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diff --git a/30025-0.txt b/30025-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..662d550 --- /dev/null +++ b/30025-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7399 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30025 *** + +ANTIQUE TABRIZ SILK RUG + +SIZE 8 × 6.3 + +_This interesting and valuable rug is of antique Tabriz weave, of finely +blended colors, and rare design. It represents the individual squares on +the floor of a mosque, each one of which may be occupied by a worshipper +kneeling in prayer. Rugs with a single design of this kind are usual, +but a grouping of many such spaces in one rug is rare. Forms of the Tree +of Life are represented in different panels, and the border is very rich +and handsome. The fabric is fine, the texture soft and firm. The rich +and splendid hues of the various panels are so soft in tone that, while +there are several different colors in juxtaposition, these have been +arranged so deftly and artistically that the effect is perfectly +harmonious. It is impossible to describe in words the mellow richness +and rare art displayed in this unique product of the loom._ + +OWNED BY MRS. L. G. BURNHAM, BOSTON. + + + + +RUGS + +ORIENTAL AND OCCIDENTAL ANTIQUE & MODERN + +_A Handbook for Ready Reference_ + +BY + +ROSA BELLE HOLT + +New and Enlarged Edition, Entirely Reset + +_With 33 full-page Illustrations, 12 in full color, and other drawings +in the text, and a Map of the Orient_ + +CHICAGO A. C. McCLURG & CO. 1908 + +COPYRIGHT + +A. C. MCCLURG & CO. + +1901-1908 + +This Enlarged Edition published October 10, 1908 + +THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U.S.A. + + + + +PREFACE + +TO NEW ENLARGED EDITION + + +When the first edition of this book was published in 1901, it stood +almost alone as a reference work on Oriental Rugs. In the six years +which have since elapsed, several volumes dealing with the subject have +been published. + +The extended knowledge of the public concerning the subject has +materially altered the conditions of buying and selling. It has also +served to increase curiosity and enthusiasm regarding these products of +Oriental workmanship. I have been gratified to observe that a desire for +additional information is sought. My mail has contained an increasing +number of requests for an enlarged edition of my book, and my own +enthusiasm for the subject makes me believe in the interest of my +readers. I take pleasure in sharing with them the results of recent +investigations made in the United States, in the art centres of Europe, +and in the Orient. + + ROSA BELLE HOLT. + + NEW YORK CITY, + _February 1, 1908_. + + + + +PREFACE + + +While there is a singular lack of books in the English language treating +directly of Rugs,--a theme which is so intensely interesting to +buyers,--it is noteworthy that under the category of Oriental Carpets +are to be found a few volumes of interest. These, however, are too rare +and expensive for the general reader. For this reason I have undertaken +to present in a concise form certain facts that may enable a novice to +appreciate the beauty and interest attaching to rugs, and assist a +prospective purchaser in judging of the merits of any particular rug he +may desire to possess. + +For much valuable information on the subject I am indebted to +publications which are referred to in my Bibliography, to correspondence +with Ministers to Oriental countries and Consuls residing therein, to +interviews with rug-dealers in various cities, and to certain learned +Americans, Armenians, Greeks, Syrians and Turks. It has also been my +good fortune to be intrusted, for purposes of description and +reproduction, with many beautiful and rare rugs, from owners who cherish +them as treasures. These true rug-lovers have generously contributed to +whatever there may be of interest in this book. + + R. B. H. + + NEW YORK CITY, + _August 1, 1901_. + + + +CONTENTS + + PAGE + + I. HISTORY AND DETAILS OF RUG-WEAVING + + The History 15 + The Loom and Its Work 22 + The Weavers 26 + The Materials 30 + The Quality 32 + The Knotting 34 + Designs 37 + The Dyes 44 + Oriental Colors 47 + + II. RUG-WEAVING IN EGYPT, PERSIA, AND TURKEY + + Rug-Weaving in Egypt 51 + Persian Rugs 53 + Characteristics of Certain Persian Rugs 58 + Turkish Rugs 71 + Characteristics of Certain Turkish Rugs 74 + + III. RUG-WEAVING IN INDIA, AFGHANISTAN, BELUCHISTAN, + CENTRAL ASIA, AND THE CAUCASUS REGION + + Indian Rugs 87 + Characteristics of Certain Indian Rugs 90 + Afghanistan Rugs 95 + Beluchistan Rugs 97 + Turkoman Rugs 98 + Characteristics of Certain Turkoman Rugs 100 + Caucasian Rugs 105 + + IV. MISCELLANEOUS ORIENTAL RUGS + + Rugs of the Holy Land 111 + Chinese Rugs 113 + Japanese Rugs 116 + Khilim Rugs 117 + Polish Rugs 119 + Prayer Rugs 120 + Silk Rugs 123 + Felt Rugs 126 + Hunting Rugs 128 + + V. RUG-WEAVING IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES + + Rug-Weaving in Europe and the United States 131 + Greek Rugs 132 + Moorish and Spanish Rugs 134 + Bosnian, Servian, Roumanian, and Bulgarian + Rugs 136 + English Rugs 138 + French Rugs 141 + Rugs of the United States 143 + + VI. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION + + Inscriptions on Rugs 153 + Concerning Oriental Symbols 156 + Chinese Symbols 157 + Egyptian Symbols 158 + Indian Symbols 159 + Japanese Symbols 160 + Persian Symbols 160 + Turkish Symbols 160 + Miscellaneous Symbols 161 + Meanings of Some of the Place-Names Associated with Rugs 162 + GEOGRAPHICAL DATA 164 + Localities Arranged Geographically 165 + Localities Arranged Alphabetically 170 + + LIST OF AUTHORITIES 175 + + INDEX 179 + + +LIST OF PLATES + + PAGE + Antique Tabriz Silk Rug _Frontispiece_ + Oriental Rugs Decorating a Balcony 20 + Turkish Loom and Weavers 24 + Vats for Washing and Dyeing Wool--Turkey 28 + Soumak Rug 30 + Indian Rug Designers 32 + Sinna Rug 34 + Rugs being Transported 38 + Wool Drying after Dyeing 44 + Antique Persian Rug 54 + Khorassan Rug 56 + Bijar (Sarakhs) Rug 58 + Camel's Hair Rug from Hamadan 60 + Feraghan Rug 62 + Shiraz Rug 68 + Arabian Rug 70 + Old Ghiordes Prayer Rug 74 + Indian Prayer Rug 78 + Indian Loom and Weavers 82 + Afghanistan Rug 95 + Tekké-Turkoman or "Bokhara" Rug 98 + Samarkand Rug 102 + Daghestan Rug 106 + Kazak Rug 108 + Antique Chinese Wool Rug 114 + Khilim Rug 117 + Old Kirman Prayer Rug 120 + Old Anatolian Prayer Rug 122 + Persian Silk Rug 124 + Derbent Rug 126 + Early English Rug 138 + Navajo Rug 146 + Antique Persian Rug 156 + Map of the Orient 164 + + DRAWINGS IN THE TEXT + + A Loom 25 + Persian or Sinna Knotting 35 + Turkish or Ghiordes Knotting 35 + Soumak Weave 35 + Five Forms of the Palmette 39, 40 + Herati Border 40 + Central Design 41 + Running Hook Design 41 + Pomegranate 41 + Palm Leaves 41 + Cloud Bands 41 + Lozenge 41 + Wave-like Designs 42 + Rosette 42 + Reciprocal Trefoil 42 + Central Design 42 + Four Characteristic Caucasian Designs 42 + Fylfot, or Swastika 42 + Guli Hinnai 43 + Lotus 43 + Medallion 43 + + + + +RUGS + + + + +I + +HISTORY AND DETAILS OF RUG-WEAVING + + _Fair warp and fitting woof + Weave a web that bideth proof._ + + MOTTO OF THE CANTERBURY WEAVERS. + + + + +RUGS + +ORIENTAL AND OCCIDENTAL ANTIQUE AND MODERN + + + + +I + +THE HISTORY AND DETAILS OF RUG-WEAVING + + +The History + +Rugs, in the house beautiful, impart richness and represent refinement. +Their manufacture was one of the earliest incentives for the blending of +colors in such harmony as to please the eye and satisfy the mind; +consequently, it is one of the most important of the industrial arts. +Since the days when ancient peoples first lay down to sleep wrapped in +the skins of animals, the human intelligence has quickened, and as the +race has become more civilized, rugs have gradually taken the place of +skins. Thus began the industry of rug-weaving, and it has grown to such +an extent that it is now of world-wide importance. + +The word _Rug_ is used in this volume in the following sense: "A +covering for the floor; a mat, usually oblong or square, and woven in +one piece. Rugs, especially those of Oriental make, often show rich +designs and elaborate workmanship, and are hence sometimes used for +hangings," In several books rugs and carpets are referred to as +identical. In fact most written information on rugs has been catalogued +under the term _carpets_; and there seems to be good reason for assuming +that the terms _tapestries_ and _carpets_, as used in ancient times, +were synonymous with the word _rugs_ of the present day, for these were +spread loosely on the floor without the aid of fastenings. + +Historical references to spinning and to the weaving of tapestries date +back to a very early period. An ancient Jewish legend states that +Naamah, daughter of Lamech and sister of Tubal-Cain, was the inventor of +the spinning of wool and of the weaving of thread into cloth. + +On at least two of the wonderful rock-cut tombs at Beni-Hassan, in +Egypt,--2800-2600 B.C.,--there are pictures of weavers at work. In one, +women are filling a distaff with cotton, twisting it with a spindle into +thread, and weaving this on an upright loom. Beside them is a man, +evidently an overseer, watching the weavers and their work. The other +wall-painting represents a man weaving a checkered rug on a horizontal +loom. Other monuments of ancient Egypt and of Mesopotamia bear witness +that the manufacture of rugs dates a considerable time prior to 2400 +B.C. + +At Thebes a fresco, dating 1700-1000 B.C., represents three men weaving +at an upright loom. A small rug, discovered in that city some time +between the years 666 and 358 B.C., and now in the possession of Mr. Hay +in England, is described by Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson as follows: "This +rug is eleven inches long by nine broad. It is made like many carpets of +the present day, with woollen threads on linen string. In the centre is +the figure of a boy in white, with a goose above it, the hieroglyphic of +'child' upon a green ground, around which is a border composed of red, +white, and blue lines. The remainder is yellow, with four white figures +above and below, and one at each side, with blue outlines and red +ornaments; and the outer border is made up of red, white, and blue +lines, with a fancy device projecting from it, with a triangular summit, +which extends entirely round the edge of the rug. Its date is uncertain, +but from the child, the combination of the colors, and ornamental +border, I am inclined to think it really Egyptian, not of the Pharaonic, +but of the Greek and Roman period." Dr. Samuel Birch, who edited the +last edition of Wilkinson's work, affirms that this is so. + +On the marbles of Nineveh is represented the pectoral worn by +Sardanapalus. It is an exact miniature of a Kurdish rug of modern times. +The Tree of Life, the motif of most of the Persian rug designs, is in +the centre, and the border is ornamented with rosettes and bars. + +Phoenician art is intermediate between Egyptian and Assyrian. The +color most prized in the art of Phoenicia was the rare and beautiful +purple (properly crimson) dye used exclusively for the garments of +royalty. For centuries the process of making this dye was lost, and even +at the time of its highest fame it was familiar only to the maritime +Canaanites, who procured the color from an animal juice of the murex, a +shellfish. The shellfish and the dye were known to the ancients as +_conchylium_. + +When Cleopatra, the famous Queen of Egypt, went to meet Cæsar for the +first time, she knew that he would not allow her to enter his presence +if recognized, and therefore she cleverly had herself carried into his +palace wrapped in a rug of the finest texture. It may well be imagined +that the unexpected disclosure of the charms of this subtle Egyptian +shared largely in bringing the great Roman general into her toils. + +Besides Biblical writers, Homer, Æschylus, Plautus, Metellus Scipio, +Horace, Pliny, Lucan, Josephus, Arrian, and Athenæus all speak of rugs. +To persons interested in rugs the search for these allusions is a most +fascinating occupation. + +The Egyptians bestowed the greatest care and patience upon the rugs they +wove, as upon all else of their handiwork. They spread them before the +images of their gods, and also on the ground for their sacred cattle to +lie upon. They loved Nature intensely; like true lovers, they seemed to +have reached her very heart, and they symbolized her works in their +artistic designs. Even to this day many Oriental rugs have symbolic +signs borrowed from the works of Nature. + +In design and color the rugs woven to-day in the Orient are similar to +the Assyrian and Babylonian textile fabrics of 1000-607 B.C. (Fall of +Nineveh) and 538 (Fall of Babylon). At that early period these were used +for awnings and floor-coverings in the palaces of the Assyrian kings +Sargon, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Sardanapalus. The designs on the +stone slab from the palace of Koyunjik, Nineveh, and on the door-sill +from the palace at Khorsabad, are probably copied from rugs. + +From Egypt and Chaldea the manufacture of rugs was carried into Assyria, +and then into Asia Minor. Ancient Egypto-Chaldean designs are +occasionally seen in modern rugs, but usually in a modified form. For a +long time the industry of rug-weaving was supreme in the countries +mentioned, but about 480 B.C. it arrived at a high degree of perfection +in Greece. Later, the art was corrupted by the Byzantine (Lower Roman) +influence. In the seventh and eighth centuries the Saracens came into +power in the Persian Empire after the fall of the Sassanian dynasty, +and in the African and Syrian provinces. The Saracens believed that all +labor tended to the glory of God; consequently, on their western +campaigns they carried rug-manufacture into Sicily, Spain, France, and +Italy; and thus it was introduced throughout Europe. It should be here +noted that the name Saracen was given by the later Romans and Greeks to +certain of the nomadic tribes on the Syrian borders of the Roman Empire. +After the introduction of Mohammedanism the name was applied to the Arab +followers of Mohammed. + +From earliest times it has been the custom in the East to hang rugs over +graves. About the vault of the mosque at Hebron where the patriarchs +Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are said to be buried, rugs are hung at the +present day. + +During times of grand _fêtes_ in Europe, when house decoration is done +with lavishness, people, to make their homes more attractive, drape with +beautiful rugs the balconies, the loggias, and the front walls of +buildings. The richness and color of these rugs blend harmoniously with +flags and other emblems, producing an effect of great magnificence and +splendor. + +[Illustration: ORIENTAL RUGS DECORATING A BALCONY + +_From a painting of the fifteenth century by Carpaccio Vittore, who was +born in Istria, 1450, and died in Venice, 1522. The original painting is +in the Correr Museum at Venice. On the balcony are several Oriental rugs +in shades of rich red and rose color._] + +When we see the exquisite loom-work that has been wrought in the Orient, +we sometimes wonder how the weavers have achieved such success, for they +are destitute of what we call education, and they dwell amid the +humblest surroundings. But Nature has been their instructor, and the +rare shadings and varied designs of the rugs are excellent imitations of +the forms and hues of the natural world. The weavers have intuitively +grasped what is correct in color from the works of Nature surrounding +them, and we reap the benefit in the rich specimens of their art which +they export. + +These patient toilers of the East delight in subdued colorings and +artistic designs; and without a doubt many a story is woven in with the +threads that go to form the fabric, many a song of joy, many a dirge of +woe and despair. The number of Orientals engaged in the manufacture of +rugs in the United States is increasing. It is now not an uncommon sight +to see these weavers at work before the loom in the show windows of the +rug-importing establishments of the larger cities. + +The increasing use of polished hard wood and yellow pine floors and +mosaic work, even in buildings of moderate cost, is displacing the use +of cheap flooring, which could be covered satisfactorily only with +carpets or matting. This has enormously increased the demand for rugs; +and the selection of them affords a much wider range for the exercise of +personal taste and discrimination in securing an article not only of +greater artistic merit, but of greater durability. + + +THE LOOM AND ITS WORK + +The hand loom is Oriental, the power loom Occidental. The former adds +much to the fame of the Orient. The exquisite fabrics it produces have +made it world-renowned, and although it is simple in structure, its +products show careful and finished labor. Hand looms in all Oriental +countries are similar, and are to-day almost as imperfectly developed as +when used by the ancient Egyptians. To weave their mats, the ancient +Egyptians took the coarse fibre of the papyrus and, with the help of +pegs, stretched it between two poles which were fastened in the ground. +Two bars were placed in between these poles, the threads of the warp +serving to keep them apart. The woof thread was passed through and +pressed down tightly a number of times with a bent piece of wood. + +The loom now generally used in the Orient is made by fastening two poles +perpendicularly in the ground to a sufficient depth, leaving above +ground as much of each pole as equals in length the desired rug. This +framework supports two horizontal rollers, the warp threads being wound +around the upper, while the ends are fastened to the lower; at this the +weaving is begun, and on it the rug is rolled while in process of +construction. To the warp threads of fine linen or cotton the weavers +tie the tufts of worsted that form the pile. This worsted, which has +been dyed previously, hangs over their heads in balls. When a row of +knots is finished, it is pressed down to the underlying woof by a long +and heavy comb with metal teeth. Then the tufts are clipped close with +shears, to make the pile. In the finer rugs there are seldom more than +two, or at the most three, threads between every two rows of knots, but +in the coarser kinds there are more threads. In many districts every +family possesses a loom, and it is generally small enough to be carried +from place to place. + +Sir George C. Birdwood has seen the web in the horizontal loom in +Western India kept stretched by being wrapped, as worked, round the body +of the weaver. In some instances the spinners make thread from the +cotton wool by using the left hand as a distaff, and the right one as a +spindle. In other cotton rugs which he has seen, the warp threads were +placed horizontally, and the loom was without treadles and reed. The +woof threads were thrown across by the weaver and brought together with +a small hand comb. The same style of loom, arranged vertically, is that +on which some of the richly figured cotton rugs from the Deccan are +woven. + +In some parts of Turkey there are European factories that have adopted +some of the native methods; but as the majority of Turkish rugs are apt +to be crooked, frames that weave them straight are now imported from +Europe. + +Mrs. Isabella Bird Bishop describes a tribe of people living at +Biratori, on the Island of Yezo, Japan, and bearing the name of Ainos, +whose women employ their time in weaving mats. Their loom is certainly a +most primitive arrangement. A comb-like frame, through which the threads +pass, rests on the ankles of the weaver. There is a heavy hook fastened +in the ground or floor, and to this the threads at the far end of the +web are sewed. A cord fastens the near end to the waist of the weaver, +who by spinal rigidity supplies the necessary tension. As the work +proceeds, she drags herself along nearer and nearer the hook. This is +slow work, only about a foot being accomplished in a day; as in other +countries, however, the women enjoy the neighborly chats that their work +allows; and often two or more will bring to the house of a neighbor +their simple apparatus, and, hanging the hooks to the roof or to a tree, +will weave all day. + +[Illustration: TURKISH LOOM AND WEAVERS] + +The power looms of modern civilization are chiefly to be found in the +United States and Great Britain, Philadelphia being the principal +American centre, and Kidderminster, Wilton, Worcester, Rochdale, +Halifax, Dewsbury, and Durham, the English centres. Brussels and +Scotland contain a number of such looms. In all Western countries +schools of art furnish most of the designs, and have done much to +improve taste. This can also be said of good colorists in their branch +of this industry. + +[Illustration: A LOOM] + + +THE WEAVERS + +Rug-weaving in the Orient is an industry that, until recent years, has +been carried on almost exclusively by women and girls. From childhood to +womanhood, and on to old age, these weavers are at work. Girls of six +years of age help their mothers, until they become experienced by long +practice. Even ladies of rank and wealth weave rugs of fine quality for +their own homes. In some districts, besides weaving for the market, +girls weave one or two rugs for their dowry; this purpose furnishes them +with enough excitement to keep them interested in their work and +ambitious to excel. Now that there is a greater demand for rugs, and not +enough women to supply the demand, men and boys have come into the +business, but generally only in places where there are large factories, +and especially in the cities. This is noticeably the case in India, +where boys from nine to fifteen years of age do much of the weaving. + +There are two classes of weavers, the sedentary and the nomadic. The +former weave in their houses during the Winter, and in their courtyards +during the Summer. The nomads spend the Winter in mud villages, and in +the Summer go to the mountains with their flocks and live in tents made +of goat's hair. The manner of life of the sedentary weaver works havoc +with her constitution even in her youth; and consequently one is not +surprised at her frail appearance. In Summer she is oppressed with heat +as she sits before the frame, and in Winter she is almost frozen, for +she has to work in the open air in order to have sufficient light. Hers +is not an easy life. It would be pleasant to believe that in her toil, +which she carries on with wondrous patience and in the humblest +surroundings, the conscientious weaver finds the same inward +satisfaction that comes to the true artist elsewhere. + +The duties of the male portion of the family are to tend the flocks, +shear the sheep, separate the various qualities of the wool into +bundles, dye it, and make the framework for the rug. With the extension +of the industry, a class of workers has arisen whose sole task is to +manipulate and dye the wool for use. The reason why men do not usually +weave is that the occupation, besides not being a paying one, requires +an amount of patience not within the power of men accustomed to work out +of doors. Nor is it a remunerative occupation. The reader, who is +perhaps also a prospective rug-buyer, may be interested in the following +calculation of the amount of labor bestowed upon a given piece of the +best type, the cost of the materials, and its value when completed. A +square foot of the best Persian rug is worth about ten dollars, and it +takes a single weaver twenty-three days to complete this portion. This +allows the weaver about forty-four cents per day for her wool and her +labor; but as three-fourths of this amount goes to pay for the wool, +only eleven cents per day is left for her labor. The wages of the +producer of the inferior article are somewhat better. A square foot of +an inferior rug is sold for about sixty cents, and the time required for +weaving it is but two days, thus allowing the weaver thirty cents per +day for her wool and labor. She uses inferior wool, washes but little of +it, and pays only a nominal sum for a cheap dye. The framework of her +loom costs comparatively little, as the rug it produces is from twenty +to thirty times the size of the superior rug. Thus it appears that, in +the long run, the inferior weaver is better paid than the one who +fatigues her brain with her efforts to produce a rug of the best +quality. On the other hand, the weaver of the superior fabric has +advantages which the other has not. As a general rule, she weaves to +order, and is paid for her work in advance. This prepayment is of great +importance, considering the poverty of the weaver. The situation of the +weaver of the inferior article differs in that she has to buy her wool, +dye it, finish her rug, and then watch the market for buyers. + +[Illustration: VATS FOR WASHING AND DYEING WOOL--TURKEY] + +The weavers live on the simplest fare; bread, cheese, and a raw onion +make an average meal. In some districts the weavers have to work in +underground huts, for the air at the surface is so dry that the threads +would lose all their elasticity out of doors. In these underground +places the weavers produce enough moisture by keeping at hand utensils +full of water. + +Although the business is conducted with the manufacturer on a strictly +commercial basis, it is very difficult to induce the weavers to keep +their appointments and finish a rug at the time it is promised. In +India, for example, the weavers are very superstitious; and if a boy +weaver be taken ill, the entire force on that loom will stop until he +recover. If he die, the entire force of native weavers may be changed. +This of course causes vexatious delay, not only of days, but often of +weeks and months. + + +THE MATERIALS + +The materials used in the manufacture of rugs cover a wide range, and +are indigenous to the place where the weavers are located. Sheep's wool, +camel's hair, mohair from the Angora goat, hair from the yak and from +the Thibetan goat, silk, cotton, linen, hemp, flax, and jute are all +used. In the Spring the raw wool is generally taken to the nearest +market, where it is cleaned, washed, and spun. The cleansing process is +very necessary, as it affects in an important degree the quality of the +material. The wool is usually washed in running water by the men, and +then sorted and cleansed a second time. + +Persia, Turkey, and India all produce wool, the two former countries in +larger quantities than India, but some of the very finest wool comes +from that part of India known as Kashmir. The celebrated Turfani wool +comes from Chinese Thibet. It is very choice, and beautiful fabrics are +woven from it. + +[Illustration: SOUMAK RUG + +SIZE, 4.11 × 3.1 + +_The fine weaving of this Soumak Rug and its beautiful coloring are +especially admirable. The texture is very firm, the threads being +tightly drawn. On a field, which is a choice shade of blue, rest +geometrical forms, each one of which has a ground of terra cotta, pale +green, or soft yellow, and is ornamented with rich blue, ivory, or a +light shade of terra cotta. All are outlined with black. The hook design +is noticed in different parts of the rug, and especially in the border. +The artistic effect of this bit of weaving is most pleasing._ + +OWNED BY MR. WILL J. DAVIS, CHICAGO.] + +The pashim is the soft downy wool growing next the body of the goat. In +color it is white, dark gray, or drab; and of this many of the finest +India rugs are woven. Large-tailed sheep are common in Kabul, Peshawar, +and other districts; these furnish wool from which many a rug is +woven. It is possible that the very sheep watched over by the shepherds +of Judea the night of our Saviour's birth were reared partly for their +wool, with a view to rug-weaving. + +The camel is useful not only as a beast of burden; its hair is woven +into fabrics both fine and durable, chief of which are rugs, beautiful, +much desired, and costly; the younger the animal the more is its hair +esteemed. The natural colors harmonize readily with the furnishings in +most rooms, and the soft texture of the best ones is attractive. + +The process of carding is accomplished by means of a block with vertical +pins in even rows close together. The wool is drawn through these many +times, and then spun into yarn. + + +THE QUALITY + +The fineness of a rug depends largely upon the quality of the wool and +the number of knots to the square foot. In one yard of the best made +Persian rugs there are between twenty thousand and thirty thousand +stitches made by hand. The wool must be of fine quality, but not too +soft. It should be closely woven, and evenly cropped. A great deal +depends upon the manipulation of the wool in the rough, and careful +attention should be given to this particular. + +The quality of the wool is affected by whatever circumstances affect the +well-being of the sheep, and in a marked degree by climate. Hence there +is a decided difference in the wools of various districts and sections +of a country. It is a well-known fact that the wool produced in cold +countries is soft and fine, while that of the warmer climates is, on the +other hand, harder, firmer, and more lasting. Hard wool is easier for +the weaver to handle, and the tufts can be cropped with more facility. +It is partly owing to these facts that the rugs of the cold districts +are most in demand. + +[Illustration: INDIAN RUG DESIGNERS] + +The fact that some rugs are so much better than others is a natural +result of the superior skill of the makers. Weavers are like other +workers, some doing perfect work, some indifferent, and others very +poor. But the quality of the rugs offered for sale in this country +depends also upon the knowledge and the conscience of the wholesale +buyer at the place of manufacture. When the buyer for an importing +establishment brings over quantities of rugs not all of which are +artistic, the question may be asked: "Why do you not always select rugs +that are beautiful?" He may reply that it is his business to get those +that will sell, and that as there is a great variety of taste among his +customers he must try to