diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:48:20 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:48:20 -0700 |
| commit | 2cb9090998e24f8ba421681644691ba121305f54 (patch) | |
| tree | 22b8fd2dc67f8c81643b92f1b6559bf3118e2ab8 /29853-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '29853-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 29853-h/29853-h.htm | 5250 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 29853-h/images/deco.jpg | bin | 0 -> 99845 bytes |
2 files changed, 5250 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/29853-h/29853-h.htm b/29853-h/29853-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e2b10b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/29853-h/29853-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5250 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Fathers Of New England, by Charles M. Andrews. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + p { margin-top: .5em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .5em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + h1 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* all headings centered */ + } + h5,h6 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* all headings centered */ + } + h2 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* all headings centered */ + } + h3 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* all headings centered */ + } + h4 { + text-align: center; font-family: garamond, serif; /* all headings centered */ + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; + } + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + a {text-decoration: none} /* no lines under links */ + div.centered {text-align: center;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 1 */ + div.centered table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left;} /* work around for IE centering with CSS problem part 2 */ + ul {list-style-type: none} /* no bullets on lists */ + ul.nest {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em; text-indent: -1.5em;} /* spacing for nested list */ + li {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em;} /* spacing for list */ + + .cen {text-align: center; text-indent: 0em;} /* centering paragraphs */ + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} /* small caps */ + .noin {text-indent: 0em;} /* no indenting */ + .blockquot {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} /* block indent */ + .img {text-align: center; padding: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} /* centering images */ + .tdr {text-align: right;} /* right align cell */ + .tdrp {text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;} /* right align with padding */ + .tdl {text-align: left;} /* left align cell */ + .tr {margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; margin-top: 5%; margin-bottom: 5%; padding: 1em; background-color: #f6f2f2; color: black; border: dotted black 1px;} /* transcriber's notes */ + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; right: 2%; + font-size: 75%; + color: silver; + background-color: inherit; + text-align: right; + text-indent: 0em; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal;} /* page numbers */ + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 90%;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right; font-size: 90%;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: text-top; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span {display: block; margin: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 2em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 4em;} + .poem span.pn { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; right: 2%; + font-size: 75%; + text-align: right; + text-indent: 0em; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + color: silver; background-color: inherit; + font-variant: normal;} /* page numbers in poems */ + + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's The Fathers of New England, by Charles M. Andrews + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Fathers of New England + A Chronicle of the Puritan Commonwealths + +Author: Charles M. Andrews + +Release Date: August 30, 2009 [EBook #29853] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FATHERS OF NEW ENGLAND *** + + + + +Produced by Stephen Hope, Barbara Kosker, Joseph Cooper +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h1>THE FATHERS OF NEW ENGLAND</h1> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<p class="cen">TEXTBOOK EDITION<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +THE CHRONICLES<br /> +OF AMERICA SERIES<br /> +<br /> +ALLEN JOHNSON<br /> +EDITOR<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +GERHARD R. LOMER<br /> +CHARLES W. JEFFERYS<br /> +ASSISTANT EDITORS</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h1>THE FATHERS OF NEW ENGLAND</h1> +<br /> +<h3>A CHRONICLE OF THE<br /> + PURITAN COMMONWEALTHS<br /> + BY CHARLES M. ANDREWS</h3> + +<div class="img"> +<img border="0" src="images/deco.jpg" width="27%" alt="Publisher's Mark" /> +</div> + +<br /> +<h4>NEW HAVEN: YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS<br /> + TORONTO: GLASGOW, BROOK & CO.<br /> + LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD<br /> + OXFORD: UNIVERSITY PRESS</h4> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<h4><i>Copyright, 1919, by Yale University Press</i><br /> +<br /> +PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA</h4> +<br /> +<br /> +<br/> +<br /> + +<hr /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> +<br /> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents"> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp" width="8%">I.</td> + <td class="tdl" width="77%">THE COMING OF THE PILGRIMS</td> + <td class="tdr" width="15%"><a href="#Page_1">Page 1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp">II.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE BAY COLONY</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">Page 21</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp">III.</td> + <td class="tdl">COMPLETING THE WORK OF SETTLEMENT</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_45">Page 45</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp">IV.</td> + <td class="tdl">EARLY NEW ENGLAND LIFE</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_72">Page 72</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp">V.</td> + <td class="tdl">AN ATTEMPT AT COLONIAL UNION</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_88">Page 88</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp">VI.</td> + <td class="tdl">WINNING THE CHARTERS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_100">Page 100</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp">VII.</td> + <td class="tdl">MASSACHUSETTS DEFIANT</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_116">Page 116</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp">VIII.</td> + <td class="tdl">WARS WITH THE INDIANS</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_129">Page 129</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp">IX.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE BAY COLONY DISCIPLINED</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_147">Page 147</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp">X.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE ANDROS RÉGIME IN NEW ENGLAND</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_166">Page 166</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp">XI.</td> + <td class="tdl">THE END OF AN ERA</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_194">Page 194</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp"> </td> + <td class="tdl">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_201">Page 201</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrp"> </td> + <td class="tdl">INDEX</td> + <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_205">Page 205</a></td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>THE FATHERS OF NEW ENGLAND</h2> +<br /> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h2>THE COMING OF THE PILGRIMS</h2> +<br /> + +<p>The Pilgrims and Puritans, whose migration to the New World marks the +beginning of permanent settlement in New England, were children of the +same age as the enterprising and adventurous pioneers of England in +Virginia, Bermuda, and the Caribbean. It was the age in which the +foundations of the British Empire were being laid in the Western +Continent. The "spacious times of great Elizabeth" had passed, but the +new national spirit born of those times stirred within the English +people. The Kingdom had enjoyed sixty years of domestic peace and +prosperity, and Englishmen were eager to enter the lists for a share in +the advantages which the New World offered to those who would venture +therein. Both landowning and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>landholding classes, gentry and tenant +farmers alike, were clamoring, the one for an increase of their landed +estates, the other for freedom from the feudal restraints which still +legally bound them. The land-hunger of neither class could be satisfied +in a narrow island where the law and the lawgivers were in favor of the +maintenance of feudal rights. The expectations of all were aroused by +visions of wealth from the El Dorados of the West, or of profit from +commercial enterprises which appealed to the cupidity of capitalists and +led to investments that promised speedy and ample returns. A desire to +improve social conditions and to solve the problem of the poor and the +vagrant, which had become acute since the dissolution of the +monasteries, was arousing the authorities to deal with the pauper and to +dispose of the criminal in such a way as to yield a profitable service +to the kingdom. England was full of resolute men, sea-dogs and soldiers +of fortune, captains on the land as well as the sea, who in times of +peace were seeking employment and profit and who needed an outlet for +their energies. Some of these continued in the service of kings and +princes in Europe; others conducted enterprises against the Spaniards in +the West Indies and along the Spanish Main; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>while still others, such as +John Smith and Miles Standish, became pioneers in the work of English +colonization.</p> + +<p>But more important than the promptings of land-hunger and the desire for +wealth and adventure was the call made by a social and religious +movement which was but a phase of the general restlessness and popular +discontent. The Reformation, in which this movement had its origin, was +more than a revolt from the organization and doctrines of the mediæval +church; it voiced the yearning of the middle classes for a position +commensurate with their growing prominence in the national life. Though +the feudal tenantry, given over to agriculture and bound by the +conventions of feudal law, were still perpetuating many of the old +customs, the towns were emancipating themselves from feudal control, and +by means of their wealth and industrial activities were winning +recognition as independent and largely self-sufficing units. The gild, a +closely compacted brotherhood, existing partly for religious and +educational purposes and partly for the control of handicrafts and the +exchange of goods, became the center of middle-class energy, and in +thousands of instances hedged in the lives <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>of the humbler artisans. +Thus it was largely from those who knew no wider world than the fields +which they cultivated and the gilds which governed their standards and +output that the early settlers of New England were recruited.</p> + +<p>Equally important with the social changes were those which concerned +men's faith and religious organization. The Peace of Augsburg, which in +1555 had closed for the moment the warfare resulting from the +Reformation, not only recognized the right of Protestantism to exist, +but also handed over to each state, whether kingdom, duchy, or +principality, full power to control the creed within its borders. +Whoever ruled the state could determine the religion of his subjects, a +dictum which denied the right of individuals or groups of individuals to +depart from the established faith. Hence arose a second revolt, not +against the mediæval church and empire but against the authority of the +state and its creed, whether Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, or +Calvinist, a revolt in which Huguenot in France battled for his right to +believe as he wished, and Puritan in England refused to conform to a +manner of worship which retained much of the mediæval liturgy and +ceremonial. Just as all great revolutionary movements in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>church or +state give rise to men who repudiate tradition and all accretions due to +human experience, and base their political and religious ideals upon the +law of nature, the rights of man, the inner light, or the Word of God; +so, too, in England under Elizabeth and James I, leaders appeared who +demanded radical changes in faith and practice, and advocated complete +separation from the Anglican Church and isolation from the religious +world about them. Of such were the Separatists, who rejected the +Anglican and other creeds, severed all bonds with a national church +system, cast aside form, ceremony, liturgy, and a hierarchy of church +orders, and sought for the true faith and form of worship in the Word of +God. For these men the Bible was the only test of religious truth.</p> + +<p>The Separatists organized themselves into small religious groups, as +independent communities or companies of Christians, covenanted with God +and keeping the Divine Law in a Holy Communion. They consisted in the +main of men and women in the humbler walks of life—artisans, tenant +farmers, with some middle-class gentry. Sufficient to themselves and +knit together in the fashion of a gild or brotherhood, they believed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>in +a church system of the simplest form and followed the Bible, Old and New +Testaments alike, as the guide of their lives. Desiring to withdraw from +the world as it was that they might commune together in direct relations +with God, they accepted persecution as the test of their faith and +welcomed hardship, banishment, and even death as proofs of righteousness +and truth. Convinced of the scriptural soundness of what they believed +and what they practised, and confident of salvation through unyielding +submission to God's will as they interpreted it, they became conspicuous +because of their radical thought and peculiar forms of worship, and +inevitably drew upon themselves the attention of the authorities, both +secular and ecclesiastical.</p> + +<p>The leading centers of Separatism were in London and Norfolk, but the +seat of the little congregation that eventually led the way across the +sea to New England was in Scrooby in Nottinghamshire. There—in Scrooby +manor-house, where William Brewster, the father, was receiver and +bailiff, and his son, the future elder of the Plymouth colony, was +acting postmaster; where Richard Clayton preached and John Robinson +prayed; and where the youthful William Bradford <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>was one of its +members—there was gathered a small Separatist congregation composed of +humble folk of Nottinghamshire and adjoining counties. They were soon +discovered worshiping in the manor-house chapel, by the ecclesiastical +authorities of Yorkshire, and for more than a year were subjected to +persecution, some being "taken and clapt up in prison," others having +"their houses besett and watcht night and day and hardly escaped their +hands." At length they determined to leave England for Holland. During +1607 and 1608 they escaped secretly, some at one time, some at another, +all with great loss and difficulty, until by the August of the latter +year there were gathered at Amsterdam more than a hundred men, women, +and children, "armed with faith and patience."</p> + +<p>But Amsterdam proved a disappointing refuge. And in 1609 they moved to +Leyden, "a fair and bewtifull citie," where for eleven years they +remained, pursuing such trades as they could, chiefly weaving and the +manufacture of cloth, "injoying much sweete and delightful societie and +spiritual comfort togeather in the ways of God, under the able ministrie +and prudente governmente of Mr. John Robinson and Mr. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>William +Brewster." But at last new and imperative reasons arose, demanding a +third removal, not to another city in Holland, but this time to the New +World called America. They were breaking under the great labor and hard +fare; they feared to lose their language and saw no opportunity to +educate their children; they disapproved of the lax Dutch observance of +Sunday and saw in the temptations of the place a menace to the habits +and morals of the younger members of the flock, and, in the influences +of the world around them, a danger to the purity of their creed and +their practice. They determined to go to a new country "devoyd of all +civill inhabitants," where they might keep their names, their faith, and +their nationality.</p> + +<p>After many misgivings, the fateful decision was reached by the "major +parte," and preparations for departure were made. But where to go became +a troublesome problem. The merits of Guiana and other "wild coasts" were +debated, but finally Virginia met with general approval, because there +they might live as a private association, a distinct body by themselves, +similar to other private companies already established there. To this +end they sent two of their number to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>England to secure a patent from +the Virginia Company of London. Under this patent and in bond of +allegiance to King James, yet acting as a "body in the most strict and +sacred bond and covenant of the Lord," an independent and absolute +church, they became a civil community also, with governors chosen for +the work from among themselves. But the dissensions in the London +Company caused them to lose faith in that association, and, hearing of +the reorganization of the Virginia Company of Plymouth,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> which about +this time obtained a new charter as the New England Council, they turned +from southern to northern Virginia—that is, to New England—and +resolved to make their settlement where according to reports fishing +might become a means of livelihood.</p> + +<p>But their plans could not be executed without assistance; and, coming +into touch with a London <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>merchant, Thomas Weston, who promised to aid +them, they entered into what proved to be a long and wearisome +negotiation with a group of adventurers—gentlemen, merchants, and +others, seventy in number—for an advance of money to finance the +expedition. The Pilgrims entered into a partnership with the merchants +to form a voluntary joint-stock company. It was understood that the +merchants, who purchased shares, were to remain in England; that the +colonists, who contributed their personal service at a fixed rating, +were to go to America, there to labor at trade, trucking, and fishing +for seven years; and that during this time all profits were to remain in +a common stock and all lands to be left undivided. The conditions were +hard and discouraging, but there was no alternative; and at last, +embarking at Delfthaven in the <i>Speedwell</i>, a small ship bought and +fitted in Holland, they came to Southampton, where another and larger +vessel, the <i>Mayflower</i>, was in waiting. In August, 1620, the two +vessels set sail, but the <i>Speedwell</i>, proving unseaworthy, put back +after two attempts, and the <i>Mayflower</i> went on alone, bearing one +hundred and two passengers, two-thirds of the whole, picked out as +worthy and willing to undertake the voyage. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>The <i>Mayflower</i> reached the +waters of New England on the 11th of November after a tedious course of +sixty-five days from Plymouth to Cape Cod; but they did not decide on +their place of landing until the 21st of December. Four days later they +erected on the site of the town of Plymouth their first building.</p> + +<p>The coast of New England was no unknown shore. During the years from +1607 to 1620, while settlers were founding permanent colonies at +Jamestown and in Bermuda, explorers and fishermen, both English and +French, had skirted its headlands and penetrated its harbors. In 1614, +John Smith, the famous Virginia pioneer, who had left the service of the +London Company and was in the employ of certain London merchants, had +explored the northern coast in an open boat and had given the region its +name. These many voyages and ventures at trading and fishing served to +arouse enthusiasm in England for a world of good rivers and harbors, +rich soil, and wonderful fishing, and to spread widely a knowledge of +the coasts from Newfoundland to the Hudson River. Of this knowledge the +Pilgrims reaped the benefit, and the captain of the <i>Mayflower</i>, +Christopher Jones, against whom any charge of treachery may <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>be +dismissed, guided them, it is true, to a region unoccupied by Englishmen +but not to one unknown or poorly esteemed. The miseries that confronted +the Pilgrims during their first year in Plymouth colony were not due to +the inhospitality of the region, but to the time of year when they +landed upon it; and insufficiently provisioned as they were before they +left England, it is little wonder that suffering and death should have +accompanied their first experience with a New England winter.</p> + +<p>This little group of men and women landed on territory that had been +granted to the New England Council and they themselves had neither +patent for their land nor royal authority to set up a government. But +some form of government was absolutely necessary. Before starting from +Southampton, they had followed Robinson's instructions to choose a +governor and assistants for each ship "to order the people by the way"; +and now that they were at the end of their long voyage, the men of the +company met in the cabin of the <i>Mayflower</i>, and drew up a covenant in +accordance with which they combined themselves together into a body +politic for their better ordering and preservation. This compact, signed +by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>forty-one members, of whom eleven bore the title of "Mister," was a +plantation covenant, the political counterpart of the church covenant +which bound together every Separatist community. It provided that the +people should live together in a peaceable and orderly manner under +civil authorities of their own choosing, and was the first of many such +covenants entered into by New England towns, not defining a government +but binding the settlers to unite politically as they had already done +for religious worship. John Carver, who had been chosen governor on the +<i>Mayflower</i>, was confirmed as governor of the settlement and given one +assistant. After their goods had been set on shore and a few cottages +built, the whole body "mette and consulted of lawes and orders, both for +their civil and military governmente, still adding therunto as urgent +occasion in severall times, and as cases did require."</p> + +<p>Of this courageous but sorely stricken community more than half died +before the first winter was over. But gradually the people became +acclimated, new colonists came out, some from the community at Leyden, +in the <i>Fortune</i>, the <i>Anne</i>, the <i>Charity</i>, and the <i>Handmaid</i>, and the +numbers steadily increased. The settlers were in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>main a homogeneous +body, both as to social class and to religious views and purpose. Among +them were undesirable members—some were sent out by the English +merchants and others came out of their own accord—who played stool-ball +on Sunday, committed theft, or set the community by the ears, as did one +notorious offender named Lyford. But their number was not great, for +most of them remained but a short time, and then went to Virginia or +elsewhere, or were shipped back to England by the Pilgrims as +incorrigibles. The life of the people was predominantly agricultural, +with fishing, salt-making, and trading with the Indians as allied +interests. The partners in England sent overseas cattle, stock, and +laborers, and, as their profits depended on the success of the +settlement, did what they could to encourage its development. The +position of the Pilgrims was that of sharers and partners with the +merchants, from whom they received directions but not commands.</p> + +<p>But under the agreement of 1620 with their partners in London, which +remained in force for seven years, the Plymouth people could neither +divide their land nor dispose of the products of their labor, and so +burdensome became this <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>arrangement that in 1623 temporary assignments +of land were made which in 1624 became permanent. As Bradford said, and +his comment is full of wisdom:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The experience that was had in this commone course and +condition, tried sundrie years, and that amongst godly and +sober men, may well evince the vanitie of that conceite of +Platos and other ancients, applauded by some of later times; +that the taking away of propertie, and bringing in +communitie into a comone wealth, would make them happy and +florishing; as if they were wiser then God. For this +comunitie (so farr as it was) was found to breed much +confusion and discontent, and retard much imployment that +would have been to their benefite and comforte. For the +yong-men that were most able and fitte for labour and +service did repine that they should spend their time and +streingth to worke for other mens wives and children, with +out any recompence. The strong, or man of parts, had no more +in devission of victails and cloaths, than he that was weake +and not able to doe a quarter the other could; this was +thought injuestice. The aged and graver men to be ranked and +equalised in labours, and victails, cloaths, etc., with the +meaner and yonger sorte, thought it some indignitie and +disrespect unto them. And for mens wives to be commanded to +doe servise for other men, as dresing their meate, washing +their cloaths, etc., they deemd it a kind of slaverie, +neither could many husbands well brooke it.</p></div> + +<p>During the two years that followed, so evident was the failure of the +joint undertaking that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>efforts were made on both sides to bring it to +an end; for the merchants, with no profit from the enterprise, were +anxious to avoid further indebtedness; and the colonists, wearying of +the dual control, wished to reap for themselves the full reward of their +own efforts. Under the new arrangement of small private properties, the +settlers began "to prise corne as more pretious than silver, and those +that had some to spare begane to trade one with another for small +things, by the quart, pottle, and peck, etc., for money they had none." +Later, finding "their corne, what they could spare from ther +necessities, to be a commoditie, (for they sould it at 6s. a bushell) +[they] used great dilligence in planting the same. And the Gov[erno]r +and shuch as were designed to manage the trade, (for it was retained for +the generall good, and none were to trade in particuler,) they followed +it to the best advantage they could; and wanting trading goods, they +understoode that a plantation which was at Monhigen, and belonged to +some marchants of Plimoth [England] was to breake up, and diverse +usefull goods was ther to be sould," the governor (Bradford himself) and +Edward Winslow "tooke a boat and some hands and went thither.... With +these goods, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>and their corne after harvest they gott good store of +trade, so as they were enabled to pay their ingagements against the +time, and to get some cloathing for the people, and had some comodities +beforehand." Though conditions were hard and often discouraging, the +Pilgrims gradually found themselves self-supporting and as soon as this +fact became clear, they sent Isaac Allerton to England "to make a +composition with the adventurers." As a result of the negotiations an +"agreement or bargen" was made whereby eight leading members of the +colony bought the shares of the merchants for £1800 and distributed the +payment among the settlers, who at this time numbered altogether about +three hundred. Each share carried with it a certain portion of land and +livestock. The debt was not finally liquidated until 1642.</p> + +<p>By 1630, the Plymouth colony was fairly on its feet and beginning to +grow in "outward estate." The settlers increased in number, prospered +financially, and scattered to the outlying districts; and Plymouth the +town and Plymouth the colony ceased to be identical. Before 1640, the +latter had become a cluster of ten towns, each a covenanted community +with its church and elder. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>Though the colony never obtained a charter +of incorporation from the Crown, it developed a form of government +arising naturally from its own needs. By 1633 its governor and one +assistant had become a governor and seven assistants, elected annually +at a primary assembly held in Plymouth town; and the three parts, +governor, assistants, and assembly, together constituted the governing +body of the colony. In 1636, a revision of the laws and ordinances was +made in the form of "The Great Fundamentals," a sort of constitution, +frequently interspersed with statements of principles, which was printed +with additions in 1671. The right to vote was limited at first to those +who were members of the company and liable for its debt, but later the +suffrage was extended to include others than the first-comers, and in +1633 was exercised by sixty-eight persons altogether. In 1668, a voter +was required to have property, to be "of sober and peaceable +conversation," and to take an oath of fidelity, but apparently he was +never required to take the oath of allegiance to the Crown. So rapidly +did the colony expand that, by 1639, the holding of a primary assembly +in Plymouth town became so inconvenient that delegates had to be +chosen. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>Thus there was introduced into the colony a form of +representative government, though it is to be noted that governor, +assistants, and deputies sat together in a common room and never divided +into two houses, as did the assemblies in other colonies.</p> + +<p>The settlement of Plymouth colony is conspicuous in New England history +because of the faith and courage and suffering of those who engaged in +it and because of the ever alluring charm of William Bradford's <i>History +of Plimouth Plantation</i>. The greatness of the Pilgrims lay in their +illustrious example and in the influence they exercised upon the church +life of the later New England colonies, for to the Pilgrims was due the +fact that the congregational way of organization and worship became the +accepted form in Massachusetts and Connecticut. But in other respects +Plymouth was vastly overshadowed by her vigorous neighbors. Her people, +humble and simple, were without importance in the world of thought, +literature, or education. Their intellectual and material poverty, lack +of business enterprise, unfavorable situation, and defenseless position +in the eyes of the law rendered them almost a negative factor in the +later life of New England. No great <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>movement can be traced to their +initiation, no great leader to birth within their borders, and no great +work of art, literature, or scholarship to those who belonged to this +unpretending company. The Pilgrim Fathers stand rather as an emblem of +virtue than a moulding force in the life of the nation.</p> + +<h4>FOOTNOTE:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> In 1606 King James had granted a charter incorporating two +companies, one of which, made up of gentlemen and merchants in and about +London, was known as the Virginia Company of London, the other as the +Virginia Company of Plymouth. The former was authorized to plant +colonies between thirty-four and forty-one degrees north latitude, and +the latter between thirty-eight and forty-five, but neither was to plant +a colony within one hundred miles of the other. Jamestown, the first +colony of the London Company, was now thirteen years old. The Plymouth +Company had made no permanent settlement in its domain.</p></div> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h2>THE BAY COLONY</h2> +<br /> + +<p>While the Pilgrims were thus establishing themselves as the first +occupants of the soil of New England, other men of various sorts and +motives were trying their fortunes within its borders and were testing +the opportunities which it offered for fishing and trade with the +Indians. They came as individuals and companies, men of wandering +disposition, romantic characters many of them, resembling the rovers and +adventurers in the Caribbean or representing some of the many activities +prevalent in England at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Thomas +Weston, former ally of the Pilgrims, settled with a motley crew of rude +fellows at Wessagusset (Quincy) and there established a trading post in +1622. Of this settlement, which came to an untimely end after causing +the Pilgrims a great deal of trouble, only a blockhouse and stockade +remained. Another <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>irregular trader, Captain Wollaston, with some thirty +or forty people, chiefly servants, established himself in 1625 two miles +north of Wessagusset, calling the place Mount Wollaston. With him came +that wit, versifier, and prince of roysterers, Thomas Morton, who, after +Wollaston had moved on to Virginia, became "lord of misrule." Dubbing +his seat Merrymount, drinking, carousing, and corrupting the Indians, +affronting the decorous Separatists at Plymouth, Morton later became a +serious menace to the peace of Massachusetts Bay. The Pilgrims felt that +the coming of such adventurers and scoffers, who were none too +scrupulous in their dealings with either white man or Indian and were +given to practices which the Puritans heartily abhorred, was a calamity +showing that even in the wilds of America they could not escape the +world from which they were anxious to withdraw.</p> + +<p>The settlements formed by these squatters and stragglers were quite +unauthorized by the New England Council, which owned the title to the +soil. As this Council had accomplished very little under its patent, Sir +Ferdinando Gorges, its most active member, persisted in his efforts to +found a colony, brought about a general distribution of the territory +among its members, and obtained for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>himself and his son Robert, the +section around and immediately north of Massachusetts Bay. An expedition +was at once launched. In September, 1623, Robert Gorges with six +gentlemen and a well-equipped and well-organized body of settlers +reached Plymouth,—the forerunners, it was hoped, of a large number to +come. This company of settlers was composed of families, the heads of +which were mechanics and farmers, and with them were two clergymen, +Morrell and Blackstone, the whole constituting the greatest enterprise +set on foot in America by the Council. Robert Gorges, bearing a +commission constituting him Governor-General over all New England, made +his settlement at Weston's old place at Wessagusset. Here he built +houses and stored his goods and began the founding of Weymouth, the +second permanent habitation in New England and the first on +Massachusetts Bay. Unfortunately, famine, that arch-enemy of all the +early settlers, fell upon his company, his father's resources in England +proved inadequate, and he and others were obliged to return. Of those +that remained a few stayed at Wessagusset; one of the clergymen, William +Blackstone, with his wife went to Shawmut (Boston); Samuel Maverick and +his wife, to Winnissimmet <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>(Chelsea); and the Walfords, to Mishawum +(Charlestown). Probably all these people were Anglicans; some later +became freemen of the Massachusetts colony; others who refused to +conform returned to England; but Blackstone remained in his little +cottage on the south slope of Beacon Hill, unwilling to join any of the +churches, because, as he said, he came from England to escape the "Lord +Bishops," and he did not propose in America to be under the "Lord +Brethren."