely for
+many years, as well as at the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of
+William Hilton, R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. De
+Wint's life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he
+ranks as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his
+pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM</b> (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was born at Kampen,
+and in 1761 entered the naval service at the age of twelve years. He
+distinguished himself by his zeal and courage, and at the revolution of
+1787 he had reached the rank of lieutenant. The overthrow of the
+"patriot" party forced him to fly for his safety to France. Here he
+threw himself heart and soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took
+part under Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and
+was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When Pichegru in
+1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the French army to his
+native country. The states-general now utilized the experience he had
+gained as a naval officer by giving him the post of adjunct-general for
+the reorganization of the Dutch navy. In 1796 he was appointed
+vice-admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts
+to strengthen it and improve its condition, and on the 11th of October
+1797 he ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British fleet
+under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the Dutch were
+defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner. He remained in
+England until December, when he was liberated by exchange. His conduct
+in the battle of Camperdown was declared by a court-martial to have
+nobly maintained the honour of the Dutch flag.</p>
+
+<p>From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador to the French
+republic, and was then once more appointed commander of the fleet. He
+was sent with a strong squadron to the Mediterranean to repress the
+Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a treaty of peace with the Tripolitan
+government. He enjoyed the confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of
+Holland, and, after the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French
+empire, in an equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was
+created marshal and count of Huessen, and given the command of the armed
+forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the grand cross of the
+Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector-general of the northern
+coasts, and in 1811 he placed him at the head of the fleet he had
+collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards <span class="pagenum"><a name="page140"></a>[Page 140]</span> De Winter was seized
+with illness and compelled to betake himself to Paris, where he died on
+the 2nd of June 1812. He had a splendid public funeral and was buried in
+the Pantheon. His heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the
+Nicolaas Kerk at Kampen.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WITT, CORNELIUS</b> (1623-1672), brother of <a>John de Witt</a> (q.v.), was born
+at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgomaster of Dort and member of the
+states of Holland and West Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the
+important post of <i>ruwaard</i> or governor of the land of Putten and
+bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater
+brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout his career
+with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by the
+states of Holland to accompany Admiral de Ruyter in his famous
+expedition to Chatham. Cornelius de Witt on this occasion distinguished
+himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De
+Ruyter in 1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at
+Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled by
+illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that the
+Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother were the
+objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account of his imprisonment,
+trial and death, is given below.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DE WITT, JOHN</b> (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at Dort, on the
+24th of September 1625. He was a member of one of the old burgher-regent
+families of his native town. His father, Jacob de Witt, was six times
+burgomaster of Dort, and for many years sat as a representative of the
+town in the states of Holland. He was a strenuous adherent of the
+republican or oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the
+princes of the house of Orange, who represented the federal principle
+and had the support of the masses of the people. John was educated at
+Leiden, and early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in
+mathematics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother
+Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on his
+return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate. In 1650 he
+was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which made him the leader
+and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of Holland. In this
+same year the states of Holland found themselves engaged in a struggle
+for provincial supremacy, on the question of the disbanding of troops,
+with the youthful prince of Orange, William II. William, with the
+support of the states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders
+of the states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle;
+among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William, at the
+moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction. He left only a
+posthumous child, afterwards William III. of Orange, and the principles
+advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed, and the authority of the states of
+Holland became predominant in the republic.</p>
+
+<p>At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence, sagacity
+and business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of Dort that
+on the 23rd of July 1653 he was appointed to the office of grand
+pensionary (<i>Raadpensionaris</i>) of Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He
+was re-elected in 1658, 1663 and 1668, and held office until his death
+in 1672. During this period of nineteen years the general conduct of
+public affairs and administration, and especially of foreign affairs,
+such was the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was
+largely placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to the
+brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been caused by the
+keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states. The Dutch were
+unprepared, and suffered severely through the loss of their carrying
+trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about peace as soon as possible.
+The first demands of Cromwell were impossible, for they aimed at the
+absorption of the two republics into a single state, but at last in the
+autumn of 1654 peace was concluded, by which the Dutch made large
+concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to English ships in
+the narrow seas. The treaty included a secret article, which the
+states-general refused to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in
+inducing the states of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of
+Holland pledged themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a
+captain-general of the union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called,
+was aimed at the young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the
+Stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was
+personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his
+ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that he
+prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter.</p>
+
+<p>The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently successful.
+He restored the finances of the state, and extended its commercial
+supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he sustained Denmark against
+Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an advantageous peace with Portugal. The
+accession of Charles II. to the English throne led to the rescinding of
+the Act of Seclusion; nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the
+prince of Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This
+led to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to a
+renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial rights, and
+war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and courage displayed by the
+grand pensionary during the course of this fiercely contested naval
+struggle could scarcely have been surpassed. He himself on more than one
+occasion went to sea with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came
+in contact by the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action
+and inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an
+organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship
+of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty of peace signed at
+Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of <i>uti possidetis</i>, were so
+honourable to the United Provinces. A still greater triumph of
+diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the Triple Alliance (January 17,
+1668) between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden, which checked the
+attempt of Louis XIV. to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in
+the name of his wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was
+but temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take vengeance
+for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III. was growing to
+manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout the country spared no
+efforts to undermine the authority of De Witt, and secure for the young
+prince of Orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded the United
+Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically no resistance was
+possible. The unanimous voice of the people called William III. to the
+head of affairs, and there were violent demonstrations against John de
+Witt. His brother Cornelius was (July 24) arrested on a charge of
+conspiring against the prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt
+resigned the post of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with
+such distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the 19th of
+August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banishment. He
+was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother came to visit him in
+the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this collected outside, and finally
+burst into the prison, seized the two brothers and literally tore them
+to pieces. Their mangled remains were hung up by the feet to a
+lamp-post. Thus perished, by the savage act of an infuriated mob, one of
+the greatest statesmen of his age.</p>
+
+<p>John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influential
+burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two sons and three
+daughters.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;J. Geddes, <i>History of the Administration of John de
+Witt</i>, (vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefèvre-Pontalis, <i>Jean de Witt,
+grand pensionnaire de Hollande</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1884); P. Simons,
+<i>Johan de Witt en zijn tijd</i> (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842); W. C.
+Knottenbelt, <i>Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt</i> (Amsterdam,
+1862); <i>J. de Witt, Brieven ... gewisselt tusschen den Heer Johan de
+Witt ... ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d. Vereen. Nederlanden so
+in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken, Poolen, enz. 1652-69</i> (6
+vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); <i>Brieven ... 1650-1657 (1658) eerste deel
+bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W. Kernkamp</i> (Amsterdam, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWLAP</b> (from the O.E. <i>l&aelig;ppa</i>, a lappet, or hanging fold; the first
+syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explanation that the word
+means "the fold which brushes the dew" is not borne out, according to
+the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, by the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>[Page 141]</span> equivalent words such
+as the Danish <i>doglaeb</i>, in Scandinavian languages), the loose fold of
+skin hanging from the neck of cattle, also applied to similar folds in
+the necks of other animals and fowls, as the dog, turkey, &amp;c. The
+American practice of branding cattle by making a cut in the neck is
+known as a "dewlap brand." The skin of the neck in human beings often
+becomes pendulous with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by
+the same name.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEWSBURY,</b> a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the
+West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of
+Leeds, on the Great Northern, London &amp; North-Western, and Lancashire
+&amp; Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 28,060. The parish church of All
+Saints was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the 18th
+century; the portions still preserved of the original structure are
+mainly Early English. The chief industries are the making of blankets,
+carpets, druggets and worsted yarn; and there are iron foundries and
+machinery works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary
+borough includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and returns
+one member. The municipal borough, incorporated in 1862, is under a
+mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1471 acres. Paulinus, first
+archbishop of York, about the year 627 preached in the district of
+Dewsbury, where Edwin, king of Northumbria, whom he converted to
+Christianity, had a royal mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are
+remains of a Cistercian convent of the 12th century, in an extensive
+park, where tradition relates that Robin Hood died and was buried.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS</b> (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek historian,
+statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian family
+of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon basileus and eponymus in
+Athens. When the Heruli overran Greece and captured Athens (269),
+Dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of
+patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up
+in his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording his
+services, has been preserved (<i>Corpus Inscrr. Atticarum</i>, iii. No. 716).
+It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to his military
+achievements. Photius (<i>cod.</i> 82) mentions three historical works by
+Dexippus, of which considerable fragments remain: (1) <span class="grk" title="Ta met' Alexandron">
+&Tau;&#8048; &mu;&epsilon;&tau;&#8125;
+&#7944;&lambda;&#x03ad;&xi;&alpha;&nu;&delta;&rho;&omicron;&nu;</span>, an
+epitome of a similarly named work by Arrian; (2) <span class="grk"
+title="Skuthika">&Sigma;&kappa;&upsilon;&theta;&iota;&kappa;&#x03ac;</span>, a
+history of the wars of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians) in the 3rd
+century; (3) <span class="grk" title="Chronikê historia">&Chi;&rho;&omicron;&nu;&iota;&kappa;&#8052;
+&#7985;&sigma;&tau;&omicron;&rho;&#x03af;&alpha;</span>, a chronological
+history from the earliest times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270),
+frequently referred to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work
+was continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks very
+highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a level with
+Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments (C. W.
+Müller, <i>F.H.G.</i> iii. 666-687).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN</b> (1821-1890), American clergyman and author, was
+born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the 13th of August 1821. He
+graduated at Yale in 1840 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in
+1844; was pastor of a Congregational church in Manchester, New
+Hampshire, in 1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational
+church, Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the <i>Congregationalist</i>
+in 1851-1866, of the <i>Congregational Quarterly</i> in 1859-1866, and of the
+<i>Congregationalist</i>, with which the <i>Recorder</i> was merged, from 1867
+until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the 13th of November 1890. He
+was an authority on the history of Congregationalism and was lecturer on
+that subject at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879; he left
+his fine library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among
+his works are: <i>Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is, How it
+works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church Government, and
+its consequent Demands</i> (1865), <i>The Church Polity of the Puritans the
+Polity of the New Testament</i> (1870), <i>As to Roger Williams and His
+"Banishment" from the Massachusetts Colony</i> (1876), <i>Congregationalism
+of the Last Three Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature</i> (1880), his
+most important work, <i>A Handbook of Congregationalism</i> (1880), <i>The True
+Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptist"</i> (1881), <i>Common Sense</i> <i>as to
+Woman Suffrage</i> (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets bearing on early
+church history in New England, especially Baptist controversies. His
+<i>The England and Holland of the Pilgrims</i> was completed by his son,
+Morton Dexter (b. 1846), and published in 1905.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEXTER, TIMOTHY</b> (1747-1806), American merchant, remarkable for his
+eccentricities, was born at Malden, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of
+February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities
+of the depreciated continental currency, which was ultimately redeemed
+by the Federal government at par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter
+and built extraordinary houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New
+Hampshire. He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior
+pictures, besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal
+statues carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of himself was
+included in the collection, and had for an inscription "I am the first
+in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest philosopher in the
+Western World." He wrote a book entitled <i>Pickle for the Knowing Ones</i>.
+It was wholly without punctuation marks, and as this aroused comment, he
+published a second edition, at the end of which was a page displaying
+nothing but commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to
+"peper and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping
+enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried out in
+a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the 26th of October
+1806.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEXTRINE</b> (<span class="sc">British Gum, Starch Gum, Leiocome</span>),
+(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>)<sub>x</sub>, a substance produced from starch by the action of
+dilute acids, or by roasting it at a temperature between 170°
+and 240° C. It is manufactured by spraying starch with 2% nitric
+acid, drying in air, and then heating to about 110°. Different
+modifications are known, e.g. amylodextrine, erythrodextrine and
+achroodextrine. Its name has reference to its powerful dextrorotatory
+action on polarized light. Pure dextrine is an insipid,
+odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is sometimes
+yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves
+in water and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated
+from its solutions as the hydrated compound, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>.H<sub>2</sub>O.
+Diastase converts it eventually into maltose, C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>; and by
+boiling with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is
+transformed into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. It
+does not ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce
+Fehling's solution. If heated with strong nitric acid it gives
+oxalic, and not mucic acid. Dextrine much resembles gum
+arabic, for which it is generally substituted. It is employed for
+sizing paper, for stiffening cotton goods, and for thickening
+colours in calico printing, also in the making of lozenges, adhesive
+stamps and labels, and surgical bandages.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See Otto Lueger, <i>Lexikon der gesamten Technik</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DEY</b> (an adaptation of the Turk, d&#x0101;&#x012b;, a maternal uncle), an
+honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men, and
+appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their commanding
+officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries became in the 17th
+century rulers of that country (see <a>Algeria: History</a>). From the middle
+of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century the ruler of Tunisia
+was also called dey, a title frequently used during the same period by
+the sovereigns of Tripoli.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHAMMAP&#x0100;LA,</b> the name of one of the early disciples of the Buddha,
+and therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by Buddhist
+novices on their entering the brotherhood. The most famous of the
+Bhikshus so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half
+of the 5th century A.D. at the Badara Tittha Vihd&#x0101;ra, near the
+east coast of India, just a little south of where Madras now stands. It
+is to him we owe the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical
+books, consisting almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on
+the Netti, perhaps the oldest P&#x0101;li work outside the canon.
+Extracts from the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven
+others, have been published by the Pd&#x0101;li Text Society. These
+works show great learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But as
+Dhammap&#x0101;la confines himself rigidly either to questions of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page142"></a>[Page
+142]</span> the meaning of words, or to discussions of the ethical import of
+his texts, very little can be gathered from his writings of value for
+the social history of his time. For the right interpretation of the
+difficult texts on which he comments, they are indispensable. Though in
+all probability a Tamil by birth, he declares, in the opening lines of
+those of his works that have been edited, that he followed the tradition
+of the Great Minster at Anurd&#x0101;dhapura in Ceylon, and the works
+themselves confirm this in every respect. Hsüan Tsang, the famous
+Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint story of a Dhammapd&#x0101;la of
+Kd&#x0101;nchipura (the modern Konjevaram). He was a son of a high
+official, and betrothed to a daughter of the king, but escaped on the
+eve of the wedding feast, entered the order, and attained to reverence
+and distinction. It is most likely that this story, whether legendary or
+not (and Hsüan Tsang heard the story at Kd&#x0101;nchipura nearly two
+centuries after the date of Dhammapd&#x0101;la), referred to this
+author. But it may also refer, as Hsüan Tsang refers it, to another
+author of the same name. Other unpublished works, besides those
+mentioned above, have been ascribed to Dhammapd&#x0101;la, but it is
+very doubtful whether they are really by him.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;T. Watters, <i>On Yuan Chwang</i> (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushell,
+London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in <i>Zeitschrift der deutschen
+morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i> (1898), pp. 97 foll.; <i>Netti</i> (ed. E.
+Hardy, London, P&#x0101;li Text Society, 1902), especially the
+Introduction, passim; <i>Ther&#x012b; Gd&#x0101;thd&#x0101; Commentary</i>,
+<i>Peta Vatthu Commentary</i>, and <i>Vimd&#x0101;na Vatthu Commentary</i>, all
+three published by the P&#x0101;li Text Society.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(T. W. R. D.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHANIS, FRANCIS,</b> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1861-1909), Belgian administrator, was born in
+London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen years of his life at
+Greenock, where he received his early education. He was the son of a
+Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady named Maher. The name Dhanis is
+supposed to be a variation of D'Anvers. Having completed his education
+at the École Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment
+of grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he
+reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the Congo,
+and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well in founding new
+stations north of the Congo that, when the government decided to put an
+end to the Arab domination on the Upper Congo, he was selected to
+command the chief expedition sent against the slave dealers. The
+campaign began in April 1892, and it was not brought to a successful
+conclusion till January 1894. The story of this war has been told in
+detail by Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book <i>The Fall of
+the Congo Arabs</i>. The principal achievements of the campaign were the
+captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at Nyangwe,
+Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis was raised to the rank
+of baron, and in 1895 was made vice-governor of the Congo State. In 1896
+he took command of an expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely
+composed of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted, and
+who had been irritated by the execution of some of their chiefs for
+indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and murdered many of
+their white officers. Dhanis found himself confronted with a more
+formidable adversary than even the Arabs in these well-armed and
+half-disciplined mercenaries. During two years (1897-1898) he was
+constantly engaged in a life-and-death struggle with them. Eventually he
+succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous
+soldiers. Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less
+striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both think that
+the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in
+bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899 Baron Dhanis returned to
+Belgium with the honorary rank of vice governor-general. He died on the
+14th of November 1909.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHAR,</b> a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency, Central India. It
+includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories, and has an area of 1775 sq.
+m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta. The founder of the present ruling
+family was Anand Rao Punwar, a descendant of the great Paramara clan of
+Rajputs who from the 9th to the 13th century, when they were driven out
+by the Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar. In
+1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the peshwa, the
+victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the
+family which seven centuries before had been expelled from this very
+city and country. Towards the close of the 18th and in the early part of
+the 19th century, the state was subject to a series of spoliations by
+Sindia and Holkar, and was only preserved from destruction by the
+talents and courage of the adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a
+treaty of 1819 Dhar passed under British protection, and bound itself to
+act in subordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion
+in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar, then a
+minor, with the exception of the detached district of Bairusia, which
+was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand Rao, who received the personal
+title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in 1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded
+by Udaji Rao Punwar. In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state
+includes the ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of
+Malwa.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">The Town of Dhar</span> is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901)
+17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees surrounded by
+barren hills, and possesses, besides its old walls, many interesting
+buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan, some of them containing records of a
+great historical importance. The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built
+by Dilawar Khan in 1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives
+its name from an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at
+the beginning of the 13th century in commemoration of a victory, and
+bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town
+of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft. high, is now
+overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an enclosure containing four
+tombs, the most notable being that of Shaikh Kamal Maulvi
+(Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous 13th-century Mussulman saint
+Nizam-ud-din Auliya.<a name="FnAnchor_6" href="#Footnote_6"><sup>[1]</sup></a> The mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built
+out of Hindu remains in the 14th or 15th century: its name is derived
+from the slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit
+grammar, with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the
+town stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to have
+been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the 14th century. It
+contains the palace of the raja. Of modern institutions may be mentioned
+the high school, public library, hospital, and the chapel, school and
+hospital of the Canadian Presbyterian mission. There is also a
+government opium depot for the payment of duty, the town being a
+considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari (the
+city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the capital
+of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who transferred his
+headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th century. During
+the rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous throughout India as a
+centre of culture and learning; but, after suffering various
+vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the Mussulmans at the
+beginning of the 14th century. At the close of the century Dilawar Khan,
+the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been appointed governor in 1399,
+practically established his independence, his son Hoshang Shah being the
+first Mahommedan king of Malwa. Under this dynasty Dhar was second in
+importance to the capital Mandu. Subsequently, in the time of Akbar,
+Dhar fell under the dominion of the Moguls, in whose hands it remained
+till 1730, when it was conquered by the Mahrattas.</p>
+
+<p>See <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_6" href="#FnAnchor_6">[1]</a> Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near Delhi,
+was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret society of
+Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed to have been the
+founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special reverence for his
+memory.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHARAMPUR,</b> a native state of India, in the Surat political agency
+division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The population in 1901
+was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during the decade; the estimated
+gross revenue is £25,412; and the tribute £600. Its chief is a Sesodia
+Rajput. The state has been surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay
+system. It contains one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272
+villages. Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very
+unhealthy, is capable of cultivation; the rest is covered with rocky
+hills, forest and brushwood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page143"></a>[Page 143]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHARMSALA,</b> a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab, India, situated
+on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of Kangra town, at an elevation
+of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971. The scenery of Dharmsala is of
+peculiar grandeur. The spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with
+oak and other trees; behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain
+tower towards the jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half
+the year; while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra
+valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the Kangra
+district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the centre of a
+European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied by Gurkha
+regiments. The station was destroyed by the earthquake of April 1905, in
+which 1625 persons, including 25 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha
+garrison, perished (<i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i>, 1908).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHARWAR,</b> a town and district of British India, in the southern division
+of Bombay. The town has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. The
+population in 1901 was 31,279. It has several ginning factories and a
+cotton-mill; two high schools, one maintained by the Government and the
+other by the Basel German Mission.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Dharwar</span> has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the north and
+north-east are great plains of black soil, favourable to cotton-growing;
+in the south and west are successive ranges of low hills, with flat
+fertile valleys between them. The whole district lies high and has no
+large rivers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of 6% in the
+decade. The most influential classes of the community are Brahmans and
+Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968, or 46% of the Hindu population;
+they worship the symbol of Siva, and males and females both carry this
+emblem about their person in a silver case. The principal crops are
+millets, pulse and cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and
+Gadag, junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the
+district in several directions.</p>
+
+<p>The early history of the territory comprised within the district of
+Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription
+slabs and memorial stones which abound there. From these it is clear
+that the country fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties
+that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of the Chalukyan dynasty, whether
+temples or inscriptions, being especially abundant. In the 14th century
+the district was first overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was
+annexed to the newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an
+official of which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built
+the fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of
+Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years practically
+independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573 the fort was captured
+by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was annexed to his dominions. In
+1685 the fort was taken by the emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the
+break-up of the Mogul empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of
+Poona. In 1764 the province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in
+1778 captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the
+Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817, Dharwar was
+incorporated with the territory of the East India Company.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHOLPUR,</b> a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area
+of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country, without any special
+manufactures. All along the bank of the river Chambal the country is
+deeply intersected by ravines; low ranges of hills in the western
+portion of the state supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and
+easily-worked red sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was
+270,973, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The estimated revenue
+is £83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway from
+Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely from drought.
+In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief amounted to £8190.</p>
+
+<p>The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,310. The
+present town, which dates from the 16th century, stands somewhat to the
+north of the site of the older Hindu town built, it is supposed, in the
+11th century by the Tonwar Rajput Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named
+after him Dholdera or Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the
+town may be mentioned the fortified <i>sarai</i> built in the reign of Akbar,
+within which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one of
+his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is growing in
+importance as a centre of trade.</p>
+
+<p>Little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of
+Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the Tonwar
+Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th to the 12th century.
+In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in 1501 the fort of Dholpur was
+taken by the Mahommedans under Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred
+to a Mussulman governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort
+was captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed under the
+sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the province of Agra.
+During the dissensions which followed the death of Aurangzeb in 1707,
+Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria obtained possession of Dholpur, and his
+family retained it till 1761, after which it was taken successively by
+the Jat raja, Suraj Mal of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by
+Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored to Sindhia
+by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence of new arrangements
+was again occupied by the British. Finally, in 1806, the territories of
+Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat
+Singh, ancestor of the present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his
+state of Gohad, which was ceded to Sindhia.</p>
+
+<p>The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia Jats, who
+are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo-Scythian wave of
+invasion which swept over northern India about A.D. 100. An ancestor of
+the family appears to have held certain territories at Bamraoli near
+Agra c. 1195. His descendant in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished
+himself in an expedition against the freebooters of the Deccan, was
+rewarded by the sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the
+title of <i>rana</i>. In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces
+against Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion
+of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories then in
+his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected from invasion
+by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently withdrawn, the rana having
+been guilty of treachery, and in 1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing
+the fortress of Gwalior, and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the
+whole of Gohad. In 1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by
+the British government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the
+rana agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of
+Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief binding
+himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the paramount power, and
+to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the British
+government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana of Dholpur, was
+succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh, who showed great loyalty
+during the Mutiny of 1857, was created a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869.
+He was succeeded in 1873 by his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the
+C.B. and frontier medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in
+1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883).</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>See <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908) and authorities
+there given.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHOW,</b> the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the Arabian
+Sea. The language to which the word belongs is unknown. According to the
+<i>New English Dictionary</i> the place of origin may be the Persian Gulf,
+assuming that the word is identical with the tava mentioned by
+Athanasius Nikitin (<i>India in the 15th Century</i>, Hakluyt Society, 1858).
+Though the word is used generally of any craft along the East African
+coast, it is usually applied to the vessel of about 150 to 200 tons
+burden with a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows
+generally have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous
+length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is
+carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels employed in
+the slave trade from the east coast of Africa.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page144"></a>[Page 144]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHRANGADRA,</b> a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay,
+situated in the north of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area is 1156
+sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The estimated gross revenue is £38,000 and
+the tribute £3000. A state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to
+the town of Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in
+1898. Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor; the
+manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand-mills. The chief
+town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of 14,770.</p>
+
+<p>The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with the
+predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala Rajputs,
+who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in the 8th century. Raj
+Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji (b. 1837), who succeeded his father
+in 1869, was distinguished for the enlightened character of his
+administration, especially in the matter of establishing schools and
+internal communications. He was created a K.C.S.I in 1877. He died in
+1900, and was succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b.
+1872).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHULEEP SINGH</b> (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born in February
+1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the 18th of September 1843, under
+the regency of his mother the rani Jindan, a woman of great capacity and
+strong will, but extremely inimical to the British. He was acknowledged
+by Ranjit Singh and recognized by the British government. After six
+years of peace the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were
+defeated in four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore,
+the capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but it
+was administered to a great extent by the British government in his
+name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the British,
+and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite of the valour of the
+Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat, and in March 1849 Dhuleep
+Singh was deposed, a pension of £40,000 a year being granted to him and
+his dependants. He became a Christian and elected to live in England. On
+coming of age he made an arrangement with the British government by
+which his income was reduced to £25,000 in consideration of advances for
+the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at Elvedon in Suffolk.
+While passing through Alexandria in 1864 he met Miss Bamba Müller, the
+daughter of a German merchant who had married an Abyssinian. The
+maharaja had been interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he
+met Miss Müller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching.
+She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were the
+issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the maharaja
+married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady, Miss Ada Douglas
+Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja was passionately fond of
+sport, and his shooting parties were celebrated, while he himself became
+a <i>persona grata</i> in English society. The result, however, was financial
+difficulty, and in 1882 he appealed to the government for assistance,
+making various claims based upon the alleged possession of private
+estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor diamond
+to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, whereupon he started for
+India, after drawing up a proclamation to his former subjects. But as it
+was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the Punjab, he remained for
+some time as a guest at the residency at Aden, and was allowed to
+receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity,
+which actually took place within the residency itself. As the climate
+began to affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and
+returned to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his
+claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but when that
+expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where he lived for the
+rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the Indian government.
+His death from an attack of apoplexy took place at Paris on the 22nd of
+October 1893. The maharaja's eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay
+Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges,
+Cambridge. In 1888 he obtained a commission in the 1st Royal Dragoon
+Guards. In 1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the
+earl of Coventry.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(G. F. B.)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DHULIA,</b> a town of British India, administrative headquarters of West
+Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the Panjhra river.
+Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds,
+and weaving of cotton. A railway connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the
+main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIABASE,</b> in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite. It
+was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks of this group
+differed from their Tertiary and Recent representatives in certain
+essential respects, but this is now admitted to be untenable, and the
+differences are known to be merely the result of the longer exposure to
+decomposition, pressure and shearing, which the older rocks have
+experienced. Their olivine tends to become serpentinized; their augite
+changes to chlorite and uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation
+of zeolites, calcite, sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green
+colour (from the development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence
+the older name of "greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them
+become somewhat schistose from pressure ("greenstone-schists,"
+meta-diabase, &amp;c.). Although the original definition of the group
+can no longer be justified, the name is so well established in current
+usage that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and dolerite
+are employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of
+rocks.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p>The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz. olivine,
+augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities of
+hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite.</p>
+
+<p>There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine;
+quartz-diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende
+diabases (or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is characteristic
+of another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially those which
+contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the intersertal
+dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases, hypersthene-diabases
+and the rocks which have been described as tholeites. Porphyritic
+structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites, some of which are highly
+vesicular and contain remains of an abundant fine-grained or partly
+glassy ground-mass (<i>diabas-mandelstein</i>, amygdaloidal diabase). The
+somewhat ill-defined spilites are regarded by many as modifications of
+diabase-porphyrite. In the intersertal and porphyrite diabases, fresh or
+devitrified glassy base is not infrequent. It is especially conspicuous
+in some tholeites (hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks
+consist of augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a
+brown, vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte
+(sordawilite, &amp;c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite
+sills and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites
+of grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green
+augite (variolites).</p>
+
+<p>To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the
+diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary dolerites. In
+the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more common than in the
+newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous
+habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in most cases secondary after
+pyroxene, and is then known as uralite; often it forms pseudomorphs
+which retain the shape of the original augite. Where diabases have been
+crushed or sheared, hornblende readily develops at the expense of
+pyroxene, sometimes replacing it completely. In the later stages of
+alteration the amphibole becomes compact and well crystallized; the
+rocks consist of green hornblende and plagioclase felspar, and are then
+generally known as epidiorites or amphibolites. At the same time a
+schistose structure is produced. But transition forms are very common,
+having more or less of the augite remaining, surrounded by newly formed
+hornblende which at first is rather fibrous and tends to spread outwards
+through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite also is abundant both in
+sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it calcite may make its
+appearance, or the lime set free from the augite may combine with the
+titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to form incrustations or
+borders of sphene around the original crystals of ilmenite. Epidote is
+another secondary lime-bearing mineral which results from the
+decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the pyroxenes. Many
+diabases, especially those of the teschenite sub-group, are filled with
+zeolites.</p>
+
+<p>Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts of
+the globe. Popular names for them are "whinstone," "greenstone,"
+"toadstone" and "trap." They form excellent road-mending stones and are
+much quarried for this purpose, being tough, durable and resistant to
+wear, so long as they are not extremely decomposed. Many of them are to
+be preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle. The quality
+of the Cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly improved by a
+smaller amount of recrystallization where they have been heated by
+contact with intrusive masses of granite.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(J. S. F.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page145"></a>[Page 145]</span></p>
+<p><b>DIABETES</b> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="dia">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;</span>, through, and <span
+class="grk" title="bainein">&beta;&alpha;&#x03af;&nu;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;</span>, to pass),
+a constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive
+discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described, viz.
+Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only increased
+in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less amount of
+sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the urine is simply
+increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal ingredient. This latter,
+however, must be distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular
+kidney, lardaceous disease of the kidney, and also occurring in certain
+cases of hysteria.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diabetes mellitus</i> is the disease to which the term is most commonly
+applied, and is by far the more serious and important ailment. It is one
+of the diseases due to altered metabolism (see <a>Metabolic Diseases</a>). It
+is markedly hereditary, much more prevalent in towns and especially
+modern city life than in more primitive rustic communities, and most
+common among the Jews. The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually
+considered one cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour
+its occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so often
+met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself.
+No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of
+life. It attacks males twice as frequently as females, and fair more
+frequently than dark people.</p>
+
+<p>The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the patient may
+suffer for a length of time before he thinks it necessary to apply for
+medical aid. The first symptoms which attract attention are failure of
+strength, and emaciation, along with great thirst and an increased
+amount and frequent passage of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2
+to 3 pints in the 24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or
+even more. It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than
+normal urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific
+gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable
+irritation of the urinary passages.</p>
+
+<p>By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic
+urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar,
+while the amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by
+certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar passed may vary from
+a few ounces to two or more pounds per diem, and it is found to be
+markedly increased after saccharine or starchy food has been taken.
+Sugar may also be found in the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all
+the excretions of persons suffering from this disease. One of the most
+distressing symptoms is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly
+seeking to allay, the quantity of liquid consumed being in general
+enormous, and there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious
+appetite. The mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may
+be evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the general
+health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and more emaciated.
+He suffers from increasing muscular weakness, the temperature of his
+body is lowered, and the skin is dry and harsh. There is often a
+peculiar flush on the face, not limited to the malar eminences, but
+extending up to the roots of the hair. The teeth are loosened or decay,
+there is a tendency to bleeding from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms,
+constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There
+is in general great mental depression or irritability.</p>
+
+<p>Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of
+young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be rapid. The
+complications of the disease are many and serious. It may cause impaired
+vision by weakening the muscles of accommodation, or by lessening the
+sensitiveness of the retina to light. Also cataract is very common. Skin
+affections of all kinds may occur and prove very intractable. Boils,
+carbuncles, cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life
+advances, though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women.
+Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and gangrene
+of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis in the latter
+disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney diseases and heart
+failure due to fatty heart are all of common occurrence. Also patients
+seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric fever, though the
+attack usually runs a mild course. The sugar temporarily disappears
+during the fever. But the most serious complication of all is known as
+diabetic coma, which is very commonly the final cause of death. The
+onset is often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a
+rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either
+constipation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal
+pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true coma,
+though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The patient suffers
+from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath and skin have a sweet
+ethereal odour. The condition may last from twenty-four hours to three
+days, but is almost invariably the precursor of death.</p>
+
+<p>Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being exceedingly
+rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25% of phthisis or pneumonia, and
+the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral haemorrhage, gangrene,
+&amp;c. The most favourable cases are those in which the patient is
+advanced in years, those in which it is associated with obesity or gout,
+and where the social conditions are favourable. A few cures have been
+recorded in which the disease supervened after some acute illness. The
+unfavourable cases are those in which there is a family history of the
+disease and in which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be done
+by appropriate treatment to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to
+prolong life.</p>
+
+<p>There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that of
+drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by the
+idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition between very
+wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has
+been proved beyond question that certain kinds of food have a powerful
+influence in aggravating the disease, more particularly those consisting
+largely of saccharine and starchy matter; and it may be stated generally
+that the various methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as
+far as possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is
+recommended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous
+foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be avoided;
+while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream, cheese, eggs,
+butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be taken with advantage.
+As a substitute for ordinary bread, which most persons find it difficult
+to do without for any length of time, bran bread, gluten bread and
+almond biscuits. A patient must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to
+a carbohydrate-free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable
+to bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite gradually,
+one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of the diet,
+whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully
+noted meanwhile. The treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes, sugar
+and fruit, and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by
+some diabetic substitute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to
+its lowest point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount
+of carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect on the
+glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be worked out
+experimentally for each individual patient. But in every case, if
+drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma supervene, all restrictions
+must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate freely allowed. The question of
+alcohol is one which must be largely determined by the previous history
+of the patient, but a small quantity will help to make up the
+deficiencies of a diet poor in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky,
+and Hollands gin, are usually free from sugar, and some of the light
+Bordeaux wines contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given
+as cream, fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless,
+but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and endive
+yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to 1&frac12; ozs. daily
+without increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked or raw, are
+allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form. The question of
+milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid
+diet, allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended.
+Thirst is relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria. But
+hypodermic injections of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva, and
+thus relieve the dryness of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page146"></a>[Page 146]</span> mouth. Constipation appears
+to increase the thirst, and must always be carefully guarded against.
+The best remedies are the aperient mineral waters.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes, but few of
+them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy. Opium is often
+found of great service, its administration being followed by marked
+amelioration in all the symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar
+action. In the severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of
+little or no use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin
+hydrochloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more
+power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium and
+aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the sugar
+excretion without counterbalancing bad effects.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>diabetes insipidus</i> there is constant thirst and an excessive flow
+of urine, which, however, is not found to contain any abnormal
+constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to those of
+diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked, the disease
+being in general very slow in its progress. In some cases the health
+appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely a direct cause of death,
+but from its debilitating effects may predispose to serious and fatal
+complications. It is best treated by tonics and generous diet. Valerian
+has been found beneficial, the powdered root being given in 5-grain
+doses.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIABOLO,</b> a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones
+joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught by means of a
+cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game appears originally to
+have come from China, where a top (<i>Kouengen</i>), made of two hollow
+pierced cylinders of metal or wood, joined by a rod&mdash;and often of
+immense size,&mdash;was made by rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was
+used by pedlars to attract customers. From China it was introduced by
+missionaries to Europe; and a form of the game, known as "the devil on
+two sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the end of
+the 18th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with improvements in
+it. But its principal vogue was in France in 1812, where the top was
+called "le diable." Amusing old prints exist (see <i>Fry's Magazine</i>,
+March and December 1907), depicting examples of the popular craze in
+France at the time. The <i>diable</i> of those days resembled a globular
+wooden dumb-bell with a short waist, and the sonorous hum when
+spinning&mdash;the <i>bruit du diable</i>&mdash;was a pronounced feature. At intervals
+during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a
+top of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that
+the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer, Gustave
+Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game, had
+experimented for some time with new forms of top with a view to bringing
+it again into popularity; and having devised the double-cone shape, and
+added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends
+of the double-cone, with other improvements, he named it "diabolo." The
+use of celluloid in preference to metal or wood as its material appears
+to have been due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by
+the inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and catching
+the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions, both as an
+exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in "diabolo tennis" and other
+ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and the chief French
+seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906, its vogue spread in
+1907 so that in France and England it became the fashionable "rage"
+among both children and adults.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor C. V. Boys in
+the <i>Proc. Phys. Soc.</i> (London), Nov. 1907.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIACONICON,</b> in the Greek Church, the name given to a chamber on the
+south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils, vessels,
+&amp;c., of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II. (565-574),
+owing to a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and protheses were
+located in apses at the east end of the aisles. Before that time there
+was only one apse. In the churches in central Syria of slightly earlier
+date, the diaconicon is rectangular, the side apses at Kalat-Seman
+having been added at a later date.</p>
+
+<p><b>DIADOCHI</b> (Gr. <span class="grk"
+title="diadechesthai">&delta;&iota;&alpha;&delta;&#7952;&chi;&epsilon;&sigma;&theta;&alpha;&iota;</span>,
+to receive from another), i.e. "Successors," the name given to the
+Macedonian generals who fought for the empire of Alexander after his
+death in 323 B.C. The name includes Antigonus and his son Demetrius
+Poliorcetes, Antipater and his son Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes
+and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into which the Macedonian empire was
+divided under these rulers are known as Hellenistic. The chief were Asia
+Minor and Syria under the Seleucid Dynasty (q.v.), Egypt under the
+Ptolemies (q.v.), Macedonia under the successors of Antigonus Gonatas,
+Pergamum (q.v.) under the Attalid dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were
+merged in the Roman empire. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Macedonian Empire</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAGONAL</b> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dia">;&delta;&#x03af;&alpha;</span>, through, <span
+class="grk" title="gônia">&gamma;&omega;&nu;&#x03af;&alpha;</span>, a corner), in geometry,
+a line joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a rectilinear
+figure.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>DIAGORAS</b>, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist, flourished
+in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious in his youth and a
+writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became an atheist because a great
+wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods. In consequence of his
+blasphemous speeches, and especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he
+was condemned to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head
+(Aristoph. <i>Clouds</i>, 830; <i>Birds</i>, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth,
+where he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called
+<span class="grk" title="Phrygioi logoi">&Phi;&rho;&#x03cd;&gamma;&iota;&omicron;&iota;
+&lambda;&#x03cc;&gamma;&omicron;&iota;</span> or <span class="grk"
+title="Apopyrgizontes">&#7944;&pi;&omicron;&pi;&upsilon;&rho;&gamma;&#x03af;&zeta;&omicron;&nu;&tau;&epsilon;&sigmaf;</span>,
+in which he probably attacked the Phrygian divinities.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAGRAM</b> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="diagramma">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;&gamma;&rho;&alpha;&mu;&mu;&alpha;</span>,
+from <span class="grk" title="diagraphein">&delta;&iota;&alpha;&gamma;&rho;&#x03ac;&phi;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;</span>,
+to mark out by <span class="correction" title="added missing parenthesis">lines)</span>, a figure drawn in such a manner that the
+geometrical relations between the parts of the figure illustrate
+relations between other objects. They may be classed according to the
+manner in which they are intended to be used, and also according to the
+kind of analogy which we recognize between the diagram and the thing
+represented. The diagrams in mathematical treatises are intended to help
+the reader to follow the mathematical reasoning. The construction of the
+figure is defined in words so that even if no figure were drawn the
+reader could draw one for himself. The diagram is a good one if those
+features which form the subject of the proposition are clearly
+represented.</p>
+
+<p>Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way&mdash;namely, for
+purposes of measurement. The plans and designs drawn by architects and
+engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by
+measuring certain distances on the diagram. For such purposes it is
+essential that the drawing be as accurate as possible. We therefore
+class diagrams as diagrams of illustration, which merely suggest certain
+relations to the mind of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale,
+from which measurements are intended to be made. There are some diagrams
+or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of no importance,
+provided their connexions are properly shown. Of this kind are the
+diagrams of electrical connexions, and those belonging to that
+department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis,
+periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic.</i>&mdash;Diagrams may
+also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which no symbols
+are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular
+points of the diagrams, and mixed diagrams, in which certain magnitudes
+are represented, not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by
+symbols, such as numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the
+height of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by
+marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on
+the map. There is another method in which a line called a contour line
+is drawn through all the places in the map whose height above the sea is
+a certain number of feet, and the number of feet is written at some
+point or points of this line. By the use of a series of contour lines,
+the height of a great number of places can be indicated on a map by
+means of a small number of written symbols. Still this method is not a
+purely graphical method, but a partly symbolical method of expressing
+the third dimension of objects on a diagram in two dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the
+relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables, we must use
+more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of construction we use plans and
+elevations and sections through different planes, to specify the form of
+objects having three <span class="pagenum"><a name="page147"></a>[Page 147]</span> dimensions. In such systems of diagrams
+we have to indicate that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point
+in another diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding
+points in the different diagrams with the same letter. If the diagrams
+are drawn on the same piece of paper we may indicate corresponding
+points by drawing a line from one to the other, taking care that this
+line of correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for a real
+line in either diagram. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Descriptive</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of
+which the form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are
+projections of the bodies taken from two points so near each
+other that, by viewing the two diagrams simultaneously, one
+with each eye, we identify the corresponding points intuitively.
+The method in which we simultaneously contemplate two figures,
+and recognize a correspondence between certain points in the one
+figure and certain points in the other, is one of the most powerful
+and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in pure
+geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures
+have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes
+spoken of as the method or principle of Duality. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>
+<i>Projective</i>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p class="center sc">Diagrams in Mechanics.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the use
+of a series of diagrams representing the configuration, displacement and
+acceleration of the parts of the system.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagram of Configuration.</i>&mdash;In considering a material system it is
+often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at any
+given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The position of
+any particle of the system is defined by drawing a straight line or
+vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the given particle.
+The position of the particle with respect to the origin is determined by
+the magnitude and direction of this vector. If in the diagram we draw
+from the origin (which need not be the same point of space as the origin
+for the material system) a vector equal and parallel to the vector which
+determines the position of the particle, the end of this vector will
+indicate the position of the particle in the diagram of configuration.
+If this is done for all the particles we shall have a system of points
+in the diagram of configuration, each of which corresponds to a particle
+of the material system, and the relative positions of any pair of these
+points will be the same as the relative positions of the material
+particles which correspond to them.</p>
+
+<p>We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the vectors
+are supposed to be drawn&mdash;one for the material system, the other for the
+diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn from them, may now
+be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the material system and on
+the other a set of points, each point corresponding to a particle of the
+system, and the whole representing the configuration of the system at a
+given instant.</p>
+
+<p>This is called a diagram of configuration.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagram of Displacement.</i>&mdash;Let us next consider two diagrams of
+configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different
+instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second the
+final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration to the
+other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at present
+consider the length of time during which the displacement was effected,
+nor the intermediate stages through which it passed, but only the final
+result&mdash;a change of configuration. To study this change we construct a
+diagram of displacement.</p>
+
+<p>Let A, B, C be the points in the initial diagram of configuration, and
+A&prime;, B&prime;, C&prime; be the corresponding points in the final diagram of
+configuration. From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement, draw a
+vector oa equal and parallel to AA&prime;, ob equal and parallel to BB&prime;, oc to
+CC&prime;, and so on. The points a, b, c, &amp;c., will be such that the
+vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so on. The
+diagram containing the points a, b, c, &amp;c., is therefore called the
+diagram of displacement.</p>
+
+<p>In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed
+that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system. For
+we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to AA&prime;, which we
+cannot do unless we know the absolute final position of A, with respect
+to its initial position. In this diagram of displacement there is
+therefore, besides the points a, b, c, &amp;c., an <i>origin</i>, o, which
+represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary because
+the two configurations do not exist at the same time; and therefore to
+express their relative position we require to know a point which remains
+the same at the beginning and end of the time.</p>
+
+<p>But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume a
+knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space.
+Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and equal to BA in
+the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel and equal to
+A&prime;B&prime; in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the
+position of the point b relative to a will be the same by this
+construction as by the former construction, only we must observe that in
+this second construction we use only vectors such as AB,
+A&prime;B&prime;, which represent the relative position of points both
+of which exist simultaneously, instead of vectors such as AA&prime;,
+BB&prime;, which express the position of a point at one instant relative
+to its position at a former instant, and which therefore cannot be
+determined by observation, because the two ends of the vector do not
+exist simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p>It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by
+the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates that we
+have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But no such point
+occurs in the second construction, because we use such vectors only as
+we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of displacements <i>without an
+origin</i> represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know about
+the displacement of the material system.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagram of Velocity.</i>&mdash;If the relative velocities of the points of the
+system are constant, then the diagram of displacement corresponding to
+an interval of a unit of time between the initial and the final
+configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If the relative
+velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in which the
+velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system at the given
+instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The diagram of
+displacements for this imaginary system is the required diagram of
+relative velocities of the actual system at the given instant. It is
+easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any one point
+relative to any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity of any of
+them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagram of Acceleration.</i>&mdash;By the same process by which we formed the
+diagram of displacements from the two diagrams of initial and final
+configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity
+from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This diagram may
+be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval of time. And
+by the same process by which we deduced the diagram of velocities from
+that of displacements we may deduce the diagram of rates of acceleration
+from that of total acceleration.</p>
+
+<p>We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kinematics
+because they are found to be of use <span class="correction"
+title="originally 'epsecially'">especially</span> when we have to deal with
+material systems containing a great number of parts, as in the kinetic
+theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then appears as a region
+of space swarming with points representing molecules, and the only way
+in which we can investigate it is by considering the number of such
+points in unit of volume in different parts of that region, and calling
+this the <i>density</i> of the gas.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region containing
+points equal in number but distributed in a different manner, and the
+number of points in any given portion of the region expresses the number
+of molecules whose velocities lie within given limits. We may speak of
+this as the velocity-density.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagrams of Stress.</i>&mdash;Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to
+statical questions, because the state of the system is constant, so that
+we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corresponding to the
+successive states of the system. The most useful of these applications,
+collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates to the equilibrium of plane
+framed structures familiarly represented in bridges and roof-trusses.
+Two diagrams are used, one called the diagram of the frame and the other
+called the diagram of stress. The structure itself consists of a number
+of separable pieces or links jointed together at their extremities. In
+practice these joints have friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so
+that the force acting at the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly
+through the axis of the joint; but as it is unsafe to make the stability
+of the structure depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we
+assume in our calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and
+therefore that the force acting on the end of any link passes through
+the axis of the joint.</p>
+
+<p>The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in the
+diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in the actual
+structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the frame it is
+represented by a straight line joining the points representing the two
+joints. If no force acts on the link except the two forces acting
+through the centres of the joints, these two forces must be equal and
+opposite, and their direction must coincide with the straight line
+joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting on either
+extremity of the link is directed towards the other extremity, the
+stress on the link is called pressure and the link is called a "strut."
+If it is directed away from the other extremity, the stress on the link
+is called tension and the link is called a "tie." In this case,
+therefore, the only stress acting in a link is a pressure or a tension
+in the direction of the straight line which represents it in the diagram
+of the frame, and all that we have to do is to find the magnitude of
+this stress. In the actual structure gravity acts on every part of the
+link, but in the diagram we substitute for the actual weight of the
+different parts of the link two weights which have the same resultant
+acting at the extremities of the link.</p>
+
+<p>We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without
+weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of
+the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If any link has
+more than two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an
+imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which has only two
+joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a system of points,
+certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines, and each point is
+in general acted on by a weight or other force acting between it and
+some point external to the system. To complete <span class="pagenum"><a name="page148"></a>[Page 148]</span> the diagram
+we may represent these external forces as links, that is to say,
+straight lines joining the points of the frame to points external to the
+frame. Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point
+of application of the weight with the centre of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in the
+lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together with
+the real frame and the links representing external forces, which join
+points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up together a
+complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of points
+connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may in this way
+reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points with
+attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of these
+points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each of these
+forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining the points,
+so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might do this by
+calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure or the
+tension which acts in it.</p>
+
+<p>We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are
+represented graphically as regards direction and position, but
+symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be
+represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the
+direction of the force containing as many units of length as there are
+units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an
+arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to this
+method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram of
+configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as a record
+of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces, but it
+would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of the
+calculation.</p>
+
+<p>But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set of
+forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel and
+proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon the
+forces are in equilibrium. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>.) We might in this way form a
+series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame. But in so
+doing we give up the principle of drawing the line representing a force
+from the point of application of the force, for all the sides of the
+polygon cannot pass through the same point, as the forces do. We also
+represent every stress twice over, for it appears as a side of both the
+polygons corresponding to the two joints between which it acts. But if
+we can arrange the polygons in such a way that the sides of any two
+polygons which represent the same stress coincide with each other, we
+may form a diagram in which every stress is represented in direction and
+magnitude, though not in position, by a single line which is the common
+boundary of the two polygons which represent the joints at the
+extremities of the corresponding piece of the frame.</p>
+
+<p>We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is
+made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in which
+every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude by a
+straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is
+manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the
+corresponding polygon is closed or not.</p>
+
+<p>The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of stress
+are as follows:&mdash;To every link in the frame corresponds a straight line
+in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude and direction the
+stress acting in that link; and to every joint of the frame corresponds
+a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces acting at that joint are
+represented by the sides of the polygon taken in a certain cyclical
+order, the cyclical order of the sides of the two adjacent polygons
+being such that their common side is traced in opposite directions in
+going round the two polygons.</p>
+
+<p>The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the direction
+of the force acting on that joint of the frame which corresponds to the
+polygon, and due to that link of the frame which corresponds to the
+side. This determines whether the stress of the link is a pressure or a
+tension. If we know whether the stress of any one link is a pressure or
+a tension, this determines the cyclical order of the sides of the two
+polygons corresponding to the ends of the links, and therefore the
+cyclical order of all the polygons, and the nature of the stress in
+every link of the frame.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reciprocal Diagrams.</i>&mdash;When to every point of concourse of the lines in
+the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton of
+the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal.</p>
+
+<p>The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other cases
+than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in his <i>Applied
+Mechanics</i> (1857). The method was independently applied to a large
+number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman in the office
+of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk Maxwell in his lectures in
+King's College, London. In the <i>Phil. Mag.</i> for 1864 the latter pointed
+out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and in a paper on
+"Reciprocal Figures, Frames and Diagrams of Forces," <i>Trans. R.S. Edin.</i>
+vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed the relation of the method to Airy's
+function of stress and to other mathematical methods. Professor Fleeming
+Jenkin has given a number of applications of the method to practice
+(<i>Trans. R.S. Edin.</i> vol. xxv.).</p>
+
+<p>L. Cremona (<i>Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica</i>, 1872) deduced
+the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the two
+components of a wrench as developed by Möbius. Karl Culmann, in his
+<i>Graphische Statik</i> (1st ed. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), made great use
+of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not reciprocal.