please every one; or he may say that he buys a +thousand rugs at a time, and does not see them individually. It is in +the retail shop that the final purchaser may pick and choose. + +The most famous rugs of the Orient have been selected with great care by +men who have special knowledge of the subject, and they are owned by +museums and connoisseurs. Some have been brought to this country by +distinguished soldiers and statesmen, to whom they have been presented +by potentates as tokens of respect. Others have been obtained through +the fortunes of war. + + +THE KNOTTING + +Except in the Soumak and the Khilim, which have the flat stitch, there +are only two kinds of knotting used in Oriental rugs. These knots are +called the Persian or Sinna, and the Turkish or Ghiordes. + +In the Persian manner of knotting there are more knots to the square +inch than in the Turkish, and the result is a finer surface. Often the +Persian knotting is so fine that the surface of the fabric is like +velvet. The Persian knot is tied in such a manner that one end of the +pile yarn extends from every spacing that separates the warp threads. It +is made in such a way that a noose is formed, which tightens as the yarn +is pulled. Occasionally it is turned in the opposite direction, and +executed from left to right. In this case two threads of yarn are +employed, this of course making the pile twice as thick as in the other. + +The Turkish or Ghiordes knot has the yarn twisted about the warp threads +in such a manner that the two raised ends of the pile alternate with +every two threads of the warp. + +[Illustration: SINNA RUG + +SIZE, 4.6 × 6.6 + +_This is a beautiful example of the very fine texture and the even +clipping that characterize the Sinna rugs. Thickly studding the dark +blue field are minute designs in blue and rose hues, with which pale +green, yellow, and a sapphire blue blend most harmoniously. All these +small designs rest in the usual diaper design, which may be traced +throughout the rug. The border is charming, with its groundwork of fine +yellow, on which are delicate tracings of light green, ivory, and blue. +The effect of light and shade upon this exquisite piece of weaving +brings out plainly the marvellous sheen which is a feature of this rug. +The innumerable small figures which appear throughout the rug, with +their blending of soft hues, present a kaleidoscopic effect._ + +OWNED BY MRS. EMMONS BLAINE, CHICAGO.] + +Experts have spent much time and invested much capital in the endeavor +to make the rug industry as perfect as possible. Judging from the +examples of India rugs I have seen,--some with a seven-by-six knot, +others with a sixteen-by-sixteen knot,--I am convinced that the beauty, +durability, and artistic effects produced by the efforts of the +manufacturers will be appreciated more and more. From the fact that the +best-known firms in the rug business in New York, Chicago, and other +cities in the United States, and several leading firms in England, are +sponsors for the present rug industry in India, it may naturally be +inferred that it is prosecuted with skill and care. + +[Illustration: PERSIAN OR SINNA KNOTTING] + +[Illustration: TURKISH OR GHIORDES KNOTTING] + +[Illustration: SOUMAK WEAVE] + +The different stitches made are as follows: seven by eight, or fifty-six +hand-tied knots to the square inch; eight by eight, or sixty-four knots +to the square inch; ten by ten, or one hundred knots to the square inch; +twelve by twelve, or one hundred and forty-four knots to the square +inch; and sixteen by sixteen, or two hundred and fifty-six knots to the +square inch. These finer stitches are made in the very best examples +produced by the finest Persian weavers. A specimen recently shown me was +an exact reproduction of the rug owned by Prince Alexis +Lobanow-Rostowsky, in which the stitch was the sixteen by sixteen. It +was made in one of the factories in Kashmir. + +The famous rug of Ardebil in the South Kensington Museum has three +hundred and eighty hand-tied knots to the square inch, or thirty-three +million in the whole fabric. + + +DESIGNS + +The designs of Eastern rugs are often the spontaneous outcome of the +fancy of the weaver. Sometimes they are handed down from one generation +to another; in some cases young girls are taught the design by an adult, +who marks it in the sand; at other times a drawing of the rug is made on +paper, the instructor showing her pupils the arrangement of every thread +and the color to be used. When all this has been done, the pupil must +make the rug without looking at the drawing. + +Persian rugs excel those of other countries in artistic design as well +as in harmonious coloring. The Persians seem to have a natural intuition +in the use and blending of different shades, and in the designs that +contain these colors they achieve the happiest results. It is really +wonderful what exquisite fabrics these people, born and reared in +ignorance and poverty, produce. + +The designs in Persian rugs are generally floral; and in some districts, +especially Fars, the women weavers invent the designs, varying them +every two or three years. The Mohammedan religion does not allow any +direct representation of animal forms; consequently rugs woven under its +influence take floral, geometric, and vegetable forms. The Shiah sect +of Moslems, however, numbering about fifteen millions,--of which eight +millions are Persians,--do not regard representations of animals as +unlawful. By the industry of this sect, and that of all who disregard +the law of the Koran, animal forms are seen on some Persian rugs. + +Among the good antique Persian rugs there are about thirty designs, all +having different borders. Each design is the peculiar work of a family +or tribe, and is produced continuously, from generation to generation +without noticeable change, except in compliance with the demand of a +buyer, or by a weaver who carries out some special fancy. Many buyers +select the color, design, and size, leaving their orders with an +importer or a manufacturer. + +[Illustration: RUGS BEING TRANSPORTED] + +In the modern Oriental rug the designs are not to be entirely depended +upon. They are apt to vary at the will of the weaver; and moreover, +Occidental designs are now sent to the Orient to be woven into rugs by +the native weavers of the Eastern country. The designs sent to India, to +be reproduced by the different European and American firms having +factories there, are almost universally strictly Oriental in character, +being copies from fine old Persian pieces, or rearrangements of Oriental +forms. When the design reaches India, it has to be re-drawn to the exact +size of the rug that is to be made. From this is copied what is +called a _talim_, which is the only direction the weavers have. This +talim, or guide, shows the weavers exactly how many knots of a color are +to be tied; and when these different colors are put together, the design +is formed. These talims are carefully kept, and as they are records of +the designs, can be reproduced at any time. + +Large rugs show best in large and bold designs, for small and crowded +designs would not be artistic. Small designs are, however, preferable on +small rugs; a bold design on a small rug is inappropriate. The finer the +border of a rug of whatever size, the more beautiful and costly the rug. + +An average size for a large rug is six yards by four, and for this a +bold vigorous design would be suitable. + +Some designs found in rugs are here reproduced. + +I. Five Forms of the Palmette. + +_a._ With sharply marked outlines this palmette is a characteristic of +the Djushaghan rugs. + +[Illustration: _a_] + +_b._ This is a geometrical form of the palmette, frequently met with in +modern Caucasian rugs. + +[Illustration: _b_] + +_c._ This form of the palmette has an oblong central nucleus, surrounded +by wreaths of leaves. To the right and left lancet-shaped leaves nearly +encircle the whole. This design is most frequently seen in old Persian +rugs. + +[Illustration: _c_] + +_d._ In some old Persian rugs this form of the palmette with its +diagonal projections is seen. It tends toward the geometrical, although +its centre contains a small floral spray. + +[Illustration: _d_] + +_e._ This palmette, with its two flanking lancet-shaped leaves, is +frequently seen in modern Feraghan and Kurdistan rugs. + +[Illustration: _e_] + +[Illustration: II] + +II. The Herati Border, or some form of it, may often be seen in Herat, +Feraghan, Khorassan, Kurdistan, and Sinna rugs. + +III. The central design is formed by eight valvular or four heart-shaped +leaves. This form is often seen in Kirmanshah and Shiraz, and sometimes +in Caucasian rugs. + +[Illustration: III] + +IV. The Running Hook design found in the Daghestan, Shirvan, and Soumak +rugs. + +[Illustration: IV] + +V. Pomegranate. The fruit is often depicted on ancient Assyrian and +Egyptian sculptures. It had a religious significance in connection with +several Oriental cults and was early introduced into rug designs. + +[Illustration: V] + +VI. A palm leaf with regular contour, its centre containing a small +floral design. This form of design is found in more or less detail in +the rugs of Persia and India. + +[Illustration: VI] + +VII. A palm leaf formed by a floral branch and without distinct outline. + +[Illustration: VII] + +VIII. Cloud bands, seen in Chinese and old Ghiordes rugs. + +IX. A lozenge surrounded by the Hook design. This is found in rugs made +by nomadic tribes of Asia. + +[Illustration: VIII] + +[Illustration: IX] + +[Illustration: X] + +X. A continued wave-like design with rosettes attached. At intervals a +delicate tendril effect is interposed on either side of the wave-line. + +[Illustration: XI] + +XI. A continued wave-like design interrupted by a two-cleft figure. + +[Illustration: XII] + +XII. A rosette, the tips of its leaves bending backward. The rosette is +often met with in old Khorassan, Herat, Feraghan, and other Persian +rugs. + +[Illustration: XIII] + +XIII. Reciprocal trefoil, or spade design. Found as a border design in +many of the Caucasian and some Persian rugs, especially the Saraband. + +[Illustration: XIV] + +XIV. The central design holds a rosette, to which are joined four +blossoms resting in valvular calyxes, the complete design forming a +cross. + +[Illustration: XV] + +XV. Four designs characteristic of the Caucasian rug. + +[Illustration: XVI] + +XVI. The Fylfot is in the form of a Greek cross with each arm continuing +at right angles. It is also known as the Swastika, and is the symbol of +good fortune. It has been a favorite design in the rugs of Greece, and +of the Orient, while it predominates in the Navajo rugs of the United +States. + +XVII. The Guli Hinnai is a decorative floral design found at its best in +the old rugs of Feraghan. It is copied from the flowers which grow in +small clusters on the henna-plant, from which it derives its name. + +[Illustration: XVII] + +XVIII. The Lotus is the water lily of Egypt. In various forms it is +found in antique rugs of Persia. + +[Illustration: XVIII] + +XIX. The Medallion, in both floral and geometrical designs, is seen in +many rugs of all rug-weaving countries. + +[Illustration: XIX] + +There are many more designs which by careful investigation can be found. +Among others the Arabesque, Chinese fret, Circle, Comb, various forms of +the Cross, Mina Khani, Octagon, the S form, Scroll, Serrated leaves, +Shah Abbas, the Star,--six or eight pointed,--the Tarantula, Triangle, +the Y form, and the Zigzag. + + +THE DYES + +When doing their best work, Oriental weavers use the softest of +permanent dyes. The result obtained is in every case a thing of beauty +and utility. The aniline dyes are, of course, not to be compared to the +vegetable, although the best of them are not to be utterly condemned. +The poorest aniline dye eats into the rug, and the color fades. + +[Illustration: WOOL DRYING AFTER DYEING] + +Madder ranks high among those plants which yield a permanent dye. It +belongs to the genus _Rubia_; the root employed is that of the _Rubia +tinctorum_. This is largely cultivated in certain districts of India, +but the best comes from near Smyrna, and from other parts of Asiatic +Turkey. The plant grows wild throughout a large section of Central Asia +and Russia. With both the European and the Indian madders the roots of +the plants are the only parts that yield the dye. In the roots three +coloring matters are obtained: alizarin and purpurin, which are both +red, and xanthin, which is yellow. Cochineal was introduced for dyeing +purposes in 1856. It is the product of an insect called _Coccus cacti_, +which lives on a species of cactus. Yellow is often produced from +Persian berries, turmeric, saffron, and sumac. + +Tyrian purple dye was greatly prized by the Phoenicians. As stated +above, it was obtained from a shellfish; but the secret was known only +to the maritime Canaanites. The art of producing this dye has been lost, +although some aver that in recent years it has been re-discovered. + +Kermes, red in color, is one of the oldest of all dyes. It was known in +Syria, 1200 B.C. It is not so brilliant as cochineal, but it is much +more durable. Plutarch is authority for the statement that after one +hundred and ninety years stuffs dyed with kermes retained their original +color. The dye is the product of the bodies of females of the species of +coccus which infest certain trees along the Mediterranean coasts. When +the Romans conquered Spain, a part of the tribute demanded was paid with +these little bodies. + +Greens are obtained from various sources. The Chinese green is a dye +obtained from _Rhamnus chlorophorus_ and _Rhamnus utilis_, a genus of +shrubs. The fruit of several buckthorns, or the Persian berries, as they +are generally called by dyers, also give greens and brilliant yellows. +Most of the greens, however, are produced by the combination of indigo +with yellow. + +Indigo, mentioned by Pliny as Indicum, yields the deep blue dye so much +prized by the Romans. Arrian speaks of indigo, and says that it was +exported from Barbarike, on the Indus, into Egypt. This plant is grown +in India, China, North and South America, Mexico, Central America, +Africa, Japan, Madagascar, and Jamaica. When the Indian indigo plant, +_Indigofera tinctoria_, is in flower, it contains the largest quantity +of coloring matter. The beautiful vegetable and animal dyes which were +compounded with consummate skill are now largely supplanted by the +chemical dyes which are easily obtained. But in years to come the +commercialism of the present will probably give way to the restoration +of the splendid dyeing of the past. + + +ORIENTAL COLORS + +Among Orientals a good deal of significance has attached, from the +earliest days, to color. In Babylon scarlet was the symbol of fire, blue +of air, and purple of water. Tyrian purple was an exquisite and rare +shade of crimson. Many allusions are made to it by classical writers. +The principal colors of the ancient Egyptians were red, yellow, and +blue. Black was the symbol of error. White signified a holy life, +purity, innocence of soul. The priests of Zeus and of Osiris were robed +in white. Red was the symbol of zeal for the faith. Yellow was supposed +to bring evil and sorrow. Blue was the symbol of truth. Black and white +were often used to outline other colors. + +The Persians, unlike most other Orientals, are not fond of bright +colors. They are apt to avoid the light shades of red and green as being +too showy, and further, as being liable to fade. Greens and yellows in +dark shades they treat with more favor. They consider black and indigo +as the symbols of sorrow; rose is the symbol of Divine Wisdom; green +represents initiation into the knowledge of the Most High. + +Among the Chinese, yellow is the symbol of royalty. The Emperor of +China and his sons may wear yellow robes; their descendants wear yellow +sashes and have yellow bridles for their horses. Red is the symbol of +truth, virtue, and sincerity. It is the color of the highest degree of +official rank. White is the symbol of mourning; black represents vice +and depravity. + +In Turkey, green is the most sacred color; and for that reason a true +follower of Mahomet will not permit it to be used in his rugs, for fear +it may be profaned by being stepped upon. Thirty-five or forty years ago +no Christian was allowed to wear even a vestige of green anywhere upon +him, while in Turkey; but this law is not now so rigidly enforced. If +the Prophet or any of his family wear this color, no objection is +raised, as he and they are considered holy, and thus exempt from the +penalty. White is the color permitted to a student or a teacher of the +law. To the Mohammedans of India and Persia, as to the Chinese, white is +the emblem of mourning. In India, orange signifies devotion or pious +resignation, and blue means ill-luck to the Hindoo. + +Red was the favorite color of the Gauls, purple of the Romans, and +saffron of the Greeks. + + + + +II + +RUG-WEAVING IN EGYPT, PERSIA, AND TURKEY + + +RUG-WEAVING IN EGYPT + +The supply of skins having been found inadequate to the gratification of +their desire for comfort, the ancient Egyptians gradually developed the +art of making mats from papyrus, a plant as important to them as any of +our trees, fibrous grasses, or hemp are to us. While at work on the +manufacture of these mats, the weavers used to squat on the ground. They +became skilful, both in constructing the fabric and arranging the +colors; the latter were quite bright and effective, being chiefly red, +blue, yellow, and green, with black and white to define. + +Egyptians used rugs in the decoration of their rooms, hanging them on +walls and also suspending them between the pillars. But as the glory of +Egypt departed, her skill in rug-making also declined; and the Egyptian +rugs of the present day are of a coarse quality, being made in private +houses under the primitive conditions that existed thousands of years +ago. The last manufactory in working order was at Boulak, a suburb of +Cairo, but it has been closed for several years. A great many rugs, +however, are imported into Egypt, the majority being from Persia, +Turkey, and India. Cairo is still one of the leading emporiums for the +sale to tourists of rugs of Eastern make. + + +PERSIAN RUGS + +In Persia the art of rug-making has attained a very high degree of +excellence, having been practised there during many centuries; indeed, +the exact period when this industry was introduced into that country is +not known. Tradition has it that long before the days of Alexander the +Great, rugs were woven at Shuster, then the capital; and being a luxury, +they were woven solely for kings' palaces, and on the finest gold warp. + +The Persians having been an industrious and civilized people for many +centuries, and a large proportion of them having been accustomed to the +nomadic and pastoral life, it is a natural inference that love of gain +and the demand from the growing towns for articles of beauty and luxury +gave the wandering tribes the opportunity to utilize their wool by +supplying the demand for rugs. Encouraged as it was under the reign of +Shah Abbas, the industry prospered. Various kings of Persia cultivated +certain branches of art and industry, but Shah Abbas especially gave a +decided impetus to rug-weaving. He had a particular fondness for the +beautiful creations of this industrial art, and the rugs made during his +reign bring fabulous prices. After his death a reaction followed. Rugs +fell into comparative disuse, and the manufacture deteriorated until +about 1850, when, thanks to the demand in Europe, the industry revived. +To-day it is in a flourishing condition and the most important source of +Persia's income. + +Persians, from the Shah to the peasant, sit upon rugs when eating, with +cushions placed behind them. It is only the lowest beggar who has no +rug. The rugs used by the Persians themselves are rather small, the +larger ones being exported to foreign countries. Usually the rooms of +Persian homes are small, and narrow in proportion to their length; +consequently only small rugs are required. But even when the rooms are +large, the Persians prefer several small rugs to one large rug, as a +floor covering. They often first cover the hard-beaten ground with a +matting of split reeds, and then lay over this so many small rugs that +the matting cannot be seen. This custom is becoming more and more common +in Persia. With their taste in design and color, they produce beautiful +effects. + +[Illustration: ANTIQUE PERSIAN RUG + +SIZE, 15.3 × 6.7 + +_The tree design in its best and strongest elements is typified in this +wonderful and most interesting Persian fabrication of olden time. The +harmony of design and color is most impressive, and the size of the rug +enhances this effect. It was evidently woven by one weaver, and years of +patient labor and the greatest skill must have been bestowed on it. The +richness of coloring, the velvet-like texture, the repose of design, are +all unusual. The foundation is of a deep rich blue, and the exquisite +rose and sapphire blues and ivory tones are in the softest and richest +of permanent dyes. The border is wide, the main stripe of the rose +shade, and the coloring all so blended that the continuity of the rug is +complete. It is doubtless a product of Kurdistan._ + +OWNED BY MRS. POTTER PALMER, CHICAGO.] + +The finest rugs are closely woven, with a pile like velvet, and with +stitches on the back that resemble needlework. A rug has scarcely +reached its prime until it has been down ten years; and it should last +for centuries, if carefully used. As a partial explanation of this +wonderful durability, it should be remembered that in their own homes +the Persians use their finest rugs for hangings, and also that they take +off their shoes before entering the house. + +In ancient days rug-weaving in Persia was generally restricted to +Ispahan, Khorassan, and Shuster, but in modern times the most noted +districts are those of Sultanabad, Fars, Hamadan, Feraghan, Bijar, +Kurdistan, Khorassan, and Kirman. But the industry is so widely spread +over Persia that there is not a class of women who do not live by it, +and very often really fine pieces of work are produced in districts +where the art receives no encouragement. The districts mentioned above +are more noted for the quality of the rugs they produce than for +anything else. The rug of each district has a peculiar character of its +own, both as to the quality of the wool and the design. The +peculiarities characterizing each district are so noticeable that an +expert can generally tell at a glance where a rug was made. + +It is very difficult, if not impossible, to discover the exact value of +the export and import trade of Persia. The source of this information is +naturally the Customs Administration, which in Persia exists but in +name. The duties of the ports and principal towns are farmed out to +various persons, whose interest it is to send the inquirer away as +ignorant upon the subject as he was before the interview began. But it +is possible, after a great deal of labor in collecting statistics from +the dealers of a particular article, to form an estimate probably not +very far from the truth. By this method we judge that the average yearly +export value of rugs in Aaragh (the Sultanabad district) is three +hundred thousand dollars; Hamadan one hundred thousand; Bijar one +hundred and ten thousand; Malair one hundred thousand dollars; Kurdistan +fifty thousand; Fars seventy-five thousand; Kirman and Khorassan one +hundred thousand; and in the less known districts collectively, fifty +thousand dollars. The total of these figures classes the rug export in +the very first order of exports. It is plain that this amount does not +represent the full value of the manufacture, inasmuch as a great +quantity of the goods does not leave the country. This quantity is +perhaps small in comparison with that exported, but it is large enough +to make the value nearly a million dollars. + +It may be of interest to mention here that the export duty on rugs on +the average is two and a half cents per square foot, and carriage to the +seaports ten cents per square foot, while the import duty to the United +States is forty per cent _ad valorem_ and the specific duty ten cents +per square foot. + +[Illustration: KHORASSAN RUG + +SIZE, 10 × 26 + +_This is a perfect example of a Meshhed rug. The capital city of +Khorassan has furnished many characteristic specimens of fine +handicraft, but none more representative or beautiful. Here, on a +splendid rich blue field, is the elongated palm leaf, with its markings +of magenta, red, and blue. These palm-leaf designs extend over the +entire rug, which is of enormous size. The border is in harmony with the +field, and in coloring has the same deep, rich hues. The texture is firm +and the rug is very heavy and imposing, with an air of solidity and +strength. The illustration shows a section of this rug, giving a clear +idea of its detail._ + +OWNED BY MRS. SYDNEY RICHMOND TABOR, LAKE FOREST, ILLINOIS.] + +In Persia several firms have done a great deal in the way of encouraging +the industry of rug-weaving in that country. To supply the demand for +Persian rugs in Europe and America, these firms have erected buildings +in Sultanabad, where they keep the weavers under control and steadily +employed. These firms, having been long established, are conversant with +the Persians and their character; and to prevent any deception they pay +the weavers by the piece instead of by the day. + +The rugs produced by these firms are of the medium quality. The wool is +bought in the rough and manipulated for use. Every day a quantity of it +is given out to the laborers, who must reproduce the design placed +before them, and each laborer is paid from two to four dollars per +square yard, according to the quality of her work. In the service of +these firms, the weaver is obliged to put aside her individual taste and +follow closely the designs, which are prepared in accordance with the +prevailing fashions abroad. The independent native weaver does not pay +any attention to the taste of the buyer. She places her work in the +local market, and the native merchant purchases it for exportation. + + +CHARACTERISTICS OF CERTAIN PERSIAN RUGS + +_Bakhshis_ rugs are made in a small village in the district of +Azerbijan, and in the neighborhood of Herez. Those of thirty years ago +were excellent, but now the materials of which they are made are poor, +the rugs badly woven and of indifferent coloring. They come in large +sizes, usually having a medallion in the centre. + +_Bibikabad_ rugs are quite modern, and are supplied to the market at +Hamadan. Aniline dyes prevail, and the rugs are of inferior design and +texture. + +_Bijar_ rugs of olden time were artistic; of those of to-day this +statement cannot be truthfully made. The wool is still fine and silky, +but there is an element of crudeness of design and a defiance of the +laws governing color. A pronounced medallion in the centre is usually +seen. This is set in a solid field of a strong contrasting color. +Sometimes the field is of a bright red or blue, with the medallion +omitted. The borders are generally in the same color as the field, or in +camel's hair, sometimes covered with crude figures of human beings or +animals, or decorated with flowers in vivid red, yellow, or green. The +rugs are heavy, and in the American markets are known as _Sarakhs_. + +[Illustration: BIJAR (SARAKHS) RUG + +SIZE, 6.9 × 11.4 + +_The texture of this rug is very fine. It is thick and soft, and very +compact and smooth. There is a force both in color and design. On a deep +blue field rests a medallion in rather strong colors, red, blue, green, +and ivory. Heavily ornamented corner areas in the same shades give to +the whole design a certain symmetry, and a wide floral border with much +ivory gives an air of solidity._] + +_Birjand_ rugs (so called) are woven almost exclusively in the village +of Daraksh, about fifty miles northeast of Birjand. The weavers of these +rugs came originally from Herat. The rugs are generally satisfactory, +the weaving being fine, although the pile is often uneven. + +_Burujird_ rugs are made sixty miles from Sultanabad, and south of +Hamadan. They resemble in their field and in the firm texture the +Saraband rug, the palm-leaf design being arranged throughout the field. +The border is mainly white, with minute variations of the palm design. + +_Djushaghan_ rugs are woven in a district south of Feraghan. They are +durable and attractive. The Shah Abbas design is a favorite one in +antique rugs of this kind. The field is generally of a rich red, and +occasionally a rare sage green. Often there is a lighter shade in the +border than in the field. Crosses with angular ends are a feature, and +between these are floral designs. + +_Feraghan_ rugs of olden time are as satisfactory as any rugs handed +down to us. They are so harmonious in coloring and design as to be most +restful to the eye. They have a richness and sheen that make them most +desirable, and when to the usual soft colors a deep violet is added the +attractiveness increases. A distinguishing feature is the Herati design, +covering a field usually of a rich deep blue. Sometimes the Guli Hinnai +design is observed, with its more elaborate treatment. The border is +often a light ground covered with a design in the form of rosettes and +palmettes connected by a running vine. The main border stripe is +frequently in a rich green and sometimes of a deep rose. When there are +corner areas and a centre medallion they are arranged so symmetrically +that the harmony is complete. The colors in these areas and the +medallion are often in cream, light green, or red. At the present time +Feraghan exports annually a large number of rugs rather loosely woven, +but soft and durable. These are made by the Bactrian tribes. The entire +centre is often filled with rather small irregular figures on a dark +blue field. Yellow is often employed in a modern Feraghan, both in the +border and in the field. Quite an important feature of Feraghan and +other places of high