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diff --git a/29904.txt b/29904.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..da5ddf8 --- /dev/null +++ b/29904.txt @@ -0,0 +1,6564 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Thoughts on Art and Life, by Leonardo da Vinci + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Thoughts on Art and Life + +Author: Leonardo da Vinci + +Translator: Maurice Baring + +Release Date: September 4, 2009 [EBook #29904] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THOUGHTS ON ART AND LIFE *** + + + + +Produced by Al Haines + + + + + + + + + + + +THE HUMANISTS' LIBRARY + +Edited by Lewis Einstein + +I + + +LEONARDO DA VINCI + +THOUGHTS + +ON ART AND LIFE + + + + +THOUGHTS + +ON + +ART AND LIFE + + +BY + +LEONARDO DA VINCI + + +Translated + +by + +MAURICE BARING + + + + +Boston + +The Merrymount Press + +1906 + + + + +Copyright, 1906, by D. B. Updike + + + + +A TABLE OF CONTENTS + + Introduction ix + I. Thoughts on Life 3 + II. Thoughts on Art 59 + III. Thoughts on Science 141 + IV. Bibliographical Note 193 + V. Table of References 194 + + + + +{ix} + +INTRODUCTION + + * * + * + +The long obscurity of the Dark Ages lifted over Italy, awakening to a +national though a divided consciousness. Already two distinct +tendencies were apparent. The practical and rational, on the one hand, +was soon to be outwardly reflected in the burgher-life of Florence and +the Lombard cities, while at Rome it had even then created the civil +organization of the curia. The novella was its literary triumph. In +art it expressed itself simply, directly and with vigour. Opposed to +this was the other great undercurrent in Italian life, mystical, +religious and speculative, which had run through the nation from the +earliest times, and received fresh volume from mediaeval Christianity, +encouraging ecstatic mysticism to drive to frenzy the population of its +mountain cities. Umbrian painting is inspired by it, and the glowing +words of Jacopone da Todi expressed in poetry the same religious +fervour which the life of Florence and Perugia bore witness to in +action. + +Italy developed out of the relation and conflict of these two forces +the rational with the mystical. Their later union in the greater men +was to {x} form the art temperament of the Renaissance. The practical +side gave it the firm foundation of rationalism and reality on which it +rested; the mystical guided its endeavour to picture the unreal in +terms of ideal beauty. + +The first offspring of this union was Leonardo. Since the decay of +ancient art no painter had been able to fully express the human form, +for imperfect mastery of technique still proved the barrier. Leonardo +was the first completely to disengage his personality from its +constraint, and make line express thought as none before him could do. +Nor was this his only triumph, but rather the foundation on which +further achievement rested. Remarkable as a thinker alone, he +preferred to enlist thought in the service of art, and make art the +handmaid of beauty. Leonardo saw the world not as it is, but as he +himself was. He viewed it through the atmosphere of beauty which +filled his mind, and tinged its shadows with the mystery of his nature. +To all this, his birthright as a painter, a different element was +added. A keen desire for knowledge, guiding his action in life, +spurred him onward. Conscious of this dominant impulse, he has +fancifully described himself in a Platonic allegory. He had passed +beneath overhanging cliffs on his way to a great cavern. On bended +knees, peering through its darkness, fear and desire had overwhelmed +him,--fear for the menacing darkness of the cavern; and desire {xi} to +ascertain if there were wonders therein. + +From his earliest years, the elements of greatness were present in +Leonardo. But the maturity of his genius came unaffected from without. +He barely noticed the great forces of the age which in life he +encountered. After the first promise of his boyhood in the Tuscan +hills, his youth at Florence had been spent under Verrocchio as a +master, in company with those whose names were later to brighten the +pages of Italian art. He must then have heard Savonarola's impassioned +sermons, yet, unlike Botticelli, remained dumb to his entreaties. He +must have seen Lorenzo the Magnificent. But there was little opening +in the Medicean circle for the young painter, who had first to gain +fame abroad. The splendour of Milan under Il Moro, then the most +brilliant court in Europe, attracted him. He went there, proclaiming +his ability, in a remarkable letter, to accomplish much, but desiring +chiefly to erect a great monument to the glory of the Sforza. He spent +years at that court, taken up by his different ventures,--painting, +sculpture, engineering, even arranging festivities--but his greater +project was doomed to failure, enmeshed in the downfall of Ludovico. +Even to this he remained impassive. "Visconti dragged to prison, his +son dead, ... the duke has lost his state, his possessions, his +liberty, and has finished nothing he undertook," was his only comment +on his patron's end, written on the {xii} margin of a manuscript. +After the overthrow of the Duke of Milan, began his Italian wanderings. +At one time he contemplated entering the service of an Oriental prince. +Instead, he entered that of Caesar Borgia, as military engineer, and +the greatest painter of the age became inspector of a despot's +strongholds. But his restless nature did not leave him long at this. +Returning to Florence he competed with Michelangelo; yet the service of +even his native city could not retain him. His fame had attracted the +attention of a new patron of the arts, prince of the state which had +conquered his first master. In this his last venture, he forsook +Italy, only to die three years later at Amboise, in the castle of the +French king. + +The inner nature of Leonardo remained as untouched by the men he +encountered as by the events which were then stirring Europe. Alone, +he influenced others, remaining the while a mystery to all. The most +gifted of nations failed to understand the greatest of her sons. +Isabella d'Este, the first lady of her time, seeking vainly to obtain +some product of his brush, was told that his life was changeful and +uncertain, that he lived for the day, intent only on his art. His own +thoughts reveal him in another light. "I wish to work miracles," he +wrote. And elsewhere he exclaimed, "Thou, O God, sellest us all +benefits, at the cost of our toil.... As a day well spent makes sleep +{xiii} seem pleasant, so a life well employed makes death pleasant. A +life well spent is long." + + +Leonardo's views of aesthetic are all important in his philosophy of +life and art. The worker's thoughts on his craft are always of +interest. They are doubly so when there is in them no trace of +literary self-consciousness to blemish their expression. He recorded +these thoughts at the instant of their birth, for a constant habit of +observation and analysis had early developed with him into a second +nature. His ideas were penned in the same fragmentary way as they +presented themselves to his mind, perhaps with no intention of +publishing them to the world. But his ideal of art depended +intimately, none the less, on the system he had thrown out seemingly in +so haphazard a manner. His method gives to his writings their only +unity. It was more than a method: it was a permanent expression of his +own life, which aided him to construct a philosophy of beauty +characteristic of the new age. + +He had searched to find a scientific basis for art, and discovered it +in the imitation of nature, based on rational experience. This idea +was, in part, Aristotelian, imbibed with the spirit of the time; though +in the ordinary acceptance of the word Leonardo was no scholar, least +of all a humanist. His own innovation in aesthetic was in requiring a +rational and critical experience as a necessary {xiv} foundation, the +acquisition of which was to result from the permanent condition of the +mind. He had trained his own faculties to critically observe all +natural phenomena: first try by experience, and then demonstrate why +such experiment is forced to operate in the way it does, was his +advice. The eye, he gave as an instance, had been defined as one +thing; by experience, he had found it to be another. + +But by imitation in art, Leonardo intended no slavish reproduction of +nature. When he wrote that "the painter strives and competes with +nature," he was on the track of a more Aristotelian idea. This he +barely developed, using nature only partly in the Stagirite's sense, of +inner force outwardly exemplified. The idea of imitation, in fad, as +it presented itself to his mind, was two-fold. It was not merely the +external reproduction of the image, which was easy enough to secure. +The real difficulty of the artist lay in reflecting inner character and +personality. It was Leonardo's firm conviction that each thought had +some outward expression by which the trained observer was able to +recognize it. Every man, he wrote, has as many movements of the body +as of varieties of ideas. Thought, moreover, expressed itself +outwardly in proportion to its power over the individual and his time +of life. By thus employing bodily gesture to represent feeling and +idea, the painter could affect the spectator whom he {xv} placed in the +presence of visible emotion. He maintained that art was of slight use +unless able to show what its subject had in mind. Painting should aim, +therefore, to reproduce the inner mental state by the attitude assumed. +This was, in other words, a natural symbolism, in which the symbol was +no mere convention, but the actual outward projection of the inner +condition of the mind. Art here offered an equation of inward purpose +and outward expression, neither complete without the other. + +Further than this, influenced by Platonic thought, Leonardo's +conception of painting was, as an intellectual state or condition, +outwardly projected. The painter who practised his art without +reasoning of its nature was like a mirror unconsciously reflecting what +was before it. Although without a "manual act" painting could not be +realized, its true problems--problems of light, of colour, pose and +composition, of primitive and derivative shadow--had all to be grasped +by the mind without bodily labour. Beyond this, the scientific +foundation in art came through making it rest upon an accurate +knowledge of nature. Even experience was only a step towards attaining +this. "There is nothing in all nature without its reason," he wrote. +"If you know the reason, you do not need the experience." + +In the history of art, as well, he urged that nature had been the test +of its excellence. A {xvi} natural phenomenon had brought art into +existence. The first picture in the world, he remarked in a happy +epigram, had been "a line surrounding the shadow of a man, cast by the +sun on the wall." He traced the history of painting in Italy during +its stagnation after the decay of ancient art, when each painter copied +only his predecessor, which lasted until Giotto, born among barren +mountains, drew the movements of the goats he tended, and thus advanced +farther than all the earlier masters. But his successors only copied +him, and painting sank again until Masaccio once more took nature as +his guide. + +A quite different and combative side to Leonardo's aesthetic, which +forced him to state the broad principles of art, appears in his attacks +on poetry and music as inferior to painting. In that age of humanistic +triumph, literature had lorded it over the other arts in a manner not +free from arrogance. There was still another cause for his onslaught +on poetry. Leonardo resented the fact that painters, who were rarely +men of education, had not defended themselves against the slurs cast on +their art. His counter attack may have been intended to hide his own +small scholarship. It served another end as well. His conception of +the universal principles of beauty was made clear by this defence. His +first principle stated broadly that the most useful art was the one +which could most easily be communicated. {xvii} Painting was +communicable to all since its appeal was made to the eye. While the +painter proceeded at once to the imitation of nature, the poet's +instruments were words which varied in every land. He took the +Platonic view of poetry as a lying imitation, removed from truth. He +called the poet a collector of other men's wares, who decked himself in +their plumage. Where poetry presented only a shadow to the +imagination, painting offered a real image to the eye; and the eye, as +the window of the soul through which all earthly beauty was revealed, +the sight, he exclaimed, which had discovered navigation, which had +impelled men to seek the West, was the noblest of all the senses. +Painting spoke only by what it accomplished, poetry ended in the very +words with which it sang its own praises. If, then, poets called +painting dumb poetry, he could retort by dubbing poetry blind painting. +In common with his successors, Leonardo could not escape from this +fallacy, which, in overlooking all save descriptive verse, was destined +to burden aesthetic until demolished by Lessing. + +It was the opinion of Leonardo that the temporary nature of music +caused its inferiority to painting. Although durability was in itself +no absolute test,--else the work of coppersmiths would be the highest +art,--yet in any final scale, permanence could not altogether be +disregarded. Music perished in the very act of its creation, {xviii} +while painting preserved the beautiful from the hand of time. "Helen +of Troy, gazing in a mirror, in her old age, wondered how she had twice +been ravished." Mortal beauty would thus vanish, if it were not +rescued by art from destroying age and death. + +Leonardo contrasted painting with sculpture, for he had practised both, +and thought himself peculiarly qualified to judge their merit. He +considered the former the nobler art of the two, for sculpture involved +bodily toil and fatigue, while by its very nature it lacked perspective +and atmosphere, colour, and the feeling of space. Painting, on the +other hand, caused by an illusion, was in itself the result of deeper +thought. An even broader test served to convince him of its final +superiority. That art was of highest excellence, he wrote, which +possessed most elements of variety and universality. Painting +contained and reproduced all forms of nature; it made its appeal by the +harmonious balance of parts which gratified all the senses. By its +very duality it fulfilled the highest purpose. The painter was able to +visualize the beauty which enchanted him, to bring to reality the fancy +of his dreams, and give outward expression to the ideal within. + +The genius of Leonardo as a painter came through unfolding the mystery +of life. Like Miranda, he had gazed with wonder at the beauty of the +world. "Look at the grace and sweetness {xix} of men and women in the +street," he wrote. The most ordinary functions of life and nature +amazed him most. He observed of the eye how in it form and colour, and +the entire universe it reflected, were reduced to a single point. +"Wonderful law of nature, which forced all effects to participate with +their cause in the mind of man. These are the true miracles!" +Elsewhere he wrote again: "Nature is full of infinite reasons which +have not yet passed into experience." He conceived it to be the +painter's duty not only to comment on natural phenomena as restrained +by law, but to merge his very mind into that of nature by interpreting +its relation with art. Resting securely on the reality of experienced +truth, he felt the deeper presence of the unreal on every side. In the +same way that he visualized the inner workings of the mind, his keen +imagination aided him to make outward trifles serve his desire to find +mysterious beauty everywhere. Oftentimes, in gazing on some ancient, +time-stained wall, he describes how he would trace thereon landscapes, +with mountains, rivers and valleys. The whole world was full of a +mystery to him, which his work reflected. The smile of consciousness, +pregnant of that which is beyond, illumines the expression of Mona +Lisa. So, too, in the strange glance of Ann, of John the Baptist, and +of the Virgin of the Rocks, one realizes that their thoughts dwell in +another world. + +{xx} + +Leonardo had found a refuge in art from the pettiness of material +environment. Like his own creations, he, too, had learned the secret +of the inner life. The painter, he wrote, could create a world of his +own, and take refuge in this new realm. But it must not be one of +shadows only. The very mystery he felt so keenly had yet to rest on a +real foundation; to treat it otherwise would be to plunge into mere +vapouring. Although attempting to bridge the gulf which separated the +real from the unreal, he refused to treat the latter supernaturally. +That mystery which lesser minds found in the occult, he saw in nature +all about him. He denied the existence of spirits, just as he urged +the foolishness of the will-o'-the-wisps of former ages,--alchemy and +the black art. In one sentence he destroyed the pretensions of +palmistry. "You will see," he wrote, "great armies slaughtered in an +hour's time, where in each individual the signs of the hands are +different." + +His art took, thus, its guidance in realism, its purpose in +spirituality. The search for truth and the desire for beauty were the +twin ideals he strove to attain. The keenness of this pursuit saved +him from the blemish of egoism which aloofness from his surroundings +would otherwise have forced upon him. For his character presented the +anomaly, peculiar to the Renaissance, of a lofty idealism coupled in +action with {xxi} irresponsibility of duty. He stood on a higher +plane, his attitude toward life recognizing no claims on the part of +his fellowmen. In his desire to surpass himself, fostered by this +isolation of spirit and spurred on by the eager wish to attain +universal knowledge, he has been compared to Faust; but the likeness is +only half correct. He was not blind to the limitations which +encompassed him, his very genius making him realize their bounds. Of +the ancients he said that in attempting to define the nature of the +soul, they sought the impossible. He wrote elsewhere, "It is the +infinite alone that cannot be attained, for if it could it would become +finite." + +In Leonardo's personality was reflected both the strength and weakness +of Renaissance Italy. So, to know him, it is necessary to understand +the Italy of that age. Its brilliancy, its universality, its desire +for beauty, are but one side of the medal. On its reverse, Italy +lacked the solid vigour of a national purpose. The discord of +political disunion, reacting on art, laid bare great weakness in the +want of any constructive direction, toward which the strength of the +Renaissance could aim. The energy was there, whether finding an outlet +in statecraft or in discovery, in art or in letters. But it laboured +for no common end; there was internal unity of force and method, but +external divergence of purpose. The tyranny of petty despots could +provide no adequate ideal toward {xxii} which to aim. No ruler, and no +city save Venice, could long symbolize the nation's patriotism. +Venetian painters alone glorified the state in their work, and thus +felt the living force of a national ambition which raised them above +themselves. But elsewhere there was little to inspire that devotion +for a common country necessary as a background to sustain the greatest +work. Hence Italian art, so living within certain limits, remained +stunted beyond these. The conviction that art existed in order to +express ideal beauty, that its main purpose was to please the eye and +the senses in spite of the result attained, proved inadequate +compensation for all that had been withdrawn. The art ideal tended +more and more to become a conscience and a purpose in itself, an inward +impulse for action and an outward goal. + + +The artist's real greatness will depend at all times on his qualities +as a representative. His true merit will arise from giving expression +in ideal terms to his nation and to his age. In so far as he has been +able to do this and the spirit of his country is reflected in his work, +in so far as he has represented what is best therein and most enduring, +he will have achieved greatness. Not that this is always, or even +often, a conscious expression. It is unfair reading to search for deep +thought in the work of either painter or poet. Neither art {xxiii} +offers the best medium to convey the abstractions of the mind, since +each has its own method of expression, independent of pure reason. But +painter and poet, in the degree they attain greatness, express more +than themselves. Ariosto, intent only to amuse, reflects with playful +wit and skepticism the splendid luxury and joy of living in Renaissance +court life. The care with which he chiselled each line proves that his +real seriousness and conscience lay in his artistic purpose. Without +Ariosto's wit, Paolo Veronese depicted a similar side in painting, +though his Venetian birthright made him celebrate the glory of the +Republic. Poet and painter alike expressed far more than either could +know. If such a test be applied to the artists of the Renaissance, +each in turn will respond to it,--just as the weakness of the later +Bolognese as a school is that, beyond a certain technical merit, they +meant and represented so little. But the noblest +painters,--Michelangelo and Raphael, Titian and Leonardo,--in addition +to possessing the solid grasp of technical mastery, reflected some +aspect of their nation's life and civilization. In Michelangelo was +realized the grandeur of Italy struggling vainly against crushing +oppression. He expressed that which was highest in it, reflecting the +loftiest side of its idealism mingled with deep pessimism in his survey +over life; for, wrapped in austerity, he saw mankind in heroic terms of +sadness. Raphael, on the {xxiv} other hand, found only beautiful +sweetness everywhere. The tragedies of life failed to touch the young +painter, who blotted from view all struggle and sorrow, and, in spite +of the misery which had befallen his nation, could still rejoice in the +sensuous beauty of the world. There was another side to the +Renaissance, dependent neither on beauty nor heroic grandeur, yet +sharing in both through qualities of its own. Titian, who painted the +living man of action, the man of parts, susceptible alike to the +appreciation of ideal beauty and heroic impulse, but guided withal by +expediency, reflected this more practical aspect of life. In his +portraiture he expressed the statecraft for which Italians found +opportunity beyond the Alps, since in Italy it was denied them; and +Titian found even Venice too narrow for the scope of his art. + +But before Titian, before Raphael, before Michelangelo, Leonardo +reflected the rationalism and the mystery, the subtlety and the +philosophical speculation, of the age. To find in his work only the +individual thought of genius would be to mistake, perhaps, its most +important side; for the expression of his mind, both by its brilliancy +and its limitations, is typical of the spirit of his time. The Italian +Renaissance was reflected in him as rarely a period has been expressed +in the life-work of a single man. He represented its union of practice +and theory, of thought placed in the {xxv} service of action. He +summed up its different aspects in his own individuality. +Intellectually, he represented its many-sidedness attained through +penetration of thought, and a keenness of observation, profiting from +experience, extended into every sphere. As an artist he possessed a +vigour of imagination from which sprang his power of creating beauty. +But, in spite of his practical nature, he remained a dreamer in an age +which had in it more of stern reality than of golden dreams. His very +limitations, his excess of individualism, his want of long-continued +concentration, his lack of patriotism, his feeling of the superiority +of art to nationality, are all characteristic of Renaissance Italy. + +The union in Leonardo of reality to mystery has often been shared by +genius in other fields. His own peculiar greatness sprang from +expressing in art the apparent contradiction of attaining the world of +mystery through force of reality. Like Hamlet, it was the union of the +real with the unreal which appealed to him, of the world as he saw it +and the world as he imagined it to be. It was but another expression +of the eternal ideal of truth and beauty. + +L. E. + +American Embassy + London, 1906 + + + + +{3} + +I + +THOUGHTS ON LIFE + + * * + * + +[Sidenote: Of the Works of Leonardo] + +Begun at Florence in the house of Piero di Braccio Martelli, on the 22d +day of March, 1508; and this is to be a collection without order, taken +from many papers which I have copied here, hoping to arrange them +later, each in its place, according to the various subjects treated. +And I think that before I shall have finished this work, it will be +necessary for me to repeat the same thing many times over; so, O +reader, blame me not, because the subjects are many, and memory cannot +retain them and say: This I will not write because I have already +written it; and if I did not wish to fall into this error it would be +necessary, every time that I wished to copy something, in order not to +repeat myself, to read over all the preceding matter, all the more so +since the intervals are long between one time of writing and another. + + +[Sidenote: His Thirst after Knowledge] + +2. + +Not louder does the tempestuous sea bellow when the north wind strikes +its foaming waves between Scylla and Charybdis; nor Stromboli nor Mount +Etna when the sulphurous flames, {4} shattering and bursting open the +great mountain with violence, hurl stones and earth through the air +with the flame it vomits; nor when the fiery caverns of Mount Etna, +spitting forth the element which it cannot restrain, hurl it back to +the place whence it issued, driving furiously before it any obstacle in +the way of its vehement fury ... so I, urged by my great desire and +longing to see the blending of strange and various shapes made by +creating nature, wandered for some time among the dark rocks, and came +to the entrance of a great cave, in front of which I long stood in +astonishment and ignorance of such a thing. I bent my back into an +arch and rested my left hand on my knee, and with my right hand shaded +my downcast eyes and contracted eyebrows. I bent down first on one +side and then on the other to see whether I could perceive anything, +but the thick darkness rendered this impossible; and after having +remained there some time, two things arose within me, fear and +desire,--fear of the dark and threatening cave, desire to see whether +there were anything marvellous within. + + +3. + +I discover for man the origin of the first and perhaps of the second +cause of his being. + + +[Sidenote: Leonardo's Studies] + +4. + +Recognizing as I do that I cannot make use of {5} subject matter which +is useful and delightful, since my predecessors have exhausted the +useful and necessary themes, I shall do as the man who by reason of his +poverty arrives last at the fair, and cannot do otherwise than purchase +what has already been seen by others and not accepted, but rejected by +them as being of little value. I shall place this despised and +rejected merchandise, which remains over after many have bought, on my +poor pack, and I shall go and distribute it, not in the big cities, but +in the poor towns, and take such reward as my goods deserve. + + +[Sidenote: Vain Knowledge] + +5. + +All knowledge which ends in words will die as quickly as it came to +life, with the exception of the written word: which is its mechanical +part. + + +6. + +Avoid studies the result of which will die together with him who +studied. + + +[Sidenote: Value of Knowledge] + +7. + +The intellect will always profit by the acquisition of any knowledge +whatsoever, for thus what is useless will be expelled from it, and what +is fruitful will remain. It is impossible either to hate or to love a +thing without first acquiring knowledge of it. + +{6} + +8. + +Men of worth naturally desire knowledge. + + +9. + +It is ordained that to the ambitious, who derive no satisfaction from +the gifts of life and the beauty of the world, life shall be a cause of +suffering, and they shall possess neither the profit nor the beauty of +the world. + + +[Sidenote: On his Contemners] + +10. + +I know that many will say that this work is useless, and these are they +of whom Demetrius said recked no more of the breath which made the +words proceed from their mouth, than of the wind which proceeded from +their body,--men who seek solely after riches and bodily satisfaction, +men entirely denuded of that wisdom which is the food and verily the +wealth of the soul; because insomuch as the soul is of greater value +than the body, so much greater are the riches of the soul than those of +the body. And often when I see one of these take this work in his +hand, I wonder whether, like a monkey, he will not smell it and ask me +if it is something to eat. + + +[Sidenote: On the Vulgar] + +11. + +Demetrius used to say that there was no difference between the words +and the voice of the {7} unskilled ignorant and the sounds and noises +of a stomach full of superfluous wind. And it was not without reason +that he said this, for he considered it to be indifferent whence the +utterance of such men proceeded, whether from their mouth or their +body; both being of the same substance and value. + + +12. + +I do not consider that men of coarse and boorish habits and of slender +parts deserve so fine an instrument nor such a complicated mechanism as +men of contemplation and high culture. They merely need a sack in +which their food may be held and whence it may issue, since verily they +cannot be considered otherwise than as vehicles for food, for they seem +to me to have nothing in common with the human race save the shape and +the voice; as far as the rest is concerned they are lower than the +beasts. + + +13. + +Knowledge of the past and of the places of the earth is the ornament +and food of the mind of man. + + +[Sidenote: Knowledge the supreme Good] + +14. + +Cornelius Celsus: Knowledge is the supreme good, the supreme evil is +physical pain. We are composed of two separate parts, the soul and the +the body; the soul is the greater of these two, the body the lesser. +Knowledge appertains to the {8} greater part, the supreme evil belongs +to the lesser and baser part. Knowledge is an excellent thing for the +mind, and pain is the most grievous thing for the body. Just as the +supreme evil is physical pain, so is wisdom the supreme good of the +soul, that is to say of the wise man, and no other thing can be +compared with it. + + +[Sidenote: Life and Wisdom] + +15. + +In the days of thy youth seek to obtain that which shall compensate the +losses of thy old age. And if thou understandest that old age is fed +with wisdom, so conduct thyself in the days of thy youth that +sustenance may not be lacking to thy old age. + + +[Sidenote: Praise of Knowledge] + +16. + +The fame of the rich man dies with him; the fame of the treasure, and +not of the man who possessed it, remains. Far greater is the glory of +the virtue of mortals than that of their riches. How many emperors and +how many princes have lived and died and no record of them remains, and +they only sought to gain dominions and riches in order that their fame +might be ever-lasting. How many were those who lived in scarcity of +worldly goods in order to grow rich in virtue; and as far as virtue +exceeds wealth, even in the same degree the desire of the poor man +proved more fruitful than that of the rich man. {9} Dost thou not see +that wealth in itself confers no honour on him who amasses it, which +shall last when he is dead, as does knowledge?