+Maurice Levy in his <i>Statique graphique</i> (1874) has treated the whole
+subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R. H. Bow, in his <i>The
+Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed Structures</i> (1873),
+materially simplified the process of drawing a diagram of stress
+reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of equilibrating
+external forces.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img148a.jpg" width="550" height="293" alt="Diagram of Configuration." title="Diagram of Configuration." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1</span> Diagram of Configuration.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or the
+links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow places a
+letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the
+frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as
+separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one link
+of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection of the
+links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of each of
+the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of stress,
+as the opposite sides of the parallelogram which corresponds to the
+point of intersection.</p>
+
+<p>This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of configuration
+(fig. 1), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the linkwork which
+Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane.</p>
+
+<p>In fig. 1 the real joints are distinguished from the places where one
+link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T, V.
+The four links RSTV form a "contraparallelogram" in which RS = TV and RV
+= ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar to each other. A fourth
+triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the quadruplane.
+The four points O, P, N, Q form a parallelogram whose angle POQ is
+constant and equal to &pi; - SOR. The product of the distances OP and OQ
+is constant. The linkwork may be fixed at O. If any figure is traced by
+P, Q will trace the inverse figure, but turned round O through the
+constant angle POQ. In the diagram forces Pp, Qq are balanced by the
+force Co at the fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq are necessarily
+inversely as OP and OQ, and make equal angles with those lines.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img148b.jpg" width="550" height="262" alt="Diagram of Stress." title="Diagram of Stress." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2</span> Diagram of Stress.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the
+diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a
+point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress in the
+link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented in the
+diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding to those
+areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by lines crossing
+it, the stress in each part is represented by a different line for each
+part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link these lines are
+all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress in RV is
+represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE and AB. If
+two areas have no part of their boundary in common the letters
+corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined by a
+straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn between them, it
+would represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of all the
+stresses in the links which are cut by any line, straight or curved,
+joining the two areas. For instance the areas F and C in fig. 1 have no
+common boundary, and the points F and C in fig. 2 are not joined by a
+straight line. But every path from the area F to the area C in fig. 1
+passes through a series of other areas, and each passage from one area
+into a contiguous area corresponds to a line drawn in the diagram of
+stress. Hence the whole path from F <span class="pagenum"><a name="page149"></a>[Page 149]</span> to C in fig. 1
+corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and extending from F to
+C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the path is
+represented by FC in fig. 2.</p>
+
+<p>Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on
+bridges (q.v.).</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Automatic Description of Diagrams.</i></p>
+
+<p>There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates of
+a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values of
+two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move, say
+horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing point is
+made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying as the
+value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out a curve
+on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any given time may
+be determined. This principle is applied to the automatic registration
+of phenomena of all kinds, from those of meteorology and terrestrial
+magnetism to the velocity of cannon-shot, the vibrations of sounding
+bodies, the motions of animals, voluntary and involuntary, and the
+currents in electric telegraphs.</p>
+
+<p>In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a
+constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to that of the
+piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is proportional to
+the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the
+curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and the pressure of the
+steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not only supplies a record
+of the pressure of the steam at each stage of the stroke of the engine,
+but indicates the work done by the steam in each stroke by the area
+enclosed by the curve traced on the diagram.<span style="padding-left:
+3em; ">(J. C. M.)</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAL</b> and <b>DIALLING.</b> Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a branch of
+applied mathematics which treats of the construction of sun-dials, that
+is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the
+divisions of the day (Lat. <i>dies</i>) by the motion of the shadow of some
+object on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the
+earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun;
+though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division
+into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the
+greatest elevation.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah
+xxxviii. 8: "Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which
+is gone down in the <i>sun-dial</i> of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date
+of this would be about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know
+nothing of the character or construction of the instrument. The earliest
+of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the
+hemicycle, or hemisphere, of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who
+probably lived about 300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed
+with its rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed
+in any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the horizon
+the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere, and
+the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular
+arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts, determined twelve equal
+intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this were done at the
+time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as
+might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the
+corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow of
+the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of
+time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide
+each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal parts were
+called <i>temporary hours</i>; and, since the duration of daylight varies
+from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from those
+of another; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that
+time, and especially in countries where the variation between the
+longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our
+climates.</p>
+
+<p>The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as
+appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same
+construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials have in modern
+times been found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is
+supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says
+that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The
+second and third were found in 1751&mdash;one at Castel-Nuovo and the other
+at Rignano; and a fourth was found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in
+his <i>Abhandlungen von den Sonnenuhren der Alten</i> (Leipzig, 1777), says
+that this dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore
+be the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of
+Alexandria.</p>
+
+<p>Herodotus recorded that the Greeks derived from the Babylonians the use
+of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry
+enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some
+of which remain to us, and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but
+also of great ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>Ptolemy's <i>Almagest</i> treats of the construction of dials by means of his
+<i>analemma</i>, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical
+problems. The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular
+dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west,
+north or south, and these are the only ones he treats of. It is certain,
+however, that the ancients were able to construct declining dials, as is
+shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics&mdash;the Tower of
+the Winds at Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which
+the eight principal winds are represented, and over them eight different
+dials&mdash;four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the
+intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subsequent to
+that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower in the sixth
+chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials, and as he has
+described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that the
+dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary
+hours or, as the Greeks called them, <i>hectemoria</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this
+Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius
+Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees
+less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The
+first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by
+order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on
+gnomonics, this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we
+remember that the dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of
+Memphis, and consequently less adapted to its position than that of
+Catania to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not
+cultivated in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great importance
+to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the Greeks,
+but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions. One
+of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the
+13th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and
+other surfaces. He even introduced <i>equal</i> or <i>equinoctial hours</i>, but
+the idea was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in
+use.</p>
+
+<p>Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l
+Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by <i>equal</i> hours was
+generally adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics
+from the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century is almost a blank,
+and during that time the change took place. We can see, however, that
+the change would necessarily follow the introduction of clocks and other
+mechanical methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were,
+the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in
+winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary
+hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now,
+we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of
+France about the year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new
+sun-dials came into general use during the 14th and 15th centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was <a>Sebastian
+Münster</a> (q.v.), who published his <i>Horologiographia</i> at Basel in 1531.
+He gives a number of correct rules, but without demonstrations. Among
+his inventions was a moon-dial,<a name="FnAnchor_7" href="#Footnote_7"><sup>[1]</sup></a> but this does not admit of much
+accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>During the 17th century dialling was discussed at great length by many
+writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto <span class="pagenum"><a name="page150"></a>[Page 150]</span> volume of 800
+pages entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be
+considered to contain all that was known at that time.</p>
+
+<p>In the 18th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and
+these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament
+to a garden, or in remote country districts where the old dial on the
+church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by
+its side. The art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little
+more than a mathematical recreation.</p>
+
+<div class="condenced">
+<p><i>General Principles.</i>&mdash;The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth
+are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded. That
+the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in twenty-four
+hours, and that it is carried round the sun in one year at a nearly
+uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing these facts. But the
+effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit our purpose better,
+and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the ideas of the ancients,
+of which our senses furnish apparent confirmation, and assume the earth
+to be fixed. Then, the sun and stars revolve round the earth's axis
+uniformly from east to west once a day&mdash;the sun lagging a little behind
+the stars, making its day some four minutes longer&mdash;so that at the end
+of the year it finds itself again in the same place, having made a
+complete revolution of the heavens relatively to the stars from west to
+east.</p>
+
+<p>The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line
+through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small,
+compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a
+parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely
+look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in
+the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and 6
+P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An axis so
+drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole, its
+elevation being equal to the latitude of the place.</p>
+
+<p>The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would that
+of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes, spoken of
+above, were always the same. But this is constantly altering, so that
+the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also consequently as
+measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a strictly uniform pace.
+This irregularity, which is slight, would be of little consequence in
+the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and watches being mechanical
+measures of time could not, except by extreme complication, be made to
+follow this irregularity, even if desirable.</p>
+
+<p>The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the
+length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in
+the year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly;
+but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will
+be sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock-the greatest accumulated
+difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in November, but
+on the average much less. The four days on which the two agree are April
+15, June 15, September 1 and December 24.</p>
+
+<p>Clock-time is called <i>mean time</i>, that marked by the sun-dial is called
+<i>apparent time</i>, and the difference between them is the <i>equation of
+time</i>. It is given in most calendars and almanacs, frequently under the
+heading "clock slow," "clock fast." When the time by the sun-dial is
+known, the equation of time will at once enable us to obtain the
+corresponding clock-time, or vice versa.</p>
+
+<p>Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the apparent
+position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need consideration
+in the construction of an instrument which, with the best workmanship,
+does not after all admit of very great accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood. The
+problem before us is the following:&mdash;A rod, or <i>style</i>, as it is called,
+being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's axis, we have
+to find how and where points or lines of reference must be traced on
+some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the shadow of the
+style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know that at that
+moment it is solar noon,&mdash;that is, that the plane through the style and
+through the sun then coincides with the meridian; again, that when the
+shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is 1 o'clock by solar
+time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the above plane through
+the style and through the sun has just turned through the twenty-fourth
+part of a complete revolution; and so on for the subsequent hours,&mdash;the
+hours before noon being indicated in a similar manner. The style and the
+surface on which these lines are traced together constitute the dial.</p>
+
+<p>The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected&mdash;whether on
+church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall&mdash;the surface must
+be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines.</p>
+
+<p>The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the
+accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the
+instrument depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an
+angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter
+condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the
+meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is fixed
+to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that the
+style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be
+usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by the
+style it must always be understood that the middle line of the thin band
+of shade is meant.</p>
+
+<p>The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the
+dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to determine
+accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend on this one.
+We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style has been itself
+accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is done the XII o'clock
+line will be found by the intersection of the dial surface with the
+vertical plane which contains the style; and the most simple way of
+drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a plummet from some point
+of the style whence it may hang freely, and waiting until the shadows of
+both style and plumb-line coincide on the dial. This single shadow will
+be the XII o'clock line.</p>
+
+<p>In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock
+line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore, at
+once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line.</p>
+
+<p>The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate method
+of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when good
+watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the style falls
+when 1, 2, 3, &amp;c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the next
+morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced; and
+in the same manner the hours might be subdivided into halves and
+quarters, or even into minutes.</p>
+
+<p>But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II, III,
+&amp;c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each of
+these lines would make with the XII o'clock line. Now, except in the
+simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a
+cardinal point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or
+elaborate geometrical constructions, implying considerable mathematical
+knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of error. The chief
+source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the data; for the
+position of the dial-plane would have to be found before the
+calculations began,&mdash;that is, it would be necessary to know exactly by
+how many degrees it declined from the south towards the east or west,
+and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical. The ancients,
+with the means at their disposal, could obtain these results only very
+roughly.</p>
+
+<p>Dials received different names according to their position:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Horizontal dials</i>, when traced on a horizontal plane;</p>
+
+<p><i>Vertical dials</i>, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal
+points;</p>
+
+<p><i>Vertical declining dials</i>, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal
+point;</p>
+
+<p><i>Inclining dials</i>, when traced on planes neither vertical nor horizontal
+(these were further distinguished as <i>reclining</i> when leaning
+backwards from an observer, <i>proclining</i> when leaning forwards);</p>
+
+<p><i>Equinoctial dials</i>, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's
+axis, &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dial Construction.</i>&mdash;A very correct view of the problem of dial
+construction may be obtained as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img150.jpg" width="550" height="524" alt="Dial Construction." title="Dial Construction." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. 1) having an axis AB parallel to
+the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cylinder let equidistant
+generating-lines be traced 15° apart, one of them XII ... XII being in
+the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II,
+&amp;c., following in the order of the sun's motion.</p>
+
+<p>Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line XII ...
+XII at apparent noon, on the line I ... I at one hour after noon, on II
+... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the cylinder be cut by
+any plane MN representing the plane on which the dial is to be traced,
+the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane and fall on the lines
+AXII AI, AII, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151"></a>[Page 151]</span> by AI, AII, &amp;c. with AXII; the line AXII itself, being
+in the vertical plane through AB, may be supposed known.</p>
+
+<p>For the purposes of actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere
+will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it
+to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock line
+in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south dial.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img151a.jpg" width="500" height="474" alt="Horizontal Dial." title="Horizontal Dial." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Horizontal Dial.</i>&mdash;Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed
+transparent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of the
+heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former</p>
+
+<p>horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore
+coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then the
+circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with the
+horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next divide
+the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, bc, cd, &amp;c. ... of
+15° each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the various points
+of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp, Pcp, &amp;c. ...
+These will exactly correspond to the equidistant generating lines on the
+cylinder in the previous construction, and the shadow of the style will
+fall on these circles after successive intervals of 1,2, 3, &amp;c.,
+hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle in the points B, C,
+D, &amp;c., then EB, EC, ED, &amp;c. ... will be the I, II, III,
+&amp;c., hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal dial
+consists in calculating the angles which these lines make with the XII
+o'clock line EA, whose position is known. The spherical triangles PAB,
+PAC, &amp;c., enable us to do this readily. They are all right-angled at
+A, the side PA is the latitude of the place, and the angles APB, APC,
+&amp;c., are respectively 15°, 30°, &amp;c., then</p>
+
+<p class="noind center">tan AB = tan 15° sin <i>latitude</i>,<br />
+                  tan AC = tan 30° sin <i>latitude</i>,<br />
+                                  &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">These determine the sides AB, AC, &amp;c., that is, the angles AEB, AEC,
+&amp;c., required.</p>
+
+<p>The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian EA of
+11° 51' on a London dial, of 12° 31' at Edinburgh, of 11° 23' at Paris,
+12° 0' at Berlin, 9° 55' at New York and 9° 19' at San Francisco. In the
+same way may be found the angles made by the other hour-lines.</p>
+
+<p>The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant
+from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further, because all
+the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these. In the first
+place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian, and therefore
+two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-lines equidistant
+from the meridian; thus the XI o'clock line and the I o'clock line must
+make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the same as the II o'clock,
+and so on. And next, the 24 great circles, which were drawn to determine
+these lines, are in reality only 12; for clearly the great circle which
+gives I o'clock after midnight, and that which gives I o'clock after
+noon, are one and the same, and so also for the other hours. Therefore
+the hour-lines between VI in the evening and VI the next morning are the
+prolongations of the remaining twelve.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and retain
+only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on it, and we
+shall have the horizontal dial.</p>
+
+<p>On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock,
+and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for
+extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh the limits will
+be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within the Arctic
+circle, the whole circuit will be required.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal plate
+from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate, which is
+sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have an acute
+angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly fixed in a
+vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide with the
+meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thickness of the
+plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles. Since there
+are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two half dials,
+because a little consideration will show that, owing to the thickness of
+the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast a shadow. Thus the
+eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours before 6 o'clock in the
+morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the western edge will be used. At
+noon it will change again to the eastern edge until 6 o'clock in the
+evening, and finally the western edge for the remaining hours of
+daylight.</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img151b.jpg" width="350" height="309" alt="Single dial plate." title="Single dial plate." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles meet
+the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be careful to
+draw only those lines for which the corresponding style is able to give
+a shadow as explained above. The dial will thus have the appearance of a
+single dial plate, and there will be no confusion (see fig. 3).</p>
+
+<p>The line of demarcation between the shadow and the light will be better
+defined than when a wire style is used; but the indications by this
+double dial will always be one minute too fast in the morning and one
+minute too slow in the afternoon. This is owing to the magnitude of the
+sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined shadows
+are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require them, but
+by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward one in the
+afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to advance through a
+space equal to its half-breadth.</p>
+
+<p>Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate is of
+metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be purchased
+ready for placing on the pedestal,&mdash;the dial with all the hour-lines
+traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its proper position,
+if not even cast in the same piece with the dial plate.</p>
+
+<p>When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be
+perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling will be done
+with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected either in
+the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate till the
+time given by the shadow (making the <i>one</i> minute correction mentioned
+above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time is known. It
+is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so built up
+beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the latitude of
+some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines will be drawn in
+directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a dial can therefore
+not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although it would, without
+appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose latitude did not differ
+more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London, and it would be safe to
+employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire.</p>
+
+<p>If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in
+latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a
+place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of time
+would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following table
+will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of the angle
+of the style,&mdash;all angles on the dial being readily measured with an
+ordinary protractor. It extends from 50° lat. to 59&frac12;° lat., and
+therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and Ireland:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;" summary="data">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">LAT.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">XI. A.M. <br />
+       I. P.M.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">X. A.M. <br />
+       II. P.M.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">IX. A.M. <br />
+       III. P.M.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">VIII. A.M. <br />
+       IIII. P.M.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">VII. A.M. <br />
+       V. P.M.</span></td>
+    <td class="ttitle" style="text-align: center; " colspan="2">
+       <span style="font-size: 0.8em; ">VI. A.M. <br />
+       VI. P.M.</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">50°</td><td class="rightb2">0&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">11°</td><td class="rightb2">36&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">23°</td><td class="rightb2">51&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">37°</td><td class="rightb2">27&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53°</td><td class="rightb2">0&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">70°</td><td class="rightb2">43&prime;</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90°</td><td class="rightb2">0&prime;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">50</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">11</td><td class="rightb2">41</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">1</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">37</td><td class="rightb2">39</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">12</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">70</td><td class="rightb2">51</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">51</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">11</td><td class="rightb2">46</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">10</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">37</td><td class="rightb2">51</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">23</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">70</td><td class="rightb2">59</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">51</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">11</td><td class="rightb2">51</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">19</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">3</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">35</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">6</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">52</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">11</td><td class="rightb2">55</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">28</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">14</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">46</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">13</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">52</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">37</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">25</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">57</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">20</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">5</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">45</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">37</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">8</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">53</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">9</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">24</td><td class="rightb2">54</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">48</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">19</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">34</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">14</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">2</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">38</td><td class="rightb2">58</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">29</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">40</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">18</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">10</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">9</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">39</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">47</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">23</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">19</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">19</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">49</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">53</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">54</td><td class="rightb2">59</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">71</td><td class="rightb2">59</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">56</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">31</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">35</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">40</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">9</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">5</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">56</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">36</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">43</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">50</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">18</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">11</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">57</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">40</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">50</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">39</td><td class="rightb2">59</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">17</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">57</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">44</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">25</td><td class="rightb2">58</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">40</td><td class="rightb2">9</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">36</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">22</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">58</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">48</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">26</td><td class="rightb2">5</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">40</td><td class="rightb2">18</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">45</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">28</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">58</td><td class="rightb2">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">52</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">26</td><td class="rightb2">13</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">40</td><td class="rightb2">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">55</td><td class="rightb2">54</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">33</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2">59</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">12</td><td class="rightb2">56</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">26</td><td class="rightb2">20</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">40</td><td class="rightb2">36</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">56</td><td class="rightb2">2</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">72</td><td class="rightb2">39</td>
+    <td class="leftb2">90</td><td class="rightb2">0</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">59</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">30</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">13</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">0</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">26</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">27</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; "><span class="correction" title="corrected from 45">40</span></td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">45</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">56</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">11</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">72</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">44</td>
+    <td class="leftb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">90</td><td class="rightb2" style="border-bottom : 1px solid black; ">0</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Vertical South Dial.</i>&mdash;Let us take again our imaginary transparent
+sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis.
+Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page152"></a>[Page
+152]</span> meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical
+plane facing south. This will cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA,
+which, being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south,
+will be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial
+circle, obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the
+axis PEp. The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the
+vertical line EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and
+the line EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the intersection
+of two great circles ZM, QM, each at right angles to the vertical plane
+QZP, will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem,
+divide the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15° each, beginning
+at a, viz. ab, bc, &amp;c.,&mdash;each quadrant aM, MQ, &amp;c., containing
+6,&mdash;then through each point of division and through the axis Pp draw a
+plane cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles. As the sun
+revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will successively fall on
+these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these circles cross the
+vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &amp;c., the shadow of the
+lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB, EC, &amp;c.,
+which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial, Ep
+being the style.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img152a.jpg" width="500" height="540" alt="Vertical South Dial." title="Vertical South Dial." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on each
+side of noon; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than 6
+o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the dial
+before that time, and is no longer available.</p>
+
+<p>It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &amp;c., may be calculated.</p>
+
+<p>The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &amp;c., will give us a simple rule.
+These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP, is
+the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the
+latitude and 90°; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &amp;c., are 15°,
+30°, &amp;c., respectively. Then</p>
+
+<p class="noind center">tan AB = tan 15° sin <i>co-latitude</i>;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">or more simply,</p>
+
+<p class="noind center">tan AB = tan 15° cos <i>latitude</i>,<br />
+                  tan AC = tan 30° cos <i>latitude</i>,<br />
+                                  &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB,
+AEC, &amp;c., required.</p>
+
+<p>In this ease the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the opposite
+result to that of the horizontal dial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inclining, Reclining, &amp;c., Dials.</i>&mdash;We shall not enter into the
+calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before
+supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and all
+the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these hour-circles
+with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines just as in the
+previous cases; but the triangles will no longer be right-angled, and
+the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the chances of error
+being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing the dial plane in
+its true position on the sphere, since that true position will have to
+be found from observations which can be only roughly performed.</p>
+
+<p>In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is not a plane,
+and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the only safe
+practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points (one is
+sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the moment
+when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and afterwards
+connect these points with the centre by a continuous line. Of course
+the style must have been accurately fixed in its true position before
+we begin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Equatorial Dial.</i>&mdash;The name equatorial dial is given to one whose plane
+is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the equator.
+It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided into 24 equal
+ares is placed at right angles to the style, and hour divisions are
+marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style point accurately to
+the pole, and that the noon division coincide with the meridian plane,
+the shadow of the style will fall on the other divisions, each at its
+proper time. The divisions must be marked on both sides of the dial,
+because the sun will shine on opposite sides in the summer and in the
+winter months, changing at each equinox.</p>
+
+<p><i>To find the Meridian Plane.</i>&mdash;We have, so far, assumed the meridian
+plane to be accurately known; we shall proceed to describe some of the
+methods by which it may be found.</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img152b.jpg" width="300" height="295" alt="Equatorial Dial." title="Equatorial Dial." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approximation. It
+is well known that the needle of the compass, when free to move
+horizontally, oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction
+termed the magnetic meridian. This does not coincide with the true north
+and south line, but the difference between them is generally known with
+tolerable accuracy, and is called the variation of the compass. The
+variation differs widely at different parts of the surface of the earth,
+and is not stationary at any particular place, though the change is
+slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation which takes place
+about the mean position, but too small to need notice here (see <span class="sc"><a
+href="#artlinks">Magnetism, Terrestrial</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass
+can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian, but
+it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further alteration
+will be necessary when a more perfect determination has been made.</p>
+
+<p>A very simple practical method is the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position that
+it may receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the afternoon.
+Then carefully level the surface by means of a spirit-level. This must
+be done very accurately, and the table in that position made perfectly
+secure, so that there be no danger of its shifting during the day.</p>
+
+<p>Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly fixed.
+The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface, should be
+somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H for centre,
+describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD, EF, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet line
+at some convenient height above H.</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img152c.jpg" width="400" height="464" alt="Fig. 6." title="Fig. 6." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the bead P
+as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It will be
+found to describe a curve ACE ... FDB, approaching the point H as the
+sun advances towards noon, and receding from it afterwards. (The curve
+is a conic section&mdash;an hyperbola in these regions.) At the moment when
+it crosses the arc AB, mark the point A; AP is then the direction of the
+sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH is the altitude of the sun.
+In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses the same arc; then
+the angle PBH is the altitude. But the right-angled triangles PHA, PHB
+are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the same altitudes at
+those two instants, the one before, the other after noon. It follows
+that, <i>if the sun has not changed its declination</i> during the interval,
+the two positions will be symmetrically placed one on each side of the
+meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and bisecting it in M, HM
+will be the meridian line.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &amp;c., will furnish its
+meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the
+mean of the positions thus found must be taken.</p>
+
+<p>The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its
+declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and
+may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at the
+end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder of
+the year the change of declination is so slow that we may safely neglect
+it. The most favourable times are at the end of June and at the end of
+December, when the sun's declination is almost stationary. If the line
+HM be produced both ways to the edges of the table, then the two points
+on the ground vertically below those on the edges may be found by a
+plummet, and, if permanent marks be made there, the meridian plane,
+which is the vertical plane passing through these two points, will have
+its position perfectly secured.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page153"></a>[Page 153]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position.</i>&mdash;Before giving any
+other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the
+construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be accurately
+placed in its true position. The angle which the style makes with a
+hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place, is known, and
+the north and south direction is also roughly given by the mariner's
+compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted
+approximately&mdash;correctly, indeed, as to its inclination&mdash;but probably
+requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine
+plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be properly
+adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls exactly on
+the plumb-line,&mdash;or, which is the same thing, if both shadows coincide
+on the dial.</p>
+
+<p>This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane,
+whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the ground.
+Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not generally
+be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian plane, and
+that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a plummet over the
+mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow of the plumb-line
+falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. A signal from the observer
+there to the observer at the dial enables the latter to adjust the style
+as directed above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane.</i>&mdash;We have dwelt at some
+length on these practical operations because they are simple and
+tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant,
+nor telescope&mdash;nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of
+shadow lines.</p>
+
+<p>The Pole star, or <i>Ursae Minoris</i>, may also be employed for finding the
+meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star is
+now only about 1° 14' from the pole; if therefore a plumb-line be
+suspended at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his position
+till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane through his
+eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian plane. Twice
+in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would be strictly
+coincident. This would be when the star crosses the meridian above the
+pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we wished to employ the
+method of determining the meridian, the times of the stars crossing
+would have to be calculated from the data in the <i>Nautical Almanac</i>, and
+a watch would be necessary to know when the instant arrived. The watch
+need not, however, be very accurate, because the motion of the star is
+so slow that an error of ten minutes in the time would not give an error
+of one-eighth of a degree in the azimuth.</p>
+
+<p>The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both
+calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star &eta; <i>Ursae
+Majoris</i>, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest from
+the "pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours from
+the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which joins the
+two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole star, at a
+distance of about 1° 14' from the pole, is crossing the meridian above
+the pole, the star &eta; <i>Ursae Majoris</i>, whose polar distance is about
+40°, has not yet reached the meridian below the pole.</p>
+
+<p>When &eta; <i>Ursae Majoris</i> reaches the meridian, which will be within
+half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian; but its
+slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now
+at some instant between these two times&mdash;much nearer the latter than the
+former&mdash;the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly vertical;
+and at this instant, which the observer determines by seeing that the
+plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither of the stars is
+strictly in the meridian; but the deviation from it is so small that it
+may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the plumb-line taken
+for meridian plane.</p>
+
+<p>In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane
+by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet
+at a short distance in front of the eye; this second plummet, being
+suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as
+always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian
+plane will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground,
+one under each plummet.</p>
+
+<p>This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the
+upper transit of <i>Polaris</i>; for, at the lower transit, the other star &eta;
+<i>Ursae Majoris</i> would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and the
+observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible
+when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half
+of the year is lost to this method.</p>
+
+<p>Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40° N., for
+there the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit;&mdash;we
+may even say not lower than 45° N., for the star must be at least 5°
+above the horizon before it becomes distinctly visible.</p>
+
+<p>There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed,
+but none so convenient as these two, on account of <i>Polaris</i> with its
+very slow motion being one of the pair.</p>
+
+<p><i>To place the Style in its True Position without previous Determination
+of the Meridian Plane.</i>&mdash;The various methods given above for finding the
+meridian plane have for ultimate object the determination of the plane,
+not on its own account, but as an element for fixing the instant of
+noon, whereby the style may be properly placed.</p>
+
+<p>We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we
+determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a
+good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instrument
+for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined in
+a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The simplest
+and most practically useful methods will be found described and
+investigated in any work on astronomy.</p>
+
+<p>For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the
+forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the
+sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions
+of the horizon&mdash;but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of
+the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than 10
+o'clock&mdash;take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same moment,
+marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so observed being
+properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &amp;c., will, together
+with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination, taken from
+the <i>Nautical Almanac</i>, enable us to calculate the time. This will be
+the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we require. Comparing
+the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we see at once by
+how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time; we know, therefore,
+exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon arrives, and
+waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its proper position as
+explained before.</p>
+
+<p>We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and
+observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time
+from some observatory where the work is done; and, allowing for the
+change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we
+have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar
+noon as in the previous case.</p>
+
+<p>In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in devising
+elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced. Sometimes the
+shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder, or on a sphere,
+or on a combination of these. A universal dial was constructed of a
+figure in the shape of a cross; another universal dial showed the hours
+by a globe and by several gnomons. These universal dials required
+adjusting before use, and for this a mariner's compass and a
+spirit-level were necessary. But it would be tedious and useless to
+enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a rule, the more complex
+the less accurate.</p>
+
+<p>Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable centres.
+They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the style had
+to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-<i>lines</i> they had
+hour-<i>points</i>; and the style, instead of being parallel to the axis of
+the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon. There was no
+practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse; and they can
+only be considered as furnishing material for new mathematical problems.</p>
+
+<p><i>Portable Dials.</i>&mdash;The dials so far described have been fixed dials, for
+even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were to be
+fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made generally of
+a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and these, so long as
+the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a watch.</p>
+
+<p>The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with
+that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and the
+same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are essential
+points of difference between them, besides those which are at once
+apparent.</p>
+
+<p>In the fixed dial the result depends on the <i>uniform</i> angular motion of
+the sun round the fixed style; and a small error in the assumed position
+of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the instrument, or to
+some small neglected correction, has only a trifling effect on the time.
+This is owing to the angular displacement of the sun being so rapid&mdash;a
+quarter of a degree every minute&mdash;that for the ordinary affairs of life
+greater accuracy is not required, as a displacement of a quarter of a
+degree, or at any rate of one degree, can be readily seen by nearly
+every person. But with a portable dial this is no longer the case. The
+uniform angular motion is not now available, because we have no
+determined fixed plane to which we may refer it. In the new position, to
+which the observer has gone, the zenith is the only point of the heavens
+he can at once practically find; and the basis for the determination of
+the time is the constantly but <i>very irregularly</i> varying zenith
+distance of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only
+method available for finding local time; but the perfection which has
+been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to
+reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however, to
+be taken. The observations must not be made within a couple of hours of
+noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor too near
+the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions there; and the same
+restrictions must be observed in using a portable dial.</p>
+
+<p>To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials, let
+us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54° lat., and a mean
+declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at 6 o'clock,
+and at noon have an altitude of 36°,&mdash;that is, the portable dial will
+indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each minute, or
+two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The vertical motion of
+the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon, but even there it will
+be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or half the rate of the
+fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed throughout the day.</p>
+
+<p>Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154"></a>[Page 154]</span> for which they are available, and they should not be used
+more than 4 or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were
+constructed.</p>
+
+<p>We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use.</p>
+
+<table style="float: left; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figleft1">
+    <img src="images/img154a.jpg" width="300" height="468" alt="Dial on a Cylinder." title="Dial on a Cylinder." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Dial on a Cylinder.</i>&mdash;A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in.
+high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of tolerably
+easy rotation. A hole in the lid receives the style shaped somewhat like
+a bayonet; and the straight part of the style, which, on account of the
+two bends, is lower than the lid, projects horizontally out from the
+cylinder to a distance of 1 or 1&frac12; in. When not in use the style
+would be taken out and placed inside the cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>A horizontal circle is traced on the cylinder opposite the projecting
+style, and this circle is divided into 36 approximately equidistant
+intervals.<a name="FnAnchor_8" href="#Footnote_8"><sup>[2]</sup></a> These intervals represent spaces of time, and to each
+division is assigned a date, so that each month has three dates marked
+as follows:-January 10, 20, 31; February 10, 20, 28; March 10, 20, 31;
+April 10, 20, 30, and so on,&mdash;always the 10th, the 20th, and the last
+day of each month.</p>
+
+<p>Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis of
+the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily
+understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as to
+bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then
+placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned round
+bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the vertical line
+below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite point of this line,
+the position of which point will depend on the length of the style&mdash;that
+is, the distance of its end from the surface of the cylinder&mdash;and on the
+altitude of the sun at that instant. Suppose that the observations are
+continued all day, the cylinder being very gradually turned so that the
+style may always face the sun, and suppose that marks are made on the
+vertical line to show the extremity of the shadow at each exact hour
+from sunrise to sunset-these times being taken from a good fixed
+sun-dial,&mdash;then it is obvious that the next year, on the <i>same date</i>,
+the sun's declination being about the same, and the observer in about
+the same latitude, the marks made the previous year will serve to tell
+the time all that day.</p>
+
+<p>What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the
+instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which
+would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation, cannot be
+the method employed.</p>
+
+<p>The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation.
+Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken from
+the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place and the
+length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for computing
+the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark below the
+style for each successive hour.</p>
+
+<p>We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at the
+same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if the
+dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results will be
+sufficiently approximate.</p>
+
+<p>When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective
+dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding hour-points,
+will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down,
+the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper position between the
+two divisions. The horizontality of the surface on which the instrument
+rests is a very necessary condition, especially in summer, when, the
+shadow of the style being long, the extreme end will shift rapidly for a
+small deviation from the vertical, and render the reading uncertain. The
+dial can also be used by holding it up by a small ring in the top of the
+lid, and probably the vertically is better ensured in that way.</p>
+
+<p><i>Portable Dial on a Card.</i>&mdash;This neat and very ingenious dial is
+attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and probably
+dates from the early part of the 17th century. Ozanam says that it was
+sometimes called the <i>capuchin</i>, from some fancied resemblance to a cowl
+thrown back.</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction.</i>&mdash;Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the
+card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it; with C as centre,
+and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB below the
+horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at the points
+r, s, t, &amp;c., and through these points draw perpendiculars to the
+diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line through
+r will be the XI ... I line, the line through s the X ... II line, and
+so on; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself; by subdivision
+of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &amp;c., we may draw the hour-lines
+corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where it can be done
+without confusion.</p>
+
+<p>Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the place, and
+let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at right angles to AD.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img154b.jpg" width="550" height="825" alt="Portable Dial on a Card." title="Portable Dial on a Card." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of circle
+RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on it, extending
+from 0° at S to 23&frac12;° on each side at R and T. Next determine the
+points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn from A to the degree
+divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully mark these crossings.</p>
+
+<p>The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination, south
+declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the other hemisphere
+of the earth this would be reversed; the north declinations would be on
+the upper half.</p>
+
+<p>Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations of
+that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the days
+of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and place
+these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without confusion,
+opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the <i>sun-line</i> at the top
+of the card parallel to the line ACB; and, near the extremity, to the
+right, draw any small figure intended to form, as it were, a door of
+which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken that this hinge is
+exactly at right angles to the <i>sun-line</i>. Make a fine open slit c d
+right through the card and extending from the hinge to a short distance
+on the door,&mdash;the centre line of this slit coinciding accurately with
+the <i>sun-line</i>. Now, cut the door completely through the card; except,
+of course, along the hinge, which, when the card is thick, should be
+partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the opening. Cut the card
+right through along the line FDG, and pass a thread carrying a little
+plummet W and a <i>very</i> small bead P; the bead having sufficient friction
+with the thread to retain any position when acted on only by its own
+weight, but sliding easily along the thread when moved by the hand. At
+the back of the card the thread terminates in a knot to hinder it from
+being drawn through; or better, because giving more friction and a
+better hold, it passes through the centre of a small disk of card&mdash;a
+fraction of an inch in diameter&mdash;and, by a knot, is made fast at the
+back of the disk.</p>
+
+<p>To complete the construction,&mdash;with the centres F and G, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page155"></a>[Page 155]</span>
+radii FA and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the
+hour-lines; for in an observation the bead will always be found between
+them. The forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated
+in the figure. The dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon
+and afternoon; but extraneous circumstances, as, for instance, whether
+the sun is rising or falling, will settle that point, except when close
+to noon, where it will always be uncertain.</p>
+
+<p>To <i>rectify</i> the dial (using the old expression, which means to prepare
+the dial for an observation),&mdash;open the small door, by turning it about
+its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the thread in the
+line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it over the point
+A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincides with A.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/img155a.jpg" width="550" height="748" alt="Fig. 9." title="Fig. 9." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>To find the hour of the day,&mdash;hold the dial in a vertical position in
+such a way that its plane may pass through the sun. The verticality is
+ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without pressing.
+Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical plane), until
+the central line of sunshine, passing through the open slit of the door,
+just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against which the bead P
+then rests indicates the time.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>sun-line</i> drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used as a
+<i>shadow-line</i>. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the
+prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was
+gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly
+coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a
+degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of
+the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb of
+the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre. Now,
+even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a
+considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much time
+will the indication of the dial be in error.</p>
+
+<p>The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be free
+from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of the
+sun.</p>
+
+<p>The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere
+toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educational value
+which is not to be measured by the roughness of the results obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of this instrument is as follows:&mdash;Let H (fig. 9) be the
+point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that
+the angle DAH is the north declination of the sun,&mdash;P, the bead, resting
+against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the hour-angle
+from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this hour-angle
+is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC, a north
+declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the <i>sun-line</i>,
+or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle PHQ will be
+equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC, for the pair of
+lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to the sun-line and
+the horizontal.</p>
+
+<p>Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and N
+respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following values
+will be readily deduced from the figure:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>AD = a cos <i>decl.</i>  DH = a sin <i>decl.</i> PQ = a sin <i>alt.</i></p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 3em; ">CX = AC = AD cos <i>lat.</i> = a cos <i>decl.</i> cos <i>lat.</i><br />
+   PN = CV = CX cos ACX = a cos <i>decl.</i> cos <i>lat.</i> cos ACX.<br />
+   NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = sin <i>decl.</i> sin <i>lat.</i></div>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em; ">(&there4; the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">And since<span style="padding-left:5em; ">PQ = NQ + PN,</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">we have, by simple substitution,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">a sin <i>alt.</i> = a sin <i>decl.</i> sin <i>lat.</i> + a cos <i>del.</i> cos <i>lat.</i> cos ACX;
+or, dividing by a throughout,</p>
+<div class="center">sin <i>alt.</i> = sin <i>decl.</i> sin <i>lat.</i> + cos <i>decl.</i> cos <i>lat.</i> cos ACX ... (1)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead.</p>
+
+<p>To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let fig. 10
+represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole, Z the zenith
+and S the sun.</p>
+
+<p>From the spherical triangle PZS, we have</p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 3em; ">cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP + sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS</div>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em; ">but ZS = zenith distance = 90° - altitude</div>
+<div style="margin-left: 5em; ">ZP = 90° - PR = 90°- latitude<br />
+            PS = polar distance = 90° - declination,</div>
+
+<p class="noind">therefore, by substitution</p>
+
+<div class="center">sin <i>alt.</i> = sin <i>decl.</i> sin <i>lat.</i> + cos <i>decl.</i> cos <i>lat.</i> cos ZPS ... (2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the two formulae (1) and (2) shows that the hour-angle
+given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and proves
+the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or at
+sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree. If,
+then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the sun-line, at
+a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at c, the time of
+sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the central line of
+light were made to fall on cm.</p>
+
+<table style="float: right; width: auto; " summary="illustration">
+<tr>
+  <td class="figright1">
+    <img src="images/img155b.jpg" width="300" height="278" alt="Fig. 10." title="Fig. 10." /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;The following list includes the principal writers on
+dialling whose works have come down, to us, and to these we must refer
+for descriptions of the various constructions, some simple and direct,
+others fanciful and intricate, which have been at different times
+employed: Ptolemy, <i>Analemma</i>, restored by Commandine; Vitruvius,
+<i>Architecture</i>; Sebastian Münster, <i>Horologiographia</i>; Orontius Fineus,
+<i>De horologiis solaribus</i>; Mutio Oddi da Urbino, <i>Horologi solari</i>;
+Dryander, <i>De horologiorum compositione</i>; Conrad Gesner, <i>Pandectae</i>;
+Andreas Schöner, <i>Gnomonicae</i>; F. Commandine, <i>Horologiorum descriptio</i>;
+Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, <i>De gnomonum usu</i>; Georgius Schomberg, <i>Exegesis
+fundamentorum gnomonicorum</i>; Joan. Solomon de Caus, <i>Horologes
+solaires</i>; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, <i>Praxis horologiorum</i>; Desargues,
+<i>Manière universelle pour poser l'essieu</i>, &amp;c.; Ath. Kircher, <i>Ars
+magna lucis et Umbrae</i>; Hallum, <i>Explicatio horologii in horto regio
+Londini</i>; Joan. Mark, <i>Tractatus horologiorum</i>; Clavius, <i>Gnomonices de
+horologiis</i>. Also among more modern writers, Deschales, Ozanam,
+Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire, Walper; in German, Paterson, Michael,
+Müller; in English, Foster, Wells, Collins, Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn,
+Emerson and Ferguson. See also Hans Löschner, <i>Über Sonnenuhren</i> (2nd
+ed., Graz, 1906).</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(H. G.)</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+<p><a name="Footnote_7" href="#FnAnchor_7">[1]</a> In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an
+elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 17th or beginning of
+the 18th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it
+available as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8" href="#FnAnchor_8">[2]</a> Strict equality is not necessary, as the observations made are on
+the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to
+the others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go
+completely and exactly round the cylinder, although they were
+always so drawn, and both these conditions were insisted upon in
+the directions for the construction.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIALECT</b> (from Gr. <span class="grk"
+title="dialektos">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;&lambda;&epsilon;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</span>,
+conversation, manner of speaking, <span class="grk"
+title="dialegesthai">&delta;&iota;&alpha;&lambda;&#x03ad;&gamma;&epsilon;&rho;&theta;&alpha;&iota;</span>,
+to converse), a particular or characteristic manner of speech, and hence
+any variety of a language. In its widest sense languages which are
+branches of a common or parent language may be said to be "dialects" of
+that language; thus Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and Doric are dialects of
+Greek, though there may never have at any time been a separate language
+of which they were variations; so the various Romance languages,
+Italian, French, Spanish, &amp;c., were dialects of Latin. Again, where
+there have existed side by side, as in England, various branches of a
+language, such as the languages of the Angles, the Jutes or the Saxons,
+and the descendant of one particular language, from many causes, has
+obtained the predominance, the traces of the other languages remain in
+the "dialects" of the districts where once the original language
+prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from the historical point of view,
+to say that "dialect" varieties of a language represent degradations of
+the standard language. A "literary" accepted language, such as modern
+English, represents the original language spoken in the Midlands, with
+accretions <span class="pagenum"><a name="page156"></a>[Page 156]</span>of Norman, French, and later literary and
+scientific additions from classical and other sources, while the
+present-day "dialects" preserve, in inflections, pronunciation and
+particular words, traces of the original variety of the language not
+incorporated in the standard language of the country. See the various
+articles on languages (English, French, &amp;c).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIALECTIC,</b> or <span class="sc">Dialectics</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk"
+title="dialektos">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;&lambda;&epsilon;&kappa;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf;</span>,
+discourse, debate; <span class="grk" title="ê dialektikê">&#7969;
+&delta;&iota;&alpha;&lambda;&epsilon;&kappa;&tau;&iota;&kappa;&#x03ae;</span>,
+sc. <span class="grk" title="technê">&tau;&#x03ad;&chi;&nu;&eta;</span>, the art of debate), a logical term,
+generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous sense for verbal or
+purely abstract disputation devoid of practical value. According to
+Aristotle, Zeno of Elea "invented" dialectic, the art of disputation by
+question and answer, while Plato developed it metaphysically in
+connexion with his doctrine of "Ideas" as the art of analysing ideas in
+themselves and in relation to the ultimate idea of the Good (<i>Repub.</i>
+vii.). The special function of the so-called "Socratic dialectic" was to
+show the inadequacy of popular beliefs. Aristotle himself used
+"dialectic," as opposed to "science," for that department of mental
+activity which examines the presuppositions lying at the back of all the
+particular sciences. Each particular science has its own subject matter
+and special principles (<span class="grk" title="idiai archai">&#7988;&delta;&iota;&alpha;&iota;
+&#7936;&rho;&chi;&alpha;&#x03af;</span>) on which the superstructure of its
+special discoveries is based. The Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals
+with the universal laws (<span class="grk" title="koinai archai">&kappa;&omicron;&iota;&nu;&alpha;&#8054;
+&#7936;&rho;&chi;&alpha;&#x03af;</span>) of reasoning, which can be applied to
+the particular arguments of all the sciences. The sciences, for example,
+all seek to define their own species; dialectic, on the other hand, sets
+forth the conditions which all definitions must satisfy whatever their
+subject matter. Again, the sciences all seek to educe general laws;
+dialectic investigates the nature of such laws, and the kind and degree
+of necessity to which they can attain. To this general subject matter
+Aristotle gives the name "Topics" (<span class="grk" title="topoi">&tau;&#x03cc;&pi;&omicron;&iota;</span>,
+loci, communes loci). "Dialectic" in this sense is the equivalent of
+"logic." Aristotle also uses the term for the science of probable
+reasoning as opposed to demonstrative reasoning (<span class="grk"
+title="apodeiktikê">&#x03ac;&pi;&omicron;&delta;&epsilon;&iota;&kappa;&tau;&iota;&kappa;&#x03ae;</span>).
+The Stoics divided <span class="grk" title="logikê">&lambda;&omicron;&gamma;&iota;&kappa;&#x03ae;</span> (logic)
+into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time till the end of the
+middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with, or a part of, logic.</p>
+
+<p>In modern philosophy the word has received certain special meanings. In
+Kantian terminology <i>Dialektik</i> is the name of that portion of the
+<i>Kritik d. reinen Vernunft</i> in which Kant discusses the impossibility of
+applying to "things-in-themselves" the principles which are found to
+govern phenomena. In the system of Hegel the word resumes its original
+Socratic sense, as the name of that intellectual process whereby the
+inadequacy of popular conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history,
+therefore, "dialectic" has been connected with that which is remote
+from, or alien to, unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or
+transcendental, rather than with the facts of common experience and
+material things.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIALLAGE,</b> an important mineral of the pyroxene group, distinguished by
+its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The chemical composition
+is the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, but it sometimes contains the
+molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"')<sub>2</sub> SiO<sub>6</sub> and Na Fe"' (SiO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, in addition,
+when it approaches to augite in composition. Diallage is in fact an
+altered form of these varieties of pyroxene; the particular kind of
+alteration which they have undergone being known as "schillerization."
+This, as described by Prof. J. W. Judd, consists in the development of a
+fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary twinning and the
+separation of secondary products along these and other planes of
+chemical weakness ("solution planes") in the crystal. The secondary
+products consist of mixtures of various hydrated oxides&mdash;opal, göthite,
+limonite, &amp;c&mdash;and appear as microscopic inclusions filling or partly
+filling cavities, which have definite outlines with respect to the
+enclosing crystal and are known as negative crystals. It is to the
+reflection and interference of light from these minute inclusions that
+the peculiar bronzy sheen or "schiller" of the mineral is due. The most
+pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid; another,
+less distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third parallel to
+the plane of symmetry; these planes of secondary parting are in addition
+to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all pyroxenes. Frequently the
+material is interlaminated with a rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an
+amphibole (smaragdite or uralite), the latter being an alteration
+product of the diallage.</p>
+
+<p>Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes brown, in
+colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller on the laminated
+surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific gravity 3.2 to 3.35. It
+does not occur in distinct crystals with definite outlines, but only as
+lamellar masses in deep-seated igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of
+which it is an essential constituent. It occurs also in some peridotites
+and serpentines, and rarely in volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline
+schists. Masses of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained
+gabbros of the Island of Skye, Le Prese near Bornio in Valtellina,
+Lombardy, Prato near Florence, and many other localities.</p>
+
+<p>The name diallage, from diallage, "difference," in allusion to the
+dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally applied by R.
+J. Haüy in 1801, included other minerals (the orthorhombic pyroxenes
+hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and the smaragdite variety of
+hornblende) which exhibit the same peculiarities of schiller structure;
+it is now limited to the monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like
+the minerals of similar appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut
+and polished for ornamental purposes.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(L. J. S.)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIALOGUE,</b> properly the conversation between two or more persons,
+reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the Greeks for
+purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction, and scarcely
+modified since the days of its invention. A dialogue is in reality a
+little drama without a theatre, and with scarcely any change of scene.
+It should be illuminated with those qualities which La Fontaine
+applauded in the dialogue of Plato, namely vivacity, fidelity of tone,
+and accuracy in the opposition of opinions. It has always been a
+favourite with those writers who have something to censure or to impart,
+but who love to stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to
+pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than
+indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing and noting
+down the undulations of human thought that it almost escapes analysis.