altitude is the rug-woven saddlebag. When stuffed, +such bags make comfortable sofa-pillows, or they can be placed as seats +on chairs. Throughout Asia, saddlebags are used for the transportation +of household and personal effects and other goods, and by children for +their schoolbooks. + +[Illustration: CAMEL'S HAIR RUG FROM HAMADAN + +SIZE, 4.1 × 2.8 + +_This rug is an example of the Hamadan weave, which is so frequently +met. The field of camel's hair is in the natural color. The medallion in +the centre is woven mainly in red, as is also the border of the mat. +Both these, however, are ornamented with green, white, maroon, orange, +and a few black lines. There is a fringe at each end of the rug, but at +one end it is much deeper than at the other._] + +_Görevan_ rugs are woven in the neighborhood of Herez. They are exported +in large sizes, and are generally rather showy and elaborate. Quite firm +and durable, they are popular for dining-rooms. As they are in great +demand in the trade, they are turned out too rapidly, but careful +selection brings happy results, for sometimes a truly beautiful rug, +with rich warm coloring and a medallion not too pronounced, is found. + +_Hamadan_ rugs are generally of camel's hair, although sometimes goat's +hair is added. The field is in the natural shade, as is the surrounding +border. An elongated medallion appears in the centre; this is ornamented +with floral designs in red, blue, and yellow, as are also the corner +areas. Antique Hamadans are very beautiful. Soft and silky, yet with +firmness of texture, and in subdued coloring, they seem appropriate for +any room. Some of them, with fine, delicate tracery, in soft shades, +remind one of beautiful stained glass seen in the old cathedrals of +Europe. + +_Herat_ rugs are now woven in Persia by tribes originally from +Afghanistan. The old city of Herat was under Persian influence, which +accounts for the fine character of its rugs. The modern Herat rug is of +excellent quality and durable. The leading design is naturally the +Herati, and again one sees the palm leaf with its apexes all pointing in +the same direction. The field is generally a deep blue, although +sometimes a rich red, and even ivory. Green is apt to be the main color +in the border, and occasionally the butterfly motif is noticed. Some of +the modern rugs have medallion centres, in which the wool is generally +red or blue, and sometimes green or yellow. + +_Herez_ rugs are attractive, the chief color often being a fine blue, +upon which rests a pronounced medallion. The corners are defined by +serrated lines, and are in shades of the red in autumn leaves. Often +these corners are decorated with small designs. The main border stripe +is light in color--often cream--with good-sized markings. Herez rugs are +made in the province of Azerbaijan. + +_Iran_ is the official name for Persia, and when a rug is called by this +name, the meaning is simply that it is a Persian rug. + +[Illustration: FERAGHAN RUG + +SIZE, 24.8 × 15 + +_This is a most unusual antique Feraghan. It is rare to find an antique +of such enormous size, and the marvellous sheen and good preservation of +the rug render it a choice specimen. The texture is like velvet in its +softness, the Persian knotting is firm, and the shadings of green, rose, +blue, yellow, purple, violet, and red all blend in perfect harmony. The +pile is even, and the border with its exquisite hues is a study in color +blending. The green of the widest border-stripe is particularly +reposeful in effect._ + +OWNED BY MR. BYRON L. SMITH, LAKE FOREST, ILLINOIS.] + +_Ispahan_ rugs are antiques. During the sixteenth century and the reign +of the great Shah Abbas, and even earlier, these magnificent fabrics +were woven. Superb in coloring, with beautiful designs and of superior +workmanship, the examples still in existence are indeed precious. In +these old rugs one finds a field of red that is rich and rare. It looks +like carmine, and then again it seems as if one were looking into a +goblet containing the choicest wine of past centuries. Once seen, the +shade is not forgotten. So also with the wonderful moss-like green that +occupies the main border and the running vines of the Ispahan rug. +Black--the most corrosive of all dyes--although used, has disappeared, +leaving only the foundation. A medallion, star-form in effect, often +occupies the centre. Over the field are scattered palmettes and lotus +forms, all connected by running vines. A wide middle border between two +narrow stripes holds the rosette and palmette, and also the lancet leaf, +in tiny form. When cloud bands are seen they show Chinese influence, as +do the lotus forms. + +_Kara Dagh_ rugs are made by nomads who are called Aylauts, and who live +in the mountainous region north of Tabriz. In appearance, as well as in +texture and size, they resemble those produced in the Caucasian province +of Karabagh on the other side of the boundary. The natural color of the +camel's hair, and rose color too, are much used. Sometimes the camel's +hair is mixed with goat's hair. The designs are floral and rather +striking in effect. + +_Kermanshah_ rugs of modern make have usually a medallion with a lotus +motif in the centre of the field. This is generally of ivory, ornamented +in soft tones of blue, green, or rose. The usual light effect of the rug +makes it rather more suitable for a reception room or a bedroom than for +other places. There are, however, deeper tones in these rugs, and +sometimes there are no medallions. Perhaps the rug is most pleasing +with the palm-leaf design and that of the tree, or with many birds and +various floral conceptions. The borders blend harmoniously with the rest +of the rug. The finest rugs of Kermanshah were formerly made in the +palace of the Governor, and many were presented to leading rulers. + +_Khorassan_ rugs are woven in the province of that name and are +characterized by various forms. A long palm effect or floral design is +apt to be in the borders of antique Khorassans; and a prominent color in +these rugs is magenta, which, though sometimes rather harsh in the +modern rugs, is soft and beautiful in the antiques. Blue is also a +leading color, and animals, including the lion and the gazelle; birds of +several varieties; flowers symmetrically arranged, and geometrical +forms, are all often seen. The Herati design is a usual one. When +stripes occur in the field they are beautifully decorated with small +floral designs or with the palm, and occasionally with that migratory +insect, the locust. The rugs are unevenly clipped, which gives a soft, +lustrous effect. Meshhed, the capital city of Khorassan, weaves rugs of +fine colors; the palm leaf when represented on this rug is very large +and impressive, often on a deep blue field. Animals and birds are +frequently seen on the Meshhed rug. + +_Kirman_ rugs, made in the province of Irak-Ajemi, frequently have a +medallion in the centre, entwined with flowers. Sometimes the Tree of +Life is represented, its branches bearing different fruits, and often +there are symbolical little birds in the border. Sometimes a vase of +flowers is the principal ornament, or several small trees either with or +without foliage. Silk has often been introduced into the old rugs with +charming effect. The Kirman rug is one of the most easily recognizable. +It is of very fine quality, and is highly decorative. Antique rugs of +this kind have the finest of wool, and, with the artistic arrangement of +beautiful flowers, cypress trees, and palm effects, are most pleasing. +One of the finest in this country is reproduced in this volume with a +description accompanying it. + +_Kurdistan_ (the Persian portion) is a large region inhabited by the +nomadic tribes called Kurds; and the sheep and goats belonging to these +tribes furnish the fine wool that is woven into Kurdish rugs. The color +effects are generally good. Often dark blues and reds form the +groundwork, in the centre of which is a lozenge or large diamond form +ornamented with small designs of the palm leaf. Then, again, a repeated +design is laid out over the field. Designs of the tree, palm, and +rosette, and various floral forms appear. By examining the web at one +end, a design in colored wool is generally found. In one of these rugs +in my own collection the centre contains twelve different symbolical +designs, including the turtle, comb, star, and cross, while the corner +areas and borders hold at least thirty-five others. All of them are so +carefully woven that much thought must have been bestowed upon this very +strong, splendid rug. + +_Laristan_ (see Niris) rugs. + +_Meshhed_ (see Khorassan) rugs. + +_Mir-Saraband_ (see Saraband) rugs. + +_Muskabad_ (see Sultanabad) rugs. + +_Niris_ rugs are made a little to the southeast of Shiraz, in the +province of Laristan, and the latter name is that used in the Western +markets. All around Lake Niris are pastured sheep with fine lustrous +wool which is used in the manufacture of rugs. In the modern ones floral +and geometric stripes often alternate through the field, or there is a +medallion in the centre of a plain field, with corner areas. The border +carries several designs. There is a checked effect in the webbing at the +ends. The rugs are very strong and excellent for hard use. In the older +ones blue was used in the field, with rather large forms of the palm +leaf. + +_Oustri-Nan_ rugs have the palm-leaf design over the field, and a good +deal of white in the borders. They are firm and durable. + +_Saraband_ (Serebend) rugs are woven in the district of Sarawan. They +always have a distinct feature in the small palm leaves that fill the +field. These leaves have the hook turned at the top from left to right +in one row, and right to left in the next. Usually the field that these +palm leaves adorn is soft red or rose in color. Again it may be deep +blue, or occasionally ivory, in which case the palm design is in red or +blue. The border is always harmonious, and there are many narrow stripes +which form it. The widest one is generally in an ivory tone, while the +undulating vine and small flower forms appear in some of the borders. +Then, too, one finds the Caucasian influence in some of the borders, and +the reciprocal trefoil is often seen. Occasionally a human figure is +carefully outlined in the border, and this brings a personal element +into the rug. Then again, the date is woven in. Mir is the name of the +village in this district where the design had its source, and in the +trade to-day the finest of these rugs is often called _Mir-Saraband_. + +_Sarakhs_ (see Bijar) rugs. + +_Saruk_ rugs are very closely woven in the hamlet bearing this name. The +floral designs scattered over the field of rose, dark red, or blue show +a spontaneity of workmanship that is not governed by Western enterprise, +though, curiously enough, aniline dyes prevail. The wool is very fine. +The border is composed of a wide middle stripe, with a narrow one on +either side. + +_Savalan_ (see Sultanabad) rugs. + +_Serapi_ (see Sirab) rugs. + +_Shiraz_, the capital city of Pars, has exported some of the most +interesting and exquisite rugs in existence. In the sixteenth century +Shiraz was at the height of its prosperity, and all the neighboring +country was noted for its flocks of sheep, which produced the finest of +wool. Rugs were made at Shiraz for the reigning Shahs, who had palaces +there, and the workmanship displayed in them was most beautiful. The +city was visited by an earthquake in 1853, and since that catastrophe +the manufacture of rugs has not regained its former prosperity; yet +great improvement has been shown in recent years, and the same vegetable +dyes are still in use. The Shiraz is often called the Mecca rug, as it +is the one frequently selected by pilgrims to that city. Deep rich blues +are often seen in a Shiraz rug, and frequently stripes extend throughout +the centre, as well as in the border, where diamond forms and crosses +are also frequently seen. The medallion and the palm leaf are also +found. Many Persian poets have sung of the wonderful rose gardens of +Shiraz, and the rug weaver there has faithfully reproduced in glorious +hues these beautiful flowers. Other flowers, too, decorate this rug. The +webbing at the ends is embroidered in colored yarns. + +[Illustration: SHIRAZ RUG + +SIZE, 4.3 × 7 + +_The field of this rug is marked with narrow perpendicular stripes of +soft yellows, rose, deep blues, and ivory. These mellow tones of color +are all thickly studded with a fine floral design in contrasting shades. +The palm-leaf design, minute but distinct, is in pale green, with +markings of blue and rose. The border stripes of tan, dark rich blue, +and rose are floral in effect. The rug is heavy, firm, and of fine +texture. Fringed ends finish this beautiful example of the Shiraz._ + +OWNED BY MR. WILL J. DAVIS, CHICAGO.] + +_Sinna_ rugs are made in the province of Irak-Ajemi. They have a very +fine texture, and are greatly prized by rug-lovers. The pile is of the +best wool, and very closely cut. The Herati design, minutely woven, +often occupies the entire field. Again, a lozenge-shaped figure is in +the centre, and covered with the most delicate tracery. The field of the +rug is often in white or ivory, or in soft blue, red, yellow, or even +peach-blow tint. Yellow is used frequently in the border and corner +areas. Often the finest of these rugs will be puckered near the edges; +that is because the yarn is so tightly twisted in the weaving. Owing in +part to this firm twisting and also to the fine, close knotting, there +is much durability in the best specimens. + +_Sirab_ rugs are woven in the village of that name in the district of +Azerbaijan. In Western markets the name has been corrupted, and the rugs +are there called _Serapi_. These rugs come in large sizes, and are of +excellent colors. A medallion of good proportions occupies the field, +and about this floral designs are arranged. Sometimes inscriptions are +seen in the rug. + +_Sultanabad_ is one of the most important of the modern rug-producing +regions of Western Asia. Factories are kept busy supplying the market, +and in many cases excellent rugs are manufactured. This is especially +true when old patterns are used, for no modern ones sent out by Western +firms can be deemed worthy to take the place of original Oriental +designs. Large quantities of rugs from this district are exported to the +United States, and are then frequently called _Savalans_. The groundwork +is generally light in color, and the designs are many, while the variety +of brilliant hues is perhaps the largest in Persia. _Muskabad_ is a +trade name for a certain grade of rug from this district. + +_Tabriz_ rugs are now supplied in large bales to the trade from +factories that are under Western jurisdiction. They are of well selected +yarn, closely woven, and very durable. The weaving is faultless. The +centre medallion is in a rich color, set in a field of ivory or other +solid color, and decorated with floral forms. The sharply defined corner +areas and the borders also contain floral designs in attractive colors. +Sometimes cartouches with lines from a Persian poet or birds and animal +forms are seen in the borders. + +_Yezd_, where the fire-worshippers live, furnishes rugs with a short +pile, but these are used chiefly in mosques, and seldom leave Persia. + +A fine Persian rug is valuable, even at the seat of manufacture. A small +one, measuring three by four and a half feet, quite modern, but very +fine and with splendid colors, has been sold at Teheran for eight +hundred dollars. + +[Illustration: ARABIAN RUG + +SIZE, 4.10 × 7.5 + +_Although distinctly Arabic in style, this rug was probably woven in the +vicinity of Shiraz. The squares which form the design resemble an +old-fashioned log-cabin quilt in the variety of their colors and the +regularity of their stripes. Some hues are green, then red comes into +play, while plum, brown, yellow, and blue are also employed. The wide +border of stripes shows the Shiraz ornamentation in its beauty, and the +Greek crosses suggest the possibility of a Christian weaver. There is a +fine sheen on the surface. This rug is quite heavy, and its very oddity +makes it interesting to the collector._] + + +TURKISH RUGS + +The term Turkish Rugs includes all those rugs that are manufactured +within the Turkish Empire, whether the manufacturers be Kurds or +Circassians or Christians; the last of these names comprises the +Armenians, the Greeks, and the Syrians. Turkish rugs are not so finely +woven as Persian; they have a longer pile and looser texture. As they +are usually very soft and thick, the foot when walking upon them feels +as if it were treading upon a bed of moss. + +The principal rug-manufacturing district of Turkey is Karajah Dagh. Much +weaving is done also at Cæsarea. The rugs found at Adana are generally +from the latter region, while those sold at Urfa are either from the +Kurdish territory or from Persia. In Constantinople are seen rugs from +almost every part of Asia, but the greatest number are from within the +Turkish territory of Transcaucasia. + +Each rug-weaving district of Turkey seems to have a distinct and +individual class of rugs; and this is not surprising, for there are a +number of different tribes, each of which impresses its individuality +upon the work. The surface configuration and the climate of a place +have much to do with the quality of the rugs manufactured within it. +Naturally, in the rocky, mountainous regions the flocks consist of goats +instead of sheep. The sheep would be injured among the steep, sharp +crags, and much of their wool would be lost, as it would adhere to the +rocks. The goats, however, being hardy, easily jump from crag to crag, +sustaining no injury to their hair. + +The hair of the goat is woven into the mohair and so-called Smyrna rugs, +and also into what is known as Paul's Tent Cloth. This last is woven +quite differently from other rugs; it is the coarsest of all, and the +women weave it on the ground. To make it firm enough to keep out every +drop of rain requires laborious work with the fingers, but when the +cloth is woven with care it is a most excellent shelter from the storm. +A large Paul's Tent, such as a rich man owns, costs about four hundred +dollars. It shelters the women of the household, as well as the cattle; +and one part is partitioned off for a guest-room. + +In Turkey the floor is always covered with matting, and the matting, in +its turn, is so closely covered with rugs as to be quite concealed. In +large cities rugs are used in the Summer for divan and couch covers; in +the Winter the same rugs serve as beds. + +Constantinople is the greatest rug market in the world. Every known +nation is represented in that wonderful city, where the ancient +industrial skill of Asia meets the steadily increasing demands of the +West. Nothing can be more interesting to the rug-lover than to wander +through the streets and byways, observing the different phases of his +favorite industry. The Custom House, where enormous bales of rugs await +transportation; the great warehouses, which handle only at wholesale; +the bazaars, and even the street vendors, possess each an absorbing +interest. The travelling merchants from Persia, who yearly journey to +Constantinople, establish themselves in that busy section of the city +known as Stamboul. Here they erect their khans, covering the walls and +floors with rugs, many of which are really splendid in tone and quality. +The large retail houses at Constantinople usually have collections of +very choice rugs. + + +CHARACTERISTICS OF CERTAIN TURKISH RUGS + +Akhissar rugs have a thick pile, and are loosely woven. Their colors are +usually red and green. Rugs of mohair are made at Akhissar. + +_Anatolia_, or Asia Minor, produces both rugs and mats of good quality. +The Anatolian rug is large and very heavy. The Anatolian mats are made +in large numbers, and are very thick and soft. They are used by the +natives for pillows. Some are very beautiful; and although many are +turned out with aniline dyes, many others are splendidly colored with +vegetable dyes. The designs are many and varied. + +_Bergamo_ (ancient Pergamos) rugs have a long, silky pile, and are +almost square. They are quite thick, and have geometrical figures in the +centre, while the borders are floral in effect. The colors are rich, +generally yellow, green, red, and blue. A red webbing at each end +carries a blue or yellow embroidered stripe. Antique Bergamos are very +beautiful. + +_Brusa_ (Broussa) had a fresh impetus in the rug industry a few years +ago. Very fine and beautiful silk rugs are woven there now by Turkish +women and girls. The Great Mosque and the Mosque of the Thunderbolt at +Brusa both contain rare old rugs. + +[Illustration: OLD GHIORDES PRAYER RUG + +SIZE, 4.6 × 6.9 + +_The rich magenta which is the field of this rug has been mellowed by +time. There is throughout the rug a softness and harmony of tone that is +very pleasing. The niche is high, and the corner areas and the border +are in richly blended blues and yellows, with magenta. The delicacy of +the floral designs, and the warmth of tone, give it a particular +charm._] + +_Cæsarean_ rugs have a thicker pile than any of the rugs woven in +Anatolia. They are garish in color and are stained with chemical dyes. +Large numbers are turned out by the factories, but they in no way +resemble the good rugs of former years, except in their durability. + +_Cassaba_ (see Sparta) rugs. + +_Demirdji_ rugs are a product of modern growth, unknown thirty-five +years ago. To-day the town is a large manufacturing centre. The rugs +bear strong Turkish elements. They are heavy and durable, and woven of +excellent wool when of the first quality. There are, however, three +different qualities. The weavers of these rugs have a small pattern +which they reproduce in the large sizes. + +_Ghiordes_ rugs of antiquity are not in the market. Once in a decade it +is possible such a rug changes hands, but this is either the result of +lack of knowledge on the part of the owner, or because he is in +pecuniary straits. The rug derives its name from the ancient town of +Ghiordium, and its form is that of a prayer rug. The weavers were most +painstaking, and used the finest of dyes and designs. The hanging mosque +lamp, or a tree form, is suspended from the high point of the niche, and +a column appears on either side of the field, extending to the +spandrels. Above is a horizontal panel, and there is generally one below +the field. In colors there is a discriminating use of the old porcelain +blue, rare green, red, yellow, ivory, and white. When white was chosen, +the weavers often substituted cotton for wool, thinking it would keep +its purity of tone longer. The field is generally in one of these solid +colors. The borders are most interesting and beautiful. The main stripe +is usually ornamented with well-defined designs of small flowers and +leaves, arranged with a square effect. The other borders are generally +floral, while the zigzag water motif encloses the field. The apex of the +mihrab or niche runs high in the Ghiordes rug. A silk fringe often +finishes the top. One collector in Constantinople has many very fine and +rare specimens. He began to collect Ghiordes rugs years ago, before the +value of the rug became generally known. The modern rugs are very +coarse, and have no resemblance to the old ones. + +_Hereke_ rugs receive their name from the village about forty miles from +Constantinople, on the Gulf of Ismid, where the Sultan has established +the imperial factories and a school of art. About four hundred young +women, mostly Greeks, are here actively employed in weaving rugs in silk +and wool. His Imperial Majesty is anxious to give employment to the +village girls, and takes much interest in this industry, which was +started about fifteen years ago. The rugs are reproductions, for the +most part, of famous antiques belonging to the Sultan. In 1898 Emperor +William of Germany visited this factory. After his return home the +Sultan sent him a large number of Hereke rugs. In 1902, during one of my +sojourns in Berlin, I was permitted by the courtesy extended to me by +the court official in charge of these rugs to see the entire collection +arranged in one section of the Palace. Beside the magnificent antique +Persian rugs belonging to the Imperial House of Germany these modern +Turkish rugs were startling in color; but the texture was fine, and time +will, of course, subdue the glowing colors, which are now often softened +in the Western markets by a washing process known to certain firms. Old +mohair rugs are also being reproduced at the Hereke factory with good +results. Great attention is paid in all these rugs to exactness of +detail in reproduction. + +_Kara-Geuz_ rugs are mostly of the runner order, with mixed designs and +fugitive colors. + +_Karaman_ has a considerable trade with Smyrna. Its rugs are coarse, +loosely woven, and not at all attractive. + +_Kir-Shehr_ rugs are made in the province of Angora. Because of their +durability and thickness they are both useful and desirable. Their +colorings are rather strong, but fine; green is the most usual color, +although red and blue are frequent. The designs are mostly of Arabic +origin, and quite highly decorative. + +_Konieh_ rugs are of great weight and resemble Ouchaks. They usually +have a plain centre, and when there are panels these are also of one +shade. Being firm and strong they are very durable. + +_Kulah_ prayer rugs of ancient make are most interesting and valuable. +They are about the size of the old Ghiordes prayer rug, and have other +points in common, which might be expected from the proximity of the +towns. The Kulah rug, however, instead of the solid centre of its +neighbor, is apt to have its field ornamented with small floral designs. +The colors most prominent are a yellowish-brown, a blue, or a soft red. +Green and white are seen at times. There are many narrow stripes as +borders, often alternating in dark and light colors, and these are +beautifully ornamented with floral effects in minute designs. The niche +of the prayer rug is of medium height, often with serrated sides. + +[Illustration: INDIAN PRAYER RUG + +SIZE, 5.10 × 3.4 + +_This rug is a modern product of India. The prayer niche, with long +lines leading to it, extends well toward the top. The niche is decorated +with a delicate, dark blue floral design in ivory, red, and fawn, and +the lines leading to it are ornamented in blue, red, and brown. The +field is a beautiful sage-green, and the main border is embellished with +reds, browns, ivory, and occasionally with light blue. The outer border +is of the same green as the field. At each end is a full fringe. This +rug was made in the jail at Amritsar, from a design sent from the United +States._] + +_Kurdistan_ (the Turkish portion) rugs are woven by the women in odd +moments, and one of the ways a girl gains distinction among her +associates is by the skill she displays in rug-weaving. As the wool is +taken from the flocks that are kept near home, and is spun and dyed +there, and as the time consumed in the weaving is not counted, each rug +is considered clear gain. In fact, the Kurdish women do not make their +rugs entirely for the market, but for their own entertainment and +use. Kurdish rugs are very durable, and they are much prized in +Turkey; but they do not sell readily in America because of the lack of +that harmony of color which our taste demands. Their coloring is often +too bright and varied to attract us. An Armenian clergyman said to me +recently: "I find Americans more devoted to harmony than to anything +else. I have in my house one of the finest of Kurdish rugs, but I could +never sell it in this country, should I wish. An American looks at it +and says, 'What hideous colors!' and I doubt if I could even give it +away, although it would be considered a superior rug in Turkey." + +_Kutahia_ sends out Anatolian rugs of goat's hair and wool. Some +improvement has been noticed in the rugs recently. + +_Ladik_ prayer rugs were made in the ancient city of Laodicea. They are +among the finest rugs of old workmanship. The field is of a solid color, +often a rich wine-red. The niche is serrated on the inside to the apex, +which is enclosed by straight lines. On the outside of the niche one +often sees the hook design, extending into the upper field, which in its +turn is frequently ornamented with lancet-shaped leaves and floral +forms. The Rhodian lily sometimes plays a part in the border design. +White, red, blue, a light tan, and green, with an occasional touch of +violet, are used. The webbing is red, and extends about an inch and a +half, when a narrow fringe finishes the ends. + +_Meles_ (Melhaz) rugs of modern make are of coarse texture, and +brilliant in fugitive dyes of red, yellow, blue, and green. They find a +market at Milassa. The modern prayer rug does not compare favorably in +any way with the antique. The texture of the ancient rug is thin, but +with a wealth of coloring and blending of hues, as beautiful as rare. +Sometimes, too, the Ghiordes panel is seen above the niche. A good deal +of black was used in the old rugs, but, as is usual in antiques, it has +gradually disappeared with age. Violet, too, is a color that was +sometimes used with great effect in old rugs. + +_Mohair_ rugs are made of the soft, silky hair of the Angora goat; but +though beautiful, they are not durable, as experiments tried at Akhissar +and Kulah have shown. + +_Mosul_ rugs are strong and rich in colorings of blue, yellow, green, +and red. The designs are rather striking, and with their silky softness +these rugs are generally desirable. The best are made of camel's hair, +including the outer border, but occasionally they are made partly of +goat's hair. They are now made in several Turkish provinces, and are +often wrongly called Persian rugs. + +At _Ouchak_, with its large population, there are steadily at work about +two thousand looms, giving employment to fully four thousand weavers, +and as many as one hundred and fifty dyers. Ouchak is the principal city +of Asiatic Turkey for the dyeing of the wool of which the rugs