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diff --git a/29798-0.txt b/29798-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d0025a --- /dev/null +++ b/29798-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11259 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Japan by David Murray + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: Japan + +Author: David Murray + +Release Date: August 25, 2009 [Ebook #29798] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPAN*** + + + + + + Japan + + By + + David Murray, Ph.D., LL.D. + + Late Advisor to the Japanese Minister of Education + + Third Edition + + London + + T. Fisher Unwin + + Paternoster Square + + New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons + + 1896 + + Copyright by T. Fisher Unwin, 1894 + + (For Great Britain) + + Copyright by G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1894 + + (For the United States of America + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Preface. +Chapter I. The Japanese Archipelago. +Chapter II. The Original And Surviving Races. +Chapter III. Myths And Legends. +Chapter IV. Founding The Empire. +Chapter V. Native Culture And Continental Influences. +Chapter VI. The Middle Ages Of Japan. +Chapter VII. Emperor And Shōgun. +Chapter VIII. From The Ashikaga Shōguns To The Death Of Nobunaga. +Chapter IX. Toyotomi Hideyoshi. +Chapter X. The Founding Of The Tokugawa Shōgunate. +Chapter XI. Christianity In The Seventeenth Century. +Chapter XII. Feudalism In Japan. +Chapter XIII. Commodore Perry And What Followed. +Chapter XIV. Revolutionary Preludes. +Chapter XV. The Restored Empire. +Appendix I. List Of Emperors. +Appendix II. List Of Year Periods. +Appendix III. List Of Shōguns. +Appendix IV. Laws Of Shōtoku Taishi. +Footnotes + + + + + + +PREFACE. + + +It is the object of this book to trace the story of Japan from its +beginnings to the establishment of constitutional government. Concerned as +this story is with the period of vague and legendary antiquity as well as +with the disorders of mediæval time and with centuries of seclusion, it is +plain that it is not an easy task to present a trustworthy and connected +account of the momentous changes through which the empire has been called +to pass. It would be impossible to state in detail the sources from which +I have derived the material for this work. I place first and as most +important a residence of several years in Japan, during which I became +familiar with the character of the Japanese people and with the traditions +and events of their history. Most of the works treating of Japan during +and prior to the period of her seclusion, as well as the more recent +works, I have had occasion to consult. They will be found referred to in +the following pages. Beyond all others, however, I desire to acknowledge +my obligations to the _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_. A +list of the contributors to these transactions would include such names as +Satow, Aston, Chamberlain, McClatchie, Gubbins, Geerts, Milne, Whitney, +Wigmore and others, whose investigations have made possible a reasonably +complete knowledge of Japan. The _Transactions of the German Asiatic +Society_ are scarcely less noteworthy than those of her sister society. To +these invaluable sources of information are to be added Chamberlain’s +_Things Japanese_, Rein’s _Japan_ and the _Industries of Japan_, Griffis’ +_Mikado’s Empire_, Mounsey’s _Satsuma Rebellion_, Dening’s _Life of +Hideyoshi_, the published papers of Professor E. S. Morse, and the two +handbooks prepared successively by Mr. Satow and Mr. Chamberlain. + +To friends who have taken an interest in this publication I owe many +thanks for valuable and timely help: to Dr. J. C. Hepburn, who for so many +years was a resident in Yokohama; to Mr. Benjamin Smith Lyman of +Philadelphia who still retains his interest in and knowledge of things +Japanese; to Mr. Tateno, the Japanese Minister at Washington, and to the +departments of the Japanese government which have furnished me material +assistance. + +In the spelling of Japanese words I have followed, with a few exceptions, +the system of the Roman Alphabet Association (Rōmaji Kai) as given in its +published statement. I have also had constantly at hand Hepburn’s +_Dictionary_, the _Dictionary of Towns and Roads_, by Dr. W. N. Whitney, +and _Murray’s Handbook of Japan_, by B. H. Chamberlain. In accordance with +these authorities, in the pronunciation of Japanese words the consonants +are to be taken at their usual English values and the vowels at their +values in Italian or German. + +DAVID MURRAY. + + [Illustration] + + Bell At Kyoto + + + + + +CHAPTER I. THE JAPANESE ARCHIPELAGO. + + +The first knowledge of the Japanese empire was brought to Europe by Marco +Polo after his return from his travels in China in A.D. 1295. He had been +told in China of “Chipangu,(1) an island towards the east in the high +seas, 1500 miles from the continent; and a very great island it is. The +people are white, civilized, and well favored. They are idolaters, and are +dependent on nobody. And I can tell you the quantity of gold they have is +endless; for they find it in their own islands.” The name Chipangu is the +transliteration of the Chinese name which modern scholars write +Chi-pen-kue, by which Japan was then known in China. From it the Japanese +derived the name Nippon, and then prefixed the term Dai (great), making it +Dai Nippon, the name which is now used by them to designate their empire. +Europeans transformed the Chinese name into Japan, or Japon, by which the +country is known among them at present. + +Marco Polo’s mention of this island produced a great impression on the +discoverers of the fifteenth century. In Toscanelli’s map, used by +Columbus as the basis of his voyages, “Cipango” occupies a prominent place +to the east of Asia, with no American continent between it and Europe. It +was the aim of Columbus, and of many subsequent explorers, to find a route +to this reputedly rich island and to the eastern shores of Asia. + +The islands composing the empire of Japan are situated in the northwestern +part of the Pacific ocean. They are part of the long line of volcanic +islands stretching from the peninsula of Kamtschatka on the north to +Formosa on the south. The direction in which they lie is northeast and +southwest, and in a general way they are parallel to the continent. + +The latitude of the most northern point of Yezo is 45° 35’, and the +latitude of the most southern point of Kyūshū is 31°. The longitude of the +most eastern point of Yezo is 146° 17’, and the longitude of the most +western point of Kyūshū is 130° 31’. The four principal islands therefore +extend through 14° 35’ of latitude and 15° 46’ of longitude. + +The Kurile islands(2) extending from Yezo northeast to the straits +separating Kamtschatka from the island of Shumushu belong also to Japan. +This last island has a latitude of 51° 5’ and a longitude of 157° 10’. In +like manner the Ryūkyū islands, lying in a southwest direction from Kyūshū +belong to Japan. The most distant island has a latitude of 24° and a +longitude of 123° 45’. The whole Japanese possessions therefore extend +through a latitude of 27° 5’ and a longitude of 33° 25’. + +The empire consists of four large islands and not less than three thousand +small ones. Some of these small islands are large enough to constitute +distinct provinces, but the greater part are too small to have a separate +political existence, and are attached for administrative purposes to the +parts of the large islands opposite to which they lie. The principal +island is situated between Yezo on the north and Kyūshū on the south. + +From Omasaki, the northern extremity at the Tsugaru straits, to Tōkyō, the +capital, the island runs nearly north and south a distance of about 590 +miles, and from Tōkyō to the Shimonoseki straits the greatest extension of +the island is nearly east and west, a distance of about 540 miles. That +is, measuring in the direction of the greatest extension, the island is +about 1130 miles long. The width of the island is nowhere greater than two +hundred miles and for much of its length not more than one hundred miles. + +Among the Japanese this island has no separate name.(3) It is often called +by them Hondo(4) which may be translated Main island. By this translated +name the principal island will be designated in these pages. The term +Nippon or more frequently Dai Nippon (Great Nippon) is used by them to +designate the entire empire, and it is not to be understood as restricted +to the principal island. + +The second largest island is Yezo, lying northeast from the Main island +and separated from it by the Tsugaru straits. Its longest line is from +Cape Shiretoko at its northeast extremity to Cape Shira-kami on Tsugaru +straits, about 350 miles; and from its northern point, Cape Soya on the La +Perouse straits to Yerimosaki, it measures about 270 miles. The centre of +the island is an elevated peak, from which rivers flow in all directions +to the ocean. Hakodate the principal port is situated on Tsugaru straits +and possesses one of the most commodious harbors of the empire. + +The third in size of the great islands of Japan is Kyūshū, a name meaning +nine provinces, referring to the manner in which it was divided in early +times. It lies south from the western extremity of the Main island. Its +greatest extension is from north to south, being about 200 miles. Its +width from east to west varies from sixty to ninety miles. Its temperature +and products partake of a tropical character. + +To the east of Kyūshū lies Shikoku (meaning four provinces) which is the +fourth of the great islands of Japan. It is about one half as large as +Kyūshū, which in climate and productions it much resembles. It is south of +the western extension of the Main island and is nearly parallel to it. Its +length is about 170 miles. + +In the early history of Japan one of its names among the natives was +Ōyashima, meaning the Great Eight Islands. The islands included in this +name were: the Main island, Kyūshū, Shikoku, Awaji, Sado, Tsushima, Oki, +and Iki. The large island of Yezo had not then been conquered and added to +the empire. + +Awaji is situated in the Inland sea between the Main island and Shikoku. +It is about fifty miles long and has an area of 218 square miles. Sado is +situated in the Japan sea, off the northwest coast of the Main island. It +is about forty-eight miles long and has an area of about 335 square miles. +Tsushima lies half-way between Japan and Korea, and has a length of about +forty-six miles, and an area of about 262 square miles. Oki lies off the +coast of Izumo and has an area of about 130 square miles. Finally Iki, the +smallest of the original great eight islands, lies west of the northern +extremity of Kyūshū and has an area of fifty square miles. + +The Japanese islands