</p> + +<p>The colony of Massachusetts Bay began as a fishing venture with profit +as its object. It so happened that the Pilgrims wished to secure a right +to fish off Cape Ann, and through one of their number they applied to +Lord Sheffield, a member of the Council who had shared in the +distribution of 1623. Sheffield caused a patent to be drawn, which the +Plymouth people conveyed to a Dorchester company desiring to establish a +fishing colony in New England. The chief promoter of the Dorchester +venture was the Reverend John White, a conforming Puritan clergyman, in +whose congregation was one John Endecott. The company thus organized +remained in England but sent some fourteen settlers to Cape Ann in the +winter <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>of 1623-1624. Fishing and planting, however, did not go well +together, the venture failed, and the settlers removed southward to +Naumkeag (Salem). Though many of the English company desired to abandon +the undertaking, there were others, among whom were a few Puritans or +Nonconformists, who favored its continuance. These men consulted with +others of like mind in London, and through the help of the Earl of +Warwick, a nobleman friendly to the Puritan cause, a patent was issued +by the Council to Endecott and five associates, for land extending from +above the Merrimac to below the Charles. This patent, it will be +noticed, included the territory already granted to Gorges and his son +Robert, and was obtained apparently with the consent of Gorges, who +thought that his own and his son's rights would be safely protected. +Under this patent, the partners sent over Endecott as governor with +sixty others to begin a colony at Salem, where the "old planters" from +Cape Ann had already established themselves. Salem was thus a plantation +from September, 1628, to the summer of 1630, on land granted to the +associates in England; and the relations of these two were much the same +as those of Jamestown with the London Company.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>Endecott and his associates soon made it evident, however, that they +were planning larger things for themselves and had no intention, if they +could help it, of recognizing the claims of Gorges and his son. They +wanted complete control of their territory in New England, and to this +end they applied to the Crown for a confirmation of their land-patent +and for a charter of incorporation as a company with full powers of +government. As this application was a deliberate defiance of Gorges and +the New England Council, it has always been a matter of surprise that +the associates were able to gain the support of the Crown in this effort +to oust Gorges and his son from lands that were legally theirs. No +satisfactory explanation has ever been advanced, but it is worthy of +note that at this juncture Gorges was in France in the service of the +King, whereas on the side of the associates and their friends was the +Earl of Warwick, himself deeply interested in colonizing projects and +one of the most powerful men in England. The charter was obtained March +4, 1629—how, we do not know. It created a corporation of twenty-six +members, Anglicans and Nonconformists, known as the Massachusetts Bay +Company.</p> + +<p>But if the original purpose of this company was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>to engage in a business +enterprise for the sake of profit, it soon underwent a noteworthy +transformation. In 1629, control passed into the hands of those members +of the company in whom a religious motive was uppermost. How far the +charter was planned at first as a Puritan contrivance to be used in case +of need will never be known. It is equally uncertain whether the +particular form of charter, with the place of the company's residence +omitted, was selected to facilitate a possible removal of the company +from England to America; but it is likely that removal was early in the +minds of the Puritan members of the company. At this time a great many +people felt as did the Reverend John White, who expressed the hope that +God's people should turn with eyes of longing to the free and open +spaces of the New World, whither they might flee to be at peace. But, +when the charter was granted, the Puritans were not in control of the +company, which remained in England for a year after it was incorporated, +superintending the management of its colony just as other trading +companies had done.</p> + +<p>But events were moving rapidly in England. Between March, 1629, and +March, 1630, Parliament was dissolved under circumstances of great +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>excitement, parliamentary privileges were set aside, parliamentary +leaders were sent to the Tower, and the period of royal rule without +Parliament began. The heavy hand of an autocratic government fell on all +those within reach who upheld the Puritan cause, among whom was John +Winthrop, a country squire, forty-one years of age, who was deprived of +his office as attorney in the Court of Wards. Disillusioned as to life +in England because of financial losses and family bereavements, and now +barred from his customary employment by act of the Government, he turned +his thoughts toward America. Acting with the approval of the Earl of +Warwick and in conjunction with a group of Puritan friends—Thomas +Dudley, Isaac Johnson, Richard Saltonstall, and John Humphrey,—he +decided in the summer of 1629 to leave England forever, and in September +he joined the Massachusetts Bay Company. Almost immediately he showed +his capacity for leadership, was soon elected governor, and was able +during the following winter to obtain such a control of affairs as to +secure a vote in favor of the transfer of charter and company to New +England. The official organization was remodeled so that only those +desiring to remove should be in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>control, and on March 29, 1630, the +company with its charter, accompanied by a considerable number of +prospective colonists, set sail from Cowes near the Isle of Wight in +four vessels, the <i>Arabella</i>, the <i>Talbot</i>, the <i>Ambrose</i>, and the +<i>Jewel</i>, the remaining passengers following in seven other vessels a +week or two later. The voyages of the vessels were long, none less than +nine weeks, by way of the Azores and the Maine coast, and the distressed +Puritans, seven hundred altogether, scurvy-stricken and reduced in +numbers by many deaths, did not reach Salem until June and July. Hence +they moved on to Charlestown, set up their tents on the slope of the +hill, and on the 23rd of August, held the first official meeting of the +company on American soil; but finding no running water in the place and +still pursued by sickness and death, they again removed, this time to +Boston, where they built houses against the winter. With the founding of +this colony—the colony of Massachusetts Bay—a new era for New England +began.</p> + +<p>This grant of territory to the Massachusetts Bay Company and of the +charter confirming the title and conveying powers of government put a +complete stop to Gorges's plans for a final <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>proprietorship in New +England. Gorges had acquiesced in the first grant by the New England +Council because he thought it a sub-grant, like that to Plymouth, in no +way injuring his own control. But when in 1632, he learned the true +inwardness of the Massachusetts title and discovered that Warwick and +the Puritans had outwitted him by obtaining royal confirmation of a +grant that extinguished his own proprietary rights, he turned on +Warwick, declared that the charter had been surreptitiously obtained, +and demanded that it be brought to the Council board. Learning that it +had gone to New England, he forced the withdrawal of Warwick from the +Council, and from that time forward for five years bent all his efforts +to overthrow the Puritan colony by obtaining the annulment of its +privileges.</p> + +<p>In this attempt, he was aided by Captain John Mason, an able, energetic +promoter of colonizing movements who had already been concerned with +settlements in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, and who was zealous to +begin a plantation in the province of Maine. Mason had received grants +from the Council, both individually and in partnership with Gorges, and +had visited New England in the interest of his claims. Through the +influence of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>Gorges, he was now made a member of the Council and joined +in the movement to break the hold of the Puritans upon New England. He +and Gorges found useful allies in three men who had been driven out of +Massachusetts by the Puritan leaders soon after their arrival at +Boston—Thomas Morton of Merrymount, Sir Christopher Gardiner, a +picturesque, somewhat mysterious personage thought to have been an agent +of Gorges in New England, with methods and morals that gave offense to +Massachusetts, and Philip Ratcliffe, a much less worthy character given +to scandal and invective, who had been deprived of his ears by the +Puritan authorities. These men were bitter in their denunciation of the +Puritan government.</p> + +<p>The situation was perilous for the new colony, which was hardly yet +firmly established. In direct violation of the royal commands, hundreds +of men and women were leaving England—not merely adventurers or humble +Separatists, but sober people of the better classes, of mature years and +substantial characters. When, therefore, Gorges and the others meeting +at Gorges's house at Plymouth brought their complaints to the attention +of the Privy Council, they were listened to with attention, and +instructions were sent at once <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>to stop the Puritan ships and to bring +the charter of the Massachusetts Company to the Council board. To check +the Puritan migration and to institute further inquiry into the facts of +the case a commission was appointed in 1634, with Archbishop Laud at its +head, for the special purpose, among others, of revoking charters +"surreptitiously and unduly obtained." Gorges and Morton appealed to +Laud against the Puritans, and Morton wrote his <i>New England Canaan</i>, +which he dedicated to Laud, in the hope of exposing the motives of the +colony and of arousing the Archbishop to action. Warwick threw his +influence on the side of Massachusetts, being always forward, as +Winthrop said, "to do good to our colony"; and the colony itself, +fearing attack, began to fortify Castle Island in the harbor and to +prepare for defense. Endecott, in wrath, defaced the royal ensign at +Salem, and so intense was the excitement and so determined the attitude +of the Puritans that, had the Crown attempted to send over a +Governor-General or to seize the charter by force, the colony would have +resisted to the full extent of its power.</p> + +<p>Gorges, believing that he could work better through the King and the +Archbishop than through the New England Council, brought about the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>dissolution of that body in 1635, thus making it possible for the King +to deal directly with the New England situation. Before its dissolution +the Council had authorized Morton, acting as its lawyer, to bring the +case to the attention of the Attorney-General of England, who filed in +the Court of King's Bench a complaint against Massachusetts, as a result +of which a writ of <i>quo warranto</i> was issued against the Company.</p> + +<p>The outlook was ominous for Puritanism, not only in New England but in +old England as well. That year saw the flight of the greatest number of +emigrants across the sea, for the persecution in England was at its +height, the Puritan aristocracy was suffering in its estates, and +Puritan divines were everywhere silenced or dismissed. Even Warwick was +shorn of a part of his power. Young Henry Vane, son of a baronet, had +already gone to America, and such men as Lord Saye and Sele, Lord +Brooke, and Sir Arthur Haslerigg were thinking of migrating and had +prepared a refuge at Saybrook where they might find peace. But the turn +of the tide soon came. The royal Government was bankrupt, the resistance +to the payment of ship-money was already making itself felt, and +disturbances in the central and eastern counties <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>were absorbing the +attention and energies of the Government. Gorges, left alone to execute +the writ against the colony, joined with Mason in building a ship for +the purpose of carrying the <i>quo warranto</i> to New England, but the +vessel broke in the launching, and their resources were at an end. Mason +died in 1635, and Gorges, an old man of seventy, bankrupt and +discouraged, could do no more. Though Morton continued the struggle, and +though, in 1638, the Committee of the Council for Foreign Plantations +(the Laud Commission) again demanded the charter, the danger was past: +conditions in England had become so serious for the King that the +complaints against Massachusetts were lost to view. At last in 1639 +Gorges obtained his charter for a feudal propriety in Maine but no +further attempts were made to overthrow the Massachusetts Bay colony.</p> + +<p>During the years from 1630 to 1640, the growth of the colony was +extraordinarily rapid. In the first year alone seventeen ships with two +thousand colonists came over, and it is estimated that by 1641 three +hundred vessels bearing twenty thousand passengers had crossed the +Atlantic. It was a great migration. Inevitably many went back, but the +great majority remained and settled in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>Boston and its +neighborhood—Roxbury, Charlestown, Dorchester, Cambridge, and +Watertown, where in 1643 were situated according to Winthrop "near half +of the commonwealth for number of people and substance." From the first +the colonists dispersed rapidly, establishing in favorable places +settlements which they generally called plantations but sometimes towns. +In these they lived as petty religious and civil communities, each under +its minister, with civil officials chosen from among themselves. In the +decade following 1630 the number of such settlements rose to twenty-two. +The inhabitants were almost purely English in stock, with here and there +an Irishman, a few Jews, and an occasional negro from the West Indies. +Nearly all the settlers were of Puritan sympathies, and of middle-class +origin—tenants from English estates, artisans from English towns, and +many indentured servants. A few were of the aristocracy, such as Lady +Arabella Johnson, daughter of the Earl of Lincoln, Sir Richard +Saltonstall, Lady Deborah Moody, members of the Harlakenden family, +young Henry Vane, Thomas Gorges, and a few others. Of "Misters" and +"Esquires" there was a goodly number, such as Winthrop, Haynes, Emanuel +Downing, and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>like. The first leaders were exceptional men, +possessed of ability and education, and many were university graduates, +who brought with them the books and the habits of the reader and scholar +of their day. They were superior to those of the second and third +generation in the breadth of their ideas and in the vigor and +originality of their convictions.</p> + +<p>Migration ceased in 1641, and a time of stress and suffering set in. +Commodities grew scarce, prices rose, many colonists returned to England +leaving debts behind, and as yet the colony produced no staples to +exchange for merchandise from the mother country. Some of the settlers, +discouraged, went to the West Indies; others, fleeing for fear of want, +found their way to the Dutch at Long Island. Pressure was brought to +bear at various times to persuade the people to migrate elsewhere as a +body, to Old Providence and Trinidad in the Caribbean, to Maryland, and +later to Jamaica; but these attempts proved vain. The Puritan was +willing to endure hardship and suffering for the sake of civil and +religious independence, but he was not willing to lose his identity +among those who did not share his faith in the guiding hand of God or +who denied the principles <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>according to which he wished to govern his +community. At first the leaders of the migration were Nonconformists not +Separatists. Francis Higginson, Endecott's minister at Salem, had +declared in 1629 that they did not go to New England as separatists from +the Church of England but only as those who would "separate from the +corruption in it"; and Winthrop used "Easter" and the customary names of +the months until 1635. But the Puritans became essentially Separatists +from the day when Dr. Samuel Fuller of Plymouth persuaded the Salem +community, even before the company itself had left England, to accept +the practices of the Plymouth Church. Each town consequently had its +church, pastor, teacher, and covenant, and became an independent +Congregational community—a circumstance which left a deep impress upon +the life and history of New England.</p> + +<p>The government of the colony was never a democracy in the modern sense +of the term. At first in 1630, control was assumed by the governor and +his assistants, leaving but little power in the hands of the freeman; +but such usurpation of power could not last, and in 1634 the freemen +were given the right to elect officials, to make and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>enforce laws, +raise money, impose taxes, and dispose of lands. Thus was begun the +transformation of the court of the company into a parliament, and the +company itself into a commonwealth. So self-sufficient did the colony +become in these early years of its history that by 1646 Massachusetts +could assert that it owed only allegiance to England and was entirely +independent of the British Parliament in all matters of government, in +which affairs under its charter it had absolute power. Many denied this +contention of the leaders, asserting that the company was only a +corporation and that any colonist had a right of appeal to England. +Winthrop refused definitely to recognize this right, and measures were +taken to purge the colony of these refractory spirits, among whom were +Dr. Robert Child, one of the best educated men of the colony, William +Vassall, and Samuel Maverick. All were fined, some clapped in irons, and +many banished. Child returned to England, Vassall went to Barbados, and +the rest were silenced. So menacing was the revolt that Edward Winslow +was sent to England to present the case to the parliamentary +commissioners, which he did successfully.</p> + +<p>But among those who upheld the freedom of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>the colony from English +interference and control there were many who complained of the form the +government was taking. The franchise was limited to church members, +which debarred five-sixths of the population from voting and holding +office; the magistrates insisted on exercising a negative vote upon the +proceedings of the deputies, because they deemed it necessary to prevent +the colony from degenerating into "a mere democracy"; and the ministers +or elders exercised an influence in purely civil matters that rendered +them arbiters in all disputes between the magistrates and the deputies. +Until 1634, the general court had been a primary assembly, but in that +year representation was introduced and the towns sent deputies, who soon +began to complain of the meagerness of their powers. From this time on, +the efforts of the deputies to reduce the authority of the magistrates +and to increase their own were continuous and insistent. One bold +dissenter was barred from public office in 1635 for daring to deny the +magistrates' claim, and others expressed their fear that autocratic rule +and a governor for life would endanger the liberty of the people. The +dominance of the clergy tended to the maintenance of an intolerant +theocracy and was offensive <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>to many in Massachusetts who, having fled +from Laud's intolerance at home, had no desire to submit to an equal +intolerance in New England. Between 1634 and 1638 the manifestations of +this dislike became conspicuous and alarming. The Governor's son, the +younger John Winthrop, dissatisfied with the hard régime in +Massachusetts, returned to England in 1634. Henry Vane, though elected +Governor in 1636, showed marked discontent, and when defeated the next +year left the colony. The English aristocratic Puritans, Saye and Sele, +Brooke, and others, who planned to leave England in 1635, found +themselves so out of accord with the Massachusetts policy of limiting of +the suffrage to church members—and to church membership as determined +by the clergy—that they refused to go to Boston, and persisted in their +plan for a settlement at Saybrook. The Massachusetts system had thus +become not a constitutional government fashioned after the best liberal +thought in England of that day, but a narrow oligarchy in which the +political order was determined according to a rigid interpretation of +theology. This excessive theocratic concentration of power resulted in +driving from the colony many of its best men.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>More notorious even than the political dissensions were the moral and +theological disputes which almost disrupted the colony. The magistrates +and elders did not compel men to leave the colony because of political +heresy, but they did drive them out because of difference in matters of +theology. Even before the company came over, Endecott had sent John and +Samuel Browne back to England because they worshiped according to the +Book of Common Prayer. Morton and six others were banished in 1630 as an +immoral influence. Sir Christopher Gardiner, Philip Ratcliffe, Richard +Wright, the Walfords, and Henry Lynn were all forced to leave in 1630 +and 1631 as "unmeete to inhabit here." Roger Williams, the tolerationist +and upholder of soul-liberty, who complained of the magistrates for +oppression and of the elders for injustice and who opposed the close +union of church and state, was compelled to leave during the winter of +1635 and 1636. But the great expulsion came in 1637, when an epidemic of +heresy struck the colony. A synod at Newtown condemned eighty erroneous +opinions, and the general court then disarmed or banished all who +persisted in error.</p> + +<p>A furor of excitement gathered about Anne <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>Hutchinson, who claimed to be +moved by the spirit and denied that an outward conformity to the letter +of the covenant was a sufficient test of true religion unless +accompanied with a change in the inner life. She was a nonconformist +among those who, refusing to conform to the Church of England, had now +themselves become conformists of the strictest type. To Mrs. Hutchinson +the "vexatious legalism of Puritanism" was as abhorrent as had been the +practices of the Roman and Anglican churches to the Puritans, and, +though the latter did not realize it, they were as unjust to her as Laud +had been to them. She broke from a covenant of works in favor of a +covenant of grace and in so doing defied the standing authorities and +the ruling clergy of the colony. Her wit, undeniable power of +exhortation, philanthropic disposition, and personal attributes which +gave her an ascendency in the Boston church, drew to her a large +following and placed the supremacy of the orthodox party in peril. After +a long and wordy struggle to check the "misgovernment of a woman's +tongue" and to rebuke "the impudent boldness of a proud dame," Mrs. +Hutchinson was excommunicated and banished; and certain of those who +upheld her—Wheelwright, Coggeshall, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>Aspinwall, Coddington, and +Underhill, all leading men of the colony—were also forced to leave. In +Boston and the adjoining towns dozens of men were disarmed for fear of a +general uprising against the orthodox government.</p> + +<p>This discord put a terrible strain on the colony, and one marvels that +it weathered the storm. Only an iron discipline that knew neither +charity nor tolerance could have successfully resisted the attacks on +the standing order. The years from 1635 to 1638 were a critical time in +the history of the colony, and the unyielding attitude of magistrates +and elders was due in no small part to the danger of attack from +England. Determined, on the one hand, to save the colony from the menace +of Anglican control, and, on the other, to prevent the admission of +liberal and democratic ideas, they struggled to maintain the rule of a +minority in behalf of a precise and logically defined theocratic system +that admitted neither experiment nor compromise. For the moment they +were successful, because the Cromwellian victory in England was +favorable to their cause. But should independence be overthrown at home, +should religion cease to be a deciding factor in political quarrels, and +should the monarchy and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>the Established Church gain ascendency once +more, then Massachusetts would certainly reap the whirlwind. The +harvesting might be long but the garnering would be none the less sure.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h2>COMPLETING THE WORK OF SETTLEMENT</h2> +<br /> + +<p>Through the portal of Boston at one time or another passed all or nearly +all those who were to found additional colonies in New England; and from +that portal, willingly or unwillingly, men and women journeyed north, +south, and west, searching for favorable locations, buying land of the +Indians, and laying the groundwork for permanent homes and organized +communities. In this way were begun the colonies of Rhode Island, +Connecticut, New Haven, and New Hampshire, each of which sprang in part +from the desire for separate religious and political life and in part +from the migratory instinct which has always characterized the +Englishman in his effort to find a home and a means of livelihood. +Sometimes individuals wandered alone or in groups of two or three, but +more frequently covenanted companies of men and women of like minds +moved <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>across the face of the land, followed Indian trails, or voyaged +by water along the coast and up the rivers, usually remaining where they +first found satisfaction, but often, in new combinations, taking up the +burden of their journeying and moving on, a second, a third, and even a +fourth time in search of homes. Abraham Pierson and his flock migrated +four times in thirty years, seeking a place where they might find rest +under a government according to God.</p> + +<p>The frontier Puritan was neither docile nor easily satisfied. He was +restless, opinionated, and eager to assert himself and his convictions. +The controversies among the elect regarding doctrines and morals often +became so heated that complete separation was the only remedy; and +wherever there was a migrating leader followers were sure to be found. +Hence, despite the dangers from cold, famine, the Indian, and the +wilderness, the men of New England were constantly shifting in these +earlier years as one motive or another urged them on. Land was +plentiful, and, as a rule, easily obtained; opportunities for trade +presented themselves to any one who would seek them; and the freedom of +earth and sky and of nature unspoiled offered an ideal environment for +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>a closer communion with God. Owing to the many varieties of religious +opinion that prevailed among these radical pioneers, each new grouping +and consequent settlement had an individuality of its own, determined by +the personality of its leader and by the ideas that he represented. Thus +Williams, Clarke, Coddington, and Gorton influenced Rhode Island; +Hooker, Haynes, and Ludlow, Connecticut; Davenport, Eaton, and Pierson, +New Haven; and Wheelwright and Underhill, New Hampshire.</p> + +<p>Roger Williams, the founder of Providence—the first plantation to be +settled in what was later the colony of Rhode Island—was driven out of +Boston because he called in question the authority of the government, +denied the legality of its land title as derived from the King, and +contested the right of the magistrates to deal with matters +ecclesiastical. Making his way through the wilderness in the winter of +1635-1636, he finally settled on the Mooshassuc River, calling the place +Providence; and in the ensuing two years he gathered about him a number +of those who found the church system of Massachusetts intolerable and +the Erastian doctrines of the magistrates, according to which the sins +of believers were to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>be punished by civil authority, distressing to +their consciences. They drew up a plantation covenant, promising to +subject themselves "in active or passive obedience to all such orders or +agreements" as might be made for the public good in an orderly way by +the majority vote of the masters of families, "incorporated together +into a town fellowship," but "only in civill things." Thus did the men +of Providence put into practice their doctrine of a church separable +from the state, and of a political order in which there were no +magistrates, no elders exercising civil as well as spiritual authority, +and no restraint on soul liberty.</p> + +<p>A year or two later William Coddington, loyal ally of Anne Hutchinson, +with others—Clarke, Coggeshall, and Aspinwall, who resented the +aggressive attitude of Boston—purchased from the Indians the island of +Aquidneck in Narragansett Bay and at the northern end planted Pocasset, +afterwards Portsmouth, the second settlement in the colony of Rhode +Island. They, too, entered into a covenant to join themselves into a +body politic and elected Coddington as their judge and five others as +elders. But this modeling of the government after the practices of the +Old Testament <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>was not pleasing to a majority of the community, which +desired a more democratic organization. After a few months, in the +spring of 1639, Coddington and his followers therefore journeyed +southward and established a third settlement at Newport. Here the +members adopted a covenant, "engaging" themselves "to bear equall +charges, answerable to our strength and estates in common," and to be +governed "by major voice of judge and elders; the judge to have a double +voice." Though differing from the system as developed in Massachusetts, +the Newport government at the beginning had a decidedly theocratic +character.</p> + +<p>The last of the Rhode Island settlements was at Shawomet, or Warwick, on +the western mainland at the upper end of the Bay. There Samuel Gorton, +the mystic and transcendentalist, one of the most individual of men in +an era of striking individualities, after many vicissitudes found an +abiding place. He was of London, "a clothier and professor of the +misteries of Christ," a believer in established authority as the surest +guardian of liberty, and an opponent of formalism in all its varieties. +Arriving at Boston in 1637 at the height of the Hutchinsonian +controversy, he had sought liberty of conscience, first in Boston, then +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>in Plymouth, and finally in Portsmouth, where he had become a leader +after the withdrawal of Coddington. But in each place his instinct for +justice and his too vociferous denial of the legality of verdicts +rendered by self-constituted authorities led him to seek further for a +home that would shelter him and his followers. No sooner, however, was +he settled at Shawomet, than the Massachusetts authorities laid claim to +the territory, and it was only after arrest, imprisonment, and a narrow +escape from the death penalty, followed by a journey to England and the +enlisting of the sympathies of the Earl of Warwick, that he made good +his claim. Gorton returned in 1648 with a letter from Warwick, as Lord +Admiral and head of the parliamentary commission on plantation affairs, +ordering Massachusetts to cease molesting him and his people, and he +named the plantation Warwick after his patron.</p> + +<p>Samuel Gorton played an influential and useful part in the later history +of the colony, and his career of peaceful service to Rhode Island belies +the opinion, based on Winslow's partisan pamphlet, <i>Hypocrasie +Unmasked</i>, and other contemporary writings, that he was a blasphemer, a +"crude and half-crazy thinker," a "proud and pestilent <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>seducer," and a +"most prodigious minter of exorbitant novelties." He preferred "the +universitie of humane reason and reading of the volume of visible +creation" to sectarianism and convention. No wonder the Massachusetts +leaders could not comprehend him! He questioned their infallibility, +their ecclesiastical caste, and their theology, and for their own +self-preservation they were bound to resist what they deemed his +heresies.</p> + +<p>Thus Rhode Island at the beginning was formed of four separate and +independent communities, each in embryo a petty state, no one of which +possessed at first other than an Indian title for its lands and a +self-made plantation covenant as the warrant for its government. To +settle disputes over land titles and to dispose of town lands, +Providence established in 1640 a court of arbitration consisting of five +"disposers," who seem also to have served as a sort of executive board +for the town. In all outward relations she remained isolated from her +neighbors, pursuing a course of strictly local independence. Portsmouth +and Newport, for the sake of greater strength, united in March, 1640, +and a year later agreed on a form of government which they called "a +democratic or popular government," in which none was to be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>"accounted a +delinquent for doctrine." They set up a governor, deputy governor, and +four assistants, regularly elected, and provided that all laws should be +made by the freemen or the major part of them, "orderly assembled." In +the system thus established we can see the influence of the older +colonies and the beginning of a stronger government, but at best the +experiment was half-hearted, for each town reserved to itself complete +control over its own affairs. In 1647 Portsmouth withdrew "to be as free +in their transactions as any other town in the colony," and the spirit +of separatism was still dominant.</p> + +<p>But it soon became necessary for the four towns of what is now Rhode +Island to have something more legal upon which to base their right to +exist than a title derived from their plantation covenants and Indian +bargains. Massachusetts was extending her claims southward; Edward +Winslow was in England ready to show that the Rhode Island settlements +were within the bounds of the Plymouth patent; and certain individuals, +traders and land-seekers, were locating in the Narragansett country and +taking possession of the soil. To combat these claims, Roger Williams, +who had so vehemently denied the validity of a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>royal patent a few years +before, but influenced now, it may be, by Gorton's insistence that a +legal title could be obtained only from England, sailed overseas and +secured from the parliamentary commissioners in March, 1644, a charter +uniting Providence, Portsmouth, and Newport, under the name of +Providence Plantations in the Narragansett Bay, and granting them powers +of government. For the moment even this document had no certain value, +for, in spite of the fact that the parliamentarians were at war with the +King, Charles I was still sovereign of England and should he win in the +Civil War the title would be worthless. However, the patent was not put +in force until 1647, after the victory of Cromwell at Naseby had given +control into the hands of Parliament; and then a general meeting was +held at Portsmouth consisting of the freemen of Warwick, Portsmouth, and +Newport, and ten representatives from Providence. The patent did not +state how affairs were to be managed, and the colonials, meeting in +subsequent assemblies, worked out the problem in their own way. They +refused to have a governor, and, creating only a presiding officer with +four assistants, constituted a court of trials for the hearing of +important criminal and civil <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>causes. No general court was created by +law, but a legislative body soon came into existence consisting of six +deputies from each town. Before this Portsmouth meeting of 1647 +adjourned, it adopted a code of laws in which witchcraft trials and +imprisonment for debt were forbidden, capital punishment was largely +abolished, and divorce was granted for adultery only. In 1652, the +assembly passed a noteworthy law against the holding of negroes in +slavery.