are +woven, and that industry is carried on in many factories. Ouchak rugs +have a thick pile; and though green is forbidden by Mohammedan law, the +modern rugs frequently have green for their dominant color. The reason +for this innovation is that the influence of their religious faith has +waned, and consequently the law regarding that color is not now strictly +enforced. The weavers of these rugs are mostly Moslem women and girls. +The wool is generally bought in the interior from nomad tribes, and the +weaving is carried on in private houses in a manner similar to that of +other rugs, except that the yarn is spun more loosely. In the early +history of rug-weaving these rugs were known in the Western market as +the _Yapraks_, and the colors were, almost invariably, red with either +green or blue. Until recently, even the best Ouchak rugs were apt to +have inferior wool for their foundation, and hemp was frequently +employed. The wool was loosely woven, and the dyes were fugitive. There +are now, however, certain provinces in Turkey, including Ouchak, where +the products are controlled by European and American firms, and where +excellent wool and natural dyes are used. The rugs made under such +control are very durable and in every way satisfactory. In size Ouchaks +vary greatly, ranging from a few feet to fifty by twenty-five feet. + +_Sivas_ rugs are always woven of wool, and almost every hamlet carries +on the industry of weaving in the homes. There are no factories, the +young girls and women doing the work here, as in other parts of Turkey. +Sivas rugs are in most cases small, measuring about eight by four feet; +but lately larger and more attractive rugs are being made. Even the +poorest families have fine rugs, and regard them as valuable property, +to be sold only under the pressure of great extremity. The weavers are +so frugal in their manner of living that their daily earning of fourteen +to nineteen cents is sufficient to supply their wants. + +[Illustration: INDIAN LOOM AND WEAVERS] + +_Smyrna_, next to Constantinople, is the most important commercial +centre in the East. It is the open door to mysterious Asia, and within +its boundaries are found representatives of every race and religious +belief of that little-known continent, the land of mystics, nomads, and +fanatics. It is a mistake to imagine that the so-called Smyrna rugs are +made in that city. As a matter of fact, no rugs are manufactured there. +It is the export depot for goods from the interior, and dealers have +allowed the name to be used merely for convenience, for commercial +purposes. A student of rugs can readily understand that throughout the +vast territory which concentrates its commerce in Smyrna there are a +score or more of valuable manufactures which could never be known under +one descriptive name. + +_Sparta_ rugs are made in a village bearing that name situated in the +interior not far from Smyrna. They are very heavy, firm, and in +different colors. Some of those recently made are especially fine. +Attention is being paid to harmonious coloring as well as to quality and +texture. A splendid specimen is in the home of the leading merchant of +Smyrna. It is in the softest shades of rose and blue, with a lustrous +sheen. The texture is as fine as velvet, and the medallion in the centre +is most gracefully designed. Many rugs are sold under the name of +_Cassaba_, which are really woven at Sparta. + +_Yaprak_ (see Ouchak) rugs. + +_Yuruk_ rugs are so called from a band of nomads who dwell among the +mountains of Anatolia. They have large flocks of sheep, and weave rugs +of strong, hardy texture. The colors are very good, the field often of +brown, ornamented with large, bold designs. + + + + +III + +RUG-WEAVING IN INDIA, AFGHANISTAN, BELUCHISTAN, CENTRAL ASIA, AND THE +CAUSCASUS REGION + + +INDIAN RUGS + +The manufacture of rugs was introduced into India by the Mohammedans at +their first invasion in the beginning of the eleventh century. Persian +rugs, however, were always preferred to those made in India, and princes +and nobles of the Delhi Court, when it was in its greatest splendor, +sought the fabrics woven in Herat, or by the Sharrokhs on the Attrek, or +the nomad tribes of Western Kurdistan. These were purchased only by the +princes and their wealthy followers. A few specimens of these rugs still +remain in India, and are now and then reproduced with more or less +accuracy. + +In the sixteenth century, however, the Emperor Akbar, or more properly +Jalal-ud-Din Mahomed, sent for Persian weavers to make the exquisite +fabrics for which Persia was then so famous. At first these weavers +continued to weave according to the designs employed in their own land; +but it is not surprising that as time went on, and the natives of India +learned the art of weaving from the Persians, Hindoo ideas should have +found expression, in Southern India especially. Thus geometrical designs +were substituted for floral, although even now the designs of some +Indian rugs revive memories of Persian teachers in the careful +arrangement of flowers and leaves. The designs of Indian rugs were +frequently named after the original owners, in which cases the weavers +generally lived and worked in the houses of their employers. At the +present time the manufacture of many Indian rugs is carried on largely +in jails, where the old Persian designs are generally used. + +In Indian rugs, as in those of other countries, there are certain +distinct characteristics that stamp them as coming from particular +districts, and in India alone are to be detected the few Assyrian types +still in existence. Genuine old India rugs are works of art, but they +are rarely seen. + +The religion of the Hindoo does not permit of his tasting the flesh of +sheep; and as India is not a wool-producing country, except in the +northern part, cotton is often substituted. For this reason, and because +the time consumed for weaving is less, Indian rugs are generally less +expensive than Persian. + +Mr. Julian Ralph, in an interesting account of his visit to the home of +a prince in India, published in one of our magazines, writes of the +splendid rugs shown him by his host: "They were state rugs, and one was +green with a border of gold that must have weighed twenty pounds or +more. The other was red with a similar border, so stiff and cumbrous +that it did not seem made to walk upon. However, the prince sent for his +stiff-soled heavy-heeled ceremonial shoes which were quite as richly +crusted with gold, and walked about on the rugs, crushing the gold +embroidery in a ruthless way." When Mr. Ralph spoke of the damage, he +said, "It is of no consequence, these borders have to be renewed very +frequently." + +An Indian rug of great beauty was taken to England from India by Lord +Clive, who ordered the architect of his magnificent +palace--Claremont--then in process of building, to design a room +especially for it. Such special care for the proper display of this work +of art may be exceptional, but it shows true appreciative power on the +part of Clive. + +From the time of the decadence of the industry of weaving fine shawls, +which was so long a feature of Kashmir, the wool of which they were +woven was gradually transferred to the rug industry, and the weavers +turned their attention from the shawls to the rugs, on which they +displayed the same patience and skill. + + +CHARACTERISTICS OF CERTAIN INDIAN RUGS + +_Agra_ sends out very satisfactory rugs. These are mostly of great +weight and thickness. Many of the best are woven in the jail. The finest +specimen that I have seen belongs to Mrs. Potter Palmer, of Chicago, and +is a duplicate of one owned by Mrs. Frederick D. Grant. The rug is of +enormous size and weight, and the tree design is arranged in shades of +exquisite blue upon a field of delicate fawn color. The border, in the +same coloring, gives the most perfect harmony to the entire rug. Many +more Agra rugs would be imported, but there is now a United States law +prohibiting the importation of goods made in jail. + +_Allahabad_ rugs are similar to those of Agra, but the latter are as a +rule preferable. + +_Amritsar_ gives employment to over twenty thousand men and boys, and +supplies the market with some of the finest of modern Indian rugs. +Leading English and American firms have factories located there, and for +that reason rugs brought into the Occident from Amritsar are reliable. +They are firm in texture, and have fast colors. The manufacturers +realize the importance of these attributes in a rug, and their own +responsibility in the matter. + +The _Dhurrie_ (Durrie) is a strong, well-made rug of cotton, often in +stripes of blue, brown, or gray, with narrow yellow and red lines. Some +Dhurries end in a fringe, and are square. In India they are largely used +by the foreign population, and in the United States they are especially +appropriate for summer time. They are made chiefly at Agra, Cawnpur, +Delhi, Lucknow, and in the vicinity of Bombay. + +_Ellore_ rugs belong to the inexpensive class, but the designs and +colors are pleasing. As they are made chiefly of fibre mixed with wool, +they are not durable. + +Formerly _Haidarabad_ sent out rugs famous for their beauty, with +designs in the forms of medallions, filled with flat floral ornaments +and woven with wool pile on a cotton foundation. But the modern +Haidarabad by no means compares with the antique. + +_Jaipur_ rugs are generally made in the schools of art. They contain +many Persian designs representing animals and the cypress tree. The +borders are floral, and the field is generally ivory, red, or blue. + +_Lahore_, the British capital of the Punjab, has rugs woven in both wool +and cotton, and the work is done mostly in jails. The designs are +Persian, and the texture embraces from forty to one hundred knots to the +square inch. + +_Madras_ rugs are chiefly made in large quantities for commercial and +export purposes. + +_Masulipatam_ rugs were once noted for their beauty, but now many of +them are poor in design and workmanship. + +_Mirzapur_ rugs are sometimes wrongly sold for Turkish, which they +somewhat resemble. The antiques are very durable, but this cannot be +said of all the modern ones, the vegetable fibre that is used in part in +the construction of them not being durable. Few are exported to the +United States. The colors are often black, orange, or grayish-white. + +_Moodj_ is the name given to a coarse, hardy mat, suitable for the +veranda. It is made of buffalo grass, which grows six to twelve feet +high in India. This is harvested, the fibre extracted by pounding, and +then it is twisted into rope or yarn. Afterward it is dyed. + +_Multan_ rugs have large geometrical figures in octagons, medallions, +and circles. These rugs are very lasting. Their general coloring is dark +red and blue. Sometimes a really beautiful modern Multan is discovered. +Occasionally an emerald green or a yellow alternates with the usual reds +and blues, and again we see a white ground with blue designs. The modern +ones are not largely imported into America. The antique Multan is very +fine, but scarce. + +_Mysore_ rugs are cheap and not interesting. + +_Patna_ rugs are usually in blue and white; in quality they resemble the +modern Multan. + +_Pushmina_ rugs have their name from the manufacturers, who thus +designate rugs that are woven of pashim. + +_Sindh_ rugs are the cheapest and least durable of all Indian rugs, and +on this account not many are imported into the Western market. The +colors are green and orange. + +_Srinagar_, the capital city of Kashmir, makes very beautiful rugs from +the finest wool. This is soft and silky, and as natural dyes are +employed, the Srinagar rugs, as well as many other rugs from the +northern portion of India, are highly valued. Antique rugs of this +character are attractive in soft tones of rose and yellow. + +_Warangul_ rugs. At Warangul, in the eastern part of the Deccan, modern +rugs have been woven for the past sixty years. The designs are chiefly +Persian, with a strong Indian influence. To show the beauty and delicacy +of some of the old rugs, I may mention that one was made at Warangul, in +the sixteenth century, which contained 3,500,000 knots on its entire +surface, or 400 knots to the square inch, and the designs were so +complicated that a change of needle was required for every knot. + +Leading importers now give names to designate the different qualities of +India rugs, and therefore the name borne by a rug does not necessarily +indicate the district in which it was woven. For example the Dhurrie rug +is woven in several districts of the northern provinces. + +[Illustration: AFGHANISTAN RUG + +SIZE, 9.5 × 7.6 + +_This rug has a remarkably soft yet firm texture. The rough beauty and +the fine coloring are very attractive. The field is a rich shade of red +verging toward the hue of a blood orange, and again gleaming with far +deeper shades. The large octagons are defined by a very narrow dark +brown line. Two sides of these octagons are in a deep, sapphire blue, +while the remaining two sides are of an orange cast. The octagon +sections are all ornamented, the small red diamonds at the edges being +separated by dark green lines. The lattice-work design in the squares of +the border of the rug are decorated with green and ivory, the latter in +the hook design. The centres of all the octagons are of the orange +shade, and one only is crossed through the centre, the markings being +knots of green. Large diamond forms, barred with sapphire blue and rich +green, are between the octagons on the field. Occasionally a small +geometrical figure in either blue or green, with pale yellow or ivory, +is seen, and a wide red webbing with heavy dark brown lines across it +extends at some length beyond the border. The rug was woven in that +northern region of Afghanistan known as Afghan-Turkestan._ + +OWNED BY MR. GEORGE HUBBARD HOLT, CHICAGO.] + + +AFGHANISTAN RUGS + +Afghanistan rugs are generally large and nearly square. They are coarser +than the Turkoman rugs, but resemble them in color and design. The +Afghans, however, are more striking, the octagon designs being larger +and bolder. At Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan, and in other +cities rugs are found which are made by the nomad tribes on the +frontier. The same tribes weave also the cotton and silk rugs said to be +woven at Bhawulpore, India. The Great Rug in the Palace of Chehel Sitoon +(forty pillars) at Ispahan, Persia, is said to be the largest ever +woven, and to measure about sixty feet long by thirty feet wide. This +rug was made in the sixteenth century, and is of Herat design and +manufacture. Owing to political disturbances, weavers from Herat have +settled in the province of Khorassan, Persia, since 1838, and prefer to +call that their home. + +Some rugs have a strong odor, which is especially noticeable in those of +Afghanistan. The reason for the presence of the odor is that the +animal's hair has not been properly washed. Nothing but a thorough +cleansing on the back as well as on the surface, with soap and hot water +seems to be effective in carrying it away, although certain atmospheric +changes affect it. A damp, wet day brings out the odor strongly. +Fortunately this disturbing element is not in all Afghan rugs. There is +a great deal of force and strength exhibited in these rugs, and a +richness most attractive in the finest specimens. A color plate in this +volume, with its accompanying description, explains the typical +Afghanistan rug. + + +BELUCHISTAN RUGS + +Beluchistan rugs bear the marks of nomadic workmanship. They show that +they are woven by tribes who combine strength and skill. The designs are +generally geometric, and bold in effect. The rugs have rich dull tones +of blue, red, and often with markings of white or ivory on a foundation +of dark brown, in fact so dark sometimes as to give the appearance of +black. This is accounted for partly by the great abundance of goat's +hair and camel's hair woven into it, which is sometimes dyed even darker +than the natural color. There is a fine lustre in this rug, and it is +one of the hardiest and most durable of all the Oriental rugs. The wool +used is soft and the pile left rather long, which accounts in part for +the rug being so thick and heavy. Occasionally we find a beautiful old +prayer rug in brown tones, and with corner areas in fine dull reds and a +wonderful deep rich blue. + +Some of the finest specimens are occasionally sold as blue Bokharas; and +people who imagine that they have purchased one of the latter are likely +to find themselves the possessors of a good Beluch, for there is no such +thing as a blue Bokhara. + + +CENTRAL ASIA + +TURKOMAN RUGS + +Turkoman rugs are woven by nomad tribes living in Central Asia. The +tribes are known as the Ersari Goklan, Sarik, Tekké, and Yomud, and most +of these rugs have some points in common, although they vary a good deal +in detail. Generally speaking, the Turkoman takes the greatest care to +have his work perfectly done. In order to give fixity to the color the +dyer steeps the wool in a mordant of alum and water. The dye is almost +invariably brought from Bokhara. At Ashkabad the Turkomans dye the wool +themselves when it is intended to be yellow, but when any other shade is +desired it is sent to the city to be dyed. Camel's hair is largely used +in the rug-weaving of Central Asia. The camel itself is carefully +washed, and the soft hair growing next its skin is used for fine rugs. +The goats of this vast region also receive the same watchful attention +as the camel; the soft, silky fleece is accounted precious, and is used +for the finest Turkoman rugs. The natives use their rugs not only for +the floors of their tents, but as _portières_, thereby dividing the +tent into sections. This is one of the reasons for the heavy fringe one +so frequently sees on the ends. It permits of hanging, and is very +strong, as is the case with the Turkoman rugs themselves, no matter how +fine the texture. + +[Illustration: TEKKÉ-TURKOMAN OR "BOKHARA" RUG + +SIZE, 6 × 3.1 + +_The field of this rug is of a deep rose hue, with a soft lustrous +sheen. The texture is like velvet, and every stitch shows that the rug +has been woven with the greatest care. The octagons are divided into +four sections by distinct lines. The colors are orange, turquoise blue, +and a deep blue with markings of yellow and ivory. Between the octagons +are eight-pointed stars. The border is minute in detail, and the rug +itself is a genuine treasure._ + +OWNED BY MR. RALPH OLIVER SMITH, NEW YORK.] + + +CHARACTERISTICS OF CERTAIN TURKOMAN RUGS + +_Beshir_ rugs resemble in certain aspects the rugs of Afghanistan. The +texture is similar, and the same rich blues and reds are seen; a red +webbing at the ends extends at some length, and has dark lines crossing +it. The rug is longer than the Afghanistan. The field differs. There is +an Arabic effect in the design, and yet with a reminder of the Yomud in +the general aspect. But the hook, which plays so important a part in the +Yomud, is missing. + +_Bokhara_ rugs which are made in the city and Khanate of that name, are +not the so-called Bokhara rugs of the Western world. The genuine Bokhara +rugs are of good size, with large patterns, and are very strong and +forceful in character. They are sold in the Occident under the name of +Khiva or Afghanistan. + +_Genghis_ (often called Guendje) rugs are woven by a tribe of Turkomans +who live the life of nomads. They are named after Genghis Khan, the +great Mogul conqueror who invaded Central Asia in the year 1218. The +rugs are woven of brown wool, or strong goat's hair, and have rather a +long pile. The designs are mostly geometric, although the palm leaf and +vine are often seen. + +_Guendje_ (see Genghis) rugs. + +_Kashgar_ rugs are made in Eastern Turkestan. They are quite coarse, +with designs of a Chinese character in strong coloring. Yellows and a +sort of lead-white are much used in these rugs; again, blues and +ivory-white are seen, while reds, pinks, greens, and a deep orange are +common. The Chinese fret, the dragon, and fishes are among the designs +employed. The Tree of Life is of frequent occurrence, but is a crude +representation. + +_Khalatch_ rugs are woven by a division of the Ersari tribe of the upper +Oxus, bearing the name Khalatch. They are included under the one greater +head of Turkomans. The rugs are recognized by the single stripes of +bands that divide the field both vertically and horizontally. These +bands are ornamented with single motifs, and are generally considered to +be the earliest decoration of woven fabrics. Besides the bands, stars, +crosses, forms of the hook, and small prayer niches,--one at the top and +one at the bottom, but each facing in the same direction,--are seen. +Often a stark tree effect is noticed. In the trade these Turkoman rugs +are commonly called Kchatchli (pronounced Hatchli--Bokhara). + +_Khiva_ rugs are woven by Turkomans inhabiting Central Asia. The +firmness, durability, and bold grandeur of these rugs render them very +pleasing. The field is of one of the splendid reds so much favored by +this great race. Arranged over the field are large forms of the lozenge. +Frequently these large forms contain smaller lozenges, which are very +decorative. Often a part of the larger lozenge forms are indented at +both top and bottom. There is generally a stark tree form between the +lozenges, in a peacock blue color. Much ivory is used throughout the +field and border, in heavy lines of demarcation. These rugs are sold +under the name of Afghan in the Western market. Well-toned shades of +red, blue, tan, ivory, and an occasional green are the usual colors. +Sometimes a Khiva has a long panel centre, with a prayer niche. In many +fine specimens the lustre is an added attraction. + +_Samarkand_ rugs are a product of Central Asia. They show distinctly +Chinese characteristics. Sometimes the field is covered with round +medallions, from one to five in number, holding odd figures. The Chinese +fret is common in the design, and sometimes a large crude flower +arrangement is noticed. Reds, magenta, green, blues, a soft fawn, white, +and much yellow, especially in the border, are the usual colors. Soft +and rich, these rugs have a distinctive character, and are attractive. +Their texture, however, is quite thin, and they are not very durable for +the floor, but attractive on the wall or divan. + +[Illustration: SAMARKAND RUG + +SIZE, 11.6 × 5.10 + +_This is a fine specimen of the Samarkand rug. As usual in rugs of this +class, the weaving is rather loose and the texture thin. The coloring is +extremely rich and mellow. The field of red is in a warm tone, and the +medallions are in fine shades of blue. One of the border stripes is a +Chinese design. As in all rugs of this description, the Chinese element +is plainly seen, both in design and color, showing what proximity of +location will effect._] + +_Tekké-Turkoman_ rugs are sold in the Occident under the name of +Bokharas. The design has little variety, and generally the rugs are +among the easiest to distinguish. The design is usually octagon, in +white or ivory tones with blue and orange, and occasionally green, upon +a field of rich deep red, or rose. Brown and black, with white, are also +used in the lines of demarcation or in the border. Sometimes the smaller +designs are very decorative. Occasionally in the past this tribe, which +is considered the most savage of all the Turkomans, has woven a rug with +a diamond figure in place of the octagon, but this is not typical. Also +instead of the usual red field a wonderful mahogany shade is seen with a +rare green in place of the usual blue of the octagon. In the borders one +often finds the eight-pointed star. The Tekké tribe use their rugs as +_portières_, for divan covers, and for floor coverings. Rich in +coloring, fine, yet durable, these rugs are greatly prized. + +_Yarkand_ rugs are very similar to Kashgar rugs, having the same general +characteristics. + +_Yomud_ rugs are woven by the tribe bearing that name, whose territory +seems to include both Astrabad and Khiva. The rugs woven by this tribe +are in rich tones of deep red or plum, sometimes mahogany in tone. The +design most frequently seen is the diamond, surrounded by the hook. The +weaving is very satisfactory, and the coloring in brownish-reds is +particularly good. In some odd and rare pieces among the Yomud +Turkomans, blue figures conspicuously, as does green also. The border in +these rugs is sometimes in stripes, sometimes in a sort of crudely drawn +vine. + + +CAUCASIAN RUGS + +_Caucasus_ is a general government belonging to Russia, and including +Transcaucasia. The designs of the many rugs woven in this section of +country are all parts of a system, and each design bears certain marks +whereby its class may be identified. + +_Daghestan_ rugs are made in fine wools, and the mosaic designs are +generally beautifully and skilfully done. The figures are nearly always +geometrical, and in the form of diamonds, long octagons, lozenges, +hooks, and small crosses. The colors of the best Daghestans are so well +selected, that although there is no shading there is seldom anything +aggressive or startling in the effect. Blues, reds, yellows, ivory, and +other hues are chiefly used. The rug has a short, close pile, and +although the texture is rather thin, the rug is very durable. + +_Derbent_ rugs, though woven at Derbent, the chief city of the province +of Daghestan, differ somewhat from the Daghestans proper, being much +softer and thicker. They are also more loosely woven, and have a longer +pile. The designs are geometrical, several star devices often occupying +the field; and here again we see the hook, which is a feature of the +entire Daghestan province. There is a good lustre in the Derbent rugs, +and the coloring is often quiet and inconspicuous in dark blue, red, +yellow, and ivory. Sometimes a soft pink is noticed. + +_Kabistan_ (Cabistan) rugs are woven at Kuba. They resemble the +Daghestans to such an extent that they are often sold under that name. +They have, however, more variety of design, although, as in the +Daghestans, the diamond is generally a prominent feature, and often +three large and many small diamonds are seen. The texture is firm, and +the pile cut very close. Soft reds, greens, a delicate fawn, and browns +are the usual colors. The borders may be in stripes, or with crude +animal or bird devices. The antique Kabistan is very beautiful. Its +texture is like velvet. Often one, and sometimes two borders contain the +small single pink which is a most decorative floral ornament. The reds, +light greens, ivory, and plum colors are arranged artistically, and +quaint animal forms are often seen. + +_Karabagh_ rugs have characteristics of the other Caucasian rugs, but +are more crude in coloring. Red is the chief color used. The rugs are +coarse and quite crude in effect. The old-time rugs were vastly superior +in workmanship. + + +[Illustration: DAGHESTAN RUG + +SIZE, 7 × 3.5 + +_This rug has a fine texture and is straighter than most Daghestans. It +is an antique, but its colors are as fast and clear as when it was first +woven. It has been cleaned again and again, but nothing seems to dim its +hues. The field of light blue is thickly studded with large and small +geometrical figures in reds, yellows, and white. Some of the forms are +in the lozenge design, with colors in red and yellow, the reds +containing fine shadings of blue. Again square forms are seen, many +holding the same colors, ornamented with contrasting but harmonious +hues. In the centre are two geometrical figures of considerable size, +one in yellow, and one in red. Each of these has yellow and white in its +centre. On either side are still larger forms in yellow and blue. The +border is geometrical, the hook design in a bracket being in evidence, +and outside of this is a narrower stripe in red, white, black, and +yellow. The many markings add greatly to the beauty of this interesting +Daghestan._ + +REPRODUCED BY COURTESY OF MR. CLARENCE BURLEY, CHICAGO.] + +_Kazak_ rugs are woven by a nomad tribe dwelling among the Caucasus +Mountains. There is a certain strength and vigor about the Kazak rugs +that seem to be in harmony with the tribe that weaves them. The word +Kazak is a corruption of Cossack; and the durability of these rugs, as +well as a certain boldness of effect in their designs and colors, +corresponds with the hardihood of the people who weave them. The rugs +are thick and soft; their colors are blues, soft reds, and greens. Often +the field is a deep rose or a green, sometimes with one or more +geometrical figures and several medallions, or with the palm-leaf design +in rather large size throughout. When the palm leaf is used, it is +generally decorated with a smaller leaf of a different hue. Many +varieties of small designs are also seen, including circles, diamonds, +squares, and the tau cross, which is almost always present. Some of the +antique Kazaks are very fine. + +_Shirvan_ rugs are attractive from their quiet, agreeable tints, and +fine, even texture. They are made in large quantities, and readily sold. +The best are of white wool, but the inferior ones may hold cotton or +goat's hair. Often blues and whites are the colors employed, with +markings of red or yellow. Sometimes there are stripes in the border, +one wide stripe followed by a series of narrow ones. The hook is a +frequent design, and may be found in the field, incasing some +geometrical figure. Sometimes a conventionalized floral design is +observed in the border. + +_Soumak_ rugs ought really to be called Shemakha, for that is the name +of the town in the government of Baku from which they are exported. But +the contraction of the word into Soumak is now universal. Erroneously +too, these rugs are known as "Kashmir," for the sole reason that they +are woven with a flat stitch and the loose ends left hanging at the +back, just as they are in the old Kashmir shawls. The designs bear a +resemblance to those of the Daghestans, and the hook is omnipresent. The +best are durable, and sometimes a rarely beautiful Soumak is discovered, +distinguished from the ordinary