--knowledge which shall +always bear witness like a clarion to its creator, since knowledge is +the daughter of its creator, and not the stepdaughter, like wealth. + + +[Sidenote: The World] + +17. + +Bountiful nature has provided that in all parts of the world you will +find something to imitate. + + +18. + +[Sidenote: The Beauty of Life] + +Consider in the streets at nightfall the faces of men and women when it +is bad weather, what grace and sweetness they manifest! + + +19. + +Just as iron which is not used grows rusty, and water putrefies and +freezes in the cold, so the mind of which no use is made is spoilt. + + +[Sidenote: Fruitless Study] + +20. + +Just as food eaten without appetite is a tedious nourishment, so does +study without zeal damage the memory by not assimilating what it +absorbs. + + +21. + +Truth was the only daughter of time. + + +{10} + +[Sidenote: In Praise of Truth] + +22. + +So vile a thing is a lie that even if it spoke fairly of God it would +take away somewhat from His divinity; and so excellent a thing is truth +that if it praises the humblest things they are exalted. There is no +doubt that truth is to falsehood as light is to darkness; and so +excellent a thing is truth that even when it touches humble and lowly +matters, it still incomparably exceeds the uncertainty and falsehood in +which great and elevated discourses are clothed; because even if +falsehood be the fifth element of our minds, notwithstanding this, +truth is the supreme nourishment of the higher intellects, though not +of disorderly minds. But thou who feedest on dreams dost prefer the +sophistry and subterfuges in matters of importance and uncertainty to +what is certain and natural, though of lesser magnitude. + + +23. + +Obstacles in the way of truth are finally punished. + + +[Sidenote: Versus Humanists] + +24. + +I am well aware that not being a literary man the presumptuous will +think that they have the right to blame me on the ground that I am not +a man of letters. Vainglorious people! Know they not that I could +make answer as Marius did to the Roman people, and say: They who make a +{11} display with the labours of others will not allow me mine? They +will say that being unskilled in letters I cannot find true expression +for the matters of which I desire to treat; they do not know that in my +subjects experience is a truer guide than the words of others, for +experience was the teacher of all great writers, and therefore I take +her for guide, and I will cite her in all cases. + + +25. + +Although I may not be able to quote other authors, as they do, I can +quote from a greater and more worthy source, namely, experience,--the +teacher of their masters. They go about swelled with pride and +pomposity, dressed up and bedight, not with their own labour, but with +that of others; and they will not concede me mine. And if they despise +me, who am a creator, far more are they, who do not create but trumpet +abroad and exploit the works of other men, to be blamed. + + +[Sidenote: Authority] + +26. + +He who in reasoning cites authority is making use of his memory rather +than of his intellect. + + +[Sidenote: On Commentators] + +27. + +Men who are creators and interpreters of nature to man, in comparison +with boasters and exploiters of the works of others, must be judged +{12} and esteemed like the object before the mirror as compared with +its image reflected in the mirror.--one being something in itself, and +the other nothing. Little to nature do they owe, since it is merely by +chance they wear the human form, and but for it I might include them +with herds of cattle. + + +28. + +A well lettered man is so because he is well natured, and just as the +cause is more admirable than the effect, so is a good disposition, +unlettered, more praiseworthy than a well lettered man who is without +natural disposition. + + +29. + +Against certain commentators who disparage the inventors of antiquity, +the originators of science and grammar, and who attack the creators of +antiquity; and because they through laziness and the convenience of +books have not been able to create, they attack their masters with +false reasoning. + + +30. + +It is better to imitate ancient than modern work. + + +[Sidenote: Experience] + +31. + +Wisdom is the daughter of experience. + + +[Sidenote: Experience never Errs] + +32. + +Wrongly men complain of experience, which {13} with great railing they +accuse of falsehood. Leave experience alone, and turn your lamentation +to your ignorance, which leads you, with your vain and foolish desires, +to promise yourselves those things which are not in her power to +confer, and to accuse her of falsehood. Wrongly men complain of +innocent experience, when they accuse her not seldom of false and lying +demonstrations. + + +33. + +Experience never errs; it is only your judgements that err, ye who look +to her for effects which our experiments cannot produce. Because given +a principle, that which ensues from it is necessarily the true +consequence of that principle, unless it be impeded. Should there, +however, be any obstacle, the effect which should ensue from the +aforesaid principle will participate in the impediment as much or as +little as the impediment is operative in regard to the aforesaid +principle. + + +34. + +Experience, the interpreter between creative nature and the human race, +teaches the action of nature among mortals: how under the constraint of +necessity she cannot act otherwise than as reason, who steers her helm, +teaches her to act. + + +35. + +All our knowledge is the offspring of our perceptions. + + +{14} + +[Sidenote: Origin of Knowledge] + +36. + +The sense ministers to the soul, and not the soul sense; and where the +sense which ministers ceases to serve the soul, all the functions of +that sense are lacking in life, as is evident in those who are born +dumb and blind. + + +[Sidenote: Testimony of the Senses] + +37. + +And if thou sayest that sight impedes the security and subtlety of +mental meditation, by reason of which we penetrate into divine +knowledge, and that this impediment drove a philosopher to deprive +himself of his sight, I answer that the eye, as lord of the senses, +performs its duty in being an impediment to the confusion and lies of +that which is not science but discourse, by which with much noise and +gesticulation argument is constantly conducted; and hearing should do +the same, feeling, as it does, the offence more keenly, because it +seeks after harmony which devolves on all the senses. And if this +philosopher deprived himself of his sight to get rid of the obstacle to +his discourses, consider that his discourses and his brain were a party +to the act, because the whole was madness. Now could he not have +closed his eyes when this frenzy came upon him, and have kept them +closed until the frenzy consumed itself? But the man was mad, the +discourse insane, and egregious the folly of destroying his eye-sight. + +{15} + +[Sidenote: Judgement prone to Error] + +38. + +There is nothing which deceives us as much as our own judgement. + + +39. + +The greatest deception which men incur proceeds from their opinions. + + +40. + +Avoid the precepts of those thinkers whose reasoning is not confirmed +by experience. + +[Sidenote: Intelligence of Animals] + +41. + +Man discourseth greatly, and his discourse is for the greater part +empty and false; the discourse of animals is small, but useful and +true: slender certainty is better than portentous falsehood. + + +42. + +What is an element? It is not in man's power to define the quiddity of +the elements, but a great many of their effects are known. + + +43. + +That which is divisible in fact is divisible in potentiality also; but +not all quantities which are divisible in potentiality are divisible in +fact. + + +[Sidenote: Infinity incomprehensible] + +44. + +What is that thing which is not defined and would {16} not exist if it +were defined? It is infinity, which if it could be defined would be +limited and finite, because that which can be defined ends with the +limits of its circumference, and that which cannot be defined has no +limits. + + +45. + +O contemplators of things, do not pride yourselves for knowing those +things which nature by herself and her ordination naturally conduces; +but rejoice in knowing the purposes of those things which are +determined by your mind. + + +[Sidenote: Insoluble Questions] + +46. + +Consider, O reader, how far we can lend credence to the ancients who +strove to define the soul and life,--things which cannot be proved; +while those things which can be clearly known and proved by experience +remained during so many centuries ignored and misrepresented! The eye, +which so clearly demonstrates its functions, has been up to my time +defined in one manner by countless authorities; I by experience have +discovered another definition. + + +[Sidenote: Beauty of Nature's Inventions] + +47. + +Although human ingenuity may devise various inventions which, by the +help of various instruments, answer to one and the same purpose, yet +{17} will it never discover any inventions more beautiful, more simple +or more practical than those of nature, because in her inventions there +is nothing lacking and nothing superfluous; and she makes use of no +counterpoise when she constructs the limbs of animals in such a way as +to correspond to the motion of their bodies, but she puts into them the +soul of the body. This is not the proper place for this discourse, +which belongs rather to the subject of the composition of animated +bodies; and the rest of the definition of the soul I leave to the minds +of the friars, the fathers of the people, who know all secrets by +inspiration. I leave the sacred books alone, because they are the +supreme truth. + + +[Sidenote: Completeness in Knowledge] + +48. + +Those who seek to abbreviate studies do injury to knowledge and to love +because the love of anything is the daughter of this knowledge. The +fervency of the love increases in proportion to the certainty of the +knowledge, and the certainty issues from a complete knowledge of all +the parts, which united compose the totality of the thing which ought +to be loved. Of what value, then, is he who abbreviates the details of +those matters of which he professes to render a complete account, while +he leaves behind the chief part of the things of which the whole is +composed? It is true that impatience, the mother of {18} stupidity, +praises brevity, as if such persons had not life long enough to enable +them to acquire a complete knowledge of one subject such as the human +body! And then they seek to comprehend the mind of God, in which the +universe is included, weighing it and splitting it into infinite +particles, as if they had to dissect it! + +O human folly! dost thou not perceive that thou hast been with thyself +all thy life, and thou art not yet aware of the thing which more fully +than any other thing thou dost possess, namely, thy own folly? And +thou desirest with the multitude of sophists to deceive thyself and +others, despising the mathematical sciences in which truth dwells and +the knowledge of the things which they contain; and then thou dost busy +thyself with miracles, and writest that thou hast attained to the +knowledge of those things which the human mind cannot comprehend, which +cannot be proved by any instance in nature, and thou deemest that thou +hast wrought a miracle in spoiling the work of some speculative mind; +and thou perceivest not that thy error is the same as that of a man who +strips a plant of the ornament of its branches covered with leaves, +mingled with fragrant flowers and fruits. Just as Justinius did when +he abridged the stories written by Trogus Pompeius, who had written +elaborately the noble deeds of his forefathers, which were full of +wonderful beauties of style; and thus {19} he composed a barren work, +worthy only of the impatient spirits who deem that they are wasting the +time which they might usefully employ in studying the works of nature +and mortal affairs. But let such men remain in company with the +beasts; let dogs and other animals full of rapine be their courtiers, +and let them be accompanied with these running ever at their heels! and +let the harmless animals follow, which in the season of the snows come +to the houses begging alms as from their master. + + +[Sidenote: Nature] + +49. + +Nature is full of infinite causes which are beyond the pale of +experience. + + +50. + +Nature in creating first gives size to the abode of the intellect (the +skull, the head), and then to the abode of the vital spirit (the chest). + + +[Sidenote: Law of Necessity] + +51. + +Necessity is the mistress and guide of nature. Necessity is the theme +and inventress of nature, her curb and her eternal law. + + +52. + +When anything is the cause of any other thing, and brings about by its +movement any effect, {20} the movement of the effect necessarily +follows the movement of the cause. + + +[Sidenote: Of Lightning in the Clouds] + +53. + +O mighty and once living instrument of creative nature, unable to avail +thyself of thy great strength thou must needs abandon a life of +tranquillity and obey the law which God and time gave to Nature the +mother. Ah! how often the frighted shoals of dolphins and great tunny +fish were seen fleeing before thy inhuman wrath; whilst thou, +fulminating with swift beating of wings and twisted tail, raised in the +sea a sudden storm with buffeting and sinking of ships and tossing of +waves, filling the naked shores with terrified and distracted fishes. + + +[Sidenote: The Human Eye] + +54. + +Since the eye is the window of the soul, the soul is always fearful of +losing it, so much so that if a man is suddenly frightened by the +motion or an object before him, he does not with his hands protect his +heart, the source of all life; nor his head, where dwells the lord of +the senses; nor the organs of hearing, smell and taste. But as soon as +he feels fright it does not suffice him to close the lids of his eyes, +keeping them shut with all his might, but he instantly turns in the +opposite direction; and still not feeling secure he covers his eyes +with one hand, stretching out the {21} other to ward off the danger in +the direction in which he suspects it to lie. Nature again has +ordained that the eye of man shall close of itself, so that remaining +during his sleep without protection it shall suffer no hurt. + + +[Sidenote: Universal Law] + +55. + +Every object naturally seeks to maintain itself in itself. + + +56. + +The part always tends to reunite with its whole in order to escape from +its imperfection; the soul desires to remain with its body, because +without the organic instruments of that body it can neither act nor +feel. + + +57. + +The lover is moved by the object he loves as the senses are by sensible +things; and they unite and become one and the same. The work is the +first thing which is born of this union; if the thing loved is base, +the lover becomes base. When what is united is in harmony with that +which receives it, delight, pleasure and satisfaction ensue. When the +lover is united to the beloved he rests there; when the burden is laid +down it finds rest there. + + +58. + +A natural action is accomplished in the briefest manner. + + +{22} + +[Sidenote: Nature Variable and Infinite.] + +59. + +To such an extent does nature delight and abound in variety that among +her trees there is not one plant to be found which is exactly like +another; and not only among the plants, but among the boughs, the +leaves and the fruits, you will not find one which is exactly similar +to another. + + +60. + +If nature had made one rule for the quality of limbs, the faces of men +would resemble each other to such a degree that it would not be +possible to distinguish one from the other; but she has varied the five +features of the face in such a way that, although she has made an +almost universal rule with regard to their size, she has not done so +with regard to their quality, so that each one can be clearly +distinguished from the other. + + +61. + +It is an easy matter for him who knows man to arrive at universal +knowledge, since all terrestrial animals are similar in regard to their +structure, that is to say, in regard to the muscles and bones, and they +do not vary save in height and thickness; then there are the aquatic +animals, and I will not persuade the painter that any rule can be made +with regard to these because they are of infinite variety--so are the +insects. + + +{23} + +62. + +The body of anything which is fed is continually dying and being +reborn, since nourishment cannot enter save where the past nourishment +is exhausted; and if it is exhausted, it no longer has life, and if you +do not furnish it with nourishment equal to that which has been before, +you will impair the health of the organism, and if you deprive it of +this nourishment, life will be altogether destroyed. But if you supply +it with so much as can be consumed in a day, then as much life will be +restored as was consumed, like the light of the candle which is +furnished to it by the fuel provided by the moisture of the candle, and +this light with most speedy succour restores beneath what is consumed +above as it dies in dusky smoke; and this death is continuous, likewise +the continuity of the smoke is equal to the continuity of the fuel; and +in the same moment the light dies and is born again together with the +movement of its fuel. + + +63. + +Man and animals are in reality vehicles and conduits of food, tombs of +animals, hostels of Death, coverings that consume, deriving life by the +death of others. + + +[Sidenote: Light] + +64. + +Look on light and consider its beauty. Shut your {24} eyes, and look +again: that which you see was not there before, and that which was, no +longer is. Who is he who remakes it if the producer is continually +dying? + + +65. + +Anaxagoras: Everything proceeds from everything, and everything becomes +everything, because that which exists in the elements is composed of +those elements. + + +[Sidenote: Nature] + +66. + +Nature appears to have been the cruel stepmother rather than the mother +of many animals, and in some cases not the stepmother, but the pitying +mother. + + +67. + +Why did nature not ordain that one animal should not live by the death +of the other? Nature, being inconstant and taking pleasure in +continually creating and making lives and forms, because she knows that +her earthly materials are thereby augmented, is more willing and swift +to create than time is to destroy; and so she has ordained that many +animals shall feed on each other. And as even thus her desire is not +satisfied, she frequently sends forth certain poisonous and +pestilential vapours upon the increasing multitude and congregation of +animals, and especially upon men who increase to a great extent, +because other animals do not feed on them; and since there is no cause, +{25} there would follow no effect. This earth, therefore, seeks to +lose its [animal] life, desiring only continual reproduction, and as, +by the logical demonstration you adduce, effects often resemble their +causes, animals are the image of the life of the world. + + +[Sidenote: Life's Philosophy] + +68. + +Now you see that the hope and the desire of returning home to one's +former state is like the desire of the moth for the light, and the man +who, with constant yearning and joyful expectancy, awaits the new +spring and the new summer, and every new month and the new year, and +thinks that what he longs for is ever too late in coming, and does not +perceive that he is longing for his own destruction. But this desire +is the quintessence, the spirit, of the elements, which, finding itself +captive in the soul of the human body, desires always to return to its +giver. And I would have you know that this same desire is the +quintessence which is inseparable from nature, and that man is the +model of the world. And such is the supreme folly of man that he +labours so as to labour no more, and life flies from him while he +forever hopes to enjoy the goods which he has acquired at the price of +great labour. + + +[Sidenote: The Senses and the Soul] + +69. + +The soul seems to dwell in the intellect, and the intellect appears to +dwell in that part where all {26} the senses meet which is called the +brain, and the brain does not pervade the whole body, as many have +thought; on the contrary, it dwells entirely in one part, because if it +were all in all and the same in every part, it would not have been +necessary for the instruments of the senses to combine among themselves +in one single spot; but rather, it would have been sufficient for the +eye to fulfil the function of its sensation on the surface without +transmitting, by means of the optic nerves, the likeness of its vision +to the brain, so that the soul, for the reason given above, might +perceive it in the surface of the eye. Likewise, with regard to the +sense of hearing, it would have been sufficient if the voice had +sounded only in the porous cavity of the indurated bone which lies +within the ear, without making any further transit from this bone to +the brain, which is its destination and where it discourses with common +judgement. The sense of smell, too, is likewise compelled by necessity +to proceed to the intellect; the sense of touch passes through the +nerves and is conveyed to the brain, and these nerves diverge with +infinite ramification in the skin, which encloses the limbs of the body +and the entrails. The nerves convey volition and sensation to the +muscles, and these nerves and the tendons which lie between the muscles +and the sinews give movement to them; the muscles and sinews obey, and +this obedience takes effect by the decrease {27} of their thickness, +for in swelling their length is reduced, and the tendons which are +interwoven among the particles of the limbs shrink, and as they extend +to the tips of the fingers they transmit to the brain the cause of the +sense of touch which they feel. The tendons with their muscles obey +the nerves as soldiers obey their officers, and the nerves obey the +brain as the officers obey their captain; thus the joint of the bones +obeys the tendon, and the tendons obey the muscles, and the muscles +obey the nerves, and the nerves obey the brain, and the brain is the +dwelling of the soul, and the memory is its ammunition and the +perception is its refundary. + + +[Sidenote: Of Sensation] + +70. + +The brain is that which perceives what is transmitted to it by the +other senses. The brain moves by means of that which is transmitted to +it by the five senses. Motion is transmitted to the senses by objects, +and these objects, transmitting their images to the five senses, are +transferred by them to the perception, and by the perception to the +brain; and there they are comprehended and committed to the memory, in +which, according to their intensity, they are more or less firmly +retained. + +The thinkers of ancient times concluded that the part of man which +constitutes his intellect is caused by an instrument to which the other +five {28} senses refer everything by means of the perception, and this +instrument they have named the "common sense" or brain, and they say +that this sense is situated in the centre of the head. And they have +given it this name "common sense" solely because it is the common judge +of the five other senses, that is to say, sight, hearing, touch, taste +and smell. The "common sense" is stirred by means of the perception +which is placed between it and the senses. The perception is stirred +by means of the images of things conveyed to it by the external +instruments to the senses, and these are placed in the centre between +the external things and the perception, and the senses likewise are +stirred by objects. Surrounding objects transmit their images to the +senses, and the senses transfer them to the perception, and the +perception transfers them to the "common sense" (brain), and by it they +are stamped upon the memory, and are there retained in a greater or +lesser degree according to the importance and intensity of the +impression. The sense which is most closely connected with the +perception is the most rapid in action, and this sense is the eye, the +highest and chief of the others; of this sense alone we will treat, and +we will leave the others in order not to unduly lengthen our matter. + + +[Sidenote: Automatic Movements] + +71. + +Nature has ordained for man the ministering {29} muscles which exercise +the sinews, and by means of which the limbs can be moved according to +the will and desire of the brain, like to officers distributed by a +ruler over many provinces and towns, who represent their ruler in these +places, and obey his will. And this officer, who will in a single +instance have most faithfully obeyed the orders he received from his +master by word of mouth, will afterwards, in a similar way, of his own +accord fulfil the wishes of his master. + +An example of this can be frequently seen in the fingers, which learn +to perform on an instrument the things which the intellect commands, +and the lesson once learnt they will perform it without the aid of the +intellect. And do not the muscles which cause the legs to move perform +their duty without man being conscious of it? + + +72. + +You will see palsied and shivering persons move, and their trembling +limbs, such as their head and hands, quiver, without the permission of +the soul, and the soul, though it expend all its might, cannot prevent +these limbs from trembling. The same thing occurs in epilepsy or when +limbs are partially truncated, as in the case of tails of lizards. + + +[Sidenote: Intellect] + +73. + +It happens that our intellect is that which prompts the hand to create +the features of figures in {30} divine aspects until it finds +satisfaction; and since the intellect is one of the tones of our soul, +by means of the soul it composes the form of the body where it dwells, +according to its volition. And when it has to reproduce a human body, +it takes pleasure in repeating the body which it originally created; +whence it follows that they who fall in love are prone to become +enamoured of what resembles them. + + +[Sidenote: Of the Senses] + +74. + +There are the four powers: memory, intellect, sensuality and lust. The +first two are intellectual, the others sensual. Of the five senses, +sight, hearing, smell are with difficulty prevented; touch and taste +not at all. Taste follows smell in the case of dogs and other greedy +animals. + + +75. + +Why does the eye perceive things more clearly in dreams than with the +imagination when one is awake? + + +[Sidenote: Time] + +76. + +Although time is included among continuous quantities, being +indivisible and immaterial it does not altogether fall into the scope +of geometry,--by which it is divided into figures and bodies of +infinite variety, which are seen to be continuous inasmuch as they are +visible and material,--but it agrees only with its first principles, +{31} i.e. with the point and the line; the point in time may be +compared to an instant, and the line to the length of a certain +quantity of time. Just as the point is the beginning and end of a +line, so is an instant the beginning and end of any given space of +time; and just as a line is infinitely divisible, so can a given space +of time be likewise divided, and as the divisions of the line are in +proportion to each other, so likewise are the divisions of time. + + +77. + +In twelve whole figures the cosmography of the miniature world will be +shown to you in the same manner as Ptolemy in his cosmography. And so +I will divide it afterwards into limbs as he divided the world into +provinces; then I will explain the function of the parts in every +direction, and put before your eyes a description of the whole figure +and substance of man as regards his movements by means of his limbs. +And thus if it please our great author I will demonstrate the nature of +man and his habits in the way I describe his form. + + +[Sidenote: On the Human Body] + +78. + +And thou, O man, who wilt gaze in this work of mine on the marvellous +works of nature, if thou thinkest it would be an act of wickedness to +destroy it, think how much more wicked it is to take the life of a man; +and if this his structure appears to thee a miraculous work of art, +remember that {32} it is nothing in comparison with the soul which +inhabits this structure; for verily, whatever it may be, it is divine. +Let it, then, dwell in His work and at His good will, and let not thy +rage or malice destroy so great a thing as life, for he who does not +value it does not deserve it. + + +[Sidenote: The Experimental Method] + +79. + +By these rules thou wilt be able to distinguish falsehood from truth by +means of which knowledge men aim at possible things with greater +moderation; and do not veil thyself in ignorance, for the result of +this would be that thou wouldst be ineffectual and fall into melancholy +and despair. + + +[Sidenote: Of Navigation below the Waters] + +80. + +How by the aid of a machine many may remain for some time under water. +And how and why I do not describe my method of remaining under water +and of living long without food; and I do not publish nor divulge these +things by reason of the evil nature of man, who would use them for +assassinations at the bottom of the sea and to destroy and sink ships, +together with the men on board of them; and notwithstanding I will +teach other things which are not dangerous.... + + +[Sidenote: Of Physiognomy] + +81. + +I will not dwell on false physiognomy and chiromancy {33} because there +is no truth in them, and this is manifest because chimeras of this kind +have no scientific foundation. It is true that the lineaments of the +face partly reveal the character of men, their vices and temperaments; +but in the face: (a) the features which separate the cheeks from the +lips, and the nostrils and cavities of the eyes, are strongly marked if +they belong to cheerful and good-humoured men, and if they are slightly +marked it denotes that the men to whom they belong are given to +meditation, (b) Those whose features stand out in great relief and +depth are brutal and bad-tempered, and reason little, (c) Those who +have strongly marked lines between the eyebrows are bad-tempered, (d) +Those who have strongly marked lines on the forehead are men full of +concealed or unconcealed bewailing. + +And we can reason thus about many features. But the hand? You will +find that whole armies perished in the same hour by the sword in which +no two men had similar marks in their hands, and the same argument +applies to a shipwreck. + + +[Sidenote: Of Pain] + +82. + +Nature has placed in the front part of man, as he moves, all those +parts which when struck cause him to feel pain; and this is felt in the +joints of the legs, the forehead and the nose, and has been so devised +for the preservation of man, because {34} if such pain were not felt in +these limbs they would be destroyed by the many blows they receive. + + +[Sidenote: Why Plants do not feel Pain] + +83. + +While nature has ordained that animals should feel pain in order that +the instruments which might be liable to be maimed or marred by motion +may be preserved, plants do not come into collision with the objects +which are before them; whence pain is not a necessity for them, and +therefore when they are broken they do not feel pain, as animals do. + + +84. + +Lust is the cause of generation. + +Appetite is the support of life. + +Fear or timidity is the prolongation of life. + +Pain is the preserver of the instrument (of the human frame). + + +[Sidenote: Fear] + +85. + +Just as courage is the danger of life, so is fear its safeguard. + + +[Sidenote: Body and Soul] + +86. + +Let him who wishes to see how the soul inhabits its body observe what +use the body makes of its daily habitation; that is to say, if the soul +is full of confusion and disorder the body will be kept in disorder and +confusion by the soul. + +{35} + +87. + +The soul can never be corrupted with the corruption of the body, but it +is like the wind which causes the sound of the organ, and which ceases +to produce a good effect when a pipe is spoilt. + + +[Sidenote: Memory] + +88. + +Every loss which we incur leaves behind it vexation in the memory, save +the greatest loss of all, that is, death, which annihilates the memory, +together with life. + + +[Sidenote: Spirit] + +89. + +Our body is subject to Heaven, and Heaven is subject to the Spirit. + + +[Sidenote: Sense and Reason] + +90. + +The senses are earthly; reason lies outside them when in contemplation. + + +91. + +Where most feeling exists, there amongst martyrs is the greatest martyr. + + +92. + +That which can be lost cannot be deemed riches. Virtue is our true +wealth and the true reward of its possessor; it cannot be lost, it +never deserts us until life leaves us. Hold property and external +riches with fear; they often leave their possessor scorned and mocked +at for having lost them. + + +{36} + +[Sidenote: Flight of Time] + +93. + +Men wrongly lament the flight of time, blaming it for being too swift; +they do not perceive that its passage is sufficiently long, but a good +memory, which nature has given to us, causes things long past to seem +present. + + +[Sidenote: Illusions] + +94. + +Our intellect does not judge events which happened at various intervals +of time in their true proportion, because many things which happened +years ago appear recent and close to the present, and often recent +things appear old and seem to belong to our past childhood. The eye +does likewise with regard to distant objects which in the light of the +sun appear to be close to the eye, and many objects which are close +appear to be remote. + + +95. + +Let us not lack ways and means of dividing and measuring these our +wretched days, which we ought to take pleasure in spending and living +not vainly and not without praise, nor without leaving any memory in +the minds of men, so that this our miserable existence may not be spent +in vain. + + +[Sidenote: Virtuous Life] + +96. + +The age which flies glides by in stealth and deceives others; and +nothing is more swift than the years, and he who sows virtue reaps +glory. + +{37} + +[Sidenote: Sleep and Death] + +97. + +O sleeper, what is sleep? Sleep is like unto death. Why dost thou not +work in such wise that after death thou mayst have the semblance of +perfect life, just as during life thou hast