are invested on the east by the Pacific ocean. They +are separated from the continent by the Okhotsk sea, the Japan sea, and +the Yellow sea. The Kuro Shiwo (black current) flows from the tropical +waters in a northeast direction, skirting the islands of Japan on their +east coasts, and deflecting its course to the eastward carries its +ameliorating influences to the west coast of America. It is divided by the +projecting southern extremity of the island of Kyūshū, and a perceptible +portion of it flows on the west coast of the Japanese islands through the +Japan sea and out again into the Pacific ocean through the Tsugaru and the +La Perouse straits. The effect of the Kuro Shiwo upon the climate and +productions of the lands along which it flows is not greatly different +from that of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic ocean, which in situation, +direction, and volume it resembles. + +The body of water known among foreigners as the Inland sea, but which the +Japanese call Seto-no-Uchi-Umi (the sea within the straits), is a +picturesque sheet of water situated between the Linschoten straits on the +east and the Shimonoseki straits on the west. The latter is seven miles +long and at its narrowest part not more than two thousand feet wide. It +separates Kyūshū on the south from the Main island on the north. The +Inland sea is occupied by an almost countless number of islands, which +bear evidence of volcanic origin, and are covered with luxuriant +vegetation. The lines of steamers from Shanghai and Nagasaki to the +various ports on the Main island, and numberless smaller craft in every +direction, run through the Inland sea. + +The principal islands of Japan are interspersed with mountains, hills and +valleys. Yezo the most northern of these islands is traversed by two +ranges of mountains; the one being the extension of the island of +Saghalien, the other the extension of the Kurile islands. These two ranges +cross each other at the centre of the island, and here the greatest +elevation is to be found. The shape given to the island by these +intersecting ranges is that of a four-pointed star. The rivers in nearly +all cases flow from the centre outward to the sea. There are few large +rivers. The most important is the Ishikari which empties into Ishikari +bay. The valley of this river is the most rich and fertile part of the +island. + +The mountain ranges on the Main island extend usually in the greatest +direction of the island. In the northern and central portions the ranges +chiefly run north and south. In the western extension of this island the +mountain ranges run in nearly an east and west direction. The ordinary +height attained by these ranges is not great, but there are many volcanic +peaks which rise out of the surrounding mass to a great elevation. The +highest mountain in Japan is Fuji-san (sometimes called Fuji-yama). It is +almost conical in shape; although one side has been deformed by a volcanic +eruption which occurred in 1707. It stands not far from the coast, and is +directly in view from the steamers entering the bay of Tōkyō on their way +to Yokohama. It is about sixty miles from Tōkyō in a direct line, and +there are many places in the city from which it can be seen. Its top is +covered with snow during ten months of the year, which the heat of August +and September melts away. The height of Fuji-san according to the +measurement of English naval officers is 12,365 feet.(5) + +Next to Fuji-san the mountains most worthy of notice are Gas-san in Uzen, +Mitake in Shinano, the Nikkō mountains in Shimotsuke, Haku-san in Kaga, +Kirishima-yama in Hyūga, and Asama-yama in Shinano. Asama-yama is about +8,000 feet high, and is an active volcano. + +From time immemorial the Japanese islands have been affected with +earthquakes. Occasionally they have been severe and destructive, but +usually slight and ineffective. It is said that not less than five hundred +shocks(6) occur in Japan each year. The last severe earthquake was in the +autumn of 1891, when the central part of the Main island, especially in +the neighborhood of Gifu, was destructively disturbed. During the long +history of the empire many notable cases(7) have occurred. Mr. +Hattori-Ichijo in a paper read before the Asiatic Society of Japan, March, +1878, has compiled a list of destructive earthquakes, and has deduced from +it some important generalizations. + +Closely associated with earthquakes in Japan as elsewhere are the +phenomena of volcanoes. The whole archipelago bears evidence of volcanic +formation. The long line of islands stretching from Kamtschatka to Borneo +is plainly the product of continued volcanic action. Dr. Rein(8) +enumerates eighteen active volcanoes now in existence within the empire. +Fuji-san in all its beauty was no doubt thrown up as a volcano. The last +time it was in action was in 1707, when in connection with a series of +severe earthquake shocks, an eruption took place on the south side of the +mountain, and its symmetrical form was destroyed by the production of the +new crater, Hōye-san. + +Among the mountainous districts many small lakes are found, a few of which +are large enough to be navigated. In Yezo there are six considerable +lakes. In the Main island the largest lake is Biwa, in the beautiful +mountain region north of Kyōto. It received its name from its fancied +resemblance to the shape of a musical instrument called a _biwa_. There is +a legend that this lake came into existence in a single night, when the +volcanic mountain Fuji-san 300 miles distant was raised to its present +height. It is about fifty miles long and about twenty miles broad at its +greatest width. It is said to be not less than 330 feet at its greatest +depth. It is navigated by steamboats and smaller craft. It is situated +about 350 feet above the ocean. Lake Suwa in Shinano is 2,635 feet above +the ocean. Lake Chūzenji in the Nikkō mountains is 4,400 feet; and Hakoné +lake near Yokohama is 2,400 feet. + +Owing to the narrowness of the Main island, there are no rivers of a large +size. Most of them take their rise in the mountainous regions of the +middle of the islands, and by a more or less circuitous route find their +way to the ocean. The Tone-gawa (_gawa_ means river) is the longest and +broadest of the rivers of Japan. It rises in Kōtsuke and flows in an +eastern direction, receiving many tributaries, attains a breadth of more +than a mile, and with a current much narrowed, empties into the Pacific +ocean at Chōshi point. It is about 170 miles long and is navigated by +boats for a great distance. The Shinano-gawa, which may be named as second +in size, rises in the province of Shinano, flows in a northern direction, +and empties into the Japan sea at Ni-igata. The Kiso-gawa also rises in +the high lands of Shinano, and, flowing southward, empties into Owari bay. +The Fuji-kawa(9) takes its rise in the northern part of the province of +Kai, and in its course skirting the base of Fuji-san on the west, empties +into Suruga bay. It is chiefly notable for being one of the swiftest +streams in Japan and liable to sudden and great floods. + +To these rivers may be added the Yodo-gawa, which is the outlet of Lake +Biwa, in the province of Ōmi, and which flows through Kyōto, and empties +into the Inland sea at Ōsaka. This river is navigable for flat-bottomed +steamboats as far as Kyōto. In the islands of Kyūshū and Shikoku there are +no large rivers; but there are many streams which give to these islands +their richness and fertility. + +The climate of Japan, as might be expected from its great stretch from +north to south, and the varied circumstances of ocean currents, winds, and +mountains, is very different in the different parts. The latitude of Tōkyō +is 35°, which is not very different from that of Cyprus in the +Mediterranean, or the city of Raleigh in North Carolina. Besides the +latitude of the islands of Japan, the most noticeable cause of their +climatic condition is the Kuro Shiwo (black current). This current flows +from the tropical regions near the Philippine islands, impinges on the +southern islands, and is divided by them into two unequal parts. The +greater part skirts the Japanese islands on their east coast, imparting to +them that warm and moist atmosphere, which is one source of the fertility +of their soil and beauty of their vegetation. To this important cause must +be added another, which is closely related to it in its effects. The +Japanese islands are in the region of the north-east monsoon,(10) which +affects in a marked degree the climate of all parts over which the winds +extend. The same monsoon blows over the eastern countries of the +continent, but the insular character of Japan and the proximity of the +warm current on both sides of the islands give to the winds which prevail +a character which they do not possess on the continent. During the greater +part of September the northern wind blows, which brings a colder +temperature, condensing the moisture contained in the atmosphere. This +month is therefore generally a rainy month. Gradually the atmosphere +becomes more dry, and the beautiful autumn and early winter follow in +course. + +The winter is very different in the different parts. On the east coast the +temperature is very moderate. Even as far north as Tōkyō the snow rarely +falls to a depth of more than a few inches, and then rapidly melts away. +Ice seldom forms to a thickness, even on protected waters, to permit +skating. In all this region, however, snow covers the high mountains. + +On the west coast of the Main island the conditions are very different. +The winds of the continent take up the moisture of the Japan sea, and +carry it to the west coast, and then, coming in contact with high ranges +of mountains which run down the middle of the island, impart their +moisture in the form of rain in summer, and snow in winter. These +circumstances produce extraordinary falls of snow on the west coast. This +is particularly true of the provinces of Kaga, Noto, Etchū, Echigo, and +even farther north, especially in the mountainous regions. In the northern +part of these districts the snow is often as much as twenty feet deep +during the winter months. The inhabitants are obliged to live in the +second stories of their houses and often find it necessary to make steps +from their houses out to the top of the snow. One effect of these deep +snows is to cover up with a safe protection the shrubs and tender plants +which would otherwise be exposed to the chilling winds of winter. By this +means the tea-shrub and the camellia, which could not withstand the open +winter winds, are protected so as to grow luxuriantly. + +The southern islands are materially warmer than the Main island. The +tropical current together with the warm sunshine due to their low +latitude, immerses them in a moist and warm atmosphere. Their productions +are of a sub-tropical