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diff --git a/old/30036.txt b/old/30036.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0873897 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/30036.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3667 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Word Study and English Grammar, by Frederick W. Hamilton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Word Study and English Grammar + A Primer of Information about Words, Their Relations and Their Uses + +Author: Frederick W. Hamilton + +Release Date: September 19, 2009 [EBook #30036] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WORD STUDY AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Stephanie Eason, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net. + + + + + + + + + + TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI, NO. 32 + + WORD STUDY + AND + ENGLISH GRAMMAR + + + A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUT + WORDS THEIR RELATIONS + AND THEIR USES + + + BY + FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL.D. + + EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR + UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA + + + PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION + UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA + 1918 + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1918 + UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA + CHICAGO, ILL. + + + + +PREFACE + + +This volume, and those which follow it in Part VI of this series, is a +compilation from various sources. The occasion does not call for an +original treatise, but it does call for something somewhat different +from existing text-books. The books prepared for school use are too +academic and too little related to the specific needs of the apprentice +to serve the turn of those for whom this book is intended. On the other +hand the books for writers and printers are as a rule too advanced for +the best service to the beginner. The authors of this Part, therefore, +have tried to compile from a wide range of authorities such material as +would be suited to the needs and the experience of the young apprentice. + +The "Rules for the Use and Arrangement of Words" are taken with some +modifications from "How to Write Clearly," Edwin A. Abbott, Boston; +Roberts Bros. This is a very excellent little book but is now, I +believe, out of print. The tables of irregular verbs are the same as +those used in "English Grammar for Common Schools," Robert C. and Thomas +Metcalf, New York; American Book Co. + +The student is recommended to study some good grammar with great care. +There are many good grammars. The one used in the schools in the +apprentice's locality will probably do as well as any. + +The student should learn to use the dictionary intelligently and should +accustom himself to using it freely and frequently. + +The student should also learn to use words correctly and freely. There +are many good books devoted to the study of words, some of which ought +to be easily available. One of the latest and one of the best is +"Putnam's Word Book" published by Putnams, New York. It costs about a +dollar and a half. + + + + +CONTENTS + + PAGE + + INTRODUCTION: IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT 1 + + THE WORD FAMILIES 1 + + NOUNS 2 + + ADJECTIVES 5 + + ARTICLES 8 + + VERBS 8 + + PRONOUNS 15 + + ADVERBS 16 + + PREPOSITIONS 17 + + CONJUNCTIONS 17 + + INTERJECTIONS 18 + + GENERAL NOTES 18 + + RULES FOR CORRECT WRITING 20 + + THE SENTENCE 21 + + THE PARAGRAPH 21 + + RULES FOR THE USE AND ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS 22 + + COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF WORDS 24 + + TABLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS 40 + + SUPPLEMENTARY READING 47 + + REVIEW QUESTIONS 48 + + GLOSSARY OF TERMS 52 + + + + +WORD STUDY AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR + +_Importance of the Subject_ + + +Word study and English grammar are important to the young printer for +several reasons. In the first place, disregard of the correct use and +combination of words is a distinct mark of inferiority and a serious bar +to business and social advancement. A man's use of words is commonly +taken as a measure of his knowledge and even of his intelligence. +Carelessness in this regard often causes a man to be held in much less +esteem than he really deserves. + +In the second place, it is quite as important that the printer should +know something about the words and sentences which he puts on paper as +it is that he should know something about the paper on which he puts +them, or the type, ink, and press by means of which he puts them there. + +In the third place, knowledge of words and their uses is indispensable +to correct proofreading which is itself a branch of the printer's craft. +A working knowledge of words and their relations, that is, of rhetoric +and grammar is therefore a tool and a very important tool of the +printer. + +This little book is not intended to be either a rhetoric or a grammar. +It is only intended to review some of the simplest principles of both +subjects, to point out a few of the commonest mistakes, and to show the +importance to the apprentice of the careful study and constant use of +some of the many books on words, their combinations, and their uses. + + + + +_The Word Families_ + + +All the words in the English language belong to one or another of nine +families, each of which family has a special duty. If you will always +remember to which family a word belongs and just what that family does, +you will be saved from many very common errors. These nine families +are: 1, nouns; 2, adjectives; 3, articles; 4, verbs; 5, pronouns; 6, +adverbs; 7, prepositions; 8, conjunctions; 9, interjections. This order +of enumeration is not exactly the same as will be found in the grammars. +It is used here because it indicates roughly the order of the appearance +of the nine families in the logical development of language. Some forms +of interjections, however, may very probably have preceded any language +properly so called. + + + + +_Nouns_ + + +A noun is a word used as the name of anything that can be thought of, +_John_, _boy_, _paper_, _cold_, _fear_, _crowd_. There are three things +about a noun which indicate its relation to other words, its number, its +gender, and its case. There are two numbers, singular meaning one, and +plural meaning more than one. + +The plural is generally formed by adding _s_ to the singular. There are +a small number of nouns which form their plurals differently, _mouse_, +_mice_; _child_, _children_; _foot_, _feet_. These must be learned +individually from a dictionary or spelling book. There are some nouns +which undergo changes in the final syllable when the _s_ is added, +_torch_, _torches_; _staff_, _staves_; _fly_, _flies_. These also must +be learned individually. There are some nouns which have no singular, +such as _cattle_, _clothes_, some which have no plural, such as +_physics_, _honesty_, _news_, and some which are the same in both +singular and plural, such as _deer_, _trout_, _series_. Care must be +taken in the use of these nouns, as in some cases their appearance is +misleading, e. g., _mathematics_, _physics_, and the like are singular +nouns having no plural, but owing to their form they are often mistaken +for plurals. + +Compound nouns, that is to say, nouns formed by the combination of two +or three words which jointly express a single idea, generally change the +principal word in the forming of the plural, _hangers-on_, _ink +rollers_, but in a few cases both words change, for example, +_men-servants_. These forms must be learned by observation and practice. +It is very important, however, that they be thoroughly learned and +correctly used. Do not make such mistakes as _brother-in-laws_, +_man-servants_. + +Perhaps the most important use of number is in the relation between the +noun and the verb. The verb as well as the noun has number forms and the +number of the noun used as subject should always agree with that of the +verb with which it is connected. Such expressions as "pigs is pigs," +"how be you?" and the like, are among the most marked evidences of +ignorance to be found in common speech. When this paragraph was +originally written a group of high school boys were playing football +under the writer's window. Scraps of their talk forced themselves upon +his attention. Almost invariably such expressions as "you was," "they +was," "he don't," "it aint," and the like took the place of the +corresponding correct forms of speech. + +Collective nouns, that is the nouns which indicate a considerable number +of units considered as a whole, such as _herd_, _crowd_, _congress_, +present some difficulties because the idea of the individuals in the +collection interferes with the idea of the collection itself. The +collective nouns call for the singular form of the verb except where the +thought applies to the individual parts of the collection rather than to +the collection as a whole, for instance, we say, + + The crowd looks large. + +but we say, + + The crowd look happy. + +because in one case we are thinking of the crowd and in the other of the +persons who compose the crowd. So in speaking of a committee, we may say + + The Committee thinks that a certain thing should be done. + +or that + + The Committee think that a certain thing should be done. + +The first phrase would indicate that the committee had considered and +acted on the subject and the statement represented a formal decision. +The second phrase would indicate the individual opinions of the members +of the committee which might be in agreement but had not been expressed +in formal action. In doubtful cases it is safer to use the plural. + +Entire accuracy in these cases is not altogether easy. As in the case +with all the nice points of usage it requires practice and continual +self-observation. By these means a sort of language sense is developed +which makes the use of the right word instinctive. It is somewhat +analogous to that sense which will enable an experienced bank teller to +throw out a counterfeit bill instinctively when running over a large +pile of currency even though he may be at some pains to prove its +badness when challenged to show the reason for its rejection. + +The young student should not permit himself to be discouraged by the +apparent difficulty of the task of forming the habit of correct speech. +It is habit and rapidly becomes easier after the first efforts. + +The relation of a noun to a verb, to another noun, or to a preposition +is called its case. There are three cases called the nominative, +objective, and possessive. When the noun does something it is in the +nominative case and is called the subject of the verb. + + The man cuts. + +When the noun has something done to it it is in the objective case and +is called the object of the verb. + + The man cuts paper. + +When a noun depends on a preposition, it is also in the objective case +and is called the object of the preposition. + + The paper is cut by machinery. + +The preposition on which a noun depends is often omitted when not needed +for clearness. + + The foreman gave (to) the men a holiday. + + He came (on) Sunday. + + Near (to) the press. + + He was ten minutes late (late by ten minutes). + + He is 18 years old (old by or to the extent of 18 years). + +The nominative and objective cases of nouns do not differ in form. They +are distinguished by their positions in the sentence and their relations +to other words. + +When one noun owns another the one owning is in the possessive case. + + The man's paper is cut. + +The possessive case is shown by the form of the noun. It is formed by +adding _s_ preceded by an apostrophe to the nominative case, thus, + + John's hat. + +There is a considerable difference of usage regarding the formation of +the possessives of nouns ending in _s_ in the singular. The general rule +is to proceed as in other nouns by adding the apostrophe and the other +_s_ as _James's hat_. DeVinne advises following the pronunciation. Where +the second _s_ is not pronounced, as often happens to avoid the +prolonged hissing sound of another _s_, he recommends omitting it in +print. + + Moses' hat, for Moses's hat. + + For conscience' sake. + +Plural nouns ending in _s_ add the apostrophe only; ending in other +letters they add the apostrophe and _s_ like singular nouns, _the Jones' +house_, _the children's toys_. + +The possessive pronouns never take the apostrophe. We say _hers_, +_theirs_, _its_. _It's_ is an abbreviation for _it is_. + +Care should be taken in forming the possessives of phrases containing +nouns in apposition, or similar compound phrases. We should say "I +called at Brown the printer's" or "since William the Conqueror's time." + + + + +_Adjectives_ + + +An adjective is a word used to qualify, limit, or define a noun, or a +word or phrase which has the value of a noun. Nouns are ordinarily very +general and indefinite in meaning, for example, _man_ conveys only a +very general idea. To make that idea definite we need the help of one or +more descriptive words such as _black_, _tall_, _stout_, _good_. + + I saw a man. + +gives no definite idea of the person seen. + + I saw a tall, thin, dark, old man. + +presents a very definite picture. It will be noted that these +descriptive words have a way of forming combinations among themselves. +It must be remembered, however, that all the words thus used describe +the noun. Adjectives are sometimes used as substitutes for nouns. This +is one of the many verbal short cuts in which the English language +abounds. + + The good die young + +means good people die young. + + We should seek the good and beautiful + +means we should seek good or beautiful things, or persons, or qualities, +or perhaps everything good and beautiful. + +When adjectives indicate a quality they have three forms called degrees +indicating the extent or amount of the quality possessed by the noun +especially as compared with other objects of the same sort, _a big man_, +_a bigger man_, _the biggest man_. These degrees are