in thy sleep the semblance +of the hapless dead? + + +98. + +The water you touch in a river is the last of that which has gone, and +the first of that which is coming: so it is with time present. + + +99. + +A long life is a life well spent. + + +[Sidenote: Life] + +100. + +As a well spent day affords happy sleep, so does a life profitably +employed afford a happy death. + + +[Sidenote: Time the Destroyer] + +101. + +O time, consumer of things! O envious age! Thou dost destroy all +things, and consumest all things with the hard teeth of old age, little +by little in a slow death. Helen, when she looked in her mirror and +saw the withered wrinkles made in her face by old age, wept, and +wondered why she had twice been ravished. O time, devourer of things! +O envious age, by which all is consumed! + + +{38} + +[Sidenote: On Fault-finders] + +102. + +There exists among the foolish a certain sect of hypocrites who +continually seek to deceive themselves and others, but others more than +themselves, though in reality they deceive themselves more than others. +And these are they who blame the painters who study on feast-days the +things which relate to the true knowledge of the forms of the works of +nature, and sedulously strive to acquire knowledge of these things to +the best of their ability. + +But such fault-finders pass over in silence the fact that this is the +true manner of knowing the Artificer of such great and marvellous +things, and that this is the true way in which to love so great an +Inventor! For great love proceeds from the perfect knowledge of the +thing loved; and if you do not know it you can love it but little or +not at all; and if you love it for the gain which you anticipate +obtaining from it and not for its supreme virtue, you are like the dog +which wags its tail and shows signs of joy, leaping towards him who can +give him a bone. But if you knew the virtue of a man you would love +him more--if that virtue was in its place. + + +[Sidenote: Prayer] + +103. + +I obey Thee, Lord, first for the love which in reason I ought to bear +Thee; secondly because Thou {39} hast the power to shorten or prolong +the lives of men. + + +104. + +Thou, O God, dost sell us all good things at the price of labour. + + +105. + +And many make a trade deceiving the foolish multitude, and if no one +comes to unmask their deceits, they punish it. + + +106. + +Pharisees,--that is to say, holy friars. + + +107. + +Nothing can be written by means of new researches. + + +[Sidenote: Patience] + +108. + +Patience serves against insults as clothes do against the cold; since +if you multiply your clothes as the cold increases, the cold cannot +hurt you. Similarly, let thy patience increase under great offences, +and they will not be able to hurt your feelings. + + +[Sidenote: Advice to a Speaker] + +109. + +Words which do not satisfy the ear of the listener will always weary or +annoy him; and you will often see signs of this in such listeners in +their frequent yawns. Therefore, you who speak before men whose good +opinion you seek, when you {40} observe such signs of vexation, shorten +your speech or vary your argument; and if you do otherwise, then +instead of the favour you seek you will incur hate and hostility. + +And if you would see what gives pleasure to a man speak to him on +various themes, and when you see him intent, without yawning, or +contracting his brow, or performing other actions, then be certain that +the matter of which you are speaking is such as affords him pleasure. + + +[Sidenote: Advice] + +110. + +Here is a thing which the more it is needed the more it is rejected: +and this is advice, which is unwillingly heeded by those who most need +it, that is to say, by the ignorant. + +Here is a thing which the more you fear and avoid it the nearer you +approach to it, and this is misery; the more you flee from it the more +miserable and restless you will become. When the work comes up to the +standard of the judgement, this is a bad sign for the judgement; and +when the work excels the standard of the judgement, this is the worst +sign, as occurs when a man marvels at having worked so well; and when +the standard of the judgement exceeds that fulfilled by the work, this +is a sign of perfection; and if the man is young and be thus disposed, +he will without doubt grow into an excellent workman: he will only +accomplish few works. But they will {41} be of a quality which will +compel men to contemplate their perfection with admiration. + + +[Sidenote: Proverbs] + +111. + +Nothing should be so greatly feared as empty fame. + +This empty fame issues from vices. + +A broken vase of clay can be remodelled, but this is no longer possible +when it has been baked. + +The vow is born when hope dies. + +The beautiful is not always the good. And the fine talkers labour +under this error without any reason. + +He who wishes to grow rich in a day will be hanged in a year. + +The memory of benefits is a frail defence against ingratitude. + +Reprove your friend in secret and praise him in public. + +He who fears dangers will not perish by them. + +The evil which does me no harm is like the good which in no wise avails +me. + +He who offends others is not himself secure. + +Be not false about the past. + +Folly is the shield of lies, just as unreadiness is the defence of +poverty. + +Where there is liberty, there is no rule. + +{42} + +Here is a thing which the more it is heeded the more it is +spurned,--advice. + +It is ill to praise, and worse to blame, the thing which you do not +understand. + +On Mount Etna the words freeze in your mouth and you make ice of them. + +Threats are the only weapons of the threatened man. + +Ask advice of him who governs himself well. + +Justice needs power, intelligence and will, and is like the Queen Bee. + +Not to punish evil is equivalent to authorizing it. + +He who takes the snake by the tail will be bitten by it. + +The pit will fall in upon him who digs it. + +He who does not restrain voluptuousness is in the category of the +beasts. + +You can have no dominion greater or less than that over yourself. + +He who thinks little errs much. + +It is easier to contend at the first than at the last. + +No counsel is more sincere than that given on ships which are in danger. + +Let him who acts on the advice of the young expect loss. + +You grow in reputation like bread in the hands of a child. + +{43} + +Cannot beauty and utility be combined--as appears in citadels and men? + +He who is without fear often incurs great losses, and is often full of +regret. + +If you governed your body according to virtue you would not live in +this world. + +Where good fortune enters, envy lays siege to her and attacks her, and +when she departs sorrow and regret remain behind. + +When beauty exists side by side with ugliness, the one seems more +powerful, owing to the presence of the other. + +He who walks straight rarely falls. + +O miserable race of man! of how many things you make yourself the slave +for the sake of money! + +The worst evil which can befall the artist is that his work should +appear good in his own eyes. + +To speak well of a bad man is the same as speaking ill of a good man. + +Truth ordains that lying tongues shall be punished by the lie. + +He who does not value life does not deserve it. + +The beautiful works of mortals pass and do not endure. + +Labour flies with fame almost hidden in its arm. + +The gold in ingots is refined in the fire. + +{44} + +The shuttle says: I will continue to move until the cloth is woven. + +Everything that is crooked is straightened. + +Great ruin proceeds from a slight cause. + +Fine gold is recognized when it is tested. + +The image will correspond to the die. + +The wall will fall on him who scrapes it. + +Ivy lives long. + +To the traitor, death is life, because if he makes use of others he is +no longer believed. + +When fortune comes seize her in front firmly, because behind she is +bald. + +Constancy means, not he who begins, but he who perseveres. + +I do not yield to obstacles. + +Every obstacle is overcome by resolve. + +He who is chained to a star does not change. + + +[Sidenote: Truth] + +112. + +Fire destroys falsehood,--that is to say, sophistry,--and rehabilitates +truth, scattering the darkness. + +Fire must be represented as the consumer of all sophistry and the +revealer of truth, because it is light and scatters darkness which +conceals all essences. + +Fire destroys all sophistry,--that is to say, deceit,--and preserves +truth alone, which is gold. {45} Truth cannot be concealed in the end, +dissimulation is of no avail. Dissimulation is frustrated before so +great a judge. Falsehood puts on a mask. + +There is nothing hidden under the sun. Fire must represent truth +because it destroys all sophistry and lies, and the mask is for +sophistry and lies, which conceal truth. + + +113. + +Rather privation of limbs than weariness of doing good. The power of +using my limbs shall fail me before the power of being useful. Rather +death than weariness. I cannot be satiated with serving. I do not +weary of giving help. No amount of work is sufficient to weary me. +This is a carnival motto: "Sine lassitudine." Hands in which ducats +and precious stones abound like snow never grow weary of serving, but +such a service is for its utility only and not for our profit. Nature +has formed me thus. + + +[Sidenote: Ingratitude] + +114. + +This shall be placed in the hand of ingratitude: The wood nourishes the +fire that consumes it. When the sun, the scatterer of darkness, +shines, you put out the light which for you in particular, and for your +need and convenience, expelled the darkness. + + +[Sidenote: Physiological Inferiority of Man] + +115. + +I have found that in the composition of the human body as compared with +the bodies of {46} animals the senses are less subtle and coarser; it +is thus composed of less ingenious machinery and of cells less capable +of receiving the power of senses. I have seen that in the lion the +sense of smell is connected with the substance of the brain and +descends through the nostrils which form an ample receptacle for it; +and it enters into a great number of cartilaginous cells which are +provided with many passages in order to receive the brain. A large +part of the head of the lion is given up to the sockets of the eyes, +and the optic nerves are in immediate contact with the brain; the +contrary occurs in man, because the sockets of the eyes occupy a small +portion of the head, and the optic nerves are subtle and long and weak, +and owing to the weakness of their action we see little by day and less +at night; and the animals above mentioned see better at night than in +the daytime; and the proof of this is that they seek their prey at +night and sleep during the daytime, as do also the nocturnal birds. + + +[Sidenote: Man's Ethical Inferiority] + +116. + +Thou hast described him king of animals, but I would rather say, king +of beasts, thou being the greatest--for hast thou not slain them in +order that they may give thee their children to glut thy greed with +which thou hast striven to make a sepulchre for all animals? And I +would say still more if I might speak the whole truth. But let us {47} +confine ourselves to human matters, relating one supreme infamy, which +is not to be found among the animals of the earth; because among these +you will not find animals who eat their young, except when they are +utterly foolish (and there are few indeed of such among them), and this +occurs only among the beasts of prey, such as the lions, and leopards, +panthers, lynxes, cats and the like, which sometimes feed on their +young; but thou, besides thy children, dost devour thy father, thy +mother, thy brother and thy friends; and not satisfied with this, thou +goest forth to hunt on the islands of others, seizing other men and +these half naked ... thou fattenest and chasest them down thy own +throat. Now does not nature produce enough vegetables for thee to +satisfy thyself? And if thou art not content with vegetables, canst +thou not by a mixture of them make infinite compounds as Platina wrote, +and other writers on food? + + +[Sidenote: Man in the Animal World] + +117. + +The description of man, including that of such creatures belonging +almost to the same species, such as apes, monkeys and the like, of +which there are many. + + +118. + +The way of walking in man is similar in all cases to the universal way +of walking in four-footed animals, because, just as they move their +feet {48} crosswise, like a trotting horse, so man moves his four limbs +crosswise, that is to say, in walking he puts forward his right foot +simultaneously with his left arm, and so on vice versa. + + +119. + +Write a special treatise to describe the movements of four-footed +animals, among which is man, who in his childhood also walks on four +feet. + + +[Sidenote: Fragment of a Letter] + +120. + +There is one who having promised me much less than his due, and being +disappointed of his presumptuous desire, has tried to deprive me of all +my friends; and finding them wise and not pliable to his will, he has +threatened me that he would bring accusations against me and alienate +my benefactors from me: hence I have informed Your Lordship of this, so +that this man, who wishes to sow the usual scandals, may not find a +soil fit for sowing the thoughts and deeds of his evil nature; and that +when he tries to make Your Lordship the tool of his infamous and +malicious nature he may be disappointed of his desire. + + +[Sidenote: Giacomo of Pupil of Leonardo] + +121. + +On the 23d of April, 1490, I began this book; and started again on the +horse. Giacomo came to live with me on Saint Mary Magdalen's day in +1490; {49} he was ten years old. He was a thief, a liar, obstinate, +and a glutton. On the second day I had two shirts made for him, a pair +of socks and a jerkin, and when I placed the money aside to pay for +these things, he stole it out of the purse and I could never force him +to confess the fact, though I was quite certain of it--4 lire. On the +following day I went to sup with Giacomo Andrea, and this same Giacomo +supped for two and did mischief for four, since he broke three bottles, +spilled the wine, and after this came to sup where I... Item: on the +7th of September he stole a silver point, worth twelve soldi, from +Marco, who was living with me, and took it from his studio; and when +Marco had looked for it for some time he found it hidden in Giacomo's +box--lire 1, soldi 2. Item: on the 26th of the following January, +being in the house of Messer Galeazzo di San Severino, in order to +arrange the festivity of his joust, and certain henchmen having +undressed to try on the costumes of rustics who were to take part in +the aforesaid festivity, Giacomo took the purse of one of them, which +was on the bed with other clothes, and stole the money he found in +it--2 lire, 4 soldi. Item: Maestro Agostino of Padua gave me while I +was in the same house a Turkish hide to have a pair of shoes made of +it, and Giacomo stole this from me within a month and sold it to a +cobbler for 20 soldi, with which money by his own confession he bought +sweets of aniseed. Item: {50} again, on the 2d of April, Giovanni +Antonio left a silver point on one of his drawings, and Giacomo stole +it; it was worth 24 soldi,--1 lire, 4 soldi. The first year a cloak, 2 +lire; six shirts, 4 lire; three doublets, 6 lire: four pairs of socks, +7 lire, 8 soldi. + + +122. + +And in this case I know that I shall make not a few enemies, since no +one will believe what I say of him; because there are but few whom his +vices have disgusted, indeed they only disgusted those men whose +natures are contrary to such vices; and many hate their fathers and +break off friendship with those who reprove their vices, and they will +have no examples brought up against them, nor tolerate any advice. And +if you meet with any one who is good and virtuous drive him not away +from you, do him honour, so that he may not have to flee from you and +hide in hermitages, or caverns and other solitary spots, in order to +escape from your treachery; and if there be such an one do him honour, +because these are your gods upon earth, they deserve statues from you +and images ... but remember that you are not to eat their images, as is +practised still in some parts of India, where, when images have +performed some miracle, the priests cut them in pieces (since they are +of wood) and distribute them among the people of the country, not {51} +without payment, and each one grates his portion very fine and puts it +upon the first food he eats; and thus they believe that they have eaten +their saint by faith, who will preserve them from all perils. What is +thy opinion, O man, of thy own species? Art thou so wise as thou +believest to be? Are these things to be done by men? + + +[Sidenote: Pleasure and Pain] + +123. + +This represents pleasure together with pain because one is never +separated from the other; they are depicted back to back because they +are opposed to each other; they are represented in one body because +they have the same basis, because the source of pleasure is labour +mingled with pain, and the pain issues from the various evil pleasures. +And it is therefore represented with a reed in its right hand which is +ineffectual and devoid of strength, and the wounds inflicted by it are +poisonous. In Tuscany such reeds are placed to support beds, to +signify that this is the place of idle dreams, that here a great part +of life is consumed, here much useful time is wasted, that is, the +morning hours when the mind is sober and rested and the body disposed +to start on fresh labours; there, again, many vain pleasures are +enjoyed by the mind, which pictures to itself impossible things, and by +the body, which indulges in those pleasures that are so often the cause +of the {52} failing of life; and for this reason the reed is used as +their support. + + +[Sidenote: Brain and Soul] + +124. + +The spirit returns to the brain whence it had departed, with a loud +voice and uttering these words: + +O blissful and fortunate spirit, whence comest thou? I have known this +man well, against my will. He is a receptacle of villainy, he is a +very heap of the highest ingratitude combined with all the other vices. +But why should I tire myself with vain words? Nothing is to be found +in him save the accumulation of all sins, and if there is to be found +among them any that possess good, they will not be treated differently +than I have been by other men; in short I have come to the conclusion +that they are bad if they are enemies, and worse if they are friends. + + +[Sidenote: Of the Eye] + +125. + +The eye, which reflects the beauty of the universe to those who see, is +so excellent a thing that he who consents to its loss deprives himself +of the spectacle of the works of nature; and it is owing to this +spectacle, effected by means of the eye, which enables the soul to +behold the various objects of nature, that the soul is content to +remain in the prison of the body; but he who loses his eyesight leaves +the soul in a dark prison, where {53} all hope of once more beholding +the sun, the light of the whole world, is lost.... And how many are +they who feel great hatred for the darkness of night, although it is +brief. Oh! what would they do were they constrained to abide in this +darkness during the whole of their life? Certainly there is no one who +would not rather lose his hearing or his sense of smell than his +eyesight, and the loss of hearing includes the loss of all sciences +which find expression in words; and this loss a man would incur solely +so as not to be deprived of the sight of the beauty of the world which +consists in the surfaces of bodies artificial as well as natural, which +are reflected in the human eye. + + +[Sidenote: The Eye in Animal Life] + +126. + +Animals suffer greater loss in losing their sight than their hearing +for many reasons: firstly, because it is by means of their sight that +they find the food which is their nourishment, and is necessary for all +animals; secondly, because by means of sight the beauty of created +things is apprehended, especially those which lead to love, while he +who is born blind cannot apprehend such beauty by hearing, because he +has never received any knowledge as to what is beauty of any kind. +There remains hearing, by which I mean only the human voice and speech; +they contain the names of all things whatsoever. It is possible to +live happily without the knowledge of these {54} words, as is seen in +those who are born deaf, that is to say, the dumb, who take delight in +drawing. + + +[Sidenote: Ascension of Monte Rosa] + +127. + +I say that the azure we see in the atmosphere is not its true colour, +but is caused by warm moisture evaporated in minute and insensible +atoms which the solar rays strike, rendering them luminous against the +darkness of the infinite night of the fiery region which lies beyond +and includes them. And this may be seen, as I saw it, by him who +ascends Mounboso (Monte Rosa), a peak of the Alps which separates +France from Italy. The base of this mountain gives birth to the four +large rivers which in four different directions water the whole of +Europe; and no mountain has its base at so great a height as this. It +rises to such a height that it almost lifts itself up above the clouds; +snow seldom falls on it, but only hail in summer, when the clouds are +at their greatest height, and this hail is preserved there so that were +it not for the absorption of the rising and falling clouds, which does +not occur twice in an age, a great quantity of ice would be piled up +there by the hail, which in the middle of July I found to be very +considerable; and I saw above me the dark air, and the sun which struck +the mountain shone far lighter than in the plains below, because a +lesser quantity of atmosphere lay between the summit of the mountain +and the sun. + +{55} + +[Sidenote: Prophecies] + +128. + +Men will communicate with each other from the most distant countries, +and reply. + +Many will abandon their own habitations and take with them their own +goods, and go and inhabit other countries. + +Men will pursue the thing which they most greatly fear; that is to say, +they will be miserable in order to avoid falling into misery. + +Men standing in separate hemispheres will converse with each other, +embrace each other, and understand each other's language. + + +129. + +We should not desire the impossible. + + + + +{59} + +II + +THOUGHTS ON ART + + * * + * + +[Sidenote: Painting declines when aloof from Nature] + +The painter's work will be of little merit if he takes the painting of +others as his standard, but if he studies from nature he will produce +good fruits; as is seen in the case of the painters of the age after +the Romans, who continued to imitate one another and whose art +consequently declined from age to age. After these came Giotto the +Florentine, who was born in the lonely mountains, inhabited only by +goats and similar animals; and he, being drawn to his art by nature, +began to draw on the rocks the doings of the goats of which he was the +keeper; and thus he likewise began to draw all the animals which he met +with in the country: so that after long study he surpassed not only all +the masters of his age, but all those of many past centuries. After +him art relapsed once more, because all artists imitated the painted +pictures, and thus from century to century it went on declining, until +Tomaso the Florentine, called Masaccio, proved by his perfect work that +they who set up for themselves a standard other than nature, the +mistress of all masters, labour in vain. + +{60} + +Thus I wish to say, in regard to these mathematical matters, that they +who merely study the masters and not the works of nature are the +grandchildren, and not the children, of nature, the mistress of good +masters. I abhor the supreme folly of those who blame the disciples of +nature in defiance of those masters who were themselves her pupils. + + +[Sidenote: Its Origin] + +2. + +The first picture was a single line, drawn round the shadow of a man +cast by the sun on the wall. + + +3. + +Vastness of the field of painting: All that is visible is included in +the science of painting. + + +[Sidenote: Defence of Painting] + +4. + +With due lamentation Painting complains that it has been expelled from +the liberal arts, because it is the true daughter of nature and is +practised by means of the most worthy of the senses. Whence wrongly, O +writers, you have excluded painting from the liberal arts, since it not +only includes in its range the works of nature, but also infinite +things which nature never created. + + +5. + +Because writers have had no knowledge of the science of painting, they +have not been able to {61} describe its gradations and parts, and since +painting itself does not reveal itself nor its artistic work in words, +it has remained, owing to ignorance, behind the sciences mentioned +above, but it has thereby lost nothing of its divinity. And truly it +is not without reason that men have failed to honour it, because it +does honour to itself without the aid of the speech of others, just as +do the excellent works of nature. And if the painters have not +described the art of painting, and reduced it to a science, the fault +must not be imputed to painting and it is no less noble on that +account, since few painters profess a knowledge of letters, as their +life would not be long enough for them to acquire such knowledge. +Therefore we ask, Is the virtue of herbs, stones and plants +non-existent because men have been ignorant of it? Certainly not; but +we will say that these herbs remained noble in themselves without the +aid of human tongues or letters. + + +[Sidenote: Painting] + +6. + +A science is more useful in proportion as its fruits are more widely +understood, and thus, on the other hand, it is less useful in +proportion as it is less widely understood. The fruits of painting can +be apprehended by all the populations of the universe because its +results are subject to the power of sight, and it does not pass by the +ear to the brain, but by the same channel by which {62} sight passes. +Therefore it needs no interpreters of diverse tongues, as letters do, +and it has instantly satisfied the human race in the same manner as the +works of nature have done. And not only the human race, but other +animals; as was shown in a picture representing the father of a family +to whom little children still in the cradle gave caresses, as did the +dog and the cat in the same house; and it was a wonderful thing to see +such a sight. + + +7. + +The arts which admit of exact reproduction are such that the disciple +is on the same level as the creator, and so it is with their fruits. +These are useful to the imitator, but are not of such high excellence +as those which cannot be transmitted as an inheritance like other +substances. Among these painting is the first. Painting cannot be +taught to him on whom nature has not conferred the gift of receiving +such knowledge, as mathematics can be taught, of which the disciple +receives as much as the master gives him; it cannot be copied, as +letters can be, in which the copy equals the original; it cannot be +stamped, in the same way as sculpture, in which the impression is in +proportion to the source as regards the quality of the work; it does +not generate countless children, as do printed books. It alone remains +noble, it alone confers honour on its author and remains precious {63} +and unique, and does not beget children equal to itself. And it is +more excellent by reason of this quality than by reason of those which +are everywhere proclaimed. Now do we not see the great monarchs of the +East going about veiled and covered up from the fear of diminishing +their glory by the manifestation and the divulgation of their presence? +and do we not see that the pictures which represent the divine deity +are kept covered up with inestimable veils? their unveiling is preceded +by great sacred solemnities with various chants and diverse music, and +when they are unveiled, the vast multitude of people who are there +flocked together, immediately prostrate themselves and worship and +invoke those whom such pictures represent that they may regain their +lost holiness and win eternal salvation, just as if the deity were +present in the flesh. This does not occur in any other art or work of +man. And if you say that is owing to the nature of the subject +depicted rather than to the genius of the painter, the answer is that +the mind of man could satisfy itself equally well in this case, were +the man to remain in bed and not make pilgrimages to places which are +perilous and hard of access, as we so often see is the case. But if +such pilgrimages continually exist, what is then their unnecessary +cause? You will certainly admit that it is an image of this kind, and +all the writings in the world could not succeed in representing the +{64} semblance and the power of such a deity. Therefore it appears +that this deity takes pleasure in the pictures and is pleased that it +should be loved and revered, and takes a greater delight in being +worshipped in that rather than in any other semblance of itself, and by +reason of this it bestows grace and gifts of salvation according to the +belief of those who meet together in such a place. + + +[Sidenote: Painting excels all the Works of Man] + +8. + +The eye, which is called the window of the soul, is the principal means +by which the brain can most abundantly and splendidly contemplate the +infinite works of nature; and the ear is the next in order, which is +ennobled by hearing the recital of the things seen by the eye. If you, +historians and poets, or mathematicians, had not seen things with the +eyes, you could not report of them in writing. If thou, O poet, dost +tell a story with thy painting pen, the painter will more easily give +satisfaction in telling it with his brush and in a manner less tedious +and more easily understood. And if thou callest painting mute poetry, +the painter can call poetry blind painting. Now consider which is the +greater loss, to be blind or dumb? Though the poet is as free as the +painter in his creations and compositions, they are not so satisfactory +to men as paintings, because if poetry is able to describe forms, +actions and places in words, the painter deals with the very {65} +semblance of forms in order to represent them. Now consider which is +nearer to man, the name of man or the image of man? The name of man +varies in diverse countries, but death alone changes his form. If thou +wast to say that painting is more lasting, I answer that the works of a +coppersmith, which time preserves longer than thine or ours, are more +eternal still. Nevertheless there is but little invention in it, and +painting on copper with colours of enamel is far more lasting. + +We by our art can be called the grandsons of God. If poetry deals with +moral philosophy, painting deals with natural philosophy; if poetry +describes the action of the contemplative mind, painting represents the +effect in motion of the action of the mind; if poetry terrifies people +with the pictures of Hell, painting does the same by depicting the same +things in action. If a poet challenges the painter to represent +beauty, fierceness, or an evil, an ugly or a monstrous thing, whatever +variety of forms he may produce in his way, the painter will cause +greater satisfaction. Are there not pictures to be seen so like +reality that they deceive men and animals? + + +[Sidenote: Painting creates Reality] + +9. + +The imagination is to the effect as the shadow to the opaque body which +causes the shadow, and the proportion is the same between poetry and +painting. Because poetry produces its results in the {66} imagination +of the reader, and painting produces them in a concrete reality outside +the eye, so that the eye receives its images just as if they were the +works of nature; and poetry produces its results without images, and +they do not pass to the brain through the channel of the visual +faculty, as in painting. + + +10. + +Painting represents to the brain the works of nature with greater truth +and accuracy than speech or writing, but letters represent words with +greater truth, which painting does not do. But we say that the science +which represents the works of nature is more wonderful than that which +represents the works of the artificer, that is to say, the works of +man, which consist of words--such as poetry and the like--which issue +from the tongue of man. + + +[Sidenote: The Painter goes to Nature] + +11. + +Painting ministers to a nobler sense than poetry, depicts the forms of +the works of nature with greater truth than poetry; and the works of +nature are nobler than the words which are the works of man, because +there is the same proportion between the works of man and those of +nature as there is between man and God. Therefore it is a more worthy +thing to imitate the works of nature, which are the true images +embodied in reality, than to imitate the actions and the words of men. + +{67} + +And if thou, O poet, wishest to describe the works of nature by thine +unaided art, and dost represent various places and the forms of diverse +objects, the painter surpasses