character. Cotton, rice, tobacco, sugar, sweet +potatoes, oranges, yams, and other plants of a warm latitude, flourish in +Kyūshū and Shikoku. The high mountains and the well watered valleys, the +abundance of forest trees, and wild and luxuriant vegetation,(11) give to +these islands an aspect of perennial verdure. + +The productions of the Main island are, as might be expected, far more +various. In the southern part, especially that part bordering on the +Inland sea, the productions are to a large extent similar to those in the +southern islands. Rice and cotton are raised in great abundance. Tea +flourishes particularly in the provinces near Kyōto and also in the rich +valleys of the east coast. Silk-raising is a principal occupation. Nearly +one half in value of all the exports from Japan is raw and manufactured +silk, and a large part of the remainder is tea. The principal food raised +in nearly all the islands is rice. The streams of water which abound +everywhere make the irrigation which rice cultivation requires easy and +effective. Besides the rice which is raised in paddy land there is also a +variety called upland rice. This grows without irrigation but is inferior +to the principal variety in productiveness. In the early rituals of the +Shintō temples prayers were always offered for the five cereals. These +were understood to be rice, millet, barley, beans, and sorghum. All these +have been cultivated from early times, and can be successfully raised in +almost all parts of the islands. Rice cannot, however, be raised north of +the Main island. Millet, barley, and beans are cultivated everywhere, and +are the principal articles of food among the country population. Buckwheat +is also cultivated in all northern parts. It is believed to have been +introduced from Manchuria where it is found growing wild. + +The domestic animals of Japan are by no means so abundant as in the +corresponding parts of the continent. The horse has existed here from +antiquity but was only used for riding or as a pack-horse, but never until +recently was used for driving. The cow, owing perhaps to the restrictive +influence of the Buddhist doctrines, was never used for food. Even milk, +butter, and cheese, which from time immemorial formed such important +articles of food throughout Europe and among the nomadic peoples of Asia, +were never used. Sheep are almost unknown even to this day, and where they +have been introduced it is only in very recent times and by foreign +enterprise. Goats are sometimes but not commonly found. On the island of +Ōshima,(12) off the province of Izu, they had multiplied to so great an +extent and were so destructive to vegetation that about 1850 the +inhabitants combined to extirpate them. Swine are found in the Ryūkyū +islands, where they had been brought from China and they are found only +incidentally in other places when introduced by foreigners. Dogs and cats +and barnyard fowl are found in all the islands. + +Wild animals are only moderately abundant, as is natural in a country so +thickly inhabited. The black bear is found frequently in the well-wooded +mountains of Yezo and the northern part of the Main island. The great +bear, called also by the Japanese the red bear, and which is the same as +the grizzly bear of North America, is also common in the Kurile islands +and in Yezo. The wolf is sometimes found and the fox is common. The +superstitions concerning the fox are as remarkable as those in the north +of Europe, and have doubtless prevented its destruction. Deer are found in +abundance in almost all parts of the islands. They are, however, most +common in Yezo where immense herds feed upon the plentiful herbage. + +The waters around Japan abound in fish. The coast is indented by bays and +inlets which give opportunity for fishing. The warm currents flowing past +the islands bring a great variety of fish which otherwise would not reach +these islands. By far the most common article of food, other than +vegetable, is the fish of various kinds and the shell-fish which are +caught on the coasts and carried inland to almost all parts. + +The division of the empire into provinces (_kuni_) was an important step +in practical administration, and it is often referred to in these pages. +This division was first made by the Emperor Seimu A.D. 131-190, when +thirty-two provinces were constituted. The northern boundary of the empire +was indicated by a line across the Main island from Sendai bay to a place +on the west coast nearly corresponding to the present situation of +Ni-igata. North of this line was the acknowledged territory of the Ainos, +and even south of it were many tracts which were the disputed border. + +The Empress Jingō, after her return from the expedition against Korea in +A.D. 303, introduced the Korean system of division, by constituting the +home provinces and circuits. After some changes and subdivisions in +subsequent times the apportionment was settled as follows: _Gokinai_ or +the five home provinces, viz. Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, Izumi, and +Settsu; _Tōkaidō_, or eastern sea circuit, 15 provinces; _Tōzandō_, or +eastern mountain circuit, eight provinces; _Sanindō_, or mountain back +circuit, eight provinces; _Sanyōdō_, or mountain front circuit, eight +provinces; and _Saikaidō_, or western sea circuit, nine provinces; in all +sixty-eight provinces. After the close of the war of restoration in 1868, +the large territories in the north of the Main island represented by the +provinces of Mutsu and Dewa, which had been conquered from the Ainos, were +subdivided into seven provinces, thus making seventy-three. Still later +the island of Yezo, with which were associated the Kurile islands, was +created a circuit under the name of _Hok-kaidō_, or north sea circuit, +having eleven provinces. The number of existing provinces therefore is +eighty-four. In recent times these eighty-four provinces have for +administrative purposes been consolidated into three imperial cities +(_fu_), forty-two prefectures (_ken_), and one territory (_chō_). The +imperial cities (_fu_) are Tōkyō, Ōsaka, and Kyōto; the one territory +(_chō_) comprises the island of Yezo and the adjacent small islands +including the Kuriles; and the prefectures (_ken_) have been formed from +the provinces by combining and consolidating them in accordance with their +convenience and proximity. + +There are only a few large cities in Japan, but very many of a small +size.(13) Tōkyō,(14) the capital, contains 1,155,200 inhabitants. Ōsaka, +the second largest city contains 473,541; Kyōto, the old capital, 289,588; +Nagoya, 170,433; Kōbé, 136,968; and Yokohama, 127,987. These are all the +cities containing as many as 100,000 inhabitants. Besides these there are +four cities which have between 100,000 and 60,000; twelve which have +between 60,000 and 40,000, and twelve which have between 40,000 and +30,000. The number of smaller towns is very great. The division of the +country into _daimiates_, and the maintenance of a _daimyō_ town in each +led to the establishment of many cities and large villages. + +The population of the empire of Japan is to a large extent massed in +cities and villages. Even in the country, among the farmers, the people +are gathered in settlements with wide spaces of cultivated and +uncultivated land between. This is due in a great measure to the character +of the crops and to the primitive nature of the cultivation. Rice, which +is the most common crop, requires irrigation for its successful tillage. +This limits the area occupied to the valleys and to those hillsides where +the streams can be diverted to the rice fields. The area of land under +actual cultivation is about 12,000,000 acres. It has been estimated that +the average amount of land under cultivation is only three quarters of an +acre for each of those engaged in farming. This amount seems to us very +little and can only be explained by the character of the cultivation. The +land almost always is made to bear two crops each year. As soon as one +crop is cleared away, and often even before that, another is planted. + +According to the census(15) of 1890 the population of the Japanese empire +is as follows: + +Kwazoku (nobles) 3,768 +Shizoku (_samurai_) 2,008,641 +Heimin (common people) 38,441,052 +Total 40,453,461 + +The areas of the several large islands and their dependencies together +with their population are given below: + + Sq. m. Population. +Main island and dependencies 87,485 31,052,068 +Shikoku and dependencies 7,031 2,879,260 +Kyūshū and dependencies 16,841 6,228,419 +Yezo and dependencies 36,299 293,714 +Totals 147,656 40,453,461 + + [Illustration] + + Shintoists: Preacher + + + [Illustration] + + Shintoists: Dancer + + + [Illustration] + + Shintoists: Assistant + + + [Illustration] + + Shintoists: The Mirror Dance + + + + + +CHAPTER II. THE ORIGINAL AND SURVIVING RACES. + + +In the present population of Japan there are two distinct races, the Ainos +and the Japanese. Of the former there is only a small number now remaining +in the island of Yezo. There was also a remnant in the island of +Saghalien, but in 1875, when a treaty was made with Russia ceding the +Japanese claim to the southern half of Saghalien in exchange for the +Kurile islands, permission was granted for all Japanese subjects who +wished, to remove to the Japanese island of Yezo. Accordingly among other +Japanese subjects seven hundred and fifty Ainos removed to the valley of +the Ishikari, where they have continued to reside. + + [Illustration] + + Aino Family + + +The Ainos are probably the original race, who in early times inhabited the +Main island down to the Hakoné pass and possibly farther to the south. +From Japanese history we learn that the military forces of the empire were +constantly employed to suppress the disturbances caused by the barbarous +people of the north. The necessity of this forcible repression, which +frequently recurred, was a chief reason for the formation of a military +class in the early history of Japan. One of the duties imposed on +Yamato-dake by his imperial father (A.D. 71-130) was to chastise and +subdue the Yemishi. This is the name by which the barbarous peoples of the +north and east were known among the Japanese. According to Chamberlain(16) +in his translation of _Kojiki_, the Chinese characters with which the +Yemishi is written mean Prawn Barbarians, in allusion to the long beards +which make their faces resemble a prawn’s head. The hairy people now known +as Ainos are almost certainly referred to. The origin of the term Aino is +unknown. By the Japanese it is believed to be derived from _inu_, meaning +a dog, and to have been bestowed on them in contempt. The name is not used +by the Ainos themselves. In common with the inhabitants of the Kurile +islands and the Japanese portion of Saghalien they call themselves Yezo. + +The present characteristics of the