called positive, +indicating possession of bigness; comparative, indicating possession of +more bigness than some other man; superlative, indicating possession of +more bigness than any other man. When we wish to tell the amount of the +quality without comparing the possessor with any other object or group +of objects we use a modifying word later to be described called an +adverb. + + I saw a very big man, + +indicates that the man possessed much bigness, but makes no comparison +with any other man or group of men. Comparison is generally indicated in +two ways, first, by adding to the adjectives the terminations _er_ and +_est_ as _high_, _higher_, _highest_, or, second, by using the words +_more_ and _most_, as _splendid_, _more splendid_, _most splendid_. The +question which of the two methods should be used is not always easy to +decide. It depends somewhat on usage and on euphony or agreeableness of +sound. + +Adjectives of three or more syllables use the long form, that is, the +additional word. We should not say _beautifuler_ or _beautifulest_. +Adjectives of two syllables may often be compared either way; for +example, it would be equally correct to say _nobler_ and _noblest_ or +_more noble_ and _most noble_. An example of the influence of euphony +may be found in the adjective _honest_. We might say _honester_ without +hesitation but we should be less likely to say _honestest_ on account of +the awkward combination of syllables involved. Adjectives of one +syllable usually take the short form but not invariably. The exceptions, +however, are more common in poetry than in prose. When any question +rises it is usually safer to use the long form of comparison in the case +of two-syllable adjectives and to use the short form in the case of +one-syllable adjectives. The proper use of the long form is one of those +niceties of diction which come only with careful observation and with +training of the ear and of the literary sense. + +The word _most_ should never be used, as it often is, in the place of +_almost_. Careless people say "I am most ready" meaning "I am almost, or +nearly ready." The phrase "I am most ready," really means "I am in the +greatest possible readiness." Such use of _most_ is common in old +English but much less so in modern speech. + +Two very common adjectives are irregularly compared. They are _good_, +_better_, _best_, and _bad_, _worse_, _worst_. In spite of the fact that +these adjectives are among the most common in use and their comparison +may be supposed to be known by everybody, one often hears the +expressions _gooder_, _goodest_, _more better_, _bestest_, _bader_, +_badest_, _worser_, and _worsest_. Needless to say, these expressions +are without excuse except that _worser_ is sometimes found in old +English. + +Illiterate people sometimes try to make their speech more forceful by +combining the two methods of comparison in such expressions as _more +prettier_, _most splendidest_. Such compounds should never be used. + +Some adjectives are not compared. They are easily identified by their +meaning. They indicate some quality which is of such a nature that it +must be possessed fully or not at all, _yearly_, _double_, _all_. Some +adjectives have a precise meaning in which they cannot be compared and a +loose or popular one in which they can be; for example, a thing either +is or is not _round_ or _square_. Nevertheless we use these words in +such a loose general way that it is not absolutely incorrect to say +_rounder_ and _roundest_ or _squarer_ and _squarest_. Such expressions +should be used with great care and avoided as far as possible. None but +the very ignorant would say _onliest_, but one often sees the +expressions _more_ and _most unique_. This is particularly bad English. +Unique does not mean _rare_, _unusual_; it means one of a kind, +absolutely unlike anything else. Clearly this is a quality which cannot +be possessed in degrees. An object either does or does not have it. + + + + +_Articles_ + + +An article is a little adjective which individualizes the noun, _a_ boy, +_an_ apple, _the_ crowd. + +_A_ which is used before consonantal sounds and _an_ which is used +before vowel sounds are called indefinite articles because they +individualize without specializing. _The_ is called the definite article +because it both individualizes and specializes. + +_A_ may be used before _o_ and _u_ if the sound is really consonantal as +in _such a one_, _a use_, _a utility_. _An_ may be used before _h_ if +the _h_ is not sounded, for example, _an hour_ but _a horror_. + + + + +_Verbs_ + + +A verb is a word which asserts or declares. In other words, it makes a +noun or pronoun tell something. _John paper_ tells nothing. _John wastes +paper_ tells something. Verbs are the most difficult of all the parts of +speech to understand and to use properly. As a rule, an English verb has +something more than fifty parts which, with their uses, should be +thoroughly learned from a grammar. This is not so difficult a matter as +it might appear, except to those whose native speech is not English. +Nevertheless you should be on the guard against such blunders as _I +seen_, _I seed_, for _I saw_, _I runned_ for _I ran_, _I et_ for _I +ate_, _I throwed_ for _I threw_, and the like. In most verbs these parts +are regular. In some they are irregular. A list of irregular verbs will +be found at the end of this volume. + +While the plan of this book does not call for a systematic study of +verbs any more than of any other words, it is desirable to call +attention to some points as being the occasions of frequent mistakes. + +A simple sentence consists of a verb, its subject, and its object. The +verb indicates the action, the subject is the noun (name of a person or +thing) which does the act, the object is the noun to which the thing is +done. Verbs have forms denoting person and number, for example: + + Singular Plural + + 1st I love 1st We love + 2nd You love (thou lovest) 2nd You love + formal and archaic. + 3rd He loves 3rd They love + + + Singular Plural + + 1st I was 1st We were + 2nd You were (thou wast) 2nd You were + 3rd He was 3rd They were + +Verbs agree with their subjects in person and number. We all know this +but we do not always remember it. Unless you are very careful, you will +find yourself using a singular subject with a plural verb or the +reverse. Mistakes of this sort are particularly liable to happen in the +case of collective nouns, in the use of personal pronouns as subjects, +and in cases where the subject and the verb are far separated in the +sentence. + +Those forms of the verb which tell whether the subject is acting or is +acted upon are called voices. When the subject is acting the verb is +said to be in the active voice. When the subject is acted upon the verb +is said to be in the passive voice. Verbs in the passive voice have no +objects because the subject, being acted upon, is itself in the place of +an object. + +Those forms of the verb which tell whether the time of the action is +past, present, or future, are called tenses. They are six, viz. + + Present, I _print_ (_am printing_) the book. + + Past or imperfect, I _printed_ the book. + + Future, I _shall print_ the book. + + Perfect, or present perfect, I _have printed_ the book. + + Pluperfect or past perfect, I _had printed_ the book before you + wrote. + + Future perfect, I will notify you when I _shall have printed_ the + book. + +When adverbs denoting time are indicated care should be taken to see +that the verb is consistent with the adverb. "I _printed_ it yesterday," +not "I _have printed_ it yesterday;" "I _have not_ yet _printed_ it," +not "I _did_ not _print_ it yet;" "I _have printed_ it already," not "I +_printed_ it already." + +Trouble is sometimes found in choosing the right forms of the verb to be +used in subordinate clauses. The rule is: + +Verbs in subordinate sentences and clauses must be governed by the tense +of the principal verb. + +This rule rests on the exact meaning of the forms and words used and its +application can be checked by careful examination of these meanings. "He +_said_ he _did_ it." "He _said_ he _would do_ it." "He _says_ he _will_ +do it." + +Note that when the statement in the subordinate clause is of universal +application the present tense is always used whatever the tense of the +principal verb. "The lecturer said that warm weather always softens +rollers." + +Those forms of the verb which tell whether the action is an actual fact, +a possibility, a condition, or a command are called moods. + +There are three moods, the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. + +The indicative mood indicates that the action is a fact. It is also used +in asking questions. + +The subjunctive mood is less used in modern than in old English. It is +most commonly found in clauses beginning with _if_, though _if_ is not +to be regarded as the sign of the subjunctive in any such sense as _to_ +is the sign of the infinitive. + +The subjunctive _were_ should be used in purely hypothetical clauses +such as "If I were in your place." + +The subjunctive _be_ should be used in the hypothesis or supposition of +a scientific demonstration, + + If the triangle A be placed on the triangle B. + +The subjunctive without _if_ is often used in wishes or prayers, + + God forgive him. + + O, that my brother were here. + +The subjunctive is sometimes used to express condition, + + Had you not been a coward, you would not have run away. + +The imperative mood indicates a command, + + Put that on the press. + +The subject of the imperative mood is only expressed when it is +emphatic, + + Go thou and do likewise. + +Older grammarians speak of a fourth mood called potential. The present +tendency among grammarians is to treat these forms separately. They are +verb phrases which express ability, possibility, obligation, or +necessity. They are formed by the use of the auxiliary verbs _may_, +_can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, and _should_, with the +infinitive without _to_. + +_May_ is used (a) to show that the subject is permitted to do something, +"You may go out," or (b) to indicate possibility or doubtful intention, +"I may not go to work tomorrow." + +_Can_ is used to show that the subject is able to do something, "I can +feed a press." These two forms are often confused, with results which +would be ridiculous if they were not too common to attract attention. +The confusion perhaps arises from the fact that the ability to do a +thing often appears to depend on permission to do it. "May I see a +proof?" means "Have I permission, or will you allow me, to see a proof?" +and is the proper way to put the question. The common question, "Can I +see a proof?" is absurd. Of course you can, if you have normal eyesight. + +_Must_ shows necessity or obligation. + + You must obey the rules of the office. + +_Ought_ which is sometimes confounded with _must_ in phrases of this +sort expresses moral obligation as distinguished from necessity. + + You ought to obey the rules of the office, + +indicates that it is your duty to obey because it is the right thing to +do even though no penalty is attached. + + You must obey the rules of the office, + +indicates that you will be punished if you do not obey. + +Those forms of the verb which express the time of the action are called +tenses. No particular difficulty attends the use of the tenses except in +the case of _shall_ and _will_ and _should_ and _would_. + +_Shall_ and _will_ are used as follows: In simple statements to express +mere futurity, use _shall_ in the first person, _will_ in the second and +third; to express volition, promise, purpose, determination, or action +which the speaker means to control use _will_ in the first person, +_shall_ in the second and third. + +The following tables should be learned and practiced in a large variety +of combinations. + + Futurity Volition, etc. + + I shall We shall I will We will + You will You will You shall You shall + He will They will He shall They shall + +A good example of the misuse of the words is found in the old story of +the foreigner who fell into the water and cried out in terror and +despair "I _will_ drown, nobody _shall_ help me." + +In asking questions, for the first person always use _shall_, for the +second and third use the auxiliary expected in the answer. + + Futurity + + Shall I (I shall) Shall we (We shall) + Shall you (I shall) Shall you (We shall) + Will he (He will) Will they (They will) + + + Volition, etc. + + ---- ---- ---- ---- + Will you (I will) Will you (We will) + Shall he (He shall) Shall he (He shall) + +In all other cases, as in subordinate clauses _shall_ is used in all +persons to express mere futurity, _will_ to express volition, etc. + +In indirect discourse, when the subject of the principal clause is +different from the noun clause, the usage is like that in direct +statement, for example, + + The teacher says that James will win the medal. (futurity), + +but when the subject of the principal clause is the same as that of the +noun clause, the usage is like that in subordinate clauses, + + The teacher says that he shall soon resign. (futurity). + +Exceptions. _Will_ is often used in the second person to express an +official command. + + You will report to the superintendent at once. + +_Shall_ is sometimes used in the second and third persons in a prophetic +sense. + + Ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free. + +The use of _should_ and _would_ is in general the same as that of +_shall_ and _will_ in indirect statement. + + Futurity. + + I should We would + You would You should + He would They should + +In asking questions use _should_ in the first person to express mere +futurity and _would_ to express volition, etc; in the second and third +persons use the form that is expected in the answer. + + Futurity + + Should I (I should) Should we (We should) + Should You (I should) Should You (We should) + Would he (He would) Would they (They would) + + + Volition, etc. + + Would I (I would) Would we (We would) + Would You (You would) Would You (We would) + Should he (He should) Should they (They should) + +In subordinate clauses _should_ is used in all persons to express +futurity, _would_ to express volition, etc. + +In indirect discourse the usage is similar to that in direct statement. + + The teacher said that John would win the medal. + +Exceptions. _Should_ is often used to express moral obligation. + + You should be honest under all conditions. + +_Would_ is sometimes used to express frequentive action. + + He would walk the floor night after night. + +Mistakes are often made in the use of compound tenses on account of +failure to grasp the meaning of the words used. + + I should have liked to have seen you, + +is correct grammar but probably not correct statement of fact, as it +states a past desire to have done something at a period still further +remote, that is to say, "I should have liked (yesterday) to have seen +you (day before yesterday)." What is generally meant is either "I should +have liked to see you," that is "I (then) wished to see you," or "I +should like to have seen you," that is "I (now) wish I had seen you +(then)." + +Every word has its own value and nearly all our mistakes arise from lack +of regard for the exact value of the words to be used. + +Where a participial construction is used as the object of a verb, the +noun or pronoun in the object should be in the possessive case and not +in the objective. You should not say, "I object to him watching me," but +"I object to his watching me." + +Care should be taken not to give objects to passive verbs. The very +common expression "The man was given a chance" is incorrect. It should +be "A chance was given to the man." + +Care should also be taken to avoid the omission of the prepositions +which are needed with certain verbs, for example, "beware the dog," +"What happened him" should be "beware _of_ the dog," "What happened _to_ +him." + +On the other hand superfluous prepositions are sometimes used in such +phrases as _consider of_, _accept of_ and the like. + +Such errors are to be avoided by careful study of the meaning of words +and careful observation of the best written and spoken speech. + + + + +_Pronouns_ + + +Pronouns are substitutes for nouns. They are labor saving devices. We +could say everything which we need to say without them, but at the +expense of much repetition of longer words. A child often says "John +wants Henry's ball" instead of "I want your ball." Constant remembrance +of this simple fact, that a pronoun is only a substitute for a noun, is +really about all that is needed to secure correct usage after the +pronouns themselves have once become familiar. A construction which +appears doubtful can often be decided by substituting nouns for pronouns +and vice versa. + +A very common error is the use of the plural possessive pronouns with +the words _any_, _every_, _each_, _somebody_, _everybody_, and _nobody_, +all of which are always singular. + + We could accomplish this if every one would do their part. + +is wrong. It should be + + We could accomplish this if every one would do his part. + +Another common mistake is the confusion of the nominative and objective +cases in objective clauses where two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun +occur. + + All this was done for you and I. + +is a very common but entirely inexcusable mistake. One would hardly +think of saying + + "All this was done for I." + + I saw John and he leaving the shop. + +is almost equally common and quite equally bad. Do not allow yourself to +be confused by a double object. + +In general great care should be taken to avoid ambiguity in the use of +pronouns. It is very easy to multiply and combine pronouns in such a way +that while grammatical rules may not be broken the reader may be left +hopelessly confused. Such ambiguous sentences should be cleared up, +either by a rearrangement of the words or by substitution of nouns for +some of the pronouns. + + + + +_Adverbs_ + + +An adverb is a helper to a verb, "I fear greatly," "that press works +badly." Adverbs modify or help verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs just +as adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. The use of adverbs presents +some difficulties, mainly arising from the adverbial use of many other +parts of speech and from the close relation between adverbs and +adjectives. + +It should never be forgotten that while adverbs never modify nouns or +pronouns, adjectives never modify anything but nouns or pronouns. +Remembrance of this simple fact will settle most questions as to the use +of adverbs or adjectives. Careful observation and care in forming +correct habits of expression will do the rest. + +Do not multiply negatives. They cancel each other like the factors in an +arithmetical problem. "He never did wrong" is correct in statement and +clear in meaning. "He never did nothing wrong" does not add force, it +reverses the meaning. The negatives have cancelled each other and you +are saying "He did wrong." "He never did nothing wrong to nobody" leaves +us with an odd negative and brings us back to the first statement, very +badly expressed. + + + + +_Prepositions_ + + +A preposition is a hook for a noun or pronoun to hang on. It usually +precedes the noun or pronoun which hangs, or depends upon it, as +indicated by its name which is derived from the Latin _pre_-before and +_pono_-I place. + + John is behind the press. + + I shall work until Sunday. + +A preposition shows the relation of a noun or pronoun used as its object +to some other word or words in the sentence or, as it has been otherwise +stated, makes the noun or pronoun to which it is joined equivalent to an +adjective or an adverb. The expression "John is behind the press" is +equivalent to an adjective describing John. That is, he is "John +behind-the-press." Prepositions are governing words and the words +governed by or depending on them are always in the objective case. + + + + +_Conjunctions_ + + +A conjunction is the coupling link between the parts of a train of +thought. It is of no purpose whatever except to connect. + + I am cold and hungry and tired and I am going home. + +Care should be taken to avoid confusing _and_ and _but_ and _and_ and +_or_. + + He sees the right and does the wrong. + +should be + + He sees the right but does the wrong. + +The ideas are contrasted, not associated. + + I did not see Thomas and John. + +should be + + I did not see Thomas or John. + +The first phrase means that I did not see them together, it says nothing +about seeing them separately. + +_Either_--_or_ and _neither_--_nor_ are called correlative conjunctions. +They should always be paired in this way. _Neither_ should never be +paired with _or_ nor _either_ with _nor_. Each member of the pair +should be placed in the same relative position, that is before the same +part of speech. + + I could neither see him nor his father. + +is wrong. It should be + + I could see neither him nor his father. + +This rule applies to all other correlatives, that is since they are +correlatives in form they should be correlatives in position also. It is +correct to say + + It belongs both to you and to me. + +or + + It belongs to both you and me. + +but not + + It belongs both to you and me. + + + + +_Interjections_ + + +An interjection is a word or sound expressing emotion only such as a +shout, a groan, a hiss, a sob, or the like, such as _Oh_, _alas_, +_hush_. + + + + +_General Notes_ + + +The position of words in a sentence is often very important. +Misplacement will frequently cause ambiguities and absurdities which +punctuation will not remove. What does the phrase "I only saw him" mean? +A newspaper advertisement describing a certain dog which was offered for +sale says "He is thoroughly house-broken, will eat anything, is very +fond of children." As a rule modifiers should be kept close to the +words, clauses, or phrases which they modify, but due regard should be +given to sense and to ease of expression. + +A word or phrase which can be easily supplied from the context may often +be omitted. Care must be used in making these omissions or the result +will be either ambiguous or slovenly. + + Washington is nearer New York than Chicago. + +What exactly does this mean? One might get into serious trouble over the +interpretation of the phrase "He likes me better than you." + +_All day_ and _all night_ are recognized as good expressions sanctioned +by long usage. _All morning_ and _all afternoon_ are not yet sanctioned +by good usage and give a decided impression of slovenliness. + +Another objectionable omission is that of _to_ before _place_ and +similar words in such expressions as "Let's go some place" and the like. +It should be _to some place_ or, generally better, _somewhere_. + +A decidedly offensive abbreviation is the phrase _Rev. Smith_. It should +be _Rev. John Smith_ or _Rev. Mr. Smith_. _Rev._ is not a title, or a +noun in apposition, but an adjective. It would be entirely correct to +say _Pastor Smith_ or _Bishop Smith_. The same error sometimes occurs in +using the prefix _Hon._ + +A knowledge of the correct use and combination of words is fully as +important as a knowledge of their grammatical forms and their relations. +This knowledge should be acquired by the use of books on rhetoric and by +careful study of words themselves. The materials for such study may be +found in the books named in the "Supplementary Reading" or in other +books of a similar character. + +The task of the writer or speaker is to say what he has to say +correctly, clearly, and simply. He must say just what he means. He must +say it definitely and distinctly. He must say it, so far as the subject +matter will permit, in words that people of ordinary intelligence and +ordinary education cannot misunderstand. "The right word in the right +place" should be the motto of every man who speaks or writes, and this +rule should apply to his everyday talk as well as to more formal +utterances. + +Three abuses are to be avoided. + +Do not use slang as a means of expression. There are occasions when a +slang phrase may light up what you are saying or may carry it home to +intellects of a certain type. Use it sparingly if at all, as you would +use cayenne pepper or tabasco sauce. Do not use it in writing at all. +Slang is the counterfeit coin of speech. It is a substitute, and a very +poor substitute, for language. It is the refuge of those who neither +understand real language nor know how to express themselves in it. + +Do not use long, unusual words. Use short and simple words whenever they +will serve your turn. It is a mistake to suppose that a fluent use of +long words is a mark either of depth of thought or of extent of +information. The following bit of nonsense is taken from the news +columns of a newspaper of good standing: "The topography about Puebla +avails itself easily to a force which can utilize the heights above the +city with cannon." What was meant was probably something like this, "The +situation of Puebla is such as to give a great advantage to a force +which can plant cannon on the high ground overlooking the city." + +Do not use inflated or exaggerated words. + +A _heavy shower_ is not a _cloud burst_; a _gale_ is not a _blizzard_; a +_fire_ is not a _conflagration_; an _accident_ or a _defeat_ is not a +_disaster_; a _fatal accident_ is not a _holocaust_; a _sharp criticism_ +is not an _excoriation_ or _flaying_, and so on. + + + + +_Rules for Correct Writing_ + + +More than a century ago the great Scotch rhetorician Campbell framed +five canons or rules for correct writing. They have never been improved. +They should be learned by heart, thoroughly mastered, and constantly +practiced by every writer and speaker. They are as follows: + +Canon 1.--When, of two words or phrases in equally good use, one is +susceptible of two significations and the other of but one, preference +should be given to the latter: e. g., _admittance_ is better than +_admission_, as the latter word also means _confession_; _relative_ is +to be preferred to _relation_, as the latter also means the telling of a +story. + +Canon 2.--In doubtful cases regard should be given to the analogy of the +language; _might better_ should be preferred to _had better_, and _would +rather_ is better than _had rather_. + +Canon 3.--The simpler and briefer form should be preferred, other things +being equal, e. g., omit the bracketed words in expressions such as, +_open_ (_up_), _meet_ (_together_), _follow_ (_after_), _examine_ +(_into_), _trace_ (_out_), _bridge_ (_over_), _crave_ (_for_), etc. + +Canon 4.--Between two forms of expression in equally good use, prefer +the one which is more euphonious: e. g., _most beautiful_ is better than +_beautifullest_, and _more free_ is to be preferred to _freer_. + +Canon 5.--In cases not covered by the four preceding canons, prefer that +which conforms to the older usage: e. g., _begin_ is better than +_commence_. + + + + +_The Sentence_ + + +The proper construction of sentences is very important to good writing. +The following simple rules will be of great assistance in sentence +formation. They should be carefully learned and the pupil should be +drilled in them. + +1. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of +thought. Avoid heterogeneous sentences. + +2. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by adverbs +used as conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the +beginning of the sentence. + +3. The connection between two long sentences or paragraphs sometimes +requires a short intervening sentence showing the transition of thought. + + + + +_The Paragraph_ + + +The proper construction of paragraphs is also of great importance. The +following rules will serve as guides for paragraphing. They should be +learned and the pupil should be drilled in their application. + +1. A sentence which continues the topic of the sentence which precedes +it rather than introduces a new topic should never begin a paragraph. + +2. Each paragraph should possess a single central topic to which all the +statements in the paragraph should relate. The introduction of a single +statement not so related to the central topic violates the unity. + +3. A sentence or short passage may be detached from the paragraph to +which it properly belongs if the writer wishes particularly to emphasize +it. + +4. For ease in reading, a passage which exceeds three hundred words in +length may be broken into two paragraphs, even though no new topic has +been developed. + +5. Any digression from the central topic, or any change in the viewpoint +in considering the central topic, demands a new paragraph. + +6. Coherence in a paragraph requires a natural and logical order of +development. + +7. Smoothness of diction in a paragraph calls for the intelligent use of +proper connective words between closely related sentences. A common +fault, however, is the incorrect use of such words as _and_ or _but_ +between sentences which are not closely related. + +8. In developing the paragraph, emphasis is secured by a careful +consideration of the relative values of the ideas expressed, giving to +each idea space proportionate to its importance to the whole. This +secures the proper climax. + +9. The paragraph, like the composition itself, should possess clearness, +unity, coherence, and emphasis. It is a group of related sentences +developing a central topic. Its length depends upon the length of the +composition and upon the number of topics to be discussed. + + + + +_Rules for the Use and Arrangement of Words_ + + +The following rules for the use and arrangement of words will be found +helpful in securing clearness and force. + +1. Use words in their proper sense. + +2. Avoid useless circumlocution and "fine writing." + +3. Avoid exaggerations. + +4. Be careful in the use of _not_ ... _and_, _any_, _but_, _only_, _not_ +... _or_, _that_. + +5. Be careful in the use of ambiguous words, e. g., _certain_. + +6. Be careful in the use of _he_, _it_, _they_, _these_, etc. + +7. Report a speech in the first person where necessary to avoid +ambiguity. + +8. Use the third person where the exact words of the speaker are not +intended to be given. + +9. When you use a participle implying _when_, _while_, _though_, or +_that_, show clearly by the context what is implied. + +10. When using the relative pronoun, use _who_ or _which_, if the +meaning is _and he_ or _and it_, _for he_ or _for it_. + +11. Do not use _and which_ for _which_. + +12. Repeat the antecedent before the relative where the non-repetition +causes any ambiguity. + +13. Use particular for general terms. Avoid abstract nouns. + +14. Avoid verbal nouns where verbs can be used. + +15. Use particular persons instead of a class. + +16. Do not confuse metaphor. + +17. Do not mix metaphor with literal statement. + +18. Do not use poetic metaphor to illustrate a prosaic subject. + +19. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i. e., for the most +part, at the beginning or the end of the sentence. + +20. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end. + +21. The Subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be transferred from +the beginning of the sentence. + +22. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis. + +23. Where several words are emphatic make it clear which is the most +emphatic. Emphasis can sometimes be given by adding an epithet, or an +intensifying word. + +24. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are +grammatically connected. + +25. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to +qualify. + +26. _Only_; the strict rule is that _only_ should be placed before the +word it affects. + +27. When _not only_ precedes _but also_ see that each is followed by the +same part of speech. + +28. _At least_, _always_, and other adverbial adjuncts sometimes produce +ambiguity. + +29. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define. + +30. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the +intervention of any other noun. + +31. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close +together as possible. Avoid parentheses. + +32. In conditional sentences the antecedent or "if-clauses" must be kept +distinct from the consequent clauses. + +33. Dependent clauses preceded by _that_ should be kept distinct from +those that are independent. + +34. Where there are several infinitives those that are dependent on the +same word must be kept distinct from those that are not. + +35. In a sentence with _if_, _when_, _though_, etc. put the "if-clause" +first. + +36. Repeat the subject where its omission would cause obscurity or +ambiguity. + +37. Repeat a preposition after an intervening conjunction especially if +a verb and an object also intervene. + +38. Repeat conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and pronominal adjectives. + +39. Repeat verbs after the conjunctions _than_, _as_, etc. + +40. Repeat the subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of +what has been said, if the sentence is so long that it is difficult to +keep the thread of meaning unbroken. + +41. Clearness is increased when the beginning of the sentence prepares +the way for the middle and the middle for the end, the whole forming a +kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax." + +42. When the thought is expected to ascend but descends, feebleness, and +sometimes confusion, is the result. The descent is called "bathos." + +43. A new construction should not be introduced unexpectedly. + + + + +_Common Errors in the Use of Words_ + + +The following pages contain a short list of the more common errors in +the use of words. Such a list might be extended almost indefinitely. It +is only attempted to call attention to such mistakes as are, for +various reasons, most liable to occur. + +_A_ should be repeated for every individual. "A red and black book" +means one book, "a red and a black book" means two. + +_Abbreviate_, and _abridge_; _abbreviation_ is the shortening of a piece +of writing no matter how accomplished. An _abridgement_ is a +condensation. + +_Ability_, power to do something, should be distinguished from +_capacity_, power to receive something. + +_Above_ should not be used as an adjective, e. g., "The statement made +in _above_ paragraph." Substitute _preceding_, _foregoing_, or some +similar adjective. + +_Accept_, not _accept of_. + +_Accredit_, to give one credentials should be distinguished from +_credit_, to believe what one says. + +_Administer_ is often misused. One _administers_ a dose of medicine, the +laws, an oath, or the government; one does not _administer_ a blow. + +_Administer to_ is often incorrectly used for _minister to_, e. g., "The +red cross nurse _administers to_ the wounded." + +_Admire_ should not be used to express delight, as in the phrase "I +should _admire_ to do so." + +_Admit_ should be distinguished from _confess_. + +_Advent_ should be distinguished from _arrival_, _advent_ meaning an +epoch-making _arrival_. + +_Affable_ means "easy to speak to" and should not be confused with +_agreeable_. + +_Affect_ should be distinguished from _effect_. To _affect_ is to +influence; to _effect_ is to cause or bring about. + +_Aggravate_ should not be used for _annoy_ or _vex_ or _provoke_. It +means "to make worse." + +_Ain't_ is a corruption of _am not_. It is inelegant though grammatical +to say I _ain't_ but absolutely incorrect in other persons and numbers. + +_Alike_ should not be accompanied by _both_ as in the phrase "They are +_both alike_ in this respect." + +_All_, _All right_ should never be written _alright_. _All_ and +_universally_ should never be used together. _All_ should not be +accompanied by _of_, e. g., "He received _all of_ the votes." Be careful +about the use of _all_ in negative statements. Do not say "All present +are not printers" when you mean "Not all present are printers." The +first statement means there are no printers present, the second means +there are some printers present. + +_Allege_ is a common error for _say_, _state_, and the like. It means +"to declare," "to affirm," or "to assert with the idea of positiveness" +and is not applicable to ordinary statements not needing emphasis. + +_Allow_ means _permit_, never _think_ or _admit_. + +_Allude to_ is not the same as _mention_. A person or thing alluded to +is not mentioned but indirectly implied. + +_Alone_ which means _unaccompanied_ should be distinguished from _only_ +which means _no other_. + +_Alternative_ should never be used in speaking of more than two things. + +_Altogether_ is not the same as _all together_. + +_Among_ should not be used with _one another_, e. g., "They divided the +spoil _among one another_." It should be "among themselves." + +_And_ should not be placed before a relative pronoun in such a position +as to interfere with the construction. It should not be substituted for +_to_ in such cases as "Try _and_ take more exercise." + +_And which_ should not be used for _which_. + +_Another_ should be followed by _than_ not _from_, e. g., "Men of +another temper _from_ (_than_) the Greeks." + +_Answer_ is that which is given to a question; _reply_ to an assertion. + +_Anticipate_ should not be used in the sense of _expect_. It means "to +forestall." + +_Anxious_ should not be confused with _desirous_. It means "feeling +anxiety." + +_Any_ is liable to ambiguity unless it is used with care. "Any of them" +may be either singular or plural. "It is not intended for _any_ machine" +may mean "There is no machine for which it is intended," or "It is not +intended for every machine, but only for a special type." + +_Anybody else's_, idiomatic and correct. + +_Anyhow_, bad, do not use it. + +_Apparently_ is used of what seems to be real but may not be so. It +should not be confused with _evidently_ which is used of what both seems +to be and is real. + +_Appear_ is physical in its meaning and should be distinguished from +_seem_ which expresses a mental experience. "The forest _appears_ to be +impenetrable," "This does not _seem_ to me to be right." + +_Apt_ means "skilful" and should never be used in place of _likely_ or +_liable_. It also means "having a natural tendency." + +_As_ should not be used as a causal conjunction, e. g., "Do not expect +me _as_ I am too uncertain of my time." The word _as_ stands here as a +contraction of inasmuch. Substitute a semicolon, or make two sentences. + +_As to_ is redundant in such expressions as "_As to_ how far we can +trust him I cannot say." + +_At_ is often incorrectly used for _in_, e. g., "He lives _at_ Chicago." +It is also improperly used in such expressions as "Where is he _at_?" + +_As that_ should not be used for _that_ alone. Do not say "So _as that_ +such and such a thing may happen." + +_Audience_ is not the same as _spectators_. An _audience_ listens; +_spectators_ merely see. A concert has an _audience_; a moving picture +show has _spectators_. + +_Aught_ means "anything" and should not be confused with _naught_ or the +symbol _0_ which means "nothing." + +_Avenge_ means to redress wrongs done to others; _revenge_ wrong done to +ourselves. _Avenge_ usually implies just retribution. _Revenge_ may be +used of malicious retaliation. + +_Avocation_ should not be confused with _vocation_. A man's _vocation_ +is his principal occupation. His _avocation_ is his secondary +occupation. + +_Aware_ is not the same as _conscious_. We are _aware_ of things outside +of ourselves; we are _conscious_ of sensations or things within +ourselves. + +_Awful_ and _awfully_ are two very much abused words. They mean "awe +inspiring" and should never be used in any other sense. + +_Badly_ should not be used for _very much_. It should not be confused +with the adjective _bad_. "He looks badly" means he makes a bad use of +his eyes, say "He looks bad." + +_Bank on_ is slang. Say _rely on_ or _trust in_. + +_Beg_ is often incorrectly used in the sense of _beg leave_, not "I +_beg_ to say" but "I _beg leave_ to say." + +_Beside_, meaning "by the side of" should not be confused with _besides_ +meaning "in addition to." + +_Between_ applies only to two persons or things. + +_Blame on_ as a verb should never be used. + +_Both_, when _both--and_ are used be sure they connect the right words, +"He can both spell and punctuate" not "He both can spell and punctuate." +Do not use such expressions as "They both resemble each other." Be +careful to avoid confusion in the use of negative statements. Do not say +"Both cannot go" when you mean that one can go. + +_Bound_ in the sense of _determined_ is an Americanism and is better +avoided. We say "he is _bound_ to do it" meaning "he is _determined_ to +do it," but the phrase really means "He is under bonds, or obligation to +do it." + +_Bring_ should be carefully distinguished from _fetch_, _carry_ and +_take_. _Bring_ means to transfer toward the speaker. _Fetch_ means to +go and bring back. _Carry_ and _take_ mean to transfer from the speaker, +e. g., "_Bring_ a book home from the library." "_Fetch_ me a glass of +water." "_Carry_ this proof to the proofreader." "_Take_ this book +home." + +_But_ is sometimes used as a preposition and when so used takes the +objective case. "The boy stood on the burning deck whence all _but_ him +had fled." _But_ should not be used in connection with _that_ unless +intended to express the opposite of what the meaning would be without +it, e. g., "I have no doubt _but that_ he will die" is incorrect because +his death is expected. "I have no fear _but that_ he will come" is +correct, as the meaning intended is "I am sure he will come." + +_But what_ is often incorrectly used for _but that_. "I cannot believe +_but what_ he is guilty" probably means "I can but believe that he is +guilty." "I _cannot but_ believe" means "I must believe." + +_Calculate_ does not mean _think_ or _suppose_. + +_Calculated_ does not mean _likely_. It means "intended or planned for +the purpose." + +_Can_ which indicates ability is to be distinguished from _may_ which +indicates permission. + +_Cannot but_ should be carefully distinguished from _can but_, e. g., "I +_can but_ try" means "All I can do is try." "I _cannot but try_" means +"I cannot help trying." + +_Can't seem_ should not be used for _seem unable_, e. g., "I _can't +seem_ to see it." + +_Childlike_ should be carefully distinguished from _childish_. +_Childish_ refers particularly to the weakness of the child. + +_Come_ should not be confused with _Go_. _Come_ denotes