thee by an infinite degree of power; but +if thou wishest to have recourse to the aid of other sciences, apart +from poetry, they are not thy own; for instance, astrology, rhetoric, +theology, philosophy, geometry, arithmetic and the like. Thou art not +then a poet any longer. Thou transformest thyself, and art no longer +that of which we are speaking. Now seest thou not that if thou wishest +to go to nature, thou reachest her by the means of science, deduced by +others from the effects of nature? And the painter, through himself +alone, without the aid of aught appertaining to the various sciences, +or by any other means, achieves directly the imitation of the things of +nature. By painting, lovers are attracted to the images of the beloved +to converse with the depicted semblance. By painting whole populations +are led with fervent vows to seek the image of the deities, and not to +see the books of poets which represent the same deities in speech; by +painting animals are deceived. I once saw a picture which deceived a +dog by the image of its master, which the dog greeted with great joy; +and likewise I have seen dogs bark at and try to bite painted dogs; and +a monkey make a number of antics in front of a painted monkey. I have +seen swallows fly and alight on painted {68} iron-works which jut out +of the windows of buildings. + + +[Sidenote: Superiority of Painting to Philosophy] + +12. + +Painting includes in its range the surface, colour and shape of +anything created by nature; and philosophy penetrates into the same +bodies and takes note of their essential virtue, but it is not +satisfied with that truth, as is the painter, who seizes hold of the +primary truth of such bodies because the eye is less prone to deception. + + +[Sidenote: Painting & Poetry] + +13. + +Poetry surpasses painting in the representation of words, and in the +representation of actions painting excels poetry; and painting is to +poetry as actions are to words, because actions depend on the eye and +words on the ear; and thus the senses are in the same proportion one to +another as the objects on which they depend; and on this account I +consider painting to be superior to poetry. But since those who +practised painting were for long ignorant as to how to explain its +theory, it lacked advocates for a considerable time; because it does +not speak itself, but reveals itself and ends in action, and poetry +ends in words, which in its vainglory it employs for self-praise. + + +[Sidenote: Painting is Mute Poetry] + +14. + +What poet will place before thee in words, O {69} lover, the true +semblance of thy idea with such truth as will the painter? Who is he +who will show thee rivers, woods, valleys and plains, which will recall +to thee the pleasures of the past, with greater truth than the painter? +And if thou sayest that painting is mute poetry in itself, unless there +be some one to speak for it and tell what it represents--seest thou +not, then, that thy book is on a lower plane? Because even if it have +a man to speak for it, nothing of the subject which is related can be +seen, as it is seen when a picture is explained. And the pictures, if +the action represented and the mental attributes of the figures are in +the true proportion one to another, will be understood in the same way +as if they spoke. + + +15. + +Painting is mute poetry, and poetry is blind painting. Therefore these +two forms of poetry, or rather these two forms of painting, have +exchanged the senses through which they should reach the intellect. +Because if they are both of them painting, they must reach the brain by +the noblest sense, namely, the eye; if they are both of them poetry, +they must reach the brain by the less noble sense, that is, the +hearing. Therefore we will appoint the man born deaf to be judge of +painting, and the man born blind to be judge of poetry; and if in the +painting the movements are appropriate {70} to the mental attributes of +the figures which is are engaged in any kind of action, there is no +doubt that the deaf man will understand the action and intentions of +the figures, but the blind man will never understand what the poet +shows, and what constitutes the glory of the poetry; since one of the +noblest functions of its art is to describe the deeds and the subjects +of stories, and adorned and delectable places with transparent waters +in which the green recesses of their course can be seen as the waves +disport themselves over meadows and fine pebbles, and the plants which +are mingled with them, and the gliding fishes, and similar +descriptions, which might just as well be made to a stone as to a man +born blind, since he has never seen that which composes the beauty of +the world, that is, light, darkness, colour, body, shape, place, +distance, propinquity, motion and rest, which are the ten ornaments of +nature. + +But the deaf man, lacking the less noble sense, although he has at the +same time lost the gift of speech, since never having heard words +spoken he never has been able to learn any language, will nevertheless +perfectly understand every attribute of the human body better than a +man who can speak and hear; and likewise he will know the works of +painters and what is represented in them, and the action which is +appropriate to such figures. + +{71} + +[Sidenote: Painting is Mute Poetry] + +16. + +Painting is mute poetry, and poetry is blind painting, and both imitate +nature to the best of their powers, and both can demonstrate moral +principles, as Apelles did in his Calumny. And since painting +ministers to the most noble of the senses, the eye, a harmonious +proportion ensues from it, that is to say, that just as from the +concord of many diverse voices at the same moment there ensues a +well-proportioned harmony which will please the sense of hearing to +such an extent that the listeners in dizzy admiration are like men half +ravished of their senses, still greater will be the effect of the +beautiful proportions of a celestial face in a picture from whose +proportions a harmonious concord will ensue, which delights the eye in +one moment, just as music delights the ear. And if this harmonious +beauty is shown to one who is the lover of the woman from whom such +great beauty has been copied, he will most certainly be struck dizzy +with admiration and incomparable joy superior to that afforded by all +the other senses. + +But with regard to poetry, which in order to afford the representation +of a perfect beauty is obliged to describe each separate part in +detail,--a representation which in painting produces the harmony +described above,--no further charm is produced than would occur in +music if each voice {72} were to be heard separately at various +intervals of time, whence no concord would ensue; just as if we wished +to show a countenance bit by bit, always covering up the parts already +shown, forgetfulness would prevent the production of any harmonious +concord, since the eye could not apprehend the parts with its visual +faculty at the same moment. The same thing occurs in the beauty of any +object created by the poet, for as its parts are related separately, at +separate times the memory receives no harmony from it. + + +[Sidenote: The Impression of Painting] + +17. + +Painting reveals itself immediately to thee with the semblance given it +by its creator, and affords to the chief of the senses as great a +delight as any object created by nature. And the poet in this case +reveals the same objects to the brain by the channel of the hearing, +the inferior sense, and affords the eye no more pleasure than it +derives from anything which is related. Now consider what a difference +there is between hearing the recital of a thing which in the course of +time gives pleasure to the eye, and perceiving it with the same +velocity with which we apprehend the works of nature. + +And in addition to the fact that a long interval of time is necessary +to read the works of the poets, it often occurs that they are not +understood, and it is necessary to make diverse {73} comments on them, +and it is exceedingly rare that the commentators are agreed as to the +meaning of the poet; and often the readers peruse but a small portion +of their works, owing to lack of time. But the works of the painter +are immediately understood by those who behold them. + + +18. + +Painting manifests its essence to thee in an instant of time,--its +essence by the visual faculty, the very means by which the perception +apprehends natural objects, and in the same duration of time,--and in +this space of time the sense-satisfying harmony of the proportion of +the parts composing the whole is formed. And poetry apprehends the +same things, but by a sense inferior to that of the eyesight, which +bears the images of the objects named to the perception with greater +confusion and less speed. Not in such wise acts the eye (the true +intermediary between the object and the perception), for it immediately +communicates the true semblance and image of what is represented before +it with the greatest accuracy; whence that proportion arises called +harmony, which with sweet concord delights the sense in the same way as +the harmony of diverse voices delights the ear; and this harmony is +less worthy than that which delights the eye, because for every part of +it that is born a part dies, and it dies as fast as it is born. This +{74} cannot occur in the case of the eye; because if thou presentest a +beautiful living mortal to the eye, composed of a harmony of fair +limbs, its beauty is not so transient nor so quickly destroyed as that +of music; on the contrary it has permanent duration, and allows thee to +behold and consider it; and it is not reborn as in the case of music +which is played many times over, nor will it weary thee: on the +contrary, thou becomest enamoured with it, and the result it produces +is that all the senses, together with the eye, would wish to possess +it, and it seems that they would wish to compete with the eye: it +appears that the mouth desires it for itself, if the mouth can be +considered as a sense; the ear takes pleasure in hearing its beauty; +the sense of touch would like to penetrate into all its pores; the nose +also would like to receive the air it exhales. + +Time in a few years destroys this harmony, but this does not occur in +the case of beauty depicted by the painter, because time preserves it +for long; and the eye, as far as its function is concerned, receives as +much pleasure from the depicted as from the living beauty; touch alone +is lacking to the painted beauty,--touch, which is the elder brother of +sight; which after it has attained its purpose does not prevent the +reason from considering the divine beauty. And in this case the +picture copied from the living beauty acts for the greater part as a +substitute; and the {75} description of the poet cannot accomplish +this.--the poet who is now set up as a rival to the painter, but does +not perceive that time sets a division between the words in which he +describes the various parts of the beauty, and that forgetfulness +intervenes and divides the proportions which he cannot name without +great prolixity; he cannot compose the harmonious concord which is +formed of divine proportions. And on this account beauty cannot be +described in the same space of time in which a painted beauty can be +seen, and it is a sin against nature to attempt to transmit by the ear +that which should be transmitted by the eye. + +What prompts thee, O man, to abandon thy habitations in the city, to +leave thy parents and friends, and to seek rural spots in the mountains +and valleys, if it be not the natural beauty of the world, which, if +thou reflectest, thou dost enjoy solely by means of the sense of sight? +And if the poet wishes to be called a painter in this connection also, +why didst thou not take the descriptions of places made by the poet and +remain at home without exposing thyself to the heat of the sun? Oh! +would not this have been more profitable and less fatiguing to thee, +since this can be done in the cool without motion and danger of +illness? But the soul could not enjoy the benefit of the eyes, the +windows of its dwelling, and it could not note the character of joyous +{76} places; it could not see the shady valleys watered by the +sportiveness of the winding rivers; it could not see the various +flowers, which with their colours make a harmony for the eye, and all +the other objects which the eye can apprehend. But if the painter in +the cold and rigorous season of winter can evoke for thee the +landscapes, variegated and otherwise, in which thou didst experience +thy happiness; if near some fountain thou canst see thyself, a lover +with thy beloved, in the flowery fields, under the soft shadow of the +budding boughs, wilt thou not experience a greater pleasure than in +hearing the same effect described by the poet? + +Here the poet answers, admitting these arguments; but he maintains that +he surpasses the painter, because he causes men to speak and reason in +diverse fictions, in which he invents things which do not exist, and +that he will incite men to take arms, and describe the heavens, the +stars, nature, and the arts and everything. + +To which we reply that none of these things of which he speaks is his +true profession; but if he wishes to speak and make orations, it can be +shown that he is surpassed by the orator in this province; and if he +speaks of astrology, that he has stolen the subject of the astrologer; +and in the case of philosophy, of the philosopher; and that in reality +poetry has no true position and merits no more consideration than a +shopkeeper {77} who collects goods made by various workmen. As soon as +the poet ceases to represent by means of words the phenomena of nature, +he then ceases to act as a painter, because if the poet leaves such +representation and describes the flowery and persuasive speech of him +to whom he wishes to give speech, he then becomes an orator, and +neither a poet nor a painter; and if he speaks of the heavens he +becomes an astrologer, and a philosopher and a theologian if he +discourses of nature or God; but if he returns to the description of +any object he would rival the painter, if with words he could satisfy +the eye as the painter does. + +But the spirit of the science of painting deals with all works, human +as well as divine, which are terminated by their surfaces, that is, the +lines of the limits of bodies by means of which the sculptor is +required to achieve perfection in his art. She with her fundamental +rules, i.e. drawing, teaches the architect how to work so that his +building may be pleasant to the eye; she teaches the makers of diverse +vases, the goldsmiths, weavers, embroiderers; she has found the +characters with which diverse languages find expression; she has given +symbols to the mathematicians; she has taught geometry its figures, and +instructed the astrologers, the makers of machines and engineers. + + +[Sidenote: Poet and Painter] + +19. + +The poet says that his science consists of {78} invention and rhythm, +and this is the simple body of poetry, invention as regards the subject +matter and rhythm as regards the verse, which he afterwards clothes +with all the sciences. To which the painter rejoins that he is +governed by the same necessities in the science of painting, that is to +say, invention and measure (fancy as regards the subject matter which +he must invent, and measure as regards the matters painted), so that +they may be in proportion, but that he does not make use of three +sciences; on the contrary it is rather the other sciences that make use +of painting, as, for instance, astrology, which effects nothing without +the aid of perspective, the principal link of painting,--that is, +mathematical astronomy and not fallacious astrology (let those who by +reason of the existence of fools make a profession of it, forgive me). +The poet says he describes an object, that he represents another full +of beautiful allegory; the painter says he is capable of doing the +same, and in this respect he is also a poet. And if the poet says he +can incite men to love, which is the most important fact among every +kind of animal, the painter can do the same, all the more so because he +presents the lover with the image of his beloved; and the lover often +does with it what he would not do with the writer's delineation of the +same charms, i.e. talk with it and kiss it; so great is the painter's +influence on the minds of men that he incites them to love and {79} +become enamoured of a picture which does not represent any living woman. + +And if the poet pleases the sense by means of the ear, the painter does +so by the eye, which is the superior sense. I will enlarge no further +on this theme save to say that if a good painter were to represent the +fury of a battle, and if the poet were to describe one, and both +representations were put before the public together, you will see +before which of the two most of the spectators will stop, to which of +the two they will pay most attention, which of the two will be the most +praised and give the greater satisfaction. Without any doubt, the +painting, being infinitely the most beautiful and useful, will please +the most. Write the name of God in some spot, and set up His image +opposite, and you will see which will be the most reverenced. While +painting embraces in itself all the forms of nature, you have nothing +save words, which are not universal, like forms. If you have the +effects of the representation, we have the representation of the +effects. Take a poet who describes the charms of a woman to her lover, +and a painter who represents her, and you will see whither nature leads +the enamoured critic. Certainly the proof should rest on the verdict +of experience. You have classed painting among the mechanical arts, +but, truly, if painters were as apt at praising their own works in +writing as you are, it would not lie under the stigma {80} of so +unhonoured an name. If you call it mechanical because it is by manual +work and that the hand represents the conception of the imagination, +you writers put down with the pen the conceptions of your mind. And if +you say that it is mechanical because it is done for money, who is more +guilty of this error--if error it can be called--than you? If you +lecture in the schools, do you not go to whomsoever rewards you most? +Do you perform any work without some pay? Although I do not say this +to blame such opinions, because all labour expects its reward; and if a +poet were to say: "I will devise with my fancy a work which shall be +pregnant with meaning," the painter can do the same, as Apelles did +when he painted The Calumny. + + +[Sidenote: King Matthias & the Poet] + +20. + +On the birthday of King Matthias, a poet brought him a work made in +praise of the royal birthday for the benefit of the world, and a +painter presented him with a portrait of his lady-love. The king +immediately shut the book of the poet and turned to the picture, and +remained gazing on it with profound admiration. Then the poet, greatly +slighted, said: "O king, read, read, and thou wilt hear something of +far greater substance than a dumb picture!" Then the king, hearing +himself blamed for contemplating a mute object, said: "O poet, be +silent, thou knowest not what thou {81} sayest; this picture gratifies +a nobler sense than thy work, which is for the blind. Give me an +object which I can see and touch and not only hear, and blame not my +choice in having placed thy work beneath my elbow, while I hold the +work of the painter with both my hands before my eyes, because my very +hands have chosen to serve a worthier sense than that of hearing. + +"And as for my self I consider that the same proportion exists between +the art of the painter and that of the poet as that which exists +between the two senses on which they respectively depend. + +"Knowest thou not that our soul is composed of harmony, and harmony can +only be begotten in the moments when the proportions of objects are +simultaneously visible and audible? Seest thou not that in thine art +there is no harmony created in a moment, and that, on the contrary, +each part follows from the other in succession, and the second is not +born before its predecessor dies. For this reason I consider thy +creation to be considerably inferior to that of the painter, simply +because no harmonious concord ensues from it. It does not satisfy the +mind of the spectator or the listener, as the harmony of the perfect +features which compose the divine beauty of this face which is before +me; for the features united all together simultaneously afford me a +pleasure which I consider to be unsurpassed by any other thing on the +earth which is made by man." + +{82} + +[Sidenote: Value of the Visible Universe] + +21. + +There is no one so foolish who if offered the choice between +everlasting blindness and deafness would not immediately elect to lose +both his hearing and sense of smell rather than to be blind. Since he +who loves his sight is deprived of the beauty of the world and all +created things, and the deaf man loves only the sound made by the +percussion of the air, which is an insignificant thing in the world. + +Thou sayest that science increases in nobility in proportion as the +subjects with which it deals are more elevated, and, for this reason, a +false rendering of the being of God is better than the portrayal of a +less worthy object; and on this account we will say that painting, +which deals alone with the works of God, is worth more than poetry, +which deals solely with the lying imaginings of human devices. + + +[Sidenote: Poet and Painter] + +22. + +Thou sayest, O painter, that worship is paid to thy work, but impute +not this power to thyself, but to the subject which such a picture +represents. Here the painter makes answer: O thou poet, who sayest +that thou also art an imitator, why dost thou not represent with thy +words objects of such a nature that thy writings which contain these +words may be worshipped also? But nature has favoured the painter more +than the poet, {83} and it is fair that the works of the more greatly +favoured one should be more honoured than those of the less favoured +one. Therefore let us praise him who with words satisfies the hearing, +and him who by painting affords perfect content to the eyes; but let +the praise given to the worker in words be less, inasmuch as they are +accidental and created by a less worthy author than the works of nature +of which the painter is the imitator. And the existence of these works +is confined within the forms of their surfaces. + + +23. + +Since we have concluded that the utmost extent of the comprehension of +poetry is for the blind, and that of painting for the deaf, we will say +that the value of painting exceeds that of poetry in proportion as +painting gratifies a nobler sense than poetry does, and this nobility +has been proved to be equal to that of three other senses, because we +elect to lose our sense of hearing, smell and touch rather than our +eyesight. For he who loses his sight is deprived of the beauty of the +universe, and is like to one who is confined during his lifetime in a +tomb, in which he enjoys life and motion. + +Now seest thou not that the eye comprehends the beauty of the whole +world? It is the head of astrology; it creates cosmography; it gives +counsel and correction to all the human arts; it impels {84} men to +seek diverse parts of the world; it is the principle of mathematics; +its science is most certain; it has measured the height and the +magnitude of the stars; it has discovered the elements and their +abodes; it has been able to predict the events of the future, owing to +the course of the stars; it has begotten architecture and perspective +and divine painting. O most excellent above all the things created by +God! What praise is there which can express thy nobility? What +peoples, what tongues, are they who can perfectly describe thy true +working? It is the window of the human body, through which the soul +gazes and feasts on the beauty of the world; by reason of it the soul +is content with its human prison, and without it this human prison is +its torment; and by means of it human diligence has discovered fire by +which the eye wins back what the darkness has stolen from it. It has +adorned nature with agriculture and pleasant gardens. But what need is +there for me to indulge in long and elevated discourse? What thing is +there which acts not by reason of the eye? It impels men from the East +to the West; it has discovered navigation; and in this it excels +nature, because the simple products of the earth are finite and the +works which the eye makes over to the hands are infinite, as the +painter shows in his portrayal of countless forms of animals, herbs, +plants and places. + +{85} + +[Sidenote: Music the Sister of Painting] + +24. + +Music should be given no other name than the sister of painting, +inasmuch as it is subject to the hearing,--a sense inferior to the +eye,--and it produces harmony by the unison of its proportioned parts, +which are brought into operation at the same moment and are constrained +to come to life and die in one or more harmonic times; and time is, as +it were, the circumference of the parts which constitute the harmony, +in the same way as the outline constitutes the circumference of limbs +whence human beauty emanates. + +But painting excels and lords over music because it does not die as +soon as it is born, as occurs with music, the less fortunate; on the +contrary, it continues to exist and reveals itself to be what it is, a +single surface. O marvellous science, thou givest lasting life to the +perished beauty of mortals, which are thus made more enduring than the +works of nature, for these undergo forever the changes of time, and +time leads them to inevitable old age! And this science is to divine +nature as its works are to the works of nature, and on this account it +is worshipped. + + +[Sidenote: Painting & Music] + +25. + +The most worthy thing is that which satisfies the most worthy sense; +therefore painting, which satisfies the sense of sight, is more worthy +than {86} music, which merely satisfies the hearing. The most worthy +thing is that which endures longest; therefore music, which is +continually dying as soon as it is born, is less worthy than painting, +which lasts eternally with the colours of enamel. The most excellent +thing is that which is the most universal and contains the greatest +variety of things; therefore painting must be set above all other arts, +because it contains all the forms which exist and also those which are +not in nature, and it should be glorified and exalted more than music, +which deals with the voice only. + +With it images are made to the gods; around it divine worship is +conducted, of which music is a subservient ornament; by means of it +pictures are given to lovers of their beloved; by it the beauties are +preserved which time, and nature the mother, render fitful; by it we +retain the images of famous men. And if thou wert to say that by +committing music to writing you render it eternal, we do the same with +letters. + +Therefore, since thou hast included music among the liberal arts, thou +must either exclude it, or include the art of letters. And if thou +wast to say: Painting is used by base men, in the same way is music +spoilt by him who knows it not. If thou sayest that sciences which are +not mechanical are mental, I will answer that painting is mental. And +just as music and geometry deal with the proportions of continuous +quantities, and {87} arithmetic deals with discontinuous quantities, +painting deals with all quantities and the qualities of the proportions +of shadows, lights and distances, in its perspective. + + +[Sidenote: Painter and Musician] + +26. + +The musician says that his art can be compared with that of the painter +because by the art of the painter a body of many members is composed, +and the spectator apprehends its grace in as many harmonious rhythms +... as there are times in which it lives and dies; and by these rhythms +... its grace plays with the soul, which dwells in the body of the +spectator. But the painter replies that the body composed of human +limbs does not afford the delectable harmonious rhythms in which beauty +must live and die, but renders it permanent for many years, and is of +such great excellence that it preserves the life of this harmony of +concordant limbs which nature with all her force could not preserve. + +How many pictures have preserved the semblance of divine beauty of +which time or death had in a brief space destroyed the living example: +and the work of the painter has become more honoured than that of +nature, his master! + +If thou, O musician, sayest that painting is mechanical because it is +wrought by the work of the hands, music is wrought by the mouth, but +{88} not by the tasting faculties of the mouth; just and as the hand is +employed indeed in the case of painting, but not for its faculties of +touch. Words are less worthy than actions. But thou, writer of +science, dost thou not copy with thy hand, and write what is in thy +mind, as the painter does? And if thou wast to say that music is +formed of proportion, by proportion have I wrought painting, as thou +shalt see. + + +[Sidenote: Poet Painter and Musician] + +27. + +There is the same difference between the representation of the embodied +works of the painter and those of the poet as there is between complete +and dismembered bodies, because the poet in describing the beauty or +the ugliness of any body reveals it to you limb by limb and at diverse +times, and the painter shows the whole at the same time. The poet +cannot express in words the true likeness of the limbs which compose a +whole, as can the painter, who places it before you with the truth of +nature. And the same thing befalls the poet as the musician, who sings +by himself a song composed for four singers; and he sings the treble +first, then the tenor, then the alto and then the bass, whence there +results no grace of harmonious concord such as harmonious rhythms +produce. And the poet is like a beautiful countenance which reveals +itself to you feature by feature, that by so doing you may never be +{89} satisfied by its beauty, which consists of the divine proportion +of the limbs united one with another, and these compose of themselves +and at one time the divine harmony of this union of limbs, and often +deprives the gazer of his liberty. Music, again, by its harmonious +rhythm, produces the sweet melodies formed by its various voices, and +their harmonious division is lacking to the poet; and although poetry +enters into the abode of the intellect by the channel of the hearing, +as does music, the poet cannot describe the harmony of music, because +it is not in his power to say various things in one and the same moment +as can the harmonious concord of painting, which is composed of various +members which exist simultaneously, and the beauty of these parts is +apprehended at the same time, individually and +collectively,--collectively with regard to the whole, individually with +regard to the component parts of which the whole is formed; and for +this reason the poet is, as far as the representation of bodily things +is concerned, greatly inferior to the painter, and as far as invisible +things are concerned he is far behind the musician. But if the poet +borrows the aid of the other sciences, he can appear at the fair like +the other merchants, bearers of divers goods made by many artificers; +and the poet does this when he borrows the science of others, such as +that of the orator, the philosopher, the astrologer, the cosmographer +and {90} the like; and these sciences are altogether alien to the poet. +Therefore he is an agent who brings together diverse persons in order +to strike a bargain; and if you wish to know the true function of the +poet, you will find that he is no other than an assembler of goods +stolen from other sciences, with which he makes a deceptive mixture, or +more honestly said, a fictitious mixture. And with regard to this +fiction the poet is free to compete with the painter, since it +constitutes the least part of the painting. + + +28. + +The painter emulates and competes with nature. + + +[Sidenote: Painting a second Creation] + +29. + +He who blames painting blames nature, because the works of the painter +represent the works of nature, and for this reason he who blames in +this fashion lacks feeling. + + +[Sidenote: The Painter Lord of All] + +30. + +If the painter wishes to see beautiful things which will enchant him he +is able to beget them; if he wishes to see monstrous things which +terrify, or grotesque and laughable things, or truly piteous things, he +can dispose of all these; if he wishes to evoke places and deserts, +shady or dark retreats in the hot season, he represents them, and +likewise warm places in the cold season. If he wishes valleys, if he +wishes to descry a great {91} plain from the high summits of the +mountains, and if he wishes after this to see the horizon of the sea, +he can do so; and from the low valleys he can gaze on the high +mountains, or from the high mountains he can scan the low valleys and +shores; and in truth all