Ainos have led many to doubt whether +they are really the descendants of the hardy barbarians who so long +withstood the military power of the Japanese. But the effect of centuries +of repression and conquest must be taken into account. The Ainos have +become the peaceable and inoffensive people which we now find them, by +many generations of cruel and imperious restraint. That they should have +become in this sequence of events a quiet and submissive people is not +wonderful. The number of Ainos in the island of Yezo is given in 1880, +which is the last census made of them, as 16,637(17); and this number is +believed to be gradually decreasing. Travellers who have visited them +unite in testifying to their great amiability and docility. Physically +they are a sturdy and well developed race. The characteristic which has +been noticed in them more than any other is the abundant growth of hair. +The men have a heavy and bushy head of hair and a full beard which is +allowed to grow down to their chests. Other parts of the body are also +covered with a growth which far surpasses that of the ordinary races. In +the matter of food, clothing, houses and implements, they remain in the +most primitive condition. In personal habits they are far less cleanly +than their Japanese neighbors. Travellers(18) who have remained with them +for many weeks assert that in all that time they never saw them wash +either their persons or their clothes. + +They practise few arts. The making of pottery even in its rudest forms is +unknown. All vessels in use are obtained by barter from the Japanese. +Occasionally an old-fashioned Japanese matchlock gun is found among them, +but mainly their hunting is carried on with bows and arrows. Their fishing +is conducted with the rude apparatus which their ancestors used. They have +no written language, and even the pictorial writing, which has often been +found among rude people, seems to be utterly unknown among them. Their +religious ideas(19) are of the most vague and incoherent description. The +objects of worship are chiefly inanimate objects such as rivers, rocks and +mountains. They seem to have a certain fear of the spirit land. They do +not readily talk about their deceased ancestors. Their places of burial +are concealed, and foreigners rarely obtain access to them. + +In their rude superstitions the bear seems to have a singular part. +Whether their traditions concerning this animal had their origin in some +earlier fear of the bear as a ferocious neighbor it is impossible to +determine. In every community the men capture each spring a young cub +which they bring home. They entrust it to a woman who feeds it on the milk +from her breast. When it is too old to be further nursed in this way, it +is confined in a bear cage provided for the purpose. Then in the autumn of +the following year the grand bear festival is held. At an appointed signal +the door of the cage is opened and the bear, which has been infuriated by +hunger and teasing attacks, rushes out. The assembled hunters rush upon +him with bows and arrows, clubs and knives, and after an exciting struggle +despatch him. The carcass is cut in pieces and distributed among the +families of the community, who feast upon it with great delight. Mingled +with this rough and exciting scene is much _saké_ drinking. This is one +accomplishment which they have learned from the Japanese. The men are all +confirmed _saké_ drinkers, and both men and women persistent smokers. Of +the meaning and object of this bear feast the Ainos themselves are +ignorant. It goes back to a period beyond their present traditions. +Whether it has in it an element of bear worship it is impossible to learn. + +The remains of the Stone age which are found in the northern part of the +Main island are usually attributed to the Ainos. These remains have been +collected and studied both by native scholars and by foreigners. Among the +most important of them have been the articles found in shell heaps +uncovered in different parts of the empire. The first(20) to which foreign +attention was drawn was that at Ōmori, near Tōkyō. Since then many others +have been opened and many valuable finds have been reported. The shell +heaps have evidently been used like kitchen-middens in Europe and +elsewhere, as places for dumping the refuse of shell-fish used for food. +These became places for the throwing of useless and broken articles used +in the household, and thus have been the means of preserving many of the +implements used in prehistoric times. The most significant discovery made +in these shell heaps was that at Ōmori, of the bones of human beings +artificially broken in such a way as to indicate that cannibalism had been +prevalent at the time. Whether this can be assumed as sufficient proof of +so grave a charge has been disputed. It is claimed(21) that in at least +seven similar shell heaps no human bones and no evidences of cannibalism +were found. If however the case is considered as sufficiently proved, it +is clear from this as well as from many other circumstances that the Ainos +of that early day were by no means the mild and gentle race which we now +find them. It is interesting to note that Marco Polo(22) mentions +cannibalism as one of the customs which were believed to exist in Japan in +his day. + +Besides the Ainos there is evidence of the existence of another savage +tribe, which at an early date seems to have been found in many parts of +the Main island, and at a later date in the island of Yezo and the Kurile +islands on the north. They are the so-called pit-dwellers. In the very +earliest writings of the Japanese we find references to them. They dug +pits in the earth and built over them a roof, and used these pits or +cellars as rooms in which to sleep. The Japanese conquerors in the central +parts of the Main island had many conflicts with these pit-dwellers. And +in the north and east they as well as the Ainos were encountered by the +military forces of the empire. They were probably driven north by the more +powerful Ainos and have almost disappeared. Abundant evidence(23) however +is found in the island of Yezo of their previous existence. The Ainos in +their traditions call them Koro-pok-guru,(24) or hole-men. Among the +Japanese they are spoken of as Ko-bito, or dwarfs. There are said to be +still in Yezo the remains of villages where these men lived in earlier +times. In the Kurile islands, in the peninsula of Kamtschatka, and in the +southern part of Saghalien remnants of this primitive people are met with. + +Turning now to the Japanese race which extends from the Kurile islands on +the north to the Ryūkyū islands on the south, we see at once that it is a +mixed race containing widely different elements. Even after the many +centuries during which the amalgamation has been going on, we recognize +still the varying types to which the individuals tend. In the south more +than in the north, and more among the ruling classes than in the laboring +classes there are specimens of a delicate, refined appearance, face oval, +eyes oblique, nose slightly Roman, and frame delicate but well +proportioned. Then there is another type which has been recognized by all +observers. It is found more in the north than the south and is much more +common among the laboring population than among the higher classes. The +face is broad and the cheek bones prominent. The nose is flat and the eyes +are horizontal. The frame is robust and muscular, but not so well +proportioned and regular as in the former type. These two types with many +intervening links are found everywhere. The characteristics are perhaps +more marked among the women than the men. Especially among the aristocracy +the women have been less affected by weather and exposure and physical +exertion than the men. In the regions about Kyōto and in the western +portions of the Main island the prevalence of what may be called the +aristocratic type is most marked. Even in the time of the Dutch trade with +Japan, Kaempfer(25) refers to the women of Saga, on the south coast of the +Inland sea, as “handsomer than in any other Asiatic country.” The northern +regions, including the old provinces of Mutsu and Dewa, show a much larger +element of the more robust type. The men are more muscular and of a darker +complexion. Their faces are broader and flatter and their hair and beard +more abundant. They show probably the influence of the admixture with the +Aino race, which within historic times inhabited these provinces. + +Dr. Baelz, a German scholar who has spent many years in Japan, has devoted +much study to the races of Japan, and has made elaborate measurements both +of living specimens and skeletons. His conclusions may be safely followed, +as having been reached by adequate study and by personal +investigation.(26) Mainly following him therefore we give briefly the +results of the best thought in regard to the ethnography of the races now +inhabiting the Japanese islands. + +The Ainos of the present day are the descendants of the original occupants +of northern and central portions of the Main island. Their share in the +ancestry of the present Japanese people is not great, but still sensible, +and has contributed to the personal peculiarities which are found in the +inhabitants of these regions. They probably came originally from the +continent by way of the Kurile islands, or by the island of Saghalien. +They belong to the northern group of the Mongolians who inhabit the +regions about Kamtschatka and adjacent parts of Siberia. They have left +marks of their occupancy on the Main island as far south as the Hakoné +pass, in the shell heaps, flint arrow-heads, and remains of primitive +pottery which are still found. These marks indicate a low degree of +civilization, and the persistence with which they withstood the Japanese +conquerors, and the harshness and contempt with which they were always +treated, have prevented them from mingling to any great extent with their +conquerors or accepting their culture. + +The twofold character of the Japanese race as it is seen at present can +best be explained by two extensive migrations from the continent. The +first of these migrations probably took place from Korea, whence they +landed on the Main island in the province of Izumo. This will account for +the mythological legends which in the early Japanese accounts cluster to +so great an extent around Izumo. It will also explain why it was that when +Jimmu Tennō came on his expedition from the island of Kyūshū, he found on +the Main island inhabitants who in all essential particulars resembled his +own forces, and with whom he formed alliances. This first migration seems +to have belonged to a rougher and more barbarous tribe of the Mongolian +race, and has given rise to the more robust and muscular element now found +among the people. + +The second migration may have come across by the