motion toward +the speaker; _go_ motion from the speaker, "If you will come to see me, +I will go to see you." + +_Common_ should be distinguished from _mutual_. _Common_ means "shared +in common." _Mutual_ means "reciprocal" and can refer to but two persons +or things. A _common_ friend is a friend two or more friends have in +common. _Mutual_ friendship is the friendship of two persons for each +other. + +_Compare to_, _liken to_, _compare with_, means "measure by" or "point +out similarities and differences." + +_Condign_ means "suitable" or "deserved," not necessarily _severe_. + +_Condone_ means "to forgive" or "nullify by word or act," not "make +amends for." + +_Consider_ in the sense of _regard as_ should not usually be followed by +_as_, e. g., "I consider him a wise man," not "_as_ a wise man." + +_Contemptible_ is used of an object of contempt and it should be +distinguished from _contemptuous_ which is used of what is directed at +such an object, e. g., "He is a _contemptible_ fellow." "I gave him a +_contemptuous_ look." + +_Continual_ should not be confused with _continuous_. _Continual_ means +"frequently repeated." _Continuous_ means "uninterrupted." + +_Convene_, which means "to come together," should not be confused with +_convoke_ which means "to bring or call together." A legislature +_convenes_. It cannot be _convened_ by another, but it can be +_convoked_. + +_Crime_ is often used for offenses against the speaker's sense of right. +Properly _crime_ is a technical word meaning "offenses against law." A +most innocent action may be a _crime_ if it is contrary to a statute. +The most sinful, cruel, or dishonest action is no _crime_ unless +prohibited by a statute. + +_Dangerous_ should not be used for _dangerously ill_. + +_Data_ is plural. + +_Deadly_, "that which inflicts death" should not be confused with +_deathly_, "that which resembles death." + +_Decided_ must not be confused with _decisive_. A _decided_ victory is a +clear and unmistakable victory. A _decisive_ victory is one which +decides the outcome of a war or of a campaign. + +_Decimate_ means to take away one-tenth. It is not properly used in a +general way of the infliction of severe losses. + +_Definite_ which means "well defined" should not be confused with +_definitive_ which means "final." + +_Demean_ is related to _demeanor_ and means "behave." It should be +carefully distinguished from _degrade_ or _lower_. + +_Die._ We die _of_ a certain disease, not _with_ or _from_ it. + +_Differ_ in the sense of disagree is followed by _with_. "I _differ +with_ you." _Differ_ as indicating unlikeness is followed by _from_. + +_Different_ should be followed by _from_ never by _with_, _than_, or +_to_. + +_Directly_ should not be used for _as soon as_. + +_Discover_, "to find something which previously existed" should be +distinguished from _invent_ something for the first time. + +_Disinterested_ means "having no financial or material interest in a +thing." It should be carefully distinguished from _uninterested_ which +means "taking no interest in" a thing. + +_Dispense_, "to distribute" should not be confused with _dispense with_, +"to do without." + +_Disposition_ is not the same as _disposal_. + +_Distinguish_ which means "to perceive differences" should not be +confused with _differentiate_ which means "to make or constitute a +difference." + +_Divide_ should be carefully distinguished from _distribute_. + +_Don't_ is a contraction of do not. _Doesn't_ is the contraction for +does not. _I don't_, _they don't_, _he doesn't_. + +_Due_ should not be used for _owing to_ or _because of_. + +_Each_ is distributive and is always singular. _Each other_ which is +applicable to two only should not be confused with _one another_ which +is applicable to more than two. + +_Egotist_, a man with a high or conceited opinion of himself, should not +be confused with _egoist_ which is the name for a believer in a certain +philosophical doctrine. + +_Either_ is distributive and therefore singular and should never be used +of more than two. + +_Elegant_ denotes delicacy and refinement and should not be used as a +term of general approval. + +_Else_ should be followed by _than_, not by _but_. "No one else _than_ +(not _but_) he could have done so much." + +_Emigrant_, one who goes out of a country should not be confused with +_immigrant_, one who comes into a country. + +_Enormity_ is used of wickedness, cruelty, or horror, not of great size, +for which _enormousness_ should be used. We speak of the _enormity_ of +an offence but of the _enormousness_ of a crowd. + +_Enthuse_ should not be used as a verb. + +_Equally as_ well; say _equally well_, or _as well_. + +_Every place_ used adverbially should be _everywhere_. + +_Except_ should never be used in the sense of _unless_ or _but_. + +_Exceptional_ which means "unusual," "forming an exception" should not +be confused with _exceptionable_ which means "open to objection." + +_Expect_ which involves a sense of the future should not be confused +with _suppose_ and similar words, as in the phrase "I _expect_ you know +all about it." + +_Factor_ is not to be confounded with _cause_. + +_Falsity_ applies to things, _falseness_ to persons. + +_At fault_ means "at a loss of what to do next." _In fault_ means "in +the wrong." + +_Favor_ should not be used in the sense of _resemble_. + +_Female_ should not be used for _woman_. The words _female_, _woman_, +and _lady_ should be used with careful attention to their respective +shades of meaning. + +_Few_, which emphasizes the fact that the number is small should be +distinguished from _a few_ which emphasizes the fact that there is a +number though it be small. "_Few_ shall part where many meet." "_A few_ +persons were saved in the ark." + +_Fewer_ applies to number; _less_ to quantity. + +_Firstly_ should not be used for _first_ although secondly and thirdly +may be used to complete the series. + +_Fix_ should not be used in the sense of _repair_, _arrange_, or +_settle_. + +_Former_ and _latter_ should never be used where more than two things +are involved. + +_Frequently_ should be distinguished from commonly, _generally_, +_perpetually_, _usually_. _Commonly_ is the antithesis of _rarely_, +_frequently_ of _seldom_, _generally_ of _occasionally_, _usually_ of +_casually_. + +_Funny_ should not be used to mean _strange_ or _remarkable_. + +_Gentleman Friend_ and _Lady Friend_ are expressions which should be +avoided, say "man or woman friend" or "man or woman of my acquaintance" +or even "gentleman or lady of my acquaintance." + +_Good_ should not be used in the sense of _well_. "I feel _good_." + +_Got_ is said to be the most misused word in the language. The verb +means to secure by effort and should be used only with this meaning, e. g., +"I have _got_ the contract." _Have got_ to indicate mere possession +is objectionable. Mere possession is indicated by _have_ alone. Another +common mistake is the use of _got_ to express obligation or constraint. +"I have _got_ to do it." + +_Guess_ should not be used in the sense of _think_ or _imagine_. + +_Handy_ should never be used to express nearness. + +_Hanged_ should be used to express the execution of a human being. +_Hung_ is the past participle in all other uses. + +_Hardly._ "I _can hardly_ see it," not "I _can't hardly_ see it." + +_Healthy_ which means "possessed of health" should be distinguished +from _healthful_ and _wholesome_ which mean "health giving." + +_High_ should not be confused with _tall_. + +_Home_ is not a synonym for _house_. A beautiful _house_ is a very +different thing from a beautiful _home_. + +_Honorable_ as a title should always be preceded by _the_. + +_How_ should not be used for _what_, or for _that_. It means "in what +manner." + +_How that_ should not be used when either one will do alone. Such a +sentence as "We have already noted how that Tillotson defied rubrical +order...." is very bad. + +_If_ should not be used in the sense of _where_ or _that_. + +_Ilk_ means "the same" not _kind_ or _sort_. + +_Ill_ is an adverb as well as an adjective. Do not say illy. + +_In_ should not be used for _into_ when motion is implied. You ride _in_ +a car but you get _into_ it. + +_Inaugurate_ should not be used for _begin_. + +_Individual_ should not be used for _person_. + +_Inside of_ should not be used as an expression of time. + +_Invaluable_, meaning "of very great value" should not be confused with +_valueless_, meaning "of no value." + +_Invite_ should not be used for _invitation_. + +_Kind_ is not plural. Do not say "These" or "those" _kind_ of things. +_Kind of_ should never be followed by the indefinite article. "What +_kind of_ man is he?" not "What _kind of a_ man is he?" _Kind of_ or +_sort of_ should not be used in the sense of _rather_ or _somewhat_. + +_Kindly_ is often misused in such expressions as "You are _kindly_ +requested to recommend a compositor." Undoubtedly the idea of kindness +is attached to the recommendation not to the request and the sentence +should be so framed as to express it. + +_Last_ is often misused for _latest_. "The _last_ number of the paper" +is not the one that appeared this morning but the one that finally +closes publication. + +_Latter_ applies only to the last of two. If a longer series than two is +referred to, say _the last_. + +_Lay_, which is a transitive verb, should not be confused with _lie_. +_Lay_ is a verb which expresses causitive action; _lie_ expresses +passivity. "He _lays_ plans." "He _lies_ down." The past tense of _lay_ +is _laid_, that of _lie_ is _lay_. + +_Learn_ should not be used in place of _teach_. + +_Lengthy_ is a very poor substitute for _long_, which needs no +substitute. + +_Liable_ should not be used for _likely_. _Liable_ means an unpleasant +probability. _Likely_ means any probability. _Liable_ is also used to +express obligation. He is _liable_ for this debt. + +_Like_ must never be used in the sense of _as_. "Do _like_ I do" should +be "Do _as_ I do." + +_Literally_ implies that a statement to which it is attached is +accurately and precisely true. It is frequently misused. + +_Loan_ is a noun, not a verb. + +_Locate_ should not be used in the sense of _settle_. + +_Lot_ or _lots_ should not be used to indicate a _great deal_. + +_Love_ expresses affection or, in its biblical sense, earnest +benevolence. _Like_ expresses taste. Do not say "I should _love_ to go." + +_Lovely_ means "worthy of affection" and, like _elegant_, should never +be used as a term of general approbation. + +_Luxuriant_ which means "superabundant in growth or production" should +not be confounded with _luxurious_ which means "given over to luxury." +Vegetation is _luxuriant_, men are _luxurious_. + +_Mad_ means _insane_ and is not a synonym for _angry_. + +_Means_ may be either singular or plural. + +_Meet_ should not be used in the sense of _meeting_ except in the case +of a few special expressions such as "a race meet." + +_Mighty_ should not be used in the sense of _very_. + +_Mind_ should not be used in the sense of _obey_. + +_Minus_ should not be used in the sense of _without_ or _lacking_. + +_Most_ should not be used instead of _almost_, as in such expressions as +"It rained _most_ every day." + +_Must_ should not be used for _had to_ or _was obliged_. In its proper +use it refers to the present or future only. + +_Necessities_ should be carefully distinguished from _necessaries_. + +_Negligence_, which denotes a quality of character should be +distinguished from _neglect_ which means "a failure to act." + +_Neither_ denotes one of two and should not be used for _none_ or _no +one_. As a correlative conjunction it should be followed by _nor_ never +by _or_. + +_New beginner_. _Beginner_ is enough; all beginners are new. + +_News_ is singular in construction. + +_Never_ is sometimes used as an emphatic negative but such usage is not +good. + +_Nice_ should not be used in the sense of _pleasant_ or _agreeable_. + +_No how_ should not be used for _anyway_. + +_No place_ should be written as _nowhere_. + +_None_ should be treated as a singular. + +_Not_, like _neither_, must be followed by the correlative _nor_, e. g., +"Not for wealth nor for fame did he strive." + +_Not_ ... _but_ to express a negative is a double negative and therefore +should not be used, e. g., "I have _not_ had _but_ one meal to-day." + +_Nothing like_ and _nowhere near_ should not be used for _not nearly_. + +_O_ should be used for the vocative and without punctuation. + +_Oh_ should be used for the ejaculation and should be followed by a +comma or an exclamation point. + +_Obligate_ should not be used for _oblige_. + +_Observe_ should not be used for _say_. + +_Observation_ should not be used for _observance_. + +_Of_ is superfluous in such phrases as _smell of_, _taste of_, _feel +of_. + +_Off_ should never be used with _of_; one or the other is superfluous. + +_Other._ After _no other_ use _than_, not _but_. + +_Ought_ must never be used in connection with _had_ or _did_. "You +_hadn't ought_ or _didn't ought_ to do it" should be "You ought not to +have done it." + +_Out loud_ should never be used for _aloud_. + +_Panacea_ is something that cures all diseases, not an effective remedy +for one disease. + +_Partake of_ should not be used in the sense of _eat_. It means "to +share with others." + +_Party_ should never be used for _person_ except in legal documents. + +_Per_ should be used in connection with other words of Latin form but +not with English words. _Per diem_, _per annum_, and the like are +correct. _Per day_ or _per year_ are incorrect. It should be _a day_, or +_a year_. + +_Perpendicular_, which merely means at right angles to something else +mentioned, should not be used for _vertical_. + +_Plenty_, a noun should not be confused with the adjective _plentiful_. + +_Politics_ is singular. + +_Post_ does not mean _inform_. + +_Predicate_ should not be used in the sense of _predict_ or in the sense +of _base_ or _found_. + +_Premature_ means "before the proper time." It should not be used in a +general way as equivalent to _false_. + +_Pretty_ should not be used in the modifying sense, nor as a synonym for +_very_ in such phrases as "pretty good," "pretty