</p> + +<p>But the new patent did not bring peace to the colony. In 1649, Roger +Williams wrote to Governor Winthrop: "Our poor colony is in civil +dissension. Their last meeting [of the assembly] at which I have not +been, have fallen into factions. Mr. Coddington and Captain Partridge, +etc., are the heads of one, and Captain Clarke, Mr. Easton, etc., the +heads of the other." What had happened was this. Coddington, +representing the conservative and theocratic wing of the assembly and +opposing those who were more liberally minded, had evidently applied to +Massachusetts and Plymouth for support in the effort to obtain an +independent government for Aquidneck. This plan would have destroyed +what unity the colony had obtained under the patent, but <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>Coddington +wished to be governor of a colony of his own. Both Massachusetts and +Plymouth were favorable to this plan, as they hoped to further their own +claims to the territory of islands and mainland. Twice Coddington made +application to the newly formed Confederation of New England for +admission, but was refused unless he would bring in Aquidneck as part of +Massachusetts or Plymouth, the latter of which laid claim to it. +Coddington himself was willing to do this but found the opposition to +the plan so vehement that he gave up the attempt and went to England to +secure a patent of his own. After long negotiations he was successful in +his quest and returned with a document which appointed him governor for +life with almost viceregal powers. But he had reckoned without the +people whom he was to govern. Learning of the outcome of Coddington's +mission and hearing that he had had secret dealings also with the Dutch +at New Amsterdam, the inhabitants of the islands rose in revolt, hanged +Captain Partridge and compelled Coddington to seek safety in flight. +Williams again went to England in 1651 and procured the recall of +Coddington's commission and a confirmation of his own patent, and +Coddington in 1656 gave in his submission and was forgiven, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>The early +history of Rhode Island thus furnishes a remarkable exhibition of +intense individualism in things religious and a warring of disruptive +forces in matters of civil organization.</p> + +<p>Connecticut was settled during the years 1634 to 1636 by people from +Massachusetts. Knowledge of the fertile Connecticut valley had come +early to the Dutch, who had planted a blockhouse, the House of Good +Hope, at the southeast corner of the land upon which Hartford now +stands. Plymouth, too, in searching for advantageous trade openings had +sent out one William Holmes, who sailed past the Dutch fort and took +possession of the site of Windsor. In the autumn of 1634 a certain John +Oldham, trader and rover and frequent disturber of the Puritan peace, +came with a few companions and began to occupy and cultivate lands +within the bounds of modern Wethersfield. Settlers continued to arrive +from Massachusetts, either by land or by water, actuated by land-hunger +and stirred to movement westward by the same driving impulse that for +years to come was to populate the frontier wherever it stretched. The +territory thus possessed was claimed at first by Massachusetts, on the +theory that the southern line of the colony, if <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>extended westward, +would include this portion of the Connecticut River. It was also claimed +by the group of English lords and gentlemen, Saye and Sele, Brooke, and +other Puritans, who, as they supposed, had obtained through the Earl of +Warwick from the New England Council a grant of land extending west and +southwest from Narragansett Bay forty leagues. These claims were of +course irreconcilable, but the English lords, in order to assert their +title, sent over in 1635 twenty servants, known as the Stiles party, who +reached Connecticut in the summer of that year. Thus by autumn there +were on the ground four sets of rival claimants: the Dutch, the Plymouth +traders, various emigrants from Massachusetts, chiefly from the town of +Dorchester, and the Stiles party, representing the English lords and +gentlemen. Their relations were not harmonious, for the Dutch tried to +drive out the Plymouth traders, and the latter resented in their turn +the attempt of the Dorchester men to occupy their lands.</p> + +<p>The matter was to be settled not by force but by weight of numbers and +soundness of title. In 1635, a new and larger migration was under +consideration in Massachusetts, prompted by <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>various motives: partly +personal, as shown in the rivalries of strong men in a colony already +overstocked with leaders; partly material, as indicated by the desire +for wider fields for cultivation and especially good pasture; and partly +political, as evidenced by the dislike on the part of many for the power +of the elders and magistrates in Massachusetts and by the strong +inclination of masterful men toward a government of their own. Thomas +Hooker, the pastor of the Newtown church, John Haynes, the Governor of +Massachusetts in 1635, and Roger Ludlow, a former magistrate and deputy +governor who had failed of election to the magistracy in the same year, +were the leaders of the movement and, if we may judge from later events, +were believers in certain political ideas that were not finding +application in the Bay Colony. Disappointed because of the rigidity of +the Massachusetts system, they seem to have waited for an opportunity to +put into practice the principles which they believed essential to the +true government of a people.</p> + +<p>When the decision was finally reached and certain of the inhabitants of +Newtown, Watertown, and Roxbury were ready to enter on their removal, +the question naturally arose as to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>title to the territory. In June, +1635, Massachusetts had asserted her claim by exercising a sort of +supervision over those who had already gone to Connecticut; but in +October John Winthrop, Jr., the Reverend Hugh Peters, and Henry Vane +arrived from England with authority from the lords and gentlemen to push +their claim, and Winthrop actually bore a commission as governor of the +entire territory, which included Connecticut. It is hardly possible that +Hooker and Haynes would have ignored the demands of these agents, and +yet to acknowledge Winthrop as their governor would have been to accept +a head who was not of their own choosing. In all probability some +arrangement was made with Winthrop, according to which the Englishmen's +title to the lands was recognized but at the same time the Connecticut +settlers were to have full powers of self-government, and the question +of a governor was left for the moment undecided, Winthrop confining his +jurisdiction to Saybrook, the settlement which he was to promote at the +mouth of the river. This agreement was embodied in a commission which +was drawn up by the Massachusetts General Court and issued in March, +1636, "on behalf of our said members and John Winthrop, Jr.," and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>was +to last for one year. Who actually wrote this commission we do not know, +but the Connecticut men said afterwards that it arose from the desire of +the people who removed, because they did not want to go away without a +frame of government agreed on beforehand and did not want to recognize +"any claymes of the Massachusetts jurisdiction over them by vertew of +Patent." Apparently the people going to Connecticut wanted to get as far +away from Massachusetts as possible.</p> + +<p>Armed with their commission, in the summer of 1636, members of the +Newtown church to the number of about one hundred persons, led by Thomas +Hooker, their pastor, and Samuel Stone, his assistant, made a famous +pilgrimage under summer skies through the woods that lay between +Massachusetts and the Connecticut River. Bearing Mrs. Hooker in a litter +and driving their cattle before them, these courageous pioneers, men, +women, and children, after a fortnight's journeying, reached Hartford, +the site of their future home, already occupied by those who had +foregathered there in number larger even than those who had newly +arrived. At about the same time, William Pynchon and others of Roxbury, +acting <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>from similar motives, took the same course westward, but instead +of continuing down the Connecticut River, as the others had done, +stopped at its banks and made their settlement at Agawam (Springfield), +where they built a warehouse and a wharf for use in trade with the +Indians. The lower settlements, Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor, +became agricultural communities; but Springfield, standing at the +junction of Indian trails and river communication, was destined to +become the center of the beaver trade of the region, shipping furs and +receiving commodities through Boston, either in shallops around the Cape +or on pack-horses overland by the path the emigrants had trod. Pynchon's +settlement was one of the towns named in the commission and, for the +first year after it was founded, joined with the others in maintaining +order in the colony.</p> + +<p>The commission government came to an end in March, 1637, and there is +reason to think that during the last month, an election of committees +took place in Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor, which would show that +the Connecticut settlers were exercising the privilege of the franchise +more than a year before Hooker preached his famous sermon declaring that +the right of government lay <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>in the people. There also is some reason to +think that the leaders were still undecided whether or not to come to an +agreement with the English lords and gentlemen and to put themselves +under the latter's jurisdiction. But as Winthrop's commission expired at +the end of a year and no new governor was appointed—the English +Puritans having become absorbed in affairs at home—the Connecticut +colony was thrown on its own resources and compelled to set up a +government of its own. Pynchon at Springfield now cast in his lot with +Massachusetts, and from this time forward Springfield was a part of the +Massachusetts colony, but the men of Connecticut, disliking Pynchon's +desertion, determined to act for themselves. On May 31, 1638, Hooker +preached a sermon laying down the principles according to which +government should be established; and during the six months that +followed, the court, consisting of six magistrates and nine deputies, +framed the Fundamental Orders, the laws that were to govern the colony.</p> + +<p>This remarkable document, though deserving all the encomiums passed upon +it, was not a constitution in any modern sense of the word and +established nothing fundamentally new, because <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>the form of government +it outlined differed only in certain particulars from that of +Massachusetts and Plymouth. It was made up of two parts, a preamble, +which is a plantation covenant like that signed in the cabin of the +<i>Mayflower</i>, and a series of laws or orders passed either separately or +together by the court which drafted them. This court was a lawmaking +body and it made public the laws when they were passed. That this body +of laws or, as we may not improperly call it, this frame of government +was ratified, as Trumbull says, by all the free planters assembled at +Hartford on January 14, 1639, is not impossible, though such action +would seem unnecessary as the court was a representative body, and +unlikely as the time of year was not favorable for holding a +mass-meeting at Hartford. Later courts never hesitated to change the +articles without referring the changes to the planters. The articles +simply confirmed the system of magistrates and deputies already in +existence and added provisions for the election of a governor and deputy +governor—who had not hitherto been chosen because of doubts regarding +the jurisdiction of the English lords and gentlemen.</p> + +<p>In matters of detail the Connecticut system <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>differed from that of +Massachusetts in three particulars: it imposed no religious test for +those entitled to vote, but required only that the governor be a church +member, though it is probable that in practice only those would be +admitted freemen who were covenanted Christians; it gave less power to +the magistrates and more to the freemen; and it placed the election of +the governor in the hands of the voters, limiting their choice only to a +church member and a former magistrate, and forbidding reëlection until +after the expiration of a year. Later the qualifications of a freeman +were made such that only about one in every two or three voted in the +seventeenth century; the powers of the magistrates were increased; and +the governor was allowed to succeed himself. Connecticut was less +democratic than Rhode Island in the seventeenth century and, as the +years went on, fewer and fewer of the inhabitants exercised the +freeman's privilege of voting for the higher officials. By no stretch of +the imagination can the political conditions in any of the New England +colonies be called popular or democratic. Government was in the hands of +a very few men.</p> + +<p>Two more settlements remain to be considered before a survey of the +foundations of New England <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>can be called complete. When the Reverend +John Wheelwright, the friend of Anne Hutchinson, was driven from +Massachusetts and took his way northward to the region of Squamscott +Falls where he founded Exeter, he entered a territory of grants and +claims and rights of possession that render the early history of New +Hampshire a tangle of difficulties. Out of a grant to Gorges and Mason +of the stretch of coast between the Merrimac and the Kennebec in 1622, +and a confirmation of Mason's right to the region between the Merrimac +and the Piscataqua, arose the settlement of Strawberry Bank, or +Portsmouth, and accompanying it a controversy over the title to the soil +that lasted throughout the colonial period. Mason called his territory +New Hampshire; Gorges planned to call the region that he received New +Somersetshire; and both designations took root, one as the name of a +colony, the other as that of a county in Maine. At an earlier date, +merchants of Bristol and Shrewsbury had become interested in this part +of New England and had sent over one Edward Hilton, who some time before +1627 began a settlement at Dover. The share of the Bristol merchants was +purchased in 1633 by the English lords and gentlemen already <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>concerned +in the Connecticut settlement, for the purpose, it may be, of furnishing +another refuge in New England, should conditions at home demand their +withdrawal overseas. But nothing came of their purchase except an +unfortunate controversy with Plymouth colony over trading boundaries on +the Kennebec.</p> + +<p>The men established on this northern frontier were often lawless and +difficult to control, of loose habits and morals, and intent on their +own profit; and the region itself was inhospitable to organized and +settled government. Yet out of these somewhat nebulous beginnings, four +settlements arose—Portsmouth (Masonian and Anglican), Dover (Anglican +and Puritan), Exeter and Hampton (both Puritan), each with its civil +compact and each an independent town. The inhabitants were few in +number, and "the generality, of mean and low estates," and little +disposed to union among themselves. But in 1638-1639, when Massachusetts +discovered that one interpretation of her charter would carry her +northern boundary to a point above them, she took them under her +protecting wing. After considerable debate this jurisdiction was +recognized and the New Hampshire and Maine towns were brought <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>within +her boundaries. Henceforth, for many years a number of these towns, +though in part Anglican communities and never burdened with the +requirement that their freemen be church members, were represented in +the general court at Boston. Nevertheless the Mason and Gorges +adherents—whose Anglican and pro-monarchical sympathies were hostile to +Puritan control and who were supported by the persistent efforts of the +Mason family in England—were able to obtain the separation of New +Hampshire from Massachusetts in 1678. Maine, however, remained a part of +the Bay Colony to the end of the colonial period.</p> + +<p>The circumstances attending the settlement of New Haven were wholly +unlike those of New Hampshire. John Davenport, a London clergyman of an +extreme Puritan type, Theophilus Eaton, a London merchant in the Baltic +trade and a member of the Eastland Company, Samuel Eaton and John +Lathrop, two nonconforming ministers, were the leaders of the movement. +Lathrop never went to New Haven, and Samuel Eaton early returned to +England. The leaders and many of their followers were men of +considerable property for that day, and their interest in trade gave to +the colony a marked commercial <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>character. The company was composed of +men and women from London and its vicinity, and of others who joined +them from Kent, Hereford, and Yorkshire. As both Davenport and +Theophilus Eaton were members of the Massachusetts Bay Company, they +were familiar with its work; and on coming to America in June, 1637, +they stopped at Boston and remained there during the winter. Pressure +was brought upon them to make Massachusetts their home, but without +success, for though Davenport had much in common with the Massachusetts +people, he was not content to remain where he would be merely one among +many. Desiring a free place for worship and trade, he sent Eaton +voyaging to find one; and the latter, who had heard of Quinnipiac on the +Connecticut shore, viewed this spot and reported favorably. In March, +1638, the company set sail from Boston and laid the foundations of the +town of New Haven.</p> + +<p>This company had neither charter nor land grant, and, as far as we know, +it had made no attempt to obtain either. "The first planters," says +Kingsley, "recognized in their acts no human authority foreign to +themselves." Unlike the Pilgrims in their <i>Mayflower</i> compact, they made +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>no reference in their plantation covenant to the dread sovereign, King +James, and in none of their acts and statements did they express a +longing for their native country or regard for its authority. Their +settlement bears some resemblance to that of the Rhode Island towns, but +it was better organized and more orderly from the beginning. The +settlers may have drawn up their covenant before leaving Boston and may +have reached Quinnipiac as a community already united in a common civil +and religious bond. Their lands, which they purchased from the Indians, +they laid out in their own way. The next year on June 4, 1639, they held +a meeting in Robert Newman's barn and there, declaring that the Word of +God should be their guide in families and commonwealth and that only +church members should be sharers in government, they chose twelve men as +the foundations of their church state. Two months later these twelve +selected "seven pillars" who proceeded to organize a church by +associating others with themselves. Under the leadership of the seven +the government continued until October, when they resigned and a +gathering of the church members elected Theophilus Eaton as their +magistrate and four others to act as assistants, with a secretary <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>and a +treasurer. Thus was begun a form of government which when perfected was +very similar to that of the other New England colonies.</p> + +<p>While New Haven as a town-colony was taking on form, other plantations +were arising near by. Milford was settled partly from New Haven and +partly from Wethersfield, where an overplus of clergy was leading to +disputes and many withdrawals to other parts. Guilford was settled +directly from England. Southold on Long Island was settled also from +England, by way of New Haven. Stamford had its origin in a Wethersfield +quarrel, when the Reverend Richard Denton, "blind of one eye but not the +least among the seers of Israel," departed with his flock. Branford also +was born of a Wethersfield controversy and later received accessions +from Long Island. In 1643, Milford, Guilford, and Stamford combined +under the common jurisdiction of New Haven, to which Southold and +Branford acceded later with a form of government copied after that of +Massachusetts, though the colony was distinctly federal in character, +consisting of "the government of New Haven with the plantations in +combination therewith." Though there was no special reservation of town +rights in the fundamental articles which defined <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>the government, yet +the towns, five in number, considered themselves free to withdraw at any +time if they so desired.</p> + +<p>We have thus reviewed the conditions under which some forty towns, +grouped under five jurisdictions, were founded in New England. They were +destined to treble their number in the next generation and to suffer +such regrouping as to reduce the jurisdictions to four before the end of +the century—New Hampshire separating from Massachusetts, New Haven +being absorbed by Connecticut, and Plymouth submitting to the authority +of Massachusetts under the charter of 1691. In this readjustment we have +the origin of four of the six New England States of the present day.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h2>EARLY NEW ENGLAND LIFE</h2> +<br /> + +<p>The people who inhabited these little New England towns were from nearly +every grade of English society, but the greater number were men and +women of humble birth—laborers, artisans, and petty farmers—drawn from +town and country, possessed of scanty education, little or no financial +capital, and but slight experience with the larger world. Some were +middle-class lawyers, merchants, and squires; a few, but very few, were +of higher rank, while scores were of the soil, coarse in language and +habits, and given to practices characteristic of the peasantry of +England at that time. The fact that hardly a fifth of those in +Massachusetts were professed Christians renders it doubtful how far +religious convictions were the only driving motive that sent hundreds of +these men to New England. The leaders were, in a majority of cases, +university men familiar with <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>good literature and possessed of good +libraries, but more cognizant of theology and philosophy than of the law +and order of nature. Some were professional soldiers, simple in thought +as they were courageous in action, while others were men of affairs, who +had acquired experience before the courts and in the counting houses of +England and were often amazingly versatile, able to turn their hands to +any business that confronted them. For the great majority there was +little opportunity in these early years to practice a trade or a +profession. Except for the clergy, who could preach in America with +greater freedom than in England, and for the occasional practitioner in +physic or the law who as time went on found occasion to apply his +knowledge in the household and the courts, there was little else for any +one to do than engage in farming, fishing, and trading with the Indians, +or turn carpenter and cobbler according to demand. The artisan became a +farmer, though still preserving his knack as a craftsman, and expended +his skill and his muscle in subduing a tough and unbroken soil.</p> + +<p>New England was probably overstocked with men of strong minds and +assertive dispositions. It was settled by radicals who would never have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>left the mother country had they not possessed well-formed opinions +regarding some of the most important aspects of religious and social +life. We may call them all Puritans, but as to the details of their +Puritanism they often differed as widely as did Roundheads and Cavaliers +in England. Though representative of a common movement, they were far +from united in their beliefs or consistent in their political practices. +There was always something of the inquisitor at Boston and of the monk +at Plymouth, and in all the Puritan colonies there prevailed a +self-satisfied sense of importance as the chosen of God. The +controversies that arose over jurisdictions and boundaries and the +niceties of doctrine are not edifying, however honest may have been +those who entered into them. Massachusetts and Connecticut always showed +a disposition to stretch their demands for territory to the utmost and +to take what they could, sometimes with little charity or forbearance. +The dominance of the church over the organization and methods of +government and the rigid scrutiny of individual lives and habits, of +which the leaders, notably those of Massachusetts, approved, were hardly +in accord with democracy or personal liberty. Of toleration, except in +Rhode Island, there was none.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>The unit of New England life was the town, a self-governing community, +in large measure complete in itself, and if left alone capable of +maintaining a separate existence. Within certain limits, it was +independent of higher authority, and in this respect it was unlike +anything to be found in England. At this period, it was at bottom a +religious community which owned and distributed the lands set apart for +its occupation, elected its own officials, and passed local ordinances +for its own well-being. At first, church members, landholders, and +inhabitants tended to be identical, but they gradually separated as time +went on and as new comers appeared and old residents migrated elsewhere. +Before the end of the century, the ecclesiastical society, the board of +land proprietors, and the town proper, even when largely composed of the +same members, acted as separate groups, though the line of separation +was often vague and was sometimes not drawn at all. Town meetings +continued to be held in the meeting-house, and land was distributed by +the town in its collective capacity. Lands were parceled out as they +were needed in proportion to contributions to a common purchase fund or +to family need, and later according to the ratable value of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>a man's +property. The fathers of Wallingford in Connecticut, "considering that +even single persons industrious and laborious might through the blessing +of God increase and grow into families," distributed to the meanest +bachelor "such a quantity of land as might in an ordinary way serve for +the comfortable maintenance of a family." Sometimes allotments were +equal; often they varied greatly in size, from an acre to fifty acres +and even more; but always they were determined by a desire to be fair +and just. The land was granted in full right and could be sold or +bequeathed, though at first only with the consent of the community. With +the grant generally went rights in woodland and pasture; and even meadow +land, after the hay was got in, was open to the use of the villagers. +The early New England town took into consideration the welfare and +contentment of the individual, but it rated as of even greater +importance the interests of the whole body.</p> + +<p>The settlements of New England inevitably presented great variations of +local life and color, stretching as they did from the Plymouth trucking +posts in Maine, through the fishing villages of Saco and York, and those +on the Piscataqua, to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>towns of Long Island and the frontier +communities of western Connecticut—Stamford and Greenwich. The +inhabitants to the number of more than thirty thousand in 1640 were not +only in possession of the coast but were also pushing their way into the +interior. To fishing and agriculture they added trading, lumbering, and +commerce, and were constantly reaching out for new lands and wider +opportunities. The Pilgrims had hardly weathered their first hard winter +when they rebuilt one of their shallops and sent it northward on fishing +and trading voyages; and later they sent one bark up the Connecticut and +another to open up communication with the Dutch at New Amsterdam. +Pynchon was making Springfield the centre of the fur trade of the +interior, though an overcrowding of merchants there was reducing profits +and compelling the settlers to resort to agriculture for a living. Of +all the colonies, New Haven was the most distinctly commercial. Stephen +Goodyear built a trucking house on an island below the great falls of +the Housatonic in 1642; other New Haven colonists engaged in ventures on +Delaware Bay; and in 1645, the colony endeavored to open a direct trade +with England. But nearly every <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>New Haven enterprise failed, and by 1660 +the wealth of the colony had materially diminished and the settlement +had become "little else than a colony of discouraged farmers." Among all +the colonies in New England and elsewhere there was considerable +coasting traffic, and vessels went to Newfoundland and Bermuda, and even +to the distant West Indies, to Madeira, and to Bilboa across the ocean. +Ever since Winthrop built the <i>Blessing of the Bay</i> in 1631, the first +sea-going craft launched in New England, Massachusetts had been the +leading commercial colony, and her vessels occasionally made the long +triangular voyage to Jamaica, and England, and back to the Bay. The +vessels carried planks, pipe staves, furs, fish, and provisions, and +exchanged them for sugar, molasses, household goods, and other wares and +commodities needed for the comfort and convenience of the colonists.</p> + +<p>The older generation was passing away. By 1660, Winthrop, Cotton, +Hooker, Haynes, Bradford, and Whiting were dead; Davenport and Roger +Williams were growing old; some of the ablest men, Peters, Ludlow, +Whitfield, Desborough, Hooke, had returned to England, and others less +conspicuous had gone to the West Indies or to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>the adjacent colonies. +The younger men were coming on, new arrivals were creeping in, and a +loosening of the old rigidity was affecting the social order. The +Cambridge platform of 1648, which embodied the orthodox features of the +Congregational system as determined up to that time, gave place to the +Half-Way Covenant of 1657 and 1662, which owed its rise to the coming to +maturity of the second generation, the children of the first settlers, +now admitted to membership but not to full communion—a wide departure +from the original purpose of the founders. Rhode Island continued to be +the colony of separatism and soul liberty, where Seeker, Generalist, +Anabaptist, and religious anarchist of the William Harris type found +place, though not always peace. Cotton Mather later said there had never +been "such a variety of religions together on so small a spot as there +have been in that colony."</p> + +<p>The coming of the Quakers to Boston in 1656, bringing with them as they +did some of the very religious ideas that had caused Mrs. Hutchinson and +John Wheelwright to be driven into exile, revived anew the old issue and +roused the orthodox colonies to deny admission to ranters, heretics, +Quakers, and the like. Boston burned their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>books as "corrupt, +heretical, and blasphemous," flung these people into prison with every +mark of indignity, branded them as enemies of the established order in +church and commonwealth, and tried to prove that they were witches and +emissaries of Satan. The first-comers were sent back to Barbados whence +they came; the next were returned to England; those of 1657 were +scourged; those of 1658, under the Massachusetts law of the previous +year, were mutilated and, when all these measures had no effect, under +the harsher law of October, 1658, four were hanged. One of these, Mary +Dyer, though reprieved and banished, persisted in returning to her +death. The Quakers were scourged in Plymouth, branded in New Haven, +flogged at the cart's tail on Long Island, and chained to a wheelbarrow +at New Amsterdam. Upon Connecticut they made almost no impression; only +in Piscataqua, Rhode Island, Nantucket, and Eastern Long Island did they +find a resting place.</p> + +<p>To the awe inspired by the covenant with God was added the terror +aroused by the dread power of Satan; and witchcraft inevitably took its +place in the annals of New England Puritanism as it had done for a +century in the annals of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>older world. Not one of the colonies, +except Rhode Island, was free from its manifestations. Plymouth had two +cases which came to trial, but no executions; Connecticut and New Haven +had many trials and a number of executions, beginning with that of Alse +Young in Windsor in 1647, the first execution for witchcraft in New +England. The witch panic, a fearful exhibition of human terror, appeared +in Massachusetts as early as 1648, and ran its sinister course for more +than forty years, involving high and low alike and disclosing an amazing +amount of credulity and superstition. To the Puritan the power of Satan +was ever imminent, working through friend or foe, and using the human +form as an instrument of injury to the chosen of God. The great epidemic +of witchcraft at Salem in 1692, the climax and close of the delusion, +resulted in the imprisonment of over two hundred persons and the +execution of nineteen. Some of those who sat in the court of trial later +came to their senses and were heartily ashamed of their share in the +proceedings.</p> + +<p>The New Englander of the seventeenth century, courageous as he was and +loyal to his religious convictions, was in a majority of cases gifted +with but a meager mental outfit. The unknown <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>world frightened and +appalled him; Satan warring with the righteous was an ever-present +menace to his soul; the will of God controlled the events of his daily +life, whether for good or ill. The book of nature and the physiology and +ailments of his own body he comprehended with the mind of a child. He +believed that the planet upon which he lived was the center of the +universe, that the stars were burning vapors, and the moon and comets +agencies controlling human destinies. Strange portents presaged disaster +or wrought evil works. Many a New Englander's life was governed +according to the supposed influence of the heavenly bodies; Bradford +believed that there was a connection between a cyclone and an eclipse; +and Morton defined an earthquake as a movement of wind shut up in the +pores and bowels of the earth.</p> + +<p>Of medicine the Puritans knew little and practised less. They swallowed +doses of weird and repelling concoctions, wore charms and amulets, found +comfort and relief in internal and external remedies that could have had +no possible influence upon the cause of the trouble, and when all else +failed they fell back upon the mercy and will of God. Surgery was a +matter of tooth-pulling <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>and bone-setting, and though post-mortems were +performed, we have no knowledge of the skill of the practitioner. The +healing art, as well as nursing and midwifery, was frequently in the +hands of women, one of whom deposed: "I was able to live by my +chirurgery, but now I am blind and cannot see a wound, much less dress +it or make salves"; and Jane Hawkins of Boston, the "bosom friend" of +Mrs. Hutchinson, was forbidden by the general courts "to meddle in +surgery or physic, drink, plaisters or oils," as well as religion. The +men who practised physic were generally homebred, making the greater +part of their living at farming or agriculture. Some were ministers as +well as physicians, and one of them (Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes is sorry +to say) "took to drink and tumbled into the Connecticut River, and so +ended." There were a number of regularly trained doctors, such as John +Clark of Newbury, Fuller of Plymouth, Rossiter of Guilford, and others; +and the younger Winthrop, though not a physician, had more than a +smattering of medicine.