quantities of things that exist in the +universe, either real or imaginary, he has first in his mind and then +in his hands; and these things are of so great excellence that they +beget a harmonious concord in one glance, as do the things of nature. + + +31. + +We can safely say that those people are under a delusion who call that +painter a good master who can only draw well a head or a figure. +Certainly there is no great merit if, after studying a single thing +during a whole lifetime, you attain to a certain degree of perfection +in it. But knowing, as we do, that painting includes and comprehends +all the works produced by nature, or brought about by the fortuitous +action of man, and in fact everything that the eye can see, he seems to +me to be a poor master who can only do one thing well. Now seest thou +not how many and diverse acts are performed by men? Seest thou not how +many various animals there are, and likewise trees, plants and flowers; +what a variety of mountainous or level places, fountains, rivers, +cities, public and private buildings, {92} instruments suitable for +human use; how many diverse costumes and ornaments and arts? All these +things should be considered of equal effect and value when used by the +man who can be called a good painter. + + +[Sidenote: Painting and Nature] + +32. + +If you despise painting, which is the only imitator of the visible +works of nature, you will certainly despise a subtle invention which +with philosophy and subtle speculation apprehends the qualities of +forms, backgrounds, places, plants, animals, herbs and flowers, which +are surrounded by light and shade. And truly this is knowledge and the +legitimate offspring of nature, because painting is begotten by nature. +But to be correct, we will say that it is the grandchild of nature, +because all visible things are begotten by nature, and these her +children have begotten painting. Therefore we shall rightly say that +painting is the grandchild of nature and related to God. + + +33. + +Were a master to boast that he could remember all the forms and effects +of nature, he would certainly appear to me to be graced with great +ignorance, inasmuch as these effects are infinite and our memory is not +sufficiently capacious to retain them. Therefore, O painter, beware +lest in thee the lust of gain should overcome the honour of thy art, +for the acquisition of honour is a much {93} greater thing than the +glory of wealth. Thus, for this and for other reasons which could be +given, first strive in drawing to express to the eye in a manifest +shape the idea and the fancy originally devised by thy imagination; +then go on adding or removing until thou art satisfied; then arrange +men as models, clothed or nude, according to the intention of thy work, +and see that, as regards dimension and size, in accordance with +perspective there is no portion of the work which is not in harmony +with reason and natural effects, and this will be the way to win honour +in thy art. + + +[Sidenote: Painting & Sculpture] + +34. + +I have myself practised the art of sculpture as well as that of +painting, and I have practised both arts in the same degree. I think, +therefore, that I can give an impartial opinion as to which of the two +is the most difficult: the most perfect requires the greater talent, +and is to be preferred. + +In the first place sculpture requires a certain light, that is to say, +a light from above, and painting carries everywhere with it its light +and shade; sculpture owes its importance to light and shade. The +sculptor is aided in this by the relief which is inherent in sculpture, +and the painter places the light and shade, by the accidental quality +of his art, in the places where nature would naturally produce it. The +sculptor cannot diversify his work by the various colours of objects; +painting {94} is complete in every respect. The perspective of the +sculptor appears to be altogether untrue; that of the painter can give +the idea of a distance of a hundred miles beyond the picture. The +sculptors have no aerial perspective; they can neither represent +transparent bodies nor reflections, nor bodies as lustrous as mirrors, +and other translucent objects, neither mists nor dark skies, nor an +infinity of objects which it would be tedious to enumerate. The +advantage [of sculpture] is that it is provided with a better defence +against the ravages of time, although a picture painted on thick copper +and covered over with white enamel, painted with enamel colours and +then put in the fire again and baked, is equally resistant. Such a +work as far as permanence is concerned exceeds sculpture. They may say +that where an error is made it is not easy to correct it. It is poor +reasoning to try and prove that the irremediability of an oversight +renders the work more honourable. But I say to you that it will prove +more difficult to mend the mind of the master who commits such errors +than to repair the work he has spoilt. We know well that an +experienced and competent artist will not make mistakes of this kind; +on the contrary, acting on sound rules, he will remove so little at a +time that his work will be brought to a successful close. Again, the +sculptor, if he works in clay or wax, can remove and add, and when the +work is finished it can be easily {95} cast in bronze, and this is the +last and most permanent operation of sculpture, inasmuch as that which +is merely of marble is liable to destruction, but this is not the case +with bronze. Therefore the picture painted on copper, which with the +methods of painting can be reduced or added to, is like bronze, which +when it was in the state of a wax model could be reduced or added to. +And if sculpture in bronze is durable, this copper and enamel work is +more imperishable still; and while the bronze remains black and ugly, +this is full of various and delectable colours of infinite variety, as +we have described above. If you wish to confine the discussion to +painting on panel I am content to pronounce between it and sculpture, +saying, that painting is the more beautiful, the more imaginative and +the more copious, and that sculpture is more durable, but has no other +advantage. Sculpture with little labour shows what in painting seems +to be a miraculous thing to do: to make impalpable objects appear +palpable, to give the semblance of relief to flat objects, and distance +to objects that are near. In fact painting is full of infinite +resources of which sculpture cannot dispose. + + +35. + +Sculpture is not a science, but a mechanical art, because it causes the +brow of the artist who practises it to sweat, and wearies his body; and +for {96} such an artist the simple proportions of the limbs, and the +nature of movements and attitudes, are all that is essential, and there +it ends, and shows to the eye what it is, and it does not cause the +spectator to wonder at its nature, as painting does, which in a plane +by its science shows vast countries and far-off horizons. + + +36. + +The only difference between painting and sculpture is that the sculptor +accomplishes his work with the greater bodily fatigue, and the painter +with the greater mental fatigue. This is proved by the fact that the +sculptor in practising his art is obliged to exert his arms and to +strike and shatter the marble or other stone, which remains over and +above what is needed for the figure which it contains, by manual +exercise, accompanied often by profuse sweating, mingled with dust and +transforming itself into dirt; and his face is plastered and powdered +with the dust of the marble, so that he has the appearance of a baker, +and he is covered with minute chips, and it appears as if snow had +fallen on him, and his dwelling is dirty and full of chips and the dust +of stone. + +The contrary occurs in the case of the painter,--we are speaking of +excellent painters and sculptors,--since the painter with great leisure +sits before his work well clothed, and handles the light brush dipped +in lovely colours. He wears {97} what garments he pleases; his +dwelling is full of beautiful pictures, and it is clean; sometimes he +has music or readers of diverse and pleasant works, which, without any +noise of hammers or other confused sounds, are heard with great +pleasure. + + +37. + +There can be no comparison between the talent, art and theory of +painting and that of sculpture, which leaves perspective out of +account,--perspective which is produced by the quality of the material +and not of the artist. And if the sculptor says that he cannot restore +the superabundant substance which has once been removed from his work, +I answer that he who removes too much has but little understanding and +is no master. Because if he has mastered the proportions he will not +remove anything unnecessarily; therefore we will say that this +disadvantage is inherent in the artist and not in the material. But I +will not speak of such men, for they are spoilers of marble and not +artists. + +Artists do not trust to the judgement of the eye, because it is always +deceptive, as is proved by him who wishes to divide a line into two +equal parts by the eye, and is often deceived in the experiment; +wherefore the good judges always fear--a fear which is not shared by +the ignorant--to trust to their own judgement, and on this account they +proceed by continually checking the {98} height, thickness and breadth +of each part, and by so doing accomplish no more than their duty. But +painting is marvellously devised of most subtle analyses, of which +sculpture is altogether devoid, since its range is of the narrowest. +To the sculptor who says that his science is more lasting than that of +painting, I answer that this permanence is due to the quality of the +material and not to that of the sculptor, and the sculptor has no right +to give himself the credit for it, but he should let it redound to +nature which created the material. + + +38. + +Painting has a wider intellectual range and is more wonderful and +greater as regards its artistic resources than sculpture, because the +painter is by necessity constrained to amalgamate his mind with the +very mind of nature and to be the interpreter between nature and art, +making with art a commentary on the causes of nature's manifestations +which are the inevitable result of its laws; and showing in what way +the likenesses of objects which surround the eye correspond with the +true images of the pupil of the eye, and showing among objects of equal +size which of them will appear more or less dark, or more or less +clear; and among objects equally low which of them will appear more or +less low; or among those of the same height which of them will appear +more or less high; or among objects of equal size {99} placed at +various distances one from the other, why some will appear more clearly +than others. And this art embraces and comprehends within itself all +visible things, which sculpture in its poverty cannot do: that is, the +colours of all objects and their gradations; it represents transparent +objects, and the sculptor will show thee natural objects without the +painter's devices; the painter will show thee various distances with +the gradations of colour producing interposition of the air between the +objects and the eye; he will show thee the mists through which the +character of objects is with difficulty descried; the rains which +clouded mountains and valleys bring with them; the dust which is +inherent to and follows the contention between these forces; the rivers +which are great or small in volume; the fishes disporting themselves on +the surface or at the bottom of these waters; the polished pebbles of +various colours which are collected on the washed sands at bottom of +rivers surrounded by floating plants beneath the surface of the water; +the stars at diverse heights above us; and in the same manner other +innumerable effects to which sculpture cannot attain. + + +39. + +Sculpture lacks the beauty of colours, the perspective of colours; it +lacks perspective and it confuses the limits of objects remote from the +{100} eye, inasmuch as it represents the limits of objects that are +near in the same way as those of distant objects; it does not represent +the air which, interposed between the eye and the remote object, +conceals that object but as the veils in draped figures, which reveal +the naked flesh beneath them; it cannot represent the small pebbles of +various colours beneath the surface of the transparent waters. + + +[Sidenote: To the Painter] + +40. + +And thou, painter, who desirest to achieve the highest excellence in +practice, understand that unless thou build it on the solid foundations +of nature, thou shalt reap but scant honour and gain by thy work; and +if thy foundation is sound, thy works shall be many and good, and bring +great honour to thee, and be of great profit. + + +41. + +When the work exceeds the ideal of the artist, the artist makes scant +progress; and when the work falls short of his ideal it never ceases to +improve, unless avarice be an obstacle. + + +42. + +He is a poor disciple who does not surpass his master. + + +[Sidenote: Counsels] + +43. + +He is a poor master whose work is exalted in his {101} own opinion, and +he is on the road to perfection in art whose work falls short of his +ideal. + + +44. + +Small rooms or dwellings help the mind to concentrate itself; large +rooms are a source of distraction. + + +45. + +The painter should be solitary, and take note of what he sees and +reason with himself, making a choice of the more excellent details of +the character of any object he sees; he should be like unto the mirror, +which takes the colours of the objects it reflects. And this +proceeding will seem to him to be a second nature. + + +[Sidenote: The Painter in his Studio] + +46. + +In order that the favourable disposition of the mind may not be injured +by that of the body, the painter or the draughtsman should be solitary, +and especially when he is occupied with those speculations and thoughts +which continually rise up before the eye, and afford materials to be +treasured by the memory. + +If thou art alone, thou wilt belong to thyself only: if thou hast but +one companion, thou wilt only half belong to thyself, and ever less in +proportion to the indiscretion of his conduct; and if thou hast many +companions, thou wilt encounter {102} the same disadvantage. And if +thou shouldst say: "I will follow my own inclination, I will withdraw +into seclusion in order the better to study the forms of natural +objects"--I say thou wilt with difficulty be able to do this, because +thou wilt not be able to refrain from constantly listening to their +chatter; and, not being able to serve two masters, thou wilt play the +part of a companion ill, and still worse will be the evil effect on thy +studies in art. And if thou sayest: "I will withdraw myself, so that +their words cannot reach and disturb me"--I, with regard to this, say +thou wilt be regarded as a madman; but seest thou not that by so doing +thou wilt be alone also? + + +[Sidenote: Advice to the Painter] + +47. + +The mind of the painter must be like unto a mirror, which ever takes +the colour of the object it reflects, and contains as many images as +there are objects before it. Therefore realize, O painter, that thou +canst not succeed unless thou art the universal master of imitating by +thy art every variety of nature's forms, and this thou canst not do +save by perceiving them and retaining them in thy mind; wherefore when +thou walkest in the country let thy mind play on various objects, +observe now this thing and now that thing, making a store of various +objects selected and chosen from those of lesser value. And thou shalt +not do as some painters, who, when weary of plying {103} their fancy, +dismiss their work from their mind and take exercise in walking for +relaxation, but retain fatigue in the mind, which, though they see +various objects, does not apprehend them, but often when they meet +friends and relations and are saluted by them, they are no more +conscious of them than if they had met empty air. + + +[Sidenote: Precepts] + +48. + +And thou, O painter, seek to bring about that thy works may attract +those who gaze upon them and arrest them with great admiration and +delight; and so that they may not attract and forthwith repel them, as +the air does to him who in the night season leaps naked from his bed to +gaze upon the cloudy and serene sky and forthwith is driven back by the +cold, and returns to the bed whence he rose. But let thy works be like +the air which draws men from their beds in the hot season, and retains +them to taste with delight the cool of the summer; and he who will do +well by his art will not strive to be more skilful than learned, nor +let greed get the better of glory. Seest thou not among human beauties +that it is the beautiful faces which stop the passers-by, and not the +richness of their ornaments? And this I say to thee who adornest thy +figures with gold and other rich ornaments: Seest thou not splendid, +youthful beauties, who diminish their excellence by the excess and +elaboration of their {104} ornaments? Hast thou not seen women of the +mountains dressed in rough and poor clothes richer in beauty than those +who are adorned? Make no use of the affected arrangements and +headdresses such as those adopted by loutish maids, who, by placing one +lock of hair more on one side than the other, credit themselves with +having committed a great enormity, and think that the bystanders will +forget their own thoughts to talk of them alone, and to blame them. +For such persons have always the looking-glass and the comb, and the +wind, which ruffles elaborate headdresses, is their worst enemy. In +thy heads let the hair sport with the wind thou depictest around +youthful countenances, and adorn them gracefully with various turns, +and do not as those who plaster their faces with gum and make the faces +seem as if they were of glass. This is a human folly which is always +on the increase, and the mariners do not satisfy it who bring arabic +gums from the East, so as to prevent the smoothness of the hair from +being ruffled by the wind,--but they pursue their investigations still +further in this direction. + + +49. + +I cannot but mention among these precepts a new means of study, which, +although it may seem trivial and almost ridiculous, is nevertheless +extremely useful in arousing the mind to {105} various inventions. It +is as follows: when you look at walls mottled with various stains or +stones made of diverse substances, if you have to invent some scene, +you may discover on them the likeness of various countries, adorned +with mountains, rivers, rocks, trees, plains, great valleys and hills +in diverse arrangement; again, you may be able to see battles and +figures in action and strange effects of physiognomy and costumes, and +infinite objects which you could reduce to complete and harmonious +forms. And the effect produced by these mottled walls is like that of +the sound of bells, in the vibrating of which you may recognize any +name or word you choose to imagine. I have seen blots in the clouds +and in mottled walls which have stimulated me to the invention of +various objects, and although the blots themselves were altogether +devoid of perfection in any one of their parts, they lacked not +perfection in their movement and circumstance. + + +50. + +Obtain knowledge first, and then proceed to practice, which is born of +knowledge. + + +[Sidenote: Theory and Practice] + +51. + +Knowledge is the captain, and practice the soldiers. + + +52. + +The painter who draws by practice and by the {106} eye, without the +guide of reason, is like the mirror, which reflects all the objects +which are placed before it and knows not that they exist. + + +53. + +Many will consider they can reasonably blame me by alleging that my +proofs are contrary to the authority of many men held in great esteem +by their inexperienced judgements: overlooking the fact that my works +are solely and simply the offspring of experience, which is the +veritable master. + + +54. + +They who are enamoured of practice without knowledge are like the +mariner who puts to sea in a vessel without rudder or compass, and who +navigates without a course. Practice should always be based on sound +theory; perspective is the guide and the portal of theory, and without +it nothing can be well done in the art of painting. + + +[Sidenote: Course of Study] + +55. + +The youth should first learn perspective, and then the measurements of +every object; he should then copy from some good master to accustom +himself to well-drawn forms, then from nature to acquire confirmation +of the theories he has learnt; then he should study for a time the +works of various masters, and finally attain the {107} habit of putting +into practice and producing his art. + + +56. + +Mathematics, such as appertain to painting, are necessary to the +painter, also the absence of companions who are alien to his studies: +his brain must be versatile and susceptible to the variety of objects +which it encounters, and free from distracting cares. And if in the +contemplation and definition of one subject a second subject +intervenes,--as happens when the mind is filled with an object,--in +such cases he must decide which of the two objects is the more +difficult of definition, and pursue that one until he arrives at +perfect clearness of definition, and then turn to the definition of the +other. And above all things his mind should be like the surface of the +mirror, which shows as many colours as there are objects it reflects; +and his companions should study in the same manner, and if such cannot +be found he should meditate in solitude with himself, and he will not +find more profitable company. + + +[Sidenote: Perspective & Mathematics] + +57. + +In the study of natural causes and reasons light affords the greatest +pleasure to the student; among the great facts of mathematics the +certainty of demonstration most signally elevates the mind of the +student. Perspective must therefore be {108} placed at the head of all +human study and discipline, in the field of which the radiant line is +rendered complex by the methods of demonstration; in it resides the +glory of physics as well as of mathematics, and it is adorned with +flowers of both these sciences. + +The laws of those sciences which are capable of extensive analysis I +will confine in brief conclusions, and according to the nature of the +material I will interweave mathematical demonstrations, at times +deducing results from causes, and at times tracing causes by results. +I will add to my conclusions some which are not contained in these, but +which can be deduced from them, if the Lord, the Supreme Light, +illuminates me, so that I may treat of light. + + +[Sidenote: Of the Method of Learning] + +58. + +When you will have thoroughly mastered perspective and have learnt by +heart the parts and forms of objects, strive when you go about to +observe. Note and consider the circumstances and the actions or men, +as they talk, dispute, laugh or fight together, and not only the +behaviour of the men themselves, but that of the bystanders who +separate them or look on at these things; and make a note of them, in +this way, with slight marks in your little note-book. And you should +always carry this note-book with you, and it should be of coloured +paper, so that what you {109} write may not be rubbed out; but (when it +is used up) change the old for a new one, since these things should not +be rubbed out, but preserved with great care, because such is the +infinity of the forms and circumstances of objects, that the memory is +incapable of retaining them; wherefore keep these sketches as your +guides and masters. + + +59. + +These rules are only to be used in correcting the figures, since every +man makes some mistakes in his first composition, and he who is not +aware of them cannot correct them; but thou being conscious of thine +errors wilt correct thy work and amend errors where thou findest them, +and take care not to fall into them again. But if thou attemptest to +apply these rules in composition thou wilt never finish anything, and +confusion will enter into thy work. Through these rules thou shalt +acquire a free and sound judgement, since sound judgement and thorough +understanding proceed from reason arising from sound rules, and sound +rules are the offspring of sound experience, the common mother of all +the sciences and arts. Hence if thou bearest in mind the precepts of +my rules thou shalt be able, merely by thy corrected judgement, to +judge and recognize any lack of proportion in a work, in perspective, +in figures or anything else. + +{110} + +[Sidenote: Again of the Method of Learning] + +60. + +I say that the first thing which should be learnt is the mechanism of +the limbs, and when this knowledge has been acquired their actions +should come next, according to the external circumstances of man, and +thirdly the composition of subjects, which should be taken from natural +actions, made fortuitously according to circumstances; and pay +attention to them in the streets and public places and fields, and note +them with a brief indication of outlines; that is to say, for a head +make an O, and for an arm a straight or a bent line, and the same for +the legs and body; and when thou returnest home work out these notes in +a complete form. The adversary says that to acquire practice and to do +a great deal of work, it is better that the first course of study +should be employed in copying diverse compositions done on paper or on +walls by various masters, and that thus rapidity of practice and a good +method is acquired; to which I reply that this method will be good if +it is based on works which are well composed by competent masters; and +since such masters are so rare that but few of them are to be found, it +is safer to go to nature, than to what to its deterioration is imitated +from nature, and to fall into bad habits, since he who can go to the +fountain does not go to the water-vessel. + +{111} + +[Sidenote: Counsel to the Painter] + +61. + +Every bough and every fruit is born above the insertion of its leaf, +which serves it as a mother, giving it water from the rain and moisture +from the dew which falls on it from above in the night, and often it +shields them from the heat of the sun's rays. Therefore, O painter, +who lackest such rules, be desirous, in order to escape the blame of +those who know, of copying every one of thy objects from nature, and +despise not study after the manner of those who work for gain. + + +[Sidenote: On Anatomy] + +62. + +And you who say that it would be better to see practical anatomy than +drawings of it, would be right if it were possible to see all the +things which are shown in such drawings in a single drawing, in which +you, with all your skill, will not see nor obtain knowledge of more +than a few veins; and to obtain true and complete knowledge of these +veins I have destroyed more than ten human bodies, destroying all the +other limbs, and removing, down to its minutest particles, the whole of +the flesh which surrounds these veins, without letting them bleed save +for the insensible bleeding of the capillary veins. And as one body +did not suffice for so long a time I had to proceed with several bodies +by degrees until I finished by acquiring perfect knowledge, and this I +{112} repeated twice to see the differences. And if you have a love +for such things you may be prevented by disgust, and if this does not +prevent you, you may be prevented by fear of living at night in company +with such corpses, which are cut up and flayed and fearful to see; and +if this does not prevent, you may not have a sufficient mastery of +drawing for such a demonstration, and if you have the necessary mastery +of drawing, it may not be combined with the knowledge of perspective; +and if it were you might lack the power of geometrical demonstration, +and the calculation of forces, and of the strength of the muscles, and +perhaps you will lack patience and consequently diligence. As to +whether these qualities are to be found in me or not the hundred and +twenty books I have composed will pronounce the verdict Yes or No. +Neither avarice nor negligence, but time has hindered me in these. +Farewell. + + +[Sidenote: On Study] + +63. + +I have myself proved that it is useful when you are in bed in the dark +to work with the imagination, summing up the external outlines of the +forms previously studied or other noteworthy things apprehended by +subtle speculation; and this is a laudable practice and useful in +impressing objects on the memory. + + +{113} + +[Sidenote: On judging Pictures] + +64. + +We are well aware that faults are more easily recognized in the works +of others than in our own, and often in blaming the small faults of +others thou wilt ignore great ones in thyself. And to avoid such +ignorance see that in the first place thy perspective be sound, then +acquire a complete knowledge of the measurements of man and other +animals, and of good architecture; that is to say, as far as the forms +of buildings and other objects which are on the earth are concerned, +and these are infinite in number. The more of them that thou knowest, +the more praiseworthy will be thy work; and in cases where thou hast no +experience do not refuse to draw them from nature. + + +[Sidenote: Advice to the Painter] + +65. + +Certainly while a man is painting he should not be loth to hear every +opinion: since we know well that a man, although he be not a painter, +is cognizant of the forms of another man, and will be able to judge +them, whether he is hump-backed or has a shoulder too high or too low, +or whether he has a large mouth or nose, or other defects. And if we +know that men are capable of giving a correct judgement on the works of +nature, much more ought we to acknowledge their competence to judge our +faults, since we know how greatly a man may be deceived in {114} his +own work; and if thou art not conscious of this in thyself, study it in +others and thou wilt profit by their faults. Therefore be desirous to +bear with patience the opinions of others, and consider and reflect +well whether he who blames has good ground or not to blame thee, and if +thou thinkest that he has, amend thy work; and if not, act as though +thou hadst not heard him, and if he should be a man thou esteemest show +him by reasoning where his mistake lies. + + +66. + +There is a certain generation of painters who, owing to the scantiness +of their studies, must needs live up to the beauty of gold and azure, +and with supreme folly declare that they will not give good work for +poor payment, and that they could do as well as others if they were +well paid. Now consider, foolish people! Cannot such men reserve some +good work and say, "This is costly; this is moderate, and this is cheap +work," and show that they have work at every price? + + +[Sidenote: The Painter and the Mirror] + +67. + +When thou wishest to see whether thy picture corresponds entirely with +the objects thou hast drawn from nature, take a mirror and let the +living reality be reflected in it, and compare the reflection with thy +picture, and consider well {115} whether the subject of the two images +are in harmony one with another. + +And above all thou shouldst take the mirror for thy master,--a flat +mirror, since on its surface the objects in many respects have the same +appearance as in painting. For thou seest that a painting done on a +flat surface reveals objects which appear to be in relief, and the +mirror consisting of a flat surface produces the same effect; the +painting consists of one plane surface and the mirror likewise; the +picture is impalpable, in so far as that which appears to be round and +prominent cannot be grasped by the hands, and it is the same with the +mirror; the mirror and the painting reveal the semblance of objects +surrounded by light and shade; each of them appears to be at a distance +from its surface. + +And if thou dost recognize that the mirror by means of outlines, lights +and shadows gives relief to objects, and since thou hast in thy colours +lights and shadows stronger than those of the mirror, there is no doubt +that if thou composest thy picture well, it will also have the +appearance of nature when it is reflected in a large mirror. + + +[Sidenote: The Painter's Mind] + +68. + +The mind of the painter should continually transmute the figure of the +notable objects which come before him into so many discourses; and +imprint them in his memory and classify them {116} and deduce rules +from them, taking the place, the circumstances, the light and the shade +into consideration. + + +[Sidenote: The Variety of Nature] + +69. + +I say that the universal proportions must be observed in the height of +figures and not in their size, because in the admirable and marvellous +things which appear in the works of nature there is no work of +whatsoever character in which one detail is exactly similar to another; +therefore, O thou imitator of nature, pay heed to the variety of +features. + + +70. + +Radically wrong is the procedure of some masters who are in the habit +of repeating the same themes in the same episodes, and whose types of +beauty are likewise the same, for