+All that is recorded, in any literature, of what pretend to be the
+actual words spoken by living or imaginary people is of the nature of
+dialogue. One branch of letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it.
+But in its technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek
+philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the
+extreme refinement of an art.</p>
+
+<p>The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form is
+commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose earliest
+experiment in it is believed to survive in the <i>Laches</i>. The Platonic
+dialogue, however, was founded on the mime, which had been cultivated
+half a century earlier by the Sicilian poets, Sophron and Epicharmus.
+The works of these writers, which Plato admired and imitated, are lost,
+but it is believed that they were little plays, usually with only two
+performers. The recently discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us
+some idea of their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced
+it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing
+element of character-drawing. He must have begun this about the year
+405, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection,
+especially in the cycle directly inspired by the death of Socrates. All
+his philosophical writings, except the <i>Apology</i>, are cast in this form.
+As the greatest of all masters of Greek prose style, Plato lifted his
+favourite instrument, the dialogue, to its highest splendour, and to
+this day he remains by far its most distinguished proficient. In the 2nd
+century a.d. Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his
+ironic dialogues "Of the Gods," "Of the Dead," "Of Love" and "Of the
+Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and philosophical
+error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he merely paints scenes
+of modern life. The title of Lucian's most famous collection was
+borrowed in the 17th century by two French writers of eminence, each of
+whom prepared <i>Dialogues des morts</i>. These were Fontenelle (1683) and
+Fénelon (1712). In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not
+been extensively <span class="pagenum"><a name="page157"></a>[Page 157]</span> employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713,
+for his Platonic treatise, <i>Hylas and Philonous</i>. Landor's <i>Imaginary
+Conversations</i> (1821-1828) is the most famous example of it in the 19th
+century, although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In
+Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works
+published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of
+Valdés (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are
+celebrated. In Italian, collections of dialogues, on the model of Plato,
+have been composed by Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by
+Galiani (1770), by Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. In
+our own day, the French have returned to the original application of
+dialogue, and the inventions of "Gyp," of Henri Lavedan and of others,
+in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told in
+conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes
+of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with them. This kind of
+dialogue has been employed in English, and with conspicuous cleverness
+by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but it does not seem so easily appreciated by
+English as by French readers.</p>
+<div class="author"><span class="sc">(E. G.)</span></div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIALYSIS</b> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="dia">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;</span>, through, <span
+class="grk" title="luein">&lambda;&#x03cd;&epsilon;&iota;&nu;</span>, to loosen), in
+chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for separating colloidal
+and crystalline substances. He found that solutions could be divided
+into two classes according to their action upon a porous diaphragm such
+as parchment. If a solution, say of salt, be placed in a drum provided
+with a parchment bottom, termed a "dialyser," and the drum and its
+contents placed in a larger vessel of water, the salt will pass through
+the membrane. If the salt solution be replaced by one of glue, gelatin
+or gum, it will be found that the membrane is impermeable to these
+solutes. To the first class Graham gave the name "crystalloids," and to
+the second "colloids." This method is particularly effective in the
+preparation of silicic acid. By adding hydrochloric acid to a dilute
+solution of an alkaline silicate, no precipitate will fall and the
+solution will contain hydrochloric acid, an alkaline chloride, and
+silicic acid. If the solution be transferred to a dialyser, the
+hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass through the parchment,
+while the silicic acid will be retained.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMAGNETISM.</b> Substances which, like iron, are attracted
+by the pole of an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as
+magnetic, all others being regarded as non-magnetic. It was
+noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that a number of so-called
+non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac, were influenced
+by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed the
+opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted
+upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more
+or less magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (<i>Experimental Researches</i>,
+vol. iii.) that while practically all natural substances are
+indeed acted upon by a sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only
+a comparatively small number that are attracted like iron, the
+great majority being repelled. Bodies of the latter class were
+termed by Faraday <i>diamagnetics</i>. The strongest diamagnetic
+substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility being&mdash;0.000014,
+and its permeability 0.9998. The diamagnetic quality of this
+metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet,
+and its repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once
+recognized before the date of Faraday's experiments. The
+metals gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are
+all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and platinum are attracted by
+a very strong pole. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magnetism</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMANTE, FRA,</b> Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato about 1400. He
+was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine community of that
+order, and was the friend and assistant of Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite
+convent of Prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been
+suppressed, and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving
+the destruction of the paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra
+Filippo in the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of
+the cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to
+Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings of the
+commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined to petition
+the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to Prato,&mdash;a proof
+that his share in the work was so important that his recall involved the
+suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted Fra Filippo in the execution
+of the frescoes still to be seen in the cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra
+Diamante completed in 1470 after his master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo
+left a son ten years old to the care of Diamante, who, having received
+200 ducats from the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work
+done in the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as
+Vasari says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small
+portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however, would
+depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra Diamante, and the
+terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo. Fra Diamante must have been
+nearly seventy when he completed the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact
+year of his death is not known.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA</b> (1640?-1684?), Spanish dramatist, was born at
+Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and began writing for the stage
+in 1657. He became a knight of Santiago in 1660; the date of his death
+is unknown, but no reference to him as a living author occurs after
+1684. Like many other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is
+deficient in originality, and his style is riddled with affectations;
+<i>La Desgraciada Raquel</i>, which was long considered to be his best play,
+is really Mira de Amescua's <i>Judía de Toledo</i> under another title; and
+the earliest of Diamante's surviving pieces, <i>El Honrador de su padre</i>
+(1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille's Cid.
+Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of French
+dramatic methods into Spain.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMANTINA</b> (formerly called <i>Tejuco</i>), a mining town of the state of
+Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly on a steep
+hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio Jequitinhonha (where
+diamond-washing was once carried on), and partly on the level plain
+above. The town is roughly but substantially built, with broad streets
+and large squares. It is the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal
+seminary, and has many churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous;
+they include a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum
+and a secondary school. There are several small manufactures, including
+cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on. The surrounding
+region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the lateral ranges of the
+Serra do Espinhaço, is rough and barren, but rich in minerals,
+principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is the commercial centre of an
+extensive region, and has long been noted for its wealth. The date of
+the discovery of diamonds, upon which its wealth and importance chiefly
+depend, is uncertain, but the official announcement was made in 1729,
+and in the following year the mines were declared crown property, with a
+crown reservation, known as the "forbidden district," 42 leagues in
+circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining was forbidden
+within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe
+restrictions. There are no trustworthy returns of the value of the
+output, but in 1849 the total was estimated up to that date at
+300,000,000 francs (see <a>Diamond</a>). The present name of the town was
+assumed (instead of Tejuco) in 1838, when it was made a <i>cidade</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMANTINO,</b> a small town of the state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the
+Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction with the Paraguay, in
+14&deg; 24&prime; 33&Prime; S., 56&deg; 8&prime; 30&Prime; W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality 2147,
+mostly Indians. It stands in a broken sterile region 1837 ft. above
+sea-level and at the foot of the great Matto Grosso plateau. The first
+mining settlement dates from 1730, when gold was found in the vicinity.
+On the discovery of diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large
+population and for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet
+expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined.
+Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of export.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><b>DIAMETER</b> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="dia">&delta;&iota;&#x03ac;</span>, through, <span
+class="grk" title="metron">&mu;&#x03ad;&tau;&rho;&omicron;&nu;</span>, measure), in
+geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic section
+and terminated by the curve; the "principal diameters" of the ellipse
+and hyperbola coincide with the "axes" and are at ...</p>
+
+<p>(<i>Continued in volume 8, slice 4, page 158.</i>)</p>
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 30073-h.htm or 30073-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/0/7/30073/
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img124.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img124.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..efa608d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img124.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img136a.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img136a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..211232a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img136a.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img136b.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img136b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..44fbd34
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img136b.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img148a.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img148a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf4248f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img148a.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img148b.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img148b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..046db41
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img148b.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img150.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img150.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a61b6e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img150.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img151a.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img151a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ddc737
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img151a.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img151b.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img151b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fcad03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img151b.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img152a.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img152a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d437903
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img152a.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img152b.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img152b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b258716
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img152b.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img152c.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img152c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a312157
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img152c.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img154a.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img154a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..548e98b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img154a.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img154b.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img154b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c159f52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img154b.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img155a.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img155a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..083b938
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img155a.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073-h/images/img155b.jpg b/old/30073-h/images/img155b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a848fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073-h/images/img155b.jpg
diff --git a/old/30073.txt b/old/30073.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..796c599
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7840 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3
+       "Destructors" to "Diameter"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 24, 2009 [EBook #30073]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+  are listed at the end of the text. Due to space constraints, italics
+  denoting underscores were not used in the tables.
+
+
+                          THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+      A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+                              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+                           VOLUME VIII slice III
+
+                           Destructor to Diameter
+
+
+
+
+DESTRUCTOR (_continued from volume 8, slice 2, page 0108._)
+  ... in main flues, &c. (g) The chimney draught must be assisted with
+  forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of 1 1/2 in. to 2 
+  in. under grates by water-gauge. (h) Where a destructor is required to
+  work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its
+  efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view
+  in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary
+  consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace
+  so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the temperature of
+  the gases is reduced before the organic matter has been thoroughly
+  burned. (i) Where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a
+  large percentage of CO_{2} should be sought in the furnaces with as
+  little excess of air as possible, and the flue gases should be
+  utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates, and the feed-water
+  to the boilers. (j) Ample boiler capacity and hot-water storage
+  feed-tanks should be included in the design where steam-power is
+  required.
+
+  [Sidenote: Cost.]
+
+  As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few
+  trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends, amongst
+  other things, upon the difficulty of preparing the site, upon the
+  nature of the foundations required, the height of the chimney-shaft,
+  the length of the inclined or approach roadway, and the varying prices
+  of labour and materials in different localities. As an example may be
+  mentioned the case of Bristol, where, in 1892, the total cost of
+  constructing a 16-cell Fryer destructor was L11,418, of which L2909
+  was expended on foundations, and L1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost
+  of the destructor proper, buildings and approach road was therefore
+  L6820, or about L426 per cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in
+  destructors depends mainly upon--(a) The price of labour in the
+  locality, and the number of "shifts" or changes of workmen per day;
+  (b) the type of furnace adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be
+  consumed; (d) the interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The
+  cost of burning ton for ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces,
+  including labour and repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion
+  destructors. The average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four
+  different towns throughout England, exclusive of interest on the cost
+  of the works, is 1s. 1 1/2d. per ton burned; the minimum cost is 6d. per
+  ton at Bradford, and the maximum cost 2s. 10d. per ton at Battersea.
+  At Shoreditch the cost per ton for the year ending on the 25th of
+  March 1899, including labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &c. (but
+  exclusive of interest on cost of works), was 2s. 6.9d. The quantity of
+  refuse burned per cell per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up
+  to 20 tons. The ordinary low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft.
+  grate area, burns about 20 lb. of refuse per square foot of grate
+  area per hour, or between 5 and 6 tons per cell per 24 hours. The
+  Meldrum destructor furnaces at Rochdale burn as much as 66 lb. per
+  square foot of grate area per hour, and the Beaman and Deas destructor
+  at Llandudno 71.7 lb. per square foot per hour. The amount, however,
+  always depends materially on the care observed in stoking, the nature
+  of the material, the frequency of removal of clinker, and on the
+  question whether the whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is
+  thoroughly cremated.
+
+  [Sidenote: Residues:]
+
+  The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from
+  22 to 37% of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30% is a very usual
+  amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists of about 8% of straw,
+  paper, shavings, &c., the residue contains about 29% clinker, 2.7%
+  fine ash, .5% flue dust, and .6% old tins, making a total residue of
+  32.8%. As the residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the
+  total bulk of the refuse dealt with, it is a question of the utmost
+  importance that some profitable, or at least inexpensive, means should
+  be devised for its regular disposal. Among other purposes, it has been
+  used for bottoming for macadamized roads, for the manufacture of
+  concrete, for making paving slabs, for forming suburban footpaths or
+  cinder footwalks, and for the manufacture of mortar. The last is a
+  very general, and in many places profitable, mode of disposal. An
+  entirely new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of good
+  well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion with the construction
+  of bacteria beds for sewage disposal, and in many districts its value
+  has, by this means, become greatly enhanced.
+
+  [Sidenote: Forced draught.]
+
+  Through defects in the design and management of many of the early
+  destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these have,
+  to some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute.
+  Although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this
+  respect, that is by no means the case with the modern improved type of
+  high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great
+  prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of
+  a refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to
+  the inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and worked, will
+  give rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the midst of a
+  populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect cremation of the refuse
+  and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential. This is
+  supplied either as air draught delivered from a rapidly revolving fan,
+  or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall steam jet or the Meldrum blower.
+  With a forced blast less air is required to obtain complete combustion
+  than by chimney draught. The forced draught grate requires little more
+  than the quantity theoretically necessary, while with chimney draught
+  more than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied. With
+  forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is attained, and if it
+  is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter the furnaces
+  during stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of pressure in
+  the cells during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to
+  prevent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The forced draught
+  pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The efficiency of the
+  combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the
+  "Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the
+  proportion of CO_{2} passing away in the waste gases; the higher the
+  percentage of CO_{2} the more efficient the furnace, provided there is
+  no formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete
+  combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO_{2} for refuse burning is
+  about 20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting
+  secondary air over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the
+  air-pressure in the ash-pit, an amount approximating to this
+  percentage may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly
+  worked. If the proportion of free oxygen (i.e. excess of air) is
+  large, more air is passed through the furnace than is required for
+  complete combustion, and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste
+  of heat. The position of the econometer in testing should be as near
+  the furnace as possible, as there may be considerable air leakage
+  through the brickwork of the flues.
+
+  The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the inlet
+  air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of which
+  is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue.
+
+  [Sidenote: Calorific value.]
+
+  The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and gases
+  perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature varying
+  from 1250 deg. to 2000 deg. F., and the maintenance of such temperatures
+  has very naturally suggested the possibility of utilizing this
+  heat-energy for the production of steam-power. Experience shows that a
+  considerable amount of energy may be derived from steam-raising
+  destructor stations, amply justifying a reasonable increase of
+  expenditure on plant and labour. The actual calorific value of the
+  refuse material necessarily varies, but, as a general average, with
+  suitably designed and properly managed plant, an evaporation of 1 lb.
+  of water per pound of refuse burned is a result which may be readily
+  attained, and affords a basis of calculation which engineers may
+  safely adopt in practice. Many destructor steam-raising plants,
+  however, give considerably higher results, evaporations approaching 2
+  lb. of water per pound of refuse being often met with under
+  favourable conditions.
+
+  From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the
+  calorific value of unscreened house refuse varies from 1 to 2 lb. of
+  water evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion
+  depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with.
+  Taking the evaporative power of coal at 10 lb. of water per pound of
+  coal, this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from {1/10} to
+  {1/5} that of coal; or, with coal at 20s. per ton, refuse has a
+  commercial value of from 2s. to 4s. per ton. In London the quantity of
+  house refuse amounts to about 1 1/4 million tons per annum, which is
+  equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be
+  burned in furnaces giving an evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound
+  of refuse, it would yield a total power annually of about 138 million
+  brake horse-power hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 20s. per ton
+  for this amount of power even when calculated upon the very low
+  estimate of 2 lb.[1] of coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at
+  over L123,000. On the same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town,
+  with, say, a population of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5
+  cwt. per head per annum, would afford 112 indicated horse-power per
+  ton burned, and the total indicated horse-power hours per annum would
+  be
+
+       70,000 x 5 cwt.
+       --------------- x 112 = 1,960,000 I.H.P. hours annually.
+              20
+
+  If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the
+  electrical horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of
+  90%)
+
+       1,960,000 x 90
+       -------------- = 1,764,000 E.H.P. hours per annum;
+            100
+
+  and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be
+
+                 1,764,000 x 746 = 1,315,944,000.
+
+  Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give
+  1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power
+  lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have
+
+   1,184,349,600 watt-hours
+   ------------------------ = 39,478,320 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum;
+           30 watts
+
+               39,478,320
+  that is, ----------------- = 563 8-c.p. lamp hours per annum per
+           70,000 population           head of population.
+
+  Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20% on
+  three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would be 478
+  8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population: i.e. if the
+  power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it would supply
+  electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of the
+  population for about 1{1/3} hours for every night of the year.
+
+  [Sidenote: Difficulties.]
+
+  In actual practice, when the electric energy is for the purposes of
+  lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the
+  thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want of adequate
+  means of storage either of the thermal or of the electric energy. A
+  destructor station usually yields a fairly definite amount of thermal
+  energy uniformly throughout the 24 hours, while the consumption of
+  electric-lighting current is extremely irregular, the maximum demand
+  being about four times the mean demand. The period during which the
+  demand exceeds the mean is comparatively short, and does not exceed
+  about 6 hours out of the 24, while for a portion of the time the
+  demand may not exceed {1/20}th of the maximum. This difficulty, at
+  first regarded as somewhat grave, is substantially minimized by the
+  provision of ample boiler capacity, or by the introduction of feed
+  thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during
+  the hours of light load (say 18 out of the 24), so that at the time of
+  maximum load the boiler may be filled directly from these vessels,
+  which work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler.
+  Further, the difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at
+  stations where there is a fair day load which practically ceases at
+  about the hour when the illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing
+  the demand upon both destructor and electric plant throughout the 24
+  hours. This arises in cases where current is consumed during the day
+  for motors, fans, lifts, electric tramways, and other like purposes,
+  and, as the employment of electric energy for these services is
+  rapidly becoming general, no difficulty need be anticipated in the
+  successful working of combined destructor and electric plants where
+  these conditions prevail. The more uniform the electrical demand
+  becomes, the more fully may the power from a destructor station be
+  utilized.
+
+  In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse
+  destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with
+  various other classes of power-using undertakings, including tramways,
+  water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and
+  clinker-crushing works and others; and the increasingly large sums
+  which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this
+  character is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value of
+  such combinations where these several classes of work must be carried
+  on.
+
+  For further information on the subject, reference should be made to
+  William H. Maxwell, _Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with an
+  exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants_ (London, 1899), with
+  a special _Supplement_ embodying later results (London, 1905).
+
+  See also the _Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal
+  and County Engineers_, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214
+  and xxv. p. 138; also the _Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
+  Engineers_, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413,
+  cxxxviii. p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp.
+  369 and 498, cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300.           (W. H. MA.)
+
+[1] With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4 lb. of coal per
+brake horse-power per hour is a very usual performance.
+
+
+DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN, 3rd BARON (1835-1895), English
+poet, eldest son of George Fleming Leicester (afterwards Warren), 2nd
+Baron De Tabley, was born on the 26th of April 1835. He was educated at
+Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with
+second classes in classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn
+of 1858 he went to Turkey as unpaid attache to Lord Stratford de
+Redcliffe, and two years later was called to the bar. He became an
+officer in the Cheshire Yeomanry, and unsuccessfully contested
+Mid-Cheshire in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in
+1871 he removed to London, where he became a close friend of Tennyson
+for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the title in 1887 he
+was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a recluse. It was not till
+1892 that he returned to London life, and enjoyed a sort of renaissance
+of reputation and friendship. During the later years of his life Lord De
+Tabley made many new friends, besides reopening old associations, and he
+almost seemed to be gathering around him a small literary company when
+his health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde, in
+his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire.
+Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a poet,
+De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at one time an
+authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels; published _A Guide to the
+Study of Book Plates_ (1880); and the fruit of his careful researches in
+botany was printed posthumously in his elaborate _Flora of Cheshire_
+(1899). Poetry, however, was his first and last passion, and to that he
+devoted the best energies of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards
+poetry came from his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a
+close companionship during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as
+Tennyson lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees.
+Fortescue was killed by falling from the mast of Lord Drogheda's yacht
+in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De Tabley into deep
+depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley issued four little volumes
+of pseudonymous verse (by G. F. Preston), in the production of which he
+had been greatly stimulated by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he
+assumed a pseudonym--his _Praeterita_ (1863) bearing the name of William
+Lancaster. In the next year he published _Eclogues and Monodramas_,
+followed in 1865 by _Studies in Verse_. These volumes all displayed
+technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was not till the
+publication of _Philoctetes_ in 1866 that De Tabley met with any wide
+recognition. _Philoctetes_ bore the initials "M.A.," which, to the
+author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning Matthew Arnold. He at once
+disclosed his identity, and received the congratulations of his friends,
+among whom were Tennyson, Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published
+_Orestes_, in 1870 _Rehearsals_ and in 1873 _Searching the Net_. These
+last two bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat
+disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876 _The Soldier
+of Fortune_, a drama on which he had bestowed much careful labour,
+proved a complete failure, he retired altogether from the literary
+arena. It was not until 1893 that he was persuaded to return, and the
+immediate success in that year of his _Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical_,
+encouraged him to publish a second series in 1895, the year of his
+death. The genuine interest with which these volumes were welcomed did
+much to lighten the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life.
+His posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics of De
+Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style, derived from
+close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and colour. His passion
+for detail was both a strength and a weakness: it lent a loving fidelity
+to his description of natural objects, but it sometimes involved him in
+a loss of simple effect from over-elaboration of treatment. He was
+always a student of the classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration
+directly from them. He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a
+brother poet well said, "still climbed the clear cold altitudes of
+song." His ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally
+ice-bound at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and
+bright, vivid outlines.
+
+  See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his _Critical Kit-Kats_ (1896).
+                                                                (A. WA.)
+
+
+DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDOUARD (1848- ), French painter, was born in
+Paris on the 5th of October 1848. After working as a pupil of
+Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the Salon of 1867, a picture
+representing "A Corner of Meissonier's Studio." Military life was from
+the first a principal attraction to the young painter, and he gained his
+reputation by depicting the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail
+truthfully rendered. He exhibited "A Halt" (1868); "Soldiers at rest,
+during the Manoeuvres at the Camp of Saint Maur" (1869); "Engagement
+between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814" (1870). The war of
+1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which gained him
+repeated successes. Among his more important pictures may be named "The
+Conquerors" (1872); "The Retreat" (1873); "The Charge of the 9th
+Regiment of Cuirassiers in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870"
+(1874); "The Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A
+Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877); "Bonaparte in
+Egypt" (1878); the "Inauguration of the New Opera House"--a
+water-colour; the "Defence of Champigny by Faron's Division" (1879). He
+also worked with Alphonse de Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In
+1884 he exhibited at the Salon the "Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic
+study, and "The Dream" (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille recorded
+other events in the military history of his country: the "Sortie of the
+Garrison of Huningue" (now in the Luxemburg), the "Vincendon Brigade,"
+and "Bizerte," reminiscences of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit
+to Russia, Detaille exhibited "The Cossacks of the Ataman" and "The
+Hereditary Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other
+important works are: "Victims to Duty," "The Prince of Wales and the
+Duke of Connaught" and "Pasteur's Funeral." In his picture of "Chalons,
+9th October 1896," exhibited in the Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the
+emperor and empress of Russia at a review, with M. Felix Faure. Detaille
+became a member of the French Institute in 1898.
+
+   See Marius Vachon, _Detaille_ (Paris, 1898); Frederic Masson,
+  _Edouard Detaille and his work_ (Paris and London, 1891); J. Claretie,
+  _Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains_ (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy,
+  _Les Jeunes peintres militaires_ (Paris, 1878).
+
+
+DETAINER (from _detain_, Lat. _detinere_), in law, the act of keeping a
+person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a person's goods, or
+other real or personal property. A writ of detainer was a form for the
+beginning of a personal action against a person already lodged within
+the walls of a prison; it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838.
+
+
+DETERMINANT, in mathematics, a function which presents itself in the
+solution of a system of simple equations.
+
+1. Considering the equations
+
+                   ax  + by  + cz  = d,
+                   a'x + b'y + c'z = d',
+                   a"x + b"y + c"z = d",
+
+and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross
+multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in such a
+manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient of y becomes =
+0, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = 0; the factors in question
+are b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c (values which, as at once seen,
+have the desired property); we thus obtain an equation which contains on
+the left-hand side only a multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a
+constant term; the coefficient of x has the value
+
+          a(b'c" - b"c') + a'(b"c - bc") + a"(bc' - b'c),
+
+and this function, represented in the form
+
+                         |a,  b,  c |,
+                         |a', b', c'|
+                         |a", b", c"|
+
+is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 3 squared, it is
+called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed that the
+resulting equation is
+
+                |a,  b,  c | x = |d,  b,  c |
+                |a', b', c'|     |d', b', c'|
+                |a", b", c"|     |d", b", c"|
+
+where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function with d,
+d', d" in place of a, a', a" respectively, and is of course also a
+determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c
+used in the process are themselves the determinants of the second order
+
+                |b', c'|, |b", c"|, |b,  c |.
+                |b", c"|  |b,  c |  |b', c'|
+
+We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation of the
+determinants of the orders 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., each from the preceding one,
+viz. we have
+
+  |a|      = a,
+
+  |a,  b | = a|b'| - a'|b|.
+  |a', b'|
+
+  |a,  b,  c | = a|b', c'| + a'|b", c"| + a"|b,  c |,
+  |a', b', c'|    |b", c"|     |b , c |     |b', c'|
+  |a", b", c"|
+
+  |a,   b  , c  , d  | = a|b',  c',  d' | - a'|b" , c" , d" | +
+  |a',  b' , c' , d' |    |b",  c",  d" |     |b"', c"', d"'|
+  |a",  b" , c" , d" |    |b"', c"', d"'|     |b  , c  , d  |
+  |a"', b"', c"', d"'|
+
+                      + a"|b"', c"', d"'| - a"'|b , c,  d |,
+                          |b  , c  , d  |      |b', c', d'|
+                          |b' , c' , d' |      |b", c", d"|
+
+and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd order, but
+alternately + and - for a determinant of an even order.
+
+2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results:--
+
+A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3...n products which
+can be formed with n elements out of n squared elements arranged in the form of
+a square, no two of the n elements being in the same line or in the same
+column, and each such product having the coefficient +- unity.
+
+The products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible
+manner the columns (or the lines) of the determinant, and then taking
+for the factors the n elements in the dexter diagonal. And we thence
+derive the rule for the signs, viz. considering the primitive
+arrangement of the columns as positive, then an arrangement obtained
+therefrom by a single interchange (inversion, or derangement) of two
+columns is regarded as negative; and so in general an arrangement is
+positive or negative according as it is derived from the primitive
+arrangement by an even or an odd number of interchanges. [This implies
+the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive
+arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even number of
+interchanges,--a theorem the verification of which may be easily
+obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular case of the general
+one), an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number
+of interchanges.] And this being so, each product has the sign belonging
+to the corresponding arrangement of the columns; in particular, a
+determinant contains with the sign + the product of the elements in its
+dexter diagonal. It is to be observed that the rule gives as many
+positive as negative arrangements, the number of each being = 1/2 1.2...n.
+
+The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving to the
+columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers 1, 2, 3 ... n, to
+obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement we take, as often as
+a lower number succeeds a higher one, the sign -, and, compounding
+together all these minus signs, obtain the proper sign, + or - as the
+case may be.
+
+Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123, 231, 312
+are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the developed expression
+of the foregoing determinant of the third order is
+
+           = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c.
+
+3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function[1] of the
+elements of each column thereof, and also a linear function of the
+elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the determinant retains
+the same value, only its sign being altered, when any two columns are
+interchanged, or when any two lines are interchanged; more generally,
+when the columns are permuted in any manner, or when the lines are
+permuted in any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with
+the sign + or - according as the new arrangement (considered as derived
+from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative according to the
+foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that, if two columns are
+identical, or if two lines are identical, the value of the determinant
+is = 0. It may be added, that if the lines are converted into columns,
+and the columns into lines, in such a way as to leave the dexter
+diagonal unaltered, the value of the determinant is unaltered; the
+determinant is in this case said to be _transposed_.
+
+4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of the n squared
+elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or say, for
+shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only the sign is
+altered when any two columns are interchanged; these properties
+completely determine the function, except as to a common factor which
+may multiply all the terms. If, to get rid of this arbitrary common
+factor, we assume that the product of the elements in the dexter
+diagonal has the coefficient +1, we have a complete definition of the
+determinant, and it is interesting to show how from these properties,
+assumed for the definition of the determinant, it at once appears that
+the determinant is a function serving for the solution of a system of
+linear equations. Observe that the properties show at once that if any
+column is = 0 (that is, if the elements in the column are each = 0),
+then the determinant is = 0; and further, that if any two columns are
+identical, then the determinant is = 0.
+
+5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the
+beginning of this article, consider the determinant
+
+                 |ax  + by  + cz  - d , b , c |;
+                 |a'x + b'y + c'z - d', b', c'|
+                 |a"x + b"y + c"z - d", b", c"|
+
+it appears that this is
+
+  = x|a , b , c | + y|b , b , c | + z|c , b , c | - |d , b , c |;
+     |a', b', c'|    |b', b', c'|    |c', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+     |a", b", c"|    |b", b", c"|    |c", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+viz. the second and third terms each vanishing, it is
+
+                = x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c |.
+                   |a', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+                   |a", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the
+original determinant is = 0, and therefore the determinant itself is = 0;
+that is, the linear equations give
+
+                x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c | = 0;
+                 |a', b', c'|   |d', b', c'|
+                 |a", b", c"|   |d", b", c"|
+
+which is the result obtained above.
+
+We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there is a
+more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the new
+equation
+
+            [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z = [delta];
+
+a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have
+
+           |[alpha], [beta], [gamma], [delta]| = 0;
+           |   a   ,    b  ,    c   , d      |
+           |   a'  ,    b' ,    c'  , d'     |
+           |   a"  ,    b" ,    c"  , d"     |
+
+or, as this may be written,
+
+     |[alpha], [beta], [gamma]    | - [delta]| a , b , c | = 0:
+     |   a   ,   b   ,    c   , d |          | a', b', c'|
+     |   a'  ,   b'  ,    c'  , d'|          | a", b", c"|
+     |   a"  ,   b"  ,    c"  , d"|          |           |
+
+which, considering [delta] as standing herein for its value [alpha]x +
+[beta]y + [gamma]z, is a consequence of the original equations only: we
+have thus an expression for [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z, an arbitrary
+linear function of the unknown quantities x, y, z; and by comparing the
+coefficients of [alpha], [beta], [gamma] on the two sides respectively,
+we have the values of x, y, z; in fact, these quantities, each
+multiplied by
+
+                      |a , b , c |,
+                      |a', b', c'|
+                      |a", b", c"|
+
+are in the first instance obtained in the forms
+
+       |1             |, |    1         |, |        1     |;
+       |a , b , c , d |  |a , b , c , d |  |a , b , c , d |
+       |a', b', c', d'|  |a', b', c', d'|  |a', b', c', d'|
+       |a", b", c", d"|  |a", b", c", d"|  |a", b", c", d"|
+
+but these are
+
+         = |b , c , d |, - |c , d , a |, |d , a , b |,
+           |b', c', d'|    |c', d', a'|  |d', a', b'|
+           |b", c", d"|    |c", d", a"|  |d", a", b"|
+
+or, what is the same thing,
+
+         = |b , c , d |, |c , a , d |, |a , b , d |
+           |b', c', d'|  |c', a', d'|  |a', b', d'|
+           |b", c", d"|  |c", a", d"|  |a", b", d"|
+
+respectively.
+
+6. _Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order._--The theorem
+is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition of a
+determinant. It is most simply expressed thus--
+
+              ([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"),
+                     ([beta],[beta]',[beta]"),
+                           ([gamma],[gamma]',[gamma]")
+              +---------------------------------------+
+  (a , b , c )|          "       "       "            | =
+  (a', b', c')|          "       "       "            |
+  (a", b", c")|          "       "       "            |
+
+                        = |a , b , c |. |[alpha] , [beta] , [gamma] |,
+                          |a', b', c'|  |[alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'|
+                          |a", b", c"|  |[alpha]", [beta]", [gamma]"|
+
+where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant, the
+terms of the first line being (a, b, c)([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"),
+that is, a[alpha] + b[alpha]' + c[alpha]", (a, b, c)([beta], [beta]',
+[beta]"), that is, a[beta] + b[beta]' + c[beta]", (a, b, c)([gamma],
+[gamma]', [gamma]"), that is a[gamma] + b[gamma]' + c[gamma]"; and
+similarly the terms in the second and third lines are the life functions
+with (a', b', c') and (a", b", c") respectively.
+
+There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns; the
+result would hold good if on the left-hand side we had written ([alpha],
+[beta], [gamma]), ([alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'), ([alpha]", [beta]",
+[gamma]"), or what is the same thing, if on the right-hand side we had
+transposed the second determinant; and either of these changes would, it
+might be thought, increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason
+which need not be explained,[2] the form actually adopted is the
+preferable one.
+
+To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant on the
+left-hand side, _qua_ linear function of its columns, may be broken up
+into a sum of (3 cubed =) 27 determinants, each of which is either of some
+such form as
+
+         = [alpha][beta][gamma]'|a , a , b |,
+                                |a', a', b'|
+                                |a", a", b"|
+
+
+where the term [alpha][beta][gamma]' is not a term of the
+[alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant, and its coefficient (as a determinant
+with two identical columns) vanishes; or else it is of a form such as
+
+         = [alpha][beta]'[gamma]"|a , b , c |,
+                                 |a', b', c'|
+                                 |a", b", c"|
+
+that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the
+abc-determinant last written down; the sum of all other factors +-
+[alpha][beta]'[gamma]" is the [alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant of the
+formula; and the final result then is, that the determinant on the
+left-hand side is equal to the product on the right-hand side of the
+formula.
+
+7. _Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary
+Determinants._--Consider, for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth
+order, 5 = 2 + 3, and let the top two lines be
+
+                        a , b , c , d , e
+                        a', b', c', d', e'
+
+then, if we consider how these elements enter into the determinant, it
+is at once seen that they enter only through the determinants of the
+second order |a , b |, &c., which can be formed by selecting any two
+             |a', b'|
+columns at pleasure. Moreover, representing the remaining three lines by
+
+                   a" , b" , c" , d" , e"
+                   a"', b"', c"', d"', e"'
+                   a"", b"", c"", d"", e""
+
+it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant
+formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant of the
+third order formed with the complementary three columns of the second
+set; and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a
+sum of all the products of the form
+
+                 = |a , b |  |c" , d" , e" |,
+                   |a', b"|  |c"', d"', e"'|
+                             |c"", d"", e""|
+
+the sign +- being in each case such that the sign of the term +-
+ab'c"d'"e"" obtained from the diagonal elements of the component
+determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the determinant of
+the fifth order; for the product written down the sign is obviously +.
+
+Observe that for a determinant of the n-th order, taking the
+decomposition to be 1 + (n - 1), we fall back upon the equations given
+at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a determinant.
+
+8. Any determinant |a , b | formed out of the elements of the original
+                   |a', b'|
+determinant, by selecting the lines and columns at pleasure, is termed a
+_minor_ of the original determinant; and when the number of lines and
+columns, or order of the determinant, is n-1, then such determinant is
+called a _first minor_; the number of the first minors is = n squared, the
+first minors, in fact, corresponding to the several elements of the
+determinant--that is, the coefficient therein of any term whatever is
+the corresponding first minor. The first minors, each divided by the
+determinant itself, form a system of elements _inverse_ to the elements
+of the determinant.
+
+A determinant is _symmetrical_ when every two elements symmetrically
+situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal to each other; if
+they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum of the two elements be
+= 0), this relation not extending to the diagonal elements themselves,
+which remain arbitrary, then the determinant is _skew_; but if the
+relation does extend to the diagonal terms (that is, if these are each =
+0), then the determinant is _skew symmetrical_; thus the determinants
+
+  |a, h, g|; |    a ,     [nu],  - [mu]|; |     0,      [nu],  - [mu]|
+  |h, b, f|  |- [nu],        b,[lambda]|  |- [nu],         0,[lambda]|
+  |g, f, c|  |  [mu],-[lambda],      c |  |  [mu],- [lambda],       0|
+
+are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical:
+
+The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments, and
+applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of mathematics. For
+further developments of the theory of determinants see ALGEBRAIC FORMS.
+                                                                (A. CA.)
+
+  9. _History._--These functions were originally known as "resultants,"
+  a name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but now replaced by
+  the title "determinants," a name first applied to certain forms of
+  them by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the theory of determinants
+  is to be found in the writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693),
+  who incidentally discovered certain properties when reducing the
+  eliminant of a system of linear equations. Gabriel Cramer, in a note
+  to his _Analyse des lignes courbes algebriques_ (1750), gave the rule
+  which establishes the sign of a product as _plus_ or _minus_ according
+  as the number of displacements from the typical form has been even or
+  odd. Determinants were also employed by Etienne Bezout in 1764, but
+  the first connected account of these functions was published in 1772
+  by Charles Auguste Vandermonde. Laplace developed a theorem of
+  Vandermonde for the expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph
+  Louis Lagrange, in his memoir on _Pyramids_, used determinants of the
+  third order, and proved that the square of a determinant was also a
+  determinant. Although he obtained results now identified with
+  determinants, Lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically.
+  In 1801 Gauss published his _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_, which,
+  although written in an obscure form, gave a new impetus to
+  investigations on this and kindred subjects. To Gauss is due the
+  establishment of the important theorem, that the product of two
+  determinants both of the second and third orders is a determinant. The
+  formulation of the general theory is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy,
+  whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries made in the
+  following decades by Hoene-Wronski and J. Binet in France, Carl Gustav
+  Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur Cayley in
+  England. Jacobi's researches were published in _Crelle's Journal_
+  (1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and enriched by
+  new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacobi is
+  indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The far-reaching
+  discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the most important
+  developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new fields were opened up,
+  and have been diligently explored by many mathematicians.
+  Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley; axisymmetric-determinants by
+  Jacobi, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester and O. Hesse, and centro-symmetric
+  determinants by W. R. F. Scott and G. Zehfuss. Continuants have been
+  discussed by Sylvester; alternants by Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H.
+  Nagelbach and G. Garbieri; circulants by E. Catalan, W. Spottiswoode
+  and J. W. L. Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B. Christoffel and G.
+  Frobenius. Determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been
+  studied by V. von Zeipel; the expression of definite integrals as
+  determinants by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the expression of
+  continued fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V. Nachreiner, S.
+  Guenther and E. Fuerstenau. (See T. Muir, _Theory of Determinants_,
+  1906).
+
+[1] The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest
+sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is that
+the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a', a", ... of any
+column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa + A'a' + A"a" + ...
+without any term independent of a, a', a" ...
+
+[2] The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for the
+multiplication of two matrices.
+
+
+DETERMINISM (Lat. _determinare_, to prescribe or limit), in ethics, the
+name given to the theory that all moral choice, so called, is the
+determined or necessary result of psychological and other conditions. It
+is opposed to the various doctrines of Free-Will, known as voluntarism,
+libertarianism, indeterminism, and is from the ethical standpoint more
+or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism. There are various degrees
+of determinism. It may be held that every action is causally connected
+not only externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also
+internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if we could
+know exactly all these conditions, we should be able to forecast with
+mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue. In this
+theory the agent cannot be held responsible for his action in any sense.
+It is the extreme antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the
+doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative
+courses (the _liberum arbitrium indifferentiae_). Since, however, the
+evidence of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the
+individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself as
+being free within certain limitations to make his own choice of
+alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that there may be
+in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes
+solely an element of freedom. This view is corroborated by the
+phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent feels that he ought to, and
+could, have chosen a different course of action. These two kinds of
+determinism are sometimes distinguished as "hard" and "soft"
+determinism. The controversy between determinism and libertarianism
+hinges largely on the significance of the word "motive"; indeed in no
+other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by
+purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How far, and in
+what sense, can action which is determined by motives be said to be
+free? For a long time the advocates of free-will, in their eagerness to
+preserve moral responsibility, went so far as to deny all motives as
+influencing moral action. Such a contention, however, clearly defeats
+its own object by reducing all action to chance. On the other hand, the
+scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the
+distinction between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives,
+character and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product
+of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does it
+become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in his motives
+and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards outward surroundings,
+in his appetites and aversions, inherited tendency and environment have
+been found to play a very large part; indeed many thinkers hold that the
+whole of a man's development, mental as well as physical, is determined
+by external conditions.
+
+In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed,
+but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament assumes
+throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been argued by
+theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge, coupled with
+that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily implies that all
+human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world. Such an
+inference is, however, clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of
+sin, repentance and the atonement, as also with that of eternal reward
+and punishment, which postulates a real measure of human responsibility.
+
+For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles, WILL,
+PREDESTINATION (for the theological problems), ETHICS.
+
+
+DETINUE (O. Fr. _detenue_, from _detenir_, to hold back), in law, an
+action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property in goods
+seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and refuses to
+redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue, the
+judgment is that he recover the chattel or, if it cannot be had, its
+value, which is assessed by the judge and jury, and also certain damages
+for detaining the same. An order for the restitution of the specific
+goods may be enforced by a special writ of execution, called a writ of
+delivery. (See CONTRACT; TROVER.)
+
+
+DETMOLD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of
+Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the Teutoburger
+Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Altenbeken line of the Prussian
+state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164. The residential chateau of the
+princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550), in the Renaissance style, is an
+imposing building, lying with its pretty gardens nearly in the centre of
+the town; whilst at the entrance to the large park on the south is the
+New Palace (1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house.
+Detmold possesses a natural history museum, theatre, high school,
+library, the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876)
+was born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe
+(1801-1836), also a native, died. The leading industries are
+linen-weaving, tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of
+marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town is the
+Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's colossal statue of Hermann or
+Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold (Thiatmelli) was in 783
+the scene of a conflict between the Saxons and the troops of
+Charlemagne.
+
+
+DETROIT, the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite Windsor, Canada, about 4 m.
+W. from the outlet of Lake St Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop.
+(1880) 116,340; (1890) 205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were
+foreign-born and 4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the
+foreign-born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German Poles,
+25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians, 6347 were
+English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by the Michigan Central,
+the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the
+Pere Marquette, the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo &
+Ironton and the Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2 m. to 3
+m., and the other 6 m. from the centre of the city, connect the factory
+districts with the main railway lines. Trains are ferried across the
+river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to Cleveland,
+Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important places between,
+and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also the S. terminus for
+several lines to more remote lake ports, and electric lines extend from
+here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac, Jackson, Toledo and Grand Rapids.
+
+The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase from 29 sq.
+m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in proportion to its
+population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of the
+United States. Baltimore, for example, had in 1904 nearly 70% more
+inhabitants (estimated), while its area at that time was a little less
+and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter less than that of Detroit. The ground
+within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is
+quite level, but rises gradually from the river bank, which is only a
+few feet in height. The Detroit river, along which the city extends for
+about 10 m., is here 1/2 m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its current is
+quite rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth it has a
+width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of islands,
+which during the summer are popular resorts. The city has a 3 m.
+frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the Detroit, with a 16 ft.
+channel. Before the fire by which the city was destroyed in 1805, the
+streets were only 12 ft. wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty. But
+when the rebuilding began, several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide
+were--through the influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one
+of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the
+city of Washington--made to radiate from two central points. From a half
+circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues 120 ft. and 200 ft.
+wide. About 1/4 m. toward the river from this was established another
+focal point called the Campus Martius, 600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at
+which commence radiating or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide.
+Running north from the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand
+Circus is Woodward Avenue, 120 ft. wide, dividing the present city, as
+it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the river is
+Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these avenues is the
+principal retail street along its lower portion, and is a residence
+avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the principal wholesale street
+at the lower end, and a fine residence avenue E. of this. Many of the
+other residence streets are 80 ft. wide. The setting of shade trees was
+early encouraged, and large elms and maples abound. The intersections of
+the diagonal streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as
+well as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly
+with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much used, and
+kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other American cities of
+equal size are the streets and avenues kept so clean. The Grand
+Boulevard, 150 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 12 m. in length, has been
+constructed around the city except along the river front. A very large
+proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit own their homes: there are no
+large congested tenement-house districts; and many streets in various
+parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often
+having a garden plot in front.
+
+Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871), overlooking
+the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in three storeys; the
+flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of 200 ft. On the
+four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures, each
+14 ft. in height, to represent Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and
+on the same level with these is a clock weighing 7670 lb--one of the
+largest in the world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and
+Sailors' monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892)
+and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four corners in each of three
+sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures
+representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry and Artillery,
+also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History; the figure by which the
+monument is surmounted was designed to symbolize Michigan. A larger and
+more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county
+court house, facing Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a
+gilded dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely
+decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest architectural
+beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine Byzantine interior, St
+John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue Baptist and the First
+Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue, and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of
+Mary, both Roman Catholic. The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson
+Avenue, contains some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese
+collections, the Scripps' collection of old masters, other valuable
+paintings, and a small library; free lectures on art are given here
+through the winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908,
+including one of the best collections of state and town histories in the
+country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and relating
+principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the public. The
+city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The principal ones are the
+Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monument on the Campus Martius, and a
+statue of Mayor Pingree in West Grand Circus Park.
+
+The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about 1200
+acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in the river
+at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having an area of more
+than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of 4 1/2 acres, with its trees,
+flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant resting place in the busiest
+quarter of the city. Six miles farther out on Woodward Avenue is Palmer
+Park of about 140 acres, given to the city in 1894 and named in honour
+of the donor. Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the city, and
+there are various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are Elmwood
+(Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining in the E.
+part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in the N. part of the
+city.
+
+_Charity and Education._--Among the charitable institutions are the
+general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's); the Detroit Emergency,
+the Children's Free and the United States Marine hospitals; St Luke's
+hospital, church home, and orphanage; the House of Providence (a
+maternity hospital and infant asylum); the Woman's hospital and
+foundling's home; the Home for convalescent children, &c. In 1894 the
+mayor, Hazen Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of
+preparing, through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant
+land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other
+vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor
+commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the unemployed,
+and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan served an
+admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression, and was
+copied in other cities; it was abandoned when, with the renewal of
+industrial activity, the necessity for it ceased. The leading penal
+institution of the city is the Detroit House of Correction, noted for
+its efficient reformatory work; the inmates are employed ten hours a
+day, chiefly in making furniture. The house of correction pays the city
+a profit of $35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in
+addition to those of the general public school system, include several
+parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and commercial colleges;
+Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877; the Detroit College of
+Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan College of Medicine and Surgery,
+opened in 1888; the Detroit College of law, founded in 1891, and a city
+normal school.
+
+_Commerce._--Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and
+shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous traffic
+between the upper and lower lakes passes through the Detroit river. In
+1907 the number of vessels recorded was 34,149, with registered tonnage
+of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons of freight, valued at
+$697,311,302. This includes vessels which delivered part or all of their
+cargo at Detroit. The largest item in the freights is iron ore on
+vessels bound down. The next is coal on vessels up bound. Grain and
+lumber are the next largest items. Detroit is a port of entry, and its
+foreign commerce, chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The
+city's exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in
+1909. The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,100,659 in 1909.
+
+As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total number of
+manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with a product for the
+year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there were 2847 establishments with
+a product for the year valued at $100,892,838; or an increase of 30.4%
+in the decade. In 1900 the establishments under the factory system,
+omitting the hand trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and
+produced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments under the
+factory system numbered 1363 and the product had increased 45.7% to
+$128,761,658. In the district subsequently annexed the product in 1904
+was about $12,000,000, making a total of $140,000,000. The output for
+1906 was estimated at $180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905
+visited 1721 factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected
+1790 factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in the
+country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the value of its
+product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In 1906 the city had
+twenty automobile factories, with an output of 11,000 cars, valued at
+$12,000,000. Detroit is probably the largest manufacturer in the country
+of freight cars, stoves, pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash
+and similar alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships,
+paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods, furniture, boots
+and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt liquors and fur goods; and
+slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry.
+
+The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought into one
+association the members of three former bodies, making a compact
+organization with civic as well as commercial aims. The board has
+brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of
+the city and many of the professional men. Their united efforts have
+brought many new industries to the city, have improved industrial
+conditions, and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal
+administration. Other business organizations are the Board of Trade,
+devoted to the grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers'
+Association, which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between
+employer and employed, the Builders' & Traders' Exchange, and the Credit
+Men's Association.
+
+_Administration._--Although the city received its first charter in 1806,
+and another in 1815, the real power rested in the hands of the governor
+and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters of 1824 and 1827
+centred the government in a council and made the list of elective
+officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised in 1857 and again in 1859
+and the present charter dates from 1883. Under this charter only three
+administrative officers are elected,--the mayor, the city clerk and the
+city treasurer,--elections being biennial. The administration of the
+city departments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one
+commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and boulevards,
+police and public works departments. The four members of the health
+board are nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate.
+The school board is an independent body, consisting of one elected
+member from each ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has
+the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common
+council. In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other
+principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor and confirmed
+by the council, are controller, corporation counsel, board of three
+assessors, fire commission (four members), public lighting commission
+(six members), water commission (five members), poor commission (four
+members), and inspectors of the house of correction (four in number).
+The members of the public library commission, six in number, are elected
+by the board of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next
+fiscal year are furnished by the different departments to the controller
+in February. He transmits them to the common council with his
+recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to consider them.
+It may reduce or increase the amounts asked, and may add new items. The
+budget then goes to the board of estimates, which has a month for its
+consideration. This body consists of two members elected from each ward
+and five elected at large. The mayor and heads of departments are
+advisory members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the board
+of estimates can hold no other office and they have no appointing power,
+the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political
+motives and influences. They may reduce or cut out any estimates
+submitted, but cannot increase any or add new ones. No bonds can be
+issued without the assent of the board of estimates. The budget is
+apportioned among twelve committees which have almost invariably given
+close and conscientious examination to the actual needs of the
+departments. A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing
+the service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations.
+Prudent management under this system has placed the city in the highest
+rank financially. Its debt limit is 2% on the assessed valuation, and
+even that low maximum is not often reached. The debt in 1907 was only
+about $5,500,000, a smaller _per capita_ debt than that of any other
+city of over 100,000 inhabitants in the country; the assessed valuation
+was $330,000,000; the city tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of
+assessed valuation. Both the council and the estimators are hampered in
+their work by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries
+and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the
+legislature, which has also determined many affairs of a purely
+administrative character.