</p> + +<p>The mass of the New Englanders of the seventeenth century had but little +education and but few opportunities for travel. As early as 1642, +Massachusetts required that every child should <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>be taught to read, and +in 1647 enacted a law ordaining that every township should appoint a +schoolmaster, and that the larger towns should each set up a grammar +school. This well-known and much praised enactment, which made education +the handmaid of religion and was designed to stem the tide of religious +indifference rising over the colony, was better in intention than in +execution. It had little effect at first, and even when under its +provisions the common school gradually took root in New England, the +education given was of a very primitive variety. Harvard College itself, +chartered in 1636, was a seat of but a moderate amount of learning and +at its best had only the training of the clergy in view. In Hartford and +New Haven, grammar schools were founded under the bequest of Governor +Hopkins, but came to little in the seventeenth century. In 1674, one +Robert Bartlett left money for the setting up of a free school in New +London, for the teaching of Latin to poor children, but the hope was +richer than the fulfilment. In truth, of education for the laity at this +time in New England there was scarcely more than the rudiments of +reading, writing, and arithmetic. The frugal townspeople of New England +generally deemed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>education an unnecessary expense; the school laws were +evaded, and when complied with were more honored in the breach than in +the observance. Even when honestly carried out, they produced but +slender results. Probably most people could sign their names after a +fashion, though many extant wills and depositions bear only the marks of +their signers. Schoolmasters and town clerks had difficulties with +spelling and grammar, and the rural population were too much engrossed +by their farm labors to find much time for the improvement of the mind. +Except in the homes of the clergy and the leading men of the larger +towns there were few books, and those chiefly of a religious character. +The English Bible and Bunyan's <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i>, printed in Boston +in 1681, were most frequently read, and in the houses of the farmers the +<i>British Almanac</i> was occasionally found. There were no newspapers, and +printing had as yet made little progress.</p> + +<p>The daily routine of clearing the soil, tilling the arable land, raising +corn, rye, wheat, oats, and flax, of gathering iron ore from bogs and +turpentine from pine trees, and in other ways of providing the means of +existence, rendered life essentially stationary and isolated, and the +mind was but slightly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>quickened by association with the larger world. A +little journeying was done on foot, on horseback, or by water, but the +trip from colony to colony was rarely undertaken; and even within the +colony itself but few went far beyond the borders of their own +townships, except those who sat as deputies in the assembly or engaged +in hunting, trading, fishing, or in wars with the Indians. A Connecticut +man could speak of "going abroad" to Rhode Island. Though in the larger +towns good houses were built, generally of wood and sometimes of brick, +in the remoter districts the buildings were crude, with rooms on one +floor and a ladder to the chamber above, where corn was frequently +stored. Along the Pawcatuck River, families lived in cellars along with +their pigs. Clapboards and shingles came in slowly as sawmills +increased, but at first nails and glass were rare luxuries. Conditions +in such seaports as Boston, where ships came and went and higher +standards of living prevailed, must not be taken as typical of the whole +country. The buildings of Boston in 1683 were spoken of as "handsome, +joining one to another as in London, with many large streets, most of +them paved with pebble stone." Money in the country towns was +merchantable <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>wheat, peas, pork, and beef at prices current. Time was +reckoned by the farmers according to the seasons, not according to the +calendar, and men dated events by "sweet corn time," "at the beginning +of last hog time," "since Indian harvest," and "the latter part of seed +time for winter wheat."</p> + +<p>New England was a frontier land far removed from the older +civilizations, and its people were always restive under restraint and +convention. They were in the main men and women of good sense, sobriety, +and thrift, who worked hard, squandered nothing, feared God, and honored +the King, but the equipment they brought with them to America was +insufficient at best and had to be replaced, as the years wore on, from +resources developed on New England soil.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h2>AN ATTEMPT AT COLONIAL UNION</h2> +<br /> + +<p>The men who controlled the destinies of New England were deeply +concerned not only with preserving its faith but also with guarding its +rights and liberties as they defined them, and reverentially preserving +the letter of its charters. For men who wished to sever their connection +with England and to disregard English law and precedent as much as +possible, they displayed a remarkable amount of respect for the +documents that emanated from the British Chancery. In fact, however, +they valued these grants and charters, not as expressions of royal +favor, but as bulwarks against royal encroachment and outside +interference, and in accepting such privileges as were conferred by +their charters, they recognized no duty to be performed for the common +mother, no obligations resting upon themselves to consider the welfare +of England or to coöperate in her behalf.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>The thoughts of these men were of themselves, their faith, and their +problems of existence. The strongest ties were those that held together +the people of a town, closely knit in the bond of a civil and religious +covenant. Next above these were the ties of the colony, with its general +court or assembly composed of representatives of the towns, its governor +and other officials elected by the freemen, and its laws passed by the +assembly for the benefit and well-being of all. Higher still was the +loose bond of confederation that was fashioned in 1643 for the +maintenance of order, peace, and security, in the form of a league of +colonies. Highest, but weakest of all, was the bond that united them to +England, recognized in sentiment but carrying with it no reciprocal +obligations, either legal or otherwise. To the average inhabitant of New +England, the mother country was merely the land from which he had come, +the home to which he might or might not return. He had practically no +knowledge of England's plans or policy, no comprehension of her purpose +toward her colonies or the place of the colonies in her own scheme of +expansion. He was absorbed in his own affairs, not in those of England; +in the commands of God, not in those of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>the King; and in the dangers +which surrounded him from the foes of the frontier, not in those which +confronted England in her relations with her continental rivals. He was +dominated by his instinct for self-government and by his compelling fear +of the Stuarts and all that they represented. Even during the period of +the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, England was three thousand miles +away, appeal to her was difficult and costly, and the English brethren +were not always as sympathetic as they might have been with the aims and +methods of their co-religionists.</p> + +<p>This very isolation from the mother country, at a time when the New +Englanders were pushing their fur-trading activities into the regions +claimed by the Dutch and the French, rendered some sort of united action +necessary and desirable. The settlers were of one stock and one purpose. +Despite bickerings and disputes, they shared a common desire to enjoy +the liberties of the Christian religion and to obtain from the new +country into which they had come both subsistence and profit. The +determination to open up trading posts on the Penobscot, the Delaware, +and the Hudson, and to utilize all waters for their fisheries brought +them into conflict with their rivals, at New <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>Amsterdam and in Nova +Scotia, and made it imperative, should any one colony—Plymouth, +Massachusetts, Connecticut, or New Haven—attempt to pursue its plans +alone, for all to band together in its support. The troubles already +encountered with the Dutch on the Delaware and the Connecticut and with +the French in Maine, in the competition for the fur trade of the +interior, had rendered the situation acute and led, very early, to the +proposal that a combination be effected.</p> + +<p>But it was not until 1643 that anything was accomplished. In May of that +year, at the suggestion of Connecticut and New Haven, commissioners from +these colonies, and from Massachusetts and Plymouth also, met at Boston +and drafted a body of articles for a consociation or confederation to be +known as the United Colonies of New England, a form of union which found +a precedent in the federation of the Netherlands and corresponded in the +political field to the consociation of churches in the ecclesiastical. +Maine was not asked because, as a province belonging to Gorges, the +people there (to quote from Winthrop's <i>Journal</i>) "ran a different +course from the other colonies, both in their ministry and civil +administration, ... had lately made <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>Acomenticus (a poor village) a +corporation, and had made a taylor their mayor, and had entertained one +Hull, an excommunicated person and very contentious, for their +minister." Rhode Island, as a seat of separatism and heresy, was not +invited and perhaps not even considered. For managing the affairs of the +confederation, the main objects of which were friendship and amity, +protection and defense, advice and succor, and the preservation of the +truth and purity of the Gospel, eight commissioners were provided, to be +chosen by the assemblies of the colonies and to represent the colonies +as independent political units. Meetings were to be held once a year in +one or other of the leading towns and a full record was to be kept of +the business done. The board thus established never did more than make +recommendations and offer advice, as it had no authority to execute any +of the plans that it might make; and although the records of its +meetings are lengthy and give evidence of elaborate discussion of +important matters, the results of its deliberations cannot be said to be +particularly significant.</p> + +<p>The commissioners dealt with a number of local disputes of no great +moment and considered certain internal difficulties that threatened to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>disturb the friendly intercourse among the colonies. For instance, +Connecticut had levied tolls at Saybrook on vessels going up the +Connecticut River to Springfield, and Massachusetts had retaliated by +laying duties on goods from other colonies entering her ports. Under +pressure from the commissioners both the colonies receded from their +positions. Again, the commissioners recommended the granting of aid to +Harvard College, and that institution consequently received from +Connecticut and New Haven annually for many years a regular allowance, +in return for which it presented the Connecticut colony with nearly +sixty graduates in the ensuing half-century well equipped to combat +latitudinarianism and heresy. The commissioners fulfilled their +obligation as guardians of the purity of the Gospel, both in their +support of the synod of 1646-1648 and in their strenuous efforts to +check the increase of religious discontent due to the narrow definition +of church membership—efforts which eventually resulted in that +"illogical compromise," the Half-Way Covenant. They recommended the +driving out of "Quakers, Ranters, and other Herritics of that nature," +and urged that the true Gospel might be spread among the Indians. They +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>upheld the work of the Society for the Promoting and Propagating of the +Gospel of Jesus Christ in New England, and they directed and guided the +labors of its missionaries, most notable of whom was the famous John +Eliot, apostle to the Indians and translator of the Bible into their +language.</p> + +<p>The most important business of the confederation concerned the defense +of New England against the Indians, the Dutch, and the French. The +Indians were an ever-present menace, near and far; the Dutch disputed +the English claims all the way from New Amsterdam to Narragansett Bay, +and resented the attempts already made to encroach upon their trading +grounds; and the French at this time were strenuously denying the right +of the English, particularly those of Plymouth, to establish +trading-posts at Machias and on the Penobscot, and were laying claim to +all the Nova Scotian territory as far west as the Penobscot.</p> + +<p>Though the French, in their effort to drive out all the English settlers +east of Pemaquid in Maine, had destroyed two Plymouth posts in that +region, the commissioners were called upon to decide not so much what +should be done about this act <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>of aggression, as which of the claimants +among the French themselves it was wiser for the colonies to support. A +certain Charles de la Tour had been commissioned by the Governor-General +of Acadia or Nova Scotia as lieutenant of the region east of the St. +Croix, and another, Charles de Menou, Sieur d'Aulnay-Charnisé, as +lieutenant of the region between the St. Croix and the Penobscot. When +the Governor-General died in 1635, a contest for the governorship took +place between these two men, and not unnaturally volunteers from +Massachusetts aided La Tour, whose original jurisdiction was farthest +removed from their colony. Trade on these northeastern coasts was deemed +essential to the prosperity of the New Englanders, and it was considered +of great importance to make no mistake in backing the wrong claimant. +D'Aulnay, or more correctly Aulnay, had been partly responsible for the +attack on the Plymouth trading-posts, but, on the other hand, he had the +stronger title; and Massachusetts was a good deal perplexed as to what +course to pursue. In 1644, Aulnay sent a commissioner to Boston, who +conversed with Governor Endecott in French and with the rest of the +magistrates in Latin and endeavored to arrange terms of peace. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>Two +years later the same commissioner came again, with two others, and was +cordially entertained with "wine and sweetmeats." The matter was +referred to the commissioners of the United Colonies, who decided, with +considerable shrewdness, that the volunteers in aiding La Tour had acted +efficiently but not wisely; and consequently a compromise was reached. +Aulnay's commissioners abated their claims for damages, and Governor +Winthrop consented to send "a small present" to Aulnay in lieu of +compensation. The present was "a fair new sedan (worth," says Winthrop, +"forty or fifty pounds, where it was made, but of no use to us)," having +been part of some Spanish booty taken in the West Indies and presented +to the Governor. So final peace was made at no expense to the colony; +and later, after Aulnay's death in 1650, La Tour married the widow and +came to his own in Nova Scotia.</p> + +<p>The troubles with the Dutch were not so easily settled. England had +never acknowledged the Dutch claim to New Amsterdam, and the New England +Council in making its grants had paid no attention to the Dutch +occupation. Though trade had been carried on and early relations had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>been on the whole amicable, yet, after Connecticut's overthrow of the +Pequots in 1637 and the opening of the territory to settlement, the +founding of towns as far west as Stamford and Greenwich had rendered +acute the conflict of titles. There was no western limit to the English +claims, and, as the colonists were perfectly willing to accept Sir +William Boswell's advice to "crowd on, crowding the Dutch out of those +places which they have occupied, without hostility or any act of +violence," a collision was bound to come. The Dutch, who in their turn +were not abating a jot of their claims, had already destroyed a New +Haven settlement on the Delaware, and had asserted rights of +jurisdiction even in New Haven harbor, by seizing there one of their own +ships charged with evading the laws of New Amsterdam. Peter Stuyvesant, +the Dutch Governor, famous for his short temper and mythical silver leg, +visited Hartford in 1650, and negotiated with the commissioners of the +United Colonies a treaty drawing the boundary line from the west side of +Greenwich Bay northward twenty miles. But this treaty, though ratified +by the States General of Holland, was never ratified by England, and, +when two years later war between the two <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>countries broke out overseas, +the question of an attack on New Amsterdam was taken up and debated with +such heat as nearly to disrupt the Confederation. The absolute refusal +of Massachusetts to enter on such an undertaking so prolonged the +discussion that the war was over before a decision was reached; but +Connecticut seized the Dutch lands at Hartford, and Roger Ludlow, who +had moved to Fairfield from Windsor after 1640, began an abortive +military campaign of his own. The situation remained unchanged as long +as the Dutch held New Netherland, and the region between Greenwich and +the Bronx continued to be what it had been from the beginning of +settlement, a territory occupied only by Indians and a few straggling +emigrants. There the unfortunate Anne Hutchinson with her family was +massacred by the Indians in 1643.</p> + +<p>The New England Confederation performed the most important part of its +work during the first twenty years of its existence, for although it +lasted nominally till 1684, it ceased to be effective after 1664, and +was of little weight in New England history after the restoration of the +Stuarts. Owing to the fact that it had been formed without any authority +from England, the Confederation <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>was never recognized by the Government +there, and with the return of the monarchy it survived chiefly as an +occasional committee meeting for debate and advice.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h2>WINNING THE CHARTERS</h2> +<br /> + +<p>The accession of Charles II to the throne of England provoked a crisis +in the affairs of the Puritans and gave rise to many problems that the +New Englanders had not anticipated and did not know how to solve. With a +Stuart again in control, there were many questions that might be easily +asked but less easily answered. Except for Massachusetts and Plymouth, +not a settlement had a legal title to its soil; and except for +Massachusetts, not one had ever received a sufficient warrant for the +government which it had set up. Naturally, therefore, there was +disquietude in Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Haven; and even +Massachusetts, buttressed as she was, feared lest the King might object +to many of the things she had done. Entrenched behind her charter and +aware of her superiority in wealth, territory, and population, she had +taken the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>leadership in New England and had used her opportunity to +intimidate her neighbors. Except for New Haven, not a colony or group of +settlements but had felt the weight of her claims. Plymouth and +Connecticut had protested against her demands; the Narragansett towns +with difficulty had evaded her attempt to absorb them; and the +settlements at Piscataqua and on the Maine coast had finally yielded to +her jurisdiction. As long as Cromwell lived and the Government of +England was under Puritan direction, Massachusetts had little to fear +from protests against her; but, with the Cromwellian régime at an end, +she could not expect from the restored monarchy a favoring or friendly +attitude.</p> + +<p>The change in England was not merely one of government; it was one of +policy as well. Even during the Cromwellian period, Englishmen awoke to +a greater appreciation of the importance of colonies as assets of the +mother country, and began to realize, in a fashion unknown to the +earlier period, the necessity of extending and strengthening England's +possessions in America. England was engaged in a desperate commercial +war with Holland, whose vessels had obtained a monopoly of the carrying +trade of the world; and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>to win in that conflict it was imperative that +her statesmen should husband every resource that the kingdom possessed. +The religious agitations of previous years were passing away and the New +England colonies were not likely to be troubled on account of their +Puritanism. The great question in England was not religious conformity +but national strength based on commercial prosperity.</p> + +<p>Thus England was fashioning a new system and defining a new policy. By +means of navigation acts, she barred the Dutch from the carrying trade +and confined colonial commerce in large part to the mother country. She +established councils and committees of trade and plantations, and, by +the seizure of New Netherland in 1664 and the grant of the Carolinas and +the Bahamas in 1663 and 1670, she completed the chain of her possessions +in America from New England to Barbados. A far-flung colonial world was +gradually taking shape, demanding of the King and his advisers an +interest in America of a kind hitherto unknown. It is not surprising +that so vast a problem, involving the trade and defense of nearly twenty +colonies, should have made the internal affairs of New England seem of +less consequence to the royal authorities than had been the case in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>days of Charles I and Archbishop Laud, when the obtaining of the +Massachusetts Bay charter had roused such intensity of feeling in +England. What was interesting Englishmen was no longer the matter of +religious obedience in the colonies, but rather that of their political +and commercial dependence on the mother country.</p> + +<p>As the future of New England was certain to be debated at Whitehall +after 1660, the colonies took pains to have representatives on the +ground to meet criticisms and complaints, to ward off attacks, and to +beg for favors. Rhode Island sent a commission to Dr. John Clarke, one +of her founders and leading men, at that time in London, instructing him +to ask for royal protection, self-government, liberty of conscience, and +a charter. Massachusetts sent Simon Bradstreet and the Reverend John +Norton, with a petition that reads like a sermon, praying the King not +to listen to other men's words but to grant the colonists an opportunity +to answer for themselves, they being "true men, fearers of God and the +King, not given to change, orthodox and peaceable in Israel." +Connecticut, with more worldly wisdom, sent John Winthrop, the Governor, +a man courtly and tactful, with a petition shrewdly worded and to the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>point. Plymouth entrusted her mission also to Winthrop, hoping for a +confirmation of her political and religious liberties. All protested +their loyalty to the Crown, while Massachusetts, her petition signed by +the stiff-necked Endecott, prostrated herself at the royal feet, craving +pardon for her boldness, and subscribing herself "Your Majesties most +humble subjects and suppliants." Did Endecott remember, we wonder, a +certain incident connected with the royal ensign at Salem?</p> + +<p>Against the lesser colonies no complaints were presented, except in the +case of New Haven, which was charged by the inhabitants of Shelter +Island with usurpation of their goods and territory; but for +Massachusetts the restoration of the Stuarts opened a veritable +Pandora's box of troubles. In "divers complaints, petitions, and other +informations concerning New England," she was accused of overbearance +and oppression, of seizing the territory of New Hampshire and Maine, of +denying the rights of Englishmen to Anglicans and non-freemen of the +colony, and of persecuting the Quakers and others of religious views +different from her own. She was declared to be seeking independence of +Crown and Parliament by forbidding appeals to England, refusing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>to +enforce the oath of allegiance to the King, and in general exceeding the +powers laid down in her charter. The new plantations council, +commissioned by the King in December, 1660, sent a peremptory letter the +following April ordering the colony to proclaim the King "in the most +solemn manner," and to hold herself in readiness to answer complaints by +appointing persons well instructed to represent her before itself in +England. At the same time, it begged the King to go slowly, giving +Massachusetts an opportunity to be heard, and to write a letter "with +all possible tenderness," pointing out that submission to the royal +authority was absolutely essential. This the King did, confirming the +charter of Massachusetts, renewing the colony's rights and privileges, +and in conciliatory fashion ascribing all derelictions of duty to the +iniquity of the times rather than to any evil intention of the heart. +Then declaring that the chief aim of the charter was liberty of +conscience, the King struck at the very heart of the Massachusetts +system, by commanding the magistrates to grant full liberty of worship +to members of the Anglican Church and the right to vote to all who were +"orthodox" in religion and possessed of "competent estates." Though this +order was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>evaded by various definitions of "orthodox" and "competent +estates" and was not to be fully executed for many years, yet its +meaning was clear—no single religious body would ever again be allowed, +by the royal authorities in England, to monopolize the government or +control the political destinies of a British colony in America or +elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The policy thus adopted toward Massachusetts became even more +conciliatory when applied to the other colonies. It is not improbable +that the King's advisers saw in the strengthening of Connecticut and +Rhode Island an opportunity to check the power of Massachusetts and to +reduce her importance in New England. However that may be, they lent +themselves to the efforts that Winthrop and Clarke were making to obtain +charters for their respective colonies. These agents were able, +discreet, and broadminded men. Clarke, a resident in England for a +number of years, had acquired no little personal influence; and +Winthrop, as an old-time friend of the English lords and gentlemen whose +governor he had been at Saybrook, could count on the help of the one +surviving member of that group, Lord Saye and Sele, who was a privy +councillor, a member of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>House of Lords and of the plantations +council, and, as we are told, Lord Privy Seal, a position that would be +of direct service in expediting the issue of a charter. Winthrop had +personal qualities, also, that made for success. He was a university +man, had made the grand tour of the Continent, and was familiar with +official traditions and the ways of the court. Soon after his arrival in +England, he became a member of the Royal Society and served on several +of its committees, and thus had an opportunity of making friends and of +showing his interest in other things than theology. If Cotton Mather was +rightly informed, Winthrop was accorded a personal interview with +Charles II and presented the King with a ring which Charles I, as Prince +of Wales, had given his grandfather, Adam Winthrop.</p> + +<p>Winthrop made good use of a good cause. Connecticut had behaved herself +well and had incurred no ill-will. She had had no dealings with the +Cromwellian Government, had dutifully proclaimed the King, had been +discreet in her attitude toward Whalley and Goffe, the regicides who had +fled to New England, and had aroused no resentment against herself among +her neighbors. With proceedings once begun, the securing of the charter +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>went rapidly forward. Winthrop at first petitioned for a confirmation +of the old Warwick patent, which had been purchased of the English lords +and gentlemen in 1644, but later, encouraged it may be by friends in +England, he asked for a charter. The request was granted.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The +document gave to Connecticut the same boundaries as those of the old +patent, and conferred powers of government identical with those of the +Fundamental Orders of 1639. That the main features of the charter were +drawn up in the colony before Winthrop sailed is probable, though it is +not impossible that they were drafted in London by Winthrop himself. All +that the English officials did was to give the text its proper legal +form.</p> + +<p>After the receipt of the charter and its proclamation in the colony and +after a slight readjustment of the government to meet the few changes +required, the general court of Connecticut proceeded to enforce the full +territorial rights of the colony. The men of Connecticut had made up +their minds, now that the charter had come, to execute its terms to the +uttermost and to extend the authority of the colony to the farthest +bounds, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>so that, next to the government of the Bay, Connecticut might +be the greatest in New England. The court took under its protection the +towns of Stamford and Greenwich, and on the ground that the whole +territory westward was within its jurisdiction warned the Dutch governor +not to meddle. It accepted the petition of Southold on Long Island and +of certain residents of Guilford, both of the New Haven federation, for +annexation, and, sending a force to Long Island to demand the surrender +of the western towns there, it seized Captain John Scott, who was +planning to establish a separate government over them, and brought him +to Hartford for trial. It informed the towns of Mystic and Pawcatuck, +lying in the disputed land between Connecticut and Rhode Island, that +they were in the Connecticut colony and must henceforth conduct their +affairs according to its laws. The relations with Rhode Island were to +be a matter of later adjustment, and no immediate trouble followed; but +Stuyvesant, the Dutch Governor, protested angrily against Connecticut's +claim to Dutch territory and brought the matter to the attention of the +commissioners of the United Colonies. On one pretext or another, the +latter delayed action; and the matter was not settled <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>until England's +seizure of New Amsterdam in 1664 brought the Dutch rule to an end and +made operative the royal grant of the territory to the Duke of York, +thus stopping Connecticut in her somewhat headlong career westward and +taking from her the whole of Long Island and all the land west of the +Connecticut River. If maintained, this grant would have reduced the +colony by half and would have materially retarded its progress; but +Connecticut eventually saved the western portion of her territory as far +as the line of 1650. However, her people could do no more crowding on +into the region beyond, for the province of New York now lay directly +across the path of her westward expansion.</p> + +<p>But with New Haven her success was complete. That unfortunate colony, +which had made an effort to obtain a patent in 1645, when the "great +ship," bearing the agent Gregson, had foundered with all on board, had +no friends at court, and had been too poor after 1660 to join the other +colonies in sending an agent to London. Consequently its right to exist +as an independent government was not considered in the negotiations +which Winthrop had carried on. Serious complaints had been raised +against it; its rigorous theocratic <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>policy had created divisions among +its own people, many of whom had begun to protest; it had been friendly +with the Cromwellian régime and had proclaimed Charles II unwillingly +and after long delay; it had protected the regicides until the +messengers sent out for their capture could report the colony as +"obstinate and pertinacious in contempt of His Majestie." Governor +Leete, of the younger generation, was not in sympathy with Davenport's +persistent refusal of all overtures from Hartford, and would probably +have favored union under the charter of 1662 if Connecticut had been +less aggressive in her attitude. As it was, the controversy became +pungent and was prolonged for more than two years, though the outcome +was never uncertain. The New Haven colony was poor, unprotected, and +divided against itself. Its population was decreasing; Indian massacres +threatened its frontiers; the malcontents of Guilford, led by Bray +Rossiter, were demanding immediate and unconditional surrender to +Connecticut; and finally in 1664 the successful capture of New +Netherland and the grant to the Duke of York threatened the colony with +annexation from that quarter. Rather than be joined to New York, New +Haven surrendered. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>One by one the towns broke away until in December of +that year only Branford, Guilford, and New Haven remained. On December +13, 1664, the freemen of these towns, with a few others, voted to +submit, "as from a necessity ... but with a <i>salvo jure</i> of our former +right & claime, as a people who have not yet been heard in point of +plea."</p> + +<p>The New Haven federation was dissolved; Davenport withdrew to Boston, +where he became a participant in the religious life of that colony; and +the strict Puritans of Branford, Guilford, and Milford, led by Abraham +Pierson, went to New Jersey and founded Newark. The towns, left loose +and at large, joined Connecticut voluntarily and separately, and the New +Haven colony ceased to exist. But the dual capital of Connecticut and +the alternate meetings of its legislature in Hartford and New Haven, +marked for more than two hundred years the twofold origin of the colony +and the state.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Rhode Island had become a legally incorporated colony. +Even before Winthrop sailed for England, Dr. John Clarke had received a +favorable reply to his petition for a charter. But a year passed and +nothing was done <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>about the matter, probably owing to the arrival of +Winthrop and the feeling of uncertainty aroused by the conflicting +boundary claims, which involved a stretch of some twenty-five miles of +territory between Narragansett Bay and the Pawcatuck River. A third +claimant also appeared, the Atherton Company, with its headquarters in +Boston, which had purchased lands of the Indians at various points in +the area and held them under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. When +Clarke heard that Winthrop, in drawing the boundaries for the +Connecticut charter of 1662, had included this Narragansett territory, +he protested vehemently to the King, saying that Connecticut had +"injuriously swallowed up the one-half of our colonie," and demanding a +reconsideration. Finally, after the question had been debated in the +presence of Clarendon and others, the decision was reached to give Rhode +Island the boundaries and charter she desired, but to leave the question +of conflicting claims for later settlement. Evidently Winthrop, though +not agreeing with Clarke in matters of fact regarding the boundaries, +supported Rhode Island's appeal for a charter, for Clarendon said +afterwards that the draft which Clarke presented had in it expressions +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>that were disliked, but that the charter was granted out of regard for +Winthrop.