near," and the like. + +_Preventative_, no such word, say _preventive_. + +_Promise_ should not be used in the sense of _assure_. + +_Propose_, meaning "to offer" should not be confused with _purpose_ +meaning "to intend." + +_Proposition_ should not be confounded with _proposal_. A _proposition_ +is a statement of a statement or a plan. A _proposal_ is the +presentation or statement of an offer. + +_Providing_ should not be used for _provided_. + +_Quality_ should never be used as an adjective or with an adjective +sense. "Quality clothes" is meaningless: "Clothes of quality" equally +so. All clothes have quality and the expression has meaning only when +the quality is defined as good, bad, high, low, and so forth. + +_Quit_, "to go away from" is not the same as _stop_. + +_Quite_ means "entirely," "wholly," and should never be used in the +modifying sense as if meaning _rather_ or _somewhat_. "Quite a few" is +nonsense. + +_Raise_ is a much abused word. It is never a noun. As a verb it should +be distinguished from _rear_ and _increase_, as in such phrases as "He +was _raised_ in Texas." "The landlord _raised_ my rent." + +_Rarely ever_ should not be used for _rarely_ or _hardly ever_. + +_Real_ should not be used in the sense of _very_. + +_Reference_ should be used with _with_ rather than _in_. Say _with_ +reference to, not _in_ reference to. The same rule applies to the words +_regard_ and _respect_. Do not say "_in regards to_," say "_with regard +to_." + +_Remember_ is not the same as _recollect_, which means "to remember by +an effort." + +_Rendition_ should not be used for _rendering_. + +_Researcher_ has no standing as a word. + +_Reside_ in the sense of live, and residence in the sense of house or +dwelling are affectations and should never be used. + +_Retire_ should not be used in the sense of "go to bed." + +_Right_ should not be used in the sense of _duty_. "You _had a right_ to +warn me," should be "It was your duty to warn me, or you ought to have +warned me." _Right_ should not be used in the sense of _very_. Such +expressions as _right now_, _right off_, _right away_, _right here_ are +not now in good use. + +_Same_ should not be used as a pronoun. This is a common usage in +business correspondence but it is not good English and can be easily +avoided without sacrificing either brevity or sense. _Same as_ in the +sense of _just as_, _in the same manner_ should be avoided. + +_Score_ should not be used for _achieve_ or _accomplish_. + +_Set_ should not be confused with _sit_. To set means "to cause to sit." + +_Sewage_, meaning the contents of a sewer, should not be confused with +_sewerage_ which means the system. + +_Show_ should not be used in the sense of _play_ or _performance_. _Show +up_ should not be used for _expose_. + +_Since_ should not be used for _ago_. + +_Size up_ should not be used for _estimate_ or _weigh_. + +_Some_ should not be used for _somewhat_ as "I feel _some_ better." + +_Sort of_ should not be used for _rather_. + +_Splendid_ means _shining_ or _brilliant_ and should not be used as a +term of general commendation. + +_Stand for_ means "be responsible for." Its recent use as meaning +_stand_, _endure_, or _permit_, should be avoided. + +_Start_ should not be used for _begin_, e. g., "He _started_ (began) to +speak." + +_State_ should not be used for _say_. + +_Stop_ should not be used for _stay_. + +_Such_ should not be used for _so_. Say "I have never seen _so_ +beautiful a book before" not "I have never seen such a beautiful book +before." + +_Sure_ should not be used as an adverb. Say _surely_. + +_Take_ is superfluous in connection with other verbs, e. g., "Suppose we +_take_ and _use_ that type." _Take_ should not be confused with _bring_. +_Take stock in_ should not be used for _rely_ or _trust in_. + +_That_ should not be used in the sense of _so_. "I did not know it was +_that_ big." + +_Think_ should not have the word _for_ added, e. g., "It is more +important than you _think for_." + +_This_ should not be used as an adverb. "This much is clear" should be +"Thus much is clear." + +_Through_ should not be used for _finished_. + +_To_ is superfluous and wrong in such expressions as "Where did you go +_to_?" + +_Too_ alone should not modify a past participle. "He was _too_ (much) +excited to reply." + +_Transpire_ does not mean _happen_. It means to come to light or become +known. + +_Treat_ should be followed by _of_ rather than _on_. This volume treats +_of_ grammar, not _on_ grammar. + +_Try_ should be followed by _to_ rather than _and_. "I will try _to_ +go," not "I will try _and_ go." + +_Ugly_ should never be used in the sense of _bad tempered_ or _vicious_. +It means "repulsive to the eye." + +_Unique_ does not mean _rare_, _odd_, or _unusual_. It means alone of +its kind. + +_Upward of_ should not be used in the sense of _more than_. + +_Venal_ should not be confused with _venial_. + +_Verbal_ should not be confused with _oral_. A _verbal_ message means +only a message in words; an _oral_ message is a message by word of +mouth. + +_Very_ should be used sparingly. It is a word of great emphasis and like +all such words defeats its purpose when used too frequently. + +_Visitor_ is a human caller. _Visitant_ a supernatural caller. + +_Want_ should not be used in the sense of _wish_, e. g., "I _want_ it" +really means "I feel the want of it" or "I lack it." _Want_, _wish_, and +_need_ should be carefully distinguished. + +_Way_ should not be used in the sense of _away_ in such expressions as +"_Way_ down East." + +_Ways_ should not be used for _way_, e. g., "It is quite a _ways_ (way) +off." + +_What_ is often misused for _that_, e. g., "He has no doubt but _what_ +(that) he will succeed." + +_Whence_ means "from what place or cause" and should not be preceded by +_from_. This applies equally to hence which means "from this place." + +_Which_ should not be used with a clause as its antecedent, e. g., "He +replied hotly, _which_ was a mistake" should be "He replied hotly; this +was a mistake." _Which_ being a neuter pronoun should not be used to +represent a masculine or feminine noun. Use who. Between the two neuter +pronouns _which_ and _that_ let euphony decide. + +_Who_ should not be misused for _whom_ or _whose_, e. g., "_Who_ (whom) +did you wish to see?" "Washington, than _who_ (whose) no greater name is +recorded." Impersonal objects should be referred to by _which_ rather +than _who_. + +_Without_ should not be used for _unless_, e. g., "I will not go +_without_ (unless) you go with me." + +_Witness_ should not be used for _see_. + +_Worst kind_ or _worst kind of way_ should not be used for _very much_. + +_Womanly_ means "belonging to woman as woman." + +_Womanish_ means _effeminate_. + + + + +_Tables of Irregular Verbs_ + + +Table 1 contains the principal parts of all irregular verbs whose past +tense and perfect participle are unlike. + +Most errors in the use of irregular verbs occur with those in Table 1. +The past tense must not be used with _have_ (_has_, _had_). Do not use +such expressions as _have drove_ and _has went_. Equally disagreeable is +the use of the perfect participle for the past tense; as, _she seen_, +_they done_. + + +TABLE I + + Present Tense Past Tense Perf. Part. + + arise arose arisen + be or am was been + bear, _bring forth_ bore born[1], borne + bear, _carry_ bore borne + beat beat beaten, beat + begin began begun + bid bade, bid bidden, bid + bite bit bitten, bit + blow blew blown + break broke broken + chide chid chidden, chid + choose chose chosen + cleave, _split_ {cleft, clove {cleft, cleaved, + {(clave)[2] {cloven + come came come + do did done + draw drew drawn + drink drank drunk, drunken + drive drove driven + eat ate (eat) eaten (eat) + fall fell fallen + fly flew flown + forbear forbore forborne + forget forgot forgotten, forgot + forsake forsook forsaken + freeze froze frozen + give gave given + go went gone + grow grew grown + hide hid hidden, hid + know knew known + lie, _recline_ lay lain + ride rode ridden + ring rang, rung rung + rise rose risen + run ran run + see saw seen + shake shook shaken + shrink shrank, shrunk shrunk, shrunken + sing sung, sang sung + sink sank, sunk sunk + slay slew slain + slide slid slidden, slid + smite smote smitten + speak spoke (spake) spoken + spring sprang, spring sprung + steal stole stolen + stride strode stridden + strike struck struck, stricken + strive strove striven + swear swore (sware) sworn + swim swam, swum swum + take took taken + tear tore torn + throw threw thrown + tread trod trodden, trod + wear wore worn + weave wove woven + write wrote written + + +TABLE II + +This table contains the principal parts of all irregular verbs whose +past tense and perfect participles are alike. + + + Present Tense Past Tense and Present Tense Past Tense and + Perf. Part. Perf. Part. + + abide abode mean meant + behold beheld meet met + beseech besought pay paid + bind bound put put + bleed bled read read + breed bred rend rent + bring brought say said + build built seek sought + burst burst sell sold + buy bought send sent + cast cast set set + catch caught shed shed + cling clung shoe shod + cost cost shoot shot + creep crept shut shut + cut cut sit sat + deal dealt sleep slept + feed fed sling slung + feel felt slink slunk + fight fought spend spent + find found spin spun (span) + flee fled spit spit (spat) + fling flung split split + get got (gotten) spread spread + grind ground stand stood + have had stick stuck + hear heard sting stung + hit hit string strung + hold held sweep swept + hurt hurt swing swung + keep kept teach taught + lay laid tell told + lead led think thought + leave left thrust thrust + lend lent weep wept + let let win won + lose lost wring wrung + make made + + +TABLE III + +This table includes verbs that are both regular and irregular. + +A + +Verbs in which the regular form is preferred. + + Present Tense Past Tense Perf. Part. + + bend bended, bent bended, bent + bereave bereaved, bereft bereaved, bereft + blend blended, blent blended, blent + bless blessed, blest blessed, blest + burn burned, burnt burned, burnt + cleave, _stick_ cleaved (clave) cleaved + clothe clothed, clad clothed, clad + curse cursed, curst cursed, curst + dive dived (dove) dived (dove) + dream dreamed, dreamt dreamed, dreamt + dress dressed, drest dressed, drest + gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt + heave heaved, hove heaved, hove + hew hewed hewed, hewn + lade laded laded, laden + lean leaned, leant leaned, leant + leap leaped, leapt leaped, leapt + learn learned, learnt learned, learnt + light lighted, lit lighted, lit + mow mowed mowed, mown + pen, _shut up_ penned, pent penned, pent + plead {pleaded (plead _or_ {pleaded (plead _or_ + {pled) {pled) + prove proved proved, proven + reave reaved, reft reaved, reft + rive rived rived, riven + saw sawed sawed, sawn + seethe seethed (sod) seethed, sodden + shape shaped shaped, shapen + shave shaved shaved, shaven + shear sheared sheared, shorn + smell smelled, smelt smelled, smelt + sow sowed sowed, sown + spell spelled, spelt spelled, spelt + spill spilled, spilt spilled, spilt + spoil spoiled, spoilt spoiled, spoilt + stave staved, stove staved, stove + stay stayed, staid stayed, staid + swell swelled swelled, swollen + wake waked, woke waked, woke + wax, _grow_ waxed waxed (waxen) + wed wedded wedded, wed + whet whetted, whet whetted, whet + work worked, wrought worked, wrought + + +B + +Verbs in which the irregular form is preferred. + + Present Tense Past Tense Perf. Part. + + awake awoke, awaked awaked, awoke + belay belaid, belayed belaid, belayed + bet bet, betted bet, betted + crow crew, crowed crowed + dare durst, dared dared + dig dug, digged dug, digged + dwell dwelt, dwelled dwelt, dwelled + gird girt, girded girt, girded + grave graved graven, graved + hang hung, hanged[3] hung, hanged + kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled + knit knit, knitted knit, knitted + quit quit, quitted quit, quitted + rap rapt, rapped rapt, rapped + rid rid, ridded rid, ridded + shine shone (shined) shone (shined) + show showed shown, showed + shred shred, shredded shred, shredded + shrive shrived, shrove shriven, shrived + slit slit, slitted slit, slitted + speed sped, speeded sped, speeded + strew strewed strewn, strewed + strow strowed strown, strowed + sweat sweat, sweated sweat, sweated + thrive throve, thrived thrived, thriven + wet wet (wetted) wet (wetted) + wind wound (winded) wound (winded) + + +The verbs of the following list also are irregular; but as they lack one +or more of the principal parts, they are called defective verbs. + +_Defective Verbs_ + + Present Past Present Past + + can could ought ..... + may might ..... quoth + must ..... beware ..... + shall should methinks methought + will would + + +All the participles are wanting in defective verbs. + +The verb _ought_, when used to express past duty or obligation, is +followed by what is called the perfect infinitive--a use peculiar to +itself because _ought_ has no past form. + + _Example:_ I ought _to have gone_ yesterday. + +Other verbs expressing past time are used in the past tense followed by +the root infinitive. + + _Example:_ I intended _to go_ yesterday. + + + + +SUPPLEMENTARY READING + +Composition and Rhetoric. By Lockwood and Emerson. Ginn & Co., Boston. + +The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language. By Sherwin Cody. +The Old Greek Press, Chicago. + +The Writer's Desk Book. By William Dana Orcutt. Frederick Stokes +Company, New York. + +A Manual for Writers. By John Matthews Manly and John Arthur Powell. The +University of Chicago Press, Chicago. + +Any good Grammar. + +Putnam's Word Book. By Louis A. Flemming. G. P. Putnam's Sons, Chicago. +(For reference.) + + + + +QUESTIONS + + +In addition to the questions here given there should be constant and +thorough drill in the use of grammatical forms and the choice of words. +Frequent short themes should be required. In these themes attention +should be given to grammatical construction, choice of words, spelling, +capitalization, punctuation, sentence construction, and paragraphing. + +1. Why is the subject important? + +2. How many families of words are