+
+Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership. On account
+of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private company, the city
+bought the water-works as long ago as 1836. The works have been twice
+moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the
+city. In 1907 there were six engines in the works with a pumping
+capacity of 152,000,000 gallons daily. The daily average of water used
+during the preceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water is pumped
+from Lake St Clair and is of exceptional purity. The city began its own
+public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the river near
+the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public buildings, but
+makes no provision for commercial business. The lighting is excellent,
+and the cost is probably less than could be obtained from a private
+company. The street lighting is done partly from pole and arm lights,
+but largely from steel towers from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with
+strong reflected lights at the top. The city also owns two portable
+asphalt plants, and thus makes a saving in the cost of street repairing
+and resurfacing. With a view of effecting the reduction of street car
+fares to three cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for
+purchasing or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme
+Court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as the
+constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal
+improvement, the state could not empower a municipality to do so.
+Certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question of
+municipal ownership of the railways.
+
+_History._--Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet de la Mothe
+Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the importance of the place
+as a strategic point for determining the control of the fur trade and
+the possession of the North-west and had received assistance from the
+French government soon after Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the
+secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged
+the English government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac
+arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at once built
+a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now Jefferson Avenue
+and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and named it Fort Pontchartrain
+in honour of the French colonial minister. Indians at once came to the
+place in large numbers, but they soon complained of the high price of
+French goods; there was serious contention between Cadillac and the
+French Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had been
+granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the Jesuits. After
+the several parties had begun to complain to the home government the
+monopoly of the fur trade was transferred to Cadillac and he was
+exhorted to cease quarrelling with the Jesuits. Although the
+inhabitants then increased to 200 or more, dissatisfaction with the
+paternal rule of the founder increased until 1710, when he was made
+governor of Louisiana. The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn;
+by the second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and
+for several years following the population was greatly reduced and the
+post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the Mississippi
+country was opened, the population once more increased, and again in
+1748, when the settlement of the Ohio Valley began, the governor-general
+of Canada offered special inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit,
+with the result that the population was soon more than 1000 and the
+cultivation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however, the
+place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers and an
+English element was introduced into the population which up to this time
+had been almost exclusively French. Three years later, during the
+conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly escaped capture and then
+suffered from a siege lasting from the 9th of May until the 12th of
+October. Under English rule it continued from this time on as a military
+post with its population usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new
+fort was built and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of
+Independence the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions
+to ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which
+concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United States in
+1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the 11th of January
+1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794. It was then named Fort
+Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated as a town and received its
+present name. In 1805 all except one or two buildings were destroyed by
+fire. General William Hull (1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American
+Independence, governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander
+of the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to hear
+immediately of the declaration of war between the United States and
+Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped by Lake Erie. He
+made from Detroit on the 12th of July an awkward and futile advance into
+Canada, which, if more vigorous, might have resulted in the capture of
+Malden and the establishment of American troops in Canada, and then
+retired to his fortifications. On the 16th of August 1812, without any
+resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the city
+to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards attempted to
+justify himself by criticism of the War Department in general and in
+particular of General Henry Dearborn's armistice with Prevost, which had
+not included in its terms Hull, whom Dearborn had been sent out to
+reinforce.[1] After Perry's victory on the 14th of September on Lake
+Erie, Detroit on the 29th of September was again occupied by the forces
+of the United States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since
+then its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of
+Michigan from 1805 to 1847.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Silas Farmer, _The History of Detroit and Michigan_
+  (Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and "Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P.
+  Powell's _Historic Towns of the Western States_ (New York and London,
+  1901); D. F. Wilcox, "Municipal Government in Michigan and Ohio," in
+  _Columbia University Studies_ (New York, 1896); C. M. Burton,
+  _"Cadillac's Village" or Detroit under Cadillac_ (Detroit, 1896);
+  Francis Parkman, _A Half Century of Conflict_ (Boston, 1897); and _The
+  Conspiracy of Pontiac_ (Boston, 1898); and the annual _Reports_ of the
+  Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.).
+
+[1] Hull was tried at Albany in 1814 by court martial, General Dearborn
+presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and
+unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president
+remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution.
+
+
+DETTINGEN, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Main,
+and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg railway, 10 m. N.W. of
+Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the
+27th of June 1743, when the English, Hanoverians and Austrians (the
+"Pragmatic army"), 42,000 men under the command of George II. of
+England, routed the numerically superior French forces under the duc de
+Noailles. It was in memory of this victory that Handel composed his
+_Dettingen Te Deum_.
+
+
+DEUCALION, in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of Phthia in
+Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the mythical ancestor
+of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved to destroy all mankind by a
+flood, Deucalion constructed a boat or ark, in which, after drifting
+nine days and nights, he landed on Mount Parnassus (according to others,
+Othrys, Aetna or Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and
+inquired how to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind
+them the "bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the
+hillside. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by
+Pyrrha, women.
+
+  See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 243-415; Apollonius Rhodius
+  iii. 1085 ff.; H. Usener, _Die Sintflutsagen_ (1899).
+
+
+DEUCE (a corruption of the Fr. _deux_, two), a term applied to the "two"
+of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used in tennis when
+both sides have each scored three points in a game, or five games in a
+set; to win the game or set two points or games must then be won
+consecutively. The earliest instances in English of the use of the slang
+expression "the deuce," in exclamations and the like, date from the
+middle of the 17th century. The meaning was similar to that of "plague"
+or "mischief" in such phrases as "plague on you," "mischief take you"
+and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for "the devil" is
+later. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the most probable
+derivation is from a Low German _das daus_, i.e. the "deuce" in dice,
+the lowest and therefore the most unlucky throw. The personification,
+with a consequent change of gender, to _der daus_, came later. The word
+has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic
+mythology.
+
+
+DEUS, JOAO DE (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet of his
+generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in the province of
+Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating in the faculty of law at
+the university of Coimbra, he did not proceed to his degree but settled
+in the city, dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses,
+which circulated among professors and undergraduates in manuscript
+copies. In the volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he
+practised a rigorous self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855,
+and the first of his poems to appear in a separate form was _La Lata_,
+in 1860. In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor
+of _O Bejense_, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo, and
+four years later he edited the _Folha do Sul_. As the pungent satirical
+verses entitled _Eleicoes_ prove, he was not an ardent politician, and,
+though he was returned as Liberal deputy for the constituency of Silves
+in 1869, he acted independently of all political parties and promptly
+resigned his mandate. The renunciation implied in the act, which cut him
+off from all advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of
+his lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend
+Jose Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series of
+poems, _Flores do campo_, which is supplemented by the _Ramo de flores_
+(1869). This is Joao de Deus's masterpiece. _Pires de Marmalada_ (1869)
+is an improvisation of no great merit. The four theatrical
+pieces--_Amemos o nosso proximo_, _Ser apresentado_, _Ensaio de
+Casamento_, and _A Viuva inconsolavel_--are prose translations from
+Mery, cleverly done, but not worth the doing. _Horacio e Lydia_ (1872),
+a translation from Ronsard, is a good example of artifice in
+manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure, the Portuguese
+couplet. As an indication of a strong spiritual reaction three prose
+fragments (1873)--_Anna, Mae de Maria_, _A Virgem Maria_ and _A Mulher
+do Levita de Ephrain_--translated from Darboy's _Femmes de la Bible_,
+are full of significance. The _Folhas soltas_ (1876) is a collection of
+verse in the manner of _Flores do campo_, brilliantly effective and
+exquisitely refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his
+attention to educational problems, and in his _Cartilha maternal_ (1876)
+first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzi and
+Froebel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate was a
+misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational mission absorbed
+Joao de Deus completely, and is responsible for numerous controversial
+letters, for a translation of Theodore-Henri Barrau's treatise, _Des
+devoirs des enfants envers leurs parents_, for a prosodic dictionary
+and for many other publications of no literary value. A copy of verses
+in Antonio Vieira's _Grinalda de Maria_ (1877), the _Loas a Virgem_
+(1878) and the _Proverbios de Salomao_ are evidence of a complete return
+to orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a lamentable error of
+judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled _Cryptinas_ have
+been inserted in the completest edition of Joao de Deus's poems--_Campo
+de Flores_ (Lisbon, 1893). He died at Lisbon on the 11th of January
+1896, was accorded a public funeral and was buried in the National
+Pantheon, the Jeronymite church at Belem, where repose the remains of
+Camoens, Herculano and Garrett. His scattered minor prose writings and
+correspondence have been posthumously published by Dr Theophilo Braga
+(Lisbon, 1898).
+
+Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has been more
+widely read, more profoundly admired than Joao de Deus; yet no poet in
+any country has been more indifferent to public opinion and more
+deliberately careless of personal fame. He is not responsible for any
+single edition of his poems, which were put together by pious but
+ill-informed enthusiasts, who ascribed to him verses that he had not
+written; he kept no copies of his compositions, seldom troubled to write
+them himself, and was content for the most part to dictate them to
+others. He has no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is
+limited in theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch,
+often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced
+accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise a set of
+proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And yet, though
+he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though he wrote nothing at
+all comparable in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of _Os
+Lusiadas_, the popular instinct which links his name with that of his
+great predecessor is eminently just. For Camoens was his model; not the
+Camoens of the epic, but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets,
+where the passion of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has
+noted five stages of development in Joao de Deus's artistic life--the
+imitative, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout
+phases. Under each of these divisions is included much that is of
+extreme interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through
+the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly probable
+that _Caturras_ and _Gaspar_, pieces as witty as anything in Bocage but
+free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always interest literary
+students. But it is as the singer of love that Joao de Deus will delight
+posterity as he delighted his own generation. The elegiac music of
+_Rachel_ and of _Marina_, the melancholy of _Adeus_ and of _Remoinho_,
+the tenderness and sincerity of _Meu casta lirio_, of _Lagrima celeste_,
+of _Descalca_ and a score more songs are distinguished by the large,
+vital simplicity which withstands time. It is precisely in the quality
+of unstudied simplicity that Joao de Deus is incomparably strong. The
+temptations to a display of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a
+Portuguese poet; he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has
+before him the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an
+instrument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is Joao de
+Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge in idle ornament.
+His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweetness and of reverent
+purity; yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental,
+and, though he has not the strength for a long fight, emotion has seldom
+been set to more delicate music. Had he included among his other gifts
+the gift of selection, had he continued the poetic discipline of his
+youth instead of dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he
+performed it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man,
+there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen.
+
+  See also Maxime Formont, _Le Mouvement poetique contemporain en
+  Portugal_ (Lyon, 1892).                                (J. F.-K.)
+
+
+DEUTERONOMY, the name of one of the books of the Old Testament. This
+book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal criticism, orthodox
+scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its Mosaic authorship
+reduced it to the level of a pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at
+last triumphed over tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of
+Deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive,
+however, to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion
+regarding the composition and date of his book has passed.
+
+In the 17th century the characteristics which so clearly mark off
+Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch were frankly
+recognized, but the most advanced critics of that age were inclined to
+pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five. In the
+beginning of the 19th century de Wette startled the religious world by
+declaring that Deuteronomy, so far from being Mosaic, was not known till
+the time of Josiah. This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever
+since, this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical
+criticism. The only other single chapter of the Bible which is
+responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in
+critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy years
+after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen inferred that
+Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and therefore could not
+have been in existence in his day; for had Leviticus been the recognized
+Law-book of his nation Ezekiel could not have represented as a
+degradation the very position which that Law-book described as a special
+honour conferred on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so
+far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than
+Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much later stratum,
+and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic.
+
+The title "Deuteronomy" is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of
+the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered "and he shall write out for
+himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really means "and he [the king]
+shall write out for himself a copy of this law," where there is not the
+slightest suggestion that the author intended to describe "this law"
+delivered on the plains of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to
+the first code given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the
+phrase "this law" is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater difficulty
+than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew word for
+"copy." How much does "this law" include? It was long supposed to mean
+the whole of our present Deuteronomy; indeed, it is on that supposition
+that the traditional view of the Mosaic authorship is based. But the
+context alone can determine the question; and that is often so ambiguous
+that a sure inference is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that
+nowhere need "this law" mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably
+means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little that
+it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered stones set
+up beside an altar.
+
+Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a
+long process of development. The fact that it is legislative as well as
+hortatory is enough to prove this, for most of the laws it contains are
+found elsewhere in the Pentateuch, sometimes in less developed,
+sometimes in more developed forms, a fact which is conclusive proof of
+prolonged historical development. According to the all-pervading law of
+evolution, the less complex form must have preceded the more complex.
+Still, the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as
+easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable for its
+copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious feeling.
+
+The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot have been so
+large as our present book, for not only could it be read at a single
+sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one day. On the day it was
+found, Shaphan first read it himself, and then went to the king and read
+it aloud to him. But perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is
+that it was read publicly to the assembled people immediately before
+they, as well as their king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a
+word is said as to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by
+such a great multitude, being long or difficult.
+
+The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.),
+which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression made
+upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been produced by
+the legislative part alone. The king must have listened to the curses as
+well as the blessings in chap, xxviii., and no doubt also to the
+exhortations in chaps. v.-xi. Hence we may conclude that the original
+book consisted of a central mass of religious, civil and social laws,
+preceded by a hortatory introduction and followed by an effective
+peroration. The book read to Josiah must therefore have comprised most
+of what is found in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But
+something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present
+form, for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43
+(where the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52,
+there are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally
+acknowledged to be post-exilic.
+
+The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now
+have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv. 44, more
+historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more hortatory than
+historical. These may at first have been prefixed to separate editions
+of the legislative portion, but were eventually combined. Then, before D
+was united to P, five appendices of very various dates and embracing
+poetry as well as prose, were added so as to give a fuller account of
+the last days of Moses and thus lead up to the narrative of his death
+with which the book closes. (1) Chap. xxvii., where the elders of Israel
+are introduced for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. 1)
+and then the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer
+to laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this
+chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the laws
+codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The second
+appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us the farewell
+address of Moses and is certainly later than D. Moses is represented as
+speaking not with any hope of preventing Israel's apostasy but because
+he knows that the people will eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a
+point of view very different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap.
+xxxii. That this didactic poem must have been written late in the
+nation's history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7:
+"Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many generations." Such
+words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of Moses. It must have
+been composed in a time of natural gloom and depression, after Yahweh's
+anger had been provoked by "a very froward generation," certainly not
+before the Assyrian Empire had loomed up against the political horizon,
+aggressive and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the
+time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses, chap, xxxiii.
+The first line proves that this poem is not by D, who speaks invariably
+of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation depicted is in striking contrast
+with that of the Song. Everything is bright because of promises
+fulfilled, and the future bids fair to be brighter still. Bruston
+maintains with reason that the Blessing, strictly so called, consists
+only of vv. 6-25, and has been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the
+goodness of Jehovah to his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv.
+1-5, 26-29). The special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and
+Manasseh) in vv. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the
+time of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II. (5)
+The account of Moses' death, chap. xxxiv. This appendix, containing, as
+it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even Deuteronomy was not put
+into its present form until after the exile.
+
+From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the Covenant (Ex.
+xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E, the prophetic
+narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not quite clear whether D
+knew E as an independent work, or after its combination with J, the
+somewhat earlier prophetic narrative of the Southern kingdom, the
+combined form of which is now indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel
+certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that D quotes always from
+E and never from J, for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as
+readily be ascribed to J as to E, cf. Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut.
+x. 14 and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written
+certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J.
+
+In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas, whereas in
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere manifest. Hence this
+school of thought arose between the age of Isaiah and that of Jeremiah;
+but how long D itself may have been in existence before it was read in
+622 to Josiah cannot be determined with certainty. Many argue that D was
+written immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put
+into the temple for the purpose of being "found." This theory gives some
+plausibility to the charge that the book is a pious fraud. But the
+narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference. The more natural
+explanation is that it was written not in the early years of Josiah's
+reign, and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office, but
+some time during the long reign of Manasseh, probably when his policy
+was most reactionary and when he favoured the worship of the "host of
+heaven" and set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This
+explains why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed
+it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity should
+arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he actually foresaw
+how favourable that opportunity would prove, and that, as soon as
+discovered, his work would be promulgated as law by the king and
+willingly accepted by the people. The author believed that everything he
+wrote was in full accordance with the mind of Moses, and would
+contribute to the national weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and
+therefore he did not scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is
+not to be expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact
+year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is enough to
+determine with something like probability the century or half-century
+which best fits its historical data; and these appear to point to the
+reign of Manasseh.
+
+Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the historical
+resumes JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even verses being
+copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points out in his careful
+analysis, there are only three facts in D which are not also found in
+JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number of souls that went down
+into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark being made of acacia wood. But even
+these may have been in J or E originally, and left out when JE was
+combined with P. Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory
+parts of D between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural
+when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular; but as a
+similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally
+acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue seems anything but
+trustworthy, depending as it does on the presence or absence of a single
+Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it frequently does, in the division of
+verses which otherwise seem to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The
+inference as to diversity of authorship is much more conclusive when
+difference of standpoint can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii.
+2. The first two passages represent Moses as addressing the generation
+that was alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to
+those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later; and it
+may well be that the one author may, in the historical and hortatory
+parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other the 2nd singular;
+without the further inference being justified that every law in which
+the 2nd singular is used must be assigned to the latter, and every law
+in which the 2nd plural occurs must be due to the former.
+
+The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding characteristics,
+is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation towards which events had
+long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9 shows that even the zeal of Josiah
+could not carry out the instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's
+acceptance of D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the
+religion of Judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its
+adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them. D
+requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols, but
+of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas (stone pillars) often set
+up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21). These reforms made too heavy
+demands upon the people, as was proved by the reaction which set in at
+Josiah's death. Indeed the country people would look on the destruction
+of the high places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and
+would consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his
+sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of Jerusalem and
+the exile of the people would appear to those who had obeyed D's
+instructions as a well-merited punishment for national apostasy.
+
+Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each individual
+Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the declaration of
+the individual's duty towards God immediately follows the emphatic
+intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity. "Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our
+God, Yahweh is one: and thou shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thine
+heart and with all thy soul and with all thy strength" (vi. 4, 5).
+
+In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should never be
+forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy ever pronounced on
+any scripture was pronounced by Christ himself, when he said "on these
+words hang all the law and the prophets," and it is also well to
+remember that when tempted in the wilderness he repelled each suggestion
+of the Tempter by a quotation from Deuteronomy.
+
+Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the influence of
+the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and despite the spirit of love
+which breathes so strongly throughout the book, especially for the poor,
+the widow and the fatherless, the stranger and the homeless Levite
+(xxiv. 10-22), and the humanity shown towards both beasts and birds
+(xxii. 1, 4, 6 f., xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to
+explain the intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance
+characteristic of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as
+his own soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's
+pitiless order to that man is "Thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand
+shall be first upon him to put him to death." From this single instance
+we see not only how far mankind has travelled along the path of
+religious toleration since Deuteronomy was written, but also how very
+far the criticism implied in Christ's method of dealing with what "was
+said to them of old time" may be legitimately carried. (J. A. P.*)
+
+
+DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873), German oriental scholar,
+was born on the 28th of October 1829, at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of
+Jewish extraction. On reaching his sixteenth year he began his studies
+at the university of Berlin, paying special attention to theology and
+the Talmud. He also mastered the English language and studied English
+literature. In 1855 Deutsch was appointed assistant in the library of
+the British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and contributed no
+less than 190 papers to _Chambers's Encyclopaedia_, in addition to
+essays in Kitto's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries, and articles in
+periodicals. In October 1867 his article on "The Talmud," published in
+the _Quarterly Review_, made him known. It was translated into French,
+German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch and Danish. He died at Alexandria on the
+12th of May 1873.
+
+  His _Literary Remains_, edited by Lady Strangford, were published in
+  1874, consisting of nineteen papers on such subjects as "The Talmud,"
+  "Islam," "Semitic Culture," "Egypt, Ancient and Modern," "Semitic
+  Languages," "The Targums," "The Samaritan Pentateuch," and "Arabic
+  Poetry."
+
+
+DEUTSCHKRONE, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, between the two
+lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 m. N.W. of Schneidemuehl, a railway junction
+60 m. north of Posen. Pop. (1905) 7282. It is the seat of the public
+offices for the district, possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
+church, a synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuit
+college, and has manufactures of machinery, woollens, tiles, brandy and
+beer.
+
+
+DEUTZ (anc. _Divitio_), formerly an independent town of Germany, in the
+Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to
+Cologne, with which it has been incorporated since 1888. It contains the
+church of St Heribert, built in the 17th century, cavalry barracks,
+artillery magazines, and gas, porcelain, machine and carriage factories.
+It has a handsome railway station on the banks of the Rhine, negotiating
+the local traffic with Elberfeld and Koenigswinter. The fortifications of
+the town form part of the defences of Cologne. To the east is the
+manufacturing suburb of Kalk.
+
+The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine monastery by
+Heribert, archbishop of Cologne. Permission to fortify the town was in
+1230 granted to the citizens by the archbishop of Cologne, between whom
+and the counts of Berg it was in 1240 divided. It was burnt in 1376,
+1445 and 1583; and in 1678, after the peace of Nijmwegen, the
+fortifications were dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed
+in 1888.
+
+
+DEUX-SEVRES, an inland department of western France, formed in 1790
+mainly of the three districts of Poitou, Thouarsais, Gatine and
+Niortais, added to a small portion of Saintonge and a still smaller
+portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 339,466. It is bounded
+N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne, S.E. by Charente, S. by
+Charente-Inferieure and W. by Vendee. The department takes its name from
+two rivers--the Sevre of Niort which traverses the southern portion, and
+the Sevre of Nantes (an affluent of the Loire) which drains the
+north-west. There are three regions--the Gatine, occupying the north and
+centre of the department, the Plaine in the south and the
+Marais,--distinguished by their geological character and their general
+physical appearance. The Gatine, formed of primitive rocks (granite and
+schists), is the continuation of the "Bocage" of Vendee and
+Maine-et-Loire. Its surface is irregular and covered with hedges and
+clumps of wood or forests. The systematic application of lime has much
+improved the soil, which is naturally poor. The Plaine, resting on
+oolite limestone, is treeless but fertile. The Marais, a low-lying
+district in the extreme south-west, consists of alluvial clays which also
+are extremely productive when properly drained. The highest points,
+several of which exceed 700 ft., are found in a line of hills which
+begins in the centre of the department, to the south of Parthenay, and
+stretches north-west into the neighbouring department of Vendee. It
+divides the region drained by the Sevre Nantaise and the Thouet (both
+affluents of the Loire) in the north from the basins of the Sevre
+Niortaise and the Charente in the south. The climate is mild, the annual
+temperature at Niort being 54 deg. Fahr., and the rainfall nearly 25 in.
+The winters are colder in the Gatine, the summers warmer in the Plaine.
+
+Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sevres, which is primarily an
+agricultural department, consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the
+main cereals. Potatoes and mangold-wurzels are the chief root-crops.
+Niort is a centre for the growing Of vegetables (onions, asparagus,
+artichokes, &c.) and of angelica. Considerable quantities of beetroot
+are raised to supply the distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp, rape and
+flax are also cultivated. Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of
+Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the south. The
+department is well known for the Parthenay breed of cattle and the
+Poitou breed of horses; and the mules reared in the southern
+arrondissements are much sought after both in France and in Spain. The
+system of co-operative dairying is practised in some localities. The
+apple-trees of the Gatine and the walnut-trees of the Plaine bring a
+good return. Coal is mined, and the department produces building-stone
+and lime. A leading industry is the manufacture of textiles (serges,
+druggets, linen, handkerchiefs, flannels, swan-skins and knitted goods).
+Tanning and leather-dressing are carried on at Niort and other places,
+and gloves are made at Niort. Wool and cotton spinning, hat and shoe
+making, distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also
+main industries. The department exports cattle and sheep to Paris and
+Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and its industrial
+products.
+
+The Sevre Niortaise and its tributary the Mignon furnish 19 m. of
+navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouest-Etat railway.
+It contains a large proportion of Protestants, especially in the
+south-east. The four arrondissements are Niort, Bressuire, Melle and
+Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and the communes 356. Deux-Sevres is
+part of the region of the IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the
+academie (educational circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its
+court of appeal.
+
+Niort (the capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent, Thouars
+and Oiron are the principal places in the department. Several other
+towns contain features of interest. Among these are Airvault, where
+there is a church of the 12th and 14th centuries which once belonged to
+the abbey of St Pierre, and an ancient bridge built by the monks;
+Celles-sur-Belle, where there is an old church rebuilt by Louis XI., and
+again in the 17th century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a fine
+Romanesque church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of the
+most ancient abbeys of Gaul.
+
+
+DEVA (Sanskrit "heavenly"), in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, spirits of
+the light and air, and minor deities generally beneficent. In Persian
+mythology, however, the word is used for evil spirits or demons.
+According to Zoroaster the devas were created by Ahriman.
+
+
+DEVA (mod. _Chester_), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain on the Dee.
+It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and held probably till the
+end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison was the Legio XX. Valeria
+Victrix, with which another legion (II. Adjutrix) was associated for a
+few years, about A.D. 75-85. It never developed, like many Roman
+legionary fortresses, into a town, but remained military throughout.
+Parts of its north and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate)
+and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area.
+
+  See F. J. Haverfield, _Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester_
+  (Chester, 1900), Introduction.
+
+
+DEVADATTA, the son of Suklodana, who was younger brother to the father
+of the Buddha (_Mah[=a]vastu_, iii. 76). Both he and his brother
+[=A]nanda, who were considerably younger than the Buddha, joined the
+brotherhood in the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry. Four other
+cousins of theirs, chiefs of the S[=a]kiya clan, and a barber named
+Up[=a]li, were admitted to the order at the same time; and at their own
+request the barber was admitted first, so that as their senior in the
+order he should take precedence of them (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 228). All
+the others continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years
+afterwards, having gained over the crown prince of Magadha,
+Aj[=a]tasattu, to his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting of
+the order, that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the leadership
+to him, Devadatta (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 238; _J[=a]taka_, i. 142). This
+proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition to have
+successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his aged father
+and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death of the
+Buddha (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 241-250; _J[=a]taka_, vi. 131), shortly
+afterwards, relying upon the feeling of the people in favour of
+asceticism, he brought forward four propositions for ascetic rules to be
+imposed on the order. These being refused, he appealed to the people,
+started an order of his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's
+community to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the
+success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be referred
+to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the _Anguttara_ (see _Dialogues
+of the Buddha_ i. 222), for Devadatta's family name was Gotama. But his
+community was certainly still in existence in the 4th century A.D., for
+it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien, the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's
+translation, p. 62). And it possibly lasted till the 7th century, for
+Hsuean Tsang mentions that in a monastery in Bengal the monks then
+followed a certain regulation of Devadatta's (T. Watters, _On Yuan
+Chwang_, ii. 191). There is no mention in the canon as to how or when
+Devadatta died; but the commentary on the _J[=a]taka_, written in the
+5th century A.D., has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by
+the earth near S[=a]vatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha
+(_J[=a]taka_, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to both
+the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and T. Watters,
+_On Yuan Chwang_, i. 390). It is a striking example of the way in which
+such legends grow, that it is only the latest of these authorities,
+Hsuean Tsang, who says that, though ostensibly approaching the Buddha
+with a view to reconciliation, Devadatta had concealed poison in his
+nail with the object of murdering the Buddha.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Vinaya Texts_, translated by Rhys Davids and H.
+  Oldenberg (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); _The J[=a]taka_, edited by V.
+  Fausboell (7 vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_
+  (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushell, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905); _Fa Hian_,
+  translated by J. Legge (Oxford, 1886); _Mah[=a]vastu_ (ed. Tenant, 3
+  vols., Paris, 1882-1897).                               (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+DEVAPRAYAG (DEOPRAYAG), a village in Tehri State of the United
+Provinces, India. It is situated at the spot where the rivers Alaknanda
+and Bhagirathi unite and form the Ganges, and as one of the five sacred
+confluences in the hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout
+Hindus. Devaprayag stands at an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a
+hill which rises above it 800 ft. On a terrace in the upper part of the
+village is the temple of Raghunath, built of huge uncemented stones,
+pyramidical in form and capped by a white cupola.
+
+
+DEVENS, CHARLES (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist, was born in
+Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 4th of April 1820. He graduated at
+Harvard College in 1838, and at the Harvard law school in 1840, and was
+admitted to the bar in Franklin county, Mass., where he practised from
+1841 to 1849. In the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the state senate,
+and from 1849 to 1853 was United States marshal for Massachusetts, in
+which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the fugitive slave,
+Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained to do, much against
+his personal desire; and subsequently he attempted in vain to purchase
+Sims's freedom, and many years later appointed him to a position in the
+department of justice at Washington. Devens practised law at Worcester
+from 1853 until 1861, and throughout the Civil War served in the Federal
+army, becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier-general
+of volunteers in April 1862. At the battle of Ball's Bluff (1861) he was
+severely wounded; he was again wounded at Fair Oaks (1862) and at
+Chancellorsville (1863), where he commanded a division. He later
+distinguished himself at Cold Harbor, and commanded a division in
+Grant's final campaign in Virginia (1864-65), his troops being the first
+to occupy Richmond after its fall. Breveted major-general in 1865, he
+remained in the army for a year as commander of the military district of
+Charleston, South Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetts superior
+court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate justice of the supreme
+court of the state from 1873 to 1877, and again from 1881 to 1891. From
+1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet
+of President Hayes. He died at Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January
+1891.
+
+  See his _Orations and Addresses_, with a memoir by John Codman Ropes
+  (Boston, 1891).
+
+
+DEVENTER, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the right bank
+of the Ysel, at the confluence of the Schipbeek, and a junction station
+10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also connected by steam tramway S.E.
+with Brokulo. Pop. (1900) 26,212. Deventer is a neat and prosperous town
+situated in the midst of prettily wooded environs, and containing many
+curious old buildings. There are three churches of special interest: the
+Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies the site
+of an older structure of which the 11th-century crypt remains; the Roman
+Catholic Broederkerk, or Brothers' Church, containing among its relics
+three ancient gospels said to have been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin),
+the English apostle of the Frisians and Westphalians (d. c. 773); and
+the Bergkerk, dedicated in 1206, which has two late Romanesque towers.
+The town hall (1693) contains a remarkable painting of the town council
+by Terburg. In the fine square called the Brink is the old weigh-house,
+now a school (gymnasium), built in 1528, with a large external staircase
+(1644). The gymnasium is descended from the Latin school of which the
+celebrated Alexander Hegius was master in the third quarter of the 15th
+century, when the young Erasmus was sent to it, and at which Adrian
+Floreizoon, afterwards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil
+about the same time. Another famous educational institution was the
+"Athenaeum" or high school, founded in 1630, at which Henri Renery (d.
+1639) taught philosophy, while Johann Friedrich Gronov (Gronovius)
+(1611-1671) taught rhetoric and history in the middle of the same
+century. The "Athenaeum" disappeared in 1876. In modern times Deventer
+possessed a famous teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch
+translator of Shakespeare. The town library, also called the library of
+the Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and _incunabula_, and a 13th-century
+copy of _Reynard the Fox_. The archives of the town are of considerable
+value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade, Deventer has important
+iron foundries and carpet factories (the royal manufactory of Smyrna
+carpets being especially famous); while cotton-printing, rope-making and
+the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on. A public official
+is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread
+known as "_Deventer Koek_," which has a reputation throughout Holland.
+In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of Deventer, some
+14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870.
+
+In the 14th century Deventer was the centre of the famous religious and
+educational movement associated with the name of GERHARD GROOT (q.v.),
+who was a native of the town (see BROTHERS OF COMMON LIFE).
+
+
+DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1902), Irish poet and critic, was born at
+Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the 10th of January 1814, being the
+third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt (1788-1846). In 1832 his father
+dropped the final name by royal licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet.
+Wordsworth called his sonnets the "most perfect of the age." These and
+his drama, _Mary Tudor_, were published by his son in 1875 and 1884.
+Aubrey de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his
+twenty-eighth year published _The Waldenses_, which he followed up in
+the next year by _The Search after Proserpine_. Thenceforward he was
+continually engaged, till his death on the 20th of January 1902, in the
+production of poetry and criticism. His best-known works are: in verse,
+_The Sisters_ (1861); _The Infant Bridal_ (1864); _Irish Odes_ (1869);
+_Legends of St Patrick_ (1872); and _Legends of the Saxon Saints_
+(1879); and in prose, _Essays chiefly on Poetry_ (1887); and _Essays
+chiefly Literary and Ethical_ (1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume
+of travel-sketches, and two dramas in verse, _Alexander the Great_
+(1874); and _St Thomas of Canterbury_ (1876); both of which, though they
+contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic
+spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry are "high
+seriousness" and a fine religious enthusiasm. His research in questions
+of faith led him to the Roman Church; and in many of his poems, notably
+in the volume of sonnets called _St Peter's Chains_ (1888), he made rich
+additions to devotional verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose
+calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his
+affection for Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and
+weight to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will
+be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study of
+Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many
+followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers; but
+after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on "Celtic Literature," nothing
+perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival than Aubrey de Vere's tender
+insight into the Irish character, and his stirring reproductions of the
+early Irish epic poetry.
+
+  A volume of _Selections_ from his poems was edited in 1894 (New York
+  and London) by G. E. Woodberry.
+
+
+DEVICE, a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also a pattern or
+design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem, often combined with a
+motto or legend. "Device" and its doublet "devise" come from the two Old
+French forms _devis_ and _devise_ of the Latin _divisa_, things divided,
+from _dividere_, to separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out,
+apportion. "Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term
+for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention restricted
+to a disposition of real property, the term "bequest" being used of
+personalty (see WILL). This use is directly due to the Medieval Latin
+meaning of _dividere_ = _testamento disponere_. In its verbal form,
+"devise" is used not only in the legal sense, but also in the sense of
+to plan, arrange, scheme.
+
+
+DEVIL (Gr. [Greek: diabolos], "slanderer," from [Greek: diaballein], to
+slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the supreme
+spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used for minor evil
+spirits in much the same sense as "demon." From the various
+characteristics associated with this idea, the term has come to be
+applied by analogy in many different senses. From the idea of evil as
+degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure, the term is applied to
+persons in evil plight, or of slight consideration. In English legal
+phraseology "devil" and "devilling" are used of barristers who act as
+substitutes for others. Any remuneration which the legal "devil" may
+receive is purely a matter of private arrangement between them. In the
+chancery division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of
+one half of the fee which the client pays; "in the king's bench division
+remuneration for 'devilling' of briefs or assisting in drafting and
+opinions is not common" (see _Annual Practice_, 1907, p. 717). In a
+similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by
+a literary hack or "devil." The term "printer's devil" for the errand
+boy in a printing office probably combines this idea with that of his
+being black with ink. The common notions of the devil as black,
+ill-favoured, malicious, destructive and the like, have occasioned the
+application of the term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the
+devil-fish, the coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth
+or separating wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or
+fried. In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the
+word, as used in mythology and religion.
+
+The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all
+phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good or evil, produce
+pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction in the character of
+these agencies is gradually recognized; the agents of good become gods,
+those of evil, demons. A tendency towards the simplification and
+organization of the evil as of the good forces, leads towards belief in
+outstanding leaders among the forces of evil. When the divine is most
+completely conceived as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and
+over against God stands Satan, or the devil.
+
+Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian monotheism that
+this belief in the devil has been most fully developed, yet there are
+approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In Babylonian mythology
+"the old serpent goddess 'the lady Nina' was transformed into the
+embodiment of all that was hostile to the powers of heaven" (Sayce's
+_Hibbert Lectures_, p. 283), and was confounded with the dragon Tiamat,
+"a terrible monster, reappearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab
+and Leviathan, the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man"
+(Tennant's _The Fall and Original Sin_, p. 43), and according to Gunkel
+(_Schoepfung und Chaos_, p. 383) "the original of the 'old serpent' of
+Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with an army of
+monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat of the luminous
+gods. While the Greek mythology described the Titans as "enchained once
+for all in their dark dungeons" yet Prometheus' threat remained to
+disturb the tranquillity of the Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology
+the army of darkness is led by Hel, the personification of twilight,
+sunk to the goddess who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and
+Loki, originally the god of fire, but afterwards "looked upon as the
+father of the evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her
+adornments, who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the
+death of Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts,
+Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver the
+celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the caverns of the
+clouds. In the _Trimurti_, Brahm[=a] (the impersonal) is manifested as
+Brahm[=a] (the personal creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Siva (the
+destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the belief in the god of Vedic times
+Rudra, who is represented as "the wild hunter who storms over the earth
+with his bands, and lays low with arrows the men who displease him"
+(Chantepie de la Saussaye's _Religionsgeschichte_, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p.
+25). The evil character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali
+(the black) is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The
+opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in Zoroastrianism.
+Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is Ahriman, the source of all
+evil; and the opposition runs through the whole universe (D'Alviella's
+_Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 158-164).
+
+The conception of _Satan_ (Heb. [Hebrew: Satan], the adversary, Gr.
+[Greek: Satanas], or [Greek: Satan], 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the
+post-exilic period of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of
+the influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots
+in much older beliefs. An "evil spirit" possesses Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 14),
+but it is "from the Lord." The same agency produces discord between
+Abimelech and the Shechemites (Judges ix. 23). "A lying spirit in the
+mouth of all his prophets" as Yahweh's messenger entices Ahab to his
+doom (1 Kings xxii. 22). Growing human corruption is traced to the
+fleshy union of angels and women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil,
+whether as misfortune or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (1 Sam.
+xviii. 10; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1; 1 Kings xxii. 20; Isa. vi. 10, lxiii. 17).
+After the Exile there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence
+by the introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all
+evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of God and
+man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands as the adversary
+of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by Yahweh for desiring that
+Jerusalem should be further punished. In the book of Job he presents
+himself before the Lord among the sons of God (ii. 1), yet he is
+represented both as accuser and tempter. He disbelieves in Job's
+integrity, and desires him to be so tried that he may fall into sin.
+While, according to 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, God himself tests David in regard to
+the numbering of the people, according to 1 Chron. xxi. 1 it is Satan
+who tempts him.
+
+The development of the conception continued in later Judaism, which was
+probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism. It is doubtful,
+however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book of Tobit is the same as
+the A[=e]shma Da[=e]wa of the Bundahesh. He is the evil spirit who slew
+the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8), and the name probably means
+"Destroyer." In the book of Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a
+rival kingdom of evil, but here are also mentioned Satans, who are
+distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function,
+to tempt, to accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly
+(Ecclesiasticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii.
+(Wisdom ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom
+lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14); Gen. iii. is probably
+referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, "a serpent speaking with the
+words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert wisdom." The _Book of
+the Secrets of Enoch_ not only identifies Satan with the Serpent, but
+also describes his revolt against God, and expulsion from heaven. In the
+Jewish _Targums_ Sammael, "the highest angel that stands before God's
+throne, caused the serpent to seduce the woman"; he coalesces with
+Satan, and has inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is
+ascribed to a union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's
+standing before God he is greatly feared.
+
+This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced in the
+New Testament. Satan is the [Greek: diabolos] (Matt. xiii. 39; John
+xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10), slanderer or accuser,
+the [Greek: peirazon] (Matt. iv. 3; 1 Thess. iii. 5), the tempter, the
+[Greek: poneros] (Matt. v. 37; John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil
+one, and the [Greek: echthros] (Matt. xiii. 39), the enemy. He is
+apparently identified with Beelzebub (or Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26,
+27. Jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons belonging to a
+kingdom of evil under the leadership of Satan "the prince of demons"
+(Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in demonic possessions it is his
+function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 11, vi. 7; Luke x. 17-20). But he
+himself conquers Satan in resisting his temptations (Matt. iv. 1-11).
+Simon is warned against him, and Judas yields to him as tempter (Luke
+xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's cures are represented as a triumph
+over Satan (Luke x. 18). This Jewish doctrine is found in Paul's letters
+also. Satan rules over a world of evil, supernatural agencies, whose
+dwelling is in the lower heavens (Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince
+of the power of the air" (ii. 2). He is the tempter (1 Thess. iii. 5; 1
+Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x. 10), to whom the offender is to be
+handed over for bodily destruction (v. 5), identified with the serpent
+(Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and probably with Beliar or Belial (vi.
+15); and the surrender of man to him brought death into the world (Rom.
+v. 17). Paul's own "stake in the flesh" is Satan's messenger (2 Cor.
+xii. 7). According to Hebrews Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by
+dying (ii. 14). Revelation describes the war in heaven between God with
+his angels and Satan or the dragon, the "old serpent," the deceiver of
+the whole world (xii. 9), with his hosts of darkness. After the
+overthrow of the Beast and the kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned
+in the bottomless pit a thousand years (xx. 2). Again loosed to deceive
+the nations, he is finally cast into the lake of fire and brimstone (xx.
+10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2 Peter ii. 4). In John's Gospel and Epistles
+Satan is opposed to Christ. Sinner and murderer from the beginning (1
+John iii. 8) and liar by nature (John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin
+(viii. 34), causes death (verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30),
+but has no power over Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. 11; 1
+John v. 18). He will be destroyed by Christ with all his works (John
+xvi. 33; 1 John iii. 8).
+
+In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic Age "the
+present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon, was just as
+generally presupposed as man's need of redemption, which was regarded as
+a result of that dominion. The tenacity of this belief may be explained
+among other things by the living impression of the polytheism that
+surrounded the communities on every side. By means of this assumption
+too, humanity seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for
+redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range"
+(Harnack's _History of Dogma_, i. p. 181). While Christ's First Advent
+delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow would be
+completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics held that "the present
+world sprang from a fall of man, or from an undertaking hostile to God,
+and is, therefore, the product of an evil or intermediate being" (p.
+257). Some taught that while the future had been assigned by God to
+Christ, the devil had received the present age (p. 309). The fathers
+traced all doctrines not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and
+the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil
+transforming himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes
+Satan's fall to "pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation"; and
+traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in resisting his
+temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline passages, represents
+the death of Christ "as a ransom paid to the 'apostasy' for men who had
+fallen into captivity" (ii. 290). He does not admit that Satan has any
+lawful claim on man, or that God practised a deceit on him, as later
+fathers taught. This theory of the _atonement_ was formulated by Origen.
+"By his successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God
+offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped, as
+Christ overcame both him and death" (p. 367). It was held by Gregory of
+Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase _pia fraus_, Augustine, Leo I., and
+Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst form. "The humanity of Christ
+was the bait; the fish, the devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging
+on the invisible hook, Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the
+relation of the work of Christ to Satan retires into the background,
+Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view.
+It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the Lombard
+asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard represents man's
+bondage to Satan "as righteously permitted as a just retribution for
+sin," he being "the executioner of the divine justice." Another theory
+of Origen's found less acceptance. The devil, as a being resulting from
+God's will, cannot always remain a devil. The possibility of his
+redemption, however, was in the 5th century branded as a heresy. Persian
+dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the doctrine
+of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy views of
+Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to this
+influence. Mani taught that Satan with his demons, sprung from the
+kingdom of darkness, attacked the realm of light, the earth, defeated
+man sent against him by the God of light, but was overthrown by the God
+of light, who then delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). "During the
+middle ages," says Tulloch, "the belief in the devil was
+absorbing--saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant
+conflict with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the
+13th to the 15th century, passed into Protestantism. Luther was always
+conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan. "As I found he was
+about to begin again," says Luther, "I gathered together my books, and
+got into bed. Another time in the night I heard him above my cell
+walking on the cloister, but as I knew it was the devil I paid no
+attention to him and went to sleep." He held that this world will pass
+away with its pleasures, as there can be no real improvement in it, for
+the devil continues in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii.
+191). I. A. Dorner (_Christian Doctrine_, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant
+doctrine as follows:--"He is brought into relation with natural
+sinfulness, and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to
+him. The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery to
+Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the
+extra-Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and by his
+word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating anything is
+also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting substances is
+conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judgment that his power is
+wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered up to eternal punishment."
+This belief in the devil was specially strong in Scotland among both
+clergy and laity in the 17th century. "The devil was always and
+literally at hand," says Buckle, "he was haunting them, speaking to
+them, and tempting them. Go where they would he was there."
+
+In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on
+this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of demonic possession, and
+held that Christ in his language accommodated himself to the views of
+the sick whom he was seeking to cure. Kant regarded the devil as a
+personification of the radical evil in man. Daub in his _Judas
+Ishcarioth_ argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute evil, and
+the absolute evil as real must be in a person. Schelling regarded the
+devil as, not a person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the
+freedom of man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the
+common belief. "The problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in
+Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self-knowledge." Dorner has
+formulated a theory which explains the development of the conception of
+Satan in the Holy Scriptures as in correspondence with an evolution in
+the character of Satan. "Satan appears in Scripture under four leading
+characters:--first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to
+decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts
+criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine, which
+brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he is described,
+especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of God and man." He
+supposes "a change in Satan in the course of the history of the divine
+revelation, in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn
+enemy of God and man, especially in the New Testament times, in which,
+on the other hand, his power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues
+that "the world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits
+breaches everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance" (pp. 99, 102).
+H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. "The evil
+principle," he says, "has in itself no personality, but attains a
+progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no individual
+personality, save only in individual creatures, who in an especial
+manner make themselves its organs; but among these is one creature in
+whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and
+head of the kingdom of evil" (_Dogmatics_, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no
+place in his constructive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but
+recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another
+constitutes a kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E.
+Garvie, _The Ritschlian Theology_, p. 304). Kaftan affirms that a
+"doctrine about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as
+faith can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the
+dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left to the
+immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will on account of
+the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would be arrogant to wish
+to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the thought that Satan also
+stands under the commission of the Almighty God, and that no one must
+suppose that by leading back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get
+rid of his own guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith"
+(_Dogmatik_, p. 348). In the book entitled _Evil and Evolution_ there is
+"an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient
+mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil is best
+explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan, who in the
+process of evolution interferes with the divine designs, an interference
+which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible.
+Satan is, however, held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom
+been estranged from, and opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be
+conquered by moral means. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic
+possession maintains that "the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son
+of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession" (p.
+150), and argues that, as "the Incarnation indicated the establishment
+of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took place "a counter
+movement among the powers of darkness," of which "genuine demonic
+possession was one of the manifestations" (p. 249).
+
+Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently affirmed
+that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an essential
+article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an indispensable
+element of Christian experience. On the one hand science has so
+explained many of the processes of outer nature and of the inner life of
+man as to leave no room for Satanic agency. On the other hand the modern
+view of the inspiration of the Scriptures does not necessitate the
+acceptance of the doctrine of the Scriptures on this subject as finally
+and absolutely authoritative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter
+may be accounted for as either an accommodation to the views of those
+with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the limitation
+of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the Incarnation, for it
+cannot be contended that as revealer of God and redeemer of men it was
+imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in
+this respect. The possibility of the existence of evil spirits,
+organized under one leader Satan to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be
+denied; the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may,
+however, be doubted; the necessity of any such belief for Christian
+thought and life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also DEMONOLOGY;
+POSSESSION.)                                                (A. E. G.*)
+
+
+DEVIZES, a market town and municipal borough in the Devizes
+parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by S. of London
+by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6532. Its castle was built on
+a tongue of land flanked by two deep ravines, and behind this the town
+grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its
+main streets, in which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate
+from the market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord
+Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town on the N.,
+passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-nine locks. St
+John's church, one of the most interesting in Wiltshire, is cruciform,
+with a massive central tower, based upon two round and two pointed
+arches. It was originally Norman of the 12th century, and the chancel
+arch and low vaulted chancel, in this style, are very fine. In the
+interior several ancient monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are
+preserved, besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich
+ceilings of oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly
+Norman, but was rebuilt in the 15th and again in the 19th century. Its
+lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof, and the
+south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves its Norman mouldings.
+The woollen industries of Devizes have lost their prosperity; but there
+is a large grain trade, with engineering works, breweries, and
+manufactures of silk, snuff, tobacco and agricultural implements. The
+town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors.
+Area, 906 acres.
+
+Devizes (_Divisis_, _la Devise_, _De Vies_) does not appear in any
+historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the
+construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger, bishop of
+Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important political centre,
+and led to its speedy development. After the disgrace of Roger in 1139
+the castle was seized by the Crown; in the 14th century it formed part
+of the dowry of the queens of England, and figured prominently in
+history until its capture and demolition by Cromwell in the Civil War of
+the 17th century. Devizes became a borough by prescription, and the
+first charter from Matilda, confirmed by successive later sovereigns,
+merely grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of
+undisturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause conferring on the town the
+liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II. instituted a coroner. A gild
+merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward II. and Edward III., and in
+1614 was divided into the three companies of drapers, mercers and
+leathersellers. The present governing charters were issued by James I.
+and Charles I., the latter being little more than a confirmation of the
+former, which instituted a common council consisting of a mayor, a town
+clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses. These charters were surrendered
+to Charles II., and a new one was conferred by James II., but abandoned
+three years later in favour of the original grant. Devizes returned two
+members to parliament from 1295, until deprived of one member by the
+Representation of the People Act of 1867, and of the other by the
+Redistribution Act of 1885. The woollen manufacture was the staple
+industry of the town from the reign of Edward III. until the middle of
+the 18th century, when complaints as to the decay of trade began to be
+prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth the market was held on Monday, and
+there were two annual fairs at the feasts of the Purification of the
+Virgin and the Decollation of John the Baptist. The market was
+transferred to Thursday in the next reign, and the fairs in the 18th
+century had become seven in number.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Wiltshire_; _History of Devizes_ (Devizes,
+  1859).
+
+
+DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68), the name applied to the war which arose
+out of Louis XIV.'s claims to certain Spanish territories in right of
+his wife Maria Theresa, upon whom the ownership was alleged to have
+"devolved." (See, for the military operations, DUTCH WARS.) The war was
+ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668.