</p> + +<p>The Rhode Island charter passed the seals July 8, 1663, and was received +in the colony four months later with great joy and thanksgiving. It +created a common government for all the towns, guaranteeing full liberty +"in religious concernments" and freedom from all obligations to conform +to the "litturgy, formes, and ceremonyes of the Church of England, or +take or subscribe the oathes and articles made and established in that +behalfe." This may have been the phrase that Clarendon, who was a High +Churchman, objected to when the draft was presented. The form of +government was similar in all essential particulars to that of +Connecticut.</p> + +<p>Rhode Island's enthusiasm in obtaining a charter is not difficult to +understand. That amphibious colony, consisting of mainland, islands, and +a large body of water, was inhabited by "poor despised peasants," as +Governor Brenton described them, "living remote in the woods" and +subject to the "envious and subtle contrivances of our neighbour +colonies round about us, who are in a combination united together to +swallow us up." The colony had not been asked to join the New <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>England +Confederation, and its leaders were convinced that the members of the +Confederation were in league to filch away their lands and, by driving +them into the sea, to eliminate the colony altogether. Plymouth, seeking +a better harbor than that of Plymouth Bay, claimed the eastern mainland +as well as the chief islands, Hog, Conanicut, and Aquidneck; +Massachusetts claimed Pawtuxet, Warwick, and the Narragansett country +generally; while Connecticut wished to push her eastern boundary as far +beyond the Pawcatuck River (the present boundary) as she might be able +to do. Had each of these colonies made good its claim, there would have +been little left of Rhode Island, and we do not wonder that the settlers +looked upon themselves as fighting, with their backs to the sea, for +their very existence. Hence they welcomed the charter with the joy of +one relieved of a great burden, for, though the boundary question +remained unsettled, the charter assured the colony of its right to exist +under royal protection.</p> + +<h4>FOOTNOTE:</h4> + +<div class="footnote"><p class="noin"><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The King's warrant was issued on February 28, the writ of +Privy Seal on April 23, and the great seal was affixed on May 10, +1662.</p></div> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h2>MASSACHUSETTS DEFIANT</h2> +<br /> + +<p>Massachusetts was yet to be taken in hand. The English authorities had +become convinced that a satisfactory settlement of all the difficulties +in New England could be undertaken not in England, where the facts were +hard to get at, but in America. Lord Clarendon, the Chancellor, had been +in correspondence with Samuel Maverick, an early settler in New England +and for many years a resident of Boston and New Amsterdam. As an +Anglican, Maverick had sympathized with the opposition in Massachusetts +led by Dr. Robert Child, and had been debarred from all civil and +religious rights in the colony; but he was a man of sobriety and good +judgment, whose chief cause of offense was a difference of opinion as to +how a colony should conduct its government. The fact that he had been +able to get on with the Massachusetts men shows that his attitude had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>never been seriously aggressive, for though he certainly had no liking +for the policy of the colony, he does not appear to have been influenced +by any hostility towards Massachusetts.</p> + +<p>Happening to be in England at this juncture, Maverick was called upon by +the Chancellor to state the case against the colony, and this he did in +several letters, giving many instances of the colony's disloyalty and +injustice, and recommending that its privileges be taken away, just as +it had taken away the privileges of others. To this suggestion Clarendon +paid no heed, for it was no part of the royal purpose to drive the +colonies to desperation at a time when the King was but newly come to +his throne and needed all his resources in the struggle with the Dutch. +But to Maverick's further suggestions that New Netherland be reduced, +that Massachusetts be regulated, and that commissioners be sent over to +accomplish these ends, he expressed himself as favorable, and all were +finally accepted by the Government. Maverick's opinion that British +control should be exercised over a British possession and that the +government of such a possession should not be conducted after the +fashion of an ecclesiastical society happened to coincide with that of +the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>King's advisers and, as Maverick had lived in America for thirty +years, his advice was listened to with respect and approval. All thought +that, while Massachusetts might not be driven with safety, she could +probably be persuaded to admit some alteration in her methods of +government by tactful representatives.</p> + +<p>Had the Duke of York, to whom was entrusted the task of selecting the +new commissioners, chosen his men as wisely as Clarendon had shaped his +policy, the results, as far as Massachusetts was concerned, might have +been more successful. The trouble lay with the character of the work to +be done. On the one hand the Dutch colony was to be seized by force of +arms, a military undertaking involving boldness and executive ability; +on the other, the Puritan colonies were to be regulated, a mission which +called for the utmost tact. The men chosen for the work were far from +the best that might have been selected to bring back to the path of true +obedience and impartial justice a colony that was deemed wilful and +perverse. They were Richard Nicolls, a favorite of the Duke of York and +the only commissioner possessed of discrimination and wisdom, but who, +as governor of the yet unconquered <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>Dutch colony, was likely to be taken +up with his duties to such an extent as to preclude his sharing +prominently in the diplomatic part of his mission; Colonel George +Cartwright, a soldier, well-meaning but devoid of sympathy and ignorant +of the conditions that confronted him; Sir Robert Carr, the worst of the +four, unprincipled and profligate and without control either of his +temper or his passions; and, lastly, Maverick himself, opposed to the +existing order in Massachusetts and convinced of the necessity of +radical changes in the constitution of the colony. Nicolls was liked and +respected; Cartwright and Carr were distrusted as soldiers and +strangers, and their presence was resented; whereas Maverick was +objected to as a malcontent who had gone to England to complain and had +returned with power to make trouble. When the colony heard of his +appointment, it sent a vigorous address of protest to the King. If +Clarendon expected from the last three of these men the wisdom and +discretion that he said were essential to the task, he strangely +misjudged their characters. He thought, to be sure, of adding other +commissioners from New England, but he did not know whom to select and +was fearful of arousing local jealousies. Yet <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>considering the work to +be done, it is doubtful if any commissioners, no matter how wisely +selected, could have performed the task, for Massachusetts did not want +to be regulated.</p> + +<p>The general object of the commission was "to unite and reconcile persons +of very different judgments and practice in all things," particularly +concerning "the peace and prosperity of the people and their joint +submission and obedience to us and our government." More specifically, +the commissioners were to effect the overthrow of the Dutch, investigate +conditions among the Indians, capture the regicides, secure obedience to +the navigation acts, look into the question of boundaries, and determine +the title to the Narragansett country, henceforth to be called the +King's Province. The commissioners were to make it clear that they were +not come to interfere with the prevailing religious systems, but to +demand liberty of conscience for all, though Clarendon could not repress +the hope that ultimately the New Englanders might return to the Anglican +fold. The secret instructions were even more remarkable as evidence of a +complete misunderstanding of conditions in New England. Clarendon wished +to secure for the Crown the power to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>nominate or at least to approve +the governor of Massachusetts, to control the militia, and to examine +and correct the laws—powers, it may be noted, which were exercised in +every royal colony as a matter of course. He suggested that the +commissioners interest themselves in the elections so far as "to gett +men of the best reputation and most peaceably inclined" chosen to the +assembly, but he cautioned them to "proceed very warily" in some of +these things. He had a hope that Massachusetts might be so wrought upon +as to choose Nicolls for her governor and Carr for her major-general, +but in this, as in the pious hope of a return of the Puritans to the +Church of England, he reckoned without a knowledge of the grimness of +the Massachusetts temper.</p> + +<p>The commissioners reached Boston, <i>en route</i> for New Amsterdam, late in +July, 1664, asked for troops, and demanded the repeal of the franchise +law. The magistrates took the precaution to conceal the charter; they +were also heartily glad when the commissioners departed on their errand +of conquest and hoped they would not return. The general court, having +modified the franchise law sufficiently to meet the letter of the King's +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>command, wrote His Majesty that they wished he would recall his +emissaries; and when the magistrates discovered that this impertinent +demand not only failed of its object but drew down upon the colony a +royal rebuke, with characteristic shrewdness they shifted their ground +and prepared to meet the commissioners in fair contest, wearing out +their patience and thwarting their plans by every available device. In +the meantime, the four men were completing the conquest and pacification +of New Netherland, and rearranging the boundary difficulties with +Connecticut. Then Maverick and Cartwright passed on to Boston, where +they were joined in February by Carr, Nicolls remaining in New York. The +three men, making Boston their headquarters, visited Plymouth, Newport, +and Hartford, where they were received, according to their account, +"with great expressions of loyalty"—a statement which, if true, shows +how successfully the colonists suppressed their deeper feelings. Having +taken the King's Province under the royal protection, and postponed for +later consideration the question of the boundary line between Rhode +Island and Connecticut, with new complaints against Massachusetts +ringing in their ears, they returned to Boston <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>to meet the defiant +magistrates. There Nicolls joined them in May.</p> + +<p>The Massachusetts mission was hopeless from the beginning. The +magistrates and general court would not admit the right of the +commissioners to interfere in any way with governmental procedure or +with the course of justice; and standing with absolute firmness on the +powers granted by the charter and pointing to the recent renewal by the +King as a full confirmation of all their privileges, they denied the +validity of the royal mission and refused to discuss the question of +jurisdiction. The commissioners said very plainly that Massachusetts had +not administered the oath of allegiance or permitted the use of the Book +of Common Prayer, as she had promised to do, and, as for the new +franchise law, they did not understand it themselves and did not believe +it would meet the royal requirements. To none of these points did the +magistrates make any sufficient reply, but, feeling convinced that +safety lay in avoiding decisions, they preferred rather to leave the +matter ambiguous than to attempt any clearing up of the points at issue.</p> + +<p>But when the commissioners took up the question of appeals and announced +their <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>determination to sit as a court of justice, the issue was more +fairly joined. The magistrates quoted the text of the charter to show +that the colony had full power over all judicial affairs, while the +commissioners cited their instructions as a sufficient warrant for their +right to hear complaints against the colony. A deadlock ensued, but in +the end the colony triumphed. After spending a month in fruitless +negotiations, the commissioners gave up the struggle, preferring to +leave the conduct of Massachusetts to be passed upon by the Crown rather +than to prolong the controversy. For the time being, the Massachusetts +men had their own way; but they had raised a serious and dangerous +question, that of their allegiance and its obligations, for, as the +commissioners said, "The King did not grant away his soveraigntie over +you when he made you a corporation. When His Majestie gave you power to +make wholesome lawes and to administer justice, he parted not with his +right of judging whether those laws are wholsom, or whether justice was +administered accordingly or no. When His Majestie gave you authoritie +over such of his subjects as lived within the limits of your +jurisdiction, he made them not your subjects nor you their supream +authority." <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>Had the magistrates been wiser men, less homebred and +provincial, and possessed of wider vision, they would have foreseen the +dangers that confronted them. But Bellingham and Leverett, the leading +representatives of the policy of no surrender, were not men gifted with +foresight, and they remained unmoved by the last threat of the +commissioners that it would be hazardous to deny the King's supremacy, +for "'tis possible that the charter which you so much idolize may be +forfeited."</p> + +<p>The magistrates were undoubtedly influenced by the character of the +commissioners and their rough and ready methods of procedure. Had all +been as honorable and upright as Nicolls, who unfortunately took but +little part in the negotiations, the outcome might have been different. +But there is reason to think otherwise. The Massachusetts leaders took +the ground that if they yielded any part they must eventually yield all, +and they wanted no interference from outside in their government. Having +ruled themselves for thirty years as they thought best, they were not +disposed to admit that the King had any rights in the colony; and they +believed that by steady resistance or by dilatory practices they could +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>stave off intervention and that, with the danger once removed, the +colony would be allowed to continue in its own course. In a measure they +were justified in their belief. The King recalled the commissioners, +and, though he wrote a letter declaring that Massachusetts had shown a +great want of duty and respect for the royal authority, he went no +further than to command the colony to send agents to England to answer +there the questions that had not been settled during the stay of the +commissioners at Boston. But the colony did not take this command +seriously and sent no agents. Nicolls, always temperate in speech, wrote +in 1666: "The grandees of Boston are too proud to be dealt with, saying +that His Majesty is well satisfied with their loyalty."</p> + +<p>The "grandees" were playing a shrewd but none too wise a game. Affairs +in England were not favorable to the pursuit of a rigorous policy at +this time. The Dutch war, the fire and epidemic in London, and the +consequent suspension of all outside activities, had thrown governmental +business into disorder and confusion. Clarendon, whose influence was +waning, was soon to lose his post as Chancellor. The negotiations which +ended <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>in the treaty of Breda, and the threatening policy of Louis XIV, +now beginning to take a form ominous to the Protestant states of Europe, +distracted men's minds at home, and the Massachusetts problem was for +the moment lost sight of in the presence of the larger issues. The +colony returned to its former position of independence and soon +reasserted its former authority over New Hampshire and Maine. To all +appearances the failure of the royal commissioners was complete, but +appearances were deceptive. The issue lay not merely between a Stuart +King and a colony seeking to preserve its liberties; it was part of the +larger and more fundamental issue of the place of a colony in England's +newly developed policy of colonial subordination and control. Neither +was Massachusetts a persecuted democracy. No modern democratic state +would ever vest such powers in the hands of its magistrates and clergy, +nor would any modern people accept such oppressive and unjust +legislation as characterized these early New England communities. In any +case, the contemptuous attitude of Massachusetts and her disregard of +the royal commands were not forgotten; and when, a few years later, the +authorities in England took up in earnest the enforcement <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>of the new +colonial policy as defined by acts of Parliament and royal orders and +proclamations, the colony of Massachusetts Bay was the first to feel the +weight of the royal displeasure.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h2>WARS WITH THE INDIANS</h2> +<br /> + +<p>The period from 1660 to 1675, a time of readjustment in the affairs of +the New England colonies, was characterized by widespread excitement and +deep concern on the part of the colonies everywhere. Scarcely a section +of the territory from Maine to the frontier of New York and the towns of +Long Island but felt the strain of impending change in its political +status. The winning of the charters and the capture of New Amsterdam +were momentous events in the lives of the colonists of Rhode Island and +Connecticut; while the agitation for the annexation of New Haven and the +acrimonious debate that accompanied it must have stirred profoundly the +towns of that colony and have led to local controversies, rivalries, and +contentions that kept the inhabitants in a continual state of +perturbation. On Long Island before 1664, the uncertainty as to +jurisdiction, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>due to grave doubts as to the meaning of Connecticut's +charter, aroused the towns from Easthampton and Southold on the east to +Flushing and Gravesend on the west, and divided the people into +discordant and clashing groups. Captain John Scott, already mentioned, +an adventurer and soldier of fortune who at one time or another seems to +have made trouble in nearly every part of the British world, appeared at +this time in Long Island and, denying Connecticut's title to the +territory, proclaimed the King. In January, 1664, he established a +government at Setauket, with himself as president. This event set the +towns in an uproar; Captain Young from Southold, upholding Connecticut's +claim, came "with a trumpet" to Hempstead; New Haven men crossed Long +Island Sound to support Scott's cause; and at last Connecticut herself +sent over officers to seize the insurgents. Though Scott said he would +"sacrifice his heart's blood upon the ground" before he would yield, he +was taken and carried in chains to Hartford.</p> + +<p>Both Plymouth and Massachusetts sent letters protesting against the +treatment of Scott, and the heat engendered among the members of the New +England Confederation was intensified by the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>controversy over New Haven +and the "uncomfortable debates" regarding the title to the Narragansett +territory. Massachusetts wrote to Connecticut in 1662, "We cannot a +little wonder at your proceeding so suddenly to extend your authority to +the trouble of your friends and confederates"; to which Connecticut +replied, hoping that Massachusetts would stop laying further temptations +before "our subjects at Mistack of disobedience to this government." The +matter was debated for many years, and it was not until 1672 that +Massachusetts recognized Connecticut's title under the charter and +yielded, not because it thought the claim just but because "it was +judged by us more dangerous to the common cause of New England to oppose +than by our forbearance and yielding to endeavour to prevent a mischief +to us both."</p> + +<p>In Rhode Island conditions were equally unsettled, for the inhabitants +of the border towns did not know certainly in what colony they were +situated or what authority to recognize; and though these doubts +affected but little the daily life of the farmer, they did affect the +title to his lands and the payment of his taxes, and threw suspicion +upon all legal processes and transactions. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>situation was even more +disturbed in the regions north of Massachusetts, where the status of +Maine and New Hampshire was undecided and where the coming of the royal +commissioners only served to throw the inhabitants into a new ferment. +The claims of Mason and Gorges were revived by their descendants, and +the King peremptorily ordered Massachusetts to surrender the provinces. +Agents of Gorges appeared in the territory and demanded an +acknowledgment of their authority; the commissioners themselves +attempted to organize a government and to exercise jurisdiction there in +the King's name; but in 1668 Massachusetts, denying all other +pretensions, adopted a resolution asserting her full right of control, +and, sending commissioners with a military escort to York, resumed +jurisdiction of the province. The inhabitants did not know what to do. +Some upheld the Gorges agents and the commissioners; others adhered to +Massachusetts. Even in Massachusetts itself there were grave differences +of opinion, for the younger generation did not always follow the old +magistrates, and the people of Boston were developing views both of +government and of the proper relations toward England that were at +variance with those <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>of the more conservative country towns and +districts.</p> + +<p>The larger disputes between the colonies were frequently accompanied +with lesser disputes between the towns over their boundaries; and both +at this time and for years afterwards there was scarcely an important +settlement in New England that did not have some trouble with its +neighbor. In 1666 Stamford and Greenwich came to blows over their +dividing line, and in 1672 men from New London and Lyme attempted to mow +the same piece of meadow and had a pitched battle with clubs and +scythes. Not many years later the inhabitants of Windsor and Enfield +"were so fiercely engag'd" over a disputed strip of land, reported an +eye-witness, that a hundred men met to decide this controversy by force, +"a resolute combat" ensuing between them "in which many blows were given +to the exasperating each party, so that the lives and limbs of his +Majesties subjects were endangered thereby."</p> + +<p>Though clubs and scythes and fists are dangerous weapons enough, the +only real fighting in which the colonists engaged was with the Indians +and with weapons consisting of pikes and muskets. Indian attacks were an +ever-present danger, for <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>the stretches of unoccupied land between the +colonies were the hunting-grounds of the Narragansetts of eastern +Connecticut and western Rhode Island, the Pequots of Connecticut, the +Wampanoags of Plymouth and its neighborhood, the Pennacooks of New +Hampshire, and the Abenaki tribes of Maine. Plague and starvation had so +far weakened the coast Indians before the arrival of the first colonists +that the new settlements had been but little disturbed; but, +unfortunately, as the first comers pushed into the interior, founding +new plantations, felling trees, and clearing the soil, and the trappers +and traders invaded the Indian hunting-grounds, carrying with them +firearms and liquor, the Indian menace became serious.</p> + +<p>To meet the Indian peril, all the colonies made provision for a supply +of arms and for the drilling of the citizen body in militia companies or +train-bands. But in equipment, discipline, and morale the fighting force +of New England was very imperfect. The troops had no uniforms; there was +a very inadequate commissariat; and alarums, whether by beacon, +drum-beat, or discharge of guns, were slow and unreliable. Weapons were +crude, and the method of handling them was exceedingly awkward and +cumbersome. The pike <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>was early abandoned and the matchlock soon gave +way to the flintlock—both heavy and unwieldy instruments of war—and +carbines and pistols were also used. Cavalry or mounted infantry, though +expensive because of horse and outfit, were introduced whenever +possible. In 1675, Plymouth had fourteen companies of infantry and +cavalry; Massachusetts had six regiments, including the Ancient and +Honorable Artillery; and Maine and New Hampshire had one each. +Connecticut had four train-bands in 1662 and nine in 1668, a troop of +dragoneers, and a troop of horse, but no regiments until the next +century. For coast defense there were forts, very inadequately supplied +with ordnance, of which that on Castle Island in Boston harbor was the +most conspicuous, and, for the frontier, there were garrison-houses and +stockades.</p> + +<p>Though Massachusetts had twice put herself in readiness to repel +attempts at coercion from England, and though both Connecticut and New +Haven seemed on several occasions in danger from the Dutch, particularly +after the recapture of New Amsterdam in 1673, New England's chief danger +was always from the Indians. Both French and Dutch were believed to be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>instrumental in inciting Indian warfare, one along the southwestern +border, the other at various points in the north, notably in New +Hampshire and Maine. But, except for occasional Indian forays and for +house-burnings and scalpings in the more remote districts, there were +only two serious wars in the seventeenth century—that against the +Pequots in 1637 and the great War of King Philip in 1675-1676.</p> + +<p>The Pequot War, which was carried on by Connecticut with a few men from +Massachusetts and a number of Mohegan allies, ended in the complete +overthrow of the Pequot nation and the extermination of nearly all its +fighting force. It began in June, 1637, with the successful attack by +Captain John Mason on the Pequot fort near Groton, and was brought to an +end by the battle of Fairfield Swamp, July 13, where the surviving +Pequots made their last stand. Sassacus, the Pequot chieftain, was +murdered by the Mohawks, among whom he had sought refuge; and during the +year that followed wandering members of the tribe, whenever found, were +slain by their enemies, the Mohegans and Narragansetts. An entire Indian +people was wiped out of existence, an achievement difficult to justify +on any ground save <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>that of the extreme necessity of either slaying or +being slain. The relentless pursuit of the scattered and dispirited +remnants of these tribes admits of little defense.</p> + +<p>The overthrow of the Pequots opened to settlement the region from +Saybrook to Mystic and led to a treaty in 1638 with the Mohegans and +Narragansetts, according to which harmony was to prevail and peace was +to reign. But the outcome of this impracticable treaty was a five years' +struggle between the Mohegan chieftain, Uncas, actively allied with the +colony of Connecticut, and Miantonomo, sachem of the Narragansetts, +which involved Connecticut in a tortuous and often dishonorable policy +of attempting to divide the Indians in order to rule them—a policy +which led to many embarrassing negotiations and bloody conflicts and +ended in the murder of Miantonomo in 1643, by the Mohegans, at the +instigation of the commissioners of the United Colonies. This alliance +between Uncas and the colony lasted for more than forty years. It placed +upon Connecticut the burden of supporting a treacherous and grasping +Indian chief; it created a great deal of confusion in land titles in the +eastern part of the colony because of indiscriminate Indian grants; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>it +started the famous Mohegan controversy which agitated the colony and +England also, and was not finally settled until 1773, one hundred and +thirty years later; and it was, in part at least, a cause of King +Philip's War, because of the colony's support of the Mohegans against +their traditional enemies, the Narragansetts and Niantics.</p> + +<p>The presence of the Indians in and near the colonies rendered frequent +dealings with them a matter of necessity. The English settlers generally +purchased their lands from the Indians, paying in such goods or +implements or trinkets as satisfied savage need and desire. In so doing +they acquired, as they supposed, a clear title of ownership, though +there can be no doubt that what the Indian thought he sold was not the +actual soil but only the right to occupy the land in common with +himself. As the years wore on, the problems of reservations, trade, and +the sale of firearms and liquor engaged the attention of the authorities +and led to the passage of many laws. The conversion of the Indians to +Christianity became the object of many pious efforts, and in +Massachusetts and Plymouth resulted in communities of "Praying Indians," +estimated in 1675 <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>at about four thousand individuals. In contact with +the white man the Indian tended to deteriorate. He frequented the +settlements often to the annoyance of the men and the dread of the women +and children; he got into debt, was incurably slothful and idle, and +developed an uncontrollable desire to drink and steal. Where the Indians +were not a menace, they were a nuisance, and the colonies passed many +laws concerning the Indians which were designed to meet the one +condition as well as the other.</p> + +<p>But the real danger to New England came not from those Indians who +occupied reservations and hung around the settlements, but from those +who, with savage spirit unbroken, were slowly being driven from their +hunting-grounds and nurtured an implacable hatred against the aggressive +and relentless pioneers. The New Englanders numbered at this time some +80,000 individuals, with an adult and fighting population of perhaps +16,000; while the number of the Indians altogether may have reached as +high as 12,000, with the Narragansetts, the strongest of all, mustering +4,000. The final struggle for possession of the main part of central and +southern New England territory came in 1675, in what is known as King +Philip's War.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>Scarcely had the fears aroused by the arrival of a Dutch fleet at New +York and the capture of that city been allayed by the peace of +Westminster in 1674, when rumors of Indian unrest began to spread +through the settlements, and the dread of Indian outbreaks began to +arouse new apprehensions in the hearts of the people. Hitherto no Indian +chieftain had proved himself a born leader of his people. Neither +Sessaquem, Sassacus, Pumham, Uncas, nor Miantonomo had been able to +quiet tribal jealousies and draw to his standard against the English +others than his own immediate followers. But now appeared a sachem who +was the equal of any in hatred of the white man and the superior of all +in generalship, who was gifted both with the power of appeal to the +younger Indians and with the finesse required to rouse other chieftains +to a war of vengeance. Philip, or Metacom, was the second son of old +Massasoit, the longtime friend of the English, and, upon the death of +his elder brother Alexander in 1662, became the head of the Wampanoags, +with his seat at Mount Hope, a promontory extending into Narragansett +Bay. Believing that his people had been wronged by the English, +particularly by those of Plymouth colony, and foreseeing that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>he and +his people were to be driven step by step westward into narrower and +more restricted quarters, he began to plot a great campaign of +extermination. On June 24, 1675, a body of Indians fell on the town of +Swansea, on the eastern side of Narragansett Bay, slew nine of the +inhabitants and wounded seven others. Though assistance was sent from +Massachusetts and Plymouth, the burning and massacring continued, +extending to Rehoboth, Taunton, and towns northward. The settlements +were isolated before the troops could reach them, their inhabitants were +slain, cabins were burned, and prisoners were carried into captivity. +The Rhode Islanders fled to the islands; elsewhere settlers gathered in +garrisoned forts and blockhouses and in new forts hastily erected.</p> + +<p>Though the authorities of Connecticut and Massachusetts sent agents +among the Nipmucks hoping to prevent their alliance with Philip, the +effort failed, and by August the tribes on the upper Connecticut had +joined the movement and now began a determined and systematic +destruction of the settlements in central New England. The famous +massacre and burning of Deerfield took place on September 12, the +surviving inhabitants fleeing to Hatfield, leaving their town in ruins. +Hatfield, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>Northfield, Springfield, and Westfield were attacked in turn, +and though the defense was sometimes successful, more often the +defenders were ambushed and killed. So widespread was the uprising that +during the autumn, a desultory warfare was carried on as far north as +Falmouth, Brunswick, and Casco Bay, where at least fifty Englishmen were +slain by members of the Saco and Androscoggin tribes.</p> + +<p>As yet the Narragansetts, bravest of all the southern New England +Indians, whose chief was Canonchet, son of the murdered Miantonomo, had +taken no part in the war. But as rumor spread that they had welcomed +Philip and listened to his appeals and were probably planning to join in +the murderous fray, war was declared against them on November 2, 1675, +and a force of a thousand men and horse from Plymouth and Massachusetts +was drawn up on Dedham plain, under the command of General Josiah +Winslow and Captain Benjamin Church. On December 19, the greater part of +this force, aided by troops from Connecticut, fell on the Narragansetts +in their swamp fort, south of the present town of Kingston, and after a +fierce and bloody fight completely routed them, though at a heavy loss. +The tribe <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>was driven from its own territory, and Canonchet fled to the +Connecticut River, where he established a rallying point for new forays. +His followers allied themselves with the Wampanoags and Nipmucks and +began a new series of massacres. In February and March, 1676, they fell +upon Lancaster, where they carried off Mrs. Rowlandson, who has left us +a narrative of her captivity; upon Medfield, where fifty houses were +burned; and upon Weymouth and Marlborough, which were raided and in part +destroyed. Repeated assaults in other quarters kept the western frontier +of Massachusetts in a frightful condition of terror; settlers were +ambushed and scalped, others were tortured, and many were carried into +captivity. Even the Pennacooks of southern New Hampshire were roused to +action, though their share in the war was small. Here a hundred warriors +sacked a village; there Indians skulking along trails and on the +outskirts of towns cut off individuals and groups of individuals, +shooting, scalping, and burning them. No one was safe. Again the +commissioners of the United Colonies met in council and ordered a more +vigorous prosecution of the campaign. More troops were levied and +garrison posts fortified, but the first results were disastrous. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>Captain Pierce of Scituate was ambushed at Blackstone's River near +Rehoboth, and his command was completely wiped out. Sudbury was +destroyed in April, and a relieving force escaped only with heavy loss.