there, and what are they? + +3. What is a noun? + +4. What are the three things about a noun which indicates its relation +to other words? + +5. How many numbers are there, and what do they mean? + +6. How do ordinary nouns form their plurals? + +7. How do compound nouns form their plurals? + +8. What is one very important use of number? + +9. What can you say of the use of the verb with collective nouns? + +10. What is case? + +11. How many cases are there, and what does each indicate? + +12. What can you say about the relation of a noun to a preposition? + +13. Are prepositions ever omitted, and why? + +14. How are the nominative and objective cases distinguished? + +15. How is the possessive case formed in the plural? + +16. Do possessive pronouns take an apostrophe? + +17. What is _it's_? + +18. How are compound nouns, appositives, etc., treated in the +possessive? + +19. What is an adjective? + +20. What do degrees indicate, and how many are there? + +21. How are adjectives compared? + +22. When should the long form of comparison be used and when the short? + +23. What danger attends the use of _most_? + +24. Give two irregular adjectives and compare them. + +25. Should the two methods of comparison ever be combined? + +26. Why are some adjectives never compared? + +27. What is an article? + +28. How many articles are there? + +29. What kinds of articles are there? + +30. When should you use _a_? + +31. When should you use _an_? + +32. What is a verb? + +33. Of what three parts does a simple sentence consist? + +34. Name them and describe each. + +35. What is the relation of the verb to the subject with regard to +person and number? + +36. What is voice? + +37. How many voices are there, what is each called, and what does it +indicate? + +38. What is tense? + +39. How many tenses are there, and what are they called? + +40. What is the rule for tense in subordinate clauses? + +41. What is the reason for the rule, and how can accuracy be determined? + +42. What happens when the statement in the subordinate clause is of +universal application? + +43. What is mood? + +44. How many moods are there, and what are they called? + +45. How is the indicative mood used? + +46. How is the subjunctive mood used? + +47. How is the imperative mood used? + +48. What is the potential mood? + +49. What is the exact meaning of (a) _may_, (b) _can_, (c) _must_, (d) +_ought_? + +50. What is tense? + +51. How are _shall_ and _will_ used in direct discourse (a) in simple +statements, (b) in questions, (c) in other cases? + +52. How are _shall_ and _will_ used in indirect discourse? + +53. What are the exceptions in the use of _shall_ and _will_? + +54. What is the general use of _should_ and _would_? + +55. How are should and would used in subordinate clauses, in indirect +discourse? + +56. What exceptions are there in the use of _should_ and _would_? + +57. Why do we make mistakes in the use of compound tenses? + +58. What is the case of the object in participial construction? + +59. What should be avoided in the use of prepositions? + +60. Do passive verbs ever have objects? + +61. What is a pronoun? + +62. What common error occurs in the use of plural possessive pronouns? + +63. What common error occurs in the use of cases in subordinate clauses? + +64. What danger is there in the use of pronouns, and how can it be +avoided? + +65. What is an adverb? + +66. What is the important distinction in the use of adverbs and +adjectives? + +67. What rule is to be observed in the use of negatives? + +68. What is a preposition? + +69. Where is it placed in the sentence? + +70. What is a conjunction? + +71. What is said of _and_ and _but_? + +72. How should we pair _either_, _neither_, _or_, and _nor_? + +73. What is the rule about placing correlatives? + +74. What is an interjection? + +75. Does it make much difference where words are put in a sentence? Why? + +76. What is the general rule for placing words? + +77. When may words be omitted? + +78. What is the danger in such omission? + +79. Mention some objectionable abbreviations of this sort. + +80. What is the writer's task? + +81. What three abuses are to be avoided? + +82. What are Campbell's five canons? + +83. What are the rules for the formation of sentences? + +84. What are the rules for the formation of paragraphs? + + + + +GLOSSARY + + +AMBIGUITY--The possibility of more than one meaning. + +APPOSITION--When the meaning of a noun or pronoun is made clear or +emphatic by the use of another noun or pronoun the two are said to be in +apposition, e. g., John, the old pressman. + +AUXILIARY VERB--A verb used to help to express the meaning of another +verb by showing its voice, mood or tense. + +CLAUSE--A group of words consisting of a subject and predicate with +their modifiers and forming a part of a sentence: a sentence within a +sentence. + +COLLECTIVE NOUN--A noun indicating a collection of units considered as a +whole, e. g., _crowd_. + +COMPOUND WORDS--Words made up of two or more words used together to +express one idea. + +CONTEXT--The entire writing from which a text or passage is taken. + +CORRELATIVE--A term applied to pairs of conjunctions or other words or +phrases which imply or involve each other. + +DICTION--The choice and use of words. + +GRAMMAR--The science that treats of the principles that govern the +correct use of language in either spoken or written form; the science of +the sentence and its elements. + +HETEROGENEOUS SENTENCES--Sentences containing unrelated ideas or dealing +with a variety of separate things. + +HYPOTHESIS--A supposition, or imaginary state of things assumed as a +basis for reasoning. + +HYPOTHETICAL CLAUSE--A clause containing a supposition. + +METAPHOR--A figure of speech in which one thing is likened to another by +speaking of it as if it were that other, or calling it that other. + +NOUN CLAUSE--A clause used as a noun. + +OBJECT (OF A VERB)--The thing acted on. + +PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION--A participle and its modifiers used as the +subject or object of a verb. + +PHRASE--An expression, consisting usually of but a few words, denoting a +single idea, or forming a separate part of a sentence. + +PREDICATE (OF A SENTENCE)--That which is said of the subject. See +subject. + +PRINCIPAL VERB--The verb in the main statement of a sentence. + +PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE--An adjective used as a pronoun. + +RHETORIC--The art of perfecting man's power of communicating to others +his mental acts or states by means of language: art of discourse. + +SUBJECT (OF A SENTENCE)--The thing spoken about in the sentence. See +predicate. + +SUBJECT (OF A VERB)--The thing acting. + +SUBORDINATE CLAUSE--A clause explaining or otherwise modifying the main +statement of the sentence. + + + + +TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES + + +The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL +SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the supervision of the +Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America for use in +trade classes, in course of printing instruction, and by individuals. + +Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of +authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the printers +of the United States--employers, journeymen, and apprentices--with a +comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive compendiums of reliable, +up-to-date information upon the various branches and specialties of the +printing craft, all arranged in orderly fashion for progressive study. + +The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 x 8 inches. Their +general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far as +practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the +particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be +found under each title in the following list. + +Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in +each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary +information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the +subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and clear, +with the purpose of bringing essential information within the +understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever +practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have +been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text. + +In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for use +in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is +accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of +the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to the +subject or department treated is also added to many of the books. + +These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. + +Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED +TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. + + +PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ + +1. =Type: a Primer of Information= By A. A. Stewart + + Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, + font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. + 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. + + +2. =Compositors' Tools and Materials= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, + brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; + illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. + + +3. =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, + case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; + illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. + + +4. =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A. A. Stewart + + Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the + press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 + pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. + + +5. =Proof Presses= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the customary methods and machines + for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review + questions; glossary. + + +6. =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker + + A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical + construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand + press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on + automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review + questions; glossary. + + +7. =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker + + Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types + of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review + questions; glossary. + + +8. =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier + + The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; + with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +9. =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott + + A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and + allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 + pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. + + +10. =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. + + A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever + cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting + paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. + + +11. =Printers' Rollers= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and + care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; + glossary. + + +12. =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton + + Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by + permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of + Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the + everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review + questions; glossary. + + +13. =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright + + A primer of information about the materials and processes of + manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; + 62 review questions; glossary. + + +14. =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan + + Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of + engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for + reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + + +15. =Electrotyping and Stereotyping= + By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and + stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; + glossaries. + + +PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_ + +16. =Typesetting= By A. A. Stewart + + A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, + spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + + +17. =Printers' Proofs= By A. A. Stewart + + The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with + observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + + +18. =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVeze + + Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first + jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make + good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; + glossary. + + +19. =General Job Composition= + + How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and + miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + + +20. =Book Composition= By J. W. Bothwell + + Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition," + revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. + Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of + pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 + review questions; glossary. + + +21. =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver + + A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples + of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review + questions. + + +22. =Applied Arithmetic= By E. E. Sheldon + + Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, + calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard + tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with + examples and exercises. 