+
+
+DEVON, EARLS OF. From the family of De Redvers (De Ripuariis; Riviers),
+who had been earls of Devon from about 1100, this title passed to Hugh
+de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340), the representative of a prominent family in
+the county (see Gibbon's "digression" in chap. lxi. of the _Decline and
+Fall_, ed. Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay
+(1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of Towton.
+It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward Courtenay (d. 1509), whose
+son Sir William (d. 1511) married Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too
+great proximity to the throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry
+(c. 1498-1539) was restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in
+1525 was created marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of
+William Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture
+on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son Edward
+(1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant in the Courtenay
+family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the
+House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon was restored to the peerage,
+still being held by the head of the Courtenays. The earlier earls of
+Devon were referred to occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the
+former variant has prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the
+earldom and dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND
+DUKES OF, and also the article COURTENAY).
+
+
+DEVONIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name applied to series of stratified
+fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed during the Devonian
+period, that is, in the interval of time between the close of the
+Silurian period and the beginning of the Carboniferous; it includes the
+marine Devonian and an estuarine Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The
+name "Devonian" was introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A.
+Sedgwick to describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W.
+Lonsdale had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be
+intermediate between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two
+workers also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the
+continent, where already several others, F. Roemer, H. E. Beyrich, &c.,
+were endeavouring to elucidate the succession of strata in this portion
+of the "Transition Series." The labours of these earlier workers,
+including in addition to those already mentioned, the brothers F. and G.
+von Sandberger, A. Dumont, J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de
+Verneuil and H. von Dechen, although somewhat modified by later
+students, formed the foundation upon which the modern classification of
+the Devonian rocks is based.
+
+[Illustration: Distribution of Devonian Rocks]
+
+                   _Stratigraphy of the Devonian Facies._
+
+  Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall that
+  the Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central Europe
+  that the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and here, too,
+  their geological position was first indicated by the founders of the
+  system, Sedgwick and Murchison.
+
+  _Continental Europe._--Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the
+  centre of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south of
+  Belgium across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best known from
+  the picturesque gorges which have been cut through them by the Rhine
+  below Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves. They reappear from under
+  younger formations in Brittany, in the Harz and Thuringia, and are
+  exposed in Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, North Moravia and eastern
+  Galicia. The principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical
+  areas are indicated in Table I.
+
+  This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata,
+  is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet
+  represents the _Stringocephalus_ limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards
+  into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical
+  modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general
+  palaeontological characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony,
+  Silesia, the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have
+  been detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of
+  the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods,
+  lamellibranchs and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of
+  the Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales,
+  limestones and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but
+  containing ores of silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other
+  metals, may be referable to the Devonian system.
+
+  In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of a
+  vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional
+  seams of limestone, and in particular with one thick central
+  calcareous zone. These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by
+  numerous broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (_Phacops_,
+  _Homalonotus_, &c.) which, though generically like those of the
+  Silurian system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous
+  zone abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous
+  brachiopods. In the highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods
+  (_Clymenia_) occurs in some of the limestones, while the shales are
+  crowded with a small but characteristic ostracod crustacean
+  (_Cypridina_). Here and there traces of fishes have been found, more
+  especially in the Eifel, but seldom in such a state of preservation as
+  to warrant their being assigned to any definite place in the
+  zoological scale. Subsequently, however, E. Beyrich has described from
+  Gerolstein in the Eifel an undoubted species of _Pterichthys_, which,
+  as it cannot be certainly identified with any known form, he names _P.
+  Rhenanus_. A _Coccosteus_ has been described by F. A. Roemer from the
+  Harz, and still later one has been cited from Bicken near Herborn by
+  V. Koenen; but, as Beyrich points out, there may be some doubt as to
+  whether the latter is not a _Pterichthys_. A _Ctenacanthus_, seemingly
+  undistinguishable from the _C. Bohemicus_ of Barrande's Etage G, has
+  also been obtained from the Lower Devonian "Nereitenschichten" of
+  Thuringia. The characteristic _Holoptychius nobilissimus_ has been
+  detected in the Psammite de Condroz, which in Belgium forms a
+  characteristic sandy portion of the Upper Devonian rocks. These are
+  interesting facts, as helping to link the Devonian and Old Red
+  Sandstone types together. But they are as yet too few and unsupported
+  to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations between these
+  types.
+
+  It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red
+  Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones
+  and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the
+  fish-bearing sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was
+  shown in the great work _Russia and the Ural Mountains_ by Murchison,
+  De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper
+  Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent of
+  surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development arises
+  not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal character
+  of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described elsewhere, they
+  remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they were
+  originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they present but
+  a meagre representative of the massive Devonian greywacke and
+  limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Yet vast
+  though the area is over which they form the surface rock, it is
+  probably only a small portion of their total extent; for they are
+  found turned up from under the newer formations along the flank of the
+  Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread continuously across
+  the whole breadth of Russia in Europe. Though almost everywhere
+  undisturbed, they afford evidence of some terrestrial oscillation
+  between the time of their formation and that of the Silurian rocks on
+  which they rest, for they are found gradually to overlap Upper and
+  Lower Silurian formations.
+
+                                  TABLE I.
+
+       +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+       |             |                   |                              | Brittany and |                 |                 |
+       |  Stages.    |     Ardennes.     |           Rhineland.         |   Normandy.  |    Bohemia.     |      Harz.      |
+     / +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+    |  |             | Limestone of      | Cypridina slates.            | Slates of    |                 | Cypridina       |
+ U  |  |             |  Etroeungt.       | Poen sandstone (Sauerland).   |  Rostellec.  |                 |  slates.        |
+ P  |  | Famennien   | Psammites of      | Crumbly limestone (Kramen-   |              |                 | Clymenia        |
+ P  |  | (Clymenia   |  Condroz (sandy   |  zelkalk) with Clymenia.     |              |                 |  limestone and  |
+ E  |  |  beds).     |  series).         | Neheim slates in Sauerland,  |              |                 |  limestone of   |
+ R  |  |             | Slates of Famenne |  and diabases, tuffs, &c.,   |              |                 |  Altenau.       |
+    |  |             |  (shaly series).  |  in Dillmulde, &c.           |              |                 |                 |
+ D /   +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+ E \   |             | Slates of         | Adorf limestone of Waldeck   | Limestone of |                 | Iberg limestone |
+ V  |  |             |  Matagne.         |  and shales with Goniatites  |  Cop-Choux   |                 |  and Winterberg |
+ O  |  | Frasnien    | Limestones, marls |  (Eifel and Aix) =           |  and green   |                 |  limestone;     |
+ N  |  |(Intumesce-  |  and shale of     |  Budesheimer shales.         |  slates of   |                 |  also Adorf     |
+ I  |  | cens beds). |  Frasne, and      | Marls, limestone and dolomite|  Travuliors. |                 |  limestone and  |
+ A  |  |             |  red marble of    |  with Rhynchonella cuboides  |              |                 |  shales         |
+ N  |  |             |  Flanders.        |  (Flinz in part).            |              |                 |  (Budesheim).   |
+ .  |  |             |                   | Iberg limestone of Dillmulde.|              |                 |                 |
+     \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+     / |             | Limestone of      | Stringocephalus limestone,   |Limestones    | H_{2} (of       | Stringocephalus |
+ M  |  |             |  Givet.           |  ironstone of Brilon and     | of Chalonnes,|  Barrande) dark |  shales with    |
+ I  |  |  Giverien   |                   |  Lahnmulde.                  | Montjean and |  plant-bearing  |  Flaser and     |
+ D  |  |(Stringocep- |                   | Upper Lenne shales, crinoidal| l'Ecochere.  |  shales.        |  Knollenkalk.   |
+ D  |  | halus beds).|                   |  limestone of Eifel, red     |              |                 | Wissenbach      |
+ L  |  |             |                   |  sandstones of Aix.          |              |                 |  slates.        |
+ E  |  |             |                   | Tuffs and diabases of Brilon |              | H_{1}.          |                 |
+    |  |             |                   |  and Lahnmulde.              |              |                 |                 |
+ D /   |             |                   | Red conglomerate of Aix.     |              |                 |                 |
+ E \   +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+ V  |  |             | Calceola slates   | Calceola beds, Wissenbach    | Slates of    | G_{3} Cephalo-  | Calceola beds.  |
+ O  |  |             |  and limestones   |  slates, Lower Lenne beds,   |  Porsguen,   |  pod limestone. | Nereite slates, |
+ N  |  | Eifelien    |  of  Couvin.      |  Guentroder limestone and     |  greywacke   | G_{2} Tentacu-  |  slates of      |
+ I  |  |  (Calceola  | Greywacke  with   |  clay slate of Lahnmulde,    |  of Fret.    |  lite limestone.|  Wieda and      |
+ A  |  |   beds).    |  Spirifer         |  Dillmulde, Wildungen,       |              | G_{3} Knollen-  |  limestones of  |
+ N  |  |             |  cultrijugatus.   |  Griefenstein limestone,     |              |  kalk and       |  Hasselfeld.    |
+ .  |  |             |                   |  Ballersbach limestone.      |              |  mottled Mnenian|                 |
+     \ |             |                   |                              |              |  limestone.     |                 |
+       +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+     / | Coblentzien |Greywacke of       | Upper Coblentz slates.       | Limestones   |                 | Haupt quartzite |
+ L  |  |             |  Hierges.         | Red sandstone of Eifel,      |  of Erbray,  |                 |  (of Lossen) =  |
+ O  |  |             |Shales and conglom-|  Coblentz quartzite, lower   |  Brulon, Vire|                 |  Rammelsberg    |
+ W  |  |             | erate of Burnot   |  Coblentz slates.            |  and Nehou,  |                 |  slates, Schal- |
+ E  |  |             | with quartzite,   | Hunsrueck and Siegener        |  greywacke   |                 |  lker slates =  |
+ R  |  |             | of Bierle and     |  greywacke and slates.       |  of Faou,    |                 |  Kahleberg      |
+    |  |             | red  slates of    | Taunus quartzite and         |  sandstone   |                 |  sandstone.     |
+ D  |  |             | Vireux, greywacke |  greywacke.                  |  of Gahard.  | F-{2} of        | Hercynian slates|
+ E /   |             | of Montigny,      |                              |              |  Barrande.      |  and lime-      |
+ V \   |             | sandstone of Anor.|                              |              | White Konjeprus |  stones.        |
+ O  |  +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+  Limestone with |                 |
+ N  |  | Gedinnien   |Slates of St Hubert| Slates of Gedinne.           | Slates and   |  Hercynian      |                 |
+ I  |  |             | and Fooz, slates  |                              |  quartzites  |  fauna.         |                 |
+ A  |  |             | of Mondrepuits,   |                              |  of Plou-    |                 |                 |
+ N  |  |             | arkose of Weis-   |                              |  gastel.     |                 |                 |
+ .  |  |             | mes, conglomerate |                              |              |                 |                 |
+    |  |             | of Fepin.         |                              |              |                 |                 |
+     \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+
+
+  The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact,
+  first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite
+  within themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red
+  Sandstone types. In some districts they consist largely of limestones,
+  in others of red sandstones and marls. In the former they present
+  molluscs and other marine organisms of known Devonian species; in the
+  latter they afford remains of fishes, some of which are specifically
+  identical with those of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The
+  distribution of these two palaeontological types in Russia is traced
+  by Murchison to the lithological characters of the rocks, and
+  consequent original diversities of physical conditions, rather than to
+  differences of age. Indeed cases occur where in the same band of rock
+  Devonian shells and Old Red Sandstone fishes lie commingled. In the
+  belt of the formation which extends southwards from Archangel and the
+  White Sea, the strata consist of sands and marls, and contain only
+  fish remains. Traced through the Baltic provinces, they are found to
+  pass into red and green marls, clays, thin limestones and sandstones,
+  with beds of gypsum. In some of the calcareous bands such fossils
+  occur as _Orthis striatula_, _Spiriferina prisca_, _Leptaena
+  productoides_, _Spirifer calcaratus_, _Spirorbis omphaloides_ and
+  _Orthoceras subfusiforme_. In the higher beds _Holoptychius_ and other
+  well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone occur. Followed still
+  farther to the south, as far as the watershed between Orel and
+  Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red colour and sandy
+  character, and become thin-bedded yellow limestones, and dolomites
+  with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt deposits are indicated
+  by occasional saline springs. It is evident that the geographical
+  conditions of the Russian area during the Devonian period must have
+  closely resembled those of the Rhine basin and central England during
+  the Triassic period. The Russian Devonian rocks have been classified
+  in Table II. There is an unquestionable passage of the uppermost
+  Devonian rocks of Russia into the base of the Carboniferous system.
+
+                               TABLE II.
+
+       +---------------------------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+       |     North-West Russia.          | Central Russia. |  Petchoraland.   |       Ural Region.          |
+     / +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+ U  |  | Red sandstone | Limestones with | Limestones with | Domanik slates   | Cypridina slates, Clymenia  |
+ P  |  |  (Old Red).   |  Spirifer       |  Arca oreliana. |  and limestones  |  limestones (Famennien).    |
+ P <   |               |  Verneuili and  | Limestones with |  with Sp.        | Limestones with Gephyoceras |
+ E  |  |               |  Sp. Archiaci.  |  Sp. Verneuili  |  Verneuili.      |  intumescens and            |
+ R  |  |               |                 |  and Sp.        |                  |  Rhynchonella cuboides      |
+    |  |               |                 |  Archiaci.      |                  |  (Frasnien).                |
+     \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+ M   / |    Dolomites and limestones     |            Marl with               | Limestones and slates with  |
+ I  |  |             with                |        Spirifer Anossofi           |  Sp. Anossofi (Givetien).   |
+ D <   |       Spirifer Anossofi.        |           and corals.              | Limestones and slates with  |
+ D  |  |                                                                      |  Pentamerus baschkiricus    |
+ L  |  |                      Lower sandstone (Old Red).                      |  (Eifelien).                |
+ E   \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+     / |                                 |                 |                  | Limestones and slates of    |
+ L  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  the Yuresan and Ufa rivers,|
+ O  |  |            Absent.              |                 |                  |  slate and quartzite,       |
+ W <   |                                 |                 |                  |  marble of Byclaya and      |
+ E  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  of Bogoslovsk, phyllitic   |
+ R  |  |                                 |                 |                  |  schists and quartzite.     |
+     \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+
+
+  The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very
+  different from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name
+  "Hercynian" has been applied, and the correlation of the strata has
+  been a source of prolonged discussion among continental geologists. A
+  similar fauna appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia, in Brittany
+  (limestone of Erbray) and in the Urals. The Upper Devonian of the Harz
+  passes up into the Culm.
+
+  In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is
+  represented by _Clymenia_ limestone and _Cypridina_ slates with Adorf
+  limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The
+  middle division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaculite and
+  Nereite shales and limestones below. The upper part of the Lower
+  Devonian, the sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably upon
+  Silurian rocks. In the Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones, the
+  equivalents of the Iberg limestone, which attain an enormous
+  thickness; these are underlain by coral limestones with fossils
+  similar to those of the Konjeprus limestone of Bohemia; below these
+  are shales and nodular limestones with goniatites. The Devonian rocks
+  of Poland are sandy in the lower, and more calcareous in the upper
+  parts. They are of interest because while the upper portions agree
+  closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top of the Coblentzien
+  upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red Sandstone fishes
+  (_Coccosteus_, &c.) are found. In France Devonian rocks are found well
+  developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table, also in Normandy and
+  Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the middle and upper divisions
+  are known. In south France in the neighbourhood of Cabrieres, about
+  Montpellier and in the Montagne Noire, all three divisions are found
+  in a highly calcareous condition. Devonian rocks are recognized,
+  though frequently much metamorphosed, on both the northern and
+  southern flanks of the Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they
+  are extensively developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft.
+  thick, all three divisions and most of the central European
+  subdivisions are present. In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of
+  Spain bear a marked resemblance to those of Brittany.
+
+  _Asia._--From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have been
+  traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai Mountains
+  they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age with a fauna
+  possessing Hercynian features. The same features are observed in the
+  Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan. Well-developed
+  quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of Yarkand and
+  Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are widespread in China.
+  Upper Devonian rocks are recorded from Persia, and from the Hindu Kush
+  on the right bank of the Chitral river.
+
+  _England._--In England the original Devonian rocks are developed in
+  Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire these rocks
+  consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south Devon there
+  are, in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and intercalations
+  of lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the stratigraphy in this
+  region is a difficult matter, partly on account of the absence of good
+  exposures with fossils, and partly through the disturbed condition of
+  the rocks. The system has been subdivided as shown in Table III.
+
+                                   TABLE III.
+
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+          |    North Devon and West     |                               |
+          |          Somerset.          |         South Devon.          |
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+        / | Pilton group. Grits, slates | Ashburton slates.             |
+   U   |  |  and thin limestones.       | Livaton slates.               |
+   P   |  | Baggy group. Sandstones     | Red and green Entomis slates  |
+   P  <   |  and slates.                |  (Famennien).                 |
+   E   |  | Pickwell Down group.        | Red and grey slates with      |
+   R   |  |  Dark slates and grits.     |  tuffs.                       |
+   .   |  | Morte slates (?).           | Chudleigh goniatite limestone |
+        \ |                             |  Petherwyn beds (Frasnien).   |
+   M      +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   I    / | Ilfracombe slates with      | Torquay and Plymouth          |
+   D   |  |  lenticles of limestone.    |  limestones and Ashprington   |
+   D  <   | Combe Martin grits and      |  volcanic series. (Givetien   |
+   L   |  |  slates.                    |  and Eifelien.)               |
+   E   |  |                             | Slates and limestones of      |
+   .    \ |                             |  Hope's Nose.                 |
+          +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+   L    / | Hangman grits and slates.   | Looe beds (Cornwall).         |
+   O   |  | Lynton group, grits and     | Meadfoot, Cockington and      |
+   W  <   |  calcareous slates.         |  Warberry series of slates    |
+   E   |  | Foreland grits and slates.  |  and greywackes. (Coblentzien |
+   R   |  |                             |  and Gedinnien.)              |
+   .    \ +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+
+
+  The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the Rhenish
+  and south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the Devonian rocks
+  pass upward without break into the Culm.
+
+  _North America._--In North America the Devonian rocks are extensively
+  developed; they have been studied most closely in the New York region,
+  where they are classified according to Table IV.
+
+  The classification below is not capable of application over the states
+  generally and further details are required from many of the regions
+  where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but everywhere the broad
+  threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland the following
+  arrangement has been adopted--(1) Helderberg = Coeymans; (2) Oriskany;
+  (3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings = Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire
+  = Catskill in part. In the interior the Helderbergian is missing and
+  the system commences with (1) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton,
+  (4) Portage (and Genesee), (5) Chemung.
+
+  The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the
+  continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and in Canada
+  (Gaspe, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal); an Appalachian belt,
+  and a lower Mississippian region. The series as a whole is mainly
+  calcareous (2000 ft. in Gaspe), and thins out towards the west. The
+  fauna has Hercynian affinities. The Oriskany formation consists
+  largely of coarse sandstones; it is thin in New York, but in Maryland
+  and Virginia it is several hundred feet thick. It is more widespread
+  than the underlying Helderbergian. The Lower Devonian appears to be
+  thick in northern Maine and in Gaspe, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia,
+  but neither the palaeontology nor the stratigraphy has been completely
+  worked out.
+
+  In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base, Esopus
+  and Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the
+  Appalachian region; but the Onondaga limestones are much more
+  extensive. The Erian series is often described as the Hamilton series
+  outside the New York district, where the _Marcellus_ shales are
+  grouped together with the Hamilton shales, and numerous local
+  subdivisions are included, as in Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The
+  rocks are mostly shales or slates, but limestones predominate in the
+  western development. In Pennsylvania the Hamilton series is from 1500
+  ft. to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more calcareous western extension it
+  is much thinner. The _Marcellus_ shales are bituminous in places.
+
+  The Senecan series is composed of shallow-water deposits; the Tully
+  limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a layer
+  of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The bituminous
+  Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.); 25 ft. on Lake
+  Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage formation reach 1000
+  ft. to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the Chautauquan series the
+  Chemung formation is not always clearly separable from the Portage
+  beds, it is a sandstone and conglomerate formation which reaches its
+  maximum thickness (8000 ft.) in Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly
+  towards the west. In the Catskill region the Upper Devonian has an Old
+  Red facies--red shales and sandstones with a freshwater and brackish
+  fauna.
+
+                                     TABLE IV.
+
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+         |               |                               |  Probable   |
+         |  Groups.      |    Formations.                |  European   |
+         |               |                               | Equivalent. |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+       / | Chautauquan.  | Chemung beds with Catskill    | Famennien.  |
+  U   |  |               |  as a local facies.           |             |
+  P   |  |               |                               |             |
+  P  <   |             ( | Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca  | Frasnien.   |
+  E   |  |             ( |  and Oneonta shales as local  |             |
+  R   |  | Senecan.    < |  facies).                     |             |
+  .   |  |             ( | Genesee shales.               |             |
+       \ |             ( | Tully limestone.              |             |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+  M    / | Erian.      ( | Hamilton shale.               | Givetien.   |
+  I   |  |             ( | Marcellus shale.              |             |
+  D   |  |               |                               |             |
+  D  <   |             ( | Onondaga (Corniferous)        | Eifelien.   |
+  L   |  | Ulsterian.  ( |   limestone.                  |             |
+  E   |  |             < | Schoharie grit.               |             |
+  .    \ |             ( | Esopus grit (Caudagalli grit).|             |
+         +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+  L    / | Oriskanian.   | Oriskany sandstone.           | Coblentzien.|
+  O   |  |               |                               |             |
+  W   |  |             ( | Kingston beds.                | Gedinnien.  |
+  E  <   |Helderbe-    ( | Becraft limestone.            |             |
+  R   |  |   rgian.    < | New Scotland beds.            |             |
+  .   |  |             ( | Coeymans limestone.           |             |
+       \ +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+
+
+  Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short
+  distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated
+  Devonian rocks in many parts of the continent. In the Great Plains
+  this system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado,
+  Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona; Devonian rocks
+  occur between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains, in the Arbuckle
+  Mountains of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the western interior limestones
+  predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are found at Eureka, Nevada,
+  beneath 2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific coast metamorphism of the
+  rocks is common, and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them.
+
+  In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern
+  region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along the
+  course of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence they
+  stretch out into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much that is
+  now classed as Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil evidence to be
+  Carboniferous.
+
+  _South America, Africa, Australia, &c._--In South America the Devonian
+  is well developed; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and the
+  Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about the junction
+  of the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has affinities with
+  the Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied to the South
+  American Devonian is that of South Africa, where they are represented
+  by the Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In Australia we find Lower
+  Devonian consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks;
+  and a Middle division with coral limestones in Victoria, New South
+  Wales and Queensland; an Upper division has also been observed. In New
+  Zealand the Devonian is well exposed in the Reefton mining field; and
+  it has been suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may
+  belong to this system.
+
+           _Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies._
+
+  The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald Geikie,
+  "consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down
+  conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off
+  in the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while
+  they are separated from each other by an unconformability." The Old
+  Red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated
+  lakes or lagoons, approximately parallel to one another, with a
+  general alignment in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas of deposit
+  Sir A. Geikie has assigned convenient distinctive names.
+
+  In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a
+  pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative of a
+  prolonged interval of erosion. In the central valley between the base
+  of the Highlands and the southern uplands lay "Lake Caledonia." Here
+  the lower division is made up of some 20,000 ft. of shallow-water
+  deposits, reddish-brown, yellow and grey sandstones and conglomerates,
+  with occasional "cornstones," and thin limestones. The grey flagstones
+  with shales are almost confined to Forfarshire, and are known as the
+  "Arbroath flags." Interbedded volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites,
+  diabases, with agglomerates and tuffs constitute an important feature,
+  and attain a thickness of 6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A
+  line of old volcanic vents may be traced in a direction roughly
+  parallel to the trend of the great central valley. On the northern
+  side of the Highlands was "Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than
+  the foregoing lake, though its boundaries are not determinable. It lay
+  over Moray Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended
+  from Caithness to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even
+  have stretched across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in
+  Sognefjord and Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some
+  parts of northern Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the
+  Caithness flags, dark grey and bituminous, which, with the red
+  sandstones and conglomerates at their base, probably attain a
+  thickness of 16,000 ft. The somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led
+  Murchison to class the flags as Middle Devonian. In the Shetland
+  Islands contemporaneous volcanic rocks have been observed. Over the
+  west of Argyllshire lay "Lake Lorne"; here the volcanic rocks
+  predominate, they are intercalated with shallow-water deposits. A
+  similar set of rocks occupy the Cheviot district.
+
+  The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in
+  Shropshire and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales,
+  sandstones and marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few fossils,
+  and no break has yet been found in the series. In Scotland this series
+  was deposited in basins which correspond only partially with those of
+  the earlier period. They are well developed in central Scotland over
+  the lowlands bordering the Moray Firth. Interbedded lavas and tuffs
+  are found in the island of Hoy. An interesting feature of this series
+  is the occurrence of great crowds of fossil fishes in some localities,
+  notably at Dura Den in Fife. In the north of England this series rests
+  unconformably upon the Lower Old Red and the Silurian.
+
+  Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmorland, and
+  also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey, a brecciated
+  conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit
+  in places, has often been classed with the Old Red Sandstone, but in
+  parts, at least, it is more likely to belong to the base of the
+  Carboniferous system. In Ireland the lower division appears to be
+  represented by the Dingle beds and Glengariff grits, while the Kerry
+  rocks and the Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the equivalents of the upper
+  division. Rocks of Old Red type, both lower and upper, are found in
+  Spitzbergen and in Bear Island. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the
+  Old Red facies is extensively developed. The Gaspe sandstones have
+  been estimated at 7036 ft. thick. In parts of western Russia Old Red
+  Sandstone fossils are found in beds intercalated with others
+  containing marine fauna of the Devonian facies.
+
+              _Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas._
+
+  The two types of sediment formed during this period--the _marine_
+  Devonian and the _lagoonal_ Old Red Sandstone--representing as they do
+  two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical
+  condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubtless
+  at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off no
+  less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have
+  records; but this period is the earliest in which these variations of
+  environment are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break
+  between the older Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous above
+  is not strongly marked; and in certain areas a very close relationship
+  can be shown to exist between the older Devonian and the former, and
+  the younger Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless, taken as a whole,
+  the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality.
+
+  The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are presented by
+  corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant individually and
+  varied in form; and they are so distinctive of the period that no
+  Devonian species has yet been found either in the Silurian or in the
+  Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present day, and
+  contributed to the formation of limestone masses in Devonshire, on the
+  continent of Europe and in North America. Rugose and tabulate forms
+  prevailed; among the former the cyathophyllids (_Cyathophyllum_) were
+  important, _Phillipsastraea_, _Zaphrentis_, _Acervularia_ and the
+  curious _Calceola_ (_sandalina_), an operculate genus which has given
+  palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis, for it has been
+  regarded as a pelecypod (hippurite) and a brachiopod. The tabulate
+  corals were represented by _Favosites_, _Michelinia_, _Pleurodictyum_,
+  _Fistulipora_, _Pachypora_ and others. _Heliolites_ and _Plasmopora_
+  represent the alcyonarians. Stromatoporoids were important reef
+  builders. A well-known fossil is _Receptaculites_, a genus to which it
+  has been difficult to assign a definite place; it has been thought to
+  be a sponge, it may be a calcareous alga, or a curious representative
+  of the foraminifera.
+
+  In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their
+  development: they compose three-quarters of the known fauna, and more
+  than 1100 species have been described. Changes were taking place from
+  the beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera;
+  several Silurian forms dropped out, and new types were coming in. A
+  noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the
+  genus _Spirifer_, other spiriferids were _Ambocoelia_, _Uncites_,
+  _Verneuilia_. Orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance, while
+  the productids (_Productella_, _Chonetes_, _Strophalosia_) were
+  increasing. The strophomenids were still flourishing, represented by
+  the genera _Leptaena_, _Stropheodonta_, _Kayserella_, and others. The
+  ancient _Lingula_, along with _Crania_ and _Orbiculoidea_, occur among
+  the inarticulate forms. Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is
+  _Atrypa reticularis_. The athyrids were very numerous (_Athyris_,
+  _Retzia_, _Merista_, _Meristella_, _Kayserina_, &c.); and the
+  rhynchonellids were well represented by _Pugnax_, _Hypothyris_, and
+  several other genera. The important group of terebratulids appears in
+  this system; amongst them _Stringocephalus_ is an eminently
+  characteristic Devonian brachiopod; others are _Dielasma_,
+  _Cryptonella_, _Rensselaeria_ and _Oriskania_.
+
+  The pelecypod molluscs were represented by _Pterinea_, abundant in the
+  lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by
+  _Cucullella_, _Buchiola_ and _Curtonotus_ in the upper members of the
+  system. Other genera are _Actinodesma_, _Cardiola_, _Nucula_,
+  _Megalodon_, _Aviculopecten_, &c. Gasteropods were becoming more
+  important, but the simple capulid forms prevailed: _Platyceras_
+  (_Capulus_), _Straparollus_, _Pleurotomaria_, _Murchisonia_,
+  _Macrocheilina_, _Euomphalus_. Among the pteropods, _Tentaculites_ was
+  very abundant in some quarters; others were _Conularia_ and
+  _Styliolina_. In the Devonian period the cephalopods began to make a
+  distinct advance in numbers, and in development. The goniatites appear
+  with the genera _Anarcestes_, _Agoniatites_, _Tornoceras_, _Bactrites_
+  and others; and in the upper strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the
+  later ammonoids, began to take definite shape. While several new
+  nautiloids (_Homaloceras_, _Ryticeras_, &c.) made their appearance
+  several of the older genera still lived on (_Orthoceras_,
+  _Poterioceras_, _Actinoceras_).
+
+  Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian sea, though
+  they were relatively scarce in others; they include the genera
+  _Melocrinus_, _Haplocrinus_, _Cupressocrinus_, _Calceocrinus_ and
+  _Eleuthrocrinus_. The cystideans were falling off (_Proteocystis_,
+  _Tiaracrinus_), but blastoids were in the ascendant (_Nucleocrinus_,
+  _Codaster_, &c.). Both brittle-stars, _Ophiura_, _Palaeophiura_,
+  _Eugaster_, and true starfishes, _Palaeaster_, _Aspidosoma_, were
+  present, as well as urchins (_Lepidocentrus_).
+
+  When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct
+  assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly
+  lacustrine or lagoonal with a eurypteridian facies. The trilobites had
+  already begun to decline in importance, and as happens not
+  infrequently with degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to
+  develop strange eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their
+  genera. A number of Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period,
+  and some gradually developed into new and distinctive forms; such were
+  _Proetus_, _Harpes_, _Cheirurus_, _Bronteus_ and others. Distinct
+  species of _Phacops_ mark the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively,
+  while the genus _Dalmania_ (_Odontochile_) was represented by species
+  with an almost world-wide range. The Ostracod _Entomis_ (_Cypridina_)
+  was extremely abundant in places--_Cypridinen-Schiefer_--while the
+  true _Cypridina_ was also present along with _Beyrichia_,
+  _Leperditia_, &c. The Phyllocarids, _Echinocaris_, _Eleuthrocaris_,
+  _Tropidocaris_, are common in the United States. It is in the Old Red
+  Sandstone that the eurypterids are best preserved; foremost among
+  these was _Pterygotus_; _P. anglicus_ has been found in Scotland with
+  a length of nearly 6 ft.; _Eurypterus_, _Slimonia_, _Stylonurus_ were
+  other genera.
+
+  Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and
+  neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder believed he
+  had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a stridulating organ
+  was present. A species of _Ephemera_, allied to the modern may-fly,
+  had a spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the Scottish Old Red
+  Sandstone myriapods, _Kampecaris_ and _Archidesmus_, have been
+  described; they are somewhat simpler than more recent forms, each
+  segment being separate, and supplied with only one pair of walking
+  legs. Spiders and scorpions also lived upon the land.
+
+  The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red strata,
+  coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed by some of the
+  forms, has caused the period to be described as the "age of fishes."
+  As in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above, we find one
+  assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater or brackish
+  conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine
+  Devonian; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there
+  seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of
+  living in either environment, whatever may have been the real
+  condition of the Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious
+  ostracoderms, a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the
+  characteristics of fishes, but more probably belonging to a distinct
+  class of organisms, which appears to link the vertebrates with the
+  arthropods. They had come into existence late in Silurian times; but
+  it is in the Old Red strata that their remains are most fully
+  preserved. They were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of
+  Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada, and are represented by
+  such forms as _Pteraspis_, _Cephalaspis_, _Cyathaspis_, _Tremataspis_,
+  _Bothriolepis_ and _Pterichthys_.
+
+  In the lower members of the Old Red series _Dipterus_, and in the
+  upper members _Phaneropleuron_, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes;
+  and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious
+  forms still survive in the African _Protopterus_, the Australian
+  _Ceratodus_ and the South American _Lepidosiren_,--all freshwater
+  fishes. Distantly related to the lung-fishes were the singular
+  arthrodirans, a group possessing the unusual faculty of moving the
+  head in a vertical plane. These comprise the wide-ranging _Coccosteus_
+  with _Homosteus_ and _Dinichthys_, the largest fish of the period. The
+  latter probably reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with
+  exceedingly powerful jaws provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were
+  fairly prominent denizens of the sea; some were armed with cutting
+  teeth, others with crushing dental plates; and although they were on
+  the whole marine fishes, they were evidently able to live in fresher
+  waters, like some of their modern representatives, for their remains,
+  mostly teeth and large dermal spines, are found both in the Devonian
+  and Old Red rocks. _Mesacanthus_, _Diplacanthus_, _Climatius_,
+  _Cheiracanthus_ are characteristic genera. The crossopterygians,
+  ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of the fins, were represented
+  by _Holoptychius_ and _Glyptopomus_ in the Upper Old Red, and by such
+  genera as _Diplopterus_, _Osteolepis_, _Gyroptychius_ in the lower
+  division. The _Polypterus_ of the Nile and _Calamoichthys_ of South
+  Africa are the modern exemplars of this group. _Cheirolepis_, found in
+  the Old Red of Scotland and Canada, is the only Devonian
+  representative of the actinopterygian fishes. The cyclostome fishes
+  have, so far, been discovered only in Scotland, in the tiny
+  _Palaeospondylus_. Amphibian remains have been found in the Devonian
+  of Belgium; and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the
+  same class (_Thinopus antiquus_) have been described by Professor
+  Marsh from the Chemung formation of Pennsylvania.
+
+  _Plant Life._--In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone we
+  find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In
+  some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they
+  form thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently flourished
+  around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains were
+  buried along with the other forms of life. Lycopods and ferns were the
+  predominant types; and it is important to notice that both groups were
+  already highly developed. The ferns include the genera _Sphenopteris_,
+  _Megalopteris_, _Archaeopteris_, _Neuropteris_. Among the Lycopods are
+  _Lycopodites_, _Psilophyton_, _Lepidodendron_. Modern horsetails are
+  represented by _Calamocladus_, _Asterocalamites_, _Annularia_. Of
+  great interest are the genera _Cordaites_, _Araucarioxylon_, &c.,
+  which were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the Coniferae and
+  the Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure markings, aquatic
+  plants are not so well represented as might have been expected;
+  _Parka_, a common fossil, has been regarded as a water plant with a
+  creeping stem and two kinds of sporangia in sessile sporocarps.
+
+_Physical Conditions, &c._--Perhaps the most striking fact that is
+brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils is the
+gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took place quietly
+in every quarter of the globe shortly after the beginning of the period.
+While in most places the Lower Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian
+formations in a perfectly conformable manner, the Middle and Upper
+divisions, on account of this encroachment of the sea, rest
+unconformably upon the older rocks, the Lower division being
+unrepresented. This is true over the greater part of South America, so
+far as our limited knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North
+America, in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central
+Europe. Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the
+coast lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The
+known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas; no
+abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has pointed out the
+probability of a Eurasian sea province extending through Europe towards
+the east, across north and central Asia towards Manitoba in Canada, and
+an American sea province embracing the United States, South America and
+South Africa. At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land
+area caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before the
+beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe to eastern
+Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red Sandstone was formed.
+
+In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence of three
+zones of deposition: (1) A northern, Old Red, region, including Great
+Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and Spitzbergen; here the land was
+close at hand; great brackish lagoons prevailed, which communicated more
+or less directly with the open sea. In European Russia, during its
+general advance, the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas, only
+to be driven off again, during pauses in the relative subsidence of the
+land, when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more established
+the lagoonal conditions. These alternating phases were frequently
+repeated. (2) A middle region, covering Devonshire and Cornwall, the
+Ardennes, the northern part of the lower Rhenish mountains, and the
+upper Harz to the Polish Mittelgebirge; here we find evidence of a
+shallow sea, clastic deposits and a sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern
+region reaching from Brittany to the south of the Rhenish mountains,
+lower Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here was a deeper sea with a more
+pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind that the above-mentioned regions
+are intended to refer to the time when the extension of the Devonian sea
+was near its maximum. In the case of North America it has been shown
+that in early and middle Devonian time more or less distinct faunas
+invaded the continent from five different centres, viz. the Helderberg,
+the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern Hamilton and the north-western
+Hamilton; these reached the interior approximately in the order given.
+
+Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas had
+mingled one with another and a more generalized life assemblage had been
+evolved, we find many forms with a very wide range, indicating great
+uniformity of conditions. Thus we find identical species of brachiopods
+inhabiting the Devonian seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany,
+Russia, southern Asia and China; such are, _Hypothyris_ (_Rhynchonella_)
+_cuboides_, _Spirifer disjunctus_ and others. The fauna of the
+_Calceola_ shales can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and
+Siberia; the _Stringocephalus_ limestones are represented in Belgium,
+England, the Urals and Canada; and the (_Gephyroceras_) _intumescens_
+shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba.
+
+The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no violent crustal
+movements seem to have taken place, and while some changes of level
+occurred towards its close in Great Britain, Bohemia and Russia,
+generally the passage from Devonian to Carboniferous conditions was
+quite gradual. In later periods these rocks have suffered considerable
+movement and metamorphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and
+in the Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over
+the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly
+widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period. In the
+Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness (6000 ft.) of
+igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates
+and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle
+division. In west central Europe volcanic rocks are found at many
+horizons, the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs,
+_schalstein_. Felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the Middle Devonian of
+Australia. Contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the
+American Devonian, but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to
+be some.
+
+There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it is
+interesting to observe that local glacial conditions _may_ have existed
+in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated
+boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other hand, the
+prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm
+temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas.
+
+The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some importance: in many
+of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead, copper, iron are
+exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in New Zealand, gold veins
+occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is found in China and a little coal in
+Germany, while the Upper Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of
+western Pennsylvania and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle
+division is oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central
+Tennessee, and in England the marls of the "Old Red" are employed for
+brick-making.
+
+  REFERENCES.--The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is very
+  extensive; important papers have been contributed by the following
+  geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Beclard, E. W. Benecke, L.
+  Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W. Dawson, A.
+  Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Frech, J. Fournet, Sir A.
+  Geikie, G. Guerich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch, A. von
+  Koenen, Hugh Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de Rouville, C.
+  Schuchert, T. Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E. Ussher, P. N.
+  Wenjukoff, G. F. Whidborne, J. F. Whiteaves and H. S. Williams.
+  Sedgwick and Murchison's original description appeared in the _Trans.
+  Geol. Soc._ (2nd series, vol. v., 1839). Good general accounts will be
+  found in Sir A. Geikie's _Text-Book of Geology_ (vol. ii., 4th ed.,
+  1903), in E. Kayser's _Lehrbuch der Geologie_ (vol. ii., 2nd ed.,
+  1902), and, for North America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's _Geology_
+  (vol. ii., 1906). See the _Index to the Geological Magazine_
+  (1864-1903), and in subsequent annual volumes; _Geological Literature
+  added to the Geological Society's Library_ (London), annually since
+  1893; and the _Neues Jahrbuch fuer Min., Geologie und Palaeontologie_
+  (Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The U.S. Geological Survey publishes at
+  intervals a _Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, &c._,
+  and this (e.g. Bulletin 301,--the _Bibliog. and Index_ for 1901-1905)
+  contains numerous references for the Devonian system in North America.
+                                                              (J. A. H.)
+
+
+DEVONPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Devonshire,
+England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and Plymouth, the seat of one of
+the royal dockyards, and an important naval and military station. Pop.
+(1901) 70,437. It is situated immediately above the N.W. angle of
+Plymouth Sound, occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse
+Pool on the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great
+Western and the London & South Western railways. The town proper was
+formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch excavated out of the
+limestone, but these are in great part demolished. Adjoining Devonport
+are East Stonehouse (an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice
+Town, the two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected in
+1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is distinguished by
+a Doric portico; while near it are the public library, in Egyptian
+style, and a conspicuous Doric column built of Devonshire granite. This
+monument, which is 100 ft. high, was raised in commemoration of the
+naming of the town in 1824. Other institutions are the Naval Engineering
+College, Keyham (1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899,
+the majority of the students being connected with the dockyard; the
+naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and the naval and
+military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was formerly defended by a
+battery (now a naval signalling station), stands the military residence,
+or Government House, occupied by the commander of the Plymouth Coast
+Defences; and near at hand is the principal naval residence, the naval
+commander-in-chief's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the
+Hamoaze to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in
+the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devonport, however,
+is the royal dockyard, originally established by William III. in 1689
+and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock. It is situated within the old
+town boundary and contains four docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham
+steamyard, situated higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and
+connected with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further
+extensions were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as
+Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard comprised two
+basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the southern 7 acres in area,
+and three docks, having floor-lengths of 295, 347 and 413 ft., together
+with iron and brass foundries, machinery shops, engineer students' shop,
+&c. The new extensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 21st of
+February 1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in
+front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of 77 acres of
+mudflats lying below high-water mark. The scheme presented three leading
+features--a tidal basin, a group of three graving docks with entrance
+lock, and a large enclosed basin with a coaling depot at the north end.
+The tidal basin, close to the old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long
+with a mean width of 590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth
+being 32 ft. at low water of spring tides. It affords access to two
+graving docks, one with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20 1/2 ft. of water
+over the sill, and the other with a length of 741 ft. and 32 ft. of
+water over the sill. Each of these can be subdivided by means of an
+intermediate caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an entrance to
+the closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the closed
+basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock. The
+closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft. long,
+measures 1550 ft. by 1000 ft. and has an area of 35 1/2 acres, with a depth
+of 32 ft. at low-water springs; it has a direct entrance from the
+Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The foundations of the walls are carried
+down to the rock, which in some places lies covered with mud 100 ft. or
+more below coping level. Compressed air is used to work the sliding
+caissons which close the entrances of the docks and closed basin. A
+ropery at Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy.
+
+By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a parliamentary
+borough including East Stonehouse and returning two members. The ground
+on which it stands is for the most part the property of the St Aubyn
+family (Barons St Levan), whose steward holds a court leet and a court
+baron annually. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and
+forty-eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres.
+
+
+DEVONPORT, EAST and WEST, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, situated on
+both sides of the mouth of the river Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of
+Hobart. Pop. (1901), East Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is
+regular communication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it
+ranks as the third port in Tasmania. A celebrated regatta is held on the
+Mersey annually on New Year's day.
+
+
+DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Devonshire title, now in the
+Cavendish family, had previously been held by Charles Blount
+(1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson of the 4th Lord Mountjoy
+(d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he was created earl of Devonshire in
+1603 for his services in Ireland, where he became famous in subduing the
+rebellion between 1600 and 1603; but the title became extinct at his
+death. In the Cavendish line the 1st earl of Devonshire was William (d.
+1626), second son of Sir William Cavendish (q.v.), and of Elizabeth
+Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury. He was
+created earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was succeeded by
+William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by his son William
+(1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of the original members of
+the Royal Society, who married a daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury.
+
+WILLIAM CAVENDISH, 1st duke of Devonshire (1640-1707), English
+statesman, eldest son of the earl of Devonshire last mentioned, was born
+on the 25th of January 1640. After completing his education he made the
+tour of Europe according to the custom of young men of his rank, being
+accompanied on his travels by Dr Killigrew. On his return he obtained,
+in 1661, a seat in parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became
+conspicuous as one of the most determined and daring opponents of the
+general policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee
+appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord treasurer
+Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for Derby, and made a privy councillor
+by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from the board with his friend Lord
+Russell, when he found that the Roman Catholic interest uniformly
+prevailed. He carried up to the House of Lords the articles of
+impeachment against Lord Chief-Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and
+illegal proceedings in the court of King's bench; and when the king
+declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of
+York, afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons that a bill
+might be brought in for the association of all his majesty's Protestant
+subjects. He also openly denounced the king's counsellors, and voted for
+an address to remove them. He appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his
+trial, at a time when it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice
+than a witness. After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof
+of his attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell in
+the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his escape.
+In November 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father.
+He opposed arbitrary government under James II. with the same
+consistency and high spirit as during the previous reign. He was
+withdrawn from public life for a time, however, in consequence of a
+hasty and imprudent act of which his enemies knew how to avail
+themselves. Fancying that he had received an insulting look in the
+presence chamber from Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance
+at court the king encouraged, he immediately avenged the affront by
+challenging the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking
+him with his cane. This offence was punished by a fine of L30,000, which
+was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely fortune. Not
+being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's bench, from which he
+was released only on signing a bond for the whole amount. This was
+afterwards cancelled by King William. After his discharge the earl went
+for a time to Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of
+a new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by Verrio,
+Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again brought him into
+prominence. He was one of the seven who signed the original paper
+inviting the prince of Orange from Holland, and was the first nobleman
+who appeared in arms to receive him at his landing. He received the
+order of the Garter on the occasion of the coronation, and was made lord
+high steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William on
+his visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington and duke of
+Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on the same day on which the
+head of the house of Russell was created duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote
+Macaulay, "the two great houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long
+been closely connected by friendship and by marriage, by common
+opinions, common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same
+day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to confer."
+His last public service was assisting to conclude the union with
+Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son, the marquis of
+Hartington, had been appointed among the commissioners by Queen Anne. He
+died on the 18th of August 1707, and ordered the following inscription
+to be put on his monument:-
+
+                          Willielmus Dux Devon,
+                   Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus,
+                      Inimicus et Invisus Tyrannis.
+
+He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of Ormonde, and he
+was succeeded by his eldest son William as 2nd duke, and by the latter's
+son William as 3rd duke (viceroy of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's
+son William (1720-1764) succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the
+daughter and heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and Cork, who
+brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and from
+November 1756 to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly in order that
+Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of Newcastle, should be in
+power. His son William (1748-1811), 5th duke, is memorable as the
+husband of the beautiful Georgiana Spencer, duchess of Devonshire
+(1757-1806), and of the intellectual Elizabeth Foster, duchess of
+Devonshire (1758-1824), both of whom Gainsborough painted. His son
+William, 6th duke (1790-1858), who died unmarried, was sent on a special
+mission to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and
+became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was he who
+employed Sir Joseph Paxton at Chatsworth. The title passed in 1858 to
+his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of Burlington, as 7th duke, a
+man who, without playing a prominent part in public affairs, exercised
+great influence, not only by his position but by his distinguished
+abilities. At Cambridge in 1829 he was second wrangler, first Smith's
+prizeman, and eighth classic, and subsequently he became chancellor of
+the university.
+
+SPENCER COMPTON CAVENDISH, 8th duke (1833-1908), born on the 23rd of
+July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke (then earl of Burlington) and his
+wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord
+Cavendish, as he then was, took his degree at Trinity College,
+Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to the special mission to Russia for
+the new tsar's accession; and in 1857 he was returned to parliament as
+Liberal member for North Lancashire. At the opening of the new
+parliament of 1859 the marquis of Hartington (as he had now become)
+moved the amendment to the address which overthrew the government of
+Lord Derby. In 1863 he became first a lord of the admiralty, and then
+under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the Russell-Gladstone
+administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he entered it as war
+secretary. He retired with his colleagues in July 1866; but upon Mr
+Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he became postmaster-general, an
+office which he exchanged in 1871 for that of secretary for Ireland.
+When Mr Gladstone, after his defeat and resignation in 1874, temporarily
+withdrew from the leadership of the Liberal party in January 1875, Lord
+Hartington was chosen Liberal leader in the House of Commons, Lord
+Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W. E. Forster, who had taken a
+much more prominent part in public life, was the only other possible
+nominee, but he declined to stand. Lord Hartington's rank no doubt told
+in his favour, and Mr Forster's education bill had offended the
+Nonconformist members, who would probably have withheld their support.
+Lord Hartington's prudent management in difficult circumstances laid his
+followers under great obligations, since not only was the opposite party
+in the ascendant, but his own former chief was indulging in the freedom
+of independence. After the complete defeat of the Conservatives in the
+general election of 1880, a large proportion of the party would have
+rejoiced if Lord Hartington could have taken the Premiership instead of
+Mr Gladstone, and the queen, in strict conformity with constitutional
+usage (though Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have had
+the preference), sent for him as leader of the Opposition. Mr Gladstone,
+however, was clearly master of the situation: no cabinet could be formed
+without him, nor could he reasonably be expected to accept a subordinate
+post. Lord Hartington, therefore, gracefully abdicated the leadership,
+and became secretary of state for India, from which office, in December
+1882, he passed to the war office. His administration was memorable for
+the expeditions of General Gordon and Lord Wolseley to Khartum, and a
+considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly
+responsible for the "betrayal of Gordon." His lethargic manner, apart
+from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in their
+minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government
+acted "too late"; but Gladstone and Lord Granville were no less
+responsible than he. In June 1885 he resigned along with his colleagues,
+and in December was elected for the Rossendale Division of Lancashire,
+created by the new reform bill. Immediately afterwards the great
+political opportunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr
+Gladstone's conversion to home rule for Ireland. Lord Hartington's
+refusal to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the
+chief of the new Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and
+influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved the
+first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera house, and
+also, in the House of Commons, moved the rejection of Mr Gladstone's
+Bill on the second reading. During the memorable electoral contest which
+followed, no election excited more interest than Lord Hartington's for
+the Rossendale division, where he was returned by a majority of nearly
+1500 votes. In the new parliament he held a position much resembling
+that which Sir Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the
+leader of a small, compact party, the standing and ability of whose
+members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally esteemed
+and trusted beyond any other man in the country, yet in his own opinion
+forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's offers to serve under him
+as prime minister (both after the general election, and again when Lord
+Randolph Churchill resigned) were declined, and Lord Hartington
+continued to discharge the delicate duties of the leader of a middle
+party with no less judgment than he had shown when leading the Liberals
+during the interregnum of 1875-1880. It was not until 1895, when the
+differences between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become
+almost obliterated by changed circumstances, and the habit of acting
+together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the death of
+his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's third ministry
+as president of the council. The duke thus was the nominal
+representative of education in the cabinet at a time when educational
+questions were rapidly becoming of great importance; and his own
+technical knowledge of this difficult and intricate question being
+admittedly superficial, a good deal of criticism from time to time
+resulted. He had however by this time an established position in public
+life, and a reputation for weight of character, which procured for him
+universal respect and confidence, and exempted him from bitter attack,
+even from his most determined political opponents. Wealth and rank
+combined with character to place him in a measure above party; and his
+succession to his father as chancellor of the university of Cambridge in
+1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the country. In the same year
+he had married the widow of the 7th duke of Manchester.