same route and landed on +the island of Kyūshū. They may have marched across the island or skirted +around its southern cape and spread themselves out in the province of +Hyūga, where in the Japanese accounts we first find them. This migration +probably occurred long after the first, and came evidently from a more +cultured tribe of the great Mongolian race. That they came from the same +race is evident from their understanding the same language, and having +habits and methods of government which were not a surprise to the +new-comers, and in which they readily co-operated. On the contrary, the +ruder tribes at the north of the Main island were spoken of as +Yemishi,—that is, barbarians, and recognized from the first as different +and inferior. + +While the natural and easiest route to Japan would be by way of the +peninsula of Korea, and by the narrow straits about 125 miles in +width,—divided into two shorter parts by the island Tsushima lying about +half-way between,—it is possible that this second migration may have taken +place through Formosa and the Ryūkyū islands. This would perhaps account +better for the Malay element which is claimed by many to be found in the +population of the southern islands. This is attempted to be accounted for +by the drifting of Malay castaways along the equatorial current upon the +Ryūkyū islands, whence they spread to the southern islands of Japan. But +the existence of this Malay element is denied by many observers who have +visited the Ryūkyū islands and aver that among the islanders there is no +evidence of the existence at any time of a Malay immigration, that the +language is only slightly different from the Japanese, and in personal +appearance they are as like to the Koreans and Chinese as the Japanese +themselves. + +Some of the most important measurements which Dr. Baelz has made of the +Japanese races are here given, converted into English measures for more +ready comprehension. + +The average height of the males among the Japanese, as obtained by the +measurements of skeletons verified by measurements of living specimens, is +5.02 feet, ranging from 4.76 feet to 5.44 feet. The average height of the +females measured was 4.66 feet, ranging from 4.46 feet to 4.92 feet. +Referring to the skulls measured by him he says that relatively they are +large, as is always the case among people of small size. + +The measurements of the Ainos by Dr. Scheube as given by Dr. Rein(27) are: +average height of males 4.9 feet to 5.2 feet, and of females 4.8 feet to +5.0 feet, which do not differ very greatly from the measurements of the +Japanese as given by Dr. Baelz. + + + + + +CHAPTER III. MYTHS AND LEGENDS. + + +The art of writing and printing was not introduced into Japan until A.D. +284, when it was brought from China. Up to that time therefore no written +accounts existed or could exist of the early history of the country. Oral +tradition was the only agency by which a knowledge of the events of that +epoch could be preserved and transmitted. That such a method of preserving +history(28) is uncertain and questionable no one can doubt. We may expect +to find therefore in the accounts which have come down to us of those +centuries which transpired before written records were introduced, much +that is contradictory and unintelligible, and much out of which the truth +can be gleaned only by the most painstaking research. + +The oldest book of Japanese history which has come down to us is called +_Kojiki_,(29) or _Records of Ancient __ Matters_. This work was undertaken +by the direction of the Emperor Temmu (A.D. 673-686), who became impressed +with the necessity of collecting the ancient traditions which were still +extant, and preserving them in a permanent record. Before the work was +ended the emperor died, and for twenty-five years the collected traditions +were preserved in the memory of Hiyeda-no-are. At the end of that time the +Empress Gemmyō superintended its completion, and it was finally presented +to the Court in A.D. 711. By a comparison of this work with _Nihongi_, or +_Chronicles of Japan_, which was completed A.D. 720, only nine years after +the other, we are convinced that the era of Chinese classicism had not yet +fallen upon the country. The style of the older book is a purer Japanese, +and imparts to us the traditions of Japanese history uncolored by Chinese +philosophical ideas and classic pedantry which shortly after overwhelmed +Japanese literature. But in many particulars these two works, almost +equally ancient, supplement and explain each other. The events given in +the two are in most respects the same, the principal difference being that +the _Chronicles_ is much more tinctured with Chinese philosophy, and the +myths concerning the creation especially show the influence of that dual +system which had been introduced to give a philosophical aspect to the +Japanese cosmogony. + +The _Kojiki_(30) has been translated into English, to which have been +added a valuable introduction and notes. The _Nihongi_ (_Chronicles of +Japan_) has never been translated entire into English, but has been used +by scholars in connection with the _Kojiki_. Among the Japanese it has +always been more highly esteemed than the _Kojiki_, perhaps because of its +more learned and classical style. + +Besides these two historical works the student of early times finds his +chief assistance in the Shintō rituals(31) contained in a work called +_Yengishiki_ (_Code of Ceremonial Law_). They have been in part translated +by Mr. Satow, who for many years was the learned Japanese secretary of the +British legation, and who read two papers on them before the Asiatic +Society of Japan, and afterward prepared an article on the same subject +for the _Westminster Review_.(32) + +It will be apparent from these circumstances that the knowledge of the +earlier events, indeed of all preceding the ninth century, must be derived +from tradition and cannot claim the same certainty as when based on +contemporaneous documents. Not only the whole of the so-called divine age, +but the reigns of the emperors from Jimmu to Richū, must be reckoned as +belonging to the traditional period of Japanese history, and must be +sifted and weighed by the processes of reason. + +Relying on the narratives of the _Kojiki_ and the _Nihongi_, Japanese +scholars have constructed a table of the emperors which has been accepted +by the great mass of the readers, both foreign and native. It will be +found in the Appendix.(33) It must be remembered that the names of these +early emperors, their ages at the time of accession and at the time of +death, and the length of reign, must have all been handed down by +tradition during almost a thousand years. That errors and uncertainties +should have crept in seems inevitable. Either the names and order of the +successive emperors, or the length of time during which they reigned would +be liable to be misstated. If we examine the list of emperors(34) we find +that the ages at death of the first seventeen, beginning with Jimmu and +ending with Nintoku, sum up 1853 years, with an average of 109 years(35) +for each. The age of Jimmu is given as 127 years; of Kōan 137 years, of +Kōrei 128 years, of Keikō 143 years, of Nintoku, the last, 110 years, etc. +Then suddenly the ages of the emperors from Richū onward drop to 67, 60, +80, 56, etc., so that the ages of the seventeen emperors, beginning with +Richū, have an average of only 61-½ years. This reasonable average extends +down through the long series to the present time. It is plain that up to +this time there must have existed a different system of reckoning the ages +than that which pertained afterwards. Either the original epoch of the +Emperor Jimmu has been rendered more remote and the lives of the emperors +have been prolonged to fill up the space, or, if we assume the epoch of +Jimmu to be correct, we must suppose that a number of the emperors have +been dropped from the count. + +The sudden depression in the ages occurs about the time of the +introduction of writing from China, which occurred in A.D. 284. Wani, who +came from Korea to Japan bringing continental culture with him, was +appointed tutor to the heir-apparent who became the Emperor Nintoku. +During his and subsequent reigns a knowledge of Chinese writing gradually +spread, so that the annals of the Imperial court were kept in regular and +stated order. This will account without difficulty for the sudden change +and for the irregularity of the early chronology. + +Notwithstanding the almost absolute certainty of error which exists in the +received Japanese chronology, it is by far more convenient to accept it in +the form it is presented to us, and use it as if it were true. The early +history must be treated as traditional and only the later period from the +beginning of the fourth century can be accepted as in any sense +historical. Yet the events of the earlier period which have been preserved +for us by oral tradition are capable with due care and inspection of +furnishing important lessons and disclosing many facts in regard to the +lives and characteristics of the primitive Japanese. + +In writing the history of Rome, Dr. Thomas Arnold(36) said that the only +way to treat its early history was to give the early legends in as nearly +the form in which they had been handed down as possible; that in this way +the spirit of the people would be preserved and the residuum of truth in +them would become the heritage of the present generation. We have tried to +treat the myths and legends of Japanese history in this manner, and have +given the principal stories as they are preserved among the Japanese. + +_The Origin of the Celestial Deities._ + +The scene opens in the plain of high heaven. When heaven and earth began +there were three deities(37) in existence, that is: + +Master-of-the-August-Centre-of-Heaven, +High-August-Producing-Wondrous-Deity, +Divine-Producing-Wondrous-Deity. + +These three came into existence without creation and afterwards died. + +Then two other deities were born from a thing that sprouted up like unto a +reed shoot when the earth, young and like unto floating oil, drifted about +medusa-like, viz.: + +Pleasant-Reed-Shoot-Prince-Elder-Deity, +Heavenly-Externally-Standing-Deity. + +These two deities likewise came into existence without creation and +afterward died. + +The five deities above named are called the Heavenly Deities. + +Next were born, + +Earthly-Eternally-Standing-Deity, +Luxuriant-Integrating-Master-Deity. + +These two deities likewise came into existence without creation and +afterwards died. + +Next were born, + +Mud-Earth-Lord and Mud-Earth-Lady, +Germ-Integrating-Deity and Life-Integrating-Deity, +Elder-of-the-Great-Place and Elder-Lady-of-the-Great-Place, +Perfect-Exterior and Oh-Awful-Lady, +The-Male-who-invites and The-Female-who-invites; +or Izanagi and Izanami. + +The two deities named above