in nature they are never repeated, so +that if all the beauties of equal excellence were to come to life again +they would compose a larger population than that now existing in our +century, and since in the present century no one person is precisely +similar to another, so would it be among the beauties mentioned above. + + +71. + +You must depict your figures with gestures which will show what the +figure has in his mind, otherwise your art will not be praiseworthy. + + +{117} + +[Sidenote: Mind and Expression] + +72. + +No figure will be admirable if the gesture which expresses the passion +of the soul is not visible in it. The most admirable figure is that +which best expresses the passion of its mind. + + +73. + +The good painter has two principal things to depict: man and the +purpose of his mind. The first is easy, the second is difficult, since +he must do it by the gestures and movements of the limbs, and this is +to be learnt from the dumb, who more than all other men excel in it. + + +[Sidenote: The Dumb Man guides the Painter] + +74. + +The figures of men have gestures which correspond to what they are +doing, so that in seeing them you understand what they are thinking of +and saying; and these will be learned well by him who will copy the +gestures of the dumb, for they speak by the gestures of their hands, +their eyes, their brows and their whole person, when they wish to +express the purpose of their mind. And do not mock me because I +suggest a dumb teacher for the teaching of an art of which he is +himself ignorant, because he will teach you better by his gestures than +all the others with their words. And despise not such advice because +they are the masters of gesture, and understand at a {118} distance +what a man is talking of if he suits the actions of the hands to the +words. + + +[Sidenote: Advice to the Painter] + +75. + +It is a great fault in painters to repeat the same movements, the same +faces and manners of stuffs in one subject, and to let the greater part +of his faces resemble their creator; and this has often been a source +of wonder to me, for I have known some who in all their figures seem to +have depicted themselves. And in the figures the actions and ways of +the painter were visible. And if they are prompt in action and in +their ways the figures are likewise prompt; and if the painter is +pious, the figures with their twisted necks appear pious likewise, and +if the painter is lazy the figures seem like laziness personified, and +if the painter is deformed so are his figures, and if he is mad it is +amply visible in figures of his subjects, which are devoid of intention +and appear to be heedless of their action, some looking in one +direction, some in another, as though they were dreaming; and therefore +every manifestation in the picture corresponds to a peculiarity in the +painter. And as I have often thought over the cause of this fault, it +seems to me that we must conclude that the spirit which directs and +governs everybody is that which forms our intellect, or rather, it is +our intellect itself. It has {119} devised the whole figure of man +according as it has thought fit that it should be, either with long or +a short and turned-up nose, and thus it has determined its height and +figure; and so powerful is the intellect that it gives motion to the +arms of the painter and causes him to reproduce himself, since it +appears to the spirit that this is the true method of portraying man, +and he that does otherwise is in error. And should this spirit find +any one who resembles its body, which it has formed, it loves it and +becomes enamoured with it, and for this reason many men fall in love +and marry wives which resemble themselves, and often the children which +are born of the issue resemble their parents. + + +76. + +The painter should portray his figure according to the measurements of +a natural body, which shall be of universal proper proportions; in +addition to this he should measure himself and see in which part his +own figure varies greatly or less from the aforesaid pattern of +excellence, and when he has ascertained this he should try his utmost +to avoid the defects which exist in his own person in the figures he +portrays. + +And know that thou must contend with all thy might against this fault +inasmuch as it is a defect which originated with the intellect; because +the {120} spirit which governs thy body is that which is thine own +intellect, and it is inclined to take pleasure in works similar to that +which it accomplished in forming its body. And this is the reason that +there is no woman, however ugly, who does not find a lover, unless she +be monstrous. So remember to ascertain the defects of thy person and +to avoid reproducing them in the figures thou dost compose. + + +77. + +That painter who has coarse hands will portray the like in his works, +and the same thing will occur in every limb unless he avoids this +pitfall by long study. Therefore, O painter, look well on that part of +thy person which is most ugly, and by thy study make ample reparation +for it, because if thou art bestial, bestial and without intellect will +be thy figures, and similarly both the good and ill which thou hast in +thee will be partially visible in thy compositions. + + +78. + +Men and words are already made, and thou, painter, who knowest not how +to make thy figures move, art like the orator who knows not how to +employ his words. + + +79. + +The movements of men are as varied as the {121} circumstances which +pass through their minds; and men will be more or less actuated by +every circumstance in itself according as they are more or less +powerful and according to age; because in the same circumstance an old +man or a youth will make a different movement. + + +[Sidenote: Power of Expression in Painting] + +80. + +The imagination does not perceive such excellent things as the eye, +because the eye receives the images or semblances from objects, and +transmits them to the perception, and from thence to the brain; and +there they are comprehended. But the imagination does not issue forth +from the brain, with the exception of that part of it which is +transmitted to the memory, and in the brain it remains and dies, if the +thing imagined is not of high quality. And in this case poetry is +formed in the mind or in the imagination of the poet, who depicts the +same objects as the painter, and by reason of the work of his fancy he +wishes to rival the painter, but in reality he is greatly inferior to +him, as we have shown above. Therefore with regard to the work of +fancy we will say that there is the same proportion between the art of +painting and that of poetry as exists between the body and the shadow +proceeding from it, and the proportion is still greater, inasmuch as +the shadow of such a body at least penetrates to {122} the brain +through the eye, but the imaginative embodiment of such a body does not +enter into the eye, but is born in the dark brain. Ah! What +difference there is between imagining such a light in the darkness of +the brain and seeing it in concrete shape set free from all darkness. + +If thou, O poet, dost represent the battle and its bloodshed enveloped +by the obscure and dark air, amid the smoke of the terrifying and +deadly engines, together with the thick dust which darkens the air, and +the flight in terror of wretches panic-stricken by horrible death; in +this case the painter will surpass thee, because thy pen will be used +up before thou hast scarcely begun to describe what the art of the +painter represents for thee immediately. And thy tongue shall be +parched with thirst and thy body worn out with weariness and hunger +before thou canst show what the painter will reveal in an instant of +time. And in this painting there lacks nothing save the soul of the +things depicted, and every body is represented in its entirety as far +as it is visible in one aspect; and it would be a long and most tedious +matter for poetry to enumerate all the movements of each soldier in +such a war, and the parts of their limbs and their ornaments which the +finished picture places before you with great accuracy and brevity; and +to such a representation nothing is wanting save the noise of the +engines, and the cries of the terrifying victors, {123} and the screams +and lamentations of those awe-stricken; neither again can the poet +convey these things to the hearing. + +We will say, therefore, that poetry is an art which is supremely potent +for the blind, and the painting has the same result on the deaf. +Painting, therefore, excels poetry in proportion as the sense to which +it ministers is the nobler. The only true function of the poet is to +represent the words of people who talk among each other, and these +alone he represents to the hearing as if they were natural, because +they are natural in themselves and created by the human voice; and in +all other respects he is surpassed by the painter. Still more, +incomparably greater is the width of range of painting than that of +speech, because the painter can accomplish an infinity of things which +speech will not be able to name for want of the appropriate terms. And +seest thou not that if the painter wishes to depict animals and devils +in Hell with what richness of invention he proceeds? + +And I once chanced to paint a picture which represented a divine +subject, and it was bought by the lover of her whom it represented, and +he wished to strip it of its divine character so as to be able to kiss +it without offence. But finally his conscience overcame his desire and +his lust and he was compelled to remove the picture from his house. +Now go thou, poet, and describe a beautiful woman without giving the +semblance of {124} the living thing, and with it arouse such desire in +men! If thou sayest: I will describe then Hell and Paradise and other +delights and terrors,--the painter will surpass thee, because he will +set before thee things which in silence will [make thee] give utterance +to such delight, and so terrify thee as to cause thee to wish to take +flight. Painting stirs the senses more readily than poetry. And if +thou sayest that by speech thou canst convulse a crowd with laughter or +tears, I rejoin that it is not thou who stirrest the crowd, it is the +pathos of the orator, and his mirth. A painter once painted a picture +which caused everybody who saw it to yawn, and this happened every time +the eye fell on the picture, which represented a person yawning. +Others have painted libidinous acts of such sensuality that they have +incited those who gazed on them to similar acts, and poetry could not +do this. + +And if you write the description of certain deities the description +will not be held in the same veneration as the picture of the Deity, +because prayers and votive offerings will always be made to the +picture, and many peoples from diverse countries and from across the +Eastern seas will flock to it. And they will invoke the picture, and +not the writing, for succour. Who is he who would not lose hearing, +smell and touch rather than sight? Because he who loses his sight is +like the man who is driven from the world, because {125} he sees +neither it nor anything else any longer. And this life becomes the +sister of Death. + + +[Sidenote: Landscapes] + +81. + +I have been to see a variety of cloud effects, and lately over Milan +towards Lake Maggiore I saw a cloud in the form of a huge mountain full +of fiery scales, because the rays of the sun, which was already +reddening and close to the horizon, tinged the cloud with its own +colour. And this cloud attracted to it all the lesser clouds which +were around it; and the great cloud did not move from its place, but on +the contrary retained on its summit the light of the sun till an hour +and a half after nightfall, such was its immense size; and about two +hours after nightfall a great, an incredibly tremendous wind arose. + + +[Sidenote: Vegetation of a Hill] + +82. + +The grasses and plants will be paler in proportion as the soil which +nourishes them is leaner and devoid of moisture; the earth is leaner +and less rich in moisture on the rocks of which the mountains are +formed. And the trees will be smaller and thinner in proportion as +they are nearer to the summit of the mountain; and the soil is leaner +in proportion as it is nearer to the said summit, and it is richer in +proportion as it is nearer the hollow valleys. Therefore, O painter, +{126} thou shalt represent rocks on the summits of the mountains--for +they are composed of rocks--for the greater part devoid of soil, and +the plants which grow there are small and lean and for the greater part +withered and dry from lack of moisture, and the sandy and lean earth is +seen through the faded plants; and the small plants are stunted and +aged, exiguous in size, with short and thick boughs and few leaves; +they cover for the greater part the rust-coloured and dry roots, and +are interwoven in the strata and the fissures of the rugged rocks, and +issue from trunks maimed by men or by the winds; and in many places you +see the rocks surmounting the summits of the high mountains, covered +with a thin and faded moss; and in some places their true colour is +laid bare and made visible owing to the percussion of the lightnings of +Heaven, whose course is often obstructed to the damage of these rocks. + +And in proportion as you descend towards the base of the mountains the +plants are more vigorous and their boughs and foliage are denser; and +their vegetation varied according to the various species of the plants +of which such woods are composed, and their boughs are of diverse +arrangement and diverse amplitude of foliage, various in shape and +size; and some have straight boughs like the cypress, and some have +widely scattered and spreading boughs like the oak and the chestnut +tree, and the like; some have very {127} small leaves, others have a +spare foliage like the juniper and the plane tree, and others; some +plants born at the same time are divided by wide spaces, and others are +united with no division of space between them. + + +[Sidenote: How to represent Night] + +83. + +That which is entirely devoid of light is all darkness; as the night is +like this and you wish to represent a night subject, represent a great +fire, so that the object which is nearest to the fire may be tinged +with its colour, since the object which is nearest the fire will +participate most in its nature. And as you will make the fire red, all +the objects which it illumines must be red also, and those which are +farther off from the fire will be dyed to a greater extent by the dark +colour of night. The figures which are between you and the fire appear +dark from the obscurity of the night, not from the glow of the +firelight, and those which are at the side are half dark and half +ruddy, and those which are visible beyond the edge of the flames will +be altogether lighted up by the red glow against a black background. +As to their action, make those which are near shield themselves with +their hands and cloaks against the intense heat with averted faces as +though about to flee; with regard to those who are farther off, +represent them chiefly in the act of raising their hands to their eyes, +dazzled by the intense glare. + +{128} + +[Sidenote: How to represent Storm] + +84. + +If you wish to represent well a storm, consider and weigh its effects +when the wind, blowing across the surface of the sea and the earth, +removes and carries with it those things which are not stable in the +universal drift. And in order to represent this storm adequately, you +must in the first place represent tattered and rent clouds rushing with +the rushing wind, accompanied by sandy dust caught up from the +seashores, and boughs and leaves torn up by the force and fury of the +wind, and dispersed in the air with many other light objects. The +trees and the plants bent towards the earth almost seem as though they +wished to follow the rushing wind, with their boughs wrenched from +their natural direction and their foliage all disordered and distorted. +Of the men who are to be seen, some are fallen and entangled in their +clothes and almost unrecognizable on account of the dust, and those who +remain standing may be behind some tree, clutching hold of it so that +the wind may not tear them away; others, with their hands over their +eyes on account of the dust, stoop towards the ground, with their +clothes and hair streaming to the wind. The sea should be rough and +tempestuous, and full of swirling eddies and foam among the high waves, +and the wind hurls the spray through the tumultuous air like a thick +and swathing mist. {129} As regards the ships that are there, you will +depict some with torn sails and tattered shreds fluttering through the +air with shattered rigging; some of the masts will be split and fallen, +and the ship lying down and wrecked in the raging waves; some men will +be shrieking and clinging to the remnants of the vessel. You will make +the clouds driven by the fury of the winds and hurled against the high +summits of the mountains, and eddying and torn like waves beaten +against rocks; the air shall be terrible owing to deep darkness caused +by the dust and the mist and the dense clouds. + + +[Sidenote: How to describe a Battle] + +85. + +In the first place you must represent the smoke of the artillery +mingled with the air, and the dust, and tossed up by the stampede of +the horses and the combatants. And you must treat this confusion in +this way: dust being an earthly thing has weight, and although owing to +its fineness it is easily lifted up and mingled with the air, it +nevertheless falls readily to the earth again, and it is its finest +part which rises highest, therefore that part will be the least visible +and will seem to be almost of the same colour as the air; the higher +the smoke, which is mingled with the dusty air, rises towards a certain +height, the more it will seem like a dark cloud, and at the summit the +smoke will be more visible than the dust. {130} The smoke will assume +a bluish colour, and the dust will retain its colour: this mixture of +air, smoke and dust will seem much brighter on the side whence the +light proceeds than on the opposite side; the more densely the +combatants are enveloped in this confusion the less distinctly will +their lights and shadows be visible. You must cast a glowing light on +the countenances and the figures, the atmosphere, the musketeers and +those who are near them, and this light diminishes in proportion as the +distance between it and its cause increases; and the figures which are +between you and the light will appear dark against a bright background, +and their legs will be less visible in proportion as they are nearer to +the earth, because the dust there is coarsest and thickest. And if you +depict horses galloping beyond the crowd, make little clouds of dust, +distant one from the other in proportion to the strides made by the +horses, and the cloud which is farthest away from the horse will be the +least visible; it must be high, scattered and thin, and the nearer +clouds will be more conspicuous, smaller and denser. The air must be +full of arrows falling in every direction: some flying upwards, some +falling, some on the level plane; and smoke should trail after the +flight of the cannon-balls. The foremost figures should have their +hair and eyebrows clotted with dust; dust must be on every flat portion +they offer capable of retaining it. {131} The conquerors you should +make as they charge, with their hair and the other light things +appertaining to them streaming to the wind, their brows contracted and +the limbs thrust forward inversely, that is, if the right foot is +thrust forward the left arm must be thrust forward also. And if you +portray a fallen man you must show where he has slipped and been +dragged through the blood-stained mud, and around in the wet earth you +must show the imprint of the feet of men and the hoofs of horses that +have passed there. You will also represent a horse dragging its dead +master, and in the wake of the body its track, as it has been dragged +along through the dust and the mud; you must make the vanquished and +beaten pale, their brows knit and the skin surmounting the brow +furrowed with lines of pain. On the sides of the nose there must be +wrinkles forming an arch from the nostrils to the eyes and terminating +at the commencement of the latter; the nostrils should be drawn up, +whence the wrinkles mentioned above; the arched lips show the upper row +of teeth. The teeth should be apart, as with crying and lamentation. +One hand shields the frightened eyes, the palm being held towards the +enemy; the other [hand] rests on the ground to sustain the raised body. +You shall portray others shouting in flight with their mouths wide +open; you must depict many kinds of weapons lying at the feet of the +{132} combatants, such as broken shields, lances, shattered swords and +other similar objects; you must portray dead men, some half covered, +some entirely covered, by the dust which is mingled with the spilt +blood and converted into red mud, and the blood is seen by its colour +flowing in a sinuous stream from the body to the dust; others in their +death-agony are grinding their teeth, rolling their eyes and clenching +their fists against their bodies and their distorted legs. Some might +be represented disarmed and thrown by the enemy, turning upon him with +teeth and nails to wreak cruel and sharp revenge; a riderless horse +might be represented charging with his mane streaming to the wind +amidst the enemy, and inflicting great damage with his hoofs. Some +maimed man might be seen fallen to the earth and protecting himself +with his shield, while the enemy, bending over him, tries to kill him. +You might show a number of men fallen together over a dead horse. You +would see some of the conquerors leaving the battle and issuing from +the crowd, clearing with their hands their eyes and cheeks of the mud +made by the watering of their dust-bespattered eyes. You would see the +reserves standing full of hope and caution, with brows alert, shading +them with their hands and gazing through the thick and confused +darkness, attentive to the orders of their captain; and likewise the +captain, with his staff raised, is rushing towards these {133} reserves +and points out to them the spot where they are needed; and you may add +a river with horses charging into it and stirring up the water all +round them into seething waves of mixed foam and water, which is +spurted into the air and among the legs and bodies of the horses. And +there must not be a level place that is not trampled with gory +footsteps. + + +[Sidenote: Envy] + +86. + +Envy offends with false infamy, that is to say, by detraction which +frightens virtue. Envy must be represented with the hands raised to +heaven in contempt, because if she could she would use her power +against God. Make her face covered with a goodly mark; show her as +wounded in the eye by a palm-branch, and wounded in the ear by laurel +and myrtle, to signify that victory and truth offend her. Draw many +thunderbolts proceeding from her as a symbol of her evil-speaking. +Make her lean and shrivelled up, because she is continual dissolution. +Make her heart gnawed by a swelling serpent. Make her a quiver full of +tongues for arrows, because she often offends with these. Make her a +leopard's skin, because the leopard kills the lion through envy and by +deceit. Place a vase in her hand full of flowers, and let it be full +also of scorpions, toads and other reptiles. Let her ride Death, +because Envy, which is undying, never wearies of sovereignty. {134} +Make her a bridle loaded with divers arms, because her weapons are all +deadly. As soon as virtue is born it begets envy which attacks it; and +sooner will there exist a body without a shadow than virtue +unaccompanied by envy. + + +[Sidenote: Fame] + +87. + +Fame alone rises towards heaven, because God looks with favour on +virtuous things; infamy must be represented upside down, because its +works are contrary to God and move towards hell. Fame should be +depicted covered with tongues instead of with feathers and in the form +of a bird. + + +[Sidenote: The Expressive Picture] + +88. + +A picture or a representation of human figures should be done in such a +way that the spectator can easily recognize the purpose that is in +their minds by their attitudes. If you have to represent a man of high +character, let his gestures be such as harmonize with fair words; +likewise, if you have to represent a man of low character, let his +gestures be fierce, let him thrust his arms towards the listener, and +let his head and chest be thrust forward in front of his feet, +following the hands of the speaker. It is thus with a dumb man, who +seeing two speakers, although he is deprived of hearing, nevertheless, +owing to the attitudes and gestures of the speakers, + +understands the subject of their argument. I once saw at Florence a +man who had become deaf by an accident, who, if you spoke loud to him, +did not understand you, but if you spoke gently, without making any +noise, he understood you merely by the movement of the lips. Now you +can say, Does not one who talks loudly move his lips like one who talks +softly? In regard to this I leave experiment to decide: make a man +speak gently to you and note his lips. + + +[Sidenote: The Ages of Man] + +89. + +How the ages of man should be depicted: that is, infancy, childhood, +youth, manhood, old age, decrepitude. How old men should be depicted +with lazy and slow movements, their legs bent at the knees when they +stand still, and their feet placed parallel and apart, their backs +bent, their heads leaning forward and their arms only slightly extended. + +How women should be represented in modest attitudes, their legs close +together, their arms folded together, their heads bent and inclined to +one side. How old women should be represented with eager, vehement and +angry gestures, like the furies of Hades; the movement of the arms and +the head should be more violent than that of the legs. Little children +with ready and twisted movements when sitting, and when standing up in +shy and timid attitudes. + +{136} + +90. + +You will do as follows if you wish to represent a man talking to a +number of people: you must consider the matter which he has to treat, +and suit his action to the subject; that is to say, if the matter is +persuasive, let his action be appropriate to it; if the matter is +argumentative, let the speaker hold one finger of the left hand with +two fingers of the right hand, closing the two smaller ones, and with +his face turned towards the people and his mouth half open, let him +seem to be about to speak, and if he is sitting let him appear as +though about to rise, with his head forward; if you represent him +standing up, let him lean slightly forward, with his body and head +towards the people. You must represent the people silent and +attentive, looking at the orator's face with gestures of admiration, +and depict some old men with the corners of their mouths pulled down in +astonishment at what they hear, their cheeks drawn in and full of +lines, their eyebrows raised, and thus causing a number of wrinkles on +the forehead; again, some must be sitting with the fingers of their +hands clasped and resting on their knee; another, a bowed old man, with +one knee crossed over the other, and on the knee let him hold his hand, +and let his other elbow rest on his hand, and let the hand support his +bearded chin. + + +{137} + +91. + +You must represent an angry man holding some one by the ear, beating +his head against the ground, with one knee on his ribs, his right arm +raising his fist in the air; his hair must be dishevelled, his eyebrows +low and narrow, his teeth clenched and the two corners of his mouth +set, his neck swelled and [his brow] wrinkled and bent forward as he +leans over his enemy. + + +92. + +The desperate man must hold a knife and must have torn open his +garments, and with one hand he must be tearing open the wound; and you +must represent him with extended feet and the legs slightly bent and +his body leaning towards the earth, his hair flying and dishevelled. + + +[Sidenote: Notes on the Last Supper] + +93. + +One who was in the act of drinking leaves his glass in its place, and +turns his head towards the speaker. Another, twisting the fingers of +his hands together, turns with stern brows to his companions. Another, +with his hands spread out, shows their palms, and shrugs his shoulders +towards his ears; his mouth expresses amazement. Another speaks in the +ear of his neighbour, and he, as he listens to him, turns towards him, +lending him his ear, while he holds a knife in one hand and {138} a +piece of bread in the other, half cut through by the knife. Another, +in turning with a knife in his hand, has upset a glass on the table. +Another lays his hands on the table and looks fixedly. Another puffs +out his cheeks, his mouth full. Another leans forward to see the +speaker, shading his eyes with his hand. Another draws back behind him +who is leaning forward and sees the speaker between the wall and the +man who is leaning forward. + + + + +{141} + +III + +THOUGHTS ON SCIENCE + + * * + * + +[Sidenote: Necessity of Experience in Science] + +There is no human experience that can be termed true science unless it +can be mathematically demonstrated. And if thou sayest that the +sciences which begin and end in the mind are true, this cannot be +conceded, but must be denied for many reasons, and firstly because in +such mental discourses experience is eliminated, and without experience +there can be no certainty. + + +[Sidenote: Theory and Practice] + +2. + +You must first propound the theory and then explain the practice. + + +3. + +Let no man who is not a mathematician read the principles of my work. + + +4. + +In the course of scientific exposition the demonstration of a general +rule derived from a previous conclusion is not to be censured. + + +{142} + +[Sidenote: Certainty of Mathematics] + +5. + +He who blames the supreme certainty of mathematics feeds on confusion +and will never be able to silence the contradictions or sophistical +sciences which lead to an everlasting clamour. + + +[Sidenote: Of Science] + +6. + +There is no certainty [in science] where one of the mathematical +sciences cannot be applied, or in those [sciences] which are not in +harmony with mathematics. + + +[Sidenote: From Leonardo's Dictionary] + +7. + +Syllogism: to speak doubtfully. + +Sophism: to speak confusedly; falsehood for truth. + +Theory: knowledge without practice. + + +[Sidenote: Definition of Science] + +8. + +Science is that discourse of the mind which derives its origin from +ultimate principles beyond which nothing in nature can be found which +forms a part of that science: as in the continued quantity, that is to +say, the science of geometry, which, starting from the surfaces of +bodies, has its origin in the line, which is the end of the +superficies; and we are not satisfied by this, because we know that the +line terminates in the point, and the point is that which is the least +of things. Therefore the point is the first principle of geometry, and +nothing else can exist either {143} in nature or in the human mind from +which the point can issue. Because if you say that the contact between +a surface and the extreme point of an iron instrument is the creation +of the point, it is not true; but let us say that this point of contact +is a superficies which surrounds its centre, and in the centre the +point dwells. And such a point is not a part of the substance of the +superficies, neither it nor all the points of the universe can, even if +combined,--it being granted that they could be combined,--compose any +part of a superficies. And granted, as you imagined, a whole composed +of a thousand points, if we divide any part of this quantity of a +thousand, we can very well say that this part shall equal its whole; +and this we can prove by zero, or naught, that is, the tenth figure of +arithmetic, which is represented by a cipher as being nothing, and +placed after unity it will signify 10, and if two ciphers are placed +after unity it will signify 100, and thus the number will go on +increasing by ten to infinity whenever a cipher is added, and the +cipher in itself is worth nothing more than naught, and all the naughts +in the universe are equal to one naught alone, in regard to their +substance and value. + + +[Sidenote: True Science based on the Testimony of the Senses] + +9. + +Knowledge which is the issue of experience is termed mechanical; that +which is born and ends {144} in the mind is termed scientific; that +which issues from science and ends in manual work is termed +semi-mechanical. But I consider vain and full of error that science +which is not the offspring of experience, mother of all certitude, and +which does not result in established experience, that is to say, whose +origin, middle and end do not pass through any of the five senses. And +if we doubt of everything we perceive by the senses, should we not +doubt much more of what is contrary to the senses, such as the +existence of God and of the soul, and similar matters constantly under +dispute and