specimens by its soft hues and fine +texture. One that I have in mind is of a rich blue field, with +geometrical figures in terra cotta shades, and a rare bit of green in +the way of ornamentation; the field of another is rose, and the +geometrical forms are in deep blues, old blues, and ivory. + +_Tchechen_ (Chichi or Tzitzi) rugs are made by the Chichi nomads living +among the mountains of Daghestan. The rugs have a strong resemblance to +the Shirvans, and are often sold under that name. They are of about the +same color and quality, but are wider. In the border there are +frequently geometrical designs arranged between two or more stripes, and +the tau cross is sometimes seen. + +[Illustration: KAZAK RUG + +SIZE, 8.3 × 4.10 + +_This is an unusually fine specimen of a Kazak rug. Its softness, +combined with its solidity, gives it force and beauty. On the wonderful +rose field a series of geometrical figures, five in number, are placed. +Odd figures, including stiff little animals, fill in the remaining +field. The wide border is composed of small diamonds, with varied forms +of the hook design. The strength of the Cossacks is displayed in this +hardy, forceful, and richly colored rug._ + +OWNED BY MRS. CYRUS H. MCCORMICK, CHICAGO.] + + + + +IV + +MISCELLANEOUS ORIENTAL RUGS + + +RUGS OF THE HOLY LAND + +No rugs of importance are woven in Palestine. In several villages a +coarse cloth is made which is waterproof because of its firm texture. It +is used for cloaks or abas, and these are worn by all the men of the +land. In Bethlehem is made the coarse cloth which is used as tent +covering. This is produced from the sombre hair of the Palestine goat. + +All Syrian rugs are made of pure wool, a home product of an average +quality. Looms operated by machinery are unknown. The rugs are made in a +primitive fashion by the peasant women and girls, who work at the looms +in their own homes when not engaged in field labor or domestic duties. +They also do the washing, dyeing, and spinning of the wool. The +introduction of rug-weaving into Syria took place about the beginning of +the nineteenth century, when a number of families emigrated from Brusa +to villages of Syria, where they taught their art. For many years +excellent rugs were woven, Haidamur especially taking the lead in +superiority of quality, design, and durability. Unfortunately, the +original designs and blending of colors introduced from Turkey have +entirely disappeared, and only inferior rugs are now made throughout the +country. The chief colors in the modern Haidamur rugs are red and black, +or sometimes crimson and black, with black or dark brown figures at each +end. At Damascus a few rugs are woven, but not of any great value or +distinctive beauty. + + +CHINESE RUGS + +The Chinese rugs of antiquity are remarkable, and worthy of the closest +inspection. Their texture, designs, and symbolism show the greatest +patience and thought. Antique wool rugs woven in China are very scarce, +and because of this, and for their historical interest as well as their +uniqueness and attractiveness, they bring large prices. In fact, they +are almost unprocurable. A large and very fine specimen of this kind of +rug is in the home of the late Governor Ames of Boston. It measures +nineteen by twenty-one feet. The colors are yellow and white, and these +are arranged in odd designs over the entire rug. A member of the family +owning it writes: "This rug is said to have originally been in the +Emperor's Palace in China. As every emperor is obliged to have the +palace newly furnished when he succeeds to the throne, owing to some +superstition connected with the retaining of any of the former Emperor's +possessions, everything is removed and destroyed. Fortunately this rug +escaped destruction." A fine example of an antique Chinese rug is +represented in one of the illustrations of this book. + +The modern Chinese rugs are vastly different from those of antiquity. +There is, however, much of interest attached to them. They are sought +because of their antique designs, their harmonious coloring, and their +durability. The monstrous and fantastic forms that distinguished the +antique are not so frequently met with in the modern production. The +predominating colors in a modern Chinese rug are yellow, blue, white, +and fawn, and these are arranged very effectively. The designs are +quaint and odd. A border distinctly separated from the field is almost +invariably seen. A most important geometrical motif observed in Chinese +rugs is the Meandrian, especially the continuous and that derived from +the hooked cross. The hooked cross we find with rounded arms, generally +in connection with a cloud band. The rosette from the vegetable motifs +is very frequent, especially in borders; also the branch and the +continuous creeper. Bats, butterflies, storks, and the goose are in many +borders. The lion--symbol of a happy omen--is often represented in those +rugs designed especially for wedding ceremonies. + +[Illustration: ANTIQUE CHINESE WOOL RUG + +SIZE, 7.10 × 5.2 + +_The modern Chinese wool rugs are not at all like this antique specimen, +which was woven in Shantung about the year 1750. The material is wool, +the pile is very thick and soft, and the texture, though loosely woven, +is lasting. A large circular form in the centre of the field is richly +decorated in a fine blue, yellow, and white floral design. Ivory is also +seen in the markings, but no other colors are used except light yellow +and a deep blue. The field is of a rare apricot hue, very unusual and +beautiful. The border holds a Chinese fret design, the symbol of long +life. This is in a rich deep blue, and the out-most part of it is in a +dark shade of blue. The separate sprays of flowers on this rug represent +the tea flower, which the Chinese use for decorative purposes, and the +larger sprays hold the imperial flower._ + +OWNED BY THE ESTATE OF THE LATE MR. H. O. HAVERMEYER, NEW YORK.] + +In the northern part of China rugs are decorated with colored threads in +crude imitation of figures; they are woven in sections, and then sewed +together. Camel's hair of a coarse quality is used extensively by the +Chinese for their rugs, and the laboring class use felts in their +houses. These are cheap and durable, and are placed on the tiled floors +so common in the colder parts of China. The skins of the doe, deer, +and fox are much used in China as rugs. These skins are sewed together +in sections, according to various designs, and resemble mosaic work. + +There are more circular rugs found in China than in any other country, +and some are exported. But they are seldom called for in this country, +and clerks in the large establishments which import them express +surprise when inquiries are made for them. The warp of the ordinary +Chinese rug is mostly of cotton, and the woof and pile are of wool or +camel's hair. + +Tsun-hua rugs are made of silk and camel's hair in the province of +Chi-Li. + + +JAPANESE RUGS + +In olden times woven rugs were not known in Japan. The wealthy classes +of Japan covered their floors with grass, over which they spread the +skins of animals. The poorer classes had not even skins, but only reeds +or straw. About four hundred years ago silk and wool rugs were +introduced into Japan from Persia, China, and India. For a time the +Japanese imitated these rugs, but later the industry ceased. Since the +opening up of the country, however, rug-weaving has prospered, and the +introduction of fine cotton yarns of uniform quality has increased +greatly the growth of all textile industries. The modern Japanese rugs +are made of cotton or jute, and are used extensively in the United +States in summer homes. In the towns which produce these rugs little +children may be seen busily engaged in weaving, their small fingers +being very deft at this work. The chief colors employed by the Japanese +in their rug-weaving are blue, white, and sometimes a beautiful pink. In +weaving, designing, and coloring, as in everything else the natives do, +their exactness of finish and thoroughness in detail are noticeable. The +Persian designs which were once reproduced in Japan are now supplanted +by designs purely Japanese. The dragon is a favorite design in some of +the older rugs. + +[Illustration: KHILIM RUG + +SIZE, 12.2 × 5.6 + +_This is an unusually fine specimen of the antique Shirvan Khilim. Its +hues are softened by time, and the contrasting colors are so carefully +blended that the artistic effect is not lost. This Khilim has been +carefully woven, and is firm and durable. The broad bands of apple green +and other hues, interrupted by narrower bands, give a certain character +and strength of appearance to this beautiful piece of Oriental +workmanship. Some of the bands are embroidered with much skill._ + +OWNED BY MRS. ROBERT DUNLAP, CHICAGO.] + + +KHILIM RUGS + +WRITTEN ALSO GHILEEM, KELIM, KILIM + +The largest number of Khilims are woven in Turkish Kurdistan, although +many are made in the adjoining territory, and at Sinna and Shirvan. They +are also woven by the nomads of Anatolia and Merv, and Turkey in Europe +now produces many Khilims, especially in the vicinity of Servia. + +Khilims are made in different sizes, and are alike on both sides, with a +smooth surface. Perhaps the Khilims most familiar to us are those which +are long and narrow. But there are also smaller sizes, the smallest of +all being called mats. All are without nap, and are woven with the flat +stitch by the means of shuttles. + +Karamanian is another name given to this decorative piece of tapestry. +The Karamanian is woven in the tents of the nomad Yuruks and other +Turkoman tribes. Occasionally this weave and the Kurdish have a mihrab +at one end, showing it to be a prayer rug. The Sinna Khilims have a +Herati design, and colors of green, yellow, and rose are frequent. The +webbing at the end often contains a narrow stripe. + +A bit of romantic sentiment is woven into the Kis Khilims, as those made +by the Turks in Anatolia are often called. It is asserted that the word +means "Bride's rug," and that the name is derived from the fact that +these rugs are woven by young girls, each of whom endeavors to finish +her rug in time to win a husband. A lock of hair is often found in the +Kis Khilim, said to have been woven in by the girl who made it. + +In Oriental countries the Khilim is used as a floor covering, and also +as a curtain to divide the dwelling portion of the tent from that in +which the cattle are sheltered from the storm. It is also used by the +natives on their journeys, and for general wear on the floors. + +In the United States this fabric is exceedingly popular as a hanging, +and for the cover of a divan it is equally effective, whether used in +the home or in the studio. + + +POLISH RUGS + +There are few of the so-called Polish rugs in existence, and these are +priceless and cannot be bought. They are mostly seven feet long by four +wide. The name takes its origin from the fact that a Pole (by name +Mersherski), after travelling in Persia and India, established a rug +factory in Warsaw. + +Polish rugs are of silk, with gold and silver thread interwoven. Their +texture is looser than that of the usual Oriental rug, and for this +reason they cannot stand hard wear; but they are exceedingly handsome +with their gold lustre and silky sheen. In these rugs a number of warp +threads are crossed by the metal threads and overspread, so that the +lines or ribs are brought out more prominently. This in part accounts +for the softness and looseness of the texture. + +Some time ago Dr. Wilhelm Bode, the eminent German scholar and authority +on antique Oriental rugs, decided that these unusual rugs were of +Persian origin, because of their general style and design. Since then +Mr. R. Martin has proved this by documentary evidence. + + +PRAYER RUGS + +The prayer rug is so distinctly _sui generis_ that it requires a little +explanation. It is to be found wherever dwell the followers of Mohammed, +and the design usually includes a representation of a mosque, or place +of public worship, showing the mihrab, which is the niche in the wall of +the mosque, so located that when the worshipper prostrates himself +before it he will be prostrating himself toward Mecca.[A] + +[Footnote A: Some prayer rugs have a representation of the hands of +Mohammed, and on them the suppliant places his own as he throws himself +prostrate. In the corners of some of these rugs pulpits are represented, +and occasionally trees.] + +The Mohammedan, if he build a mosque, locates it so that its axis +extends in the direction of Mecca; in such buildings the mihrab is not +necessary, as the natural position of the worshipper places him so that +his face is toward the sacred city. Where Christian buildings, such as +the great Basilica of St. Sophia at Constantinople have been +appropriated for Moslem worship, the niche or mihrab may be located well +toward one corner of the building. + +[Illustration: OLD KIRMAN PRAYER RUG + +SIZE, 6 × 4.1 + +_This beautiful and rare rug has an ivory field thickly studded with +small floral designs woven most carefully. The knots are very closely +tied, and the texture is soft and fine as velvet. A cypress tree +occupies the centre of the field, and above its base on either side +appears the head of a bird. Below there are two peacocks, in gorgeous +plumage. The upper parts of the bodies of the peacocks seem actually to +glisten like cloth-of-gold; silk threads appear in the tail feathers. At +the top of the rug rests a bird of brilliant plumage, and on either side +a bird evidently in the act of flying. The border of this fine rug is in +stripes, the widest of a golden hue, with turquoise blue, light green, +and soft reds in delicate tracery. The corner areas are deep and very +minutely woven, corresponding perfectly with the field. Toward the +centre of the corner areas and extending upward, is the mihrab, +proclaiming for what purpose this rug was woven._ + +OWNED BY MISS BUCKINGHAM, CHICAGO.] + +The prayer rug was evidently invented for the purpose of providing the +worshippers with one absolutely clean place on which to offer +prayers. It is not lawful for a Moslem to pray on any place not +perfectly clean, and unless each one has his own special rug he is not +certain that the spot has not been polluted. With regard to the purity +of the place of prayer Mohammedans are especially careful when making +their pilgrimages, the rugs which they take with them having been +preserved from pollution by being rolled up until the journey is begun, +or until the hour of prayer arrives. It does not matter to these +followers of Mohammed how unclean a rug that is on the floor may be, +because over it they place the prayer rug when their devotions begin. + +About two hundred years ago small embroidered rugs were largely made in +Persia, chiefly at Ispahan. These were prayer rugs, and on each of them, +near one end, was a small embroidered mark to show where the bit of +sacred earth from Mecca was to be placed. In obedience to a law in the +Koran that the head must be bowed to the ground in prayer, this was +touched by the forehead when the prostrations were made, and so the +letter of the law was carried out. The custom still prevails. The +Persian women who make the finest prayer rugs seldom weave any other +kind of rug. But the encroachments of civilization and commerce have +changed the original purpose of the prayer rug. Once it was sacred, and +the masterpieces of workmanship in the products of Asia Minor were +devotional in character. Upon these rugs many a soul prostrated himself +before Allah in reverence; but now in the further interior only is the +prayer rug made for aught but commerce. + +As a class the modern Anatolian prayer rugs are quite inferior, being +woven irregularly, and without regard to details or finishing; yet there +are among them some fine specimens of Anatolian weaving. The famous +prayer rugs of Asia Minor (Anatolian) made at Ghiordes, Kulah, Laodicea, +and Meles are described in preceding pages. They are the joy of the +collector and the artist. The antique Ghiordes rugs are really fine in +colors, generally with much pale green, red, or blue. The design most +frequently seen is the Tree of Life. One special kind is distinguished +by a yellow vine on a dark blue field. + +[Illustration: OLD ANATOLIAN PRAYER RUG + +SIZE, 6 × 3.8 + +_A deep, soft pile, firmness of texture, and superb coloring, +characterize this rug. The lower section of the field is of cherry-red; +the upper portion is a lighter shade of red, but blending perfectly, and +forming by its shape at the top the niche which is characteristic of the +prayer rug. This extends into the wonderful moss green of the upper +section. The two tones (which appear exaggerated in the black and white +plate) suggest the thought of a passing shadow upon a mossy bed. The red +and green of the field are separated by heavy serrated lines of ivory, +which unite at the top, leading up to and enclosing a small red lozenge, +terminating beyond this in the hook design. It is in the centre of the +lozenge that the Moslem places the stone or bit of earth when at prayer. +Other hook designs and various geometrical forms are arranged upon the +field. The wide stripe of the border is of a fine yellow, rich and +lustrous, decorated in blue, green, and maroon devices. The outer border +is in brown, and it is interesting to observe the series of nomad tents +represented, each one worked in white wool, the entrances to the tents, +however, being in reds, blues, or yellows. Alternating with each little +dwelling are figures worked in red, blue, or green. This interesting rug +is a product of Cæsarea._ + +OWNED BY MR. GEORGE HUBBARD HOLT, CHICAGO.] + + +SILK RUGS + +Long before other countries learned the art of cultivating silkworms, +China was at work weaving fabrics of silk. Chinese historians claim that +the origin of reeling silk and putting it to use was discovered by a +woman,--Se-Ling-She, wife of Hwang-te, third Emperor of China,--and for +that reason she has always been regarded by them as the "goddess of +silkworms," The date of this discovery is about 2640 B. C. For about two +thousand years the Chinese kept secret their methods of reeling and +weaving silk, but finally Japan, Persia, and India learned the art, +Persia having for many centuries transported raw silk between China and +the West. Very slowly grew the process of silk-weaving. Greece, Spain, +and Sicily by degrees attained the knowledge. In A. D. 550 it was +introduced into Constantinople, and in 1148 silk manufacture was carried +into Italy, and the cultivation of mulberry trees was enforced by law. +The industry soon spread into the south of France, where it rapidly +advanced. + +At the present day enormous quantities of silk are produced in various +parts of the world. The principal countries are China, Japan, India, +Southern Europe, and some parts of Persia and Asia Minor. During the +Middle Ages and down to the seventeenth century, the province of Ghilan +in Persia produced very fine silk and in large quantities. In all the +countries and districts just mentioned, magnificent silk rugs have been +woven for many centuries. + +The silk rug when at its best is unsurpassed in beauty; it is +distinguished by its richness, exquisite coloring, and rare sheen. But +silk rugs require the most luxurious surroundings: nothing looks so out +of place as one of these costly fabrics of the loom in a poor setting. +They are more suitable for decorative purposes and museums than for +service; they should be used as hangings, not for floor coverings. An +exquisite silk rug interwoven with pearls is hung before the famous +Peacock Throne of the Shah at Teheran, Persia. + +The most magnificent silk rugs have been woven in China, and these are +interesting from every point of view, especially as regards history, +color, and texture. The silk rugs of Khotan are remarkable for their +beauty and fineness; on important occasions of state and ceremony the +Chinese place them upon the table. Silk carpets of special beauty worked +with gold threads are made in Pekin for the Imperial Palace, although +many of this kind found at the Court are said to be of Central Asiatic +origin. + +In making silk rugs, the greatest care is necessary in the shading. +Sometimes the shading of woollen rugs is made more effective by the +addition of silk. + + +[Illustration: PERSIAN SILK RUG + +SIZE, 5.8 × 4.12 + +_This remarkable rug in some lights suggests the heart of a forest. Some +of its sections indicate Chinese inspiration, and recall, too, the +famous Hunting Rugs. The field is in an unusual shade of reddish bronze, +with a strong metallic lustre. In certain lights the surface looks like +a mass of gleaming gold. In the centre stands the Tree of Life, its +branches rich with foliage, among which birds of bright plumage seem to +flutter. At the base of the tree two wild animals are depicted, +apparently in search of prey. In the corner area at the top of the rug +two serpents are attacking young birds in a nest, which is guarded by an +agitated parent bird. On either side at the base of the rug is a cypress +tree. Across the top is an inscription in Arabic._ + +OWNED BY MRS. EMMONS BLAINE, CHICAGO.] + +As the demand for silk rugs is comparatively small, they are seldom +woven on speculation. When made to order in Persia, they cost from ten +dollars to fifteen dollars per square foot; thus the usual price of a +silk rug of Persian make is from two hundred dollars up to thousands of +dollars. Those made in Turkey can be bought much cheaper. + +The Turkoman silk rugs are generally twice the size of the usual sheep's +wool or camel's hair rugs. They are very fine, and often two hundred +dollars is paid for a rug of this kind eight feet square. + +Rugs made of raw silk are exported from Samarkand, and silk rugs of old +Persian designs are copied and woven at Cæsarea. Some weavers of the +modern silk rug, however, do not have recourse to established designs; +they give play to their imagination, as do the weavers of wool rugs. +Other weavers copy chiefly designs from chintz, and still others work +from designs introduced from Europe. + +Mrs. Bishop tells us that silk produced at Resht is brought to Kashan to +be spun and dyed. Then it is sent to Sultanabad to be woven into rugs. +It is next returned to Resht to have the pile cut by the sharp +instruments used for cutting the velvet pile. After the rugs are +finished, they are sent to Teheran to be sold. + + + + +FELT RUGS + + +In the Orient a large and heavy rug is made of felt. This is used +extensively by the natives, but is too heavy to export. Even the +shepherds of the Kotan-Daria and of the Keriya-Daria use it in their +primitive and isolated abodes. Sometimes an old felt rug is propped up +by poles and becomes a tent, in which dwell the shepherds of Central +Asia. + +This felt rug is made of the hair of the camel, goat, or sheep, or by a +mixture of all these kinds. It is matted together by heavy and constant +pounding, moistened with water, turned and beaten again and again until +it becomes compact and solid. Sometimes the felts are decorated with +colored threads and often the name of the weaver is woven in. Among the +best felts are those made at Astrabad and Yezd. + +In color felts are gray, brown, or white. The last named are woven at +Khotan. No dye is used; the hue is that of the hair of the animal, or +the composite hue resulting from the mixture of the hair of different +animals. + +[Illustration: DERBENT RUG + +SIZE, 7.2 × 4.6 + +As a representative Derbent rug, this is an excellent example. It has +the soft thick texture and long pile characterizing this product of the +Caucasus. The entire dark blue field is covered with well-proportioned +lozenge-shaped forms, distinctly outlined with serrated lines. Every +centre has a cross of a color contrasting with the form containing it. +The main border stripe is geometrical, with a variety of the hook +design. Several floral devices are arranged in the maroon stripes on +either side the wide one. There is a good deal of lustre to the rug, and +the coloring is particularly charming in fine blues, soft rose, fawn, +copper brown, subdued yellows, ivory, and rich green. + +OWNED BY MRS. ARTHUR DANE WHEELER, CHICAGO.] + +The felts have no seams, and are from one to four inches thick. Although +this material is of far more ancient date than the days of St. Clement, +a legend connects his name with the discovery of felt. The tradition +is that while on a pilgrimage the Saint, having put a wad of carded wool +into his shoes to protect his feet from blisters, found at the end of +his journey that the pressure and moisture had converted the wool into +felt. + + +HUNTING RUGS + +The hunting rugs of Persia are the most remarkable and interesting rugs +in existence. They had their origin in the Chinese pictures of hunting +scenes, from which they were copied. They were undoubtedly made as early +as the sixteenth century for the Shah. Exquisite in their weaving, +marvellous in coloring, and of rare sheen, they are worthy of the +closest attention. Nor is this their only merit; they serve as records +of ancient customs, depicting the method of the chase, and portraying +the mounted hunters in pursuit of the elephant, lion, phoenix, deer, and +other creatures, fabulous and real. There are perhaps twelve of these +precious rugs in existence. One, in silk, belongs to the Imperial House +of Austria, another to Baron Adolphe Rothschild, a third is in the +Palace at Stockholm, and a fourth, in wool, smaller than those +mentioned, is in the possession of M. J. Maciet, Paris. + + + + +V + +RUG-WEAVING IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES + + +In the preparation of this section of this work, there has been no +attempt or desire to slight in any way the weaving industry of the West. +It has not seemed advisable, however, to go into many details on the +subject, for it is one easily learned from many sources by any one who +desires. There is not the mystery about Occidental weaving that there is +about Oriental, the latter perhaps appealing to our innate desire of +acquiring knowledge difficult of access. A short account of rug-weaving +in Europe and the United States will, therefore, be quite as +satisfactory to the general reader as a more lengthy description. + + +GREEK RUGS + +Greek rugs are almost as ancient as Greece herself. Many an old +love-song of this land has praised the skill of the woman deftly plying +the hand loom. But if one expects to see the glory of ancient Greece, in +its perfection of form and design, transmitted in any degree to the +industry of modern rug-weaving he will be disappointed. From time +immemorial rugs have constituted a most important part of the dowry of a +young girl from the provinces. Even now the courting of a bride in Crete +is often prefaced with the question whether the girl is skilled in the +handling of a loom. But the modern Greek rug is seldom seen outside of +its own country, for it is generally made for home use, and the weaver +is not easily induced to part with it. Besides this, the foreign market +would not be large for them, especially in competition with the +well-known and excellent Oriental rugs. + +Greek rugs are of two kinds--the heavy ones which serve for floor +coverings in the winter, and the thinner, which are used all the year +round. Both are made of home-produced wool, often with hemp woof, and +are worked by women and girls only, in wooden looms of a primitive +order. + +Athens is the only place in Greece where rugs are produced in a factory. +Under the patronage of Her Majesty the Queen, an Association for the +Education of Poor Women exists. This philanthropic association has +founded an industrial institution which employs four hundred women and +girls in its various departments, of whom about thirty are engaged in +rug-weaving. The best rugs are those purely Grecian in design and +quality, and for these special orders are generally sent in. The rugs +thus woven are durable and effective. Sometimes an attempt is made to +imitate Turkish rugs, but without their superb effect. Coarse rugs of an +inferior class are sold in the bazaars of Athens. The predominant color +in these is a dingy white, with stripes of various colors at the ends. +The rug is really durable, though the noticeable, fuzzy nap soon wears +off. + + +MOORISH AND SPANISH RUGS + +The Arab conquerors of Spain, or the Moors as they are often called, are +believed to have taught the Spaniards and Venetians the art of +rug-weaving. The rugs now known as Moorish are made by the descendants +of this race. Their leading color is yellow, and in style and quality +they resemble the so-called Smyrna rug. Antique Moorish rugs are found +in the cathedrals of Toledo and Seville. These are relics of the +thirteenth century and have geometric designs. + +_Morocco_ rugs are Moorish. Those of modern manufacture are very +inferior. The poorest aniline dyes are used, and it seems hardly +possible that the splendid specimens of the fourteenth to the end of the +seventeenth century were woven in Morocco. But the rugs in the Sultan's +palace at Fez prove this fact, as does the splendid antique rug in the +possession of Prince Schwarzenberg, at Vienna. Fez was formerly one of +the chief seats of the rug industry, which is now limited mostly to +Rabat. Unfortunately, aniline dyes are now largely used, and even the +designs are less artistic than in former years. There is, however, a rug +not known to the trade, and only rarely met with outside its home. It is +the _Tuareg_ rug, and is woven by the Berbers, a tribe occupying the +desert south of Algeria and Tunis, and known as Tuareg or Tawarek by the +Arabs. The Tuaregs are great traders, and control the principal caravan +routes. Their rugs are woven by the women, and seldom if ever leave the +families which weave them. The most beautiful are used as shrouds, and +are buried with their owners. + +_Tunis_ sends out a few rugs woven at Kairuan. They are thick, heavy, +but inferior in many ways to rugs of Oriental workmanship. + + +BOSNIAN, SERVIAN, ROUMANIAN, AND BULGARIAN RUGS + +Bosnian rugs in olden times were