together with these five pairs are called the +seven divine generations. + +_The Creation of the Japanese Islands._ + +Then the heavenly deities gave commandment to Izanagi and Izanami to make, +consolidate, and give birth to this drifting land. For their divine +mission they received a heavenly jewelled spear. With this, standing on +the floating bridge of heaven, they reached down and stirred the brine and +then drew up the spear. The brine that dripped from the end of the spear +was piled up and became the island of Onogoro(38) or Self-Coagulated +Island. Then the pair descended upon this island and erected thereon a +palace eight fathoms long. Here they lived and begat successive islands. +The first was the island of Hirugo, which, as it was a miscarriage, they +put in a boat of bulrushes and let it float away. The second was the +island of Awa, which also is not reckoned among their offspring. The next +was the island of Awaji,(39) and the next the land of Iyo by which is +understood the present island of Shikoku. + +So in succession they produced the islands of Mitsugo, near the island of +Oki, the island of Tsukushi, which is now called Kyūshū, the island of +Iki, the island of Tsu, and the island of Sado, and lastly the +Great-Yamato-the-Luxuriant-Island-of-the-Dragon-Fly, which is supposed to +mean the principal island, named in these pages the Main island. Afterward +they produced Kojima in Kibi, Ōshima, the island of Adzuki, the island of +Hime, the island of Chika, and the islands of Futago. + +Thus were finished the labors of this industrious pair in producing the +islands of Japan. Then they turned to the duty of begetting additional +deities, and thirty-five are named as their descendants. But as their +names do not appear in the record of subsequent events, we omit them here. +Finally the Deity of Fire was born, and the mother in giving birth to this +child died and departed into hades. Izanagi was overwhelmed with grief at +his wife’s death. The tears which he shed turned into the +Crying-Weeping-Female-Deity. In his madness he drew the ten-grasp(40) +sabre with which he was augustly girded, and cut off the head of the Deity +of Fire. Three deities were born from the blood that stuck to the blade; +three were born from the blood that besprinkled the sword guard; two were +born from the blood which oozed out through his fingers as they grasped +the hilt; and eight were born from the head and trunk of the slaughtered +deity. + +_Descent into Hades._ + +Then Izanagi resolved to follow his spouse into the land of hades. At the +gate of the palace of hades she came out to meet him. After an interview +with him she went back to seek the advice of the deities of hades. To her +impatient husband she seemed to tarry too long. So he broke off the +end-tooth of the comb stuck in his hair, and kindling it as a torch he +went in. He was appalled by the dreadful pollution of the place, and by +the loathsome condition of his spouse. He fled from the scene followed by +the furious guards. By guile and by force, however, he escaped and came +again to the upper regions. + +_Purification of Izanagi._ + +Then Izanagi, in order to purify himself from the pollution of hades, came +to a small stream on the island of Tsukushi. So he threw down the august +staff which he carried and it became a deity. He took off his girdle and +it became a deity. He threw down his skirt and it became a deity. And he +took off his upper garment and it became a deity. And from his trousers +which he threw down there was born a deity. Three deities were born from +the bracelet which he took from his left arm, and three from the bracelet +which he took from his right arm. Thus twelve deities were born from the +things which he took off. + +Then he found that the waters in the upper reach were too rapid, and the +waters in the lower reach were too sluggish. So he plunged into the waters +of the middle reach. And as he washed, there were born successive deities, +whose names it is not needful to mention. But when he washed his left +august eye there was born from it the +Heaven-Shining-Great-August-Deity,(41) or as she is often called the Sun +Goddess. + +When he washed his right august eye there was born +His-Augustness-Moon-Night-Possessor. Then when he washed his august nose +there was born His-Brave-Swift-Impetuous-Male-Augustness. Thus fourteen +deities were born from his bathing. All these deities, as well as those +before produced, seem to have come into being in full maturity, and did +not need years of growth to develop their final powers. + +Izanagi was greatly delighted with the beauty and brilliancy of these last +three children. He took from his neck his august necklace and gave it to +the Sun Goddess, saying, Rule thou in the plains of high heaven. Then he +gave command to the Moon-Night-Possessor, Rule thou the dominion of the +night. + +And to His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness he commanded, Rule thou the plain of +the sea. But His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness did not assume command of his +domain, but cried and wept till his beard reached the pit of his stomach. +Then Izanagi said to him, How is it that thou dost not take possession of +thy domain, but dost wail and weep? He replied, I weep because I wish to +go to my mother in hades. Then Izanagi said, If that be so thou shalt not +dwell in this land. So he expelled him with a divine expulsion (whatever +that may mean). + +_Visit of His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness to the Heavenly Plains._ + +Then His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness said, I will first take leave of my +sister who rules in the plains of heaven. When the Sun Goddess saw her +brother coming she put jewels in her hair and on her arms, slung two +quivers of arrows on her back, put an elbow pad upon her left arm, and, +brandishing her bow, she went out to meet him. She demanded of him why he +ascended hither. Then he replied that he had no malicious intentions; that +his august father had expelled him with a divine expulsion, and that he +had come to take leave of her before departing to the land of hades. + +Thereupon she proposed to him a test of his sincerity. They stood on +opposite sides of the tranquil river of heaven. She begged him to reach +her his mighty sabre. She broke it into three pieces and crunched the +pieces in her mouth, and blew the fragments away. Her breath and the +fragments which she blew away were turned into three female deities. Then +His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness took the jewels which she wore in her hair, +and the jewels which she wore in her head-dress, and the jewels she wore +on her left arm, and the jewels she wore on her right arm, and crunched +them and blew them out, and they were turned into five male deities. Then +the Sun Goddess declared that the three female deities which were produced +from her brother’s sword belonged to him, and the five male deities which +were produced from her own jewels belonged to her. But +His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness was angry at this decision, and broke down +the fences of her rice fields, and filled up the water sluices, and +defiled her garden. And as she sat with her maidens in the weaving hall, +he broke a hole in the roof and dropped upon them a piebald horse which he +had flayed with a backward flaying.(42) + +_Retirement of the Sun Goddess._ + +Then the Sun Goddess closed the door of the cave in which the weaving hall +was, and the whole plain of heaven and the Central-Land-of-Reed-Plains +were darkened, and night prevailed, and portents of woe were seen on every +hand. Myriads of deities assembled in the bed of the tranquil river of +heaven and besought the deity Thought-Includer, child of the +High-August-Producing-Wondrous-Deity, the second of the original trio of +deities, to propose a plan for inducing the Sun Goddess to reappear. They +gathered the cocks of the barn-door fowl and made them crow; they wrought +a metal mirror; they constructed a string of beautiful jewels; they +performed divination with the shoulder-blade of a stag; they took a plant +of Sakaki and hung on its branches the strings of jewels, the mirror, and +offerings of peace. Then they caused the rituals to be recited, and a +dance to be danced, and all the assembled deities laughed aloud. The Sun +Goddess heard these sounds of merriment and was amazed. She softly opened +the door and looked out, and asked the meaning of all this tumult. They +told her it was because they had found another goddess more illustrious +than she. At the same time they held before her luminous face the mirror +which they had made. Astonished, she stepped out, and they shut and +fastened the door behind her. And the plain of heaven and the +Central-Land-of-Reed-Plains became light again. + +Then the assembled deities took council together, and caused +His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness to be punished and expelled with a divine +expulsion. + +_His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness in Izumo._ + +So His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness came to the river Hi in Izumo. And he +found there an old man and an old woman and a young girl, and they were +weeping. And he asked them why they wept. And the old man answered. I once +had eight daughters; but every year an eight-forked serpent comes and +devours one of them; and now it is the time for it to come again. Then the +deity said, Wilt thou give me thy daughter if I save her from the serpent? +And he eagerly promised her. Then the deity said, Do you brew eight tubs +of strong _saké_, and set each on a platform within an enclosure. So they +brewed and set the _saké_ according to his bidding. Then the eight-forked +serpent came and putting a head in each tub drank up all the _saké_, and +being intoxicated therewith went to sleep. The deity then with his sabre +hacked the serpent in pieces, and the blood flowed out and reddened the +river. But when he came to the middle tail his sabre was broken, and when +he searched he found that within the tail was a great sword which he took +out. And this is the herb-quelling-great-sword. + +Then His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness built for himself a palace and dwelt +there with his wife, and made the old man the master of his palace. + +Here follows a line of legends relating to the deities of the land of +Izumo, which do not concern particularly our story, except that they show +that Izumo was closely connected with the early migrations from the +continent. It must be remembered that Izumo lies almost directly opposite +to Korea, and that this would be a natural point to which the nomadic +tribes of Asia would turn in seeking for new fields in which to settle. + +_Plans for Pacifying the Land._ + +Then the heavenly deities