contention? + +And it is truly the case that where reason is lacking it is +supplemented by noise, which never happens in matters of certainty. On +account of this we will say that where there is noise there is no true +science, because truth has one end only, which, when it is made known, +eternally silences controversy, and should controversy come to life +again, it is lying and confused knowledge which is reborn, and not +certainty. But true science is that which has penetrated into the +senses through experience and silenced the tongue of the disputers, and +which does not feed those who investigate it with dreams, but proceeds +from the basis of primary truths and established principles +successively and by true sequence to the end; as, for instance, what +comes under the heading of elementary mathematics, {145} that is, +numeration and measurement, termed arithmetic and geometry, which treat +with the highest truth of the discontinued and continued quantity. +Here there will be no dispute as to whether twice three make more or +less than six, nor whether two angles of a triangle are less than two +right angles, but eternal silence shall ignore all controversy, and the +devotees of the true science will finish their studies in peace, which +the lying mental sciences cannot do. And if thou sayest that true and +established science of this kind is a species of mechanics, because +they can only be completed by the hand, I will say the same of all the +arts, such as that which passes through the hand of the sculptor, which +is a kind of drawing, a part of painting; and astrology and the other +sciences pass through manual operation, but they are mental in the +first place, as painting, which first of all exists in the mind of the +composer, and cannot attain to fulfilment without manual labour. With +regard to painting, its true and scientific principles must be +established: what constitutes a shaded body, what constitutes a primary +shade, a derivative shade, what constitutes light: that is, darkness, +light, colour, size, shape, position, distance, propinquity, motion, +rest, which are comprehended by the mind only, and without manual +labour. And this is the science of painting which remains in the mind +of those who meditate on it, from which {146} issues the work in due +time, and is infinitely superior to the aforesaid contemplation or +science. + + +[Sidenote: Mechanics] + +10. + +Mechanics are the paradise of scientific mathematics, because with them +we arrive at the fruits of mathematics. + + +[Sidenote: Mechanics and Experience] + +11. + +Experience is indispensable for the making of any instrument. + + +12. + +Proportion is not only to be found in figures and measurements, but +also in sound, weight, time and position, and in whatever power which +exists. + + +[Sidenote: Reason and Experience] + +13. + +The power of the projecting force increases in proportion as the object +projected is smaller; the acceleration of the motion increases to +infinity proportionately to this diminution. It would follow that an +atom would be almost as rapid as the imagination or the eye, which in a +moment attains to the height of the stars, and consequently its voyage +would be infinite, because the thing which can be infinitely diminished +would have an infinite velocity and would travel on an infinite course +(because every continuous quantity is divisible to infinity). And this +opinion is {147} condemned by reason and consequently by experience. + +Thus, you who observe rely not on authors who have merely by their +imagination wished to be interpreters between nature and man, but on +those alone who have applied their minds not to the hints of nature but +to the results of their experience. And you must realize the +deceptiveness of experiments; because those which often appear to be +one and the same are often different, as is shown here. + + +[Sidenote: Effects correspond to the Force of their Cause] + +14. + +A spherical body which possesses a dense and resisting superficies will +move as much in the rebound resulting from the resistance of a smooth +and solid plane as it would if you threw it freely through the air, if +the force applied be equal in both cases. + +Oh, admirable justice of thine, thou first mover! thou hast not +permitted that any tone should fail to produce its necessary effects, +either as regards order or quantity. Seeing that a force impels an +object which it overcomes a distance of one hundred arms' length, and +if in obeying this law it meets with resistance, thou hast ordained +that the force of the shock will cause afresh a further movement, which +in its various bounds recuperates the whole sum of the distance it +should have travelled. And if you measure the distance {148} +accomplished by the aforesaid bounds you will find that they equal the +length of distance through which a similar object set in motion by an +equal force would travel freely through the air. + + +15. + +Every action must be caused by motion. + + +16. + +Motion is the cause of all life. + + +[Sidenote: Of Force] + +17. + +What is force? Force, I say, is a spiritual virtue, an invisible +power, which by accidental external violence is caused by motion, and +communicated and infused into bodies which are inert by nature, giving +them an active life of marvellous power. + + +18. + +What is force? I say that force is a spiritual, incorporate and +invisible power, which for a brief duration is produced in bodies that +by accidental violence are displaced from their natural state of +inertia. + + +[Sidenote: Origin of Force] + +19. + +Force arises from dearth or abundance; it is the child of physical +motion and the grandchild of spiritual motion, and the mother and +origin of gravity. Gravity is confined to the elements of {149} water +and earth, and this force is infinite, because infinite worlds could be +moved by it if instruments could be made by which the force could be +generated. Force, with physical motion, and gravity, with resistance, +are the four accidental powers by which all mortal things live and die. +Force has its origin in spiritual motion, and this motion, flowing +through the limbs of sentient animals, enlarges their muscles, and thus +enlarged the muscles are shrunk in length and contract the tendons with +which they are connected, and this is the cause of the strength in +human limbs. The quality and quantity of the strength of a man can +generate a further force, which will increase in proportion to the +duration of the motions produced by them. + + +[Sidenote: Aspects of Force] + +20. + +Gravity, force and casual motion together with resistance are the four +external powers by which all the visible actions of man live and die. + + +[Sidenote: Of Inertia] + +21. + +A motion tends to be continuous; a body set in motion continues to move +as long as the impression of the motive power lasts in it. + + +[Sidenote: Can Man imitate a Bird's Flight?] + +22. + +The bird is an instrument which operates by mathematical laws, and man +can reproduce all {150} the movements of this instrument, but cannot +attain to the intensity of its power; and can only succeed in acquiring +balance. Thus we will say that such an instrument constructed by man +lacks only the soul of the bird, and the soul of man must counterfeit +the soul of the bird. The spirit in the frame of the bird doubtless +would respond to needs of that frame better than would the spirit of +man, whose frame is different, more especially in the almost insensible +motions of balance; and since we see the bird make provision for the +many sensible varieties of movement, we can conclude by such experience +that man can acquire knowledge of the more markedly sensible of these +movements, and that he will be able to make ample provision against the +destruction of that instrument of which he has made himself the spirit +and the guide. + + +[Sidenote: Of Inertia] + +23. + +A natural and continuous motion seeks to preserve its course along the +line of its starting-point, that is to say, let us call starting-point +whatever place in which it varies. + + +24. + +Everything maintains itself by motion. And if it were possible to +describe a diameter of air on the sphere of the earth, like to a well, +which would extend from one superficies to the other, {151} and if a +weighty body were dropped into this well, the body would seek to remain +stationary at the centre, but so strong would be the impetus that for +many years it would prevent it from so doing. + + +[Sidenote: Transmission of Motion] + +25. + +Impetus is a virtue created by motion and communicated by the motive +force to the object moved, and this object acquires motion in +proportion to the energy of the impetus. + + +[Sidenote: Matter is Inert] + +26. + +No lifeless matter moves of itself, but its motion is caused from +without. + + +27. + +All elements displaced from their natural place seek to return to it, +and more especially fire, water and earth. + + +28. + +All matter universally seeks to maintain itself in its natural state; +hence, water in motion seeks to maintain its course according to the +force by which it is propelled, and if it meets with opposition it +finishes the length of the course it began in a circular and reflex +motion. + + +[Sidenote: Conception of Energy] + +29. + +Impetus is the impression of motion conveyed by the motive power to the +object moved. Every {152} impression tends to permanence or seeks to +attain permanence. That every impression seeks after permanence is +proved by the impression made by the sun on the eye which regards it, +and in the impression of sound made by the hammer which strikes a bell. +Every impression seeks after permanence, as is shown in the image of +impetus communicated to the object moved. + + +30. + +A weight seeks to fall to the centre of the earth by the most direct +way. + + +[Sidenote: In Praise of the Sun] + +31. + +If you look at the stars, warding off the rays (as may be done by +looking through a small hole made by the extreme point of a fine needle +placed so as almost to touch the eye), they will appear so small as to +seem as though nothing could be smaller; it is owing to their great +distance that they appear so small, for many of them are very many +times larger than the star which is the earth with its water. Now +reflect what appearance this our star must have from so great a +distance, and then consider how many stars might be placed--both in +longitude and latitude--between those stars which are sown in the dark +space. I can never refrain from blaming many of the ancients who said +that the size of the sun was no greater than {153} it appears; among +whom was Epicurus. I believe he founded his reasoning on a light +placed in our atmosphere equidistant from the centre of the earth, +which, to any one looking at it, never appears to diminish in size from +whatever distance it is seen. + + +32. + +I shall reserve the reasons of its size and power for later. But I +greatly marvel that Socrates should have depreciated such a body, and +that he should have said that it resembled an incandescent stone; and +he who opposed him as regards this error acted rightly. But I wish I +had words to blame those who seek to exalt the worship of men more than +that of the sun, since in the universe there is no body of greater +magnitude and power to be seen than the sun. And its light illumines +all the celestial bodies which are distributed throughout the universe; +and the vital spark descends from it, because the heat which is in +living beings comes from the soul, and there is no other centre of heat +and light in the universe, as will be shown later; and it is certain +that those who have elected to worship men as gods--as Jupiter, Saturn, +Mars, &c.--have fallen into a profound error, since even if a man were +as great as our earth, he would have the appearance of a little star, +which appears like a dot in the universe; and moreover these men are +mortal, and decay and corrupt in their sepulchres. + + +{154} + +33. + +Epicurus perhaps saw the shadows of columns on the walls in front of +them equal to the diameter of the column which cast the shadow; and +since the breadth of the shadows are parallel from beginning to end he +considered that he might infer that the sun also was directly opposite +to this parallel, and consequently no broader than the column; and he +did not perceive that the diminution of the shadow was insensibly small +owing to the great distance of the sun. If the sun were smaller than +the earth, the stars in a great portion of our hemisphere would be +without light--in contradiction to Epicurus, who says the sun is only +as large as it appears to be. + + +34. + +Epicurus says the sun is the size it seems to be; hence, as it seems to +be a foot in breadth, we must consider that to be its size. It follows +that when the moon eclipses the sun, the sun ought not to appear the +larger, as it does; hence, the moon being smaller than the sun, the +moon must be less than a foot in breadth, and consequently when the +earth eclipses the moon it must be less than a foot by a finger's +breadth; inasmuch as if the sun is a foot in breadth, and the earth +casts a conical shadow on the moon, it is inevitable that the luminous +cause of the conical shadow {155} must be greater than the opaque body +which causes it. + + +35. + +Measure how many times the diameter of the sun will go into its course +in twenty-four hours. And thus we can see whether Epicurus was correct +in saying the sun was only as large as it appeared to be; for as the +apparent diameter of the sun is about a foot, and as the sun would go a +thousand times into its course in twenty-four hours, it would have +travelled a thousand feet, that is, three hundred arms' length, which +is the sixth of a mile. Thus the course of the sun during twenty-four +hours would have been the sixth part of a mile, and this venerable +snail, the sun, would have travelled twenty-five arms' length in an +hour. + + +[Sidenote: The Sun's Heat] + +36. + +They say that the sun is not hot because it is not the colour of fire +but whiter and clearer. And the answer to this is that when molten +bronze is hottest it resembles the colour of the sun, and when it is +less hot it has the colour of fire. + + +37. + +It is proved that the sun is by nature hot and not cold, as has already +been stated. If rays of fire play on a concave mirror when it is cold, +the rays refracted by the mirror will be hotter than {156} the fire. +The rays emitted from a sphere of glass filled with cold water, which +are reflected from a fire, will be warmer than the fire. It follows +from these two experiments that the heat of the rays reflected by the +mirror or the sphere of cold water are hot by virtue, and not because +the mirror or the sphere is hot; and in this case it occurs that the +sun, passing through these bodies, heats them by its virtue. And owing +to this they have inferred that the sun is not hot,--which by the +aforesaid experiments has been proved to be exceedingly hot, by the +experiment of the mirror and the sphere, which are cold in themselves, +and reflect the hot rays of the fire and render them hotter, because +the first cause is hot; and the same thing occurs as regards the sun, +which, being hot in itself, and passing through these cold mirrors, +refracts great heat. It is not the light of the sun which gives +warmth, but its natural heat. + + +[Sidenote: Rays of the Sun] + +38. + +The rays of the sun pass through the cold region of the air without any +change being effected in their nature, they pass through glasses full +of cold water without suffering change; through whatever transparent +spot they pass, it is as though they passed through so much air. + + +[Sidenote: Light of the Stars] + +39. + +Some writers allege that the stars shine of {157} themselves, saying +that if Venus and Mercury did not shine of themselves, when their light +comes between them and the sun they would darken as much of the sun as +they could hide from our eye; this is false, because it is proved that +a dark body placed against a luminous body is enveloped and altogether +covered by the lateral rays of the remaining part of that body, and +thus remains invisible; as may be proved when the sun is seen through +the boughs of a leafless tree at a long distance, the boughs do not +hide any portion of the sun from our eyes. The same thing occurs with +the above-mentioned planets, which, though they have no light in +themselves, do not, as has been said, hide any portion of the sun from +our eyes. + +Second proof. They say that the stars shine most brightly at night in +proportion as they are high; and that, if they did not shine of +themselves, the shadow cast by the earth between them and the sun would +darken them, since they would not see nor be seen by the sun. But +these have not taken into consideration that the conical shadow of the +moon does not reach many of the stars, and even for those it does reach +the shadow is diminished to such an extent that it covers very little +of the star, and the remaining part is illumined by the sun. + + +{158} + +[Sidenote: On the Nature of the Moon] + +40. + +The moon having density and gravity, how does it stand? + + +41. + +i. No very light object is opaque. + +ii. Nothing light can remain beneath that which is heavier. + +iii. Whether the moon is the centre of its elements or not. And if it +has no fixed position like the earth in the centre of its elements, why +does it not fall to the centre of our elements? And if the moon is not +in the centre of its elements and does not fall, it must then be +lighter than any other element. And if the moon is lighter than the +other elements, why is it opaque and not transparent? + + +42. + +No body which has density is lighter than the air. Having proved that +the part of the moon which shines consists of water which mirrors the +body of the sun and reflects for us the splendour it receives from the +sun, and that if there were no waves in these waters, it would appear +small, but almost as bright as the sun--it must now be shown whether +the moon is a heavy or a light body; if it is a heavy body--admitting +that from the earth upwards with every grade of distance lightness must +increase, so that water is lighter than earth, air is lighter than +water, and {159} fire lighter than air, and so on in succession--it +would seem that if the moon had density, as it has, it must have +gravity, and if it has gravity the space in which it lies could not +contain it, and consequently it would fall towards the centre of the +universe and be joined to the earth, or if not the moon itself, its +waters would fall from the moon and strip it and fall towards the +centre, leaving the moon bare and lustreless; whence, as this could not +happen, as reason would tell us, it is manifest that the moon is +surrounded by its elements, that is to say, water, air and fire, and +thus it sustains itself by itself in that space as our earth is +suspended with its elements in this part of space; heavy bodies act in +their elements there just as other heavy bodies act in ours. + + +[Sidenote: On the Harmony of the Spheres] + +43. + +A sound is produced by the movement of the air in friction against a +dense body, and should it be produced by two weighty bodies it is owing +to the atmosphere which surrounds them, and this friction consumes the +bodies, so that it follows that the spheres in their friction, owing to +there being no atmosphere between them, do not generate sound. And if +this friction were a fact, during the many centuries the spheres have +revolved they would be consumed by the immense velocity expended daily; +and even if they produce sound, the sound could not travel, {160} +because the sound caused by percussion under water is scarcely +noticeable, and it would be less than noticeable in the case of dense +bodies. The friction of polished bodies produces no sound, and similar +result would be produced in the contact or friction of the spheres; and +if the spheres are not polished in their contact and friction, it +follows that they are rough. + +Again, their contact is not continuous; this being the case a vacuum is +produced, which it has been proved does not exist in nature. Therefore +we conclude that friction would have consumed the ends of each sphere, +and in proportion as a sphere has a greater velocity in the centre than +at the poles, it would be consumed to a higher degree at the centre +than at the poles; and then the friction would cease, and the sound +would cease also, and the spheres would cease to revolve unless one +sphere revolved eastward and the other northward. + + +44. + +Worlds gravitate in the midst of their own elements. The yellow or +yolk of an egg remains in the middle of the albumen without moving on +either side, and is lighter or heavier or equal to this albumen; and if +it is lighter it ought to rise above all the albumen and stop in +contact with the shell of the egg; and if it is heavier it ought {161} +to sink; and if it is equal to it, it can stand at one of the ends as +well as in the centre or below. + + +[Sidenote: The Earth appears a Star] + +45. + +The object of my book is to prove that the ocean, with the other seas, +by means of the sun causes our world to shine like the moon and to +appear as a star to other worlds; and this I will prove. + + +[Sidenote: The Earth a Star] + +46. + +In your discourse you must prove that the earth is a star like the +moon, and thus you will bear witness to the glory of our universe! And +thus you must discourse on the size of many stars. + + +47. + +How the earth is a star. The earth, in the midst of the sphere of +water which clothes the greater part of it, taking its light from the +sun and shining in the universe like the other stars, shows itself to +be a star as well. + + +[Sidenote: To prove the Earth a Star] + +48. + +First of all define the eye; then show how the twinkling of a star +exists really in the eye, and why one star should twinkle more than +another, and how the rays of the stars are born in the eye. Say, that +if the twinkling of the stars were, as it appears to be, really in the +stars, that this {162} twinkling appears to extend in proportion to the +body of the star. The star, therefore, being larger than the earth, +this motion made in an instant of time would in its velocity double the +size of the star. Then prove that the surface of the atmosphere, +contiguous to fire and the surface of fire, where it ends, is the point +in which the rays of the sun penetrate and bear the image of the +celestial bodies which are large when they rise and set, and small when +they are on the meridian. + + +[Sidenote: Earth not the Center of Universe] + +49. + +The earth is not the centre of the orbit of the sun, nor the centre of +the universe, but in the centre of its companion elements and united +with them; and if any one were to stand on the moon when the moon and +the sun are beneath us, our earth, with its element of water, would +appear and shine for him just as the moon appears and shines for us. + + +50. + +The earth, shining like the moon, has lost a great part of its ancient +splendour by the decrease of the waters. + + +51. + +Nothing is generated in a place where is no sentient vegetable and +rational life; feathers grow on birds and change every year; coats grow +on animals and are changed every year, with some {163} exceptions, like +the lion's beard and the cat's fur, and such; grass grows in the fields +and leaves on the trees; and every year they are renewed in great part. +Thus we can say that the spirit of growth is the soul of the earth, the +soil its flesh, the ordered arrangement of rocks its bones, of which +mountains are formed, the tufa its tendons; its blood the veins of +water which surround its heart, which is the ocean; its breathing and +increase and decrease of blood in the pulses the ebb and flood of the +sea; and the heat of the spirit of the world is fire which pervades the +earth, and the vital soul dwells in the fires which from various +apertures of the earth issue in springs and sulphur minerals and +volcanoes, as at Mount Etna in Sicily and in many other places. + + +52. + +The ancients called man the world in miniature, and certainly the name +is a happy one, because man being composed of earth, water, air and +fire, the body of the earth resembles the body of man. As man has in +him bones for the support and framework of his flesh, likewise in the +world the rocks are the supports of the earth; as man has in him a pool +of blood in which the lungs rise and fall in their breathing, so the +body of the earth has its ocean which rises and falls every six hours +as if the world breathed; as from the aforesaid pool of blood veins +issue which {164} ramify throughout the human body, so does the ocean +fill the body of the earth with innumerable veins of water. The body +of the earth lacks sinews, which do not exist because sinews are made +for movement, and the world being in perpetual stability no movement +occurs, and there being no movement, sinews are not necessary; but in +all other points they resemble each other greatly. + + + +53. + +Water is the driver of nature. + + +[Sidenote: Experience the Basis of Science] + +54. + +In explaining the action of water remember to cite experience first and +then reason. + + +55. + +Do not forget that you must put forward propositions adducing the +above-mentioned facts as illustrations, not as propositions,--that +would be too simple. + + +56. + +Water in itself has no stability and cannot move of its own accord, +save to descend. Water of its own accord does not cease to move unless +it is shut in. + + +57. + +The body of the earth, like the body of animals, is intersected with +ramifying veins, which are all {165} united and constructed for the +nourishment and life of the earth and of its creatures. + + +[Sidenote: Water is the Blood of the World] + +58. + +The water which rises in the mountains is the blood which keeps the +mountain alive, and through this conduit or vein, nature, the helper of +her creatures, prompt in the desire to repair the loss of the moisture +expended, proffers the desired aid abundantly; just as in a stricken +spot in man you will see, owing to the aid which is brought, the blood +abound under the skin in a swelling, so as to succour the spot which +has been stricken; likewise, in the case of the vine, when it is cut at +its extremity, nature causes its moisture to rise from the lowest root +to the end of the extremity which has been cut, and when this moisture +has been expended nature ceases not to supply it with vital moisture to +the end of its life. + + +59. + +Water is that which is given to supply vital moisture to this arid +earth; and the cause which propels it through its ramifications against +the natural course of weighty matter is the same which stirs the +humours in every kind of animal body. + + +[Sidenote: Water on Mountains] + +60. + +Water, the vital moisture of the earthly machine, moves by reason of +its natural heat. + + +{166} + +[Sidenote: On the Water of Rivers] + +61. + +Rivers, with their ruinous inundations, seem to me the most potent of +all causes of terrestrial losses, and not fire, as some have +maintained; because the violence of fire is exhausted where there is +nothing forthcoming to feed it. The flowing of water, which is +maintained by sloping valleys, ends and dies at the lowest depth of the +valley; but fire is caused by fuel and the movement of water by +incline. The fuel of fire is disunited, and its damage is disunited +and isolated, and fire dies where there is no fuel. The incline of +valleys is united, and damage caused by water is collective, along with +the ruinous course of the river, until with its valley it winds into +the sea, the universal base and sole haven of the wandering waters of +rivers. But what voice or words shall I find to express the disastrous +ravages, the incredible upheavals, the insatiable rapacity, caused by +the headstrong rivers? What can I say? Certainly I do not feel myself +equal to such a demonstration, yet by experience I will try to relate +the process of ruin of the rivers which destroy their banks and against +which no mortal bastion can prevail. + + +62. + +The recesses of the bottom of the sea are perennial, the summits of +mountains are transitory, whence it follows that the earth will become +{167} spherical and covered with waters, and will be uninhabitable. + + +[Sidenote: Transformations in Past and Future] + +63. + +The shores of the sea continually increase in soil, towards the middle +of the sea; the cliffs and promontories of the sea are continually +being ruined and consumed; the mediterranean seas will dry up and all +that will remain will be the channel of the greatest river which enters +into them; this will flow to the ocean and pour out its waters together +with that of all the rivers which are its tributaries. + + +[Sidenote: On the Earth's Vibration] + +64. + +The subterranean courses of water, like those which are made between +the air and the earth, are those which continually consume and deepen +the beds of their currents. The earth which is carried by rivers is +discharged at the end of their course, that is to say, the earth +carried from the highest part of the river's course is discharged at +the lowest depth of its course. Where fresh water arises in the sea, +the miracle of the creation of an island is manifest, which will be +discovered sooner or later in proportion as the quantity of water is +greater or less. And an island of this kind is formed by the deposit +of earth and stones made by the subterranean current of water in the +channels through which it passes. + + +{168} + +[Sidenote: Nature's Law] + +65. + +Nature never breaks her laws. + + +66. + +Nature is constrained by the cause of her laws which dwells inborn in +her. + + +67. + +Without reason no effect is produced in nature; understand the reason +and you will not need experience. + + +[Sidenote: Cause discovered by Effect] + +68. + +Before I proceed further I will make some experiments, because it is my +intention to cite the experiment first and then to demonstrate by +reasoning how such an experiment must necessarily take effect in such a +manner. And this is the true rule by which investigations of natural +phenomena must proceed; and although nature herself begins from the +reason and ends in the result, we must pursue the contrary course and +begin, as I said above, from experience and by it seek out the reason. + + +[Sidenote: Repetition of Experiment] + +69. + +Before deducing a general rule from this case repeat the experiment two +or three times and see if the same results are produced. + +{169} + +[Sidenote: Example of preceding Rule] + +70. + +It several bodies of equal weight and shape are dropped one after +another at equal intervals of time, the distances between each +successive body will be equally increased. + +The experiment to prove the above-mentioned theorem respecting motion +must be made thus: Take two balls of equal weight and shape and let +them fall from a great height so that when they start falling they +touch one another, and let the investigator stand on the ground and +watch whether the contact is maintained during their fall. This +experiment must be repeated several times, so that the trial may not be +marred by any accident and the experiment vitiated and the spectator +deceived. + + +[Sidenote: Necessity of Analysis] + +71. + +We know definitely that sight is infinitely swift and in an instant of +time perceives countless shapes, nevertheless it only sees one object +at a time. Let us take an example. You, O reader, will see the whole +of this written page at a glance, and you will instantly realize that +it is full of various letters, but you will not realize at that moment +what these letters are nor what they signify; wherefore you will have +to proceed word by word and line by line to take cognizance of these +letters. Again, if you wish to reach the summit of a building you must +mount step by step, {170} otherwise it will be impossible for you to +reach the summit. And therefore I say to you whom nature has drawn to +this art, if you wish to attain to a thorough knowledge of the forms of +objects, you will begin by studying the details, and not proceed to the +second until you have committed the first to memory and mastered it in +practice, and if you do otherwise you will be wasting your time and +protracting your studies. And remember first of all to acquire +diligence, which signifies speed. + + +[Sidenote: Vision] + +72. + +Of the nature of the eye. Here are the forms, here the colours, here +the form of every part of the universe are concentrated in a point, and +that point is so great a marvel! O marvellous and stupendous +necessity! thou dost compel by thy law, and by the most direct path, +every effect to proceed from its cause. These things are verily +miracles! I wrote in my Anatomy how in so small a space the visual +faculty can be reproduced and formed again in its whole expanse. + + +73. + +In many cases one and the same thing is attracted by two violent +forces,--necessity and power. The water falls in rain and by necessity +the earth absorbs the humidity; the sun causes it to evaporate, not of +necessity, but by power. + +{171} + +[Sidenote: Unconscious Reasoning] + +74. + +The