</p> + +<p>But the strength of the Indians was waning. Canonchet, run to earth near +the Pawtuxet River, was captured and sentenced to death, and his +execution was entrusted to Oneko, the son of Uncas. His head was cut off +and carried to Hartford, and his body was committed to the flames. The +loss of Canonchet was a bitter blow to Philip, who now saw his allies +falling away and himself deserted by all but a few faithful followers. +The campaign—at last well in hand and directed by that prince of Indian +fighters, Benjamin Church, now commissioned a colonel by General +Winslow—was approaching an end. Using friendly savages as scouts, +Colonel Church gradually located and captured stray bodies of Indians +and brought them as captives to Plymouth. Finally, coming on the trail +of Philip himself, he first intercepted his followers, and then, +relentlessly pursuing the fleeing chieftain from one point to another, +tracked him to his lair at his old stronghold, Mount Hope. There the +great chief who had terrorized New <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>England for nearly a year was slain +by one of his own race. His ornaments and treasure were seized by the +soldiers, and his crown, gorget, and two belts, all of gold and silver +of Indian make, were sent as a present to Charles II. With the death of +Philip, August 12, 1676, the whole movement collapsed, and the remaining +hostile Indians, dispersed and in flight, with their leaders gone and +starvation threatening, sought refuge among the northern tribes. Thus +the last effort to check the English advance in southern and central New +England was brought to an end. From this time on, the Indians in +Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut lingered for a century and +a half, a steadily dwindling remnant, wards of the governments and +occupants of reservations, until they ceased to exist as a separate +people.</p> + +<p>The havoc wrought by the war was a great blow to the prosperity of New +England. Probably more than six hundred whites had been slain or +captured, and hundreds of houses and a score of villages had been burnt +or pillaged; crops had been destroyed, cattle driven off, and +agriculture in many quarters brought to a complete standstill. In 1676, +there was little leisure to sow and less to reap. Provisions became +increasingly scarce; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>none could be had near at hand, for none of the +colonies had a surplus; and attempts to obtain them from a distance +proved unavailing. Staples for trade with the West Indies decreased; the +fur trade was curtailed; and fishing was hampered for want of men. To +add to the confusion, a plague vexed the colonies. It seemed to all as +if the hand of God lay heavily upon New England, and days of humiliation +and prayer were appointed to assuage the wrath of the Almighty. A +Massachusetts act of November, 1675, ascribed the war to the judgment of +God upon the colony for its sins, among which were included an excess of +apparel, the wearing of long hair, and the rudeness of worship, all +marks of an apostasy from the Lord "with a great backsliding." The +Puritan fear of divine displeasure adds a relieving note to the general +despondency and must have stiffened the determination of the orthodox +leaders to resist to the utmost all attempts to liberalize the life of +the colony or to alter its character as a religious state patterned +after the divine plan. King Philip's War probably strengthened the +position of the conservative element in Massachusetts.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h2>THE BAY COLONY DISCIPLINED</h2> +<br /> + +<p>Except for the northern frontier, where Indian forays and atrocities +continued for many years longer, the last great struggle with the +Indians in New England was finished. The next danger came from a +different quarter and in a different form. In June, 1676, two months +before the Indian War was over, one Edward Randolph arrived from England +to make an inquiry into the affairs of Massachusetts. That colony had +scarcely weathered the ever-threatening peril of the New World when it +was called upon to face an attack from the Old which endangered the +continuance of those precious privileges for which the magistrates at +Boston had contended with a vigor shrewd rather than wise. As we have +seen, the position that Massachusetts assumed as a colony largely +independent of British control was incompatible with England's colonial +and commercial <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>policy, a position that was certain to be called in +question as soon as the authorities at home were able to give serious +attention to it.</p> + +<p>This opportunity did not arrive until, in 1674, the plantations council +was dismissed, and colonial business was handed over to the Privy +Council and placed in the hands of a standing committee of that body +known as the Lords of Trade. This committee, which was more dignified +and authoritative than had been the old council, at once assumed a +firmer tone toward the colonies. It caused a proclamation to be issued +announcing the royal determination to enforce the acts of trade, and it +made the King's will known in America by means of new instructions to +the royal governors there. It stated clearly the purpose of the +Government to bring the colonies into a position of greater dependence +on the Crown in the interest of the trade and revenues of the kingdom, +and it showed no inclination to grant Massachusetts, with all the +charges and complaints against her, preferential treatment. At the same +time it was not disposed to pay much attention to religious differences, +minor misdemeanors, and neighborhood quarrels, if only the colony would +conform to British policy in all that concerned the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>royal prerogative +and the authority of Parliament; but it made it perfectly plain that +continued infractions of parliamentary acts and royal commands would not +be condoned.</p> + +<p>Had the leaders of Massachusetts been more complaisant and less given to +a policy of evasion and delay, it is not unlikely that the colony would +have been allowed to retain its privileges; and had they been less +absorbed in themselves and more observant of the world outside, they +might have seen the changes that were coming over the temper and purpose +of those in England who were shaping the relations between England and +her colonies. But Massachusetts had grown provincial since the +Restoration, looking backward rather than forward and moving in very +narrow channels of thought and life, so that she was wrapped up in +matters of purely local interest. The clergy were struggling to maintain +their control in colony and college, while the deputies in the +legislature, representing in the main the conservative country +districts, were upholding the clerical party against some of the +magistrates, who represented the town of Boston and were inclined to +take a more liberal and progressive view of the matter. These country +members saw in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>England's attitude only the desire of a despotic Stuart +régime to suppress the liberties of a Puritan commonwealth, and failed +to see that the investigation into the affairs of Massachusetts was but +an effort to establish a colonial policy fundamental to England's +welfare and power.</p> + +<p>It cannot be said that, from 1660 to 1684, the Government in England +displayed undue animus toward the colony. It allowed Massachusetts to do +a great many things that in law she had no right to do, such as coining +money and issuing a charter to Harvard College. Its demand for a +broadening of the Massachusetts franchise was in the interest of liberty +and not against it, and the insistence on freedom of worship deserves no +reproof. Its condemnation of many of the Massachusetts laws as +oppressive and unjust shows that in some respects legal opinion in +England at this time was more advanced than that in Massachusetts and +Connecticut, and, even at its worst, English law did not go to the +Mosaic code for its precedents. There is a distinct note of cruelty and +oppression in some of the Massachusetts and Connecticut legislation at +this time, and many of the Puritan measures were harsh and arbitrary and +liable to abuse. Even the Government's support <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>of the Mason and Gorges +claims was not dishonorable, and while it may have been unwise and, in +equity, unjust, it was not without excuse. The Government listened to +complaints of persecution, as any sovereign power is required to do, and +was naturally impressed with the weightiness of some of the charges; yet +so little inclined was it to tamper with Massachusetts that the colony +might have succeeded, for a longer time at least, in maintaining the +integrity of its control, had not the question of colonial trade brought +matters to a crisis.</p> + +<p>Under Charles II, finances presented a difficult problem, for Parliament +in controlling appropriations took no responsibility for the collection +of money granted. To meet the deficit which during the earlier years of +the reign was ever present, efforts were made to increase the revenue +from customs, and so successful was this policy that, after 1675, these +customs revenues came to be looked upon as among England's greatest +sources of wealth. Now, inasmuch as trade with the colonies was one of +the largest factors contributing to this result, England, as she could +not afford to maintain colonies that would do nothing to aid her, came +more and more to value her <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>overseas possessions for their commercial +importance, classing as valuable assets those that advanced her +prosperity, and treating as insubordinate those that disregarded the +acts of trade and thwarted her policy. The independence that +Massachusetts claimed was diametrically opposed to the growing English +notion that a colony should be subordinate and dependent, should obey +the acts of trade and navigation, and should recognize the authority of +the Crown; and, from what they heard of the temper of New England, +English statesmen suspected that Massachusetts was doing none of these +things.</p> + +<p>Edward Randolph, who was sent over in 1676 to make inquiry into the +affairs of the colony, was a native of Canterbury, a former student of +Gray's Inn, and at this time forty-three years old. The fact that he was +connected by marriage with the Mason family accounts for his interest in +the efforts of Gorges and Mason to break the hold of Massachusetts upon +New Hampshire and Maine. He was a personal acquaintance of Sir Robert +Southwell, the diplomatist, and of Southwell's intimate friend, William +Blathwayt, an influential English official interested in the colonies. +He had been in the employ of the government, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>now, probably at the +instance of Southwell and Blathwayt, he was selected to fill the +difficult and thankless post of commissioner to New England. That he had +ability and courage no one can doubt, and that he pursued his course +with a tenacity that would have won commendation in other and less +controversial fields, his career shows. His devotion to the interests of +the Crown and his loyalty to the Church of England steeled him against +the almost incessant attacks and rebuffs that he was called upon to +endure, and his entire inability to see any other cause than his own +saved him from the discouragements that must certainly have broken a man +more sensitive than himself. He exhibited at times some of the obduracy +of the zealot and martyr; at others he displayed unexpected good sense +in protesting against extremes of action that he thought unjust or +unwise. He was honest and indefatigable in the pursuit of what he +believed to be his duty, and was ill-requited for his labors, but he was +a persistent fault-finder and his letters are masterpieces of complaint. +He was thrice married, his second wife dying at the height of his +troubles in Massachusetts, and he had five children, all daughters, one +of whom proved a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>grievous disappointment to him. Though he held many +offices, he was always in debt and died poor, at the age of seventy, in +Accomac County in Virginia. He was far from being the best man to send +to New England, but his natural obstinacy and his determination to +overcome difficulties were intensified by the discourteous and tactless +manner in which he was received by the Puritans. He had no sympathy with +the efforts of the "old faction" to save the colony, and the people of +Massachusetts responded with a bitter and lasting hate.</p> + +<p>Randolph landed at Boston on June 10, and remained in the colony until +the end of July, about six weeks altogether. He visited Plymouth, New +Hampshire, and Maine, interviewed men in authority and all sorts of +other people, and he came to the conclusion that the majority of the +inhabitants were discontented with the Boston régime. The magistrates +ignored his presence as much as they dared, refusing to recognize him as +anything but an enemy representing the Mason and Gorges claims, and +insisting that though the King might enlarge their privileges he could +not abridge them. Randolph, thoroughly nettled, returned to England +prepared to do his worst. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>He sent several reports to the King and +constantly appeared before the Privy Council and the Lords of Trade, +each time doing all the damage that he could. He had undoubtedly got +much of his information from prejudiced sources or from hearsay, and he +was as eager to retail it as had been the Massachusetts authorities to +blast the moral character of the King's commissioners. He denounced the +"old faction" as cunning, deceptive, overbearing, and disloyal; he +called the clergy proud, ignorant, imperious, and inclined to sedition; +and he denounced those in authority as "inconsiderable mechanicks, +packed by the prevailing party of the factious ministry, with a +fellow-feeling both in the command and the profits." His picture of the +colony, containing much that was near the truth, was at the same time +distorted, out of proportion, and in parts almost a caricature. His most +effective reports were those which laid stress upon the failure of the +colony to obey the navigation acts and the royal commands, and upon its +use of the word "Commonwealth," as if the corporation were already an +independent state. These reports were accepted by the English +authorities as correct statements of fact, for they seemed to be +confirmed by the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>evidence of London merchants and by at least one West +Indian governor, who knew the colony and had no personal interests at +stake.</p> + +<p>In October, 1676, Massachusetts sent over two of its leading men, +William Stoughton, a magistrate, and Peter Bulkeley, speaker of the +House of Representatives, to ward off, if possible, the attack on the +colony, but with characteristic short-sightedness gave them no authority +to discuss officially anything but the Mason and Gorges claims. For more +than two years these men, representative rather of the moderate party +than of the "old faction" in the colony, remained in England, frequently +appearing before the Lords of Trade, where they were subjected to a +searching examination at the hands of a not very sympathetic body of +men. The meetings in the Council Chamber in Whitehall, where the +committee sat, were occasions full of interest and excitement. At one of +them, on April 8, 1677, Stoughton, Bulkeley, Randolph, Mason, and Sir +Edmund Andros, Governor of New York for the Duke, were all present, and +the agents must have found the situation awkward and embarrassing. The +committee expressed its resentment at the colony's habit of disobedience +and evasion, and showed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>no inclination to adopt a moderate policy, +advocating, on the contrary, investigation "from the whole root." The +position of a Massachusetts agent in England during these trying years +was most undesirable, and so many difficulties and discouragements did +Stoughton and Bulkeley encounter that several times they asked for +permission to return home and once, at least, had to go to the country +for their health. But whatever were the troubles of an agent in England, +they were trifling as compared with those which confronted him at home +when he failed, as he almost invariably did fail, to obtain all that the +colony expected. Cotton Mather tells us that Norton died in 1663 of +melancholy and chagrin, and that for forty years there was not one agent +but met "with some very froward entertainment among his countrymen." No +wonder it was always difficult to find men who were willing to go.</p> + +<p>At first the Lords of Trade favored the sending of a supplemental +charter and the extending of a pardon to the colony; but as the evidence +against Massachusetts accumulated, they began to consider the revision +of the laws, the appointment of a collector of customs and a royal +governor, and even the annulment of the charter itself. In <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>short, they +determined to bring Massachusetts "under a more palpable declaration of +obedience to his Majesty." The general court of the colony, although it +had said that "any breach in the wall would endanger the whole," was at +last frightened by the news from England and passed an order in October, +1677, that the laws of trade must be strictly observed, and later +magistrates and deputies alike took the oath of allegiance prescribed by +the Crown, promising to drop the word "Commonwealth" for the future. The +members of the assembly wrote an amazing letter, pietistic and cringing, +in which they prostrated themselves before the King, asked to be +numbered among his "poore yet humble and loyal subjects," and begged for +a renewal of all their privileges. At best such a letter could have done +little in England to increase respect for the colony, but any good +results expected from it were completely destroyed by the serious +blunder which the colony made at this time in purchasing from the Gorges +claimants the title to the province of Maine, which with New Hampshire +had recently been declared by the chief justices of the King's Bench and +Common Pleas to lie outside of the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. This +attempt to obtain, without the royal <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>consent, a territory which the +legal advisers of the Crown had decided Massachusetts could not have, +only strengthened the determination of the authorities in England to +bring the colony into the King's hand by the appointment of a royal +governor. For the moment, however, the uprising of Bacon in Virginia and +the Popish Plot in England so distracted the Government that it was +obliged to slight or to postpone much of its business. It did succeed in +settling the perplexing question of New Hampshire, for, having obtained +from Mason a renunciation of all his claims to the Government, though +leaving him with full title to the soil, it organized that territory as +a colony under the control of the Crown.</p> + +<p>With these matters out of the way or less exigent, the Lords of Trade +returned to the affairs of New England. They wished, before proceeding +to extremes, to give Massachusetts another chance to be heard; so, in +dismissing the agents in the autumn of 1679, they instructed the colony +to send over within six months others fully prepared "to answer the +misdemeanors imputed against them." They also decided to send Randolph +back as collector and surveyor of customs, with letters to all the New +England colonies, ordering them to enforce <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>the acts of trade, and +another to Massachusetts requiring that she provide a minister for those +in Boston who wished an Anglican church. Randolph, who left for New +England for the second time, in December, 1679, has the distinction of +being the first royal official appointed for any of the northern +colonies. Almost his first task was to settle the province of New +Hampshire under royal authority, with a government consisting of a +president, a council, and an assembly. Thus British control in New +England was making progress, and the worst fears of the "old faction" in +Massachusetts were being realized.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to understand the attitude of Massachusetts. Her leaders +probably thought that with the settlement of the Mason and Gorges claims +the most serious source of trouble with England was disposed of. They +believed, honestly enough, though the wish was father to the thought, +that the colony lay beyond the reach of Parliament and that the laws of +England were bounded by the four seas and did not reach America. Hence +they deemed the navigation acts an invasion of their liberties and could +not bring themselves to obey them. As to England's new colonial policy, +it is doubtful if they grasped it at all, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>or would have acknowledged it +as applicable to themselves, even if they had understood it. The +experiences and reports of their agents in England seem to have taught +them nothing and served only to confirm their belief that a Stuart was a +tyrant and that all English authorities were natural enemies. They had +labored and suffered in the vineyard of the Lord and they wished to be +let alone to enjoy their dearly won privileges. Randolph wrote, soon +after his arrival in New England, that the colony was acting "as high as +ever," and that "it was in every one's mouth that they are not subject +to the laws of England nor were such laws in force until confirmed by +their authority." The colony neglected to send the agents demanded, +alleging expense, the dangers of the sea, the difficulty of finding any +one to accept the post, and their belief that King and council were +"taken up with matters of greater importance," until finally in +September, 1680, the King wrote an exceedingly sharp letter, calling the +excuses "insufficient pretences," and commanding that agents be sent +within three months. Strange to say the colony even then allowed a year +to elapse before complying, and again instructed those whom they sent to +agree to nothing that concerned the charter.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>Before the agents arrived in the summer of 1682, the royal patience was +exhausted. Randolph's continued complaints that he was obstructed in +every way in the performance of his duties; the act of the colony in +setting up a naval office of its own; the revival of an old law imposing +the death penalty upon any one who should "attempt the alteration or +subversion of the frame of government"; the opinion of the +Attorney-General that the colony had done quite enough to warrant the +forfeiture of its charter; and the delay in sending the agents, which +seemed a further flouting of the royal commands—all these things +brought matters to a crisis. Therefore, when finally the Massachusetts +agents reached England, they found the situation hopeless. "It is a hard +service we are engaged in," they wrote; "we stand in need of help from +Heaven." Their want of powers provoked the Lords of Trade to say that +unless they were procured, the charter would be forfeited at once. +Randolph was called back in May, 1683, to aid in the legal proceedings +which were immediately set on foot. Other charters were falling: that of +the Bermuda Company was under attack; that of the City of London was +already forfeited; and those of other <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>English boroughs were in danger. +On June 27, a writ of <i>quo warranto</i> was issued out of the Court of +King's Bench against the colony. The agents, refusing to defend the +suit, returned to New England, and the writ was given to Randolph to +serve. He reached Boston in October, but owing to delays in the colony +and a tempestuous voyage back, he was unable to return it to England +within the allotted time. The first attempt failed, but another was soon +made. By the advice of the Attorney-General, suit was brought in the +Court of Chancery by writ of <i>scire facias</i> against the company, and +upon the rendering of judgment for non-appearance the charter was +declared forfeited on October 23, 1684.</p> + +<p>Though the colony was given no opportunity to defend the suit, the +charter was legally vacated according to the forms of English law. The +colony was but a corporation, its charter but a corporation charter, and +in only one respect did it differ from other corporations, namely, its +residence in America. The methods of vacating corporate charters in +England were definite and in this case were strictly followed. Had +Massachusetts been a corporation in fact as well as in law, it is +doubtful if the question of illegality would ever have been <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>raised; but +as this particular corporation was a Puritan commonwealth, the issue was +so vital to its continuance as to lead to the charge of unjust and +illegal oppression. On moral grounds a defence of the colony is always +possible, though it is difficult to uphold the Massachusetts system. It +was certainly neither popular nor democratic, tolerant nor progressive, +and in any case it must eventually have undergone transformation from +within. The city of Boston was increasing in wealth and importance, and +trade was bringing it into ever closer contact with the outside world. +There were growing up in the colony more open-minded and progressive men +who were opposing the dominance of the country party, which found its +last governor in Leverett, its chief advocates among the clergy, and its +strength in the House of Representatives, and which wished to preserve +things as they always had been. The leaders of this conservative party, +Danforth, Nowell, Cooke, and others, struggled courageously against all +concessions, but they were bound to be beaten in the end.</p> + +<p>That the conservative members of the colony were thoroughly in earnest +and thoroughly convinced of the absolute righteousness of their +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>position, admits of no doubt. No man could speak of the loss of the +charter as a breach in the "Hedge which kept us from the Wild Beasts of +the Field," as did Cotton Mather, without expressing a fear of a Stuart, +of an Anglican, and of a Papist that was as real as the terrors of +witchcraft. To the orthodox Puritans, the preservation of their +religious doctrines and government and the maintenance of their moral +and social standards were a duty to God, and to admit change was a sin +against the divine command. But such an unyielding system could not +last; in fact, it was already giving way. Though conjecture is +difficult, it seems likely that the English interference delayed rather +than hastened the natural growth and transformation of the colony, +because it united moderates and irreconcilables against a common +enemy—the authority of the Crown.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h2>THE ANDROS RÉGIME IN NEW ENGLAND</h2> +<br /> + +<p>Without a charter Massachusetts stood bereft of her privileges and at +the mercy of the royal will. She was now a royal colony, immediately +under the control of the Crown and likely to receive a royal governor +and a royal administration, as had other royal colonies. But the actual +form that reconstruction took in New England was peculiar and rendered +the conditions there unlike those in any other royal colony in America. +The territory was enlarged by including New Hampshire, which was already +in the King's hands, Plymouth, which was at the King's mercy because it +had no charter, Maine, and the Narragansett country. Eventually there +were added Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, and the Jerseys—eight +colonies in all, a veritable British dominion beyond the seas. For its +Governor, Colonel Percy Kirke, recently returned from Tangier, was +considered, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>but Randolph, whose advice was asked, knowing that a man +like Kirke, "short-tempered, rough-spoken, and dissolute," would not +succeed, urged that his name be withdrawn. It was agreed that the +Governor should have a council, and at first the Lords of Trade +recommended a popular assembly, whenever the Governor saw fit; but in +this important particular they were overborne by the Crown. After debate +in a cabinet council, it was determined "not to subject the Governor and +council to convoke general assemblies of the people, for the purpose of +laying on taxes and regulating other matters of importance." This +unfortunate decision was a characteristic Stuart blunder for which the +Duke of York (afterwards James II), Lord Jeffreys (not yet Lord +Chancellor), and other ministers were responsible. Kirke, Jeffreys, and +the Duke of York may well have seemed to Cotton Mather "Wild Beasts of +the Field," dangerous to be entrusted with the shaping of the affairs of +a Puritan commonwealth.</p> + +<p>The death of Charles II in February, 1685, postponed action in England, +and in Massachusetts the government went on as usual, the elections +taking place and deputies meeting, though with manifest +half-heartedness. Randolph was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>able to prevent the sending of Kirke, +and finally succeeded in persuading the authorities that it would be a +good plan to set up a temporary government, while they were making up +their minds whom to appoint as a permanent governor-general of the new +dominion. He obtained a commission as President for Joseph Dudley, son +of the former Governor, an ambitious man, with little sympathy for the +old faction and friendly to the idea of broadening the life of the +colony by fostering closer relations with England. Randolph himself +received an appointment as register and secretary of the colony, and for +once in his life seemed riding to fortune on the high tide of +prosperity. In 1685, he obtained nearly £500 for his services and for +his losses up to that date; and when the following January he started on +his fifth voyage to New England, he bore with him not only the judgment +against the charter, the commission to Dudley as President, and two +writs of <i>quo warranto</i> against Connecticut and Rhode Island, but also a +sheaf of offices for himself—secretary, postmaster, collector of +customs. He was later to become deputy-auditor and surveyor of the +woods. With him went also the Reverend Robert Ratcliffe, rector of the +first Anglican church <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>set up in Boston. Just a week after the arrival +of Randolph and Ratcliffe in Boston, the old assembly met for the last +time, and on May 21, 1686, voted its adjournment with the pious hope, +destined to be unfulfilled, that it would meet again the following +October. The Massachusetts leaders seem almost to have believed in a +miraculous intervention of Providence to thwart the purposes of their +enemy.</p> + +<p>The preliminary government lasted but six months and altered the life of +the people but little. For "Governor and Company" was substituted +"President and Council," a more modish name, as some one said, but not +necessarily one that savored of despotism. But however conciliatory +Dudley might wish to be, his acceptance of a royal commission rankled in +the minds of his countrymen; and his ability, his friendly policy, his +desire to leave things pretty much as they had been, counted for nothing +because of his compact with the enemy. In the opinion of the old guard, +he had forsaken his birthright and had turned traitor to the land of his +origin. Time has modified this judgment and has shown that, however +unlovely Dudley was in personal character and however lacking he was at +all times in self-control, he was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>an able administrator, of a type +common enough in other colonies, particularly in the next century, +serving both colony and mother country alike and linking the two in a +common bond. Under him and his council Massachusetts suffered no +hardships. He confirmed all existing arrangements regarding land, taxes, +and town organization, and, knowing Massachusetts and the temper of her +people as well as he did, he took pains to write to the King that it +would be helpful to all concerned if the Government could have a +representative assembly. To grant the people a share in government +would, he believed, appease discontent on one side and help to fill an +empty treasury on the other; but nothing came of his suggestion.</p> + +<p>Throughout New England as a whole, the daily routine of life was pursued +without regard to the particular form of government established in +Boston. In Massachusetts the election of deputies stopped, but in other +respects the town meetings carried on their usual business. In other +colonies no changes whatever took place. Men tilled the soil, went to +church, gathered in town meetings, and ordered their ordinary affairs as +they had done for half a century. The seaports felt <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>the change more +than did the inland towns, for the enforcement of the navigation acts +interfered somewhat with the old channels of trade and led to the +introduction of a court of vice-admiralty which Dudley held for the +first time in July to try ships engaged in illicit trade. Over the forts +and the royal offices fluttered a new flag, bearing a St. George's cross +on a white field, with the initials J. R. and a crown embroidered in +gold in the center of the cross, that same cross which Endecott had cut +from the flag half a century before. To many the new flag was the symbol +of anti-Christ, and Cotton Mather judged it a sin to have the cross +restored; but others felt with Sewall, the diarist, who said of the fall +of the old government: "The foundations being destroyed, what can the +righteous do?"</p> + +<p>Perhaps the greatest innovation—in any case, the novelty that aroused +the largest amount of curiosity and excitement—was the service +according to the Book of Common Prayer, held at first in the library +room of the Town House, and afterwards by arrangement in the South +Church, and conducted by the Reverend Robert Ratcliffe in a surplice, +before a congregation composed not only of professed Anglicans but also +of many men of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>Boston who had never before seen the Church of England +form of worship. The Anglican rector, by his somewhat unfortunate habit +of running over the time allowance and keeping the waiting +Congregationalists from entering their own church for the enjoyment of +their own form of worship, caused almost as much discontent as did the +dancing-master of whom the ministers had complained the year before, who +set his appointments on Lecture days and declared that by one play he +could teach more divinity than Mr. Willard or the Old Testament. Other +"provoking evils" show that not all the breaches in the walls were due +to outside attacks. A list of twelve such evils was drawn up in 1675, +and the crimes which were condemned, and which were said to be committed +chiefly by the younger sort, included immodest wearing of the hair by +men, strange new fashions of dress, want of reverence at worship, +profane cursing, tippling, breaking the Sabbath, idleness, overcharges +by the merchants, and the "loose and sinful habit of riding from town to +town, men and women together, under pretence of going to lectures, but +really to drink and revel in taverns." The law forbidding the keeping of +Christmas Day had to be repealed in 1681. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>Mrs. Randolph, when attending +Mr. Willard's preaching at the South Church, was observed "to make a +curtsey" at the name of Jesus "even in prayer time"; and the colony was +threatened with "gynecandrical or that which is commonly called Mixt or +Promiscuous Dancing," and with marriage according to the form of the +Established Church. The old order was changing, but not without +producing friction and bitterness of spirit. The orthodox brethren +stigmatized Ratcliffe as "Baal's priest," and the ministers from their +pulpits denounced the Anglican prayers as "leeks, garlick, and trash." +The upholders of the covenant were convinced that already "the Wild +Beasts of the Field" were assailing the colony.</p> + +<p>Randolph journeyed on horseback twice to Rhode Island, and once to +Connecticut, serving his writs upon those colonies. Rhode Island agreed +willingly enough to surrender her charter without a suit, but the +authorities of Connecticut, knowing that the time for the return of the +writ had expired, gave no answer, debating among themselves whether it +would not be better, if they had to give in, to join New York rather +than Massachusetts. Randolph attributed their hesitation to their +dislike of Dudley, for whom he <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>had begun to entertain an intense +aversion. He charged Dudley with connivance against himself, +interference with his work, appropriation of his fees, and too great +friendliness toward the old faction in Boston. Before the provisional +government had come to an end, he was writing home that Dudley was a +"false president," conducting affairs in his private interest, a +lukewarm supporter of the Anglican church, a backslider from his +Majesty's service, turning "windmill-like to every gale." Such was +Dudley's fate in an era of transition—hated by the old faction as an +appointee of the Stuarts and by Randolph as a weak servant of the Crown. +Writing in November, Randolph longed for the coming of the real +governor, who would put a check upon the country party and bring to an +end the time-serving and trimming of a president whom he deemed no +better than a Puritan governor.