consulted together how they might pacify the +lands of Japan. They sent down one of their number to report on its +condition. But he went no farther than the floating bridge of heaven, and +seeing the violence which prevailed he returned. Then they sent another; +but he made friends with the insurgent deities and brought back no report. +Again they sent an envoy, who married the daughter of the insurgent deity, +and for eight years sent back no report. After this they sent a pheasant +down to inquire why a report was not sent. This bird perched on a cassia +tree at the palace gate of the delinquent envoy, and he hearing its +mournful croaking shot it with an arrow, which flew up through the ether +and landed in the plains of heaven. The arrow was shot down again and +killed the envoy. Finally two other envoys were sent down, who landed in +Izumo, and after some parley with the refractory deities of the land +received their adhesion and settled and pacified the land. Then they +returned to the heavenly plains and reported that peace was established. + +_Descent of the August Grandchild._ + +The Central-Land-of-Reed-Plains(43) being now reported as peaceful, the +heavenly deities sent +His-Augustness-Heaven-Plenty-Earth-Plenty-Heaven’s-Sun-Height-Prince-Rice-Ear-Ruddy-Plenty,(44) +who was a grandson of Her-Augustness-the-Sun-Goddess, to dwell in and rule +over it. There were joined to him in this mission(45) the +Deity-Prince-of-Saruta as his vanguard and five chiefs of companies. They +gave him also the string of jewels and the mirror with which the Sun +Goddess had been allured from the cave, and also the +herb-quelling-great-sword which His-Augustness-the-Impetuous-Male-Deity +had taken from the tail of the serpent. And they charged him saying, +Regard this mirror precisely as if it were our august spirit, and +reverence it as if reverencing us. + +Then His-Augustness-Heaven’s-Prince-Rice-Ear-Ruddy-Plenty, taking leave of +the plains of heaven, and pushing asunder the heavenly spreading clouds, +descended upon the peak of Takachiho(46) in Tsukushi, a mountain which is +still pointed out in the present island of Kyūshū. And noting that the +place was an exceedingly good country, he built for himself a palace and +dwelt there. And he married a wife who was the daughter of a deity of the +place, who bore him three sons whom he named Prince Fire-Shine, Prince +Fire-Climax, and Prince Fire-Subside. + +_Princes Fire-Shine and Fire-Subside._ + +Now Prince Fire-Shine was a notable fisherman and Prince Fire-Subside was +a hunter. And Prince Fire-Subside said unto his elder brother, Let us +exchange our occupations and try our luck. And after some hesitation on +the part of the elder brother the exchange was made. But Prince +Fire-Subside was not successful and lost the fish-hook in the sea. Then +Prince Fire-Shine proposed to his younger brother to exchange back the +implements which they had used. But the younger brother said he had had no +luck and had lost the hook in the sea. But Prince Fire-Shine was angry and +demanded his hook. Then Prince Fire-Subside broke his sword into many +fragments and made them into fish-hooks, which he gave to his brother in +place of the one he had lost. But he would not receive them. Then he made +a thousand fish-hooks and offered these. But he said, I want my original +hook. + +And as Prince Fire-Subside was weeping by the sea shore the Deity +Salt-Possessor came to him and asked him why he wept. He replied, I have +exchanged a fish-hook with my elder brother, and have lost it, and he will +not be satisfied with any compensation I can make, but demands the +original hook. Then the Deity Salt-Possessor built a boat and set him in +it, and said to him, Sail on in this boat along this way, and you will +come to a palace built of fishes’ scales. It is the palace of the Deity +Ocean-Possessor. There will be a cassia tree by the well near the palace. +Go and sit in the top of that tree, and the daughter of the +Ocean-Possessor will come to thee and tell thee what to do. + +So he sailed away in the boat and came to the palace of the +Ocean-Possessor, and he climbed the cassia tree and sat there. And the +maidens of the daughter of the Sea Deity came out to draw water, and saw +the beautiful young man sitting in the tree. Then he asked them for some +water. And they drew water and gave it to him in a jewelled cup. Without +drinking from it he took the jewel from his neck and put it in his mouth +and spat it into the vessel, and it clung to the vessel. So the maidens +took the vessel and the jewel clinging to it into the palace to their +mistress. And they told her that a beautiful young man was sitting in the +cassia tree by the well. + +The Sea Deity then went out himself and recognized the young man as Prince +Fire-Subside. He brought him into the palace, spread rugs for him to sit +on, and made a banquet for him. He gave him his daughter in marriage, and +he abode there three years. + +At last one morning his daughter reported to the Sea Deity that Prince +Fire-Subside, although he had passed three years without a sigh, yet last +night he had heaved one deep sigh. The Sea Deity asked him why he sighed. +Then Prince Fire-Subside told him about his difficulty with his brother, +and how he would accept no compensation for his lost fish-hook, but +demanded the return of the original. Thereupon the Sea Deity summoned +together all the fishes of the sea and asked them if any one of them had +swallowed this hook. And all the fishes said that the _tai_ had complained +of something sticking in its throat, and doubtless that was the lost hook. +The throat of the _tai_ therefore being examined, the hook was found and +given to Prince Fire-Subside. + +Then the Sea Deity dismissed him to his own country, and gave him two +jewels, a flow-tide jewel and an ebb-tide jewel. And he set him on the +head of an immense crocodile and bade the crocodile convey him carefully +and come back and make a report. And Prince Fire-Subside gave the +recovered hook to his brother. But a spirit of animosity still dwelt in +his heart, and he tried to kill his brother. Then Prince Fire-Subside +threw out the flow-tide jewel, and the tide came in upon the Prince +Fire-Shine and was about to drown him. And he cried out to his brother and +expressed his repentance. Then Prince Fire-Subside threw out the ebb-tide +jewel and the tide flowed back and left him safe. + +Then Prince Fire-Shine bowed his head before his younger brother, and +said, Henceforth I will be thy guard by day and night, and will faithfully +serve thee. + +And His-Augustness-Prince-Fire-Subside succeeded his father and dwelt in +the palace of Takachiho five hundred and eighty years. The place of his +tomb is still shown on Mount Takachiho in the province of Hyūga of the +island of Kyūshū. And he left as his successor his son, whom the daughter +of the Sea Deity had borne him. And this son was the father of +His-Augustness-Divine-Yamato-Iware-Prince, who is known to posterity by +his canonical name of Jimmu, the first emperor of Japan. + + + + + +CHAPTER IV. FOUNDING THE EMPIRE. + + +We have now come to the time when the movements which resulted in the +establishment of the empire of Japan took place. The events are still +overlaid with myth and legend, which could only have been transmitted by +oral tradition. But they have to do with characters and places which are +tied to the present by stronger cords than those of the divine age. What +the events really were which are involved in the myths of the preceding +chapter it is impossible to predicate. That the celestial invasion of the +island of Kyūshū means the coming thither of a chief and his followers +from the continent by way of Korea seems most reasonable. The +inter-mixture of Izumo with these legends may mean that another migration +of a kindred race took place to that part of the Main island. The easy +access to both Izumo and Kyūshū from Korea makes these migrations the +natural explanation of the landing of the Japanese upon these fertile and +tempting islands. + +Without settling the difficult ethnographical questions which are involved +in this problem, we propose to follow the Kyūshū invaders into the Main +island. We will note the slow and laborious steps by which they proceeded +to establish a government, which through many changes and emergencies +continues to this day. + +The Prince, whom we will continue to call Jimmu,(47) had an elder brother, +Prince Itsu-se, who seems, however, to have been less active and energetic +than the younger. At least, even from the first it is Prince Jimmu who is +represented as taking the initiative in the movements which were now +begun. The two brothers consulted together and resolved to conduct an +expedition towards the east. It will be remembered that their grandfather +had established his palace on Mount Takachiho, which is one of the two +highest peaks in Kyūshū, situated in the province of Hyūga, nearly in the +middle of the southern extension of the island of Kyūshū. It was from this +place that the two brothers started on their expedition. It was no doubt +such an expedition as the Norse Vikings of a later day often led into the +islands of their neighbors. They had with them a force composed of the +descendants of the invaders who had come with their grandfather from the +continent. They marched first through the country called Toyo, which was a +luxuriant and fertile region on the northeast part of the island. Thence +they marched to the palace of Wokada, situated in a district of the island +of Tsukushi, lying on the northwest coast facing Tsushima and the +peninsula of Korea, and bordering on the straits of the Inland sea. Here +they remained a year and probably built the boats by which they crossed +the Inland sea. + +From Tsukushi they crossed to the province of Aki in the Main island on +the coast of the Inland sea, where it is said they remained seven years. +The progress seems like that of the hordes of the Goths in the early ages +of European history. It was not merely a military expedition, but a +migration of a tribe with all its belongings, women and children, old men +and old women, and household and agricultural effects. The military band +under Prince Jimmu and his brother formed the vanguard and protection of +the tribe. During their seven years’ sojourn in Aki they were compelled to +resort to agriculture as well as fishing for their support. + +Then they skirted along the north coast of the Inland sea to Takashima in +the province of Kibi. Thence they crept with their awkward boats eastward +among the luxuriant islands. They met a native of the coast out in his +boat fishing and engaged his services as a guide. He conducted them to +Naniwa, which now bears the name of Ōsaka, where they encountered the +swift tides and rough sea which navigators still meet in this place. +Finally they landed at a point