pupil of the eye in the air expands and contracts according to +every degree of motion made by the sun. And with every dilation or +contraction the same object will appear of a different size, although +frequently the relative scale of surrounding circumstances does not +allow us to perceive these variations in any single object we look at. + + +[Sidenote: The Eye] + +75. + +The pupil of the eye dilates and contracts in proportion to the variety +of bright and dark objects which are reflected in it. In this case +nature has afforded compensation to the visual faculty by contracting +the pupil of the eye when it is offended by excess of light and by +causing it to dilate when offended by excess of darkness, like the +opening of the purse. And nature here behaves like the man who has too +much light in his house and closes half the window, or more or less of +it according to need; and when night comes he opens the window +altogether so as to see better inside his house, and nature here adopts +a continued process of compensation, by continually regulating and +readjusting the expansion and contracting of the pupil, in proportion +to the aforesaid obscurity and light which are continually reflected in +it. + + +{172} + +[Sidenote: Water surrounding the Globe Spherical] + +76. + +When you collect facts relating to the science of the motion of water, +remember to place under every proposition the uses to which it may be +applied, in order that this knowledge may not be fruitless. + + +77. + +This is a difficult question to answer, but I will nevertheless state +my opinion. Water, which is clothed with air, desires naturally to +cleave to its sphere because in this position it is without gravity. +This gravity is twofold,--the gravity of the whole which tends to the +centre of the elements, and the gravity which tends to the centre of +the waters of the spherical orb; if this were not so the water would +form a half sphere only, which is the sphere described from the centre +upwards. But I see no means in the human mind of acquiring knowledge +with regard to this. We must say, as we say of the magnet which +attracts iron, that such a virtue is an occult property of which there +is an infinite quantity in nature. + + +78. + +In the motion of earth against earth the repercussion of the portion +struck is slight. + +Water struck by water, eddies in circles around the spot where the +shock has taken place. + +The reverberation of the voice continues for a {173} great distance +through the air; for a greater distance through fire. The mind travels +for a still greater distance through the universe; but since it is +finite it does not penetrate into infinity. + + +79. + +If the water which rises on the summits of the mountains comes from the +sea, whence it is propelled by its weight to a greater height than that +of the mountains, why has this portion of the element of water the +power to elevate itself to such an altitude and to penetrate the earth +by so great an expenditure of labour and time, when the residue of the +element of water, whose only obstacle is the air which does not impede +it, is not able to raise itself to a similar altitude? And thou who +didst devise this theory, go and study nature, so that thou mayst cease +to acquire such opinions of which thou hast made so great a collection, +together with the capital and interest which thou dost possess. + + +[Sidenote: On the Law of Gravity] + +80. + +The sphere of the earth has gravity which increases in proportion to +the lightness of the element which contains it. + +Fire is light in its sphere and its lightness increases in proportion +to the weight of the element which contains it. + +{174} + +No primary element has gravity or lightness in its own sphere. + + +81. + +The motion made by bodies which possess gravity to the common centre is +not produced by the tendency of the body to find this centre, nor is it +caused by attraction made by the centre, as by a magnet, drawing the +weight towards it. + + +82. + +Why does not the weight remain in its place? + +It does not remain because it has no resistance. + +And whither will it tend? + +It will tend to the centre of the earth. + +And why not along other lines? + +Because the weight which meets with no resistance will descend by the +shortest way to the lowest depth, and the lowest depth is the centre of +the earth. + +And how does a weight find the centre of the earth with such directness? + +Because it does not proceed at random, wandering by diverse courses. + + +[Sidenote: Phenomena governed by Mechanical Laws] + +83. + +Instrumental science, that is to say, mechanics, is the most noble and +most useful of sciences, inasmuch as by means of it all living bodies +which have movement act; and this movement has {175} its origin in the +centre of gravity which is placed in the middle, dividing unequal +weights, and it has dearth and wealth of muscles and lever also and +counter-lever. + + +84. + +Since these things are far more ancient than letters, it is no wonder +if in our day no records exist to tell how these seas filled so many +countries. But if some record had existed, conflagrations, floods, +wars, changes of tongues and laws have consumed all that is ancient; +sufficient for us is the testimony of objects born in the salt waters +and found again in the high mountains far off from the seas of those +times. + + +[Sidenote: Heat the Vital Principle] + +85. + +Heat causes moisture to move, and cold arrests it; as is seen in a cold +country which arrests the motion of the clouds in the air. Where there +is life there is heat, where there is vital heat there is movement of +moisture. + + +[Sidenote: Against those desiring to correct Nature] + +86. + +The act of cutting out the nostrils of a horse is a piece of ludicrous +folly. And the foolish indulge in this practice as though they +considered nature had failed to supply necessary wants, and man had +therefore to supplement her work. Nature made two apertures in the +nose, which each in {176} itself is half as large as the lung pipe +whence breath proceeds, and if these apertures did not exist the mouth +would abundantly suffice for breathing purposes. And if you said to +me, Why has nature thus provided animals with nostrils if respiration +through the mouth is sufficient?--I would answer that nostrils are made +to be used when the mouth is employed in masticating its food. + + +[Sidenote: Of Trees] + +87. + +If a tree has been stripped of its bark in some spot, nature makes +provision for this and gives a greater supply of nourishing sap to the +stripped portion than to any other, so that in place of what has been +taken away the bark grows thicker than in any other spot. And so +impetuous is the motion of the sap that when it reaches the spot which +is to be healed, it rises higher like a bounding ball, in bubbles, not +unlike boiling water. + + +[Sidenote: The Leaves of Plants] + +88. + +Nature has so placed the leaves of the latest shoots of many trees that +the sixth leaf is always above the first, and thus in continued +succession unless the rule is obstructed. And this she has done for +two useful purposes in the plant: firstly, since the branches and the +fruit of the following year spring from the bud or eye which is above +and in contact with the juncture of the leaves, {177} the water which +feeds the shoot may be able to run down and nourish the bud, through +the drop being caught in the hollow whence the leaf springs. And the +second advantage is that as these buds shoot in the following year, one +will not be covered by the other, since the five shoots spring on five +different sides. + + +[Sidenote: From Known to Unknown] + +89. + +In order to arrive at knowledge of the motions of birds in the air, it +is first necessary to acquire knowledge of the winds, which we will +prove by the motions of water in itself, and this knowledge will be a +step enabling us to arrive at the knowledge of beings that fly between +the air and the wind. + + +[Sidenote: On the Flight of Birds] + +90. + +The reason of this is that small birds being without down cannot +support the intense cold of the high altitudes in which the vultures +and eagles or and other great birds, well supplied with down and +clothed with many kinds of feathers, [fly]. Again, the small birds, +having delicate and thin wings, support themselves in the low air, +which is denser, and they could not bear up in the rarer air, which +affords slighter resistance. + + +[Sidenote: On the Structure of Wings] + +91. + +The shafts formed in the shoulders of the wings of birds have been so +devised by ingenious nature {178} as to occasion a convenient pliancy +in the direct impetus which often occurs in the swift flight of birds, +since she found it more practical to bend a small part of the wing in +the direct flight than the whole of it. + + +[Sidenote: On a Fossil Fish] + +92. + +O time! swift devourer of all created things! How many kings, how many +nations, thou hast overthrown, how great changes of kingdoms and +diverse vicissitudes have succeeded one another, since the marvellous +body of this fish, which perished in the caverns and intricate recesses +[of the mountain]. Now undone by time, thou liest patient in this +confined spot; with thy fleshless and bare bones thou hast built the +framework and the support of the mountain that is above thee. + + +[Sidenote: We live by Others' Death] + +93. + +Unconscious life remains in what is dead, which when reunited to the +stomach of living men, reacquires sentient and conscious life. + + +[Sidenote: Against Doctors] + +94. + +Men are chosen to be physicians in order to minister to diseases of +which they are ignorant. + + +95. + +Every man wishes to amass money in order to give it to the physicians +who are the destroyers of life; they ought therefore to be rich. + +{179} + +96. + +Take pains to preserve thy health; and thou wilt all the more easily do +this if thou avoidest physicians, because their drugs are a kind of +alchemy, and there are as many books on this subject as there are on +medicine. + + +97. + +Oh! meditators on perpetual motion, how many vain projects of similar +character you have devised! Go and join the seekers of gold. + + +[Sidenote: Against the Seekers of Perpetual Motion] + +98. + +The water which flows in a river moves either because it is summoned or +driven, or because it moves of its own accord. If it is summoned,--and +I mean sought after,--who is the seeker? If it is driven, who is the +driver? If it moves of its own accord, it gives evidence of reasoning; +and reasoning in bodies which continually change their shape is +impossible, because in such bodies there is no consciousness. + + +[Sidenote: Against Occult Sciences] + +99. + +I wish to work miracles. I may have less than other and less energetic +men; and those who wish to grow rich in a day live a long time in great +poverty, as happens, and will always happen, to alchemists, who seek to +make gold and silver, and to the engineers who wish from still {180} +water to obtain life and perpetual motion, and to the supreme +fool,--the necromancer and the magician. + + +[Sidenote: Of Astrology] + +100. + +There is no part of astronomy which does not depend on the visual lines +and on perspective, the daughter of painting; because the painter is he +who by the necessity of his art has begotten perspective, and it is +impossible to do without lines which include all the various figures of +the bodies begotten by nature and without which the art of geometry is +blind. And while the geometrist reduces every surface surrounded by +lines to a square, and each body to the figure of the cube, and +mathematics do the same with their cube roots and square roots, these +two sciences deal only with the continuous and discontinuous quantity, +but they do not deal with the quality which constitutes the beauty of +the works of nature and the ornament of the world. + + +101. + +Here the adversary will say that he does not want so much knowledge, +and the mere skill of depicting nature will suffice him. To which I +make reply that there is no greater error than to trust to our +judgement without other reasoning, as experience, the enemy of +alchemists, necromancers and other foolish intellects, has in all times +proved. + +{181} + +[Sidenote: Against Alchemists] + +102. + +The lying interpreters of nature affirm that quicksilver is the common +seed of all metals. They do not bear in mind that nature raises +substances according to the diversity of things which she wishes to +produce in the world. + + +[Sidenote: Against Necromancy] + +103. + +The belief in necromancy is reputed to be the most foolish of all human +opinions. It is the sister of alchemy which gives birth to simple and +natural things; but it is all the more reprehensible than alchemy, +inasmuch as it brings forth nothing but what is like itself, that is, +lies. This is not the case with alchemy, which is confined to the +simple products of nature, and whose function cannot be performed by +nature herself, because in it there are no organic instruments with +which it can work, such as the hands are to man and which have enabled +him to make glass, &c. But necromancy, the flag and flying banner, +blown hither and thither by the winds, is the guide of the silly +multitude, which constantly bears witness with gaping wonder to the +countless effects of this art; and whole books are written which +declare that incantations and spirits are efficacious and speak without +tongues and without vocal organs, without which it is impossible to +speak, and carry the heaviest weights, raising tempests and rain and +{182} transforming men into cats, wolves and other beasts, although +they who affirm such things are the first to be transformed into +beasts. And certainly if such necromancy existed, as is believed by +lower intellects, there is nothing on the earth which would be so +effectual both as regards the service and detriment of man; because if +it is true that this art has the power to disturb the calm serenity of +the atmosphere, changing it into night and producing sparks and winds, +with fearful thunder and lightnings that fly through the darkness, and +overthrowing high buildings with violent winds and uprooting forests +and striking armies and shattering and overwhelming them, and +producing, in addition to this, devastating storms which rob the +peasants of the fruits of their toil, what kind of warfare is there so +deadly to the enemy? Who in naval warfare can be compared with him who +commands the winds and generates storms which ruin and sink any fleet +whatsoever? Certainly he who could dispose of such violent forces +would be the lord of nations, and no human skill could resist his +deadly power. The hidden treasures and gems concealed in the body of +the earth would be manifest unto him. He would let himself be borne +through the air from the east to the west, and through all the opposed +regions of the universe. But why should I proceed further? What thing +is there which could not be effected by such an art? Nothing, save +{183} the discovery of immortality. And if it is true, why has it not +remained among men who so greatly desired it, and led them to disregard +any deity? And I know that there are many who to satisfy a whim would +destroy God and the universe. And if necromancy has not remained with +man in spite of its being so necessary to him it can never have +existed, nor will it ever exist according to the definition of the +spirit which is invisible in the body, for in the elements there are no +incorporate things, for where there is no body there is a vacuum, and a +vacuum cannot exist in the elements because it would be immediately +filled by them. + + +[Sidenote: Deceptiveness of the Senses] + +104. + +The eye in its given distances and by its given means deceives itself +in the performance of its functions less than any other sense, because +it sees in straight lines which form a cone, the base of which is the +object it perceives, and transmits it to the eye, as I intend to prove. +But the ear greatly deceives itself as to the position and distance of +the objects it apprehends, because the sonorous waves do not reach it +in straight lines, like those of the eye, but by tortuous and reflex +lines, and often the most remote seem to be nearest, owing to the +peregrinations of such waves, although the voice of the echo is +transmitted to the sense by straight lines only. The smell is less +certain of the spot whence the odour arises, but {184} taste and touch +alone come into direct contact with the object which they apprehend. + + +[Sidenote: On the Conception of Nothingness] + +105. + +The smallest natural point is larger than all mathematical points, and +the proof of this is that the natural point has continuity, and +everything which has continuity is infinitely divisible; but the +mathematical point is indivisible because it is not a quantity. Every +continuous quantity is mentally infinitely divisible. Among the +magnitude of things which are among us, the chief of all is +nothingness; and its function extends to matter that does not exist, +and its essence is in time in the past or in the future, and it has +nothing of the present. This nothingness has its part equal to the +whole and the whole to the part, and the divisible to the indivisible, +and produces the same result by addition or subtraction, or if it be +divided or multiplied,--as is proved by arithmeticians by their tenth +character, which represents nothing. And its power does not extend to +the things of nature. + +That which is called nothingness is found only in time and in words: in +time it is found in the past and future, and not in the present; and +thus in words among things which are said to be nonexistent or +impossible. In time nothingness dwells in the past and the future, and +not at all in the present, and in nature it resides among the things +{185} which are impossible. Whence from that which has been said, it +has no being, because where there is nothingness there would be a +vacuum. + + +[Sidenote: On Spirits] + +106. + +With regard to this matter, we have said on the previous page that the +definition of a spirit is a power united with a body, because it cannot +move of its own accord nor acquire any kind of motion. And if you say +that it moves itself, this cannot be within the elements, because if +the spirit is an incorporate quantity this quantity is a vacuum and the +vacuum does not exist in nature, and if it did exist it would be +immediately filled by the rushing in of the element in which the vacuum +was formed. So according to the definition of weight which runs: +"Gravity is an accidental power created by one element attracted to or +suspended in another," it follows that no element, weighing nothing in +its own element, can have weight in the element which is above it and +lighter than it; for instance, no one part of water has no more gravity +or lightness than any other part, but if you were to draw it up into +the air, it would acquire weight, and this weight cannot sustain itself +by itself; and it must therefore inevitably fall, and thus wherever +there is a vacuum in water it will fall in. The same thing would +happen with a spirit among the elements where it would continuously +generate a vacuum {186} in whatever element it might find itself, for +which reason it is inevitable that it would move in a constant flight +to the sky until it had quitted these elements. + + +[Sidenote: Has the Spirit a Body?] + +107. + +We have proved that a spirit cannot exist in the elements without a +body, nor move of itself by voluntary motion unless it be to rise +upwards. But now we will say that if such a spirit took a body made of +air it would inevitably melt into air, because if it remained united it +would be separated and fall and form a vacuum, as we have described +above. Therefore if it desired to remain in the air it is necessary +that it should blend with a quantity of air, and if it were united with +the air, two difficulties arise: that is, that it will rarefy that +portion of air with which it is mingled, and this rarefied air will fly +upwards and will not remain in the air which is heavier than itself; +and besides this the ethereal spiritual essence is disunited, and its +nature is changed, for which reason that nature loses some of its first +virtue. There is in addition to these a third difficulty, and this is +that a body of this kind, made of air and assumed by the spirits, is +exposed to the penetrating winds which continually sunder and scatter +the united portions of the air, eddying and whirling amidst the rest of +the atmosphere; therefore the spirit who would pervade {187} this air +would be dismembered or rent and broken up with the rending of the air +of which it formed part. + + +108. + +It is impossible that the spirit, incorporated with a certain quantity +of air, should move this air; and this is proved by the passage where +it is said that "the spirit rarefies that portion of the air with which +it is mingled." This air therefore will rise high above the other air, +and the air will be set in motion by its own lightness and not by the +volition of the spirit, and if this air encounters a wind, the air will +be moved by the wind and not by the spirit which is incorporated in it. + + +[Sidenote: Can the Spirit speak?] + +109. + +In order to show whether the spirit can speak or not it is first +necessary to define the voice and the manner of its origin. The +following will be our definition: The voice is the movement of air in +friction against a dense body, or a dense body in friction against the +air (which is the same idea), and by this friction of the dense and the +rare what is rare is condensed, and resistance is caused; and again, +when the rare in swift motion and the rare in slow motion come into +contact, they condense one another and produce sound, and a great noise +is made. The sound or murmur made by the rare moving through the rare +{188} with slow motion is like the great flame whence sounds issue in +the air; the exceedingly great noise made by the rare, when the air +which is rare and swift mingles with that which is rare and in [slow] +motion, is like the flame of fire issuing from a great gun and striking +against the air; likewise the flame when it issues from a cloud strikes +the air as it begets the thunderbolt. Therefore we will say that the +spirit cannot produce a voice unless the air be set in motion, but +since there is no air within, it cannot discharge what it does not +possess; and if it wishes to move that air in which it is incorporated, +it is necessary that the spirit should multiply itself; but that which +has no quantity cannot be multiplied. In the fourth place it is said, +that no rare body can move if it has not a stable spot whence it may +take its motion, and more especially is this the case when an element +must move in its own element, which does not move of itself, excepting +by uniform evaporation at the centre of the thing evaporated; as occurs +in the case of the sponge squeezed in the hand under water, whence the +water escapes in every direction with equal motion through the spaces +between the fingers of the hand which squeezes it. As to whether the +spirit has an articulate voice and can be heard, and as to what are +hearing and sight--the wave of the voice travels through the air as the +images of objects travel to the eye. + +{189} + +110. + +O mathematicians, clear up this error! The spirit cannot have a voice, +for where there is a voice there is a body, and where there is a body +there is occupation of space, which prevents the eye seeing what is +behind that space; therefore a body fills all the surrounding air, that +is to say, with its own image. + + +111. + +There can be no voice where there is no motion or percussion of the +air, there can be no percussion of the air where there is no +instrument, there can be no such thing as an immaterial instrument; and +this being so, a spirit can have neither voice, nor shape, nor force; +and if it assumes a shape it can neither penetrate nor enter where the +issues are closed. If any one were to say that a spirit may take +bodies of various shapes by means of concentrated and compressed air, +and by means of this instrument speak and move with force--I reply to +this argument that where there are no nerves or bones, no force can be +expended in any movement made by these imaginary spirits. + + + + +{193} + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + +AND + +TABLE OF REFERENCES + + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + + * * + * + +Only of late years have the manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci seen the +light and the many difficulties been overcome which long proved an +obstacle to their publication. The labour of editing, deciphering and +translating his many scattered and fragmentary codices was beyond the +efforts of any single man. The gratitude of the cultivated world is +therefore due to those who, like J. P. Richter, C. Kavaisson-Mollien, +Luca Beltrami, Piumati, Sabachnikoff, and, last but not least, the +scholars of the Academia del Lincei, have so faithfully devoted +themselves to this task, which alone has made possible the present +little work. + +It was unavoidable that the form in which these manuscripts have been +published should practically restrict their possession to the great +libraries. But an excellent volume of selections from the writings of +Leonardo, which are found in so haphazard a manner scattered through +his codices and intermingled with his drawings and diagrams, has been +published in Italy (Leonardo da Vinci: Frammenti Letterari e Storici, +Florence, 1900). By kind permission of its editor, Dr. Solmi, this has +served as a basis for the text of the present translation. The +references, however, have {194} been verified with the complete +editions of Leonardo's works, while a different arrangement has been +made of the text. + +L. E. + + + +[Sidenote: Table of References] + +TABLE OF REFERENCES + +[A] Les manuscrits de Leonard de Vinci. Le manuscrit A de la +Bibliotheque de l'Institut. Edit. Ravaisson-Mollien, vol. i. Paris, +1880. + +[ASH I] Les manuscrits de Leonard de Vinci. Les manuscrits H de la +Bibliotheque de l'Institut; 2038 (Ash I) et 2037 (Ash II) de la +Bibliotheque Nationale. Edit. Ravaisson-Mollien, vol. vi. Paris, +1891. + +[ASH II] Idem. + +[B] Les manuscrits de Leonard de Vinci. Les manuscrits B et D de la +Bibliotheque de l'Institut. Edit. Ravaisson-Mollien, vol. ii. Paris, +1883. + +[C] Les manuscrits de Leonard de Vinci. Les manuscrits C, E et K de la +Bibliotheque de l'Institut. Edit. Ravaisson-Mollien, vol. iii. +Paris, 1888. + +[C A] Il Codice Atlantico di Leonardo da Vinci nella Biblioteca +Ambrosiana di Milano. Rome; Milan, 1891. (Still in course of +publication.) + +[D] See B. + +[E] See C. + +[F] Les manuscrits de Leonard de Vinci. Les manuscrits F et I de la +Bibliotheque de l'Institut. Edit. Ravaisson-Mollien, vol. iv. Paris, +1889. + +{195} + +[G] Les manuscrits de Leonard de Vinci. Les manuscrits G, L et M de la +Bibliotheque de l'Institut. Edit. Ravaisson-Mollien, vol. v. Paris, +1890. + +[H] See Ash I. + +[I] See F. + +[L] See G. + +[Lu] Leonardo da Vinci: Das Buch vom Malerei. Herausgegeben v. H. +Ludwig. 3 vols. Berlin, 1882. + +[M] See G. + +[R] The Literary Works of Leonardo da Vinci. Compiled and edited from +the original manuscripts by J. P. Richter. 2 vols. London, 1883. + +[S] Leonardo da Vinci: Frammenti Letterari e Filosofici. Trasceiti dal +Dr. Edmondo Solmi. Florence, 1900. + +[T] Il codice di Leonardo da Vinci nella Biblioteca del Principe +Trivulzio. Edit. L. Beltrami. Milan, 1892. + +[V U] Leonardo da Vinci. Il codice del volo degli uccelli ed altre +materie. Edit. Sabachnikoff e Piumati. Paris, 1893. + + + +[Sidenote: On Life] + +THOUGHTS ON LIFE + + Page. No. Reference. Page. No. Reference. + + 3 1 R 4 4 4 CA 119 r + 3 2 R 1339 5 5 Lu 9 + 4 3 R 841 5 6 R 1169 + +{196} + + Page. No. Reference. Page. No. Reference. + + 5 7 S 69 14 36 R 838 + 6 8 C A 119 r 14 37 Lu 16 + 6 9 C A 91 v 15 38 Lu 65 + 6 10 C A 119 r 15 39 S 96 + 6 11 S 71 15 40 B 4 v + 7 12 R 1178 15 41 F 96 v + 7 13 S 72 15 42 C A 79 r + 7 14 T 2 v 15 43 S 98 + 8 15 C A 112 r 15 44 S 99 + 8 l6 Lu 65 16 45 G 47 r + 9 17 S 74 16 46 C A 119 v + 9 l8 S 336 l6 47 R 837 + 9 19 S 74 17 48 R 1210 + 9 20 R ll75 19 49 I 18 r + 9 21 M 58 v 19 50 S 67 + 10 22 V U 12 r 19 51 R 1135 + 10 23 S 76 19 52 C A 169 v + 10 24 C A 119 r 20 53 S 114 + 11 25 C A 117 r 20 54 S 115 + 11 26 C A 76 r 21 55 Ash II 4 r + 11 27 C A 117 r 21 56 C A 59 r + 12 28 C A 76 r 21 57 T 6 r + 12 29 F 27 v 21 58 G 74 v + 12 30 S 83 22 58 S 121 + 12 31 R 1150 22 60 S 122 + 12 32 C A 154 r 22 61 S 123 + 13 33 C A 154 r 23 62 H 89 v + 13 34 C A 86 r 23 63 S 168 + 13 35 T 20 v 23 64 F 49 v + +{197} + + Page. No. Reference. Page. No. Reference. + + 24 65 S 169 36 94 C A 29 v + 24 66 R 846 36 95 C A 12 r + 24 67 R 1219 36 96 C A 71 v + 25 68 R 1187 37 97 S 205 + 25 69 R 838 37 98 T 34 R + 27 70 C A 90 r 37 99 T 34 r + 28 71 C A 119 v 37 100 T 27 r + 29 72 R 839 37 101 C A 71 r + 29 73 Lu 499 38 102 Lu 77 + 30 74 T 7 v 38 103 R 1132 + 30 75 S 180 39 104 R 1133 + 30 76 R 916 39 105 S 208 + 31 77 R 798 39 106 T 340 + 31 78 S 187 39 l07 T 14 v + 32 79 C A 119 r 39 108 C 117 v + 32 80 R 1 39 109 G 49 r + 32 81 Lu 292 40 110 S 209 + 33 82 S 201 41 111 H passim + 34 83 H 60 r 44 ll2 S 214 + 34 84 H 32 r 45 113 H 48 v + 34 85 S 202 45 114 S 2l6 + 34 86 C A 76 r 45 115 R 827 + 35 87 S 202 46 116 R 844 + 35 88 H 33 v 47 117 R 8l6 + 35 89 S 203 47 118 S 221 + 35 90 T 33 v 48 119 S 221 + 35 91 T 23 v 48 120 S 229 + 35 92 Ash i 34 v 48 121 C 15 v + 36 93 C A 76 r 50 122 R 1358 + +{198} + + Page. No. Reference. Page. No. Reference. + + 51 123 S 217 54 127 R 300 + 52 124 R 1355 55 128 S 382 + 52 125 Lu 24 55 129 S 199 + 53 126 Lu 16 + + +[Sidenote: On Art] + +THOUGHTS ON ART + + 59 1 C A 141 v 85 24 Lu 29 + 60 2 S 274 85 25 Lu 31 + 60 3 Lu 438 87 26 Lu 30 + 60 4 Lu 27 88 27 Lu 32 + 60 5 Lu 34 90 28 S 276 + 61 6 Lu 7 90 29 Lu 9 + 62 7 Lu 8 90 30 Lu 13 + 64 8 Ash II 19 v 91 31 S 275 + 65 9 Lu 2 92 32 Ash II 20 r + 66 10 Lu 7 92 33 Ash II 26 r + 66 11 Lu 14 93 34 Ash II 25 r 24 v + 68 12 Lu 10 + 68 13 Lu 46 95 35 Lu 35 + 68 14 Lu 18 96 36 Lu 36 + 69 15 Lu 20 97 37 Lu 38 + 71 16 Lu 21 98 38 Lu 40 + 72 17 Lu 22 99 39 Lu 41 + 73 18 S 251 100 40 Lu 405 + 77 19 S 257 100 41 Lu 62 + 80 20 Lu 27 100 42 R 498 + 82 21 Lu 27 100 43 Lu 57 + 82 22 Lu 26 101 44 Ash II 16 v + 83 23 Lu 28 101 45 Lu 58 + +{199} + + Page. No. Reference. Page. No. Reference. + + 101 46 R 103 116 70 Lu 107 + 102 47 R 104 116 71 S 337 + 103 48 Lu 404 117 72 S 338 + 104 49 Ash II 22v 117 73 S 336 + 105 50 Lu 54 117 74 S 337 + 105 51 I 130 v 118 75 Lu 108 + 105 52 C A 76 v 119 76 Lu 109 + 106 53 C A 119 v 120 77 A 23 r + 106 54 G 8 v 120 78 K 110 v + 106 55 Ash II 17 v 120 79 S 338 + 107 56 C A 181 v 121 80 Lu 15, 25 + 107 57 S 200 125 81 R 1021 + 108 58 S 284 125 82 Lu 806 + 109 59 S 78 127 83 Ash I 18 v + 111 60 S 283 128 84 Ash I 21 r + 111 61 G 33 r v 129 85 Ash I 30 v + 111 62 R 796 133 86 S 2l6 + 112 63 Ash II 26 r 134 87 Ash II 22 v + 113 64 Ash II 28 r 134 88 S 335 + 113 65 Ash II 26 r 135 89 S 338 + 114 66 Ash II 25 r 136 90 S 339 + 114 67 Ash II 24 v 137 91 S 341 + 115 68 Lu 53 137 92 S 342 + 116 69 S 122 137 93 S 340 + + +[Sidenote: On Science] + +THOUGHTS ON SCIENCE + + 141 1 Lu 1 141 3 R 3 + 141 2 R 110 141 4 R 6 + +{200} + + Page. No. Reference. Page. No. Reference. + + 142 5 R 1157 154 34 F 6 r + 142 6 G 96 v 155 35 F 8 r + 142 7 T 12 r 155 36 F 34 v + 142 8 Lu 1 155 37 G 34 r + 143 9 Lu 33 156 38 F 85 v + 146 10 E 8 v 156 39 S 136 + 146 11 R 1156 158 40 S 141 + 146 12 K 49 r 158 41 S 139 + 146 13 I 102 r, v 158 42 S 140 + 147 14 A 24 r 159 43 S 128 + 148 15 S 124 160 44 R 902 + 148 l6 T 36 v 161 45 S 138 + 148 17 T 36 v 161 46 S 137 + 148 18 H 141 r 161 47 S 137 + 148 19 E 22 r 161 48 S 138 + 149 20 I 68 r 162 49 S 139 + 149 21 R 859 162 50 S 139 + 149 22 F 52 r 162 51 S 142 + 150 23 S 126 163 52 C A 80 r + 150 24 S l27 164 53 H 95 r + 151 25 B 63 r 164 54 H 90 r + 151 26 S 125 164 55 S 88 + 151 27 C 26 v 164 56 F 30 v + 151 28 A 60 r 164 57 R 1000 + 151 29 S 124 165 58 R 970 + 152 30 C 28 v 165 59 H 77 r + 152 31 R 860 165 60 R 965 + 153 32 S 131 166 61 R 953 + 154 33 S 132 166 62 F 52 v + +{201} + + Page. No. Reference. Page. No. Reference. + + 167 63 G 49 v 176 88 S 118 + 167 64 K 22 177 89 E 54 r + 168 65 S 113 177 90 C A 66 v + 168 66 S 113 177 91 E 52 v + 168 67 C A 147 v 178 92 S 148 + 168 68 E 55 v 178 93 S 167 + 168 69 S 88 178 94 S 200 + 169 70 M 57 r 178 95 S 200 + 169 71 R 107 179 96 S 200 + 170 72 C A 337 v 179 97 R 1206 + 170 73 T 39 r 179 98 K 101 v + 171 74 I 202 179 99 R 796 + 171 75 D 5 r 180 100 Lu 17 + 172 76 F 2 v 180 101 S 66 + 172 77 C A 75 v 181 102 S 122 + 172 78 H 67 v 181 103 R 1213 + 173 79 F 2 v 183 104 S 181 + 173 80 F 69 v 184 105 Ash III 27 v + 174 81 S 129 185 106 S 192 + 174 82 C A 153 v 186 107 R 1214 + 174 83 V U 3 v 187 108 R 1215 + 175 84 R 984 187 109 C A 187 v + 175 85 S 142 189 110 S 196 + 175 86 C A 76 r 189 111 B 4 V + 176 87 C A 76 r + + + + + OF THIS VOLUME + + TRANSLATED BY MAURICE BARING + AND EDITED BY LEWIS EINSTEIN + WITH TYPES & DECORATIONS + BY HERBERT P. HORNE + CCCIII COPIES WERE + PRINTED + + + OPTIMUM + VIX SATIS + + + BY D. B. 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