+
+He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council till
+the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on account of differences with
+Mr BALFOUR (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards free trade. As Mr
+Chamberlain had retired from the cabinet, and the duke had not thought
+it necessary to join Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in resigning a
+fortnight earlier, the defection was unanticipated and was sharply
+criticized by Mr Balfour, who, in the rearrangement of his ministry, had
+only just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish, to
+be secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the conclusion
+that while he himself was substantially a free-trader,[1] Mr Balfour did
+not mean the same thing by the term. He necessarily became the leader of
+the Free Trade Unionists who were neither Balfourites nor
+Chamberlainites, and his weight was thrown into the scale against any
+association of Unionism with the constructive policy of tariff reform,
+which he identified with sheer Protection. A struggle at once began
+within the Liberal Unionist organization between those who followed the
+duke and those who followed Mr CHAMBERLAIN (q.v.); but the latter were
+in the majority and a reorganization in the Liberal Unionist Association
+took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a separate
+body. The duke then became president of the new organizations, the
+Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist Free Trade Club. In the
+subsequent developments the duke played a dignified but somewhat silent
+part, and the Unionist rout in 1906 was not unaffected by his open
+hostility to any taint of compromise with the tariff reform movement.
+But in the autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of
+cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and
+spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on the
+24th of March 1908.
+
+The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial magnate,
+and an Englishman with thoroughly national tastes for sport, his weighty
+and disinterested character made him a statesman of the first rank in
+his time, in spite of the absence of showy or brilliant qualities. He
+had no self-seeking ambitions, and on three occasions preferred not to
+become prime minister. Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he
+was not an orator, nor "clever"; and he lacked all subtlety of
+intellect; but he was conspicuous for solidity of mind and
+straightforwardness of action, and for conscientious application as an
+administrator, whether in his public or private life. The fact that he
+once yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly quoted as
+characteristic; but he combined a great fund of common sense and
+knowledge of the average opinion with a patriotic sense of duty towards
+the state. Throughout his career he remained an old-fashioned Liberal,
+or rather Whig, of a type which in his later years was becoming
+gradually more and more rare.
+
+There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as 9th duke by
+his nephew VICTOR CHRISTIAN CAVENDISH (b. 1868), who had been Liberal
+Unionist member for West Derbyshire since 1891, and was treasurer of the
+household (1900 to 1903) and financial secretary to the treasury (1903
+to 1905); in 1892 he married a daughter of the marquess of Lansdowne, by
+whom he had two sons.                                          (H. CH.)
+
+[1] His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: "I believe that
+our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advantageous
+to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on
+which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any
+departure from it, for sufficient reasons."
+
+
+DEVONSHIRE (DEVON), a south-western county of England, bounded N.W. and
+N. by the Bristol Channel, N.E. by Somerset and Dorset, S.E. and S. by
+the English Channel, and W. by Cornwall. The area, 2604.9 sq. m., is
+exceeded only by those of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English
+counties. Nearly the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly. The
+county contains the highest land in England south of Derbyshire
+(excepting points on the south Welsh border); and the scenery, much
+varied, is in most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad
+uplands of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend
+into North Devon, and are still the haunt of red deer, and of the small
+hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dartmoor, the
+streams are rich in trout. Dartmoor, the principal physical feature of
+the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of moorland which rises in the
+southern part. Its highest point, 2039 ft., is found in the
+north-western portion. Its rough wastes contrast finely with the wild
+but wooded region which immediately surrounds the granite of which it is
+composed, and with the rich cultivated country lying beyond. Especially
+noteworthy in this fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful district
+of apple orchards, lying between the Erme and the Dart; the rich
+meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale of Exeter; and the red rocks
+near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a characteristic charm to the
+Devonshire landscape are the number of picturesque old cottages roofed
+with thatch; and the deep lanes, sunk below the common level of the
+ground, bordered by tall hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs.
+The north and south coasts of the county differ much in character, but
+both have grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by any in England
+or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of colour.
+As a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers flow seaward
+are densely wooded, and the country immediately inland is of great
+beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which constitutes the boundary between
+Devon and Cornwall, and flows into the English Channel, after forming in
+its estuary the harbours of Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers
+rise on Dartmoor. These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling
+into the English Channel, and the Taw flowing north towards Bideford
+Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives part of
+its waters from Dartmoor through the Okement, but itself rises in the
+angle of high land near Hartland point on the north coast, and makes a
+wide sweep southward. The lesser Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme
+and the Vealm, all running south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in
+Somersetshire; but the main part of its course is through Devonshire
+(where it gives name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the
+English Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the Creedy and the
+Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south, and
+the Axe, for part of its course, divides the counties of Devon and
+Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow; while the rivers
+of Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid course.
+
+  _Geology._--The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks in
+  Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a series of slates, grits and
+  greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian
+  cherts as at Codden Hill; beds of "culm," an impure variety of coal,
+  are found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at
+  Bampton, Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western
+  boundary. North and south of the Culm an older series of slates, grits
+  and limestones appears; it was considered so characteristic of the
+  county that it was called the DEVONIAN SYSTEM (q.v.), the marine
+  equivalent of the Old Red Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It lies
+  in the form of a trough with its axis running east and west. In the
+  central hollow the Culm reposes, while the northern and southern rims
+  rise to the surface respectively north of the latitude of Barnstaple
+  and South Molton and south of the latitude of Tavistock. These
+  Devonian rocks have been subdivided into upper, middle and lower
+  divisions, but the stratigraphy is difficult to follow as the beds
+  have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of contorted strata may be
+  seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in the south, at Bolt
+  Head and Start Point they have undergone severe metamorphism.
+  Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but in the south
+  important masses occur, in the middle and at the base of the upper
+  subdivisions, about Plymouth, Torquay, Brixham and between Newton
+  Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these limestones, which are
+  largely quarried and when polished are known as Devonshire marbles.
+
+  On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set
+  of rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently
+  towards the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of the
+  younger rocks is a series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and
+  marls which are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some geologists
+  have been classed as Permian. These red rocks are beautifully exposed
+  on the coast by Dawlish and Teignmouth, and they extend inland,
+  producing a red soil, past Exeter and Tiverton. A long narrow strip of
+  the same formation reaches out westward on the top of the Culm as far
+  as Jacobstow. Farther east, the Bunter pebble beds are represented by
+  the well-known pebble deposit of Budleigh Salterton, whence they are
+  traceable inland towards Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper
+  marls and sandstones, well exposed at Sidmouth, where the upper
+  Greensand plateau is clearly seen to overlie them. The Greensand
+  covers all the high ground northward from Sidmouth as far as the
+  Blackdown Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the Chalk is seen, and at
+  the latter place is a famous landslip on the coast, caused by the
+  springs which issue from the Greensand below the Chalk. The Lower
+  Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was formerly in
+  considerable demand. At the extreme east of the county, Rhaetic and
+  Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a "bone" bed bearing
+  the remains of saurians and fish.
+
+  Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm and
+  Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times and subsequently exposed
+  by denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity are abundant in
+  the masses of diabase, dolerite, &c., at Bradford and Trusham, south
+  of Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington. Perhaps the most
+  interesting is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent Tor near Tavistock.
+  An Eocene deposit, the product of the denudation of the Dartmoor
+  Hills, lies in a small basin at Bovey Tracey (see BOVEY BEDS); it
+  yields beds of lignite and valuable clays.
+
+  Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near
+  Torquay and at other points, and a submerged forest lies in the bay
+  south of the same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian
+  limestone at Kent's Hole near Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are famous
+  for the remains of extinct mammals; bones of the elephant, rhinoceros,
+  bear and hyaena have been found as well as flint implements of early
+  man.
+
+  _Minerals._--Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near the
+  north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been worked on Dartmoor (in stream
+  works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much worked before the
+  end of the 18th century. Tin occurs in the granite of Dartmoor, and
+  along its borders, but rather where the Devonian than where the
+  Carboniferous rocks border the granite. It is found most plentifully
+  in the district which surrounds Tavistock, which, for tin and other
+  ores, is in effect the great mining district of the county. Here,
+  about 4 m. from Tavistock, are the Devon Great Consols mines, which
+  from 1843 to 1871 were among the richest copper mines in the world,
+  and by far the largest and most profitable in the kingdom. The divided
+  profits during this period amounted to L1,192,960. But the mining
+  interests of Devonshire are affected by the same causes, and in the
+  same way, as those of Cornwall. The quantity of ore has greatly
+  diminished, and the cost of raising it from the deep mines prevents
+  competition with foreign markets. In many mines tin underlies the
+  general depth of the copper, and is worked when the latter has been
+  exhausted. The mineral products of the Tavistock district are various,
+  and besides tin and copper, ores of zinc and iron are largely
+  distributed. Great quantities of refined arsenic have been produced at
+  the Devon Great Consols mine, by elimination from the iron pyrites
+  contained in the various lodes. Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood
+  of Exeter, in the valley of the Teign and in N. Devon; but the most
+  profitable mines, which are shallow, are, like those of tin and
+  copper, in the Tavistock district.
+
+  The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles,
+  building stones, slates and potters' clay. Among building stones, the
+  granite of Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried near
+  Princetown, near Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor and
+  elsewhere. The annual export is considerable. Hard traps, which occur
+  in many places, are also much used, as are the limestones of
+  Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The Roborough stone, used from an early
+  period in Devonshire churches, is found near Tavistock, and is a hard,
+  porphyritic elvan, taking a fine polish. Excellent roofing slates
+  occur in the Devonian series round the southern part of Dartmoor. The
+  chief quarries are near Ashburton and Plymouth (Cann quarry). Potters'
+  clay is worked at King's Teignton, whence it is largely exported; at
+  Bovey Tracey; and at Watcombe near Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of
+  the finest quality. China clay or kaolin is found on the southern side
+  of Dartmoor, at Lee Moor, and near Trowlesworthy. There is a large
+  deposit of umber close to Ashburton.
+
+_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate varies greatly in different
+parts of the county, but everywhere it is more humid than that of the
+eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The mean annual temperature
+somewhat exceeds that of the midlands, but the average summer heat is
+rather less than that of the southern counties to the east. The air of
+the Dartmoor highlands is sharp and bracing. Mists are frequent, and
+snow often lies long. On the south coast frost is little known, and many
+half hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles, geraniums and
+heliotropes, live through the winter without protection. The climate of
+Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places on this coast is
+very equable, the mean temperature in January being 43.6 deg. at Plymouth.
+The north coast, exposed to the storms and swell of the Atlantic, is
+more bracing; although there also, in the more sheltered nooks (as at
+Combe Martin), myrtles of great size and age flower freely, and produce
+their annual crop of berries.
+
+Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county is under
+cultivation; the cultivated area falling a little below the average of
+the English counties. There are, however, about 160,000 acres of hill
+pasture in addition to the area in permanent pasture, which is more than
+one-half that of the cultivated area. The Devon breed of cattle is well
+adapted both for fattening and for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept
+in great numbers on the hill pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief
+cattle-farming and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for
+two products of the dairy--the clotted cream to which it gives its name,
+and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats occupy about three times
+the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk of the acreage under green
+crops is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangold. Orchards occupy a
+large acreage, and consist chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every farm
+maintaining one for the manufacture of cider.
+
+_Fisheries._--Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable than those
+of Cornwall, large quantities of the pilchard and herrings caught in
+Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much of the fishing is carried on
+within the three-mile limit; and it may be asserted that trawling is the
+main feature of the Devonshire industry, whereas seining and driving
+characterize that of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice,
+soles, turbot, shrimps, lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with,
+besides herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After
+Plymouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are
+lesser stations in every bay and estuary.
+
+_Other Industries._--The principal industrial works in the county are
+the various Government establishments at Plymouth and Devonport. Among
+other industries may be noted the lace-works at Tiverton; the
+manufacture of pillow-lace for which Honiton and its neighbourhood has
+long been famous; and the potteries and terra-cotta works of Bovey
+Tracey and Watcombe. Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh
+and Ashburton, and boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is
+employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &c., in the great
+prison of Dartmoor.
+
+_Communications._--The main line of the Great Western railway, entering
+the county in the east from Taunton, runs to Exeter, skirts the coast as
+far as Teignmouth, and continues a short distance inland by Newton Abbot
+to Plymouth, after which it crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great
+bridge to Saltash in Cornwall. Branches serve Torquay and other seaside
+resorts of the south coast; and among other branches are those from
+Taunton to Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to Tavistock and
+Launceston. The main line of the London & South-Western railway between
+Exeter and Plymouth skirts the north and west of Dartmoor by Okehampton
+and Tavistock. A branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple, Ilfracombe,
+Bideford and Torrington, while the Lynton & Barnstaple and the Bideford,
+Westward Ho & Appledore lines serve the districts indicated by their
+names. The branch line to Princetown from the Plymouth-Tavistock line of
+the Great Western company in part follows the line of a very early
+railway--that constructed to connect Plymouth with the Dartmoor prison
+in 1819-1825, which was worked with horse cars. The only waterways of
+any importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to Gunnislake (3 m.
+S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal, noteworthy as one of the
+oldest in England, for it was originally cut in the reign of Elizabeth.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is
+1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891 of 631,808, and 1901 of
+661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168 acres. The
+county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Barnstaple (pop.
+14,137), Bideford (8754), Dartmouth (6579), Devonport, a county borough
+(70,437), Exeter, a city and county borough (47,185), Torrington,
+officially Great Torrington (3241), Honiton (3271), Okehampton (2569),
+Plymouth, a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848), Tiverton
+(10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (4035). The other urban districts are
+Ashburton (2628), Bampton (1657), Brixham (8092), Buckfastleigh (2520),
+Budleigh Salterton (1883), Crediton (3974), Dawlish (4003), East
+Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485), Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy
+(1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivybridge (1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton
+(1641), Newton Abbot (12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495),
+Paignton (8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201),
+Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The county is in the western
+circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one court of quarter
+sessions, and is divided into twenty-four petty sessional divisions. The
+boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford, Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth, South
+Molton, and Tiverton have separate commissions of the peace and courts
+of quarter sessions, and those of Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay
+and Totnes have commissions of the peace only. There are 461 civil
+parishes. Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of
+small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro; and there are 516
+ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the
+county. The parliamentary divisions are the Eastern or Honiton,
+North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North-western or
+Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes, Torquay, and Mid
+or Ashburton, each returning one member; and the county also contains
+the parliamentary boroughs of Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two
+members, and that of Exeter, returning one member.
+
+_History._--The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun some time
+before the 8th century, for in 700 there existed at Exeter a famous
+Saxon school. By this time, however, the Saxons had become Christians,
+and established their supremacy, not by destructive inroads, but by a
+gradual process of colonization, settling among the native Welsh and
+allowing them to hold lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of
+the district which is now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must
+have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter, remained
+partly Welsh until the time of AEthelstan. At the beginning of the 9th
+century Wessex was divided into definite _pagi_, probably corresponding
+to the later shires, and the Saxon Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name
+in 823, when a battle was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the
+people of Devonshire at Camelford. During the Danish invasions of the
+9th century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In 851 the
+invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of Devon, and in 878,
+when the Danes under Hubba were harrying the coast with a squadron of
+twenty-three ships, they were again defeated with great slaughter by the
+fyrd. The modern hundreds of Devonshire correspond in position very
+nearly with those given in the Domesday Survey, though the names have in
+many cases been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places
+of meeting. The hundred of Bampton formerly included estates west of the
+Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge. Ten of the modern
+hundreds have been formed by the union of two or more Domesday hundreds,
+while the Domesday hundred of Liston has had the new hundred of
+Tavistock severed from it since 1114. Many of the hundreds were
+separated by tracts of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire
+contained a vast extent, until in 1204 the inhabitants paid 5000 marks
+to have the county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor
+and Exmoor.
+
+Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric of
+Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached to the newly created
+diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund constituted
+Devonshire a separate diocese, and placed the see at Crediton. About
+1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall were united, and in 1049
+the see was fixed at Exeter. The archdeaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple
+and Totnes are all mentioned in the 12th century and formerly comprised
+twenty-four deaneries. The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and
+Ottery have been created since the 16th century, while those of
+Tamerton, Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre have been abolished,
+bringing the present number to twenty-three.
+
+At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an active hostility
+to Harold, and the easy submission which it rendered to the Conqueror
+accounts for the exceptionally large number of Englishmen who are found
+retaining lands after the Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman
+barons were known as honours, chief among them being Plympton,
+Okehampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of Plympton was
+bestowed in the 12th century on the Redvers family, together with the
+earldom of Devon; in the 13th century it passed to the Courtenay family,
+who had already become possessed of the honour of Okehampton, and who in
+1335 obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in the
+14th century on the Holland family, which became extinct in the reign of
+Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh, who was born at
+Budleigh, had long held considerable estates in the county.
+
+Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being at first
+hereditary, but afterwards held for one year only. In 1320 complaint was
+made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in the hands of the great
+lords, who did not appoint a sufficiency of bailiffs for their proper
+government. The miners of Devon had independent courts, known as
+stannary courts, for the regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary
+towns being Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient
+miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor.
+
+The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen by Baldwin
+de Redvers, and in the 14th and 15th centuries the French made frequent
+attacks on the Devonshire coast, being repulsed in 1404 by the people of
+Dartmouth. In the Wars of the Roses the county was much divided, and
+frequent skirmishes took place between the earl of Devon and Lord
+Bonville, the respective champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist
+parties. Great disturbances in the county followed the Reformation of
+the 16th century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say mass at
+Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county as a
+whole favoured the parliament, but the prevailing desire was for peace,
+and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities in Devonshire and
+Cornwall was agreed upon. Skirmishes, however, continued until the
+capture of Dartmouth and Exeter in 1646 put an end to the struggle. In
+1688 the prince of Orange landed at Torbay and was entertained for
+several days at Ford and at Exeter.
+
+The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time immemorial, and in the
+14th century mines of tin, copper, lead, gold and silver are mentioned.
+Agriculturally the county was always poor, and before the
+disafforestation rendered especially so through the ravages committed by
+the herds of wild deer. At the time of the Domesday Survey the salt
+industry was important, and there were ninety-nine mills in the county
+and thirteen fisheries. From an early period the chief manufacture was
+that of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manufacture
+of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire. About 1505
+Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an improved method of spinning
+into the county, and cider-making is mentioned in the 16th century. In
+1680 the lace industry was already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St
+Mary, and flax, hemp and malt were largely produced in the 17th and 18th
+centuries.
+
+Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295
+Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock, Torrington and Totnes were also
+represented. In 1831 the county with its boroughs returned a total of
+twenty-six members, but under the Reform Act of 1832 it returned four
+members in two divisions, and with ten boroughs was represented by a
+total of eighteen members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six
+members in three divisions, and four of the boroughs were disfranchised,
+making a total of seventeen members.
+
+_Antiquities._--In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich as
+Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest interest, the
+most peculiar of which are the long parallel alignments of upright
+stones, which, on a small scale, resemble those of Carnac in Brittany.
+On Dartmoor the lines are invariably straight, and are found in direct
+connexion with cairns, and with circles which are probably sepulchral.
+These stone avenues are very numerous. Of the so-called sacred circles
+the best examples are the "Longstones" on Scorhill Down, and the "Grey
+Wethers" under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest cromlech is the
+"Spinster's Rock" at Drewsteignton, a three-pillared cromlech which may
+well be compared with those of Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or
+single upright stones; a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of
+the Teign, near the Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit
+of nearly every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on
+Heltor, above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably evident that these
+have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite, and
+that the dolmen in the Teign is due to the action of the river. Clusters
+of hut foundations, circular, and formed of rude granite blocks, are
+frequent; the best example of such a primitive village is at Batworthy,
+near Chagford; the type resembles that of East Cornwall. Walled
+enclosures, or pounds, occur in many places; Grimspound is the most
+remarkable. Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor
+in many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of great slabs of
+granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor. Scattered
+over the county are numerous large hill castles and camps,--all
+earthworks, and all apparently of the British period. Roman relics have
+been found from time to time at Exeter (_Isca Damnoniorum_), the only
+large Roman station in the county.
+
+The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period, dating
+from the middle of the 14th to the end of the 15th century. Exeter
+cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except the Norman
+towers) being very beautiful Decorated work. The special features of
+Devonshire churches, however, are the richly carved pulpits and chancel
+screens of wood, in which this county exceeded every other in England,
+with the exception of Norfolk and Suffolk. The designs are rich and
+varied, and the skill displayed often very great. Granite crosses are
+frequent, the finest and earliest being that of Coplestone, near
+Crediton. Monastic remains are scanty; the principal are those at Tor,
+Buckfast, Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings the
+houses of Wear Gilford, Bradley and Dartington of the 15th century;
+Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan), and Forde (Jacobean),
+deserve notice. The ruined castles of Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter,
+with its vast British earthworks, Berry Pomeroy (Henry III., with ruins
+of a large Tudor mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 15th
+century), are all interesting and picturesque.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--T. Westcote, _Survey of Devon_, written about 1630, and
+  first printed in 1845; J. Prince, _Worthies of Devon_ (Exeter, 1701);
+  Sir W. Pole, _Collections towards a History of the County of Devon_
+  (London, 1791); R. Polwhele, _History of Devonshire_ (3 vols. Exeter,
+  1797, 1798-1800); T. Moore, _History of Devon from the Earliest Period
+  to the Present Time_ (vols, i., ii., London, 1829-1831); G. Oliver,
+  _Historic Collections relating to the Monasteries in Devon_ (Exeter,
+  1820); D. and S. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_ (vol. vi., London, 1822);
+  _Ecclesiastical Antiquities in Devon_ (Exeter, 1844); Mrs Bray,
+  _Traditions of Devonshire_, in a series of letters to Robert Southey
+  (London, 1838); G. C. Boase, _Devonshire Bibliography_ (London, 1883);
+  Sir W. R. Drake, _Devonshire Notes and Notelets_ (London, 1888); S.
+  Hewett, _Peasant Speech of Devon_ (London, 1892); R. N. Worth,
+  _History of Devonshire_ (London, 1886, new edition, 1895); C. Worthy,
+  _Devonshire Parishes_ (Exeter, 1887); _Devonshire Wills_ (London,
+  1896); _Victoria County History, Devonshire_.
+
+
+DEVRIENT, the name of a family of German actors.
+
+LUDWIG DEVRIENT (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the 15th of December
+1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He was apprenticed to an
+upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employment, joined a travelling
+theatrical company, and made his first appearance on the stage at Gera
+in 1804 as the messenger in Schiller's _Braut von Messina_. By the
+interest of Count Bruehl, he appeared at Rudolstadt as Franz Moor in
+Schiller's _Raeuber_, so successfully that he obtained a permanent
+engagement at the ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played until 1809.
+He then received a call to Breslau, where he remained for six years. So
+brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of Shakespeare's
+plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation; yet that great
+artist was generous enough to recommend the young actor as his only
+possible successor. On Iffland's death Devrient was summoned to Berlin,
+where he was for fifteen years the popular idol. He died there on the
+30th of December 1832. Ludwig Devrient was equally great in comedy and
+tragedy. Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard II. were
+among his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his _Reminiscences_ has given a
+graphic picture of him and the "demoniac fascination" of his acting.
+
+  See Z. Funck, _Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und
+  Devrients_ (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in _Devrient-Novellen_ (3rd ed.,
+  Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel _Devrient und Hoffmann_
+  (Berlin, 1873), and Eduard Devrient's _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1861).
+
+Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother, a
+merchant, were also connected with the stage. KARL AUGUST DEVRIENT
+(1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the 5th of April 1797. After being for
+a short time in business, he entered a cavalry regiment as volunteer and
+fought at Waterloo. He then joined the stage, making his first
+appearance on the stage in 1819 at Brunswick. In 1821 he received an
+engagement at the court theatre in Dresden, where, in 1823, he married
+Wilhelmine Schroeder (see SCHROeDER-DEVRIENT). In 1835 he joined the
+company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His best parts were
+Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the 5th of April 1872. His brother
+PHILIPP EDUARD DEVRIENT (1801-1877), born at Berlin on the 11th of
+August 1801, was for a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to
+theatrical management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director of the court
+theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began a thorough
+reorganization of the theatre, and in the course of seventeen years of
+assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high position, but enriched
+its repertory by many noteworthy librettos, among which _Die Gunst des
+Augenblicks_ and _Verirrungen_ are the best known. But his chief work is
+his history of the German stage--_Geschichte der deutschen
+Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1848-1874). He died on the 4th of October
+1877. A complete edition of his works--_Dramatische und dramaturgische
+Schriften_--was published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873).
+
+The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of Ludwig Devrient
+was GUSTAV EMIL DEVRIENT (1803-1872), born in Berlin on the 4th of
+September 1803. He made his first appearance on the stage in 1821, at
+Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's _Jungfrau von Orleans_. After a short
+engagement in Leipzig, he received in 1829 a call to Hamburg, but after
+two years accepted a permanent appointment at the court theatre in
+Dresden, to which he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief
+characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play), Marquis
+Posa (in Schiller's _Don Carlos_), and Goethe's Torquato Tasso. He acted
+several times in London, where his Hamlet was considered finer than
+Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on the 7th of August 1872.
+
+OTTO DEVRIENT (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on the 3rd of
+October 1838, was the son of Philipp Eduard Devrient. He joined the
+stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively in Stuttgart, Berlin
+and Leipzig, until he received a fixed appointment at Karlsruhe, in
+1863. In 1873 he became stage manager at Weimar, where he gained great
+praise for his _mise en scene_ of Goethe's _Faust_. After being manager
+of the theatres in Mannheim and Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in
+1883 he was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884
+he was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and in
+1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died at Stettin on the
+23rd of June 1894.
+
+
+DEW. The word "dew" (O.E. _deaw_; cf. Ger. _Tau_) is a very ancient one
+and its meaning must therefore be defined on historical principles.
+According to the _New English Dictionary_, it means "the moisture
+deposited in minute drops upon any cool surface by condensation of the
+vapour of the atmosphere; formed after a hot day, during or towards
+night and plentiful in the early morning." Huxley in his _Physiography_
+makes the addition "without production of mist." The formation of mist
+is not necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it necessarily
+prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead of
+water it is called hoarfrost. The researches of Aitken suggest that the
+words "by condensation of the vapour in the atmosphere" might be omitted
+from the definition. He has given reasons for believing that the large
+dewdrops on the leaves of plants, the most characteristic of all the
+phenomena of dew, are to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by
+the exuding of drops of water from the plant through the pores of the
+leaves themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases is the
+continuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the
+leaves with water from the soil. The process is set up in full vigour in
+the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions at the surface of
+the leaf in the hot sun, and continued after the sun has gone.
+
+On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illustrating the
+formation of dew is the production of a deposit of moisture, in minute
+drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass or polished metal vessel by
+the cooling of a liquid contained in the vessel. If the liquid is water,
+it can be cooled by pieces of ice; if volatile like ether, by bubbling
+air through it. No deposit is formed by this process until the
+temperature is reduced to a point which, from that circumstance, has
+received a special name, although it depends upon the state of the air
+round the vessel. So generally accepted is the physical analogy between
+the natural formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner
+described, that the point below which the temperature of a surface must
+be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known as the "dew-point."
+
+In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at which, _by
+being cooled without change of pressure_, the air becomes saturated with
+water vapour, not on account of any increase of supply of that compound,
+but by the diminution of the capacity of the air for holding it in the
+gaseous condition. Thus, when the dew-point temperature has been
+determined, the pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere at the time
+of the deposit is given by reference to a table of saturation pressures
+of water vapour at different temperatures. As it is a well-established
+proposition that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not
+vary while the air is being cooled without change of its total external
+pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the pressure of
+water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced. Thus the artificial
+formation of dew and consequent determination of the dew-point is a
+recognized method of measuring the pressure, and thence the amount of
+water vapour in the atmosphere. The dew-point method is indeed in some
+ways a fundamental method of hygrometry.
+
+The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the question of
+the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse. So long as the
+dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter, but when the
+dew-point begins to approach the normal temperature of the human body
+the atmosphere becomes insupportable.
+
+The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists practically in
+determining the process or processes by which leaves, blades of grass,
+stones, and other objects in the open air upon which dew may be
+observed, become cooled "below the dew-point."
+
+Formerly, from the time of Aristotle at least, dew was supposed to
+"fall." That view of the process was not extinct at the time of
+Wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without reproach. To
+Dr Charles Wells of London belongs the credit of bringing to a focus the
+ideas which originated with the study of radiation at the beginning of
+the 19th century, and which are expressed by saying that the cooling
+necessary to produce dew on exposed surfaces is to be attributed to the
+radiation from the surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an account of the
+theory of automatic cooling by radiation, which has found a place in all
+text-books of physics, in his first _Essay on Dew_ published in 1818.
+The theory is supported in that and in a second essay by a number of
+well-planned observations, and the essays are indeed models of
+scientific method. The process of the formation of dew as represented by
+Wells is a simple one. It starts from the point of view that all bodies
+are constantly radiating heat, and cool automatically unless they
+receive a corresponding amount of heat from other bodies by radiation or
+conduction. Good radiators, which are at the same time bad conductors of
+heat, such as blades of grass, lose heat rapidly on a clear night by
+radiation to the sky and become cooled below the dew-point of the
+atmosphere.
+
+The question was very fully studied by Melloni and others, but little
+more was added to the explanation given by Wells until 1885, when John
+Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question whether the water of
+dewdrops on plants or stones came from the air or the earth, and
+described a number of experiments to show that under the conditions of
+observation in Scotland, it was the earth from which the moisture was
+probably obtained, either by the operation of the vascular system of
+plants in the formation of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and
+subsequent condensation in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some
+controversy was excited by the publication of Aitken's views, and it is
+interesting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which
+is of general application in meteorological questions, namely, that the
+physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological
+phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that is
+necessary to produce dew, nor even radiation from a body which does not
+conduct heat. The body must be surrounded by an atmosphere so fully
+supplied with moisture that the dew-point can be passed by the cooling
+due to radiation. Thus the conditions favourable for the formation of
+dew are (1) a good radiating surface, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) a
+clear sky, (4) thermal insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm
+moist ground or some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in
+the surface layers of air.
+
+Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in considering the
+supply of moisture we must take into consideration the ground as well as
+the air and concern ourselves with the temperature of both. Of the five
+conditions mentioned, the first four may be considered necessary, but
+the fifth is very important for securing a copious deposit. It can
+hardly be maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply
+of water by evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a supply is
+forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited process of
+condensation which deprives the air of its moisture and is therefore
+soon terminable, we have the process of distillation which goes on as
+long as conditions are maintained. This distinction is of some practical
+importance for it indicates the protecting power of wet soil in favour
+of young plants as against night frost. If distillation between the
+ground and the leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot
+fall much below the original dew-point because the supply of water for
+condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of heat by
+radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of water from the
+atmosphere, without renewal of the supply, the dew-point will gradually
+get lower as the moisture is deposited and the process of cooling will
+go on.
+
+In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large changes
+taking place within a small range of level. It is with the layer a few
+inches thick on either side of the surface that we are principally
+concerned, and for an adequate comprehension of the conditions close
+consideration is required. To illustrate this point reference may be
+made to figs. 1 and 2, which represent the condition of affairs at 10.40
+P.M. on about the 20th of October 1885, according to observations by
+Aitken. Vertical distances represent heights in feet, while the
+temperatures of the air and the dew-point are represented by horizontal
+distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of the
+diagram. The line marked 0 is the ground level itself, a rather
+indefinite quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical
+distance represented is from 4 ft. above ground to 1 ft. below ground,
+and the special phenomena which we are considering take place in the
+layer which represents the rapid transition between the temperature of
+the ground 3 in. below the surface and that of the air a few inches
+above ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+The point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and
+dry-bulb curve will cut. If they cut above the surface, mist will
+result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be formed. Below the
+surface, it may be assumed that the air is saturated with moisture and
+any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by
+distillation. It may be remarked, by the way, that such distillation
+between soil layers of different temperatures must be productive of the
+transference of large quantities of water between different levels in
+the soil either upward or downward according to the time of year.
+
+These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and moisture of
+the ground in the phenomena which have been considered. From the surface
+there is a continual loss of heat going on by radiation and a continual
+supply of warmth and moisture from below. But while the heat can escape,
+the moisture cannot. Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as
+it approaches the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the
+effect of the moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach.
+In the case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the
+left to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well
+shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to the same
+point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if there were so
+copious a condensation from the atmosphere as actually to make the air
+drier at the surface than up above. In diagram 1, for soil, the effect
+on air temperature and moisture is shown; the two lines converge to cut
+at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground
+line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the
+surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature
+gradient.
+
+The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical countries,
+is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by gutters and spouts,
+but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total
+rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the
+Loango coast at 3 mm., but the estimate seems a high one. Measurements
+go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate
+annual deposit of dew is 1 in. to 1.5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1.2
+in. at Munich (Wollny), 0.3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1.6 in. at
+Tenbury, Worcestershire (Badgley).
+
+With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that of the
+maintenance of "dew ponds" is intimately associated. The name is given
+to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the
+south of England and elsewhere. Some of these ponds are very ancient, as
+the title of a work on _Neolithic Dewponds_ by A. J. and G. Hubbard
+indicates. Their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend
+upon dew and not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of
+water supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been
+discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence seems to
+be against the view that dew deposits make any important contribution to
+the supply of water. The construction of dew ponds is, however, still
+practised on traditional lines, and it is said that a new dew pond has
+first to be filled artificially. It does not come into existence by the
+gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For _Dew_, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells
+  (London, 1818), also "An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella (London,
+  1866), Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni, _Pogg. Ann._
+  lxxi. pp. 416, 424 and lxxiii. p. 467; Jamin, "Complements a la
+  theorie de la rosee," _Journal de physique_, viii. p. 41; J. Aitken,
+  on "Dew," _Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh_, xxxiii., part i. 2, and
+  "Nature," vol. xxxiii. p. 256; C. Tomlinson, "Remarks on a new Theory
+  of Dew," _Phil. Mag._ (1886), 5th series, vol. 21, p. 483 and vol. 22,
+  p. 270; Russell, _Nature_, vol 47, p. 210; also _Met. Zeit._ (1893),
+  p. 390; Homen, _Bodenphysikalische und meteorologische Beobachtungen_
+  (Berlin, 1894), iii.; _Taubildung_, p. 88, &c.; Rubenson, "Die
+  Temperatur-und Feuchtigkeitsverhaeltnisse in den unteren Luftschichten
+  bei der Taubildung," _Met. Zeit._ xi. (1876), p. 65; H. E. Hamberg,
+  "Temperature et humidite de l'air a differentes hauteurs a Upsal,"
+  _Soc. R. des sciences d'Upsal_ (1876); review in _Met. Zeit._ xii.
+  (1877), p. 105.
+
+  For _Dew Ponds_, see Stephen Hales, _Statical Essays_, vol. i.,
+  experiment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731); Gilbert White,
+  _Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne_, letter xxix. (London,
+  1789); Dr C. Wells, _An Essay on Dew_ (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866);
+  Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, "Prize Essay on Water Supply," _Journ. Roy.
+  Agric. Soc._, 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and
+  Symons, "Evaporation from the Surface of Water," _Brit. Assoc. Rep._
+  (1869), sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, "Hydrogeology: One of the
+  Developments of Modern Practical Geology," _Trans. Inst. Surveyors_,
+  vol. ix. pp. 153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise
+  on Dew Ponds" (London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural History of
+  Isolated Ponds," _Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society_,
+  vol. v. pp. 272-286 (1892); Professor G. S. Brady, _On the Nature and
+  Origin of Freshwater Faunas_ (1899); Professor L. C. Miall, "Dew
+  Ponds," _Reports of the British Association_ (Bradford Meeting, 1900),
+  pp. 579-585; A. J. and G. Hubbard, "Neolithic Dewponds and
+  Cattle-Ways" (London, 1904, 1907).                         (W. N. S.)
+
+
+DEWAN or DIWAN, an Oriental term for finance minister. The word is
+derived from the Arabian _diwan_, and is commonly used in India to
+denote a minister of the Mogul government, or in modern days the prime
+minister of a native state. It was in the former sense that the grant of
+the _dewanny_ to the East India Company in 1765 became the foundation of
+the British empire in India.
+
+
+DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist and physicist, was born at
+Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the 20th of September 1842. He was
+educated at Dollar Academy and Edinburgh University, being at the latter
+first a pupil, and afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then
+professor of chemistry; he also studied under Kekule at Ghent. In 1875
+he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy
+at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and in 1877 he succeeded
+Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of chemistry in the Royal
+Institution, London. He was president of the Chemical Society in 1897,
+and of the British Association in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission
+on London Water Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee on
+Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir Frederick Abel.
+His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his earlier papers, some
+deal with questions of organic chemistry, others with Graham's
+hydrogenium and its physical constants, others with high temperatures,
+e.g. the temperature of the sun and of the electric spark, others again
+with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc. With
+Professor J. G. M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the
+physiological action of light, and examined the changes which take place
+in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With
+Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he began in
+1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later of which
+were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous
+constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid of low
+temperatures; and he was joined by Professor J. A. Fleming, of
+University College, London, in the investigation of the electrical
+behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures. His name is
+most widely known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the
+so-called permanent gases and his researches at temperatures approaching
+the zero of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry
+dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the "Latent Heat
+of Liquid Gases" before the British Association. In 1878 he devoted a
+Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to the then recent work
+of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and exhibited for the first time in
+Great Britain the working of the Cailletet apparatus. Six years later,
+in the same place, he described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and
+K. S. Olszewski, and illustrated for the first time in public the
+liquefaction of oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed
+for optical projection so that the actions taking place might be visible
+to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which the
+liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling
+agent, and he showed its employment for this purpose in connexion with
+some researches on meteorites; about the same time he also obtained
+oxygen in the solid state. By 1891 he had designed and erected at the
+Royal Institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint,
+and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and
+liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea
+occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of
+liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the
+influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to preserve
+the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to keep them so
+free from ebullition that examination of their optical properties
+becomes possible. He next experimented with a high-pressure hydrogen jet
+by which low temperatures were realized through the Thomson-Joule
+effect, and the successful results thus obtained led him to build at the
+Royal Institution the large refrigerating machine by which in 1898
+hydrogen was for the first time collected in the liquid state, its
+solidification following in 1899. Later he investigated the
+gas-absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and
+applied them to the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see
+LIQUID GASES). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford medal upon
+him for his work in the production of low temperatures, and in 1899 he
+became the first recipient of the Hodgkins gold medal of the Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, for his contributions to our knowledge of the
+nature and properties of atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first
+British subject to receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of
+Sciences, and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal
+of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904, and in 1908
+he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of Arts.
+
+
+DEWAS, two native states of India, in the Malwa Political Charge of
+Central India, founded in the first half of the 18th century by two
+brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into Malwa with the peshwa, Baji
+Rao, in 1728. Their descendants are known as the senior and junior
+branches of the family, and since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as
+a separate state, though the lands belonging to each are so intimately
+entangled, that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the
+main street are under different administrations and have different
+arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch has an
+area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the area of the
+junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904.
+
+
+DEWBERRY, _Rubus caesius_, a trailing plant, allied to the bramble, of
+the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods, hedges and the
+borders of fields in England and other countries of Europe. The leaves
+have three leaflets, are hairy beneath, and of a dusky green; the
+flowers which appear in June and July are white, or pale rose-coloured.
+The fruit is large, and closely embraced by the calyx, and consists of a
+few drupules, which are black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an
+agreeable acid taste.
+
+
+DEW-CLAW, the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the "false hoof" of
+the deer, sometimes also called the "nails." In dogs the dew-claw is the
+rudimentary toe or hallux (corresponding to the big toe in man) hanging
+loosely attached to the skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg.
+The origin of the word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested
+that, while the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw
+merely brushes the dew from the grass.
+
+
+D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, Bart. (1602-1650), English antiquarian, eldest son
+of Paul D'Ewes of Milden, Suffolk, and of Cecilia, daughter and heir of
+Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born on the 18th
+of December 1602, and educated at the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds,
+and at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to the Middle
+Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623, when he immediately
+began his collections of material and his studies in history and
+antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne, daughter and heir of Sir William
+Clopton, of Luton's Hall in Suffolk, through whom he obtained a large
+addition to his already considerable fortune. On the 6th of December he
+was knighted. He took an active part as a strong Puritan and member of
+the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary government
+in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member for Sudbury.
+On the 15th of July he was created a baronet by the king, but
+nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out, and
+in 1643 took the Covenant. He was one of the members expelled by Pride's
+Purge in 1648, and died on the 18th of April 1650. He had married
+secondly Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley
+in Derbyshire, by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and
+title, the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731.
+D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious scope, no less
+than the whole history of England based on original documents. But
+though excelling as a collector of materials, and as a laborious,
+conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had little power of
+generalization or construction, and died without publishing anything
+except an uninteresting tract, _The Primitive Practice for Preserving
+Truth_ (1645), and some speeches. His _Journals of all the Parliaments
+during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth_, however, a valuable work, was
+published in 1682. His large collections, including transcripts from
+ancient records, many of the originals of which are now dispersed or
+destroyed, are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His
+unprinted Diaries from 1621-1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable
+for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only authority
+for incidents and speeches during that period, and are amusing from the
+glimpses the diarist affords of his own character, his good estimation
+of himself and his little jealousies; some are in a cipher and some in
+Latin.
+
+  Extracts from his _Autobiography and Correspondence_ from the MSS. in
+  the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell-Phillips in 1845,
+  by Hearne in the appendix to his _Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II._
+  (1729), and in the _Bibliotheca topographica Britannica_, No. xv. vol.
+  vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, _College Life in the Time
+  of James I._ (1851). His Diaries have been extensively drawn upon by
+  Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his _Studies of the Great
+  Rebellion_. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the Harleian
+  Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts.
+
+
+DE WET, CHRISTIAN (1854- ), Boer general and politician, was born on the
+7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop, Smithfield district (Orange Free
+State), and later resided at Dewetsdorp. He served in the first
+Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81 as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he
+lived on his farm, becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took
+part in the earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a
+commandant and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the
+west. His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near
+Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg a little
+later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and more as the most
+formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla warfare. Sometimes
+severely handled by the British, sometimes escaping only by the
+narrowest margin of safety from the columns which attempted to surround
+him, and falling upon and annihilating isolated British posts, De Wet
+continued to the end of the war his successful career, striking heavily
+where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to
+bay. He took an active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at
+the conclusion of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer
+generals. While in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a
+modification of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote
+an account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in
+November 1902 under the title _Three Years' War_. In November, 1907 he
+was elected a member of the first parliament of the Orange River Colony
+and was appointed minister of agriculture. In 1908-9 he was a delegate
+to the Closer Union Convention.
+
+
+DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT (1780-1849), German theologian, was
+born on the 12th of January 1780, at Ulla, near Weimar, where his father
+was pastor. He was sent to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height
+of its literary glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with
+Johann Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In 1799
+he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal teachers
+being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Paulus, from the latter of whom he
+derived his tendency to free critical inquiry. Both in methods and in
+results, however, he occupied an almost solitary position among German
+theologians. Having taken his doctor's degree, he became _privat-docent_
+at Jena; in 1807 professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came
+under the influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was
+transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded university of
+Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was,
+however, dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written
+a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the murderer
+of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the
+university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving
+him of the chair, but banishing him from the Prussian kingdom. He
+retired for a time to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the
+preparation of his edition of Luther, and in writing the romance
+_Theodor oder die Weihe des Zweiflers_ (Berlin, 1822), in which he
+describes the education of an evangelical pastor. During this period he
+made his first essay in preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of
+very popular gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the
+university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before.
+Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party,
+De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and
+among the people generally. He was admitted a citizen, and became rector
+of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength,
+particularly in the theological faculty. He died on the 16th of June
+1849.
+
+De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as "the epoch-making
+opener of the historical criticism of the Pentateuch." He prepared the
+way for the Supplement-theory. But he also made valuable contributions
+to other branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic
+faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled _Die Entsagung_
+(Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied
+ecclesiastical music and architecture. As a Biblical critic he is
+sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer
+says (_Development of Theology_, p. 102), he "occupied as free a
+position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the
+creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the
+religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with a
+more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the connexion of the
+present life of the church with the past." His works are marked by
+exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness.
+Accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress
+of criticism.
+
+  The most important of his works are:--_Beitraege zur Einleitung in das
+  Alte Testament_ (2 vols., 1806-1807); _Kommentar ueber die Psalmen_
+  (1811), which has passed through several editions, and is still
+  regarded as of high authority; _Lehrbuch der hebraeisch-juedischen
+  Archaeologie_ (1814); _Ueber Religion und Theologie_ (1815); a work of
+  great importance as showing its author's general theological position;
+  _Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik_ (1813-1816); _Lehrbuch der
+  historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel_ (1817); _Christliche
+  Sittenlehre_ (1819-1821); _Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1826);
+  _Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das
+  Leben_ (1827); _Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens_ (1846); and
+  _Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament_ (1836-1848).
+  De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825-1828).
+
+   See K. R. Hagenbach in _Herzog's Realencyklopaedie_; G. C. F. Luecke's
+  _W. M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung_ (1850); and D.
+  Schenkel's _W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie fuer
+  unsere Zeit_ (1849). Rudolf Staehelin, _De Wette nach seiner theol.
+  Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung_ (1880); F. Lichtenberger, _History of
+  German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889); Otto Pfleiderer,
+  _Development of Theology_ (1890), pp. 97 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, _Founders
+  of the Old Testament Criticism_, pp. 31 ff.
+
+
+DEWEY, DAVIS RICH (1858- ), American economist and statistician, was
+born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th of April 1858. He was
+educated at the university of Vermont and at Johns Hopkins University,
+and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at the
+Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was chairman of the state
+board on the question of the unemployed (1895), member of the
+Massachusetts commission on public, charitable and reformatory interests
+(1897), special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of
+a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an excellent
+_Syllabus on Political History since 1815_ (1887), a _Financial History
+of the U.S._ (1902), and _National Problems_ (1907).
+
+
+DEWEY, GEORGE (1837- ), American naval officer, was born at Montpelier,
+Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837. He studied at Norwich University,
+then at Norwich, Vermont, and graduated at the United States Naval
+Academy in 1858. He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in
+the Civil War served on the steamsloop "Mississippi" (1861-1863) during
+Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862, and at
+Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting below
+Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865 served on the
+steam-gunboat "Agawam" with the North Atlantic blockading squadron and
+took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January
+1865. In March 1865 he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the
+European squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States
+Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the "Narragansett" in
+1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned commander in 1872; was
+light-house inspector in 1876-1877; and was secretary of the light-house
+board in 1877-1882. In 1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief
+of the bureau of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of
+the light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board of
+inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of commodore in
+February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned, at his own request, to
+sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In April 1898, while with his
+fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by cable that war had begun between
+the United States and Spain, and was ordered to "capture or destroy the
+Spanish fleet" then in Philippine waters. On the 1st of May he
+overwhelmingly defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in
+Manila Bay, a victory won without the loss of a man on the American
+ships (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). Congress, in a joint resolution,
+tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and men
+under his command, and authorized "the secretary of the navy to present
+a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey, and cause to be struck
+bronze medals commemorating the battle of Manila Bay, and to distribute
+such medals to the officers and men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron
+of the United States." He was promoted rear-admiral on the 10th of May
+1898. On the 18th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the
+city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders from his
+government to maintain control, Dewey received the rank of admiral
+(March 3, 1899)--that title, formerly borne only by Farragut and Porter,
+having been revived by act of Congress (March 2, 1899),--and returned
+home, arriving in New York City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he
+received a great ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman
+Philippine Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible
+Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president of the
+Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority report on a
+few details.
+
+
+DEWEY, MELVIL (1851- ), American librarian, was born at Adams Center,
+New York, on the 10th of December 1851. He graduated in 1874 at Amherst
+College, where he was assistant librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he
+removed to Boston, where he founded and became editor of _The Library
+Journal_, which became an influential factor in the development of
+libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration. He was
+also one of the founders of the American Library Association, of which
+he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president in 1891 and 1893. In
+1883 he became librarian of Columbia College, and in the following year
+founded there the School of Library Economy, the first institution for
+the instruction of librarians ever organized. This school, which was
+very successful, was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was
+re-established as the State Library School under his direction; from
+1888 to 1906 he was director of the New York State Library and from 1888
+to 1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York,
+completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of the most
+efficient in America, and establishing the system of state travelling
+libraries and picture collections. His "Decimal System of
+Classification" for library cataloguing, first proposed in 1876, is
+extensively used.
+
+
+DEWING, THOMAS WILMER (1851- ), American figure painter, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1851. He was a pupil of Jules
+Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to 1879; was elected a full member of the
+National Academy of Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten
+American Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition
+(1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis (1904). His
+decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and finish. Among his
+portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White and of his own wife. Mrs
+Dewing (b, 1855), _nee_ Maria Oakey, a figure and flower painter, was a
+pupil of John La Farge in New York, and of Couture in Paris.