159 pp. + + +23. =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A. W. Finlay, Editor + + Section I--The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein + + Section II--The Monotype By Joseph Hays + + Section III--The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens + + Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines + By Frank H. Smith + + A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their + mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_ + +24. =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and + about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + + +25. =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods + of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART IV--_Presswork_ + +26. =Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T. G. McGrew + + The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive + features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, + regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting + gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + + +27. =Cylinder Presswork= By T. G. McGrew + + Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, + ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and + overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + + +28. =Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton + + Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with + directions and useful information relating to a variety of + printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. + + +29. =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A. W. Elson + + A primer of information about the distinctive features of the + relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. + 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. + + +PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ + +30. =Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin + + A primer of information about the various operations employed in + binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; + review questions; glossary. + + +31. =Book Binding= By John J. Pleger + + Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; + folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case + making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and + blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + + +PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_ + +32. =Word Study and English Grammar= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about words, their relations, and their + uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. + + +33. =Punctuation= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their + use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review + questions; glossary. + + +34. =Capitals= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical + typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review + questions; glossary. + + +35. =Division of Words= By F. W. Hamilton + + Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks + on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review + questions. + + +36. =Compound Words= By F. W. Hamilton + + A study of the principles of compounding, the components of + compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. + + +37. =Abbreviations and Signs= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with + classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review + questions. + + +38. =The Uses of Italic= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the history and uses of italic + letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. + + +39. =Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas + + The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking, + revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by + examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. + + +40. =Preparation of Printers' Copy= By F. W. Hamilton + + Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in + preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. + + +41. =Printers' Manual of Style= + + A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions + relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, + abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. + + +42. =The Printer's Dictionary= By A. A. Stewart + + A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about + various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical + terms explained. Illustrated. + + +PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_ + +43. =Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage + + A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on + the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats + of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and + variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 + review questions; glossary; bibliography. + + +44. =Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage + + Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building + material of typography paper, types, ink, decorations and + illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, + treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. + Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography. + + +45. =Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage + + Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster + effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with + process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and + chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, + intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory + of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full + color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + + +46. =Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage + + Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. + Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on + type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. + Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully + illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + + +47. =Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage + + The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which + advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis, + legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising + typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + + +48. =Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage + + A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a + proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. + Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy + envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + + +PART VIII--_History of Printing_ + +49. =Books Before Typography= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the + history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; + illustrated; 64 review questions. + + +50. =The Invention of Typography= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. + 64 pp.; 62 review questions. + + +51. =History of Printing=--Part I By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the + development of the book, the development of printers' materials, + and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. + + +52. =History of Printing=--Part II By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry + from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, + internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review + questions. + + +53. =Printing in England= By F. W. Hamilton + + A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present + time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. + + +54. =Printing in America= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes + on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; + 84 review questions. + + +55. =Type and Presses in America= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and + press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. + + +PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_ + +56. =Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + + +57. =Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + + +58. =The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter + + The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. + The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of + the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. + + +59. =Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter + + The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for + estimating. Review questions. Glossary. + + +60. =Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter + + An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their + relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. + + +61. =Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter + + A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary + books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. + + +PART X--_Miscellaneous_ + +62. =Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter + + Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; + practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and + rules for safety. + + +63. =Topical Index= By F. W. Hamilton + + A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic + Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. + + +64. =Courses of Study= By F. W. Hamilton + + A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for + classroom and shop work. + + + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENT + + +This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid +co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the +printing business and its allied industries in the United States of +America. + +The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under +whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, acknowledges +its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by the many +authors, printers, and others identified with this work. + +While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of +those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that a +group list of co-operating firms would be of interest. + +The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have +co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, constituting +the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books comprising the +Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which the Committee +hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be printed in each +volume. + +The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many +subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. + + COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, + UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. + + HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, + E. LAWRENCE FELL, + A. M. GLOSSBRENNER, + J. CLYDE OSWALD, + TOBY RUBOVITS. + + FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. + + + + +CONTRIBUTORS + +=For Composition and Electrotypes= + + ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y. + + S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + + J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. + + THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y. + + R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. + + GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. + + EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. + + FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. + + F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. + + STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + + W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. + + J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + + MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. + + THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York + + THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. + + POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. + + EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + + THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. + + C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. + + THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. + +=For Composition= + + BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. + + WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + + THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y. + + OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. + + TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. + +=For Electrotypes= + + BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. + + FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y. + + C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. + + ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + + H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. + +=For Engravings= + + AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. + + C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I. + + GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. + + HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. + + INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. + + LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. + + MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y. + + GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. + + OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y. + + THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. + + B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. + + THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. + +=For Book Paper= + + AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. + + WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] _Born_ is used only in the passive voice. + +[2] The words in parentheses in this and the following tables represent +forms which, though at one time common, are now seldom used. + +[3] Referring to execution by suspension, _hanged_ is preferable to +_hung_. + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_. + + Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=. + + The misprint "Sterotyping" was corrected to "Stereotyping" (pg. iii-ads). + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Word Study and English Grammar, by +Frederick W. 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