</p> + +<p>The new Governor-General, who entered Boston harbor in the <i>Kingfisher</i> +on December 19, 1686, was Sir Edmund Andros, a few years before the Duke +of York's Governor for the propriety of New York. Andros at this time +was forty-nine years old; he was a soldier by training and a man of +considerable experience in positions requiring <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>executive ability. His +career had been an honorable one, and no charges involving his honesty, +loyalty, or personal conduct had ever been entered against him. When he +was in New York, he had been brought on several occasions into contact +with the Massachusetts leaders, and though their relations had never +been sympathetic, they had not been unfriendly. While in England from +1681 to 1686, he had been freely consulted regarding the best method of +dealing with the problems in America and had shown himself in full +accord with that policy of the Lords of Trade which attempted to +consolidate the northern colonies into a single government for the +execution of the acts of trade and defense against the encroachments of +the French and Indians. He was probably fully aware of the difficulties +that confronted the new experiment, but as a soldier he was ready to +obey orders. His natural disposition and military training rendered him +impatient of obstacles, and his unfamiliarity with any form of popular +government—for New York had been controlled by a governor and council +only—made extremely uncertain his success in New England, where affairs +had been managed by the easy-going, dilatory method of debate and +discussion. As a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>disciplinarian, he could not appreciate the New +Englander's fondness for disputation and argument; as a soldier, he was +certain to obey to the full the letter of his instructions; and, as an +Anglican, he was likely to favor the church and churchmen of his choice. +He was not a diplomat, nor was he gifted with the silver tongue of +oratory or the spirit of compromise. He came to New England to execute a +definite plan, and he was given no discretion as to the form of +government he was to set up. He and his advisory council were to make +the laws, levy taxes, exercise justice, and command the militia. He was +not allowed to call a popular assembly or to recognize in any way the +highly prized institutions of the colony.</p> + +<p>On December 20, Andros, his officers, and guard, clad in the brilliant +uniforms of soldiers of the British establishment, landed at Leverett's +wharf and marched through the local militia up King's Street to the Town +House, where he read his commission and administered the oaths. Except +for the royal commissioners of 1664, no British officer or soldier had +hitherto set foot on the streets of Boston. Redcoats had been sent to +New York and Virginia, but never before had they appeared in New +England, and this visible sign of British <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>authority must have seemed to +many ominous for the future.</p> + +<p>Andros's early impressions of what he saw were not flattering to the +colony. He found the people still suffering from the devastating effects +of the late war and further harassed by bad harvests, disasters at sea, +and two serious fires which had recently done much damage in the city. +He found the fortifications in bad repair, almost all the gun-carriages +unserviceable, no magazines of powder or other stores of war, no small +arms, except a few old matchlocks, and those unsizable and in poor +condition, no storehouses or accommodations for officers or soldiers, +and no adequate ramparts or redoubts.</p> + +<p>Now the work that Andros had come over to perform, and that which was +most important in his eyes, was the defense of New England against the +French. The contest between the two nations for control of the New World +had already begun. The territory between Hudson Bay and the St. Lawrence +and that between the Penobscot and the St. Croix were already in +dispute, and New Englanders had taken their part in the conflict. When +Governor of New York, Andros had become aware of the French danger, and +his successor <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>Dongan had proved himself capable of holding the Iroquois +Indians to their allegiance to the English and of extending the beaver +trade in the Mohawk Valley. But at this juncture reports kept coming in +of renewed incursions of the French, led by the Canadian nobility, into +the regions south of Lakes Erie and Ontario, and of new forts on +territory that the English claimed as their own. There was increasing +danger that the French would embroil the Indians of the Five Nations +and, by drawing them into a French alliance, threaten not only the fur +trade but the colonies themselves. The French Governor, Denonville, +declared that the design of the King his master was the conversion of +the infidels and the uniting of "all these barbarous people in the bosom +of the Church"; but Dongan, though himself a Roman Catholic, saw no +truth in this explanation and demanded that the French demolish their +forts and retire to Canada, whence they had come. Just as this quarrel +with the French threatened to arouse the Indians in northwestern New +York, so it threatened to arouse, as eventually it did arouse, the +Indians along the northern frontier of New England. To the authorities +in England and to Andros in America, this menace of French <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>aggression +was one of the dangers which the Dominion of New England was intended to +meet, and the substitution of a single civil and military head for the +slow-moving and ineffective popular assemblies was designed to make +possible an energetic military campaign.</p> + +<p>Andros had no sooner organized his council and got his government into +running order than he began to prosecute measures for improving the +defenses of the colony. He sent soldiers to Pemaquid to occupy and +strengthen the fort there, and himself began the reconstruction of the +fortifications of Boston. He turned his attention to Fort Hill at the +lower end of the town, erected a palisaded embankment with four +bastions, a house for the garrison, and a place for a battery; later he +leveled the hill on Castle Island in the harbor, and built there a +similar palisade and earthwork and barracks for the soldiers. He took a +survey of military stores, made application to England for guns and +ammunition, endeavored to put the train-bands of the colony in as good +shape as possible, and in 1688 went to Pemaquid to inspect the northern +defenses as far as the Penobscot. He kept in close touch with Governor +Dongan, and promised to send him, as rapidly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>as he could, men and money +in case of a French invasion.</p> + +<p>To make his work more effective he took steps to bring Connecticut +immediately under his control. Rhode Island had already submitted and +had sent its members to sit with the council at Boston. But Connecticut +had avoided giving a direct answer, although a third writ of <i>quo +warranto</i> had been served upon her, on December 28, 1686. Consequently +Andros wrote to the recalcitrant colony, saying that he had been +instructed to receive the surrender of the charter. To this letter, the +Governor and magistrates of Connecticut replied that they preferred to +remain as they were, but that, if annexation was to be their lot, they +would be willing to join with Massachusetts, their old neighbor and +friend, rather than with New York. Dongan, perplexed by the heavy +expenses involved in the military defense of his colony and wishing to +have the use of additional revenues, had hoped that he might persuade +the Connecticut Government to come under the control of New York, but +Connecticut preferred Massachusetts and had stated this preference in +her letter. Andros and the Lords of Trade deemed the reply favorable, +although in fact it was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>ingeniously noncommittal, and they took steps +to complete the annexation.</p> + +<p>On receiving a special letter of instructions from the King, Andros set +out in person for Hartford, accompanied by a number of gentlemen, two +trumpeters, and a guard of fifteen or twenty redcoats, "with small guns +and short lances in the tops of them." He journeyed probably by way of +Norwich, crossing the Connecticut River at Wethersfield, where he was +met by a troop of sixty cavalry and escorted to Hartford. There, on +October 31, 1687, the Governor, magistrates, and militia awaited his +coming. Seated in the Governor's chair in the tavern chamber where the +assembly was accustomed to meet, he caused his commission to be read, +declared the old Government dissolved, selected two of those present as +members of his council, and the next day appointed the necessary +officials for the colony. Thence he went to Fairfield, New Haven, and +New London, commissioning justices of the peace for those counties and +organizing the customs service. No resistance was made to his +proceedings, though it was generally understood in the colony that the +charter itself had been spirited away and hidden in the hollow of an oak +tree, henceforth famous as the Charter Oak.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>Connecticut and the other colonies became for the time being +administrative districts of the larger dominion. Their assemblies +everywhere ceased to meet, that of Rhode Island for five years. Courts, +provided by the act of December, 1687, were, however, generally held. +The superior court for Connecticut sat four times in 1688 and the county +courts, quarter sessions and common pleas, where appeared the newly +appointed justices of the peace, sat for Hartford County, the one ten +times and the other thirteen times during 1688 and 1689. But the +surviving records of their meetings are few and references to their work +very rare. The ordinary business of everyday life was carried on by the +towns alone, which continued their usual activities undisturbed. In +Connecticut, before Andros arrived, the assembly had taken the +precaution to issue formal patents of land to the towns and to grant the +public lands of the colony to Hartford and Windsor to prevent their +falling into the hands of the new Government. This act may at the time +have seemed a wise one, but it made a great deal of trouble afterwards.</p> + +<p>The Dominion of New England, which now extended from the Penobscot to +the borders of New York, was organized as a centralized <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>government, +with the old colonies serving as counties for administration and the +exercise of justice. But as plans for an expedition against the French +began to mature, it became evident that, if the French were to be +successfully met, a further extension of territory was necessary; so in +April, 1688, a second commission was issued to Andros, constituting him +Governor of all the territory from the St. Croix River to the fortieth +parallel, and thus adding to his domain New York and the Jerseys. +Delaware and Pennsylvania were excepted by special royal intervention. +Dongan was recalled, and Francis Nicholson was appointed +lieutenant-governor under Andros, with his residence in New York.</p> + +<p>Thus on paper Andros was Governor-General of a single territory running +from the Delaware River and the northern boundary of Pennsylvania +northward to the St. Lawrence, eastward to the St. Croix, and westward +to the Pacific. There was an attempt here to reproduce, in size and +organization, the French Dominion of Canada, but the likeness was only +in appearance. To organize and defend his territory, Andros had two +companies of British regulars, half a dozen trained officers, the local +train-bands, which were not to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>be depended on for distant service, and +a meager supply of guns and ammunition. Instead of having under him a +body of colonials, such as were the belligerent gentlemen of Canada, who +were eager to take part in raids against the English and who led their +savage followers with the craft of the redskin and the intelligence of +the white man, he had many separate groups of people. Averse to war and +accustomed to govern themselves, most of these distrusted him and wanted +to be rid of him, and desired only the restoration of their old +governments without regard to those dangers which they were fully +convinced they could meet quite as well themselves.</p> + +<p>Though Andros's authority stretched over such an enormous territory, his +actual government was confined to Massachusetts and the northern +frontier. He paid very little attention to Connecticut, Plymouth, and +Rhode Island. With but two or three exceptions, the meetings of his +council were held in Boston; the laws passed affected the people of that +colony; and the complaints against him were chiefly of Massachusetts +origin. Massachusetts was his real enemy, and it was Massachusetts that +finally overthrew him. Andros was a soldier who never forgot the main +object of his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>mission, and it is hardly surprising that he showed +neither tact nor patience in his dealings with a colony that did little +else but check and thwart the plans that had been entrusted to him for +execution. The people of Massachusetts charged him with tyranny and +despotism. Their leaders, many of whom were members of his council, +complained of the council proceedings, which, they said, were controlled +by Andros and his favorites, so that debate was curtailed, objections +were overruled, and the vote of the majority was ignored. There is much +truth in the charge, for Andros was self-willed, imperious, and +impatient of discussion. On the other hand the Puritan leaders +inordinately loved controversy and debate. If Andros was peremptory, the +Puritan councillors were obstructive.</p> + +<p>A more legitimate charge was the absence of a representative assembly +and the levying of taxes by the fiat of the council. But Andros had no +choice in this matter: he was compelled to govern according to his +instructions. Not only was his treasury usually empty, but he was always +confronted with the heavy expense of fortification and of protecting the +frontier. He does not appear to have been excessive in his demands, and +in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>case of any unusual levies, as of duties and customs, he referred +the matter to the Crown for its consent. But, as Englishmen, the people +preferred to levy their own taxes and considered any other method of +imposition as contrary to their just rights. Andros consequently had a +great deal of trouble in raising money. Even in the council, tax laws +were passed with difficulty, and the people of Essex County, notably in +town meetings at Topsfield and Ipswich, protested vigorously against the +levying of a rate without the consent of an assembly. John Wise, the +Ipswich minister, and others were arrested and thrown into jail, and on +trial Wise, according to his own report of the matter, was told by +Dudley, the chief-justice, "You have no more privileges left you than to +be sold as slaves." Wise was fined and suspended from the ministry, and +it is possible that his recollection of events was affected by the +punishment imposed.</p> + +<p>In the matter of property, land titles, quit-rents, and fees, the +colonists had warrant for their criticism and their displeasure. Many of +those whom Andros associated with himself were New Yorkers who had +served with considerable success in their former positions, but who had +all the characteristics of typical royal officials. To <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>the average +English officeholder of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, office +was considered not merely an opportunity for service but also an +opportunity for profit. Hitherto Massachusetts had been free from men of +this class, common enough elsewhere and destined to become more common +as the royal colonies increased in number. Palmer, the judge, Graham, +the attorney-general, and West, the secretary, hardly deserve the stigma +of placemen, for they possessed ability and did their duty as they saw +it, but their standards of duty were different from those held in +Massachusetts. People in England did not at this time view public office +as a public trust, which is a modern idea. Appointments under the Crown +went by purchase or favor, and, once obtained, were a source of income, +a form of investment. Massachusetts and other New England colonies were +far ahead of their time in giving shape to the principle that a public +official was the servant of those who elected him, but to such men as +Randolph and West and the whole office-holding world of this period, +such an idea was unthinkable. They served the King and for their service +were to receive their reward, and such men in America looked on fees and +grants of land as legitimate <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>perquisites. In New York they had been +able to gratify their needs, but in Massachusetts such a view of office +ran counter to the traditions and customs of the place, and attempts to +apply it caused resentment and indignation. The efforts of these men, +among whom Randolph was the prince of beggars, to obtain grants of land, +to destroy the validity of existing titles, to levy quit-rents, and to +exact heavy fees, were a menace to the prosperity of the colony; while +the further attempt to destroy the political importance of the towns by +prohibiting town meetings, except once a year, was an attack on one of +the most fundamental parts of the whole New England system. Andros +himself, though laboring to break the resisting power of the colony, +never used his office for purposes of gain.</p> + +<p>That the Massachusetts people should oppose these attempts to alter the +methods of government which had been in vogue for half a century was +inevitable, though some of the means they employed were certainly +disingenuous. Their leaders, both lay and clerical, were unsurpassed in +genius for argument and at this time outdid themselves. When Palmer was +able to show that, according to English law, their land-titles were <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>in +many cases defective, they fell back on an older title than that of the +Crown and derived their right from God, "according to his Grand Charter +to the Sons of Adam and Noah." More culpable was the revival of the +unfortunate habit of misrepresentation and calumny which had too often +characterized the treatment of the enemy in Boston, and the spreading of +rumors that Andros, who spent a part of the winter of 1688-1689 in Maine +taking measures for defense, was in league with the French and was +furnishing the Indians with arms and ammunition for use against the +English. Such reports represent perhaps merely the desperate and +half-hysterical methods of a people who did not know where to turn for +the protection of their institutions. A wiser and shrewder move was made +in the spring of 1688, when a group of prominent men determined to +appeal to England for relief and sent Increase Mather, the influential +pastor of the old North Church, across the ocean to plead their cause +with the Crown.</p> + +<p>But relief was nearer than they expected. On November 5, 1688, William +of Orange, summoned from Holland to uphold the constitutional liberties +of Protestant England, landed at Torbay, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>before the end of the year +James II had fled to France. Rumors of the projected invasion had come +to Boston as early as December, and reports of its success had reached +the ears of the people there during the March following. Finally on +April 4, John Winslow, arriving from Nevis, brought written copies of +the Prince's declaration, issued from Holland, and two weeks later, on +April 18, the leaders in the city, including many members of Andros's +council, supported by the people of Boston and its neighborhood, rose in +revolt, overthrew the government of Andros, and brought tumbling down +the whole structure of the Dominion of New England, which had never from +the beginning had any real or stable foundation. Having armed +themselves, they seized Captain George, commander of the royal frigate, +the <i>Rose</i>, lying in the harbor, as he came ashore to find out the cause +of the noise and the tumult. Then they moved on to Fort Hill, where +Andros, Randolph, and others had taken refuge. Here they defied the +soldiers, who refused to fire, captured the fort, and carried their +prisoners off to be lodged in private houses or the common jail. On the +following day, they forced the Castle Island fort in the harbor to +surrender and then imprisoned its commander; <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>they demanded of the +lieutenant in charge the delivery of the royal frigate and carried off +the sails; and as nothing would satisfy the country people who came +armed into the town in the afternoon but the closer confinement of +Andros, they removed him from the private house where he had been lodged +to the fort in the town. So excited was the populace and so serious the +danger of injury to those in confinement, that West, Palmer, and Graham +were sent to the fort on Castle Island for protection; Andros, after two +futile attempts at escape, was lodged in the same quarters, while +Randolph, as deserving of no consideration, was thrust ignominiously +into jail. On the third day a council of safety, consisting of +thirty-seven members, with the old Governor, Bradstreet, eighty-six +years old, at its head, was organized to prepare the way for the +reëstablishment of the former Government. The council summoned a +convention which, after hesitation and delay, authorized elections for a +House of Representatives and the resumption of all the old forms and +powers. On June 6, the assembly met, and to all appearances +Massachusetts was once more governing herself as if the charter had +never been annulled.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>The other colonies followed the example of Massachusetts, and miniature +revolutions took place in Plymouth, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, where +the Andros commissions offered few obstacles to the renewal of the old +forms. In a majority of cases the old officials were at hand, ready to +take up their former duties. Plymouth, having no charter, simply +returned to her old way of life, precarious and uncertain as it was; but +Rhode Island and Connecticut took the position that as their charters +had not been vacated by law, they were still valid and had not been +impaired by the brief intermission in the governments provided by them. +In this opinion the colonies were upheld by the law officers in England. +Before the middle of the summer, practically all traces of the Andros +régime had disappeared, except for the prisoners in confinement at +Boston and the bitterness which still rankled in the hearts of the +people of Massachusetts. There was no such intensity of feeling in the +other colonies, where the loss of the assembly was the main grievance, +though in Connecticut the resumption of authority by the old leaders +roused the animosity of a small but energetic faction which said that +the charter was dead and could <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>not be revived, and demanded a closer +dependence on the Crown. Henceforth, that colony had to reckon with a +hostile group within its own borders, one that deemed the institutions +and laws of the colony oppressive and unjust, and that for a time +resisted the authority of what its leaders called a "pretended" +government. During the years that followed, these men made many efforts +to break down the independence of the corporate government, and to this +extent the rule of Andros left a permanent mark upon the colony.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h2>THE END OF AN ERA</h2> +<br /> + +<p>But the future of the New England colonies was to be decided in England +and not in America. If the orthodox leaders in the colony thought that +the new King had levelling sympathies or would thrust aside the policy +already adopted by the English authorities for the defense of the +colonies and the maintenance of the acts of trade, they greatly +misjudged the situation. King William, though a Protestant, was no lover +of revolution, and, though he had himself engaged in one, he could +assert the dignity of the prerogative with as much vigor as any Stuart. +He was not a politician, but a soldier, and he was quite as likely to +see the necessity of organizing New England for defense against the +enemy as he was to listen favorably to appeals from Massachusetts for a +restoration of her charter.</p> + +<p>Increase Mather had gone to England in 1688 <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>to petition James II for +relief from the burdens of the Andros rule. His impressive personality, +his power as a ready and forcible speaker, his resourcefulness and +energy, and his acquaintance with influential men in England, both +Anglicans and Dissenters, made him the most effective agent who had ever +gone to England in the interest of the colony. He was able to bring the +grievances of Massachusetts to the personal attention of James II; and +he had received hope of a confirmation of land titles and permission to +call a general assembly, when the flight of the King brought his efforts +to naught. He then turned to the new Parliament, hoping to save the +colony by means of a rider to the bill for restoring corporations to +their ancient rights and privileges; but the dissolution of this body +ended hopeful efforts in that direction also. A year's "Sisyphean labor" +came to nothing. No remedy remained except an appeal to the new King, +and during 1690 and 1691, the reconstruction of Massachusetts became one +of the most important questions brought before the Lords of Trade. +William III and his advisers were agreed on one point: that +Massachusetts should never again be independent as she formerly had +been, but should be brought within the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>immediate control of the Crown, +through a governor of the King's appointment. They took the ground that, +with a French war already begun, it was no time to discuss colonial +rights and privileges, for the demands of the empire took precedence +over all questions of a merely local character in America.</p> + +<p>Andros was now recalled and instructions were sent to Massachusetts to +release all her prisoners. With their arrival in England in February, +1690, the debate before the committee went on in a new and livelier +fashion. Randolph renewed his complaints in every form known to his +inventive mind; Andros presented his defense and was relieved of all +charges of mal-administration; Mather and others contested every move of +their opponents and sought to obtain as favorable terms as possible for +Massachusetts; while Oakes and Cooke, sent over by the colony as its +official agents and representing the uncompromising Puritan wing, +hindered rather than helped the cause by insisting that no concessions +should be made and that Massachusetts should receive a confirmation of +all her former privileges. Mather's success was noteworthy. He could not +prevent the appointment of a royal governor or the separation of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>New +Hampshire from Massachusetts, nor could he obtain the right of coinage +for the colony; but he did secure the permanent annexation of Maine and +the Plymouth colony, and a large measure of appointive power and +legislative control for the people. In some ways most significant of +all, he obtained from the Crown the noteworthy concession that the +council of the colony should be chosen by the general assembly and not +be appointed from England, as was the case with all the other royal +colonies. Even New Hampshire eventually had the same governor as +Massachusetts, thus preserving a union for all central and northern New +England, which was destined to last for forty-four years.</p> + +<p>The charter of 1691 was a compromise between the old government which +had existed in Massachusetts since 1630 and that of a regular royal +colony, and as such it satisfied neither party. It was greeted in +Massachusetts with vehement disapproval by the old faction, who charged +Mather with flagrantly deserting his trust; and in England it was viewed +as a shameful concession to the whims of the Puritans. This yoking +together of parts of two systems, corporate and royal, was to give rise +in Massachusetts in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>succeeding century to a struggle for control +that deeply affected the course of the colony's later history.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>In all the New England colonies, the fall of Andros and the close of the +century marked the end of an era in which the dominant impulse was the +religious purpose that actuated the original colonists in coming to +America. The desire for a political isolation that would preserve the +established religious system intact was exceedingly strong in the +seventeenth century, but it ceased to be as strong in the century that +followed. The fathers gave way to the children; the settlements grew +rapidly in size, increased their output of staple products beyond what +they needed for themselves, and became vastly interested in trade and +commerce with all parts of the Atlantic world. Towns grew into larger +towns and cities; and Portsmouth, Newbury, Salem, Marblehead, Boston, +Newport, New London, Hartford, Wethersfield, Middletown, New Haven, +Fairfield, and Stamford became, in varying degrees, centers of an +increasing population and of new business interests that brought New +England into closer contact with the other colonies, with the West +Indies, and with the Old <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>World. England became involved in the long +struggle with France and not only called on the colonies to aid her in +military campaigns against the French in America, but endeavored to +bring them within the scope of her colonial empire. All these influences +tended to expand the life of New England and to force its people more +and more out of their isolation. Yet, despite this fact, the Puritan +colonies—Connecticut and Rhode Island especially—continued to lie in +large part outside the pale of British control and example, and their +inhabitants continued to accept religion and the Puritan standards of +morals as the guide of their daily lives.</p> + +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE</h2> +<br /> + +<p>The standard authority on the subjects treated in the volume is J. G. +Palfrey, <i>History of New England</i>, 5 vols. (1858-1864, 1875-1890), a +work of broad scholarship and written in a not uninteresting style, but +indiscriminating in its defense of Massachusetts and without any +understanding of the purpose and attitude of the English authorities. In +somewhat the same class are G. E. Ellis, <i>The Puritan Age</i> (1888), a dry +book but less given to special pleading, and Justin Winsor, <i>The +Memorial History of Boston</i>, 4 vols. (1880-1882), a series of essays +with elaborate notes and bibliographies, presenting in a fragmentary way +the conventional view of the period. Less frankly favorable to New +England is J. A. Doyle, <i>English Colonies in America: The Puritan +Colonies</i>, 2 vols. (1887), a work of value, but diffuse in style and +often confused in treatment, and, though written by an Englishman, +displaying little interest in the English side of the story. The +chapters in Edward Channing, <i>History of the United States</i>, vol. i +(1905), that relate to the subject, are scholarly and always +interesting; while those in H. L. Osgood, <i>The American Colonies in the +Seventeenth Century</i>, 3 vols. (1904-1907), contain the ablest accounts +we have of the institutional characteristics of the period.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>There are few good histories of the individual colonies. Those deserving +of mention are: Thomas Hutchinson, <i>History of Massachusetts Bay</i>, 2 +vols. (1764-1767); S. G. Arnold, <i>History of the State of Rhode Island</i>, +2 vols. (4th ed. 1894); Irving B. Richman, <i>Rhode Island</i> (1904, +American Commonwealth Series); B. Trumbull, <i>Complete History of +Connecticut</i>, 2 vols. (new ed. 1898); A. Johnson, <i>Connecticut</i> (2d ed. +1903, American Commonwealth Series); E. Atwater, <i>History of the Colony +of New Haven</i> (1881); W. H. Fry, <i>New Hampshire as a Royal Province</i> +(1908); W. D. Williamson, <i>History of the State of Maine</i> (1832); H. S. +Burrage, <i>The Beginnings of Colonial Maine</i> (1914). Hutchinson and +Trumbull are classics; Arnold is one of the best of the state histories; +Richman and Johnson are short and readable; Fry deals with the +institutional life of the colony; Williamson is old-fashioned and poor; +but Burrage is authoritative.</p> + +<p>Special works are: H. M. Dexter, <i>The England and Holland of the +Pilgrims</i> (1905), a very valuable and learned account; C. F. Adams, +<i>Three Episodes of Massachusetts History</i>, 2 vols. (1892), treating of +the antecedents of Boston, the Antinomian Controversy, and church and +town government, the first essay especially being indispensable; R. M. +Jones, <i>The Quakers in the American Colonies</i> (1911), the fairest +account of the Quakers in New England. W. De L. Love, <i>The Colonial +History of Hartford</i> (1914); W. E. Weeden, <i>Early Rhode Island</i> (1910); +and G. S. Kimball, <i>Providence in Colonial Times</i> (1912), are in every +way excellent, that of Love being a minutely critical analysis of the +Connecticut settlement. W. E. Weeden, <i>Social and Economic History of +New England</i>, 2 vols. (1891), is a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>valuable collection of information. +Certain chapters in Edward Eggleston's <i>Transit of Civilization</i> (1901) +treat of the mental outfit of the colonists; and M. W. Jernegan in the +<i>School Review</i>, June, 1915, deals with the beginnings of public +education in New England; G. L. Beer, <i>Origins of the British Colonial +System</i>, 1660-1688, 2 vols. (1912), and C. M. Andrews, <i>British +Committees, Commissions, and Councils of Trade and Plantations</i>, +1622-1675 (1908), concern British policy and administration in the +seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>Biographies varying greatly in value and manner of treatment follow: R. +C. Winthrop, <i>Life and Letters of John Winthrop</i>, 2 vols. (2d ed. 1869); +G. L. Walker, <i>Thomas Hooker</i> (1891, Makers of America Series); J. H. +Twichell, <i>John Winthrop</i> (1891, <i>id.</i>); A. Steele, <i>Elder Brewster</i> +(1857); L. G. Jones, <i>Samuel Gorton</i> (1896); A. Gorton, <i>The Life and +Times of Samuel Gorton</i> (1907); O. S. Straus, <i>Roger Williams</i> (1894); +M. E. Hall, <i>Roger Williams</i> (1917); T. W. Bicknell, <i>Story of Dr. John +Clarke</i> (1915); J. M. Taylor, <i>Roger Ludlow</i> (1900); J. K. Hosmer, +<i>Young Sir Harry Vane</i> (1888); <i>A Memoir of Sir John Leverett, Knt.</i> +(1856); and in <i>American Biography</i>, 10 vols., are lives of John Mason +by G. E. Ellis, Roger Williams by William Gammell, Samuel Gorton by John +M. Mackie, and Anne Hutchinson by G. E. Ellis, though none of them is +particularly satisfactory.