+
+
+DE WINT, PETER (1784-1849), English landscape painter, of Dutch
+extraction, son of an English physician, was born at Stone,
+Staffordshire, on the 21st of January 1784. He studied art in London,
+and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In 1812 he became a member of
+the Society of Painters in Watercolours, where he exhibited largely for
+many years, as well as at the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of
+William Hilton, R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. De
+Wint's life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he
+ranks as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his
+pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum.
+
+
+DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was born at Kampen,
+and in 1761 entered the naval service at the age of twelve years. He
+distinguished himself by his zeal and courage, and at the revolution of
+1787 he had reached the rank of lieutenant. The overthrow of the
+"patriot" party forced him to fly for his safety to France. Here he
+threw himself heart and soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took
+part under Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and
+was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When Pichegru in
+1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the French army to his
+native country. The states-general now utilized the experience he had
+gained as a naval officer by giving him the post of adjunct-general for
+the reorganization of the Dutch navy. In 1796 he was appointed
+vice-admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts
+to strengthen it and improve its condition, and on the 11th of October
+1797 he ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British fleet
+under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the Dutch were
+defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner. He remained in
+England until December, when he was liberated by exchange. His conduct
+in the battle of Camperdown was declared by a court-martial to have
+nobly maintained the honour of the Dutch flag.
+
+From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador to the French
+republic, and was then once more appointed commander of the fleet. He
+was sent with a strong squadron to the Mediterranean to repress the
+Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a treaty of peace with the Tripolitan
+government. He enjoyed the confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of
+Holland, and, after the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French
+empire, in an equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was
+created marshal and count of Huessen, and given the command of the armed
+forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the grand cross of the
+Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector-general of the northern
+coasts, and in 1811 he placed him at the head of the fleet he had
+collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards De Winter was seized with
+illness and compelled to betake himself to Paris, where he died on the
+2nd of June 1812. He had a splendid public funeral and was buried in the
+Pantheon. His heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the Nicolaas
+Kerk at Kampen.
+
+
+DE WITT, CORNELIUS (1623-1672), brother of JOHN DE WITT (q.v.), was born
+at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgomaster of Dort and member of the
+states of Holland and West Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the
+important post of _ruwaard_ or governor of the land of Putten and
+bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater
+brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout his career
+with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by the
+states of Holland to accompany Admiral de Ruyter in his famous
+expedition to Chatham. Cornelius de Witt on this occasion distinguished
+himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De
+Ruyter in 1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at
+Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled by
+illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that the
+Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother were the
+objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account of his imprisonment,
+trial and death, is given below.
+
+
+DE WITT, JOHN (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at Dort, on the
+24th of September 1625. He was a member of one of the old burgher-regent
+families of his native town. His father, Jacob de Witt, was six times
+burgomaster of Dort, and for many years sat as a representative of the
+town in the states of Holland. He was a strenuous adherent of the
+republican or oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the
+princes of the house of Orange, who represented the federal principle
+and had the support of the masses of the people. John was educated at
+Leiden, and early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in
+mathematics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother
+Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on his
+return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate. In 1650 he
+was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which made him the leader
+and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of Holland. In this
+same year the states of Holland found themselves engaged in a struggle
+for provincial supremacy, on the question of the disbanding of troops,
+with the youthful prince of Orange, William II. William, with the
+support of the states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders
+of the states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle;
+among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William, at the
+moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction. He left only a
+posthumous child, afterwards William III. of Orange, and the principles
+advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed, and the authority of the states of
+Holland became predominant in the republic.
+
+At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence, sagacity
+and business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of Dort that
+on the 23rd of July 1653 he was appointed to the office of grand
+pensionary (_Raadpensionaris_) of Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He
+was re-elected in 1658, 1663 and 1668, and held office until his death
+in 1672. During this period of nineteen years the general conduct of
+public affairs and administration, and especially of foreign affairs,
+such was the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was
+largely placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to the
+brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been caused by the
+keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states. The Dutch were
+unprepared, and suffered severely through the loss of their carrying
+trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about peace as soon as possible.
+The first demands of Cromwell were impossible, for they aimed at the
+absorption of the two republics into a single state, but at last in the
+autumn of 1654 peace was concluded, by which the Dutch made large
+concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to English ships in
+the narrow seas. The treaty included a secret article, which the
+states-general refused to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in
+inducing the states of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of
+Holland pledged themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a
+captain-general of the union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called,
+was aimed at the young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the
+Stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was
+personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his
+ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that he
+prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter.
+
+The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently successful.
+He restored the finances of the state, and extended its commercial
+supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he sustained Denmark against
+Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an advantageous peace with Portugal. The
+accession of Charles II. to the English throne led to the rescinding of
+the Act of Seclusion; nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the
+prince of Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This
+led to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to a
+renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial rights, and
+war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and courage displayed by the
+grand pensionary during the course of this fiercely contested naval
+struggle could scarcely have been surpassed. He himself on more than one
+occasion went to sea with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came
+in contact by the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action
+and inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an
+organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship
+of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty of peace signed at
+Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of _uti possidetis_, were so
+honourable to the United Provinces. A still greater triumph of
+diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the Triple Alliance (January 17,
+1668) between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden, which checked the
+attempt of Louis XIV. to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in
+the name of his wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was
+but temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take vengeance
+for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III. was growing to
+manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout the country spared no
+efforts to undermine the authority of De Witt, and secure for the young
+prince of Orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors.
+
+In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded the United
+Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically no resistance was
+possible. The unanimous voice of the people called William III. to the
+head of affairs, and there were violent demonstrations against John de
+Witt. His brother Cornelius was (July 24) arrested on a charge of
+conspiring against the prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt
+resigned the post of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with
+such distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the 19th of
+August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banishment. He
+was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother came to visit him in
+the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this collected outside, and finally
+burst into the prison, seized the two brothers and literally tore them
+to pieces. Their mangled remains were hung up by the feet to a
+lamp-post. Thus perished, by the savage act of an infuriated mob, one of
+the greatest statesmen of his age.
+
+John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influential
+burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two sons and three
+daughters.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Geddes, _History of the Administration of John de
+  Witt_, (vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefevre-Pontalis, _Jean de
+  Witt, grand pensionnaire de Hollande_ (2 vols., Paris, 1884); P.
+  Simons, _Johan de Witt en zijn tijd_ (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842);
+  W. C. Knottenbelt, _Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt_
+  (Amsterdam, 1862); _J. de Witt, Brieven ... gewisselt tusschen den
+  Heer Johan de Witt ... ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d.
+  Vereen. Nederlanden so in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken,
+  Poolen, enz. 1652-69_ (6 vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); _Brieven ...
+  1650-1657 (1658) eerste deel bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W.
+  Kernkamp_ (Amsterdam, 1906).
+
+
+DEWLAP (from the O.E. _laeppa_, a lappet, or hanging fold; the first
+syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explanation that the word
+means "the fold which brushes the dew" is not borne out, according to
+the _New English Dictionary_, by the equivalent words such as the
+Danish _doglaeb_, in Scandinavian languages), the loose fold of skin
+hanging from the neck of cattle, also applied to similar folds in the
+necks of other animals and fowls, as the dog, turkey, &c. The American
+practice of branding cattle by making a cut in the neck is known as a
+"dewlap brand." The skin of the neck in human beings often becomes
+pendulous with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by the same
+name.
+
+
+DEWSBURY, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the
+West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of
+Leeds, on the Great Northern, London & North-Western, and Lancashire &
+Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 28,060. The parish church of All Saints
+was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the 18th century;
+the portions still preserved of the original structure are mainly Early
+English. The chief industries are the making of blankets, carpets,
+druggets and worsted yarn; and there are iron foundries and machinery
+works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary borough
+includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and returns one
+member. The municipal borough, incorporated in 1862, is under a mayor, 6
+aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1471 acres. Paulinus, first
+archbishop of York, about the year 627 preached in the district of
+Dewsbury, where Edwin, king of Northumbria, whom he converted to
+Christianity, had a royal mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are
+remains of a Cistercian convent of the 12th century, in an extensive
+park, where tradition relates that Robin Hood died and was buried.
+
+
+DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek historian,
+statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian family
+of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon basileus and eponymus in
+Athens. When the Heruli overran Greece and captured Athens (269),
+Dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of
+patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up
+in his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording his
+services, has been preserved (_Corpus Inscrr. Atticarum_, iii. No. 716).
+It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to his military
+achievements. Photius (_cod._ 82) mentions three historical works by
+Dexippus, of which considerable fragments remain: (1) [Greek: Ta met'
+Alexandron], an epitome of a similarly named work by Arrian; (2) [Greek:
+Skuthika], a history of the wars of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians)
+in the 3rd century; (3) [Greek: Chronike historia], a chronological
+history from the earliest times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270),
+frequently referred to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work
+was continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks very
+highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a level with
+Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments (C. W.
+Mueller, _F.H.G._ iii. 666-687).
+
+
+DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821-1890), American clergyman and author, was
+born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the 13th of August 1821. He
+graduated at Yale in 1840 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in
+1844; was pastor of a Congregational church in Manchester, New
+Hampshire, in 1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational
+church, Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the _Congregationalist_
+in 1851-1866, of the _Congregational Quarterly_ in 1859-1866, and of the
+_Congregationalist_, with which the _Recorder_ was merged, from 1867
+until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the 13th of November 1890. He
+was an authority on the history of Congregationalism and was lecturer on
+that subject at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879; he left
+his fine library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among
+his works are: _Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is, How it
+works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church Government, and
+its consequent Demands_ (1865), _The Church Polity of the Puritans the
+Polity of the New Testament_ (1870), _As to Roger Williams and His
+"Banishment" from the Massachusetts Colony_ (1876), _Congregationalism
+of the Last Three Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature_ (1880), his
+most important work, _A Handbook of Congregationalism_ (1880), _The True
+Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptist"_ (1881), _Common Sense as to
+Woman Suffrage_ (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets bearing on early
+church history in New England, especially Baptist controversies. His
+_The England and Holland of the Pilgrims_ was completed by his son,
+Morton Dexter (b. 1846), and published in 1905.
+
+
+DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747-1806), American merchant, remarkable for his
+eccentricities, was born at Malden, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of
+February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities
+of the depreciated continental currency, which was ultimately redeemed
+by the Federal government at par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter
+and built extraordinary houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New
+Hampshire. He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior
+pictures, besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal
+statues carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of himself was
+included in the collection, and had for an inscription "I am the first
+in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest philosopher in the
+Western World." He wrote a book entitled _Pickle for the Knowing Ones_.
+It was wholly without punctuation marks, and as this aroused comment, he
+published a second edition, at the end of which was a page displaying
+nothing but commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to
+"peper and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping
+enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried out in
+a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the 26th of October
+1806.
+
+
+DEXTRINE (BRITISH GUM, STARCH GUM, LEIOCOME), (C_{6}H_{10}O_{5})_{x}, a
+substance produced from starch by the action of dilute acids, or by
+roasting it at a temperature between 170 deg. and 240 deg. C. It is
+manufactured by spraying starch with 2% nitric acid, drying in air, and
+then heating to about 110 deg. Different modifications are known, e.g.
+amylodextrine, erythrodextrine and achroodextrine. Its name has reference
+to its powerful dextrorotatory action on polarized light. Pure dextrine
+is an insipid, odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is
+sometimes yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves
+in water and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated from its
+solutions as the hydrated compound, C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}.H_{2}O. Diastase
+converts it eventually into maltose, C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}; and by boiling
+with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is transformed
+into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}. It does not
+ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce Fehling's solution.
+If heated with strong nitric acid it gives oxalic, and not mucic acid.
+Dextrine much resembles gum arabic, for which it is generally
+substituted. It is employed for sizing paper, for stiffening cotton
+goods, and for thickening colours in calico printing, also in the making
+of lozenges, adhesive stamps and labels, and surgical bandages.
+
+  See Otto Lueger, _Lexikon der gesamten Technik_.
+
+
+DEY (an adaptation of the Turk, d[=a]i, a maternal uncle), an
+honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men,
+and appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their
+commanding officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries
+became in the 17th century rulers of that country (see ALGERIA:
+HISTORY). From the middle of the 16th century to the end of the
+17th century the ruler of Tunisia was also called dey, a title
+frequently used during the same period by the sovereigns of
+Tripoli.
+
+
+DHAMMAP[=A]LA, the name of one of the early disciples of the Buddha, and
+therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by Buddhist
+novices on their entering the brotherhood. The most famous of the
+Bhikshus so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half
+of the 5th century A.D. at the Badara Tittha Vih[=a]ra, near the east
+coast of India, just a little south of where Madras now stands. It is to
+him we owe the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books,
+consisting almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on the
+Netti, perhaps the oldest P[=a]li work outside the canon. Extracts from
+the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven others, have
+been published by the P[=a]li Text Society. These works show great
+learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But as Dhammap[=a]la
+confines himself rigidly either to questions of the meaning of words,
+or to discussions of the ethical import of his texts, very little can be
+gathered from his writings of value for the social history of his time.
+For the right interpretation of the difficult texts on which he
+comments, they are indispensable. Though in all probability a Tamil by
+birth, he declares, in the opening lines of those of his works that have
+been edited, that he followed the tradition of the Great Minster at
+Anur[=a]dhapura in Ceylon, and the works themselves confirm this in
+every respect. Hsuean Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint
+story of a Dhammap[=a]la of K[=a]nchipura (the modern Konjevaram). He
+was a son of a high official, and betrothed to a daughter of the king,
+but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast, entered the order, and
+attained to reverence and distinction. It is most likely that this
+story, whether legendary or not (and Hsuean Tsang heard the story at
+K[=a]nchipura nearly two centuries after the date of Dhammap[=a]la),
+referred to this author. But it may also refer, as Hsuean Tsang refers
+it, to another author of the same name. Other unpublished works, besides
+those mentioned above, have been ascribed to Dhammap[=a]la, but it is
+very doubtful whether they are really by him.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_ (ed. Rhys Davids and
+  Bushell, London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in _Zeitschrift der
+  deutschen morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft_ (1898), pp. 97 foll.; _Netti_
+  (ed. E. Hardy, London, P[=a]li Text Society, 1902), especially the
+  Introduction, passim; _Theri G[=a]th[=a] Commentary_, _Peta Vatthu
+  Commentary_, and _Vim[=a]na Vatthu Commentary_, all three published by
+  the P[=a]li Text Society.                              (T. W. R. D.)
+
+
+DHANIS, FRANCIS, BARON (1861-1909), Belgian administrator, was born in
+London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen years of his life at
+Greenock, where he received his early education. He was the son of a
+Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady named Maher. The name Dhanis is
+supposed to be a variation of D'Anvers. Having completed his education
+at the Ecole Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment
+of grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he
+reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the Congo,
+and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well in founding new
+stations north of the Congo that, when the government decided to put an
+end to the Arab domination on the Upper Congo, he was selected to
+command the chief expedition sent against the slave dealers. The
+campaign began in April 1892, and it was not brought to a successful
+conclusion till January 1894. The story of this war has been told in
+detail by Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book _The Fall of
+the Congo Arabs_. The principal achievements of the campaign were the
+captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at Nyangwe,
+Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis was raised to the rank
+of baron, and in 1895 was made vice-governor of the Congo State. In 1896
+he took command of an expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely
+composed of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted, and
+who had been irritated by the execution of some of their chiefs for
+indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and murdered many of
+their white officers. Dhanis found himself confronted with a more
+formidable adversary than even the Arabs in these well-armed and
+half-disciplined mercenaries. During two years (1897-1898) he was
+constantly engaged in a life-and-death struggle with them. Eventually he
+succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous
+soldiers. Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less
+striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both think that
+the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in
+bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899 Baron Dhanis returned to
+Belgium with the honorary rank of vice governor-general. He died on the
+14th of November 1909.
+
+
+DHAR, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency, Central India. It
+includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories, and has an area of 1775 sq.
+m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta. The founder of the present ruling
+family was Anand Rao Punwar, a descendant of the great Paramara clan of
+Rajputs who from the 9th to the 13th century, when they were driven out
+by the Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar. In
+1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the peshwa, the
+victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the
+family which seven centuries before had been expelled from this very
+city and country. Towards the close of the 18th and in the early part of
+the 19th century, the state was subject to a series of spoliations by
+Sindia and Holkar, and was only preserved from destruction by the
+talents and courage of the adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a
+treaty of 1819 Dhar passed under British protection, and bound itself to
+act in subordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion
+in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar, then a
+minor, with the exception of the detached district of Bairusia, which
+was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand Rao, who received the personal
+title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in 1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded
+by Udaji Rao Punwar. In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state
+includes the ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of
+Malwa.
+
+THE TOWN OF DHAR is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901)
+17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees surrounded by
+barren hills, and possesses, besides its old walls, many interesting
+buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan, some of them containing records of a
+great historical importance. The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built
+by Dilawar Khan in 1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives
+its name from an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at
+the beginning of the 13th century in commemoration of a victory, and
+bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town
+of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft. high, is now
+overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an enclosure containing four
+tombs, the most notable being that of Shaikh Kamal Maulvi
+(Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous 13th-century Mussulman saint
+Nizam-ud-din Auliya.[1] The mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built
+out of Hindu remains in the 14th or 15th century: its name is derived
+from the slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit
+grammar, with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the
+town stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to have
+been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the 14th century. It
+contains the palace of the raja. Of modern institutions may be mentioned
+the high school, public library, hospital, and the chapel, school and
+hospital of the Canadian Presbyterian mission. There is also a
+government opium depot for the payment of duty, the town being a
+considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain.
+
+  The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari (the
+  city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the capital
+  of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who transferred his
+  headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th century.
+  During the rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous throughout
+  India as a centre of culture and learning; but, after suffering
+  various vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the Mussulmans at
+  the beginning of the 14th century. At the close of the century Dilawar
+  Khan, the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been appointed governor
+  in 1399, practically established his independence, his son Hoshang
+  Shah being the first Mahommedan king of Malwa. Under this dynasty Dhar
+  was second in importance to the capital Mandu. Subsequently, in the
+  time of Akbar, Dhar fell under the dominion of the Moguls, in whose
+  hands it remained till 1730, when it was conquered by the Mahrattas.
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908).
+
+[1] Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near Delhi,
+was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret society of
+Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed to have been the
+founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special reverence for his
+memory.
+
+
+DHARAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Surat political agency
+division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The population in 1901
+was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during the decade; the estimated
+gross revenue is L25,412; and the tribute L600. Its chief is a Sesodia
+Rajput. The state has been surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay
+system. It contains one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272
+villages. Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very
+unhealthy, is capable of cultivation; the rest is covered with rocky
+hills, forest and brushwood.
+
+
+DHARMSALA, a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab, India, situated
+on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of Kangra town, at an elevation
+of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971. The scenery of Dharmsala is of
+peculiar grandeur. The spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with
+oak and other trees; behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain
+tower towards the jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half
+the year; while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra
+valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the Kangra
+district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the centre of a
+European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied by Gurkha
+regiments. The station was destroyed by the earthquake of April 1905, in
+which 1625 persons, including 25 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha
+garrison, perished (_Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1908).
+
+
+DHARWAR, a town and district of British India, in the southern division
+of Bombay. The town has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. The
+population in 1901 was 31,279. It has several ginning factories and a
+cotton-mill; two high schools, one maintained by the Government and the
+other by the Basel German Mission.
+
+The DISTRICT OF DHARWAR has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the north and
+north-east are great plains of black soil, favourable to cotton-growing;
+in the south and west are successive ranges of low hills, with flat
+fertile valleys between them. The whole district lies high and has no
+large rivers.
+
+In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of 6% in the
+decade. The most influential classes of the community are Brahmans and
+Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968, or 46% of the Hindu population;
+they worship the symbol of Siva, and males and females both carry this
+emblem about their person in a silver case. The principal crops are
+millets, pulse and cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and
+Gadag, junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the
+district in several directions.
+
+The early history of the territory comprised within the district of
+Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription
+slabs and memorial stones which abound there. From these it is clear
+that the country fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties
+that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of the Chalukyan dynasty, whether
+temples or inscriptions, being especially abundant. In the 14th century
+the district was first overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was
+annexed to the newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an
+official of which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built
+the fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of
+Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years practically
+independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573 the fort was captured
+by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was annexed to his dominions. In
+1685 the fort was taken by the emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the
+break-up of the Mogul empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of
+Poona. In 1764 the province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in
+1778 captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the
+Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817, Dharwar was
+incorporated with the territory of the East India Company.
+
+
+DHOLPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area
+of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country, without any special
+manufactures. All along the bank of the river Chambal the country is
+deeply intersected by ravines; low ranges of hills in the western
+portion of the state supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and
+easily-worked red sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was
+270,973, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The estimated revenue
+is L83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway from
+Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely from drought.
+In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief amounted to L8190.
+
+The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,310. The
+present town, which dates from the 16th century, stands somewhat to the
+north of the site of the older Hindu town built, it is supposed, in the
+11th century by the Tonwar Rajput Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named
+after him Dholdera or Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the
+town may be mentioned the fortified _sarai_ built in the reign of Akbar,
+within which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one of
+his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is growing in
+importance as a centre of trade.
+
+Little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of
+Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the Tonwar
+Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th to the 12th century.
+In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in 1501 the fort of Dholpur was
+taken by the Mahommedans under Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred
+to a Mussulman governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort
+was captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed under the
+sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the province of Agra.
+During the dissensions which followed the death of Aurangzeb in 1707,
+Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria obtained possession of Dholpur, and his
+family retained it till 1761, after which it was taken successively by
+the Jat raja, Suraj Mal of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by
+Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored to Sindhia
+by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence of new arrangements
+was again occupied by the British. Finally, in 1806, the territories of
+Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat
+Singh, ancestor of the present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his
+state of Gohad, which was ceded to Sindhia.
+
+The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia Jats, who
+are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo-Scythian wave of
+invasion which swept over northern India about A.D. 100. An ancestor of
+the family appears to have held certain territories at Bamraoli near
+Agra c. 1195. His descendant in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished
+himself in an expedition against the freebooters of the Deccan, was
+rewarded by the sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the
+title of _rana_. In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces
+against Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion
+of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories then in
+his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected from invasion
+by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently withdrawn, the rana having
+been guilty of treachery, and in 1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing
+the fortress of Gwalior, and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the
+whole of Gohad. In 1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by
+the British government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the
+rana agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of
+Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief binding
+himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the paramount power, and
+to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the British
+government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana of Dholpur, was
+succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh, who showed great loyalty
+during the Mutiny of 1857, was created a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869.
+He was succeeded in 1873 by his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the
+C.B. and frontier medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in
+1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883).
+
+  See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908) and authorities there
+  given.
+
+
+DHOW, the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the Arabian
+Sea. The language to which the word belongs is unknown. According to the
+_New English Dictionary_ the place of origin may be the Persian Gulf,
+assuming that the word is identical with the tava mentioned by
+Athanasius Nikitin (_India in the 15th Century_, Hakluyt Society, 1858).
+Though the word is used generally of any craft along the East African
+coast, it is usually applied to the vessel of about 150 to 200 tons
+burden with a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows
+generally have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous
+length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is
+carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels employed in
+the slave trade from the east coast of Africa.
+
+
+DHRANGADRA, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay,
+situated in the north of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area is 1156
+sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The estimated gross revenue is L38,000 and
+the tribute L3000. A state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to
+the town of Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in
+1898. Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor; the
+manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand-mills. The chief
+town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of 14,770.
+
+The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with the
+predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala Rajputs,
+who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in the 8th century. Raj
+Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji (b. 1837), who succeeded his father
+in 1869, was distinguished for the enlightened character of his
+administration, especially in the matter of establishing schools and
+internal communications. He was created a K.C.S.I in 1877. He died in
+1900, and was succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b.
+1872).
+
+
+DHULEEP SINGH (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born in February
+1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the 18th of September 1843, under
+the regency of his mother the rani Jindan, a woman of great capacity and
+strong will, but extremely inimical to the British. He was acknowledged
+by Ranjit Singh and recognized by the British government. After six
+years of peace the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were
+defeated in four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore,
+the capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but it
+was administered to a great extent by the British government in his
+name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the British,
+and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite of the valour of the
+Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat, and in March 1849 Dhuleep
+Singh was deposed, a pension of L40,000 a year being granted to him and
+his dependants. He became a Christian and elected to live in England. On
+coming of age he made an arrangement with the British government by
+which his income was reduced to L25,000 in consideration of advances for
+the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at Elvedon in Suffolk.
+While passing through Alexandria in 1864 he met Miss Bamba Mueller, the
+daughter of a German merchant who had married an Abyssinian. The
+maharaja had been interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he
+met Miss Mueller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching.
+She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were the
+issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the maharaja
+married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady, Miss Ada Douglas
+Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja was passionately fond of
+sport, and his shooting parties were celebrated, while he himself became
+a _persona grata_ in English society. The result, however, was financial
+difficulty, and in 1882 he appealed to the government for assistance,
+making various claims based upon the alleged possession of private
+estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor diamond
+to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, whereupon he started for
+India, after drawing up a proclamation to his former subjects. But as it
+was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the Punjab, he remained for
+some time as a guest at the residency at Aden, and was allowed to
+receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity,
+which actually took place within the residency itself. As the climate
+began to affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and
+returned to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his
+claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but when that
+expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where he lived for the
+rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the Indian government.
+His death from an attack of apoplexy took place at Paris on the 22nd of
+October 1893. The maharaja's eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay
+Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges,
+Cambridge. In 1888 he obtained a commission in the 1st Royal Dragoon
+Guards. In 1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the
+earl of Coventry.                                              (G.F.B.)
+
+
+DHULIA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of West
+Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the Panjhra river.
+Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds,
+and weaving of cotton. A railway connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the
+main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.
+
+
+DIABASE, in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite. It
+was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks of this group
+differed from their Tertiary and Recent representatives in certain
+essential respects, but this is now admitted to be untenable, and the
+differences are known to be merely the result of the longer exposure to
+decomposition, pressure and shearing, which the older rocks have
+experienced. Their olivine tends to become serpentinized; their augite
+changes to chlorite and uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation
+of zeolites, calcite, sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green
+colour (from the development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence
+the older name of "greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them
+become somewhat schistose from pressure ("greenstone-schists,"
+meta-diabase, &c.). Although the original definition of the group can no
+longer be justified, the name is so well established in current usage
+that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and dolerite are
+employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of rocks.
+
+  The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz.
+  olivine, augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities
+  of hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite.
+
+  There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine;
+  quartz-diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende
+  diabases (or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is
+  characteristic of another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially
+  those which contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the
+  intersertal dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases,
+  hypersthene-diabases and the rocks which have been described as
+  tholeites. Porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites,
+  some of which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant
+  fine-grained or partly glassy ground-mass (_diabas-mandelstein_,
+  amygdaloidal diabase). The somewhat ill-defined spilites are regarded
+  by many as modifications of diabase-porphyrite. In the intersertal and
+  porphyrite diabases, fresh or devitrified glassy base is not
+  infrequent. It is especially conspicuous in some tholeites
+  (hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks consist of
+  augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a brown,
+  vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte
+  (sordawilite, &c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite
+  sills and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites
+  of grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green
+  augite (variolites).
+
+  To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the
+  diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary dolerites. In
+  the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more common than in the
+  newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous
+  habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in most cases secondary
+  after pyroxene, and is then known as uralite; often it forms
+  pseudomorphs which retain the shape of the original augite. Where
+  diabases have been crushed or sheared, hornblende readily develops at
+  the expense of pyroxene, sometimes replacing it completely. In the
+  later stages of alteration the amphibole becomes compact and well
+  crystallized; the rocks consist of green hornblende and plagioclase
+  felspar, and are then generally known as epidiorites or amphibolites.
+  At the same time a schistose structure is produced. But transition
+  forms are very common, having more or less of the augite remaining,
+  surrounded by newly formed hornblende which at first is rather fibrous
+  and tends to spread outwards through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite
+  also is abundant both in sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it
+  calcite may make its appearance, or the lime set free from the augite
+  may combine with the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to
+  form incrustations or borders of sphene around the original crystals
+  of ilmenite. Epidote is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which
+  results from the decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the
+  pyroxenes. Many diabases, especially those of the teschenite
+  sub-group, are filled with zeolites.
+
+  Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts
+  of the globe. Popular names for them are "whinstone," "greenstone,"
+  "toadstone" and "trap." They form excellent road-mending stones and
+  are much quarried for this purpose, being tough, durable and resistant
+  to wear, so long as they are not extremely decomposed. Many of them
+  are to be preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle.
+  The quality of the Cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly
+  improved by a smaller amount of recrystallization where they have been
+  heated by contact with intrusive masses of granite. (J. S. F.)
+
+
+DIABETES (from Gr. [Greek: dia], through, and [Greek: bainein], to
+pass), a constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive
+discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described, viz.
+Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only increased
+in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less amount of
+sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the urine is simply
+increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal ingredient. This latter,
+however, must be distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular
+kidney, lardaceous disease of the kidney, and also occurring in certain
+cases of hysteria.
+
+_Diabetes mellitus_ is the disease to which the term is most commonly
+applied, and is by far the more serious and important ailment. It is one
+of the diseases due to altered metabolism (see METABOLIC DISEASES). It
+is markedly hereditary, much more prevalent in towns and especially
+modern city life than in more primitive rustic communities, and most
+common among the Jews. The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually
+considered one cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour
+its occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so often
+met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself.
+No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of
+life. It attacks males twice as frequently as females, and fair more
+frequently than dark people.
+
+The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the patient may
+suffer for a length of time before he thinks it necessary to apply for
+medical aid. The first symptoms which attract attention are failure of
+strength, and emaciation, along with great thirst and an increased
+amount and frequent passage of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2
+to 3 pints in the 24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or
+even more. It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than
+normal urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific
+gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable
+irritation of the urinary passages.
+
+By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic
+urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar,
+while the amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by
+certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar passed may vary from
+a few ounces to two or more pounds per diem, and it is found to be
+markedly increased after saccharine or starchy food has been taken.
+Sugar may also be found in the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all
+the excretions of persons suffering from this disease. One of the most
+distressing symptoms is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly
+seeking to allay, the quantity of liquid consumed being in general
+enormous, and there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious
+appetite. The mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may
+be evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the general
+health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and more emaciated.
+He suffers from increasing muscular weakness, the temperature of his
+body is lowered, and the skin is dry and harsh. There is often a
+peculiar flush on the face, not limited to the malar eminences, but
+extending up to the roots of the hair. The teeth are loosened or decay,
+there is a tendency to bleeding from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms,
+constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There
+is in general great mental depression or irritability.
+
+Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of
+young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be rapid. The
+complications of the disease are many and serious. It may cause impaired
+vision by weakening the muscles of accommodation, or by lessening the
+sensitiveness of the retina to light. Also cataract is very common. Skin
+affections of all kinds may occur and prove very intractable. Boils,
+carbuncles, cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life
+advances, though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women.
+Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and gangrene
+of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis in the latter
+disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney diseases and heart
+failure due to fatty heart are all of common occurrence. Also patients
+seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric fever, though the
+attack usually runs a mild course. The sugar temporarily disappears
+during the fever. But the most serious complication of all is known as
+diabetic coma, which is very commonly the final cause of death. The
+onset is often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a
+rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either
+constipation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal
+pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true coma,
+though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The patient suffers
+from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath and skin have a sweet
+ethereal odour. The condition may last from twenty-four hours to three
+days, but is almost invariably the precursor of death.
+
+Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being exceedingly
+rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25% of phthisis or pneumonia, and
+the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral haemorrhage, gangrene, &c.
+The most favourable cases are those in which the patient is advanced in
+years, those in which it is associated with obesity or gout, and where
+the social conditions are favourable. A few cures have been recorded in
+which the disease supervened after some acute illness. The unfavourable
+cases are those in which there is a family history of the disease and in
+which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be done by appropriate
+treatment to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to prolong life.
+
+There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that of
+drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by the
+idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition between very
+wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has
+been proved beyond question that certain kinds of food have a powerful
+influence in aggravating the disease, more particularly those consisting
+largely of saccharine and starchy matter; and it may be stated generally
+that the various methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as
+far as possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is
+recommended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous
+foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be avoided;
+while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream, cheese, eggs,
+butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be taken with advantage.
+As a substitute for ordinary bread, which most persons find it difficult
+to do without for any length of time, bran bread, gluten bread and
+almond biscuits. A patient must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to
+a carbohydrate-free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable
+to bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite gradually,
+one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of the diet,
+whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully
+noted meanwhile. The treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes, sugar
+and fruit, and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by
+some diabetic substitute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to
+its lowest point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount
+of carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect on the
+glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be worked out
+experimentally for each individual patient. But in every case, if
+drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma supervene, all restrictions
+must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate freely allowed. The question of
+alcohol is one which must be largely determined by the previous history
+of the patient, but a small quantity will help to make up the
+deficiencies of a diet poor in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky,
+and Hollands gin, are usually free from sugar, and some of the light
+Bordeaux wines contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given
+as cream, fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless,
+but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and endive
+yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to 1 1/2 ozs. daily without
+increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked or raw, are
+allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form. The question of
+milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid
+diet, allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended.
+Thirst is relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria. But
+hypodermic injections of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva, and
+thus relieve the dryness of the mouth. Constipation appears to increase
+the thirst, and must always be carefully guarded against. The best
+remedies are the aperient mineral waters.
+
+Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes, but few of
+them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy. Opium is often
+found of great service, its administration being followed by marked
+amelioration in all the symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar
+action. In the severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of
+little or no use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin
+hydrochloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more
+power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium and
+aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the sugar
+excretion without counterbalancing bad effects.
+
+In _diabetes insipidus_ there is constant thirst and an excessive flow
+of urine, which, however, is not found to contain any abnormal
+constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to those of
+diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked, the disease
+being in general very slow in its progress. In some cases the health
+appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely a direct cause of death,
+but from its debilitating effects may predispose to serious and fatal
+complications. It is best treated by tonics and generous diet. Valerian
+has been found beneficial, the powdered root being given in 5-grain
+doses.
+
+
+DIABOLO, a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones
+joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught by means of a
+cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game appears originally to
+have come from China, where a top (_Kouengen_), made of two hollow
+pierced cylinders of metal or wood, joined by a rod--and often of
+immense size,--was made by rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was
+used by pedlars to attract customers. From China it was introduced by
+missionaries to Europe; and a form of the game, known as "the devil on
+two sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the end of
+the 18th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with improvements in
+it. But its principal vogue was in France in 1812, where the top was
+called "le diable." Amusing old prints exist (see _Fry's Magazine_,
+March and December 1907), depicting examples of the popular craze in
+France at the time. The _diable_ of those days resembled a globular
+wooden dumb-bell with a short waist, and the sonorous hum when
+spinning--the _bruit du diable_--was a pronounced feature. At intervals
+during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a
+top of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that
+the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer, Gustave
+Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game, had
+experimented for some time with new forms of top with a view to bringing
+it again into popularity; and having devised the double-cone shape, and
+added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends
+of the double-cone, with other improvements, he named it "diabolo." The
+use of celluloid in preference to metal or wood as its material appears
+to have been due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by
+the inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and catching
+the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions, both as an
+exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in "diabolo tennis" and other
+ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and the chief French
+seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906, its vogue spread in
+1907 so that in France and England it became the fashionable "rage"
+among both children and adults.
+
+The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor C. V. Boys in
+the _Proc. Phys. Soc._ (London), Nov. 1907.
+
+
+DIACONICON, in the Greek Church, the name given to a chamber on the
+south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils, vessels, &c.,
+of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II. (565-574), owing to
+a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and protheses were located in
+apses at the east end of the aisles. Before that time there was only one
+apse. In the churches in central Syria of slightly earlier date, the
+diaconicon is rectangular, the side apses at Kalat-Seman having been
+added at a later date.
+
+
+DIADOCHI (Gr. [Greek: diadechesthai], to receive from another), i.e.
+"Successors," the name given to the Macedonian generals who fought for
+the empire of Alexander after his death in 323 B.C. The name includes
+Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, Antipater and his son
+Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into
+which the Macedonian empire was divided under these rulers are known as
+Hellenistic. The chief were Asia Minor and Syria under the SELEUCID
+DYNASTY (q.v.), Egypt under the PTOLEMIES (q.v.), Macedonia under the
+successors of Antigonus Gonatas, PERGAMUM (q.v.) under the Attalid
+dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were merged in the Roman empire. (See
+MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.)
+
+
+DIAGONAL (Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: gonia], a corner), in
+geometry, a line joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a
+rectilinear figure.
+
+
+DIAGORAS, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist, flourished
+in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious in his youth and a
+writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became an atheist because a great
+wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods. In consequence of his
+blasphemous speeches, and especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he
+was condemned to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head
+(Aristoph. _Clouds_, 830; _Birds_, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth,
+where he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called
+[Greek Phrygioi logoi] or [Greek: Apopyrgizontes], in which he probably
+attacked the Phrygian divinities.
+
+
+DIAGRAM (Gr. [Greek: diagramma], from [Greek: diagraphein], to mark out
+by lines), a figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical relations
+between the parts of the figure illustrate relations between other
+objects. They may be classed according to the manner in which they are
+intended to be used, and also according to the kind of analogy which we
+recognize between the diagram and the thing represented. The diagrams in
+mathematical treatises are intended to help the reader to follow the
+mathematical reasoning. The construction of the figure is defined in
+words so that even if no figure were drawn the reader could draw one for
+himself. The diagram is a good one if those features which form the
+subject of the proposition are clearly represented.
+
+Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way--namely, for
+purposes of measurement. The plans and designs drawn by architects and
+engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by
+measuring certain distances on the diagram. For such purposes it is
+essential that the drawing be as accurate as possible. We therefore
+class diagrams as diagrams of illustration, which merely suggest certain
+relations to the mind of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale,
+from which measurements are intended to be made. There are some diagrams
+or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of no importance,
+provided their connexions are properly shown. Of this kind are the
+diagrams of electrical connexions, and those belonging to that
+department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis,
+periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness.
+
+_Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic._--Diagrams may
+also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which no symbols
+are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular
+points of the diagrams, and mixed diagrams, in which certain magnitudes
+are represented, not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by
+symbols, such as numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the
+height of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by
+marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on
+the map. There is another method in which a line called a contour line
+is drawn through all the places in the map whose height above the sea is
+a certain number of feet, and the number of feet is written at some
+point or points of this line. By the use of a series of contour lines,
+the height of a great number of places can be indicated on a map by
+means of a small number of written symbols. Still this method is not a
+purely graphical method, but a partly symbolical method of expressing
+the third dimension of objects on a diagram in two dimensions.
+
+In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the
+relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables, we must use
+more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of construction we use plans and
+elevations and sections through different planes, to specify the form of
+objects having three dimensions. In such systems of diagrams we have to
+indicate that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another
+diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding points in
+the different diagrams with the same letter. If the diagrams are drawn
+on the same piece of paper we may indicate corresponding points by
+drawing a line from one to the other, taking care that this line of
+correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for a real line in
+either diagram. (See GEOMETRY: _Descriptive_.)
+
+In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of which the
+form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are projections of the
+bodies taken from two points so near each other that, by viewing the two
+diagrams simultaneously, one with each eye, we identify the
+corresponding points intuitively. The method in which we simultaneously
+contemplate two figures, and recognize a correspondence between certain
+points in the one figure and certain points in the other, is one of the
+most powerful and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in
+pure geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures
+have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes spoken of as
+the method or principle of Duality. GEOMETRY: _Projective_.)
+
+                        DIAGRAMS IN MECHANICS.
+
+  The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the
+  use of a series of diagrams representing the configuration,
+  displacement and acceleration of the parts of the system.
+
+  _Diagram of Configuration._--In considering a material system it is
+  often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at
+  any given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The
+  position of any particle of the system is defined by drawing a
+  straight line or vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the
+  given particle. The position of the particle with respect to the
+  origin is determined by the magnitude and direction of this vector. If
+  in the diagram we draw from the origin (which need not be the same
+  point of space as the origin for the material system) a vector equal
+  and parallel to the vector which determines the position of the
+  particle, the end of this vector will indicate the position of the
+  particle in the diagram of configuration. If this is done for all the
+  particles we shall have a system of points in the diagram of
+  configuration, each of which corresponds to a particle of the material
+  system, and the relative positions of any pair of these points will be
+  the same as the relative positions of the material particles which
+  correspond to them.
+
+  We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the
+  vectors are supposed to be drawn--one for the material system, the
+  other for the diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn
+  from them, may now be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the
+  material system and on the other a set of points, each point
+  corresponding to a particle of the system, and the whole representing
+  the configuration of the system at a given instant.
+
+  This is called a diagram of configuration.
+
+  _Diagram of Displacement._--Let us next consider two diagrams of
+  configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different
+  instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second
+  the final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration to
+  the other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at present
+  consider the length of time during which the displacement was
+  effected, nor the intermediate stages through which it passed, but
+  only the final result--a change of configuration. To study this change
+  we construct a diagram of displacement.
+
+  Let A, B, C be the points in the initial diagram of configuration, and
+  A', B', C' be the corresponding points in the final diagram of
+  configuration. From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement, draw
+  a vector oa equal and parallel to AA', ob equal and parallel to BB',
+  oc to CC', and so on. The points a, b, c, &c., will be such that the
+  vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so on.
+  The diagram containing the points a, b, c, &c., is therefore called
+  the diagram of displacement.
+
+  In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed
+  that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system.
+  For we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to AA', which we
+  cannot do unless we know the absolute final position of A, with
+  respect to its initial position. In this diagram of displacement there
+  is therefore, besides the points a, b, c, &c., an _origin_, o, which
+  represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary
+  because the two configurations do not exist at the same time; and
+  therefore to express their relative position we require to know a
+  point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time.
+
+  But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume
+  a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space.
+  Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and equal to BA
+  in the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel and equal to
+  A'B' in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the position
+  of the point b relative to a will be the same by this construction as
+  by the former construction, only we must observe that in this second
+  construction we use only vectors such as AB, A'B', which represent the
+  relative position of points both of which exist simultaneously,
+  instead of vectors such as AA', BB', which express the position of a
+  point at one instant relative to its position at a former instant, and
+  which therefore cannot be determined by observation, because the two
+  ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously.
+
+  It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by
+  the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates that we
+  have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But no such point
+  occurs in the second construction, because we use such vectors only as
+  we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of displacements _without
+  an origin_ represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know
+  about the displacement of the material system.
+
+  _Diagram of Velocity._--If the relative velocities of the points of
+  the system are constant, then the diagram of displacement
+  corresponding to an interval of a unit of time between the initial and
+  the final configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If
+  the relative velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in
+  which the velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system
+  at the given instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The
+  diagram of displacements for this imaginary system is the required
+  diagram of relative velocities of the actual system at the given
+  instant. It is easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any
+  one point relative to any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity
+  of any of them.
+
+  _Diagram of Acceleration._--By the same process by which we formed the
+  diagram of displacements from the two diagrams of initial and final
+  configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity
+  from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This diagram
+  may be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval of
+  time. And by the same process by which we deduced the diagram of
+  velocities from that of displacements we may deduce the diagram of
+  rates of acceleration from that of total acceleration.
+
+  We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kinematics
+  because they are found to be of use especially when we have to deal
+  with material systems containing a great number of parts, as in the
+  kinetic theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then appears as
+  a region of space swarming with points representing molecules, and the
+  only way in which we can investigate it is by considering the number
+  of such points in unit of volume in different parts of that region,
+  and calling this the _density_ of the gas.
+
+  In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region
+  containing points equal in number but distributed in a different
+  manner, and the number of points in any given portion of the region
+  expresses the number of molecules whose velocities lie within given
+  limits. We may speak of this as the velocity-density.
+
+  _Diagrams of Stress._--Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to
+  statical questions, because the state of the system is constant, so
+  that we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corresponding to
+  the successive states of the system. The most useful of these
+  applications, collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates to the
+  equilibrium of plane framed structures familiarly represented in
+  bridges and roof-trusses. Two diagrams are used, one called the
+  diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of stress. The
+  structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links
+  jointed together at their extremities. In practice these joints have
+  friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so that the force acting at
+  the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly through the axis of the
+  joint; but as it is unsafe to make the stability of the structure
+  depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we assume in our
+  calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and therefore
+  that the force acting on the end of any link passes through the axis
+  of the joint.
+
+  The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in
+  the diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in the
+  actual structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the frame
+  it is represented by a straight line joining the points representing
+  the two joints. If no force acts on the link except the two forces
+  acting through the centres of the joints, these two forces must be
+  equal and opposite, and their direction must coincide with the
+  straight line joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting
+  on either extremity of the link is directed towards the other
+  extremity, the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is
+  called a "strut." If it is directed away from the other extremity, the
+  stress on the link is called tension and the link is called a "tie."
+  In this case, therefore, the only stress acting in a link is a
+  pressure or a tension in the direction of the straight line which
+  represents it in the diagram of the frame, and all that we have to do
+  is to find the magnitude of this stress. In the actual structure
+  gravity acts on every part of the link, but in the diagram we
+  substitute for the actual weight of the different parts of the link
+  two weights which have the same resultant acting at the extremities of
+  the link.
+
+  We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without
+  weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of
+  the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If any link has
+  more than two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an
+  imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which has only two
+  joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a system of points,
+  certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines, and each point is
+  in general acted on by a weight or other force acting between it and
+  some point external to the system. To complete the diagram we may
+  represent these external forces as links, that is to say, straight
+  lines joining the points of the frame to points external to the frame.
+  Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point of
+  application of the weight with the centre of the earth.
+
+  But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in
+  the lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together
+  with the real frame and the links representing external forces, which
+  join points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up
+  together a complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of
+  points connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may in
+  this way reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points
+  with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of
+  these points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each
+  of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining
+  the points, so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might
+  do this by calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure
+  or the tension which acts in it.
+
+  We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are
+  represented graphically as regards direction and position, but
+  symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be
+  represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the
+  direction of the force containing as many units of length as there are
+  units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an
+  arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to
+  this method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram
+  of configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as a
+  record of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces,
+  but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of
+  the calculation.
+
+  But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set
+  of forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel
+  and proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon
+  the forces are in equilibrium. (See MECHANICS.) We might in this way
+  form a series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame.
+  But in so doing we give up the principle of drawing the line
+  representing a force from the point of application of the force, for
+  all the sides of the polygon cannot pass through the same point, as
+  the forces do. We also represent every stress twice over, for it
+  appears as a side of both the polygons corresponding to the two joints
+  between which it acts. But if we can arrange the polygons in such a
+  way that the sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress
+  coincide with each other, we may form a diagram in which every stress
+  is represented in direction and magnitude, though not in position, by
+  a single line which is the common boundary of the two polygons which
+  represent the joints at the extremities of the corresponding piece of
+  the frame.
+
+  We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is
+  made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in
+  which every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude
+  by a straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is
+  manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the
+  corresponding polygon is closed or not.
+
+  The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of
+  stress are as follows:--To every link in the frame corresponds a
+  straight line in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude
+  and direction the stress acting in that link; and to every joint of
+  the frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces
+  acting at that joint are represented by the sides of the polygon taken
+  in a certain cyclical order, the cyclical order of the sides of the
+  two adjacent polygons being such that their common side is traced in
+  opposite directions in going round the two polygons.
+
+  The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the
+  direction of the force acting on that joint of the frame which
+  corresponds to the polygon, and due to that link of the frame which
+  corresponds to the side. This determines whether the stress of the
+  link is a pressure or a tension. If we know whether the stress of any
+  one link is a pressure or a tension, this determines the cyclical
+  order of the sides of the two polygons corresponding to the ends of
+  the links, and therefore the cyclical order of all the polygons, and
+  the nature of the stress in every link of the frame.
+
+  _Reciprocal Diagrams._--When to every point of concourse of the lines
+  in the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton
+  of the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal.
+
+  The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other
+  cases than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in his
+  _Applied Mechanics_ (1857). The method was independently applied to a
+  large number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman in the
+  office of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk Maxwell in his
+  lectures in King's College, London. In the _Phil. Mag._ for 1864 the
+  latter pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and
+  in a paper on "Reciprocal Figures, Frames and Diagrams of Forces,"
+  _Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed the relation of the
+  method to Airy's function of stress and to other mathematical methods.
+  Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a number of applications of the
+  method to practice (_Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxv.).
+
+  L. Cremona (_Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica_, 1872)
+  deduced the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the
+  two components of a wrench as developed by Moebius. Karl Culmann, in
+  his _Graphische Statik_ (1st ed. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), made great
+  use of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not
+  reciprocal. Maurice Levy in his _Statique graphique_ (1874) has
+  treated the whole subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R.
+  H. Bow, in his _The Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed
+  Structures_ (1873), materially simplified the process of drawing a
+  diagram of stress reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of
+  equilibrating external forces.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of Configuration.]
+
+  Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or
+  the links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow places
+  a letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the
+  frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as
+  separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one link
+  of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection of
+  the links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of
+  each of the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of
+  stress, as the opposite sides of the parallelogram which corresponds
+  to the point of intersection.
+
+  This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of
+  configuration (fig. 1), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the
+  linkwork which Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane.
+
+  In fig. 1 the real joints are distinguished from the places where one
+  link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T,
+  V. The four links RSTV form a "contraparallelogram" in which RS = TV
+  and RV = ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar to each other. A
+  fourth triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the
+  quadruplane. The four points O, P, N, Q form a parallelogram whose
+  angle POQ is constant and equal to [pi] - SOR. The product of the
+  distances OP and OQ is constant. The linkwork may be fixed at O. If
+  any figure is traced by P, Q will trace the inverse figure, but turned
+  round O through the constant angle POQ. In the diagram forces Pp, Qq
+  are balanced by the force Co at the fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq
+  are necessarily inversely as OP and OQ, and make equal angles with
+  those lines.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Diagram of Stress.]