sometimes very fine. Then came years of +general depression, when the industry of weaving fell into decay. +Finally the Austro-Hungarian administration was established at Bosnia, +and new life was given to the work. Looms were erected by the +Government, and a number of women were sent to Vienna, where they were +taught the art of weaving. Returning to Bosnia, they were able to impart +to others the knowledge they had gained, and thus the work prospered. To +enhance further the value of these rugs, the latest designs in the old +Bosnian rugs were selected, and by the harmonious blending of these with +new designs and colors, modern rugs were made, which show decided +improvement. + +_Servian_ rugs are woven throughout all Servia, but the principal seat +of the industry is at Pirot, on the southern boundary of the Balkan +Mountains. The rugs are of wool, and the best are very durable. The dyes +are generally vegetable, the weaving is a home industry, and the designs +are all worked on a black or red ground. The preferment in the modern +rug is for red, but the older rugs had the black ground. The general +design is an extended square, in the centre of which is a panel. The +rest of the field is filled with stripes and geometrical forms in rather +bright and varied coloring. + +_Roumanian_ rugs of modern make are quite inferior. They are woven on +ordinary hand looms in the villages and towns among the mountains of +Roumania. They are coarse, and the designs are in stripes, zigzag lines, +or straight-lined figures. Occasionally flower designs have appeared, +but these have been poorly reproduced, and in the most unsuitable +combinations of color. Old Roumanian rugs are not in the market. They +are owned by private individuals, and are not to be procured except at +very high prices, if at all. These rugs differ from the modern ones in +their better workmanship and designs. + +_Bulgarian_ rugs, as a rule, are very coarse in texture, loosely woven, +and unattractive. Occasionally Bulgarian rugs are seen with finer +weaving and well-chosen colors. Both men and women take part in +preparing the wool, the former setting up the simple looms, preparing +the darker dyes, and arranging the warp. The women choose the designs +and colors, and weave the rugs. The colors commonly used are yellow, +blue, brown, black, white, green, and red. + + +ENGLISH RUGS + +In England the introduction of tapestries as hangings for walls was made +by Eleanora, sister of Alfonso the Tenth of Castile, when she became the +wife of Edward the First. In her journeyings these fabrics of the loom +were carried as part of the royal baggage, and must have given some +sense of cheer, particularly when they clothed the bare walls of the +dreary castle of Cærnarvon. + +Edward the Third (1327-1377) invited Flemish weavers to settle in +England. At that time England produced wool in large quantities, +although very few fabrics were woven there, nine-tenths of the wool +being sent to Ghent or Bruges to be manufactured; for the Flemish were +the first people in the northern part of Europe who advanced in the arts +and in manufactures. Throughout Northern and Western Europe rugs were +seldom used, except for wall hangings and table covers, until the time +of the Reformation in Germany. + +Great Britain is now quite active in the manufacture of rugs with +certain designs, a decided impetus to the improvement of this industry +being given by Mr. William Morris, the English poet and artistic +decorator, who was born near London in 1834. + +[Illustration: EARLY ENGLISH RUG + +_Centre portion of a carpet woven in wool, with a continuous pattern of +carnations, and a border of wavy floral design. In the diamond-shaped +panel of the centre are the Royal Arms and the letters E R (Elizabeth +Regina)._ + +OWNED BY THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF VERULAM.] + +_The Morris Rug._ With strong, firm texture, fine vegetable dyes, and +with purely artistic designs, the Morris rug bears testimony to-day to +the honesty, perseverance, and skill of the man for whom it is named. He +himself testifies: "I am an artist or workman with a strong inclination +to exercise what capacities I may have--a determination to do nothing +shabby if I can help it." Decorative art in many branches is the richer +to-day for the influence of Mr. Morris, but it is his rug-making that +now claims attention. Mr. Bernhard Quaritch informs me in a letter dated +August 31, 1899, that Mr. Morris learned the art of making rugs from a +volume of the work entitled "Descriptions des Arts et Metiers." Mr. +Morris had his own loom, and not only wove rugs, but dyed the wool for +them himself, and instructed pupils, to whom his inspiration was a +power. Long and laboriously he worked to achieve the best results, using +vegetable dyes only, and he was finally successful. No dyer of the +Orient could have been more pleased than was he when his efforts +resulted in soft, glowing tints. + +In design Mr. Morris excelled. He educated the popular taste by bringing +forth the beauties of the simpler forms of the floral and vegetable +world; he delighted especially in displaying the acanthus in varied +conventional forms. Every rug he designed bears witness to his +enthusiasm for harmony. Too æsthetic, some critics declare him to have +been; but no one can deny the importance of his creations, for England +needed to be awakened to a knowledge of her own inability to appreciate +artistic decoration of the home, especially by means of the productions +of the loom. It was this very fact, and his inability to procure +artistic furniture such as would satisfy his æsthetic taste, that +started Mr. Morris to create those fabrics which he desired. + + +FRENCH RUGS + +The art of rug-weaving was first introduced into the West by the Moors +when they conquered Spain. With the advance of civilization it proceeded +to the land of the Gauls, where during the reign of Henry the Fourth it +was brought from Persia. An inventor named Dupont was placed in charge +of a workroom by the King, in the _Palais du Louvre_ about the year +1605. In the year 1621 an apprentice of Dupont's, named Lourdes, was +instructed to establish the industry of weaving in a district near +Paris, where was the _Hospice de la Savonnerie_, an institution for poor +children. The factory was called _La Savonnerie_ because the building +had been previously used for the manufacture of soap. Since 1825 _La +Savonnerie_ has been consolidated with the Gobelins manufactory. In +1664, Colbert, minister to Louis the Fourteenth, founded the +establishment at Beauvais which is owned by the French Government, as is +also that of the Gobelins, which Colbert bought of the Gobelin family. +But it is to the Saracens that France ultimately owes the origin of her +famous tapestries, and it is to the Saracens, through France, that +Western and Northern Europe trace their obligation. + +The industry has attained large proportions in France. At Aubusson alone +over two thousand work-men are employed in rug-weaving. A fine specimen +of the work done there is a rug of Oriental design made for a collector +in New York. The piece-work system is now generally used throughout the +weaving districts of France. The manufacturers themselves usually place +the rugs on the market. France buys the greater quantity, although many +are exported. + +Austria-Hungary, Germany, Holland, and Italy have also had some +experience in rug-weaving, and even little Switzerland at one time +attempted its introduction, but with unsatisfactory results. Belgium, +however, was more successful, for Brussels still produces a large number +of rugs. + + +THE UNITED STATES + +The United States is largely occupied in rug-weaving, and the centre of +the Eastern section of this manufacture is Philadelphia. But in various +sections of the country there are rug factories, both large and small. + +The _Abenákee_ rug is made at Pequaket, New Hampshire. It is the result +of a desire on the part of Mrs. Helen R. Albee to give profitable +employment to the women of the rural community where she lives. Her +success is now assured, and the reward for much labor and thought has +come in a lively demand for the rug. + +The Abenákee rugs are not woven. They are an evolved form of the much +despised New England hooked rug, which was made by drawing strips of old +rag through burlap. The thick, soft, velvety Abenákee rugs of the +present day are far removed in color, design, and texture from their +humble ancestors. These rugs are all wool, hand-dyed in warm tones of +terra-cotta, old rose, old pink, tans, dull yellows, rich old blues, +olive and sage greens, and old ivory. They are made to order usually, to +match in their ground color some special color in the room where they +are to be placed, and the borders are made in harmonious tones. The +range of design is wide, from Oriental to Occidental--from Japanese to +North American Indian. But all suggestions, so soon as received, are +modified and removed as far as possible from direct imitation of any +foreign rugs. Mrs. Albee has aimed, not to reproduce Oriental effects, +but to have the designs original and distinctive. Fortunately, for years +previous to the establishment of this industry, she had studied the +principles of design and their application to various textiles, and the +knowledge which she thus acquired has proved most valuable. + +The designs are bold and effective, but fineness of detail is precluded +by the strips of material, each of which is a quarter of an inch wide. +The color is arranged in broad masses. + +The _New England Hooked_ or _Rag_ rug has for its foundation a strip of +burlap or sacking. Through this, strips of cloth are hooked, which form +loops, and this surface may be sheared or not, as the maker desires. +There is such an absence of attractiveness in the old-time rag rug, that +several women of taste and experience in art methods have sought the +improvement of this industry. The results have been excellent, so that, +ugly as the original rug is, it is esteemed as being the progenitor of +the more artistic Abenákee, Sabatos, and Onteora rugs. + +The _Sabatos_ rug is a product of the little mountain village of Center +Lovell, Maine, started in 1900 by Mrs. Douglas Volk of New York. She has +now about a dozen women engaged in the work, this number including the +spinners, dyers, and weavers. + +The Sabatos rug is durable, harmonious in color and design, and is +distinctly a home product. The wool of which it is made is sheared from +the flocks of sheep in the vicinity. The shearing takes place annually +in June; the wool is then carded, spun, and dyed. The threads of +hand-spun wool are worked through a hand-woven webbing, and securely +knotted or tied with a specially devised knot. The designs thus far are +mainly adaptations from the native American Indian motives, which are +simple and characteristic, furnishing a chance for broad color effects. + +A special point is made of the dyes employed, those of vegetable origin +ruling, and only those dyes which from experience have been found to be +practically fast are used,--such for instance as genuine old Indigo +blue, madder root, and butternut. + +Berea College, Kentucky, is endeavoring to encourage the weaving of rag +rugs of a superior order. So far, the industry which was started in +1905, is in a primitive state, the natives preferring to weave cotton +and wool coverlets, the designs of which they brought across the +mountains with them from Virginia in the early settlement of Kentucky. +Floor rugs they consider troublesome. The weaving is carried on in the +homes throughout the mountains of that region known as "Appalachian +America"; it is really a survival of the old Colonial industry. The rugs +are woven of strips of new ticking, and are especially designed for +bath-rooms, children's nurseries, and porches. The coloring is done with +the vegetable dyes and native barks and roots. The color schemes are the +simple ones of a primitive people. + +_Navajo Rugs._ The Navajo Indian Reservation covers about eleven +thousand square miles, about six hundred and fifty of which are in the +northwest corner of New Mexico, and the remainder in the northeast +portion of Arizona. The region is well adapted for the raising of sheep, +and every family possesses flocks, which are driven from place to place +for pasture. The Navajos, however, never go to any great distance for +this, but keep generally within a radius of fifty or sixty miles from +home. This tribe weaves a rug that is useful, unique, durable, and when +at its best, impervious to rain. Among the tribes, and in some Western +homes, they are used as blankets, but it has become a fashion in many of +the best houses in the Eastern States to use them entirely as rugs, +couch coverings, and _portières_. + +[Illustration: NAVAJO RUG + +SIZE, 3.9 × 4.9 + +_The field of this Navajo Rug is in a natural shade of grayish white. +Six large diamond forms in black, with reddish edges and white centres, +rest on the field. The centres contain a tiny red line, and there are +smaller diamonds--seven in number--four having red centres and the +remainder black, and at one end are two small figures. The border is in +stripes of red, black, and an addition of white. The rug is a fine +sample of the American Indian weaving, and its simplicity places it in +striking and pleasing contrast to many of the modern productions of the +Navajos._] + +It is believed that the Spaniards, when they arrived in that section of +North America inhabited by the Pueblo tribe of Indians, communicated to +them the industry of weaving these rugs, and that the Pueblos taught it +to the Navajos. Thus it appears that the weaving of the Navajo rug was a +result of the Moors' invasion of Europe. The sheep, which are raised by +thousands, were also introduced by the Spaniards. The wool is not washed +until after the shearing. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century +the Navajos began to use the shears of the white man; previously they +procured the wool by cutting it off the body of the animal with a knife, +and pulling it from the legs. + +The native dyes are red, yellow, and black, and the natural colors of +the wool are black, gray, and white. The dyes of the white man are now +much used. Formerly there was a beautiful blue, which has given way to +the indigo. A scarlet cloth called Bayeta was once much used in the +weaving of these rugs, but Germantown yarn and other inventions of the +white man have largely superseded the old-time materials and methods. + +The spindle is of the crudest form, and sometimes the wool is simply +picked out from the mass, and rolled into the yarn or thread on the +hand. + +The looms are fashioned after the most primitive ones of the Orient, +and the weaver sits on the ground and weaves upward. Women do most of +the weaving, but occasionally a dusky-faced man may be seen at the loom. +It takes about a month to weave a rug six feet ten inches by five feet +seven inches. + +The designs in the Navajo rugs are many, and mostly in angles and +straight lines, the serrated diamond design being common, as is the +swastika or fylfot. The weaver makes up her own designs as she goes +along, occasionally only tracing it in the sand. + +There is a symbolism attached to many forms in these rugs. The square +with four knit corners represents the four quarters of heaven and the +four winds. A tau cross is a symbol of protection and safety, and a +prayer to the Great Spirit. A spiral form represents the purified soul, +and a double spiral is a symbol of the soul's struggle. A wave mark +represents the sea, over which the people came from a far country. Black +is the symbol of water, regarded as the mother or spirit. Red is the +symbol of fire, and is regarded as the father. + +The native costume of the women of the Navajo tribe consists of two +small rugs in dark blue or black, with a bright stripe at each end. They +are of the same size, and sewed together at the sides, except where a +place is left open for the arms. Formerly the Indians reserved their +hand-made rugs for their own use, but now that there is so great a +demand for the work of their hands, they sell those rugs, and content +themselves with blankets of factory make. + +Old Navajo rugs, like Oriental ones, are growing scarcer every year, and +naturally are becoming more valuable and desirable. The fine textures, +perfect workmanship, and glowing colors are seen at their best in +productions of the past. + + + + +VI + +MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION + + +INSCRIPTIONS ON RUGS + +We are occasionally indebted to an Oriental scholar for a translation of +an inscription on a rug; often these inscriptions show the religious +belief of the maker. + +One fine rug in a museum in Austria has the following inscription: +"Allah! No God exists besides Him, the Living, the Eternal. Nothing +causes Him to slumber or to sleep. To Him belongs everything in heaven +and on earth. Who can intercede with Him without His permission? He +knows what is before and what is behind, and only so much of His wisdom +can be grasped as He permits. His throne fills heaven and earth, and the +support of both to Him is easy. He is the High One, the Exalted!" + +A rug of Persian weave owned by Baron Nathaniel Rothschild has, worked +in the oval cartouches, an inscription translated by Professor F. Bayer +as follows: + + 1. "Honored mayst thou be in the world, + Among the clever and wise. + + 2. May no sorrow be allotted thee by an unfavoring Heaven, + And may no care torment thy heart. + + 3. May earth be all to thee that thou wouldst have it, and destiny prove + thy friend. + May high Heaven be thy protector. + + 4. May thy rising star enlighten the world, + And the falling stars of thine enemies be extinguished. + + 5. May every act of thine prosper, + And may every year and every day be to thee Spring-time." + +In the Industrial Museum at Berlin there is a rug with this inscription: +"There is no Deity but God, and Mahomet is His Prophet." + +On a Persian silk rug is a line from the Koran: "All perisheth but His +face." + +Another rug has: "God is greatest! He is great!" + +Often a marking in a corner of a rug is simply the name of the maker, +and the date. + +The Holy Carpet of the Mosque at Ardebil, now in the South Kensington +Museum, at London, has the following interesting inscription woven in +black characters in the light cream cartouche at the top of the carpet. +Translated it reads: + + "I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold. + My head has no protection other than this porchway. + The work of the slave of this Holy Place, + Maksoud of Kashan + In the year 946." + +(The year 946 of the Hegira corresponds to A. D. 1568.) + + +ORIENTAL SYMBOLS + +All Oriental rugs have designs, and every design is symbolical. To the +connoisseur, as well as to the owners of rugs, it is vastly interesting +to understand the meaning attached to these symbols by the Orientals. +Every one is familiar with the tree design in some of its various forms, +and with the stiff little birds and the many odd and strange-looking +animals which frequently are seen on an Eastern fabric of the loom. Yet +each unique figure has a meaning, and it is a fascinating, as well as an +apparently endless task, to find the hidden significance of these +symbols. If one goes no further, he should at least become familiar with +the designs on his own rugs, and know, if possible, what they typify. + +The rug itself symbolizes Eternity and Space, and the filling or plan is +the symbol of the world--beautiful, but fleeting and limited. + +[Illustration: ANTIQUE PERSIAN RUG + +_This rug dates from about 1500 A. D., and is of wool, with animal and +floral forms._ + +FROM A PHOTOGRAPH LOANED BY DR. BODE, OF BERLIN.] + + +CHINESE SYMBOLS + + BAT _Happiness._ + + BUDDHIST SCEPTRE _Success in literary + labors._ + + CHI-LIN (a kind of doe) _Nobleness; gentleness._ + + CLOUD-BAND _The Deity._ + + COCK AND HEN ON AN ARTIFICIAL ROCK-WORK _Pleasures of country + life._ + + CRANE _Immortality._ + + CROW _Evil._ + + DEER _Official emolument._ + + DRAGON _The imperial emblem, + signifying increase and + imperial grandeur._ + + DRAGON WITH FIVE CLAWS ON EACH OF ITS FOUR FEET _Exclusive emblem of the + Emperor._ + + DRAGON AND PHOENIX _Newly wedded pair._ + + DUCK _Conjugal affection._ + + GOOSE _Domestic felicity._ + + GOURD _Happiness._ + + LION _Victory._ + + MAGPIE _Good luck._ + + OLD MAN LEANING ON A STAFF _Long life._ + + OWL _Dread._ + + PEACH _Old age._ + + PHOENIX _The Emblem of the + Empress._ + + STORK _Long life._ + + TORTOISE _Long life._ + + TREE OF LIFE WITH SEVEN BRANCHES ON A SHORT STEM_Seven days of Creation._ + + YOUNG STAGS _Long life._ + + +EGYPTIAN SYMBOLS + + ASPS _Intelligence_. + + BAT WITH A RING IN ITS CLAWS _Duration_. + + BEE _Immortality_. + + BEETLE _Earthly life and the development of man + in the future state._ + + BLOSSOM _Life_. + + BOAT _Serene spirit gliding upon the waters._ + + BULL _Source of life._ + + BUTTERFLY _Soul._ + + CARTOUCHE _Eternity._ + + CRESCENT _Celestial virgin._ + + CROCODILE _Beneficent Deity._ + + DOVE _Love; mourning of a widow._ + + EAGLE _Creation; preservation; destruction; + power._ + + EGG _Life._ + + EYE OF OSIRIS _Eye of the Eternal Judge over all._ + + FEATHER OF AN OSTRICH _Truth; justice. (The ostrich itself does + not appear In Egyptian art.)_ + + FEATHERS OF RARE BIRDS _Sovereignty._ + + FROG _Renewed birth._ + + HAWK _Power._ + + IBIS _Usefulness; the heart._ + + LIZARD _Divine wisdom._ + + LOTUS _The Sun; creation; resurrection._ + + NILE KEY _Life._ + + PALM TREE _Immortality; longevity._ + + PAPYRUS _Food for mind and body._ + + PINE CONE _Fire._ + + POMEGRANATE _Life._ + + ROSETTE _A lotus motive._ + + SAIL OF A VESSEL _Breath; the belief that the soul is + inactive and worthless until revived + by the breath of the mind._ + + SCARABÆUS _Immortality; resurrection; a ruling + providence._ + + SOLAR DISK WITH SERPENTS _Royalty._ + + SPHINX _Beneficent Being._ + + STAFF IN THE HANDS OF THE GODS _Purity._ + + SUN _Deity; life._ + + VIPER _Power._ + + WHEEL _Deity._ + + ZIGZAG _Water._ + + +INDIAN SYMBOLS + + ASS _Humility; austerity._ + + BANIAN OR BURR TREE _Deity (because of its outstretched + branches and overshadowing beneficence)._ + + BUTTERFLY _Beneficence of Summer._ + + FYLFOT CROSS OF BUDDHISM _Auspiciousness._ + + KNOT AND FLOWER DESIGN _Divine bounty and power._ + + SERPENT _Desire._ + + +JAPANESE SYMBOLS + + PINE TREES _Long life._ + + STORKS _Long life._ + + TORTOISES _Long life._ + + +PERSIAN SYMBOLS + + DESCENDING EAGLE _Bad luck._ + + EAGLE _Light; height._ + + FLYING EAGLE _Good luck._ + + HOUNDS _Fame; ever increasing honor._ + + LEOPARDS _Fame; ever increasing honor._ + + LION _Power; victory._ + + PEACOCK _Fire; light._ + + PHOENIX _Immortality._ + + STANDING EAGLE _Good luck._ + + SUN _Light._ + + SWORD _Force._ + + TREE OF HEALTH _Immortality._ + + TREE OF LIFE _Knowledge; truth._ + + The Coat of Arms of Persia is the Lion holding a sword in his paw, + and with the Sun at his back. + + +TURKISH SYMBOLS + + CRESCENT _Increasing power._ + + The Turkish Coat of Arms is the Crescent and the Star. These + heavenly bodies are supposed to signify growth. + + +MISCELLANEOUS SYMBOLS + + + ANEMONE _Good fortune._ + + BAT _Maternity._ + + BIRD _Spirit._ + + BOAR _Winter._ + + BUTTERFLY _Ethereal soul._ + + CIRCLE _Eternity; perpetual continuity._ + + CYPRESS TREE _Tree of life; immortality; perfect and renewed life._ + + DOG _Destruction; vigilance._ + + ELEPHANT _Patient endurance; self-restraint._ + + EVERGREENS _Immortality._ + + FIR CONE _An existence terminated but united--the union of the tribes + against the dominion of Rome._ + + FLY _Destroying attribute._ + + HARE _Fertility._ + + HEART _Man morally._ + + HIPPOPOTAMUS _Destroying power._ + + HOG _Deep meditation._ + + JUG _Knowledge._ + + LILY _Purity._ + + OLIVE _Consecration to immortality._ + + OWL _Wisdom._ + + OX _Patience; gentleness._ + + PEACOCK _Resurrection (because of the annual renewing of its + plumage, and from a belief in the incorruptibility + of its flesh)._ + + PHOENIX _Good luck; herald of prosperity; birth of great men._ + + PIG _Universal kindness._ + + RAM _Spiritual leadership._ + + REED _Royalty._ + + RHINOCEROS _Religious recluse._ + + SCORPION _Invincible knowledge._ + + SERPENT _Life; immortality._ + + SPEAR _Destructive power._ + + SPIDER _Slave of passion._ + + SQUIRREL _Averter of evil._ + + STARS _Divinity._ + + SWASTIKA _Good fortune._ + + TURTLE _Constancy._ + + WHEEL _Universe._ + + WINGS _Spontaneous motion._ + + WOLF _Destroying power._ + + +MEANINGS OF SOME OF THE PLACE-NAMES ASSOCIATED WITH RUGS + + AKHISSAR _White Citadel._ + + BAGDAD _Abode of Peace._ + + BAKU _Place of Winds._ + + BELUCHISTAN _Land of the Beluchis._ + + BHAGULPORE _Tiger City._ + + BOKHARA _Treasury of Sciences; the Noble._ + + DECCAN _The South Land._ + + DERBENT _Fortified Gate._ + + FARS _Land of the Farsi or Persians._ + + FU-CHAU _Happy City._ + + GILAN _The Marshes._ + + GULISTAN _The Rose Garden._ + + HAIDERABAD _Gate of Salvation._ + + HERAT _The Pearl of Khorassan; the Gate of India._ + + ISLAMABAD _Abode of Islam._ + + ISPAHAN _Place of Horses._ + + JERUSALEM _Heir of Peace._ + + KANDAHAR _Key of India._ + + KARABAGH _Country of the Sun._ + + KARA DAGH _Black Mountains._ + + KELAT _Castle._ + + KHORASSAN _Land of the Sun._ + + KWATAH _Citadel._ + + MECCA _The Heart of Islam; the Holy City._ + + MESHED _Tomb of a Martyr._ + + MIRZAPORE _City of the Emir._ + + NING-PO _Peaceful Wave._ + + PESHAWAR _Advanced Fortress._ + + SAMARKAND _The Head of Islam._ + + SHANG-HAI _Approaching the Sea._ + + SRINAGAR _City of the Sun._ + + TABRIZ _Pinnacle of Islam._ + + TEHERAN _The Pure._ + + YEZD _City of Light; City of Worship._ + + +GEOGRAPHICAL DATA + +Owing to the variety of ways in which the names of Oriental localities +are spelled when transliterated, it is extremely difficult to establish +a standard of spelling. Many curious examples of this occur both on maps +and in dictionaries. It is certainly confusing to open an atlas that is +supposed to be an authority, and find that the name one seeks differs in +spelling from that used in the atlas first consulted. Then by looking +into dictionaries it is found that each of these has a different way of +spelling the word sought. Then turning to a guide book of the country +there will probably be found not only another combination of the +letters, but also a conflict between the descriptive matter in the book +and the map accompanying it. When books of travel are consulted, the +embarrassment is still further increased. + +After having accepted a mode of spelling geographical names for use in +this volume, I propose in the pages that follow to assist the reader to +locate the places mentioned, by assigning them to their respective +countries, so that at a glance he may identify them. This classification +will also be a key to the map. + +[Illustration: Map.] + +Occasionally the name of a place has been inserted which is not +rug-producing, but only a mart for the selling of rugs. This has seemed +advisable as the names are intimately associated with the rug industry. + + +LOCALITIES ARRANGED GEOGRAPHICALLY + + +Afghanistan + + BALKH. + CHARIKAR. + GHAZNI (GÄZNE). + GULISTAN. + HERAT. + ISTALIF. + JELALABAD. + KABUL (CABUL, CABOOL). + KANDAHAR. + ZERNI. + + +Beluchistan + + BAGH (BHAG). + BELAR. + GUNDAVA. + JHALAWAN (DISTRICT). + KELAT. + KHOZDAR. + MASTUNG. + ORMARAH. + QUETTA (KWATAH). + RUSTAM KHAN. + SARAWAN (DISTRICT). + SONMEANI. + + +Chinese Empire + + CANTON. + FU-CHAU. + HANG-CHAU. + KIANG-SU. + NING-PO. + SHANG-HAI. + SHAN-TUNG. + SU-CHAU. + TIENT-SING. + TSI-NAN. + TSING-CHAU. + TSING-NING. + + +Province of East Turkestan + + KARASHAR. + KASHGAR. + KUCHA. + YANGI-HISSAR. + YARKAND. + + +India + + AGRA. + AHMEDABAD. + ALLAHABAD. + ALLEPPI. + AMBALA (UMBALLA). + AMRITSAR. + BAHADAPUR (DISTRICT). + BANGALORE. + BARDWAN. + BARELI (BAREILLY). + BELLARY. + BENARES. + BEYPUR. + BHAGALPUR (BOGLIPOOR). + BIJAPUR. + BOMBAY. + CALCUTTA. + CAWNPUR. + CHANDA. + DECCAN (DEKKAN-PENINSULA). + DELHI. + ELLORE. + GOA. + GORAKHPUR (GORUKPORE). + HAIDERABAD (HYDERABAD). + JABALPUR (JUBBULPORE-JUBBULPUR). + JAIPUR (JEYPORE). + JALANDHAR (JULLINDER). + JAMMU (JAMU). + JODHPUR. + KASHMIR (STATE, BRITISH INDIA). + KHYRPUR. + KOHAT. + KOTAH. + KUSHMORE. + LAHORE. + LUCKNOW. + MADRAS. + MALABAR (DISTRICT). + MANDALAY. + MASULIPATAM. + MERUT. + MIRZAPUR. + MORADABOD. + MULTAN. + MURSHIDABAD. + MYSORE. + NAGPUR. + NORTH ARCOT (DISTRICT). + PATNA. + PESHAWAR. + POONA (POONEH). + RAIPUR. + RAMPUR. + RANGPUR. + SERAMPUR. + SHIKARPUR. + SRINAGAR (SERINUGGAR). + SURAT. + TANJORE. + WARANGAL. + + +Japan + + AITSI-KEN. + KIOTO. + SAKAI. + TOKIO. + + +Persia + + AARAGH (PROVINCE, WRITTEN IRAK ON MAPS). + ARDEBAL (DISTRICT). + ARDEBIL. + ASTRABAD. + AZERBAIJAN (PROVINCE). + BIBIKABAD. + BIJAR. + BIRJAND. + BUJNURD. + BURUJIRD. + BUSHIRE. + ENZELI. + FARS (PROVINCE FARSISTAN). + FERAGHAN. + GASK. + GHILAN (GILAN). + HAMADAN. + HEREZ. + IRAK-AJEMI (PROVINCE). + ISPAHAN (MARKET ONLY). + KAIN (GHAIN, GHAYN). + KARA DAGH (DISTRICT). + KASHAN. + KERMANSHAH (KERMANSHAHAN). + KHONSAR. + KHORA-MABAD. + KHORASSAN (KHORASAN, PROVINCE). + KHUZISTAN (ANCIENT SUSIANA, PROVINCE). + KIRMAN. + KUCHAN. + KURDISTAN (THE PERSIAN PORTION). + LAR. + LARISTAN (PROVINCE). + LURISTAN (PROVINCE). + MAKRAN (MEKRAN, DISTRICT). + MAZANDARAN. + MEHRAN. + MESHHED. + NIRIZ. + NISHAPUR. + OUSTRI-NAN. + RAWAR. + RESHT. + SHIRAZ. + SHIRWAN. + SHUSTER. + SINNA. + SIRAB. + SULTANABAD. + TABRIZ (TABRIEZ). + TEHERAN (MARKET ONLY). + YEZD. + ZARAND. + + +Russian Empire + + ASTRAKHAN. + BAKU. + BATUM. + DAGHESTAN (GOVERNMENT). + DERBENT. + ERIVAN. + KARS. + KAZAN. + SHUSHU. + + { DAGHESTAN. + CAUCASIA { DERBENT. + { KUBA. + + { KARABAGH. + TRANSCAUCASIA { SHEMAKHA. + { SHIRVAN. + + +Central Asia + + BOKHARA. + FERGHANA (PROVINCE). + HISSAR. + KHIVA. + KOKAND (KHOKAND). + SAMARKAND. + + +Turkey in Asia + + +REGIONS + + ARABIA. + ARMENIA. + ASIA MINOR OR ANATOLIA. + KURDISTAN. + MESOPOTAMIA. + SYRIA. + + +DISTRICTS AND TOWNS + + ADANA. + ADIAMAN (ADIYEMEN). + AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR. + AIDIN. + AKHISSAR. + AKSHEHR. + ALEPPO. + ALTUN. + ANATOLIA (DISTRICT). + ASIUM. + BAGDAD (BAGHDAD), SHIPPING PORT. + BEHESNE. + BEIRUT. + BERGAMA (BERGAMO, PERGAMO). + BRUSA (BROUSSA). + CÆSAREA. + CHAL. + CONSTANTINOPLE. + DEMIRDJI. + DIARBEKIR. + EL-HOSN. + ERZERUM. + FAKEH. + GEMERIK. + GHIORDES (GORDIS, QOURDES, GÜRDIZ, ancient Gordus). + HAIDAMOOR. + HAKKAM. + HAYZOOR. + HEREKE. + HISSAR. + HOMS. + HOSSU. + JERUSALEM. + KAISARIEH (CÆSAREA). + KARAHISSAR. + KARAMAN. + KERKUK. + KHORSABAD. + KIR-SHEHR. + KONIEH. + KULAH (KOULA, COULA). + KUTAHIA (KUTAI, KUTAYAH). + LADIK. + MARASH (MARESH). + MECCA. + MEDINA. + MILASSA (MELASSO, MYLASSO). + MOSUL (MOUSSUL). + OUCHAK (USHAK, OUSHAK). + SAFIETA. + SAVAS. + SHARJAH (SHARKAH). + SHIRVAN. + SMYRNA (MART ONLY). + SOHAR. + SPARTA. + TREBIZOND. + URFA (OORFA). + ZILEH (ZILLEH, ZELI). + + +Africa + + CAIRO (MART). + + KAIROUAN (the only place + where the genuine Tunisian + rugs are now made). + + MISRATAH. + + TAJURA. + + TRIPOLI. + + +France + + AUBUSSON. + + BEAUVAIS. + + ROUBAIX. + + TOURCOING. + + TOURNAY. + + +Greece + + AGRINION. + RACHOVA. + OWEPHISSA. + + +LOCALITIES ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY + + +A + + AARAGH, PERSIA. + ADANA, TURKEY IN ASIA. + ADIAMAN, TURKEY IN ASIA. + AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR, TURKEY IN ASIA. + AGRA, INDIA. + AGRINION, GREECE. + AHMEDABAD, INDIA. + AIDIN, TURKEY IN ASIA. + AITSI-KEN, JAPAN. + AKHISSAR, TURKEY IN ASIA. + AKSHEHR, TURKEY IN ASIA. + ALEPPO, TURKEY IN ASIA. + ALLAHABAD, INDIA. + ALLEPPI, INDIA. + ALTUN, TURKEY IN ASIA. + AMABALA, INDIA. + AMRITSAR, INDIA. + ANATOLIA, TURKEY IN ASIA. + ARDEBAL, PERSIA. + ARDEBIL, PERSIA. + ASIUM, TURKEY IN ASIA. + ASTRABAD, PERSIA. + ASTRAKAN, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + AUBUSSON, FRANCE. + AZERBAIJAN, PERSIA. + + + B + + BAGDAD, TURKEY IN ASIA. + BAGH, BELUCHISTAN. + BAHADAPUR, INDIA. + BAKU, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + BALKH, AFGHANISTAN. + BANGALORE, INDIA. + BARDWAN, INDIA. + BATUM, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + BEAUVAIS, FRANCE. + BEHESNE, TURKEY IN ASIA. + BEIRUT, TURKEY IN ASIA. + BELAR, BELUCHISTAN. + BELLARY, INDIA. + BENARES, INDIA. + BERGAMA, TURKEY IN ASIA. + BEYPUR, INDIA. + BHAGALPUR, INDIA. + BIBIKABAD, PERSIA. + BIJAPUR, INDIA. + BIJAR, PERSIA. + BIRJAND, PERSIA. + BOKHARA, CENTRAL ASIA. + BOMBAY, INDIA. + BRUSA, TURKEY IN ASIA. + BUJNURD, PERSIA. + BURUJIRD, PERSIA. + BUSHIRE, PERSIA. + + + C + + CAIRO, EGYPT. + CALCUTTA, INDIA. + CANTON, CHINESE EMPIRE. + CAWNPUR, INDIA. + CHANDA, INDIA. + CHARIKAR, AFGHANISTAN. + + + D + + DAGHESTAN, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + DECCAN, INDIA. + DELHI, INDIA. + DEMIRDJI, TURKEY IN ASIA. + DERBENT, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + DIABEKIR, TURKEY IN ASIA. + + + E + + EL-HOSN, TURKEY IN ASIA. + ELLORE, INDIA. + ENZELI, PERSIA. + ERIVAN, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + ERZERUM, TURKEY IN ASIA. + + + F + + FAKEH, TURKEY IN ASIA. + FARS, PERSIA. + FERAGHAN, PERSIA. + FU-CHAN, CHINESE EMPIRE. + + + G + + GEMERIK, TURKEY IN ASIA. + GHAZNI, AFGHANISTAN. + GHILAN, PERSIA. + GHIORDES, TURKEY IN ASIA. + GOA, INDIA. + GORAKHPUR, INDIA. + GULISTAN, AFGHANISTAN. + GUNDAVA, BELUCHISTAN. + + + H + + HAIDAMOOR, TURKEY IN ASIA. + HAIDERABAD, INDIA. + HAKKAM, TURKEY IN ASIA. + HAMADAM, PERSIA. + HANG-CHAU, CHINESE EMPIRE. + HAYZOOR, TURKEY IN ASIA. + HERAT, AFGHANISTAN. + HEREZ, PERSIA. + HISSAN, CENTRAL ASIA. + HISSAR, TURKEY IN ASIA. + HOMS, TURKEY IN ASIA. + + + I + + IRAK-AJEMI, PERSIA. + ISPAHAN, PERSIA. + ISTALIF, AFGHANISTAN. + + + J + + JABALPUR, INDIA. + JAIPUR, INDIA. + JALANDHAR, INDIA. + JAMMU, INDIA. + JELALABAD, AFGHANISTAN. + JERUSALEM, TURKEY IN ASIA. + JHALAWAN, BELUCHISTAN. + JOOHPUR, INDIA. + + + K + + KABUL, AFGHANISTAN. + KAIN, PERSIA. + KAIROUAN, AFRICA. + KAISARIEH, TURKEY IN ASIA. + KANDAHAR, AFGHANISTAN. + KARABAGH, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + KARAHISSAR, TURKEY IN ASIA. + KARAMAN, TURKEY IN ASIA. + KARASHAR, EAST TURKESTAN. + KARS, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + KASHAN, PERSIA. + KASHGAR, EAST TURKESTAN. + KASHMIR, INDIA. + KAZAN, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + KELAT, BELUCHISTAN. + KERKUK, TURKEY IN ASIA. + KERMANSHAH, PERSIA. + KHIVA, CENTRAL ASIA. + KHONSAR, PERSIA. + KHORA-MABAD, PERSIA. + KHORASSAN, PERSIA. + KHORSABAD, TURKEY IN ASIA. + KHOZDAR, BELUCHISTAN. + KHUZISTAN, PERSIA. + KHYRPUR, INDIA. + KIANG-SU, CHINESE EMPIRE. + KIOTO, JAPAN. + KIRMAN, PERSIA. + KIR-SHEHR, TURKEY IN ASIA. + KOHAT, INDIA. + KOKAND, CENTRAL ASIA. + KONIEH, TURKEY IN ASIA. + KOTAH, INDIA. + KUBA, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + KUCHA, EAST TURKESTAN. + KULAH, TURKEY IN ASIA. + KURDISTAN, PERSIA. + KUSHMORE, INDIA. + KUTAHIA, TURKEY IN ASIA. + + + L + + LADIK, TURKEY IN ASIA. + LAHORE, INDIA. + LAR, PERSIA. + LARISTAN, PERSIA. + LUCKNOW, INDIA. + LURISTAN, PERSIA. + + + M + + MAKRAN, PERSIA. + MALABAR, INDIA. + MARASH, TURKEY IN ASIA. + MASTUNG, BELUCHISTAN. + MASULIPATAM, INDIA. + MAZANDARAN, PERSIA. + MECCA, TURKEY IN ASIA. + MEDINA, TURKEY IN ASIA. + MEHRAN, PERSIA. + MERUT, INDIA. + MESHHED, PERSIA. + MILASSA, TURKEY IN ASIA. + MIRZAPUR, INDIA. + MISRATAH, AFRICA. + MOSUL, TURKEY IN ASIA. + MUJUR, TURKEY IN ASIA. + MULTAN, INDIA. + MURSHIDABAD, INDIA. + MYSORE, INDIA. + + + N + + NAGPUR, INDIA. + NING-PO, CHINESE EMPIRE. + NIRIZ, PERSIA. + NISHAPUR, PERSIA. + NORTH ARCOT, INDIA. + + + O + + ORMARAH, BELUCHISTAN. + OUCHAK, TURKEY IN ASIA. + OUSTRI-NAN, PERSIA. + OWEPHISSA, GREECE. + + + P + + PATNA, INDIA. + PESHAWAR, INDIA. + POONA, INDIA. + + + Q + + QUETTA, BELUCHISTAN. + + + R + + RACHOVA, GREECE. + RAMPUR, INDIA. + RANGPUR, INDIA. + RESHT, PERSIA. + RUSTAM KHAN, BELUCHISTAN. + + + S + + SAFITA, TURKEY IN ASIA. + SAKAI, JAPAN. + SAMARKAND, CENTRAL ASIA. + SARAKHS, PERSIA. + SARAWAN, BELUCHISTAN. + SERAMPUR, INDIA. + SHANG-HAI, CHINESE EMPIRE. + SHAN-TUNG, CHINESE EMPIRE. + SHARJAH, TURKEY IN ASIA. + SHEMAKHA, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + SHIKARPUR, INDIA. + SHIRAZ, PERSIA. + SHIRVAN, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + SHIRVAN, TURKEY IN ASIA. + SHIRWAN, PERSIA. + SHUSHA, RUSSIA IN ASIA. + SHUSTER, PERSIA. + SINNA, PERSIA. + SIRAB, PERSIA. + SIVAS, TURKEY IN ASIA. + SMYRNA, TURKEY IN ASIA. + SOHAR, TURKEY IN ASIA. + SONMEANI, BELUCHISTAN. + SRINAGAR, INDIA. + SU-CHAU, CHINESE EMPIRE. + SULTANABAD, PERSIA. + SURAT, INDIA. + + + T + + TABRIZ, PERSIA. + TAJURA, AFRICA. + TANJORE, INDIA. + TEHERAN, PERSIA. + TIENT-SING, CHINESE EMPIRE. + TOKIO, JAPAN. + TOURCOING, FRANCE. + TOURNAY, FRANCE. + TREBIZOND, TURKEY IN ASIA. + TRIPOLI, AFRICA. + TSI-NAN, CHINESE EMPIRE. + TSING-CHAU, CHINESE EMPIRE. + TSING-NING, CHINESE EMPIRE. + + + U + + URFA, TURKEY IN ASIA. + + W + + WARANGAL, INDIA. + + Y + + YARKAND, EAST TURKESTAN. + YEZD, PERSIA. + + + Z + + ZARAND, PERSIA. + ZERNI, AFGHANISTAN. + ZILEH, TURKEY IN ASIA. + + +LIST OF AUTHORITIES + + ALLEN, J. ROWELLY: _Early Christian Symbolism._ + + _American Journal of Archeology._ + + ASHENHURST, THOMAS R.: _Design in Textile Fabrics._ + + AUBER, M.L., ABBÉ: _Bible Myths._ + + BABELON, ERNEST: _Manual of Oriental Antiquities._ + + BALL, J. DYER: _Things Chinese._ + + BIRDWOOD, SIR GEORGE C.: _The Industrial Arts of India._ + + BISHOP, Mrs. ISABELLA L. BIRD: _Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan._ + + BISHOP, Mrs. ISABELLA L. BIRD: _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan._ + + BLACKIE, C.: _Dictionary of Place Names._ + + BODE, WILHELM: _Vorderasiatische Knüpfteppiche._ + + _Bonnick's Egyptian Belief and Modern Thought._ + + BRUMMER, MARTIN: _Egypt, Three Essays on the History, Art, and + Religion._ + + BUDGE, E.A. WALLIS: _The Mummy Badge._ + + _Century Atlas, The._ + + _Century Dictionary, The._ + + _Chambers's Encyclopædia._ + + CLARKE, SIR C. PURDON: _Oriental Carpets._ (English Edition. + Published by the Imperial and Royal Austrian Commercial Museum. + Vienna, 1892.) + + _Constable's Hand Atlas of India._ + + COXON, HERBERT: _Oriental Carpets._ + + CURSON, Hon. GEORGE N.: _Persia and the Persian Question._ + + DAVIS AND COBERN: _Ancient Egypt._ + + DENNY, M.B.: _The Folk Lore of China._ + + DRESSER, CHARLES: _Carpets._ + + EDWARDS, AMELIA: _Third Lecture, Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers._ + + ELKINS, JOSEPH, D.D.: _Ancient Symbolism among the Chinese._ + + ELY, TALFOURD: _Manual of Archæology._ + + _Emmaus's Life in Ancient Egypt._ + + EVANS, E. P.: _Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture._ + + FABER, GEORGE STANLEY: _Origin of Pagan Idolatry._ + + FERGUSSON, JAMES: _Tree and Serpent Worship._ + + FUSENBETH, F. C., D.D.: _Emblems of Saints._ + + GOODYEAR, WILLIAM H.: _The Grammar of the Lotus._ + + HEDIN, SVEN: _Through Asia._ + + HULME, F. EDWARD: _Symbolism in Christian Art._ + + _Iconographic Encyclopædia of the Arts and Sciences._ + + INMAN, THOMAS, M.D.: _Ancient Faiths._ + + JAMES, A. G. F. ELIOT: _Indian Industries._ + + JONES, OWEN: _The Grammar of Ornament._ + + _Journal of the Society of Arts._ + + KARABACEK, Dr. JOSEPH: _Die Persische Nadelmalerei._ + + KNIGHT, RICHARD PAYNE: _The Symbolical Language of Ancient Art and + Mythology._ + + LANDOR, A. HENRY SAVAGE: _In the Forbidden Land._ + + LAYARD, AUSTEN HENRY: _Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh._ + + LAYARD, AUSTEN HENRY: _Nineveh and Babylon._ + + LAYARD, AUSTEN HENRY: _Nineveh and Its Remains._ + + LENORMANT, FRANÇOIS AND CHEVALIER, CHARLES: _Manual of the Ancient + History of the East._ + + LESSING, JULIUS: _Oriental Carpets._ + + LÜBKE, WILHELM: _History of Ancient Art._ + + MALCOM, Sir JOHN: _History of Persia._ + + MARVIN, CHARLES: _Merv, the Queen of the World._ + + MASPERO, GASTON C. CHARLES: _Manual of Egyptian Archæology._ + + MASPERO, GASTON C. CHARLES: _Dawn of Civilization._ + + _Meyer's Handbook of Ornament._ + + MUMFORD, JOHN KIMBERLY: _Oriental Rugs._ + + MÜNTZ, EUGENE: _A Short History of Tapestry._ + + O'DAGREE, H. EUGENE: _Les Symbols Antiques._ + + O'DONOVAN, EDMUND: _The Merv Oasis._ + + PERROT, GEORGES AND CHIPIEZ, CHARLES: _History of Art In Ancient + Egypt._ + + PERROT, GEORGES AND CHIPIEZ, CHARLES: _History of Art In Chaldæa + and Assyria._ + + PETRIE, WILLIAM MATTHEWS FLINDERS: _Decorative Art._ + + PETRIE, WILLIAM MATTHEWS FLINDERS: _Ten Years' Digging In Egypt._ + + PHILLIPS, G.: _British Manufactures and Industries._ + + RACINET, M. A.: _L'Ornement Polychrome._ + + REBER, FRANZ VON: _History of Ancient Art._ + + RECLUS, ELISIE: _The Earth and Its Inhabitants._ + + _Redgrave's Manual of Design._ + + RENOUF, P. LEPAGE: _Religion of Ancient Egypt._ + + RIEGL, DR. ALOIS: _Altorientalische Teppiche._ + + ROBINSON, VINCENT: _Eastern Carpets._ + + RYAN, CHARLES: _Egyptian Art._ + + SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY, LL.D.: _Babylonians and Assyrians._ + + _Sculpture, Manual of._ Paris. + + SHARPE, SAMUEL: _Mythology and Egyptian Christianity._ + + SHELLEY, G. E.: _Birds of Egypt._ + + _Smith's Greek and Roman Antiquities._ + + SMITH, MAJOR R. MURDOCK, R. E.: _Persian Art._ + + _Smith's Religion of the Semites._ + + _Southesk's Origin of Pictish Symbolism._ + + _Spon's Encyclopædia of the Industrial Arts, Manufactures, And Raw + Commercial Products._ (edited by Charles G. W. Lock.) + + STRICKLAND, AGNES: _Lives of the Queens of England._ + + STUART, H. VILLIERS: _Egypt After the War._ + + SYKES, ELLA C.: _Through Persia on a Side Saddle._ + + _Thompson's Paper on Beast and Bird in Ancient Symbolism._ (Trans. + Roy. Soc., Edinburgh.) + + _Twining's Symbols of Early Christian Art._ + + VÁMBÉRY, ARMINIUS: _History of Bokhara._ + + VAN DYKE, JOHN CHARLES: _History of Painting._ + + WATSON, DR. FORBES: _The Textile Manufactures and Costumes Of the + People of India._ + + WEALE, JOHN: _Quarterly Papers on Architecture._ + + WESTROFF, HODDER M., AND WAKE, CHARLES STANILAND: _Ancient Symbol + Worship._ + + _Westwood's Illumination._ + + WHEELER, SAMUEL GREEN: _Persia and the Persians._ + + WILKINSON, SIR J. GARDNER: _The Ancient Egyptians._ + + WILLIAMS, S. WELLS: _The Middle Kingdom._ + + WILSON, THE REV. SAMUEL GRAHAM, M. A.: _Persian Life And Customs._ + + WINKLEMAN, JOHANN JOACHIM: _History of Art Among The Greeks._ + + WYATT, M. DIGBY: _Industrial Arts of the Nineteenth Century._ + + ZERFFI, G. C.: _A Manual of the Historical Development of Art._ + + + + +INDEX + + + A + + Aaragh, value of rug trade, 56; spelling, 167, 170. + + Abbas, Shah, 53; + rugs woven during reign of, 62; + _see_ Shah Abbas design. + + Abenákee rugs, 143, 144. + + Acanthus forms employed by Morris, 139. + + Adana, 71, 168, 170. + + Adiaman, 168, 170. + + Adiyemen, 168. + + Afghan rugs, 96, 102. + + Afghan-Turkestan, 95 (plate). + + Afghanistan place-names, 165. + + Afghanistan rugs, 95 (and plate), 96, 100. + + Afium-Kara-hissar, 168, 170. + + African place-names, 169. + + Agra, 166, 170. + + Agra rugs, 90. + + Agrinion, 170. + + Ahmedabad, 166, 170. + + Aidin, 168, 170. + + Ainos, their method of weaving, 24. + + Aitsi-ken, 167, 170. + + Akbar, Emperor, 87. + + Akhissar rugs, 74, 80; + meaning, 162; + spelling, 168, 170. + + Akshehr, 168, 170. + + Albee, Mrs. Helen R., 143, 144. + + Aleppo, 168, 170. + + Alexander the Great, rug-weaving in time of, 53. + + Alizarin (red coloring matter), 44. + + Allahabad, 166, 170. + + Allahabad rugs, 90. + + Allen, J. Rowelly, 175. + + Alleppi, 166, 170. + + "Altorientalische Teppiche," Riegl, 177. + + Altun, 168, 170. + + Amabala, 170. + + Ambala, 166. + + American interests in India, 35; + in Ouchak, 81; + in Amritsar, 90. + + _American Journal of Archæology_, 175. + + American rug-weaving, 24. + + Ames, late Gov., rug owned by, 113. + + Amritsar, 78 (plate), 166, 170. + + Amritsar rugs, 90. + + Anatolia, 74, 117, 168, 170. + + Anatolian mats, 74. + + Anatolian rugs, 74, 79, 122 (and plate). + + "Ancient Egypt," Davis and Cobern, 175. + + "Ancient Egyptians, The," Wilkinson, 178. + + "Ancient Faiths," Inman, 176. + + "Ancient Symbol Worship," Westroff and Wake, 178. + + "Ancient Symbolism among the Chinese," Elkins, 176. + + Anemone, symbolism of, 161. + + Angora goat's hair, 30. + + Angora province, 77. + + Aniline dyes, 44, 46, 134. + + Animal forms, not allowed by Mohammedan religion, 37; + employed by Shiah sect and certain others, 38; + in Jaipur rugs, 91; + in Chinese rugs, 114; + symbolism of, 156. + + "Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture," Evans, 176. + + "Appalachian America," 146. + + Arabesque design, 43. + + Arabian place-names, 168. + + Arabian rug, 70 (plate). + + Ardebal (District), 167, 170. + + Ardebil rug in South Kensington Museum, 36, 154; + spelling, 167, 170. + + Armenia, 168. + + Armenian Christian weavers, 71. + + Arrian, quoted, 45. + + Ashenhurst, Thomas R., 175. + + Ashkabad, 98. + + Asia Minor, 168. + + Asiatic Turkey produces madder, 44. + + Asium, 168, 170. + + Asps, symbolism of, 158. + + Ass, symbolism of, 159. + + Association for the Education of Poor Women, Athens, 133. + + Assyrian rug-weaving, 19, 88. + + Astrabad, 103, 126, 167, 170. + + Astrakan, 170. + + Astrakhan, 168. + + Athens rug industry, 133. + + Auber, Abbé M. L., 175. + + Aubusson rug manufactory, 142, 169, 170. + + Austria, rug-weaving in, 142. + + Austrian Imperial House, owner of hunting rug, 128. + + Authorities consulted, 175-178. + + Awnings and floor-coverings, ancient, 19. + + Aylauts, nomadic weavers of Kara Dagh rugs, 63. + + Azerbaijan province, 62, 69, 167, 170. + + Azerbijan district, 58. + + + B + + Babelon, Ernest, 175. + + Babylon, fall of, 19. + + Babylonian rug-weaving, 19; + color symbolism, 47. + + "Babylonians and Assyrians," Sayce, 177. + + Bactrian tribes, rugs woven by, 60. + + Bagdad, 162, 168, 170. + + Bagh, 165, 170. + + Baghdad, 168. + + Bahadapur (District), 166, 170. + + Bakhshis rugs, 58. + + Baku, government of, 108; + meaning of _Baku_, 162; + spelling, 168, 170. + + Balkh, 165, 170. + + Ball, J. Dyer, 175. + + Bangalore, 166, 170. + + Banian or burr tree, symbolism of, 159. + + Barbarike, 46. + + Bardwan, 166, 170. + + Bareilly, 166. + + Bareli, 166. + + Basilica of St. Sophia at Constantinople, 120. + + Bat, symbolism of, 157, 161. + + Bat with a ring in its claws, symbolism of, 158. + + Batum, 168, 170. + + Bayer, Professor F., 153. + + Bayeta scarlet in Navajo rugs, 147. + + "Beast and Bird in Ancient Symbolism," Thompson's paper on, 178. + + Beauvais rug manufactory, 141, 169, 170. + + Bee, symbolism of, 158. + + Beetle, symbolism of, 158. + + Behesne, 168, 170. + + Beirut, 168, 170. + + Belar, 165, 170. + + Belgium, rug-weaving in, 142. + + Bellary, 166, 170. + + Beluch rug called "blue Bokhara," 97. + + Beluchistan rugs, 97; + meaning of _Beluchistan_, 162; + place-names, 165. + + Benares, 166, 170. + + Beni-Hassan, rug-weavers seen in wall-paintings at, 16. + + Berea College, Ky., rag rugs, 145. + + Bergama, 168, 170. + + Bergamo (Province), 168. + + Bergamo rugs, 74. + + Berbers, rugs woven by, 135. + + Beshir rugs, 100. + + Bethlehem tent cloth, 111. + + Beypur, 166, 170. + + Bhag, 165. + + Bhagalpur, 166, 170. + + Bhagulpore, 162. + + Bhawulpore, rugs said to be woven at, 95. + + Bibikabad, 167, 170. + + Bibikabad rugs, 58. + + "Bible Myths," Auber, 175. + + Bijapur, 166, 171. + + Bijar, 55, 56; spelling, 167, 171. + + Bijar rugs, 58 (and plate), 67. + + Birch, Dr. Samuel, quoted, 17. + + Bird, symbolism of, 161. + + "Birds of Egypt," Shelley, 177. + + Birdwood, Sir George C., quoted, 23, 175. + + Birjand, 167, 171. + + Birjand rugs, 59. + + Bishop, Mrs. Isabella Bird, quoted, 24, 125, 175. + + Black, symbolism of, 47, 48; + corrosiveness of dye, 63, 80. + + Blackie, C., 175. + + Blaine, Mrs. Emmons, rugs owned by, 34 (plate), 124 (plate). + + Blossom, symbolism of, 158. + + "Blue Bokhara" a misnomer, 97. + + Blue, symbolism of, 47, 48. + + Boar, symbolism of, 161. + + Boat, symbolism of, 158. + + Bode, Wilhelm, 156 (plate), 175. + + Boglipoor, 166. + + Bokhara, dyes from, 98; + meaning of _Bokhara_, 162; + spelling, 168, 171. + + Bokhara rugs, no blue, 97; + so-called and genuine, 98 (plate), 100, 103. + + Bombay, 166, 171. + + Bonnick's "Egyptian Belief and Modern Thought," 175. + + Borders, 38-42. + + Bosnia, 136. + + Bosnian rugs, 136. + + Boulak, Egypt, rug factory, 51. + + "Bride's rug," 118. + + "British Manufactures and Industries," Phillips, 177. + + Broussa, 74, 168; + _see_ Brusa. + + Brummer, Martin, 175. + + Brusa, 74, 111, 168, 171. + + Brussels, power looms in, 24; + rug-production, 142. + + Buckingham, Miss, rug owned by, 120 (plate). + + Buckthorns, certain species produce dyes, 45. + + Buddhist Sceptre, symbolism of, 157. + + Budge, E. A. Wallis, 175. + + Bujnurd, 167, 171. + + Bulgarian rugs, 137. + + Bull, symbolism of, 158. + + Burley, Clarence, rug owned by, 106 (plate). + + Burnham, Mrs. L. G., rug owned by, frontispiece plate. + + Burujird rugs, 59; + spelling, 167, 171. + + Bushire, 167, 171. + + Butterfly, symbolism of, 158, 159, 161. + + Buyers' selection for Western market, 33, 38. + + Byzantine influence on rug-weaving, 19. + + + C + + Cabistan rugs, _see_ Kabistan rugs. + + Cabool, 165. + + Cabul, 165. + + Cæsar first saw Cleopatra wrapped in rug, 18. + + Cæsarea, 71, 168, 169. + + Cæsarean rugs, 75, 125. + + Cairo, rug emporium, 52, 169, 171. + + Calcutta, 166, 171. + + Camel's hair, 30, 31, 98. + + Canton, 165, 171. + + Carding, 31. + + Carpaccio Vittore, painting by, 20 (plate). + + Carpets, catalogue term for rugs, 16. + + "Carpets," Dresser, 176. + + Cartouche, symbolism of, 158. + + Cassaba rugs, 75, 83. + + Caucasian rugs, modern, characteristic designs of, 39, 41, 42; + descriptions, 105-108; + place-names, 168. + + Cawnpur, 91, 166, 171. + + Center Lovell, Maine, 145. + + Central Asia, rugs, 98; + place-names, 168. + + "Century Atlas," 175. + + "Century Dictionary," 175. + + Chal, 169. + + "Chambers's Encyclopædia," 175. + + Chanda, 166, 171. + + Charikar, 165, 171. + + Chehel Sitoon, Palace of, Ispahan, 95. + + Chemical dyes, 46. + + Chevalier, Charles, 176. + + Chichi rugs, 108. + + Chinese dye, green, 45. + + Chinese fret design, 43, 101, 102, 114 (plate). + + Chinese influence seen in design of Ispahan rugs, 63; + of Kashgar rugs, 101; + of Samarkand rugs, 102 (and plate). + + Chinese pictures copied in Persian hunting rugs, 124 (plate), 128. + + Chinese place-names, 165. + + Chinese rugs, 41, 113-115 (and plate facing 114); + of silk, 124. + + Chinese silk industry, 123; + silk rugs, 124. + + Chinese symbolism of colors, 47, 48; + of various designs, 157. + + Chintz designs in silk rugs, 125. + + Chipiez, Charles, 177. + + Christian weavers of Turkish rugs, 71. + + Circassian rug-weavers, 71. + + Circle design, 43, 161. + + Circular rugs, 115. + + Claremont, English home of Lord Clive, 89. + + Clarke, Sir C. Purdon, 175. + + Cleopatra borne before Cæsar in a rug, 18. + + Chi-lin (a kind of doe), symbolism of, 157. + + Climatic influences on rug-weaving, 32, 71; + on odors of rugs, 90. + + Clive, Lord, 89. + + Cloud bands, 41, 63, 157. + + Coat of arms of Persia, 160. + + Coat of arms of Turkey, 160. + + Cobern, ----, 175. + + _Coccus cacti_, insect which produces cochineal, 44. + + Cochineal, 44. + + Cock and hen on an artificial rock-work, symbolism of, 157. + + Colbert, fostered rug industry in France, 141. + + Colors, sensed by weavers, 21; + Persians' intuition for, 37; + obtained by aniline and vegetable dyes, 44; + importance to Orientals, 47; + Persian choice of, 47; + symbolism of, 47, 48; + in modern Turkish rugs, 77; + in Kurdish rugs, 79. + + Comb design, 43. + + _Conchylium_, ancient name of Phoenician purple, 18. + + Cone, pine, symbolism of, 159; + fir, 161. + + Constable's "Hand Atlas of India," 175. + + Constantinople, rug market, 71-73, 82; + silk-weaving introduced into, 123; + spelling, 169. + + Cossac (Kazak), 107, 108 (plate). + + Cotton, 30, 76. + + Cotton rugs, Indian, 23, 88, 91; + Japanese, 116. + + Coula, 169. + + Coverlets woven in "Appalachian America," 145. + + Coxon Herbert, 175. + + Crane, symbolism of, 157. + + Crescent, symbolism of, 158, 160. + + Crete girl weavers, 132. + + Crimson, 18, 47. + + Crocodile, symbolism of, 158. + + Crooked Turkish rugs, 24. + + Cross designs, 43. + + Crow, symbolism of, 157. + + Curson, Hon. George N., 175. + + Customs administration in Persia, 55. + + Cypress tree design in Jaipur rugs, 91; + symbolism of, 161; + _see_ 120 (plate) and 124 (plate). + + + D + + Daghestan, 168, 171. + + Daghestan rugs, 41, 105, 106 (and plate), 108. + + Damascus, 112. + + Daraksh, 59. + + Date woven into rugs, 67, 154, 155. + + Davis, ----, 175. + + Davis, Mr. Will J., rugs owned by, 30, 68. + + "Dawn of Civilization," Maspero, 177. + + Deccan, rugs from the, 23; + meaning of _Deccan_, 162; + spelling, 166, 171. + + "Decorative Art," Petrie, 177. + + Deer, symbolism of, 157. + + Definition of _rug_, 15. + + Dekkan-peninsula, 166. + + Delays caused by superstitious weavers, 29. + + Delhi, 91, 166, 171. + + Delhi Court, 87. + + Demirdji rugs, 75; + spelling, 169, 171. + + Denny, M. B., 175. + + Derbent rugs, 105, 126 (plate); + meaning of _Derbent_, 162; + spelling, 168, 171. + + Descending eagle, symbolism of, 160. + + "Descriptions des Arts et Metiers," 139. + + Design, of Persian rugs, 17; + Oriental designs adapted from Nature, 19; + Egypto-Chaldean designs in modern rugs, 19; + furnished by Western art schools, 25; + hereditary, 37; + manner of teaching to pupils, 37; + of Persian rugs, 37; + selected by buyer, 38; + Occidental, copied by native weavers, 38; + made from _talims_, or working drawings, 38, 39; + proportioned to size of rug, 39; + units described, 39-43; + determines district where woven, 55; + of modern Persian product, 57; + Shah Abbas, 59; + Herati border, 59, 61, 64, 69; + Guli Hinnai, 60; + Tree of Life, 17, 65; + use of old patterns, 69; + introduced by Persian weavers into India, 87; + Hindoo, 88; + floral, in Indian rugs, 88; + Persian, in Jaipur rugs, 91; + in Lahore rugs, 91; + in Warangul rugs, 93; + in Japanese rugs, 116; + of silk rugs, 125; + of Morris rugs, 139; + of Navajo rugs, 148; + symbolical, 156-162. + + "Design in Textile Fabrics," Ashenhurst, 175. + + Designers, Indian, 32 (plate). + + Dewsbury, power looms in, 24. + + Dhurrie, Indian, 91, 94. + + Diarbekir, 169, 171. + + "Dictionary of Place Names," Blackie, 175. + + Dining-rooms, Görevan rugs popular for, 61. + + "Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh," Layard, 176. + + Djushaghan rugs, characteristic palmette of, 39; + description, 59. + + Dog, symbolism of, 161. + + Dove, symbolism of, 158. + + Dowry, girls weave rugs for, 26, 132. + + Dragon, symbolism of, 157. + + Dragon and Phoenix, symbolism of, 157. + + Dragon with five claws on each of its four feet, symbolism of, 157. + + Dresser, Charles, 176. + + Duck, symbolism of, 157. + + Dunlap, Mrs. Robert, rug owned by, 117 (plate). + + Dupont, French weaver, 141. + + Durability of fine Persian rugs, 54; + of Kurdish rugs, 79. + + Durham, power looms in, 24. + + Durrie, _see_ Dhurrie, Indian. + + Duties, Persian system of collecting, 55; + on rugs, 56. + + Dyes, 18, 44-46, 98, 139, 147. + + + E + + Eagle, symbolism of, 158, 160. + + Eagle, descending, symbolism of, 160. + + Eagle, flying, symbolism of, 160. + + Eagle, standing, symbolism of, 160. + + "Early Christian Symbolism," Allen, 175. + + Earnings of weavers, 27, 28, 82. + + "Earth and Its Inhabitants, The," Reclus, 177. + + East Turkestan place-names, 165. + + "Eastern Carpets," Robinson, 177. + + Edwards, Amelia, 176. + + Egg, symbolism of, 158. + + "Egypt after the War," Stuart, 178. + + "Egypt: Three Essays on the History, Art, and Religion," Brummer, 175. + + "Egyptian Art," Ryan, 177. + + "Egyptian Belief and Modern Thought," Bonnick, 175. + + Egyptian wall-paintings of weavers, 16, 17; + ancient rug-weaving, 18, 22; + symbolic colors, 47; + substitution of woven rugs for skins, 51; + modern rugs, 51; + factory, 51; + imported rugs, 52; + symbols, 158, 159. + + Egypto-Chaldean designs in modern rugs, 19. + + Eleanora introduced tapestries into England, 138. + + Elephant, symbolism of, 161. + + El-Hosn, 169, 171. + + Elkins, Joseph, D.D., 176. + + Ellore, 160, 171. + + Ellore, rugs, 91. + + Ely, Talfourd, 176. + + "Emblems of Saints," Fusenbeth, 176. + + Emmaus's "Life of Ancient Egypt," 176. + + "Encyclopædia of the Industrial Arts, Manufactures, and Raw Commercial + Products," Spon's, 177. + + English interests in India, 35; + in Amritsar, 90. + + English rugs, 138-140 (and plate). + + English rug-weaving centres, 24. + + Enzeli, 167, 171. + + Erivan, 168, 171. + + Ersari Goklan tribe, 98. + + Ersari tribe of upper Oxus, 101. + + Erzerum, 169, 171. + + Europe, introduction of rug-weaving into, 20; + use of rugs at _fêtes_, 20; + imports looms into Turkey, 24; + demand for rugs since 1850, 54; + factories to supply trade with, 57; + interest in Ouchak industry, 81. + + Evans, E. P., 176. + + Evergreens, symbolism of, 161. + + Experts can determine where rug was made, 55. + + Export trade (Persian) in rugs, 55, 56. + + Eye of Osiris, symbolism of, 158. + + + F + + Faber, George Stanley, 176. + + Factories, rug-weaving, 26, 38, 51, 56, 57, 69, 70, 90, 119. + + Fakeh, 169, 171. + + Fars, designs peculiar to, 37; + modern rug-weaving district, 55; + value of rug trade, 56; + rugs exported from, 68; + meaning of _Fars_, 162; + spelling, 167, 171. + + Farsistan (Province), 167. + + Feather of an ostrich, symbolism of, 158. + + Feathers of rare birds, symbolism of, 158. + + Felt rugs, 126, 127. + + Felts, Chinese, 114. + + Feraghan, 167, 171. + + Feraghan rugs, characteristic designs of, 40, 42, 43; + description, 59; + plate, 62. + + Ferghana (Province), 168. + + Fergusson, James, 176. + + _Fêtes_, rugs used as decorations during, 20. + + Fez, 134. + + Fir cone, symbolism of, 161. + + Fire-worshippers of Yezd, 70. + + Flat stitch, in Soumak and Khilim rugs, 34, 117. + + Flax, 30. + + Flemish weavers, 138. + + Floor-coverings and awnings, ancient, 19. + + Floral designs in Indian rugs, 88; + in Jaipur rugs, 91. + + Fly, symbolism of, 161. + + Flying eagle, symbolism of, 160. + + "Folk Lore of China, The," Denny, 175. + + France, rug-weaving introduced by Saracens, 20; + silk industry in, 123; + place-names, 169. + + French rugs, 141, 142. + + Fringe on rugs intended for hanging, 99. + + Frog, symbolism of, 158. + + Fu-Chan, 171. + + Fu-Chau, 162, 165. + + Fusenbeth, F. C., D.D., 176. + + Fylfot design, 42, 148, 159. + + + G + + Gask, 167. + + Gauls, red favorite color of, 48. + + Gäzne, 165. + + Gemerik, 169, 171. + + Genghis Khan, 100. + + Genghis rugs, 100. + + Geometrical designs replace floral in India, 88. + + Germantown yarn used in Navajo rugs, 147. + + Germany, rug-weaving in, 142. + + Ghain, 167. + + Ghayn, 167. + + Ghazni, 165, 171. + + Ghilan, silk trade in, 124; + spelling, 167, 171. + + Ghileem rugs, _see_ Khilim rugs. + + Ghiordes, 169, 171. + + Ghiordes knotting, 34, 35. + + Ghiordes panel in Meles prayer rug, 80. + + Ghiordes rugs, 41, 74 (plate), 75, 78, 122. + + Ghiordium, 75. + + Gilan, 163, 167. + + Goa, 166, 171. + + Goats replace sheep in rocky regions, 72; + raised by Turkomans, 98. + + Gobelins manufactory, 141. + + "Goddess of silkworms," 123. + + Gold warp used for antique Persian rugs, 53; + in state rugs of India, 89; + in Polish rugs, 119; + in Chinese silk rugs, 124. + + Goodyear, William H., 176. + + Goose, symbolism of, 157. + + Gorakhpur, 166, 171. + + Gordis, 169. + + Gordus, 169. + + Görevan rugs, 60. + + Gorukpore, 166. + + Gourd, symbolism of, 157. + + "Grammar of Ornament, The," Jones, 176. + + "Grammar of the Lotus, The," Goodyear, 176. + + Grant, Mrs. Frederick D., rug owned by, 90. + + Graves, custom of hanging rugs over, 20. + + Great Britain, power looms in, 24, 25; + rug manufacture in, 138. + + Great Rug in the Palace of Chehel Sitoon, Ispahan, 95. + + Greece, rug-weaving in, 19; + swastika design in rugs of, 43; + saffron favorite color in, 48; + silk-weaving in, 123; + ancient and modern rugs of, 132, 133; + place-names, 170. + + "Greek and Roman Antiquities," Smith, 177. + + Greek Christian weavers, 71; in Hereke, 76. + + Green dyes, how produced, 45; + symbolism of, 47, 48; + used though forbidden by law, 81. + + Guendje rugs, 100, 101. + + Guli Hinnai design, 43, 