</p> + +<p>The original sources for the period are: the <i>Acts of the Privy Council, +Colonial</i>, vols. i, ii (1908-1910); <i>The Calendar of State Papers, +Colonial</i>, vols. i-viii, 1574-1692 (1860-1901); and the colonial records +of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New +Hampshire. Collections of narratives <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>and letters may be found in the +publications of the Prince Society [C. H. Bell, <i>John Wheelwright and +his Writings</i> (1876); C. F. Adams, <i>Morton's New England Canaan</i> (1883); +C. W. Tuttle, <i>Capt. John Mason</i> (1887); J. P. Baxter, <i>Sir Ferdinando +Gorges</i>, 3 vols. (1890); C. F. Adams, <i>Antinomianism in the Colony of +Massachusetts Bay</i> (1894); R. N. Toppan, <i>Edward Randolph</i>, 7 vols. +(1898-1909, last two volumes edited by A. T. S. Goodrick)]; and in the +<i>Original Narratives of Early American History</i> [W. T. Davis, +<i>Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation</i> (1908); J. K. Hosmer, +<i>Winthrop's Journal</i>, 2 vols. (1908); J. F. Jameson, <i>Johnson's +Wonder-Working Providence of Sion's Saviour in New England</i> (1911); C. +H. Lincoln, <i>Narratives of the Indian Wars</i> (1913); G. L. Burr, +<i>Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases</i> (1914); C. M. Andrews, <i>Narratives +of the Insurrections</i> (1915)]. A sumptuous edition of Bradford's history +has been edited for the Massachusetts Historical Society, by W. C. Ford, +2 vols. (1915). S. Sewall's <i>Diary</i>, 3 vols. (Mass. Hist. Soc. <i>Coll.</i>, +5th series, 1878-1882) and Cotton Mather's <i>Magnalia</i>, 2 vols. (1853) +are important. W. Walker, <i>The Creeds and Platforms of +Congregationalism</i> (1893) is of great value. C. W. Sawyer, <i>Firearms in +American History</i> (1910), has an excellent chapter on firearms in +colonial times.</p> + +<p>The articles on <i>Boston</i>, <i>New England</i>, <i>Massachusetts</i>, <i>Plymouth</i>, +<i>Friends</i> (<i>Society of</i>), etc., in <i>The Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, 11th +Edition, should be referred to for additional bibliographies.</p> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +<br /> + +<hr /> +<br /> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + + +<ul><li>Agawam (Springfield), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> + +<li>Allerton, Isaac, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li><i>Ambrose, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Amsterdam, Separatists gather at, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + +<li>"Ancient and Honorable Artillery," <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + +<li>Andros, Sir Edmund, takes part in case against Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>Governor of Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_174">174</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li> + <li>strengthens fortifications, <a href="#Page_179">179-80</a>;</li> + <li>New York and New Jersey added to his domain, <a href="#Page_183">183-84</a>;</li> + <li>attention confined to Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_184">184-85</a>;</li> + <li>recalled, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li><i>Anne, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>Aquidneck, Island of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li><i>Arabella, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Aspinwall, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li>Augsburg, settlement of (1555), <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li>Aulnay-Charnisé, Charles de Menou, Sieur d', <a href="#Page_95">95-96</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Bartlett, Robert, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>Bay Colony, <i>see</i> Massachusetts Bay Colony</li> + +<li>Blackstone, William, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li><i>Blessing of the Bay, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Boston, Puritans from England settle at, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>half the colonists live in or near, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> + <li>treatment of Quakers in, <a href="#Page_79">79-80</a>;</li> + <li>importance of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> + <li>grows into a city, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> + <li><i>see also</i> Shawmut</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Boswell. Sir William, quoted, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li> + +<li>Bradford, William, in Scrooby, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>quoted, <a href="#Page_15">15-16</a>;</li> + <li>Governor of Plymouth, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> + <li><i>History of Plimouth Plantation</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> + <li>dead before 1660, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Bradstreet, Governor of Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> + +<li>Bradstreet, Simon, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li>Branford, (Conn.), <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li>Brenton, Governor, quoted, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> + +<li>Brewster, William, father of William, elder of Plymouth, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li>Brewster, William, Elder of Plymouth, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Browne, John, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Browne, Samuel, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Bulkeley, Peter, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Cambridge platform (1648), <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Canonchet, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> + +<li>Carr, Sir Robert, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + +<li>Cartwright, George, Colonel, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + +<li>Carver, John, Governor of Plymouth, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + +<li><i>Charity, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>Charlestown (Mass.), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Charter Oak, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> + +<li>Child, Dr. Robert, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> + +<li>Church, Benjamin, Captain, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> + +<li>Clarendon, Lord, Prime Minister of England, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120-21</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> + +<li>Clark, John, of Newbury, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Clarke, Dr. John, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> + +<li>Clayton, Richard, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li>Coddington, William, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54-55</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></li> + +<li>Coggeshall, one of founders of Portsmouth, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li>Connecticut, leaders who influenced, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>settled by Massachusetts people, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> + <li>four claimants for, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> + <li>migration from Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_57">57-61</a>;</li> + <li>commission government, <a href="#Page_60">60-61</a>;</li> + <li>government, <a href="#Page_62">62-64</a>;</li> + <li>witchcraft in, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> + <li>sends petition to England, <a href="#Page_103">103-04</a>;</li> + <li>charter granted (1662), <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</li> + <li>extends authority of colony, <a href="#Page_108">108-10</a>;</li> + <li>claims Long Island, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> + <li>title under charter recognized by Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> + <li>debates joining New York, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> + <li>Andros endeavors to bring under control, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> + <li>consents to join Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_180">180-82</a>;</li> + <li>renews old forms, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Cooke, a leader of conservatives in Boston, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Cotton, John, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Council for Foreign Plantations, Committee of the, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Danforth, a leader of conservatives in Boston, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li>Davenport, John, of New Haven, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Deerfield (Mass.), massacre of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> + +<li>Delfthaven, Pilgrims embark at, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li>Denonville, Marquis de, Governor of Canada, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></li> + +<li>Denton, Richard, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li>Desborough, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Dongan, Colonel, Governor of New York, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Dorchester (Mass.), <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Dover (N. H.), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li>Downing, Emanuel, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Dudley, Joseph, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169-70</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173-74</a></li> + +<li>Dudley, Thomas, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Dyer, Mary, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Eaton, Samuel, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Eaton, Theophilus, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li>Education in New England, <a href="#Page_83">83-85</a></li> + +<li>Eliot, John, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + +<li>Endecott, John, in congregation of Rev. John White, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>sent as governor to Salem, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> + <li>disregards claims of Gorges, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> + <li>defaces royal ensign at Salem, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> + <li>banishes colonists for religious differences, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> + <li>signs petition to England, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>England, in early seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_2">2</a> <i>et seq.</i>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>awakes to importance of colonies, <a href="#Page_101">101-102</a>;</li> + <li>new colonial policy, <a href="#Page_102">102-103</a>;</li> + <li>affairs in seventeenth century, <a href="#Page_126">126-27</a>;</li> + <li>attitude toward Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</li> + <li>finances under Charles II., <a href="#Page_151">151-152</a>;</li> + <li>future of New England decided in, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Exeter (N. H.), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Fairfield (Conn.), <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Feudal system in England, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li><i>Fortune, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>Fuller, Dr. Samuel, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Fundamental orders, <a href="#Page_62">62-64</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Gardiner, Sir Christopher, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>George, Captain of the <i>Rose</i>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> + +<li>Gilds, <a href="#Page_3">3-4</a></li> + +<li>Goodyear, Stephen, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> + +<li>Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, <a href="#Page_22">22-23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29-30</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30-34</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Gorges, Robert, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>Gorges, Thomas, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Gorton, Samuel, <a href="#Page_49">49-51</a></li> + +<li>Graham, Attorney-General of Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> + +<li>"Great Fundamentals, The," <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Greenwich (Conn.), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + +<li>Guilford (Conn.), <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Half-Way Covenant, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93-94</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></li> + +<li>Hampton (N. H.), <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> + +<li><i>Handmaid, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + +<li>Hartford (Conn.), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Harvard College, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> + +<li>Hawkins, Jane, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Haynes, John, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Higginson, Francis, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li>Hilton, Edward, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Holmes, O. W., quoted, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li>Holmes, William, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Hooke, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Hooker, Thomas, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Hopkins, Edward, Governor, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li>House of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + +<li>Humphrey, John, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Hutchinson, Anne, <a href="#Page_41">41-42</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Indians, trouble with, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <i>et seq.</i>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>dealings with, <a href="#Page_138">138-39</a>;</li> + <li>number in New England, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> + </ul> +<br /> +</li> + + +<li><i>Jewel, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Johnson, Lady Arabella, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Johnson, Isaac, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li>Jones, Christopher, captain of the <i>Mayflower</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11-12</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>King Philip's War (1675-76), <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140-46</a></li> + +<li><i>Kingfisher, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> + +<li>Kirke, Percy, Colonel, <a href="#Page_166">166-67</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Lathrop, John, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>La Tour, Charles de, <a href="#Page_95">95-96</a></li> + +<li>Laud, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + +<li>Laud Commission, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + +<li>Leete, Governor, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + +<li>Leyden, Separatists move to, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + +<li>London, as a center of Separatism, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li>Long Island, uncertainty as to jurisdiction, <a href="#Page_129">129-30</a></li> + +<li>Ludlow, Roger, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> + +<li>Lynn, Henry, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Maine, settled, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>under jurisdiction of Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_66">66-67</a>;</li> + <li>status undecided, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> + <li>military preparedness, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> + <li>permanently annexed to Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Marblehead (Mass.), <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Mason, John, Captain, <a href="#Page_30">30-31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li>Massachusetts Bay Colony, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> <i>et seq.</i>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>begins as fishing venture, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> + <li>obtains patent for land, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</li> + <li>founded, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> + <li>Gorges attempts overthrow of, <a href="#Page_30">30-34</a>;</li> + <li>growth (1630-40), <a href="#Page_34">34-36</a>;</li> + <li>time of stress, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> + <li>government, <a href="#Page_37">37-40</a>;</li> + <li>religious intolerance, <a href="#Page_41">41-43</a>;</li> + <li>commercial ventures, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> + <li>leader among colonies, <a href="#Page_100">100-01</a>;</li> + <li>sends petition to King, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> + <li>restoration of Stuarts causes trouble for, <a href="#Page_104">104-05</a>;</li> + <li>charter confirmed, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> + <li>religious liberty defined by King, <a href="#Page_105">105-06</a>;</li> + <li>inquiry into affairs by Clarendon, <a href="#Page_116">116-18</a>;</li> + <li>commissioners sent to, <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li> + <li>franchise law modified, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;</li> + <li>defies commission, <a href="#Page_123">123-126</a>;</li> + <li>recognizes Connecticut's title (1672), <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> + <li>asserts right to control Maine and New Hampshire, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> + <li>military preparedness, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> + <li>Randolph inquires into affairs, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> + <li>new instructions to royal governors, <a href="#Page_148">148-49</a>;</li> + <li>attitude of England toward, <a href="#Page_148">148-52</a>;</li> + <li>inquiry by Randolph, <a href="#Page_154">154-56</a>;</li> + <li>mission sent to England, <a href="#Page_156">156-57</a>;</li> + <li>purchases title to Maine and estranges England further, <a href="#Page_158">158-59</a>;</li> + <li>royal orders in regard to trade and religious liberty, <a href="#Page_159">159-60</a>;</li> + <li>attitude toward England, <a href="#Page_160">160-61</a>;</li> + <li>sends agents to England, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</li> + <li>charter forfeited (1684), <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> + <li>grows more liberal, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li> + <li>territory enlarged, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>; a royal colony, <a href="#Page_166">166</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li> + <li>preliminary royal government, <a href="#Page_168">168-69</a>;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></li> + <li>changes in life of people, <a href="#Page_170">170-73</a>;</li> + <li>faults in royal government, <a href="#Page_185">185-89</a>;</li> + <li>government of Andros overthrown, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> + <li>resumes self-government, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> + <li>sends Mather to England, <a href="#Page_194">194-96</a>;</li> + <li>charter of 1691, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Massachusetts Bay Company, charter granted (1629), <a href="#Page_26">26</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>control passes to Puritans, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Massachusetts Commission, personnel, <a href="#Page_118">118-19</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>object, <a href="#Page_120">120-121</a>;</li> + <li>failure, <a href="#Page_123">123-26</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Mather, Cotton, quoted, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> + +<li>Mather, Increase, <a href="#Page_194">194-95</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li>Maverick, Samuel, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li><i>Mayflower, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + +<li>Mayflower Compact, <a href="#Page_12">12-13</a></li> + +<li>Merrymount, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Middletown (Conn.), <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Milford (Conn.), <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> + +<li>Mishawum (Charlestown), <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Moody, Lady Deborah, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Morrell, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>Morton, Thomas, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>Mount Wollaston, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Mystic, taken into Connecticut, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Naumkeag (Salem), <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + +<li>New Amsterdam, seized by English, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> + +<li>New England, people of, <a href="#Page_72">72-73</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>settled by radicals, <a href="#Page_73">73-74</a>;</li> + <li>lack of toleration in, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li> + <li>town life, <a href="#Page_75">75-76</a>;</li> + <li>local color in various settlements, <a href="#Page_76">76-78</a>;</li> + <li>witchcraft, <a href="#Page_80">80-81</a>;</li> + <li>superstitions of people, <a href="#Page_81">81-82</a>;</li> + <li>medicine and surgery, <a href="#Page_82">82-83</a>;</li> + <li>education, <a href="#Page_83">83-85</a>;</li> + <li>travel, <a href="#Page_85">85-86</a>;</li> + <li>homes, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> + <li>money, <a href="#Page_86">86-87</a>;</li> + <li>reckoning of time, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> + <li>respect for grants and charters, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> + <li>attitude toward England, <a href="#Page_88">88-90</a>;</li> + <li>organization in, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li> + <li>rivalry with Dutch and French, <a href="#Page_90">90-91</a>;</li> + <li>confederation of colonies, <a href="#Page_91">91</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li> + <li>trouble with the French, <a href="#Page_94">94-96</a>;</li> + <li>trouble with the Dutch, <a href="#Page_96">96-98</a>;</li> + <li>period of readjustment, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li> + <li>Indian troubles, <a href="#Page_133">133</a> <i>et seq.</i>;</li> + <li>boundary disputes, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> + <li>population, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> + <li>menace from French, <a href="#Page_177">177-79</a>;</li> + <li>Dominion of, <a href="#Page_182">182-83</a>;</li> + <li>brought closer to English control, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li><i>New England Canaan</i>, Morton, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + +<li>New England Confederation <i>see</i> United Colonies of New England</li> + +<li>New England Council, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32-33</a></li> + +<li>New Hampshire, influential leaders in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>controversy over title, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> + <li>under jurisdiction of Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_66">66-67</a>;</li> + <li>separation from Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> + <li>status undecided, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li> + <li>military preparedness, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>New Haven, influential leaders in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>settled, <a href="#Page_67">67-68</a>;</li> + <li>government, <a href="#Page_68">68-70</a>;</li> + <li>combines other plantations under her, <a href="#Page_70">70-71</a>;</li> + <li>absorbed by Conn., <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> + <li>commercial ventures, <a href="#Page_77">77-78</a>;</li> + <li>witchcraft in, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> + <li>misfortunes of, <a href="#Page_110">110-11</a>;</li> + <li>surrenders to Connecticut, <a href="#Page_111">111-12</a>;</li> + <li>confederation dissolved, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>New London (Conn.), <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>New Netherlands, conquest of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + +<li>New Somersetshire, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>Newark, founded, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Newbury, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Newport (R. I.), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Nicholson, Francis, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> + +<li>Nicolls, Richard, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> + +<li>Norfolk, a center of Separatism, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li>Norton, John, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li>Nowell, a leader of conservatives in Boston, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span><br/><br /></li> + + +<li>Oldham, John, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Palmer, Judge, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> + +<li>Partridge, Captain, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li>Pawcatuck, taken into Connecticut, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li>Pequot War (1637), <a href="#Page_136">136-37</a></li> + +<li>Peters, Hugh, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Pierson, Abraham, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Pilgrims, leave for Holland (1607-08), <a href="#Page_7">7</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>reasons for leaving Holland, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</li> + <li>decide to go to America, <a href="#Page_8">8-9</a>;</li> + <li>conditions under which expedition was undertaken, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> + <li>journey of the <i>Mayflower</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10-12</a>;</li> + <li>draw up covenant, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> + <li>life in Plymouth Colony, <a href="#Page_14">14-19</a>;</li> + <li>greatness lies in religious influence, <a href="#Page_19">19-20</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Plymouth Colony, founded, <a href="#Page_12">12-20</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>secures right to establish fishing colony, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> + <li>submits to authority of Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> + <li>fishing and trading, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> + <li>witchcraft in, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> + <li>sends mission to England, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</li> + <li>military preparedness, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> + <li>renews old forms, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> + <li>permanently annexed to Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Plymouth, town of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Pocasset (Portsmouth), <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li>Portsmouth (N. H.), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Portsmouth (R. I.), <a href="#Page_51">51-52</a>; <i>see also</i> Pocasset</li> + +<li>Protestantism, controlled by state, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + +<li>Providence, settled, <a href="#Page_47">47-48</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>court of arbitration at, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> + <li>charter unites with other settlements, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> + <li>government under patent, <a href="#Page_53">53-54</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Puritans, obtain control of Massachusetts Bay Company, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>reach Salem (1630), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> + <li>become Separatists, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</li> + <li>characteristics of the frontier, <a href="#Page_46">46-47</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Pynchon, William, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Quakers, come to Boston (1656), <a href="#Page_79">79</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>treatment, <a href="#Page_79">79-80</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Quinnipiac, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Randolph, Edward, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152-156</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li>Ratcliffe, Philip, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Ratcliffe, Robert, <a href="#Page_168">168-69</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> + +<li>Reformation, The, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li>Rhode Island, leaders in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>individualism in, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> + <li>colony of separatism, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li> + <li>not included in Confederation of colonies, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> + <li>applies for charter, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> + <li>conflicting boundary claims, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> + <li>charter granted, (1663), <a href="#Page_113">113-14</a>;</li> + <li>rival claims to, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> + <li>unsettled conditions, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> + <li>surrenders charter, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</li> + <li>sends council members to Boston, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li> + <li>renews old forms, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Rhode Island settlements, Providence, <a href="#Page_47">47-48</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>Pocasset, <a href="#Page_48">48-49</a>;</li> + <li>Newport, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li> + <li>Shawomet or Warwick, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Robinson, John, <a href="#Page_6">6-7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + +<li>Rossiter, Bray, of Guilford, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + +<li>Rowlandson, Mrs., <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> + +<li>Roxbury (Mass.), <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Salem (Mass.), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li><i>see also</i> Naumkeag</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Salem witchcraft, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Saltonstall, Sir Richard, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Saybrook, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + +<li>Saye and Sele, Lord, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106-07</a></li> + +<li>Scott, John, Captain, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + +<li>Scrooby, Nottinghamshire, a center of Separatism, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li>Separatists, <a href="#Page_5">5</a> <i>et seq.</i></li> + +<li>Setauket, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> + +<li>Shawmut (Boston), <a href="#Page_23">23</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></li> + +<li>Shawomet, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Sheffield, Lord, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Slavery forbidden in Rhode Island (1652), <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + +<li>Smith, John, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + +<li>Southold on Long Island, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li><i>Speedwell, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li>Springfield (Mass), becomes part of Mass., <a href="#Page_62">62</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>center of fur trade, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> + <li><i>see also</i> Agawam</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Stamford (Conn.), <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Standish, Miles, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> + +<li>Stiles party, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + +<li>Stone, Samuel, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + +<li>Stoughton, William, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> + +<li>Stuyvesant, Peter, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li><i>Talbot, The</i>, ship, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Uncas, Indian chief, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> + +<li>Underhill, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + +<li>United Colonies of New England, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Vane, Henry, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + +<li>Vassall, William, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Virginia Company of London, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + +<li>Virginia Company of Plymouth, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Walford, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li>Warwick, Earl of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + +<li>Warwick, a Rhode Island settlement, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + +<li>Watertown (Mass.), <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Wessagusset (Quincy), <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>West, Secretary of Mass., <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></li> + +<li>Weston, Thomas, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>Wethersfield (Conn.), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li> + +<li>Weymouth (Mass.), <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>Wheelwright, John, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> + +<li>White, Rev. John, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + +<li>Whitfield, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Whiting, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + +<li>Williams, Roger, driven from Boston, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>locates at Providence, <a href="#Page_47">47-48</a>;</li> + <li>obtains charter, <a href="#Page_52">52-53</a>;</li> + <li>quoted, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> + <li>goes to England to confirm patent, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li> + <li>in 1660, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Windsor (Conn.), <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> + +<li>Winnissimmet (Chelsea), <a href="#Page_23">23-24</a></li> + +<li>Winslow, Edward, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + +<li>Winslow, John, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></li> + +<li>Winslow, Josiah, General, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> + +<li>Winthrop, John, elected Governor of Mass. Bay Colony, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; + <ul class="nest"> + <li>leader among the Puritans, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> + <li>died before 1660, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>Winthrop, John, son of the Governor, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103-04</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106-07</a></li> + +<li>Wise, John, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> + +<li>Witchcraft in New England, <a href="#Page_80">80-81</a></li> + +<li>Wollaston, Captain, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> + +<li>Wright, Richard, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /><br /></li> + + +<li>Young, Alse, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li>Young, Captain, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> +</ul> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> + +<div class="tr"> +<p class="cen"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>Transcriber's Note</p> +<br /> + +Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in +the original document have been preserved.<br /> +<br /> +Typographical errors corrected in the text:<br /> +<br /> +Page 16 potle changed to pottle<br /> +Page 57 irreconciliable changed to irreconcilable<br /> +Page 67 Hamsphire changed to Hampshire<br /> +Page 205 Arbella changed to Arabella<br /> +Page 205 Brenten changed to Brenton<br /> +Page 209 characteristcs changed to characteristics<br /> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Fathers of New England, by Charles M. Andrews + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FATHERS OF NEW ENGLAND *** + +***** This file should be named 29853-h.htm or 29853-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/8/5/29853/ + +Produced by Stephen Hope, Barbara Kosker, Joseph Cooper +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/29853-h/images/deco.jpg b/29853-h/images/deco.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4a547fd --- /dev/null +++ b/29853-h/images/deco.jpg |