+
+  Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the
+  diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a
+  point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress in
+  the link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented in
+  the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding to
+  those areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by lines
+  crossing it, the stress in each part is represented by a different
+  line for each part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link
+  these lines are all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress
+  in RV is represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE
+  and AB. If two areas have no part of their boundary in common the
+  letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined
+  by a straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn between
+  them, it would represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of
+  all the stresses in the links which are cut by any line, straight or
+  curved, joining the two areas. For instance the areas F and C in fig.
+  1 have no common boundary, and the points F and C in fig. 2 are not
+  joined by a straight line. But every path from the area F to the area
+  C in fig. 1 passes through a series of other areas, and each passage
+  from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a line drawn in
+  the diagram of stress. Hence the whole path from F to C in fig. 1
+  corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and extending from F
+  to C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the
+  path is represented by FC in fig. 2.
+
+  Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on BRIDGES
+  (q.v.).
+
+                 _Automatic Description of Diagrams._
+
+  There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates
+  of a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values
+  of two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move, say
+  horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing point is
+  made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying as the
+  value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out a curve
+  on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any given time
+  may be determined. This principle is applied to the automatic
+  registration of phenomena of all kinds, from those of meteorology and
+  terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon-shot, the vibrations
+  of sounding bodies, the motions of animals, voluntary and involuntary,
+  and the currents in electric telegraphs.
+
+  In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a
+  constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to that of the
+  piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is proportional
+  to the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the
+  curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and the pressure of
+  the steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not only supplies a
+  record of the pressure of the steam at each stage of the stroke of the
+  engine, but indicates the work done by the steam in each stroke by the
+  area enclosed by the curve traced on the diagram.          (J. C. M.)
+
+
+DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a branch of
+applied mathematics which treats of the construction of sun-dials, that
+is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the
+divisions of the day (Lat. _dies_) by the motion of the shadow of some
+object on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the
+earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun;
+though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division
+into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the
+greatest elevation.
+
+_History._--The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah
+xxxviii. 8: "Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which
+is gone down in the _sun-dial_ of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date
+of this would be about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know
+nothing of the character or construction of the instrument. The earliest
+of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the
+hemicycle, or hemisphere, of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who
+probably lived about 300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed
+with its rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed
+in any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the horizon
+the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere, and
+the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular
+arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts, determined twelve equal
+intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this were done at the
+time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as
+might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the
+corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow of
+the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of
+time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide
+each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal parts were
+called _temporary hours_; and, since the duration of daylight varies
+from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from those
+of another; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that
+time, and especially in countries where the variation between the
+longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our
+climates.
+
+The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as
+appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same
+construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials have in modern
+times been found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is
+supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says
+that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The
+second and third were found in 1751--one at Castel-Nuovo and the other
+at Rignano; and a fourth was found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in
+his _Abhandlungen von den Sonnenuhren der Alten_ (Leipzig, 1777), says
+that this dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore
+be the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of
+Alexandria.
+
+Herodotus recorded that the Greeks derived from the Babylonians the use
+of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry
+enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some
+of which remain to us, and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but
+also of great ingenuity.
+
+Ptolemy's _Almagest_ treats of the construction of dials by means of his
+_analemma_, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical
+problems. The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular
+dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west,
+north or south, and these are the only ones he treats of. It is certain,
+however, that the ancients were able to construct declining dials, as is
+shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics--the Tower of
+the Winds at Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which
+the eight principal winds are represented, and over them eight different
+dials--four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the
+intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subsequent to
+that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower in the sixth
+chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials, and as he has
+described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that the
+dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary
+hours or, as the Greeks called them, _hectemoria_.
+
+The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this
+Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius
+Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees
+less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The
+first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by
+order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on
+gnomonics, this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we
+remember that the dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of
+Memphis, and consequently less adapted to its position than that of
+Catania to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not
+cultivated in Italy.
+
+The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great importance
+to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the Greeks,
+but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions. One
+of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the
+13th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and
+other surfaces. He even introduced _equal_ or _equinoctial hours_, but
+the idea was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in
+use.
+
+Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l
+Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by _equal_ hours was
+generally adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics
+from the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century is almost a blank,
+and during that time the change took place. We can see, however, that
+the change would necessarily follow the introduction of clocks and other
+mechanical methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were,
+the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in
+winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary
+hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now,
+we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of
+France about the year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new
+sun-dials came into general use during the 14th and 15th centuries.
+
+Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was SEBASTIAN
+MUeNSTER (q.v.), who published his _Horologiographia_ at Basel in 1531.
+He gives a number of correct rules, but without demonstrations. Among
+his inventions was a moon-dial,[1] but this does not admit of much
+accuracy.
+
+During the 17th century dialling was discussed at great length by many
+writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto volume of 800 pages
+entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be
+considered to contain all that was known at that time.
+
+In the 18th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and
+these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament
+to a garden, or in remote country districts where the old dial on the
+church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by
+its side. The art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little
+more than a mathematical recreation.
+
+  _General Principles._--The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth
+  are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded.
+  That the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in
+  twenty-four hours, and that it is carried round the sun in one year at
+  a nearly uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing these facts.
+  But the effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit our
+  purpose better, and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the
+  ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent
+  confirmation, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and
+  stars revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once
+  a day--the sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some
+  four minutes longer--so that at the end of the year it finds itself
+  again in the same place, having made a complete revolution of the
+  heavens relatively to the stars from west to east.
+
+  The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line
+  through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small,
+  compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a
+  parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely
+  look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in
+  the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and
+  6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An
+  axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole,
+  its elevation being equal to the latitude of the place.
+
+  The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would that
+  of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes, spoken
+  of above, were always the same. But this is constantly altering, so
+  that the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also consequently
+  as measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a strictly uniform
+  pace. This irregularity, which is slight, would be of little
+  consequence in the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and watches
+  being mechanical measures of time could not, except by extreme
+  complication, be made to follow this irregularity, even if desirable.
+
+  The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the
+  length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in
+  the year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly;
+  but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will
+  be sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock-the greatest
+  accumulated difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in
+  November, but on the average much less. The four days on which the two
+  agree are April 15, June 15, September 1 and December 24.
+
+  Clock-time is called _mean time_, that marked by the sun-dial is
+  called _apparent time_, and the difference between them is the
+  _equation of time_. It is given in most calendars and almanacs,
+  frequently under the heading "clock slow," "clock fast." When the time
+  by the sun-dial is known, the equation of time will at once enable us
+  to obtain the corresponding clock-time, or vice versa.
+
+  Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the
+  apparent position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need
+  consideration in the construction of an instrument which, with the
+  best workmanship, does not after all admit of very great accuracy.
+
+  The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood. The
+  problem before us is the following:--A rod, or _style_, as it is
+  called, being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's
+  axis, we have to find how and where points or lines of reference must
+  be traced on some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the
+  shadow of the style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know
+  that at that moment it is solar noon,--that is, that the plane through
+  the style and through the sun then coincides with the meridian; again,
+  that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is 1
+  o'clock by solar time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the
+  above plane through the style and through the sun has just turned
+  through the twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution; and so on for
+  the subsequent hours,--the hours before noon being indicated in a
+  similar manner. The style and the surface on which these lines are
+  traced together constitute the dial.
+
+  The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected--whether on
+  church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall--the surface
+  must be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines.
+
+  The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the
+  accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the
+  instrument depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an
+  angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter
+  condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the
+  meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is fixed
+  to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that the
+  style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be
+  usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by
+  the style it must always be understood that the middle line of the
+  thin band of shade is meant.
+
+  The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the
+  dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate.
+
+  The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to
+  determine accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend
+  on this one. We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style
+  has been itself accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is
+  done the XII o'clock line will be found by the intersection of the
+  dial surface with the vertical plane which contains the style; and the
+  most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a
+  plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang freely, and
+  waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide on the
+  dial. This single shadow will be the XII o'clock line.
+
+  In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock
+  line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore,
+  at once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line.
+
+  The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate
+  method of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when
+  good watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the style
+  falls when 1, 2, 3, &c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the next
+  morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced; and
+  in the same manner the hours might be subdivided into halves and
+  quarters, or even into minutes.
+
+  But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II,
+  III, &c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each
+  of these lines would make with the XII o'clock line. Now, except in
+  the simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a
+  cardinal point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or
+  elaborate geometrical constructions, implying considerable
+  mathematical knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of
+  error. The chief source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the
+  data; for the position of the dial-plane would have to be found before
+  the calculations began,--that is, it would be necessary to know
+  exactly by how many degrees it declined from the south towards the
+  east or west, and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical.
+  The ancients, with the means at their disposal, could obtain these
+  results only very roughly.
+
+  Dials received different names according to their position:--
+
+  _Horizontal dials_, when traced on a horizontal plane;
+
+  _Vertical dials_, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal
+  points;
+
+  _Vertical declining dials_, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal
+  point;
+
+  _Inclining dials_, when traced on planes neither vertical nor
+  horizontal (these were further distinguished as _reclining_ when
+  leaning backwards from an observer, _proclining_ when leaning
+  forwards);
+
+  _Equinoctial dials_, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's
+  axis, &c. &c.
+
+  _Dial Construction._--A very correct view of the problem of dial
+  construction may be obtained as follows:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. 1) having an axis AB parallel to
+  the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cylinder let equidistant
+  generating-lines be traced 15 deg. apart, one of them XII ... XII being
+  in the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II,
+  &c., following in the order of the sun's motion.
+
+  Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line XII ...
+  XII at apparent noon, on the line I ... I at one hour after noon, on
+  II ... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the cylinder be
+  cut by any plane MN representing the plane on which the dial is to be
+  traced, the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane and fall on
+  the lines AXII AI, AII, &c.
+
+  The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made
+  by AI, AII, &c. with AXII; the line AXII itself, being in the
+  vertical plane through AB, may be supposed known.
+
+  For the purposes of actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere
+  will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it
+  to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock
+  line in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south
+  dial.
+
+  _Horizontal Dial._--Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed
+  transparent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of
+  the heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore
+  coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then the
+  circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with the
+  horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next divide
+  the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, bc, cd, &c. ... of
+  15 deg. each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the various
+  points of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp, Pcp, &c.
+  ... These will exactly correspond to the equidistant generating lines
+  on the cylinder in the previous construction, and the shadow of the
+  style will fall on these circles after successive intervals of 1,2, 3,
+  &c., hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle in the points
+  B, C, D, &c., then EB, EC, ED, &c. ... will be the I, II, III, &c.,
+  hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal dial consists
+  in calculating the angles which these lines make with the XII o'clock
+  line EA, whose position is known. The spherical triangles PAB, PAC,
+  &c., enable us to do this readily. They are all right-angled at A, the
+  side PA is the latitude of the place, and the angles APB, APC, &c.,
+  are respectively 15 deg., 30 deg., &c., then
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15 deg. sin _latitude_,
+                  tan AC = tan 30 deg. sin _latitude_,
+                           &c. &c.
+
+  These determine the sides AB, AC, &c., that is, the angles AEB, AEC,
+  &c., required.
+
+  The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian EA of
+  11 deg. 51' on a London dial, of 12 deg. 31' at Edinburgh, of 11 deg. 23'
+  at Paris, 12 deg. 0' at Berlin, 9 deg. 55' at New York and 9 deg. 19' at
+  San Francisco. In the same way may be found the angles made by the other
+  hour-lines.
+
+  The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant
+  from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further, because all
+  the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these. In the first
+  place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian, and therefore
+  two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-lines equidistant
+  from the meridian; thus the XI o'clock line and the I o'clock line
+  must make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the same as the II
+  o'clock, and so on. And next, the 24 great circles, which were drawn
+  to determine these lines, are in reality only 12; for clearly the
+  great circle which gives I o'clock after midnight, and that which
+  gives I o'clock after noon, are one and the same, and so also for the
+  other hours. Therefore the hour-lines between VI in the evening and VI
+  the next morning are the prolongations of the remaining twelve.
+
+  Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and
+  retain only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on
+  it, and we shall have the horizontal dial.
+
+  On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock,
+  and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for
+  extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh the limits
+  will be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within the
+  Arctic circle, the whole circuit will be required.
+
+  Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal
+  plate from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate, which
+  is sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have an
+  acute angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly
+  fixed in a vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide
+  with the meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thickness
+  of the plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles.
+  Since there are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two
+  half dials, because a little consideration will show that, owing to
+  the thickness of the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast
+  a shadow. Thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours
+  before 6 o'clock in the morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the western
+  edge will be used. At noon it will change again to the eastern edge
+  until 6 o'clock in the evening, and finally the western edge for the
+  remaining hours of daylight.
+
+  The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles
+  meet the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be careful
+  to draw only those lines for which the corresponding style is able to
+  give a shadow as explained above. The dial will thus have the
+  appearance of a single dial plate, and there will be no confusion (see
+  fig. 3).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+  The line of demarcation between the shadow and the light will be
+  better defined than when a wire style is used; but the indications by
+  this double dial will always be one minute too fast in the morning and
+  one minute too slow in the afternoon. This is owing to the magnitude
+  of the sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined
+  shadows are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require
+  them, but by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward one
+  in the afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to advance
+  through a space equal to its half-breadth.
+
+  Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate is
+  of metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be
+  purchased ready for placing on the pedestal,--the dial with all the
+  hour-lines traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its
+  proper position, if not even cast in the same piece with the dial
+  plate.
+
+  When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be
+  perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling will be
+  done with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected
+  either in the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate
+  till the time given by the shadow (making the _one_ minute correction
+  mentioned above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time is
+  known. It is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so built
+  up beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the latitude
+  of some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines will be
+  drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a dial can
+  therefore not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although it would,
+  without appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose latitude did
+  not differ more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London, and it would be
+  safe to employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire.
+
+  If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in
+  latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a
+  place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of
+  time would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following
+  table will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of
+  the angle of the style,--all angles on the dial being readily measured
+  with an ordinary protractor. It extends from 50 deg. lat. to 59 1/2 deg.
+  lat., and therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and Ireland:--
+
+  +--------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+  |  LAT.  |XI. A.M.| X. A.M.| IX. A.M.|VIII. A.M.|VII. A.M.|VI. A.M.|
+  |        | I. P.M.|II. P.M.|III. P.M.|IIII. P.M.|  V. P.M.|VI. P.M.|
+  |        |        |        |         |          |         |        |
+  |deg.    |deg.    |deg.    | deg.    | deg.     | deg.    |deg.    |
+  |    min.|    min.|    min.|     min.|      min.|     min.|    min.|
+  +--------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+  | 50   0 | 11  36 | 23  51 |  37  27 |  53   0  |  70  43 | 90   0 |
+  | 50  30 | 11  41 | 24   1 |  37  39 |  53  12  |  70  51 | 90   0 |
+  | 51   0 | 11  46 | 24  10 |  37  51 |  53  23  |  70  59 | 90   0 |
+  | 51  30 | 11  51 | 24  19 |  38   3 |  53  35  |  71   6 | 90   0 |
+  | 52   0 | 11  55 | 24  28 |  38  14 |  53  46  |  71  13 | 90   0 |
+  | 52  30 | 12   0 | 24  37 |  38  25 |  53  57  |  71  20 | 90   0 |
+  | 53   0 | 12   5 | 24  45 |  38  37 |  54   8  |  71  27 | 90   0 |
+  | 53  30 | 12   9 | 24  54 |  38  48 |  54  19  |  71  34 | 90   0 |
+  | 54   0 | 12  14 | 25   2 |  38  58 |  54  29  |  71  40 | 90   0 |
+  | 54  30 | 12  18 | 25  10 |  39   9 |  54  39  |  71  47 | 90   0 |
+  | 55   0 | 12  23 | 25  19 |  39  19 |  54  49  |  71  53 | 90   0 |
+  | 55  30 | 12  27 | 25  27 |  39  30 |  54  59  |  71  59 | 90   0 |
+  | 56   0 | 12  31 | 25  35 |  39  40 |  55   9  |  72   5 | 90   0 |
+  | 56  30 | 12  36 | 25  43 |  39  50 |  55  18  |  72  11 | 90   0 |
+  | 57   0 | 12  40 | 25  50 |  39  59 |  55  27  |  72  17 | 90   0 |
+  | 57  30 | 12  44 | 25  58 |  40   9 |  55  36  |  72  22 | 90   0 |
+  | 58   0 | 12  48 | 26   5 |  40  18 |  55  45  |  72  28 | 90   0 |
+  | 58  30 | 12  52 | 26  13 |  40  27 |  55  54  |  72  33 | 90   0 |
+  | 59   0 | 12  56 | 26  20 |  40  36 |  56   2  |  72  39 | 90   0 |
+  | 59  30 | 13   0 | 26  27 |  40  45 |  56  11  |  72  44 | 90   0 |
+  +--------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+
+
+  _Vertical South Dial._--Let us take again our imaginary transparent
+  sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis.
+  Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the
+  meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane
+  facing south. This will cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA, which,
+  being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south, will
+  be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial circle,
+  obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the axis PEp.
+  The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the vertical line
+  EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and the line
+  EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the intersection of two
+  great circles ZM, QM, each at right angles to the vertical plane QZP,
+  will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem, divide
+  the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15 deg. each, beginning at
+  a, viz. ab, bc, &c.,--each quadrant aM, MQ, &c., containing 6,--then
+  through each point of division and through the axis Pp draw a plane
+  cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles. As the sun
+  revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will successively fall
+  on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these circles cross
+  the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &c., the shadow of the
+  lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB, EC, &c.,
+  which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial,
+  Ep being the style.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on
+  each side of noon; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than
+  6 o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the
+  dial before that time, and is no longer available.
+
+  It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c., may be calculated.
+
+  The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c., will give us a simple rule.
+  These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP,
+  is the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the
+  latitude and 90 deg.; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &c., are 15
+  deg., 30 deg., &c., respectively. Then
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15 deg. sin _co-latitude_;
+
+  or more simply,
+
+                  tan AB = tan 15 deg. cos _latitude_,
+                  tan AC = tan 30 deg. cos _latitude_,
+                           &c. &c.
+
+  and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB, AEC,
+  &c., required.
+
+  In this ease the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the
+  opposite result to that of the horizontal dial.
+
+  _Inclining, Reclining, &c., Dials._--We shall not enter into the
+  calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before
+  supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and
+  all the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these
+  hour-circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines
+  just as in the previous cases; but the triangles will no longer be
+  right-angled, and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the
+  chances of error being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing
+  the dial plane in its true position on the sphere, since that true
+  position will have to be found from observations which can be only
+  roughly performed.
+
+  In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is not a
+  plane, and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the
+  only safe practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points
+  (one is sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the
+  moment when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and
+  afterwards connect these points with the centre by a continuous line.
+  Of course the style must have been accurately fixed in its true
+  position before we begin.
+
+  _Equatorial Dial._--The name equatorial dial is given to one whose
+  plane is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the
+  equator. It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided
+  into 24 equal ares is placed at right angles to the style, and hour
+  divisions are marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style
+  point accurately to the pole, and that the noon division coincide with
+  the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall on the other
+  divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be marked on
+  both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite sides
+  in the summer and in the winter months, changing at each equinox.
+
+  _To find the Meridian Plane._--We have, so far, assumed the meridian
+  plane to be accurately known; we shall proceed to describe some of the
+  methods by which it may be found.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approximation.
+  It is well known that the needle of the compass, when free to move
+  horizontally, oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction
+  termed the magnetic meridian. This does not coincide with the true
+  north and south line, but the difference between them is generally
+  known with tolerable accuracy, and is called the variation of the
+  compass. The variation differs widely at different parts of the
+  surface of the earth, and is not stationary at any particular place,
+  though the change is slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation
+  which takes place about the mean position, but too small to need
+  notice here (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL).
+
+  With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass
+  can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian,
+  but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further
+  alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has
+  been made.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+  A very simple practical method is the following:--
+
+  Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position
+  that it may receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the
+  afternoon. Then carefully level the surface by means of a
+  spirit-level. This must be done very accurately, and the table in that
+  position made perfectly secure, so that there be no danger of its
+  shifting during the day.
+
+  Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly
+  fixed. The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface,
+  should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H
+  for centre, describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD,
+  EF, &c.
+
+  A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet
+  line at some convenient height above H.
+
+  Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the bead P
+  as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It will be
+  found to describe a curve ACE ... FDB, approaching the point H as the
+  sun advances towards noon, and receding from it afterwards. (The curve
+  is a conic section--an hyperbola in these regions.) At the moment when
+  it crosses the arc AB, mark the point A; AP is then the direction of
+  the sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH is the altitude of
+  the sun. In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses the same
+  arc; then the angle PBH is the altitude. But the right-angled
+  triangles PHA, PHB are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the
+  same altitudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after
+  noon. It follows that, _if the sun has not changed its declination_
+  during the interval, the two positions will be symmetrically placed
+  one on each side of the meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and
+  bisecting it in M, HM will be the meridian line.
+
+  Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c., will furnish its
+  meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the
+  mean of the positions thus found must be taken.
+
+  The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its
+  declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and
+  may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at
+  the end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder
+  of the year the change of declination is so slow that we may safely
+  neglect it. The most favourable times are at the end of June and at
+  the end of December, when the sun's declination is almost stationary.
+  If the line HM be produced both ways to the edges of the table, then
+  the two points on the ground vertically below those on the edges may
+  be found by a plummet, and, if permanent marks be made there, the
+  meridian plane, which is the vertical plane passing through these two
+  points, will have its position perfectly secured.
+
+  _To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position._--Before giving
+  any other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the
+  construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be
+  accurately placed in its true position. The angle which the style
+  makes with a hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place,
+  is known, and the north and south direction is also roughly given by
+  the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted
+  approximately--correctly, indeed, as to its inclination--but probably
+  requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine
+  plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be
+  properly adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls
+  exactly on the plumb-line,--or, which is the same thing, if both
+  shadows coincide on the dial.
+
+  This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane,
+  whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the
+  ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not
+  generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian
+  plane, and that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a
+  plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow
+  of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. A signal
+  from the observer there to the observer at the dial enables the latter
+  to adjust the style as directed above.
+
+  _Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane._--We have dwelt at some
+  length on these practical operations because they are simple and
+  tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant,
+  nor telescope--nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of
+  shadow lines.
+
+  The Pole star, or _Ursae Minoris_, may also be employed for finding
+  the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star
+  is now only about 1 deg. 14' from the pole; if therefore a plumb-line
+  be suspended at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his
+  position till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane
+  through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian
+  plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would
+  be strictly coincident. This would be when the star crosses the
+  meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we
+  wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times of
+  the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the
+  _Nautical Almanac_, and a watch would be necessary to know when the
+  instant arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate,
+  because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes
+  in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the
+  azimuth.
+
+  The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both
+  calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star [eta] _Ursae
+  Majoris_, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest
+  from the "pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours
+  from the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which
+  joins the two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole
+  star, at a distance of about 1 deg. 14' from the pole, is crossing the
+  meridian above the pole, the star [eta] _Ursae Majoris_, whose polar
+  distance is about 40 deg., has not yet reached the meridian below the
+  pole.
+
+  When [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ reaches the meridian, which will be within
+  half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian; but its
+  slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now
+  at some instant between these two times--much nearer the latter than
+  the former--the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly
+  vertical; and at this instant, which the observer determines by seeing
+  that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither of the
+  stars is strictly in the meridian; but the deviation from it is so
+  small that it may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the
+  plumb-line taken for meridian plane.
+
+  In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane
+  by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet at
+  a short distance in front of the eye; this second plummet, being
+  suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as
+  always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian plane
+  will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground, one
+  under each plummet.
+
+  This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the
+  upper transit of _Polaris_; for, at the lower transit, the other star
+  [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and
+  the observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible
+  when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half of
+  the year is lost to this method.
+
+  Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40 deg. N., for
+  there the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit;--we
+  may even say not lower than 45 deg. N., for the star must be at least
+  5 deg. above the horizon before it becomes distinctly visible.
+
+  There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed, but
+  none so convenient as these two, on account of _Polaris_ with its very
+  slow motion being one of the pair.
+
+  _To place the Style in its True Position without previous
+  Determination of the Meridian Plane._--The various methods given above
+  for finding the meridian plane have for ultimate object the
+  determination of the plane, not on its own account, but as an element
+  for fixing the instant of noon, whereby the style may be properly
+  placed.
+
+  We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we
+  determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a
+  good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instrument
+  for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined
+  in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The
+  simplest and most practically useful methods will be found described
+  and investigated in any work on astronomy.
+
+  For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the
+  forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the
+  sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions
+  of the horizon--but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of
+  the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than
+  10 o'clock--take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same
+  moment, marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so observed
+  being properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &c., will, together
+  with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination, taken from
+  the _Nautical Almanac_, enable us to calculate the time. This will be
+  the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we require.
+  Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we see
+  at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time; we know,
+  therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon
+  arrives, and waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its
+  proper position as explained before.
+
+  We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and
+  observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time
+  from some observatory where the work is done; and, allowing for the
+  change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we
+  have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar
+  noon as in the previous case.
+
+  In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in
+  devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced.
+  Sometimes the shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder,
+  or on a sphere, or on a combination of these. A universal dial was
+  constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross; another universal
+  dial showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons. These
+  universal dials required adjusting before use, and for this a
+  mariner's compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it would be
+  tedious and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a
+  rule, the more complex the less accurate.
+
+  Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable
+  centres. They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the
+  style had to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-_lines_
+  they had hour-_points_; and the style, instead of being parallel to
+  the axis of the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon.
+  There was no practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse;
+  and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new
+  mathematical problems.
+
+  _Portable Dials._--The dials so far described have been fixed dials,
+  for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were
+  to be fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made
+  generally of a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and
+  these, so long as the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a
+  watch.
+
+  The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with
+  that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and
+  the same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are
+  essential points of difference between them, besides those which are
+  at once apparent.
+
+  In the fixed dial the result depends on the _uniform_ angular motion
+  of the sun round the fixed style; and a small error in the assumed
+  position of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the
+  instrument, or to some small neglected correction, has only a trifling
+  effect on the time. This is owing to the angular displacement of the
+  sun being so rapid--a quarter of a degree every minute--that for the
+  ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required, as a
+  displacement of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one degree,
+  can be readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial
+  this is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now
+  available, because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may
+  refer it. In the new position, to which the observer has gone, the
+  zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically
+  find; and the basis for the determination of the time is the
+  constantly but _very irregularly_ varying zenith distance of the sun.
+
+  At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only
+  method available for finding local time; but the perfection which has
+  been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to
+  reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however,
+  to be taken. The observations must not be made within a couple of
+  hours of noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor
+  too near the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions there;
+  and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portable dial.
+
+  To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials,
+  let us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54 deg. lat., and a
+  mean declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at 6
+  o'clock, and at noon have an altitude of 36 deg.,--that is, the portable
+  dial will indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each
+  minute, or two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The vertical
+  motion of the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon, but even there
+  it will be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or half the rate of
+  the fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed throughout the
+  day.
+
+  Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude
+  for which they are available, and they should not be used more than 4
+  or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were constructed.
+
+  We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use.
+
+  _Dial on a Cylinder._--A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in.
+  high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of
+  tolerably easy rotation. A hole in the lid receives the style shaped
+  somewhat like a bayonet; and the straight part of the style, which, on
+  account of the two bends, is lower than the lid, projects horizontally
+  out from the cylinder to a distance of 1 or 1 1/2 in. When not in use the
+  style would be taken out and placed inside the cylinder.
+
+  A horizontal circle is traced on the cylinder opposite the projecting
+  style, and this circle is divided into 36 approximately equidistant
+  intervals.[2] These intervals represent spaces of time, and to each
+  division is assigned a date, so that each month has three dates marked
+  as follows:-January 10, 20, 31; February 10, 20, 28; March 10, 20, 31;
+  April 10, 20, 30, and so on,--always the 10th, the 20th, and the last
+  day of each month.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis of
+  the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily
+  understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as
+  to bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then
+  placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned
+  round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the
+  vertical line below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite
+  point of this line, the position of which point will depend on the
+  length of the style--that is, the distance of its end from the surface
+  of the cylinder--and on the altitude of the sun at that instant.
+  Suppose that the observations are continued all day, the cylinder
+  being very gradually turned so that the style may always face the sun,
+  and suppose that marks are made on the vertical line to show the
+  extremity of the shadow at each exact hour from sun-rise to
+  sun-set-these times being taken from a good fixed sun-dial,--then it is
+  obvious that the next year, on the _same date_, the sun's declination
+  being about the same, and the observer in about the same latitude, the
+  marks made the previous year will serve to tell the time all that day.
+
+  What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the
+  instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which
+  would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation, cannot
+  be the method employed.
+
+  The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation.
+  Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken
+  from the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place
+  and the length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for
+  computing the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark
+  below the style for each successive hour.
+
+  We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at
+  the same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if
+  the dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results
+  will be sufficiently approximate.
+
+  When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective
+  dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding hour-points,
+  will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down,
+  the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper position between
+  the two divisions. The horizontality of the surface on which the
+  instrument rests is a very necessary condition, especially in summer,
+  when, the shadow of the style being long, the extreme end will shift
+  rapidly for a small deviation from the vertical, and render the
+  reading uncertain. The dial can also be used by holding it up by a
+  small ring in the top of the lid, and probably the vertically is
+  better ensured in that way.
+
+  _Portable Dial on a Card._--This neat and very ingenious dial is
+  attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and probably
+  dates from the early part of the 17th century. Ozanam says that it was
+  sometimes called the _capuchin_, from some fancied resemblance to a
+  cowl thrown back.
+
+  _Construction._--Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the
+  card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it; with C as
+  centre, and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB
+  below the horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at
+  the points r, s, t, &c., and through these points draw perpendiculars
+  to the diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line
+  through r will be the XI ... I line, the line through s the X ... II
+  line, and so on; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself; by
+  subdivision of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &c., we may draw the
+  hour-lines corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where
+  it can be done without confusion.
+
+  Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the place,
+  and let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at right angles
+  to AD.
+
+  With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of circle
+  RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on it,
+  extending from 0 deg. at S to 23 1/2 deg. on each side at R and T. Next
+  determine the points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn from A
+  to the degree divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully mark
+  these crossings.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination, south
+  declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the other
+  hemisphere of the earth this would be reversed; the north declinations
+  would be on the upper half.
+
+  Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations of
+  that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the days
+  of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and place
+  these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without confusion,
+  opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the _sun-line_ at the
+  top of the card parallel to the line ACB; and, near the extremity, to
+  the right, draw any small figure intended to form, as it were, a door
+  of which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken that this hinge is
+  exactly at right angles to the _sun-line_. Make a fine open slit c d
+  right through the card and extending from the hinge to a short
+  distance on the door,--the centre line of this slit coinciding
+  accurately with the _sun-line_. Now, cut the door completely through
+  the card; except, of course, along the hinge, which, when the card is
+  thick, should be partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the
+  opening. Cut the card right through along the line FDG, and pass a
+  thread carrying a little plummet W and a _very_ small bead P; the bead
+  having sufficient friction with the thread to retain any position when
+  acted on only by its own weight, but sliding easily along the thread
+  when moved by the hand. At the back of the card the thread terminates
+  in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through; or better, because
+  giving more friction and a better hold, it passes through the centre
+  of a small disk of card--a fraction of an inch in diameter--and, by a
+  knot, is made fast at the back of the disk.
+
+  To complete the construction,--with the centres F and G, and radii FA
+  and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the hour-lines;
+  for in an observation the bead will always be found between them. The
+  forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated in the
+  figure. The dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon and
+  afternoon; but extraneous circumstances, as, for instance, whether the
+  sun is rising or falling, will settle that point, except when close to
+  noon, where it will always be uncertain.
+
+  To _rectify_ the dial (using the old expression, which means to
+  prepare the dial for an observation),--open the small door, by turning
+  it about its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the
+  thread in the line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it
+  over the point A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincide
+  with A.
+
+  To find the hour of the day,--hold the dial in a vertical position in
+  such a way that its plane may pass through the sun. The verticality is
+  ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without
+  pressing. Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical
+  plane), until the central line of sunshine, passing through the open
+  slit of the door, just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against
+  which the bead P then rests indicates the time.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  The _sun-line_ drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used as
+  a _shadow-line_. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the
+  prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was
+  gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly
+  coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a
+  degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of
+  the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb
+  of the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre.
+  Now, even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a
+  considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much time
+  will the indication of the dial be in error.
+
+  The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be
+  free from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of
+  the sun.
+
+  The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere
+  toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educational
+  value which is not to be measured by the roughness of the results
+  obtained.
+
+  The theory of this instrument is as follows:--Let H (fig. 9) be the
+  point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that
+  the angle DAH is the north declination of the sun,--P, the bead,
+  resting against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the
+  hour-angle from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this
+  hour-angle is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC, a
+  north declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the
+  _sun-line_, or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle
+  PHQ will be equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC, for
+  the pair of lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to the
+  sun-line and the horizontal.
+
+  Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and N
+  respectively.
+
+  Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following values
+  will be readily deduced from the figure:--
+
+  AD = a cos _decl._ DH = a sin _decl._ PQ = a sin _alt._
+
+     CX = AC = AD cos _lat._ = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+     PN = CV = CX cos ACX = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._ cos ACX.
+     NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = sin _decl._ sin _lat._
+       (:. the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.)
+
+  And since           PQ = NQ + PN,
+  we have, by simple substitution,
+  a sin _alt._ = a sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + a cos _del._ cos _lat._
+  cos ACX; or, dividing by a throughout,
+
+  sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+                                                        cos ACX ... (1)
+  which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead.
+
+  To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let fig. 10
+  represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole, Z the
+  zenith and S the sun.
+
+  From the spherical triangle PZS, we have
+      cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP + sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS
+          but ZS = zenith distance = 90 deg. - altitude
+              ZP = 90 deg. - PR        = 90 deg.- latitude
+              PS = polar distance  = 90 deg. - declination,
+  therefore, by substitution
+
+  sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._
+                                                       cos ZPS ... (2)
+  and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun.
+
+  A comparison of the two formulae (1) and (2) shows that the hour-angle
+  given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and
+  proves the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or
+  at sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree.
+  If, then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the
+  sun-line, at a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at
+  c, the time of sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the
+  central line of light were made to fall on cm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  LITERATURE.--The following list includes the principal writers on
+  dialling whose works have come down, to us, and to these we must refer
+  for descriptions of the various constructions, some simple and direct,
+  others fanciful and intricate, which have been at different times
+  employed: Ptolemy, _Analemma_, restored by Commandine; Vitruvius,
+  _Architecture_; Sebastian Muenster, _Horologiographia_; Orontius
+  Fineus, _De horologiis solaribus_; Mutio Oddi da Urbino, _Horologi
+  solari_; Dryander, _De horologiorum compositione_; Conrad Gesner,
+  _Pandectae_; Andreas Schoener, _Gnomonicae_; F. Commandine,
+  _Horologiorum descriptio_; Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, _De gnomonum usu_;
+  Georgius Schomberg, _Exegesis fundamentorum gnomonicorum_; Joan.
+  Solomon de Caus, _Horologes solaires_; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, _Praxis
+  horologiorum_; Desargues, _Maniere universelle pour poser l'essieu_,
+  &c.; Ath. Kircher, _Ars magna lucis et Umbrae_; Hallum, _Explicatio
+  horologii in horto regio Londini_; Joan. Mark, _Tractatus
+  horologiorum_; Clavius, _Gnomonices de horologiis_. Also among more
+  modern writers, Deschales, Ozanam, Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire,
+  Walper; in German, Paterson, Michael, Mueller; in English, Foster,
+  Wells, Collins, Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn, Emerson and Ferguson. See
+  also Hans Loeschner, _Ueber Sonnenuhren_ (2nd ed., Graz, 1906).  (H. G.)
+
+[1] In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an
+elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 17th or beginning of the
+18th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it available
+as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known.
+
+[2] Strict equality is not necessary, as the observations made are on
+the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to the
+others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go completely
+and exactly round the cylinder, although they were always so drawn, and
+both these conditions were insisted upon in the directions for the
+construction.
+
+
+DIALECT (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], conversation, manner of speaking,
+[Greek: dialegesthai], to converse), a particular or characteristic
+manner of speech, and hence any variety of a language. In its widest
+sense languages which are branches of a common or parent language may be
+said to be "dialects" of that language; thus Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and
+Doric are dialects of Greek, though there may never have at any time
+been a separate language of which they were variations; so the various
+Romance languages, Italian, French, Spanish, &c., were dialects of
+Latin. Again, where there have existed side by side, as in England,
+various branches of a language, such as the languages of the Angles, the
+Jutes or the Saxons, and the descendant of one particular language, from
+many causes, has obtained the predominance, the traces of the other
+languages remain in the "dialects" of the districts where once the
+original language prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from the
+historical point of view, to say that "dialect" varieties of a language
+represent degradations of the standard language. A "literary" accepted
+language, such as modern English, represents the original language
+spoken in the Midlands, with accretions of Norman, French, and later
+literary and scientific additions from classical and other sources,
+while the present-day "dialects" preserve, in inflections, pronunciation
+and particular words, traces of the original variety of the language not
+incorporated in the standard language of the country. See the various
+articles on languages (English, French, &c).
+
+
+DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], discourse,
+debate; [Greek: e dialektike], sc. [Greek: techne], the art of debate),
+a logical term, generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous
+sense for verbal or purely abstract disputation devoid of practical
+value. According to Aristotle, Zeno of Elea "invented" dialectic, the
+art of disputation by question and answer, while Plato developed it
+metaphysically in connexion with his doctrine of "Ideas" as the art of
+analysing ideas in themselves and in relation to the ultimate idea of
+the Good (_Repub._ vii.). The special function of the so-called
+"Socratic dialectic" was to show the inadequacy of popular beliefs.
+Aristotle himself used "dialectic," as opposed to "science," for that
+department of mental activity which examines the presuppositions lying
+at the back of all the particular sciences. Each particular science has
+its own subject matter and special principles ([Greek: idiai archai]) on
+which the superstructure of its special discoveries is based. The
+Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals with the universal laws ([Greek:
+koinai archai]) of reasoning, which can be applied to the particular
+arguments of all the sciences. The sciences, for example, all seek to
+define their own species; dialectic, on the other hand, sets forth the
+conditions which all definitions must satisfy whatever their subject
+matter. Again, the sciences all seek to educe general laws; dialectic
+investigates the nature of such laws, and the kind and degree of
+necessity to which they can attain. To this general subject matter
+Aristotle gives the name "Topics" ([Greek: topoi], loci, communes loci).
+"Dialectic" in this sense is the equivalent of "logic." Aristotle also
+uses the term for the science of probable reasoning as opposed to
+demonstrative reasoning ([Greek: apodeiktike]). The Stoics divided
+[Greek: logike] (logic) into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time
+till the end of the middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with, or
+a part of, logic.
+
+In modern philosophy the word has received certain special meanings. In
+Kantian terminology _Dialektik_ is the name of that portion of the
+_Kritik d. reinen Vernunft_ in which Kant discusses the impossibility of
+applying to "things-in-themselves" the principles which are found to
+govern phenomena. In the system of Hegel the word resumes its original
+Socratic sense, as the name of that intellectual process whereby the
+inadequacy of popular conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history,
+therefore, "dialectic" has been connected with that which is remote
+from, or alien to, unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or
+transcendental, rather than with the facts of common experience and
+material things.
+
+
+DIALLAGE, an important mineral of the pyroxene group, distinguished by
+its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The chemical composition
+is the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiO_{3})_{2}, but it sometimes contains
+the molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"')_{2} SiO_{6} and Na Fe"'
+(SiO_{3})_{2}, in addition, when it approaches to augite in composition.
+Diallage is in fact an altered form of these varieties of pyroxene; the
+particular kind of alteration which they have undergone being known as
+"schillerization." This, as described by Prof. J. W. Judd, consists in
+the development of a fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary
+twinning and the separation of secondary products along these and other
+planes of chemical weakness ("solution planes") in the crystal. The
+secondary products consist of mixtures of various hydrated oxides--opal,
+goethite, limonite, &c--and appear as microscopic inclusions filling or
+partly filling cavities, which have definite outlines with respect to
+the enclosing crystal and are known as negative crystals. It is to the
+reflection and interference of light from these minute inclusions that
+the peculiar bronzy sheen or "schiller" of the mineral is due. The most
+pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid; another,
+less distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third parallel to
+the plane of symmetry; these planes of secondary parting are in addition
+to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all pyroxenes. Frequently the
+material is interlaminated with a rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an
+amphibole (smaragdite or uralite), the latter being an alteration
+product of the diallage.
+
+Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes brown, in
+colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller on the laminated
+surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific gravity 3.2 to 3.35. It
+does not occur in distinct crystals with definite outlines, but only as
+lamellar masses in deep-seated igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of
+which it is an essential constituent. It occurs also in some peridotites
+and serpentines, and rarely in volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline
+schists. Masses of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained
+gabbros of the Island of Skye, Le Prese near Bornio in Valtellina,
+Lombardy, Prato near Florence, and many other localities.
+
+The name diallage, from diallage, "difference," in allusion to the
+dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally applied by R.
+J. Hauey in 1801, included other minerals (the orthorhombic pyroxenes
+hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and the smaragdite variety of
+hornblende) which exhibit the same peculiarities of schiller structure;
+it is now limited to the monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like
+the minerals of similar appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut
+and polished for ornamental purposes.                        (L. J. S.)
+
+
+DIALOGUE, properly the conversation between two or more persons,
+reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the Greeks for
+purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction, and scarcely
+modified since the days of its invention. A dialogue is in reality a
+little drama without a theatre, and with scarcely any change of scene.
+It should be illuminated with those qualities which La Fontaine
+applauded in the dialogue of Plato, namely vivacity, fidelity of tone,
+and accuracy in the opposition of opinions. It has always been a
+favourite with those writers who have something to censure or to impart,
+but who love to stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to
+pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than
+indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing and noting
+down the undulations of human thought that it almost escapes analysis.
+All that is recorded, in any literature, of what pretend to be the
+actual words spoken by living or imaginary people is of the nature of
+dialogue. One branch of letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it.
+But in its technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek
+philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the
+extreme refinement of an art.
+
+The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form is
+commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose earliest
+experiment in it is believed to survive in the _Laches_. The Platonic
+dialogue, however, was founded on the mime, which had been cultivated
+half a century earlier by the Sicilian poets, Sophron and Epicharmus.
+The works of these writers, which Plato admired and imitated, are lost,
+but it is believed that they were little plays, usually with only two
+performers. The recently discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us
+some idea of their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced
+it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing
+element of character-drawing. He must have begun this about the year
+405, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection,
+especially in the cycle directly inspired by the death of Socrates. All
+his philosophical writings, except the _Apology_, are cast in this form.
+As the greatest of all masters of Greek prose style, Plato lifted his
+favourite instrument, the dialogue, to its highest splendour, and to
+this day he remains by far its most distinguished proficient. In the 2nd
+century a.d. Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his
+ironic dialogues "Of the Gods," "Of the Dead," "Of Love" and "Of the
+Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and philosophical
+error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he merely paints scenes
+of modern life. The title of Lucian's most famous collection was
+borrowed in the 17th century by two French writers of eminence, each of
+whom prepared _Dialogues des morts_. These were Fontenelle (1683) and
+Fenelon (1712). In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not
+been extensively employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713, for his
+Platonic treatise, _Hylas and Philonous_. Landor's _Imaginary
+Conversations_ (1821-1828) is the most famous example of it in the 19th
+century, although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In
+Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works
+published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of
+Valdes (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are
+celebrated. In Italian, collections of dialogues, on the model of Plato,
+have been composed by Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by
+Galiani (1770), by Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. In
+our own day, the French have returned to the original application of
+dialogue, and the inventions of "Gyp," of Henri Lavedan and of others,
+in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told in
+conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes
+of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with them. This kind of
+dialogue has been employed in English, and with conspicuous cleverness
+by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but it does not seem so easily appreciated by
+English as by French readers. (E.G.)
+
+
+DIALYSIS (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: luein], to
+loosen), in chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for
+separating colloidal and crystalline substances. He found that solutions
+could be divided into two classes according to their action upon a
+porous diaphragm such as parchment. If a solution, say of salt, be
+placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom, termed a "dialyser,"
+and the drum and its contents placed in a larger vessel of water, the
+salt will pass through the membrane. If the salt solution be replaced by
+one of glue, gelatin or gum, it will be found that the membrane is
+impermeable to these solutes. To the first class Graham gave the name
+"crystalloids," and to the second "colloids." This method is
+particularly effective in the preparation of silicic acid. By adding
+hydrochloric acid to a dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, no
+precipitate will fall and the solution will contain hydrochloric acid,
+an alkaline chloride, and silicic acid. If the solution be transferred
+to a dialyser, the hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass
+through the parchment, while the silicic acid will be retained.
+
+
+DIAMAGNETISM. Substances which, like iron, are attracted by the pole of
+an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as magnetic, all others being
+regarded as non-magnetic. It was noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that
+a number of so-called non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac,
+were influenced by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed
+the opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted
+upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more or less
+magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (_Experimental Researches_, vol. iii.)
+that while practically all natural substances are indeed acted upon by a
+sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only a comparatively small
+number that are attracted like iron, the great majority being repelled.
+Bodies of the latter class were termed by Faraday _diamagnetics_. The
+strongest diamagnetic substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility
+being--0.000014, and its permeability 0.9998. The diamagnetic quality of
+this metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet, and its
+repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once recognized before
+the date of Faraday's experiments. The metals gold, silver, copper,
+lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and
+platinum are attracted by a very strong pole. (See MAGNETISM.)
+
+
+DIAMANTE, FRA, Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato about 1400. He
+was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine community of that
+order, and was the friend and assistant of Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite
+convent of Prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been
+suppressed, and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving
+the destruction of the paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra
+Filippo in the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of
+the cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to
+Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings of the
+commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined to petition
+the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to Prato,--a proof
+that his share in the work was so important that his recall involved the
+suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted Fra Filippo in the execution
+of the frescoes still to be seen in the cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra
+Diamante completed in 1470 after his master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo
+left a son ten years old to the care of Diamante, who, having received
+200 ducats from the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work
+done in the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as
+Vasari says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small
+portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however, would
+depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra Diamante, and the
+terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo. Fra Diamante must have been
+nearly seventy when he completed the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact
+year of his death is not known.
+
+
+DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA (1640?-1684?), Spanish dramatist, was born at
+Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and began writing for the stage
+in 1657. He became a knight of Santiago in 1660; the date of his death
+is unknown, but no reference to him as a living author occurs after
+1684. Like many other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is
+deficient in originality, and his style is riddled with affectations;
+_La Desgraciada Raquel_, which was long considered to be his best play,
+is really Mira de Amescua's _Judia de Toledo_ under another title; and
+the earliest of Diamante's surviving pieces, _El Honrador de su padre_
+(1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille's Cid.
+Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of French
+dramatic methods into Spain.
+
+
+DIAMANTINA (formerly called _Tejuco_), a mining town of the state of
+Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly on a steep
+hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio Jequitinhonha (where
+diamond-washing was once carried on), and partly on the level plain
+above. The town is roughly but substantially built, with broad streets
+and large squares. It is the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal
+seminary, and has many churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous;
+they include a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum
+and a secondary school. There are several small manufactures, including
+cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on. The surrounding
+region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the lateral ranges of the
+Serra do Espinhaco, is rough and barren, but rich in minerals,
+principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is the commercial centre of an
+extensive region, and has long been noted for its wealth. The date of
+the discovery of diamonds, upon which its wealth and importance chiefly
+depend, is uncertain, but the official announcement was made in 1729,
+and in the following year the mines were declared crown property, with a
+crown reservation, known as the "forbidden district," 42 leagues in
+circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining was forbidden
+within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe
+restrictions. There are no trustworthy returns of the value of the
+output, but in 1849 the total was estimated up to that date at
+300,000,000 francs (see DIAMOND). The present name of the town was
+assumed (instead of Tejuco) in 1838, when it was made a _cidade_.
+
+
+DIAMANTINO, a small town of the state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the
+Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction with the Paraguay, in
+14 deg. 24' 33" S., 56 deg. 8' 30" W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality
+2147, mostly Indians. It stands in a broken sterile region 1837 ft. above
+sea-level and at the foot of the great Matto Grosso plateau. The first
+mining settlement dates from 1730, when gold was found in the vicinity.
+On the discovery of diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large
+population and for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet
+expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined.
+Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of export.
+
+
+DIAMETER (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: metron], measure),
+in geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic
+section and terminated by the curve; the "principal diameters" of the
+ellipse and hyperbola coincide with the "axes" and are at ...
+                          (_continued in volume 8, slice 4, page 0158._)
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+DETERMINANT, formula = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" - a"bc' - a"b'c.
+changed to = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c.
+
+DETMOLD, added missing comma after 'Detmold possesses a natural history
+museum'.
+
+DEVENTER, 'The "Athenaeum" disappeared' corrected from the original
+'disappered'.
+
+DEVIL, replaced comma with a period after 'according to 1 Chron. xxi'.
+
+DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF, 'In November 1684' originally 'Novembr'.
+
+DIAGRAM, 'found to be of use especially' originally 'epsecially'.
+
+DIAL, table angles on the dial, column IX. A.M. III. P.M. bottom entry
+corrected from '45 45' to '40 45'.
+
+DIAGRAM, missing closing parenthesis added after 'to mark out by lines'.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 30073.txt or 30073.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/0/7/30073/
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+https://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+https://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at https://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit https://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including including checks, online payments and credit card
+donations.  To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     https://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/old/30073.zip b/old/30073.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbcbfba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/old/30073.zip