60. + + Gulistan, 163, 165, 171. + + Gundava, 165, 171. + + Gürdiz, 169. + + + H + + Haidamoor, 169, 171. + + Haidamur rugs, 111, 112. + + Haidarabad rugs, 91. + + Haiderabad, 163, 166, 171. + + Hair, lock of, woven in Kis Khilims, 118. + + Hakkam, 169, 171. + + Halifax, power looms in, 24. + + Hamadam, 171. + + Hamadan, 55, 56, 58, 59, 167. + + Hamadan rugs, 60 (plate), 61. + + "Hand Atlas of India," Constable, 175. + + Hand looms, 22. + + "Handbook of Ornament," Meyer, 177. + + Hang-chau, 165, 171. + + Hangings, rugs used as, 16, 55. + + Hare, symbolism of, 161. + + Havermeyer, late H. O., rug owned by estate of, 114 (plate). + + Hawk, symbolism of, 158. + + Hay, Mr., owner of Theban rug, 17. + + Hayzoor, 169, 172. + + Heart, symbolism of, 161. + + Hedin, Sven, 176. + + Hemp, 30, 81. + + Herat, 59, 61, 87,95, 163, 165, 172. + + Herat design in Great Rug, 95. + + Herat rugs, 40, 42, 61. + + Herati border, 40, 59, 61, 64, 69, 117. + + Hereke, 169. + + Hereke rugs, 76. + + Herez, 58, 60, 167, 172. + + Herez rugs, 62. + + Hindoo designs, 88; + religious abstinence from sheep flesh, 88. + + Hippopotamus, symbolism of, 161. + + Hissan, 172. + + Hissar, 168, 169, 172. + + "History of Ancient Art," Lübke, 176. + + "History of Ancient Art," Reber, 177. + + "History of Art among the Greeks," Winkleman, 178. + + "History of Art in Ancient Egypt," Perrot and Chipiez, 177. + + "History of Art in Chaldea and Assyria," Perrot and Chipiez, 177. + + "History of Bokhara," Vámbéry, 178. + + "History of Painting," Van Dyke, 178. + + "History of Persia," Malcom, 176. + + Hog, symbolism of, 161. + + Holland, rug-weaving in, 142. + + Holt, George Hubbard, rugs owned by, 95 (plate), 122 (plate). + + Holy Land, rugs of the, 111, 112. + + Homs, 169, 172. + + Hooked rugs, New England, 143, 144. + + Hossu, 169. + + Hounds, symbolism of, 160. + + Hulme, F. Edward, 176. + + Human figure introduced into design, 67. + + Hunting rugs, Persian, 124 (plate), 128. + + Hyderabad, 166. + + + I + + Ibis, symbolism of, 158. + + "Iconographic Encyclopædia of the Arts and Sciences," 176. + + "Illumination," Westwood, 178. + + Import duties to United States on rugs, 56. + + "In the Forbidden Land," Landor, 176. + + India, looms used in, 23, 82 (plate); + weavers, 26; + superstitions among weavers, 29; + wool from, 30; + rugs woven of pashim, 30; + rugs of various knottings, 35; + firms having factories in, 35; + Occidental designs introduced into, 38; + use of talims in, 39; + raises madder, 44; + symbolism of colors, 48; + of designs, 159; + place-names, 166. + + Indian designers, 32 (plate). + + "Indian Industries," James, 176. + + Indian rugs, 78 (plate), 87-94; + _see under_ India. + + Indicum, _see_ Indigo. + + Indigo, 45-47. + + _Indigofera tinctoria_, Indian indigo plant, 46. + + "Industrial Arts of India, The," Birdwood, 175. + + "Industrial Arts of the Nineteenth Century," Wyatt, 178. + + Industrial Museum at Berlin, rug in collection of, 154. + + Inman, Thomas, M.D., 176. + + Inscriptions on rugs, 70, 124 (plate), 153-155. + + Irak, 167. + + Irak-Ajemi province, 64, 69, 167, 172. + + Iran (Persia), 62. + + Islamabad, 163. + + Ispahan, 55, 95, 121, 163, 167, 172. + + Ispahan rugs, 62. + + Istalif, 165, 172. + + Italy, rug-weaving introduced by Saracens, 20; + silk culture in, 123. + + + J + + Jabalpur, 166, 172. + + Jails, rugs woven in, 78 (plate), 88, 90. + + Jaipur, 166, 172. + + Jaipur rugs, 91. + + Jalal-ud-Din Mahomed, 87. + + Jalandhar, 166, 172. + + James, A. G. F. Eliot, 176. + + Jammu, 166, 172. + + Jamu, 166. + + Japanese looms, 24; + rugs, 116; + symbols, 160; + place-names, 167. + + Jelalabad, 165, 172. + + Jerusalem, 163, 169, 172. + + Jewish legend of invention of spinning and weaving, 16. + + Jeypore, 166. + + Jhalawan (District), 165, 172. + + Jodhpur, 166. + + Jones, Owen, 176. + + Joohpur, 172. + + _Journal of the Society of Arts_, 176. + + "Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan," Bishop, 175. + + Jubbulpore, 166. + + Jubbulpur, 166. + + Jug, symbolism of, 161. + + Jullinder, 166. + + Jute, 30, 116. + + + K + + Kabistan rugs, 106. + + Kabul, 95, 165, 172. + + Kabul sheep, 30. + + Kain, 167, 172. + + Kairouan, 169, 172. + + Kairuan, 135. + + Kaisarieh, 169, 172. + + Kandahar, 163, 165, 172. + + Karabacek, Dr. Joseph, 176. + + Karabagh province, 63; + meaning of _Karabagh_, 163; + spelling, 168, 172. + + Karabagh rugs, 106. + + Kara Dagh rugs, 63; + meaning of _Kara Dagh_, 163; + spelling, 167. + + Kara-Geuz rugs, 77. + + Karahissar, 169, 172. + + Karajah Dagh, 71. + + Karaman rugs, 77; + spelling, 169, 172. + + Karamanian rugs, 117. + + Karashar, 165, 172. + + Kars, 168, 172. + + Kashan, 125, 167, 172. + + Kashgar, 165, 172. + + Kashgar rugs, 101, 103. + + Kashmir, capital of, 93; + spelling, 166, 172. + + Kashmir shawls and rugs, 89, 108. + + Kashmir wool, 30. + + Kazak rugs, 106, 107, 108 (plate). + + Kazan, 168, 172. + + Kchatchli rugs, _see_ Khalatch rugs. + + Kelat, 163, 165, 172. + + Kelim rugs, _see_ Khilim rugs. + + Kerkuk, 169, 172. + + Kermanshah rugs, 63; + spelling, 167, 172. + + Kermanshahan, 167. + + Kermes, red dye, 45. + + Khalatch rugs, 101. + + Khalatch tribe, 101. + + Khilim rugs, 34, 117 (and plate), 118. + + Khiva, 103, 168, 172. + + Khiva rugs, 100, 102. + + Khokand, 168. + + Khonsar, 167, 172. + + Khora-mabad, 167, 172. + + Khorasan (Province), 167. + + Khorassan province, 55, 56, 64, 95; + meaning of _Khorassan_, 163; + spelling, 167, 172. + + Khorassan rugs, 40, 42, 56 (plate), 64, 66. + + Khorsabad, 169, 172. + + Khotan silk rugs, 124; felt rugs, 126. + + Khozdar, 165, 172. + + Khuzistan, 167, 172. + + Khyrpur, 166, 172. + + Kiang-su, 165, 172. + + Kidderminster, power looms in, 24. + + Kilim rugs, _see_ Khilim rugs. + + Kioto, 167, 172. + + Kirman, modern rug-weaving district, 55; + value of rug trade, 56; + spelling, 167, 172. + + Kirman rugs, 64, 120 (plate). + + Kirmanshah rugs, 41. + + Kir-Shehr rugs, 77; + spelling, 169, 172. + + Kis Khilims, 117. + + Knight, Richard Payne, 176. + + Knot and flower design, symbolism of, 159. + + Knots and knotting, 23, 32, 34-36, 93. + + Kohat, 166, 172. + + Kokand, 168, 172. + + Konieh rugs, 78; spelling, 169, 172. + + Kotah, 166, 172. + + Koula, 169. + + Kuba, 106, 168, 172. + + Kucha, 165, 172. + + Kuchan, 167. + + Kulah rugs, 78, 80, 122; + spelling, 169, 172. + + Kurdish rug design represented in ancient Nineveh, 17. + + Kurdish rugs, wool used in, 65; + woven by girls and women, 78; + durability and colors, 79; + mihrab in, 117. + + Kurdistan, modern rug-weaving district, 55; + nomadic tribes of Western, 87; + spelling 167, 168, 172. + + Kurdistan rugs, characteristic designs of 40; + value of trade in, 56; + descriptions, 65, 78. + + Kurds, nomadic tribes, 65, 71. + + Kushmore, 166, 172. + + Kutahia rugs, 79; + spelling, 169, 172. + + Kutai, 169. + + Kutayah, 169. + + Kwatah, 163, 165. + + + L + + Ladik rugs, 79; spelling, 169, 173. + + Lahore, 166, 173. + + Landor, A. Henry Savage, 176. + + Laodicea, 79, 122. + + Lar, 167, 173. + + Largest rug woven, 95. + + Laristan province, 66, 167, 173. + + Laristan rugs, 66. + + Layard, Austen Henry, 176. + + Lenormant, François, 176. + + Leopards, symbolism of, 160. + + Lessing, Julius, 176. + + "Life in Ancient Egypt," Emmaus, 176. + + Lily, symbolism of, 161. + + Linen, 30. + + Lion, symbolism of, 157, 160. + + "Lives of the Queens of England," Strickland, 178. + + Lizard, symbolism of, 158. + + Lobanow-Rostowsky, Prince Alexis, rug owned by, 36. + + Lock, Charles G. W., 177. + + Looms, 22-24 (and plate), 82 (plate), 111, 147. + + Lotus design, 43, 158. + + Lourdes, French weaver, 141. + + _Louvre, Palais du_, rugs woven in, 141. + + Lübke, Wilhelm, 176. + + Lucknow, 91, 166, 173. + + Luristan (Province), 167, 173. + + + M + + Maciet, M.J., Paris, rug owned by, 128. + + Madder, 44. + + Madras, 166. + + Madras rugs, 92. + + Magpie, symbolism of, 157. + + Makran, 167, 173. + + Malabar (District), 166, 173. + + Malair, 56. + + Malcom, Sir John, 176. + + Mandalay, 166. + + "Manual of Archæology," Ely, 176. + + "Manual of Design," Redgrave, 177. + + "Manual of Egyptian Archæology," Maspero, 176. + + "Manual of Oriental Antiquities," Babelon, 175. + + "Manual of Sculpture," 177. + + "Manual of the Ancient History of the East," Lenormant and + Chevalier, 176. + + "Manual of the Historical Development of Art, A," Zerffi, 178. + + Manufacturers of rugs, 35. + + Marash, 169, 173. + + Maresh, 169. + + Marvin, Charles, 176. + + Maspero, Gaston C. Charles, 176, 177. + + Mastung, 165, 173. + + Masulipatam rugs,92; spelling, 166,173. + + Materials used in rug-weaving, 30. + + Mazandaran, 167, 173. + + McCormick, Mrs. Cyrus H., rug owned by, 108 (plate). + + Meandrian motif in Chinese rugs, 114. + + Mecca rug, 68; + meaning of _Mecca_, 163; + spelling, 169, 173. + + Medallion design, 43. + + Medina, 169, 173. + + Mehran, 167, 173. + + Mekran (District), 167. + + Melasso, 169. + + Meles rugs, 80, 122. + + Melhaz, _see_ Meles rugs. + + Mersherski, established Polish rug factory, 119. + + Merut, 166, 173. + + Merv, 117. + + "Merv Oasis, The," O'Donovan, 177. + + "Merv, the Queen of the World," Marvin, 176. + + Meshed, 163. + + Meshhed, 64, 167, 173. + + Meshhed rugs, 56 (plate), 64, 66. + + Mesopotamia, monuments show ancient rug-weavers, 16; + spelling, 168. + + Meyer's "Handbook of Ornament," 177. + + "Middle Kingdom, The," Williams, 178. + + Mihrab in prayer rug, 120. + + Milassa, 80, 169, 173. + + Mina Khani design, 43. + + Mir, 67. + + Mir-Saraband rugs, 66, 67. + + Mirzapore, 163. + + Mirzapur rugs, 92; + spelling, 166, 173. + + Misratah, 169, 173. + + Mohair from Angora goat, 30, 72. + + Mohair rugs, 72, 77, 80. + + Mohammedan religion does not allow use of animal forms, 37; + used by Shiah sect and others, 38; + green sacred color, 48, 81; + white emblem of mourning, 48; + introduction of rug-weaving into India, 87. + + Moodj mats, 92. + + Moorish rugs, 134. + + Moors introduced rug-weaving into the West, 141; + indirectly taught weaving of Navajo blankets, 147. + + Moradabod, 166. + + Morocco rugs, _see_ Moorish rugs. + + Morris rug, 139. + + Morris, William, 138-140. + + Moslems, _see under_ Mohammedan. + + Mosques, location of, 120. + + Mosul rugs, 80; spelling, 169, 173. + + Moussul, 169. + + Mujur, 173. + + Multan rugs, 92, 93; + spelling, 166,173. + + Mumford, John Kimberly, 177. + + "Mummy Badge, The," Budge, 175. + + Müntz, Eugene, 177. + + Murex, source of Phoenician purple, 18, 45. + + Murshidabad, 166, 173. + + Muskabad rugs, 66, 70. + + Mylasso, 169. + + Mysore, 166, 173. + + Mysore rugs, 93. + + "Mythology and Egyptian Christianity," Sharpe, 177. + + + N + + Naamah, legendary inventor of spinning, 16. + + Nagpur, 166, 173. + + Names of rugs, 94. + + Natural forms in rug designs, 19, 21, 37, 65. + + Navajo Indian Reservation, 146. + + Navajo rugs, swastika design in, 43; + description of, 146-149 (and plate). + + Navajo women's costume, 148. + + New England hooked or rag rugs, 143, 144. + + Nile Key, symbolism of, 158. + + "Nineveh and Babylon," Layard, 176. + + "Nineveh and its Remains," Layard, 176. + + Nineveh marbles, 17; + fall of, 19. + + Ning-po, 163, 165, 173. + + Niris, Lake, 66. + + Niris rugs, 66. + + Niriz, 167, 173. + + Nishapur, 167, 173. + + Nomadic weavers, 26; design peculiar to, 41. + + North Arcot (District), 166, 173. + + + O + + Octagon design, 43. + + O'Dagree, H. Eugene, 177. + + O'Donovan, Edmund, 177. + + Odor of rugs, 95, 96. + + Old man leaning on staff, symbolism of, 157. + + Olive, symbolism of, 161. + + Onteora rugs, 144. + + Oorfa, 169. + + Orange, symbolism of, 48. + + "Oriental Carpets," Clarke, 175. + + "Oriental Carpets," Coxon, 175. + + "Oriental Carpets," Lessing, 176. + + "Oriental Rugs," Mumford, 177. + + Oriental symbols, 156-162. + + "Origin of Pagan Idolatry," Faber, 176. + + "Origin of Pictish Symbolism," Southesk, 177. + + Ormarah, 165, 173. + + "Ornement Polychrome, L'," Racinet, 177. + + Ouchak, 81, 169, 173. + + Ouchak rugs, 78, 81. + + Oushak, 169. + + Oustri-Nan rugs, 66; + spelling, 167,173. + + Outlines of black and white, 47. + + Owephissa, 170, 173. + + Owl, symbolism of, 157, 161. + + Ox, symbolism of, 161. + + + P + + Palestine rugs, 111. + + Palm leaf designs, 41. + + Palm tree, symbolism of, 159. + + Palmer, Mrs. Potter, rug owned by, 90. + + Palmette, forms of, 39, 40. + + Papyrus, importance to Egyptians, 51; + symbolism of, 159. + + Pashim (goat's wool), 30, 93. + + Patna, 166, 173. + + Patna rugs, 93. + + Patriarchs' graves, rugs hung over, 20. + + Patterns, small, used by Demirdji weavers, 75. + + Paul's Tent Cloth, 72. + + Peach, symbolism of, 157. + + Peacock, symbolism of, 160, 161. + + Peacock Throne at Teheran, 124. + + Pearls interwoven in silk rug, 124. + + Pequaket, N. H., 143. + + Pergamo, 168. + + Pergamos, 74. + + Perrot, Georges, 177. + + "Persia and the Persian Question," Curson, 175. + + "Persia and the Persians," Wheeler, 178. + + Persia, significance of white in, 48; + antiquity of rug-making in, 53; + civilization of, 53; + rugs principal source of income, 54; + use of rugs in, 54; + export and import trade and value of rug industry, 55, 56; + home consumption of part of product, 54, 56; + manufacturing firms, 56, 57; + official name, Iran, 62; + silk trade with China, 123; + place-names, 167. + + "Persian Art," Smith, 177. + + Persian berries, 44, 45. + + Persian coat of arms, 160. + + Persian designs in India, 87, 88; + in Jaipur rugs, 91; + in Lahore rugs, 91; + in Warangul rugs, 93; + once used in Japan, 116. + + Persian Empire, its conquest by Saracens, 19. + + Persian knotting, 34-36. + + "Persian Life and Customs," Wilson, 178. + + Persian rugs, Tree of Life design on, 17; + value of, 28; + excellence of design and coloring, 37; + animal designs, 37, 38; + designs and borders in good antiques, 38; + characteristic designs, 40-43; + choice of colors, 47; + use of, in Persia, 54; + small ones not exported, 54; + durability of fine specimens, 54; + used as hangings, 55; + districts where woven, 55; + experts can tell where woven, 55; + value of trade in, 55, 56; + export and import duties on, 56; + manufactured for Western markets, 56, 57; + descriptions of characteristic weaves, 58-70; + preferred to Indian, 87; + silk rugs, 124 + (plate), 125; + hunting rugs, 128; + antique rug, 156 (plate); symbols, 160. + + Persian weavers taken to India, 87. + + Persian wool, 30. + + "Persische Nadelmalerei, Die," Karabacek, 176. + + Peshawar sheep, 30; + meaning of _Peshawar_, 163; + spelling, 166, 173. + + Petrie, William Matthews Flinders. 177. + + "Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers," Third Lecture, Edwards, 176. + + Philadelphia, power looms in, 24; + rug-production of, 143. + + Phillips, G., 177. + + Phoenician art, 18. + + Phoenician purple, 18. + + Phoenix, symbolism of, 157, 160, 162. + + Pig, symbolism of, 162. + + Pine cone, symbolism of, 169. + + Pine trees, symbolism of, 160. + + Pirot, Servia, 136. + + Place-names associated with rugs, meanings of, 162, 163; + various spellings of, 164-174. + + Pliny, quoted, 45. + + Plutarch, quoted, 45. + + Polish rugs, 119. + + Pomegranate design, 41, 159. + + Poona, 166, 173. + + Pooneh, 166. + + Power looms, 22, 24. + + Prayer rugs, Ghiordes, 75; + Ghiordes and Kulah, 78; + Ladik, 79; + modern and antique compared, 80; + Beluchistan, 97; + Karamanian and Kurdish, 117; + description, 120-122. + + Puckered edges of Sinna rugs, 69. + + Pueblo Indians taught rug-weaving by Spaniards, 147. + + Punjab, capital of the, 91. + + Purple, _see_ Phoenician and Tyrian purple; + symbolism of, 47; + favorite color of Romans, 48. + + Purpurin (red coloring-matter), 44. + + Pushmina rugs, 93. + + + Q + + Qourdes, 169. + + Quaritch, Bernhard, 139. + + "Quarterly Papers on Architecture," Weale, 178. + + Quetta, 165, 173. + + + R + + Rabat, 134. + + Rachova, 170, 173. + + Racinet, M. A., 177. + + Rag rugs, New England, 143, 144. + + Raipur, 166. + + Ralph, Julian, 88, 89. + + Ram, symbolism of, 162. + + Rampur, 166, 173. + + Rangpur, 166, 173. + + Rawar, 167. + + Reber, Franz von, 177. + + Reciprocal trefoil design, 42, 67. + + Reclus, Elisie, 177. + + Red, symbolism of, 47, 48. + + Redgrave's "Manual of Design," 177. + + Reed, symbolism of, 162. + + "Religion of Ancient Egypt," Renouf, 177. + + "Religion of the Semites," Smith, 177. + + Renouf, P. LePage, 177. + + Resht, 125, 167, 173. + + Restoration of old dyeing, 46. + + _Rhamnus chlorophorus_, 45. + + _Rhamnus utilis_, 45. + + Rhinoceros, symbolism of, 162. + + Rhodian lily design, 79. + + Riegl, Dr. Alois, 177. + + Robinson, Vincent, 177. + + Rochdale, power looms in, 24. + + Romans, dyes prized by, 45; + purple favorite color of, 48. + + Rose color, symbolism of, 47. + + Rosette, symbolism of, 159. + + Rothschild, Baron Adolphe, rug owned by, 128. + + Rothschild, Baron Nathaniel, rug owned by, 153. + + Roubaix, 169. + + Roumanian rugs, 137. + + Royalty, yellow symbol of, in China, 47. + + _Rubia_, dye-yielding genus, 44. + + _Rubia tinctorum_, 44. + + Rugs, utility of, 15; + origin of need for, 15; + weaving of, began, 15; + definition of name, 15; + identical with carpets, 16; + represented in Egyptian wall-paintings, 16, 17; + on Nineveh marbles, 17; + Egyptian, 18; + Assyrians used, as awnings and floor-coverings, 19; + rug-weaving in Egypt, Chaldea, Assyria, Asia Minor, and Greece, 19; + introduced into Europe, 20; + hung over graves, 20; + used in Europe during _fêtes_, 20; + increasing use of, 21, 26; + value by square foot, 28; + sometimes woven underground, 29; + pashim rugs from India, 30; + of camel's hair, 31; + knotting in Persian, 32; + product of cold districts in demand, 32; + selected for Western market, 33; + famous rugs in collections, 33; + industry encouraged in India, 35; + designs in Persian, 37, 38; + designs in modern Oriental, 38; + proportion between size and design, 39; + replace skins in Egypt, 51; + modern Egyptian, 51; + imported into Egypt, 52; + Cairo emporium for sale of, 52; + antique Persian, 53; + Shah Abbas's encouragement of rug-weaving, 53; + value of Shah Abbas rugs, 53; + decline and growth of industry in Persia, 54; + use of, in Persia, 54; + durability of, 54; + district where woven determined by design and fabric, 55, 88; + value of trade to Persia, 55, 56; + export and import duties upon, 56; + firms prosecute trade in, 56, 57; + quality and design of modern Persian, 57; + characteristics of Persian, 58-70; + value in Orient, 70; + characteristics of Turkish, 71-83; + use of, in Turkey, 72; + in Constantinople market, 72, 73; + characteristics of Indian, 87-94; + less expensive than Persian, 88; + Indian gold-embroidered state rugs, 89; + Lord Clive's rug, 89; + rugs have replaced shawls in Kashmir, 89; + rugs of Afghanistan, 95, 96; + of Beluchistan, 97; + Turkoman rugs, 98-104; + Caucasian rugs, 105-108; + rugs of Holy Land, 111, 112; + of China, 113-115; + of Japan, 116; + Khilim, 117, 118; + Polish, 119; + prayer, 120-122; + silk, 123-125; + felt, 126, 127; + hunting, Persian, 128; + Greek, 132, 133; + Moorish and Spanish, 134, 135; + Bosnian, Servian, Roumanian, and Bulgarian, 136, 137; + English, 138-140; + French, 141, 142; + United States, 143-149; + inscriptions on, 153-155; + Oriental symbols on, 156-162; + meanings of place-names associated with, 162, 163. + + Running hook design, 41. + + Russian Empire, place-names, 168. + + Rustan Khan, 165, 173. + + Ryan, Charles, 177. + + + S + + S-form design, 43. + + Sabatos rugs, 144, 145. + + Saddlebags, rug-woven, 60. + + Saffron, 44, 48. + + Safieta, 169. + + Safita, 174. + + Sail of a vessel, symbolism of, 159. + + St. Clement, legendary discoverer of felt, 126, 127. + + Sakai, 167, 174. + + Samarkand rugs, 102 (and plate), 125; + meaning of _Samarkand_, 163; + spelling, 168, 174. + + Saraband rugs, 42, 59, 66. + + Saracens, their conquest and influence, 19; + origin of name, 20; + introduced tapestries to France, 141. + + Sarakhs rugs, 58 (and plate), 67; + spelling, 174. + + Sarawan, 67, 165, 174. + + Sarik tribe, 98. + + Saruk rugs, 67. + + Savalan rugs, 68, 70. + + Savas, 169. + + _Savonnerie, La_, rug factory, 141. + + Sayce, Archibald Henry, LL.D., 177. + + Scarabæus, symbolism of, 159. + + Scarlet, symbolism of, 47. + + Schwarzenberg, Prince, Vienna, rug owned by, 134. + + Scorpion, symbolism of, 162. + + Scotland, power looms in, 25. + + Scroll design, 43. + + "Sculpture, Manual of," 177. + + Sedentary weavers, 26, 27. + + Se-Ling-She, legendary discoverer of silk-weaving, 123. + + Serampur, 166, 174. + + Serapi rugs, 69. + + Serebend rugs, 66. + + Serinuggar, 166. + + Serpent, symbolism of, 159, 162. + + Serrated leaf design, 43. + + Servian rugs, 136. + + Shah Abbas design, 43, 59. + + Shang-hai, 163, 165, 174. + + Shan-tung, 165, 174. + + Sharjah, 169, 174. + + Sharkah, 169. + + Sharpe, Samuel, 177. + + Sharrokhs on the Attrek, 87. + + Shawls, Kashmir, 89, 108. + + Shearing, Indian methods of, 147. + + Sheep, not raised in rocky regions, 72; + not eaten by Hindoos, 88. + + Shelley, G. E., 177. + + Shemakha rugs, 108; + spelling, 168,174. + + Shepherds use felt rugs, 126. + + Shiah sect of Moslems employ animal designs, 38 + + Shikarpur, 166, 174. + + Shiraz, 66, 68, 167, 174. + + Shiraz rugs, 41, 68 (and plate). + + Shirvan, 117, 168, 169, 174. + + Shirvan, rugs, 41, 107, 108. + + Shirwan, 167, 174. + + Shoes removed in house by Persians, 55. + + "Short History of Tapestry, A," Müntz, 177. + + Show-window demonstrations by Oriental weavers, 21. + + Shrouds, rugs used as, 135. + + Shusha, 174. + + Shushu, 168. + + Shuster, ancient capital of Persia, 53, 55; + spelling, 167, 174. + + Sicily, rug-weaving introduced by Saracens, 20; + silk-weaving in, 123. + + Silk for rug-weaving, 30; + introduced into antique Kirman rugs, 65; + silk rugs of Brusa, 74; + silk Polish rugs, 119; + use of, discovered in China, 123; + use of, outside of China, 123; + description and prices of silk rugs, 124 (and plate), 125; + silk added to wool rugs, 124. + + Silver woven in Polish rugs, 119. + + Sindh rugs, 93. + + Sinna, 117, 167, 174. + + Sinna Khilims, 117. + + Sinna knotting, 34, 35. + + Sinna rugs, characteristic border of, 40; + description, 69; + plate, 34. + + Sirab rugs, 69; spelling, 167, 174. + + Sivas rugs, 82; spelling, 174. + + Skins sewed into rugs, 115. + + Smith, Byron L., rug owned by, 62 (plate). + + Smith, Ralph Oliver, rug owned by, 98 (plate). + + Smith, Major R. Murdock, R. E., 177. + + Smith's "Greek and Roman Antiquities," 177. + + Smith's "Religion of the Semites," 177. + + Smyrna, madder raised near, 44; + trade with, 77, 82; + spelling, 169, 174. + + Smyrna rugs, 72, 82, 134. + + Sohar, 169, 174. + + Solar disk with serpents, symbolism of, 159. + + Sonmeani, 165, 174. + + Soumak rugs, manner of knotting, 34, 35; + characteristic design of, 41; + description of, 108; + _see_ plate, page 30. + + Southesk's "Origin of Pictish Symbolism," 177. + + Spade design, 42. + + Spain, rug-weaving in, 20, 134; + silk-weaving in, 123. + + Spaniards taught weaving and sheep-raising to American Indians, 147. + + Sparta, 169. + + Sparta rugs, 83. + + Spear, symbolism of, 162. + + Spelling of place-names, 164-174. + + Sphinx, symbolism of, 159. + + Spider, symbolism of, 162. + + Spinning, legends of invention of, 16. + + Spon, ----, 177. + + Squirrel, symbolism of, 162. + + Srinagar rugs, 93; + meaning of _Srinagar_, 163; + spelling, 166, 174. + + Staff in the hands of the gods, symbolism of, 159. + + Stamboul, 73. + + Standing eagle, symbolism of, 160. + + Star designs, 43, 162. + + Stark tree form in Turkoman rugs, 101, 102. + + Stitches in Persian rugs, _see_ Knots. + + Stockholm Palace, rug in, 128. + + Stork, symbolism of, 157, 160. + + Strickland, Agnes, 178. + + Stuart, H. Villiers, 178. + + Subdued colors, preference given to, 21, 47. + + Su-chau, 165, 174. + + Sultanabad, 55, 56, 59, 69, 125; + spelling, 167, 174. + + Sultanabad rugs, 69, 70. + + Sultan's factories and schools, 76. + + Sumac, 44. + + Sun, symbolism of, 159, 160. + + Superstitions among weavers, 29. + + Surat, 166, 174. + + Susiana, Ancient (Province), 167. + + Swastika design, 42, 148, 162. + + Switzerland, rug-weaving in, 142. + + Sword, symbolism of, 160. + + Sykes, Ella C., 178. + + "Symbolican Language of Ancient Art and Mythology, The," Knight, 176. + + "Symbolism in Christian Art," Hulme, 176. + + "Symbols Antiques, Les," O'Dagree, 177. + + Symbols, Navajo, 148; + Oriental, 156; + Chinese, 157; + Egyptian, 158, 159; + Indian, 159; + Japanese, 160; + Persian, 160; + Turkish, 160; + miscellaneous, 161, 162. + + "Symbols of Early Christian Art," Twining, 178. + + Syria, 168. + + Syrian Christian weavers, 71. + + Syrian rugs, 111. + + + T + + Tabor, Mrs. Sydney Richmond, rug owned by, 56 (plate). + + Tabriez, 168. + + Tabriz, 63, 163, 168, 174. + + Tabriz rugs, 70 and frontispiece (plate). + + Tajura, 169, 174. + + Talim, or working drawing of rug design, 39. + + Tanjore, 166, 174. + + Tapestries synonymous with rugs, 16; + introduced into England, 138; + introduced into France by Saracens, 141. + + Tarantula design, 43. + + Tawarek tribe, 135. + + Tchechen rugs, 108. + + Teheran rug market, 70, 125; + meaning of _Teheran_, 163; + spelling, 168, 174. + + Tekké tribe, 98, 103. + + Tekké-Turkoman rugs, 98 (plate), 103. + + "Ten Years' Digging in Egypt," Petrie, 177. + + "Textile Manufactures and Costumes of the People of India, + The," Watson, 178. + + Theban fresco represents rug-weavers, 17. + + Thibetan goat's hair, 30. + + "Things Chinese," Ball, 175. + + Thompson, ----, 178. + + "Through Asia," Hedin, 176. + + "Through Persia on a Side Saddle," Sykes, 178. + + Tient-sing, 165, 174. + + Tokio, 167, 174. + + Tortoise, symbolism of, 157, 160. + + Tourcoing, 169, 174. + + Tourists, Cairo rug-market for, 52. + + Tournay, 169, 174. + + Trade in Ghiordes rugs, 75. + + Transcaucasia, 71, 105, 168. + + Trebizond, 169, 174. + + "Tree and Serpent Worship," Fergusson, 176. + + Tree of Health design, symbolism of, 160. + + Tree of Life design on Persian rugs, 17, 65; + on Kashgar rugs, 101; + on Ghiordes rugs, 122; + symbolism of, 157, 160. + _See_ frontispiece plate and 124 (plate). + + Triangle design, 43. + + Tribute paid in insects for dye purposes, 45. + + Tripoli, 169, 174. + + Tsi-nan,165, 174. + + Tsing-chau, 165, 174. + + Tsing-ning, 165, 174. + + Tsun-hua rugs, 115. + + Tuareg rugs, 135. + + Tuareg tribe, 135. + + Tunis rugs, 135, 169. + + Turfani wool, 30. + + Turkey in Asia, place-names, 168. + + Turkey in Europe, Khilims woven in, 117. + + Turkish coat of arms, 160. + + Turkish knotting, 34, 35. + + Turkish Kurdistan, Khilim rugs woven in, 117. + + Turkish loom and weavers, 24 (plate). + + Turkish rug factories, 24. + + Turkish rugs, 24, 71-83; + of silk, 125. + + Turkish symbolism, of green, 48; + of crescent and star, 160. + + Turkish wool, 30. + + Turkoman rugs, 95, 98-104, 125. + + Turmeric, 44. + + Turtle, symbolism of, 162. + + Twining, ----, 178. + + Tyrian purple (_see_ Phoenician purple), 45, 47. + + Tzitzi rugs, 108. + + + U + + Umballa, 166. + + "Unbeaten tracks in Japan," Bishop, 175. + + United States, Oriental weavers in, 21; + power looms in, 24; + import duties, 56; + Persian rugs to supply trade of, 57; + Sultanabad rugs imported into, 70; + law against importation of jail-made goods, 90; + rug-weaving in, 143-149. + + Urfa, 71, 169, 174. + + Ushak, 169. + + + V + + Value of square foot of best Persian rug, 28; + of rug trade to Persia, 55, 56; + of Persian rugs in the Orient, 70; + of silk rugs, 125. + + Vámbéry, Arminius, 178. + + Van Dyke, John Charles, 178. + + Vegetable dyes, 44, 46, 139. + + Vegetable fibre in Mirzapur rugs, 92. + + Verulam, Earl of, rug owned by, 138 (plate). + + Vienna, rug-weaving at, 136. + + Violet in old rugs, 80. + + Viper, symbolism of, 159. + + Volk, Mrs. Douglas, 145. + + "Vorderasiatische Knüpfteppiche," Bode, 175. + + + W + + Wake, Charles Staniland, 178. + + Warangal, 166, 174. + + Warangul rugs, 93. + + Washing to subdue colors, 77; + to overcome odor, 95. + + Watson, Dr. Forbes, 178. + + Weale, John, 178. + + Weavers, skilled Oriental, 20; + correct color sense of, 20; + demonstrating their craft in United States, 21; + women and girls, 26; + men and boys, 26; + sedentary, 26, 27; + nomadic, 26; + men naturally unsuited, 27; + profits of, 27, 28, 82; + time consumed, 28; + wages and advance payment, 28; + fare, 29; + work underground, 29; + superstitions, 29; + skill of, 32, 33; + use of dyes by, 44; + Egyptian, 51; + women of all classes, 55; + Persian, in employ of factories, 57; + use small patterns, 75; + Indian, 88; + Japanese, 116; + Greek, 132; + Flemish, 138; + Navajo, 148. + + Weaving, legends of invention of, 16; + in ancient Egypt, 22; + method of Oriental, 22; + in India, 23. + + Westroff, Hodder M., 178. + + Westwood,----, 178. + + Wheel, symbolism of, 159, 162. + + Wheeler, Mrs. A. D., rug owned by, 126 (plate). + + Wheeler, Samuel Green, 178. + + White, symbolism of, 47, 48; + use of cotton for, 76. + + Wilkinson, Sir J. Gardner, quoted, 17, 178. + + William of Germany, Emperor, his rug collection, 77. + + Williams, S. Wells, 178. + + Wilson, Rev. Samuel Graham, M.A., 178. + + Wilton, power looms in, 24. + + Wings, symbolism of, 162. + + Winkleman, Johann Joachim, 178. + + Wolf, symbolism of, 162. + + Wool, preparation of, 27, 30, 32; + where produced, 30; + handling, 32; + quality, 32; + not produced in India, 88. + + Worcester, power looms in, 24. + + Worsted used in rug-weaving, 23. + + Writers, ancient, allude to rugs, 18. + + Wyatt, M. Digby, 178. + + + X + + Xanthin (yellow coloring matter), 44. + + + Y + + Y-form design, 43. + + Yak's hair, 30. + + Yangi-hissar, 165. + + Yapraks (Ouchak rugs), 81, 83. + + Yarkand, 165, 174. + + Yarkand rugs, 103. + + Yellow-dyes, how produced, 44, 45; + symbolism of, 47; + used by Turkomans, 98. + + Yezd rugs, 70; + felt rugs, 126; + meaning of _Yezd_, 163; + spelling, 168, 174. + + Yomud rugs, 100, 103, 104. + + Yomud tribe, 98, 103. + + Young stags, symbolism of, 157. + + Yuruk rugs, 83. + + Yuruk tribe, 117. + + + Z + + Zarand, 168, 174. + + Zeli, 169. + + Zerffi, G.C., 178. + + Zerni, 165, 174. + + Zigzag design, 43, 159. + + Zileh, 169, 174. + + Zilleh, 169. + + +THE END + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Rugs: Oriental and Occidental, Antique +& Modern, by Rosa Belle Holt + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30025 *** |