which we cannot recognize, but which must +have been in the neighborhood of Ōsaka at the mouth of the Yodo river. + +Here their conflicts with the natives began. The whole region seems to +have been occupied by tribes not unlike their own, who had probably come +thither from the settlements in Izumo. The first to dispute their progress +was Prince Nagasuné (Long Legs), of Tomi, who raised an army and resisted +the landing of the invaders. It was in the battle that ensued at this +place that Prince Itsu-se, the elder brother, received a wound in his hand +from an arrow shot by Prince Nagasuné. The reason given reveals a curious +superstition which seems to have prevailed from this early time. The +Japanese prince on receiving the wound exclaims, “It is not right for me, +an august child of the Sun Goddess, to fight facing the sun. It is for +this reason that I am stricken by the wretched villain’s hurtful hand.” +Prince Itsu-se, after a few days, died from the effects of the wound. He +is buried on mount Kama in the province of Kii. + +It is needless to recount all the legends which cluster around this +invasion of the central provinces of Japan; about the wild boar which came +out of the mountains near Kumano, before which Prince Jimmu and all his +warriors fell down in a faint; about the miraculous sword which was sent +down from the heavenly plains to aid him in subduing the +Central-Land-of-Reed-Plains; about a crow eight feet long which was sent +to guide him in his expedition, and about the deities with tails who in +several places were encountered. To our conception they seem meaningless, +and do not in any measure contribute to the progress of the story. They +bear evidence of a later invention, and do not belong legitimately to the +narrative. + +At Uda, on the east coast of the Yamato peninsula, there lived two +brothers named Ukashi. The elder brother undertook to deceive Prince +Jimmu, and set a trap in which to capture and slay him. But the younger +brother revealed the plot, whereupon the followers of Prince Jimmu +compelled the traitor to retreat into his own trap, where they killed him. +The younger brother was honored and rewarded by Jimmu, and appears +afterward among the hereditary princes of the country. + +Again, as he was making his progress through the country Prince Jimmu came +upon a company of the savages known as pit-dwellers,(48) whom the _Kojiki_ +calls earth-spiders, and describes them as having tails. There appear to +have existed at this period remnants of these tribes as far south as the +35th parallel. At a later period they were driven out by the Ainos, and +nothing but some of their relics now exists, even in Yezo. The peculiarity +by which they were known was, that they lived in a sort of pit dug out of +the earth in the sides of the mountains, over which they built a roof of +limbs and grass. In the present case there were eighty of the warriors of +this tribe. Prince Jimmu made a banquet for them in one of their pits and +assigned an equal number of his own men to act as attendants. Each of +these attendants was girded with a sword. Then from a post outside he sang +a song,(49) and at a given signal in this song the eighty attendants fell +upon the eighty earth-spiders and slew them all. + +Thus having subdued all opposing forces and brought the country into +subjection, Prince Jimmu established himself in a palace built for him at +Kashiwara in the province of Yamato. This is usually regarded by Japanese +historians as the beginning of the empire, and the present era(50) is +reckoned from this establishment of a capital in Yamato. From the record +of the length of the reigns of the several emperors contained in the +_Kojiki_, and the _Nihongi_, and later books, the date of the accession of +the Emperor Jimmu is fixed at 660 B.C. We have given elsewhere(51) our +reason for believing the record of the early reigns of doubtful +authenticity. Nevertheless, as it is impossible to propose a definite +change, it is better to use the accepted scheme with its admitted defects. + +The Emperor Jimmu after his accession continued to reign seventy-five +years and, according to the _Kojiki_, died at the age of one hundred and +thirty-seven. The _Nihongi_, however, gives his age at death as one +hundred and twenty-seven, and this has been adopted by the government in +its published chronology.(52) His burial place is said to be on the +northern side of mount Unebi in the province of Yamato. It is just to +assign to the Emperor Jimmu the exalted place which the Japanese claim for +him in their history. That he was a prince of high enterprise is evident +from his adventurous expedition from the home of his family into the +barbarous and unknown regions of the Main island. He accomplished its +conquest with less slaughter and cruelty than the customs of the times +seemed to justify. He made it his policy to effect terms with the native +princes and seek their co-operation in his government. He extended his +sway so that it covered Anato, now known as Nagato, and Izumo on the west, +and reached probably to Owari on the east. All this time he had held a +firm hand on the island from which he had come, so that few if any +outbreaks occurred among its restless Turanian or native inhabitants. + +The Emperor Jimmu was succeeded by his third son, known by his canonical +name as the Emperor Suizei. The reigning emperor, it seems, exercised the +right to select the son who should succeed him. This was not always the +oldest son, but from the time he was chosen he was known as _taishi_, +which is nearly equivalent to the English term crown prince. The Emperor +Suizei, it is said, occupied a palace at Takaoka, in Kazuraki, in the +province of Yamato. This palace was not far from that occupied by his +father, yet it was not the same. And in the reigns of the successive +sovereigns down to A.D. 709, when the capital was for a time established +at Nara, we observe it as a most singular circumstance that each new +emperor resided in a new palace. In the first place, the palace spoken of +in these early times was probably a very simple structure. Mr. Satow, in +his paper(53) on the temples at Isé, gives an account of the form and +construction of the prehistoric Japanese house. The Shintō temple in its +pure form is probably a survival of the original palace. Before the +introduction of edge-tools of iron and boring implements or nails, the +building must have been constructed in a very primitive fashion. It will +be understood that stone or brick were never used. Wood was the only +material for the frame. The roof was thatched with rushes or rice straw. +The pure Shintō temples of modern times are built with the utmost +simplicity and plainness. Although the occasion for adhering to primitive +methods has long since passed away, yet the buildings are conformed to the +styles of structure necessary before the introduction of modern tools and +appliances. To build a new palace therefore for a new emperor involved by +no means such an outlay of time and work as might be imagined. + +It is not improbable that when a young man was chosen crown prince he had +an establishment of his own assigned to him, and this became his palace +which he occupied when he became emperor. When a man died, and especially +when an emperor died, it was an ancient custom to abandon his abode. It +became unclean by the presence in it of a dead body, and therefore was no +longer used. + + [Illustration] + + Shinto Temple + + +Nothing is narrated of the immediate successors of the Emperor Jimmu of +importance to this story. The accounts contained in either of the oldest +histories relate merely to the genealogies of the several sovereigns. + +The Emperor Suizei was, as we have seen, the third son of Jimmu and +reigned thirty-two years, dying at the age of eighty-four.(54) + +The third emperor was Annei, the only son of the Emperor Suizei. He +reigned thirty-seven years and died at the age of fifty-seven. + +The fourth emperor was Itoku, the oldest son of the Emperor Annei. He +reigned thirty-three years and died at the age of seventy-seven. + +The fifth emperor was Kōshō, the oldest son of the Emperor Itoku. He +reigned eighty-two years and died at the age of one hundred and fourteen +years. + +The sixth emperor was Kōan, the oldest son of the Emperor Kōshō. He +reigned one hundred and one years and died at the age of one hundred and +thirty-seven. + +The seventh emperor was Kōrei, the second son of the Emperor Kōan. He +reigned seventy-five years and died at the age of one hundred and +twenty-eight. + +The eighth emperor was Kōgen, the oldest son of the Emperor Kōrei. He +reigned fifty-six years and died at the age of one hundred and sixteen. + +The ninth emperor was Kaikwa, a younger son of the Emperor Kōgen. He +reigned fifty-nine years and died at the age of one hundred and eleven. + +The tenth emperor was Sūjin, a younger son of the Emperor Kaikwa. He +reigned sixty-seven years and died at the age of one hundred and nineteen. +It is narrated that during his reign a pestilence broke out which was so +severe that the country was almost depopulated. The emperor was greatly +disturbed by this calamity, and there appeared to him in the night a +divine vision. The Great Deity, the Great Master of Things, appeared and +revealed to him, that if he would cause him to be appropriately worshipped +the pestilence would cease. The worship was accordingly ordained and +executed, and the pestilence forthwith abated. + +In this reign expeditions were also sent into the northwestern and +northeastern districts of the Main island to repress the disturbances +which had arisen. The reports from these expeditions were in each case +favorable, and the whole empire was in a condition of quiet and +prosperity, such as had not before existed. Taxes were for the first time +levied on the proceeds of the chase and on the handiwork of the women. +Reservoirs for the collection of water, used in the irrigation of the rice +crops, were constructed in the imperial provinces, and encouragement was +everywhere given to the growing industries of the country. + +The Emperor Sūjin was succeeded by his younger son who is known as the +eleventh emperor under the name of Suinin. He is said to have reigned +ninety-nine years, and to have died at the age of one hundred and +forty-one. + +A conspiracy came near ending the life of this emperor. A brother of the +empress was ambitious to attain supreme authority. He approached his +sister with the subtle question, Which is dearer to thee, thine elder +brother or thy husband? She replied, My elder brother is dearer. Then he +said, If I be truly the dearer to thee, let me and thee rule the empire. +And he gave her a finely tempered dagger and said to her, Slay the emperor +with this in his sleep. So the emperor, unconscious of danger, was +sleeping one day with his head on the lap of the empress. And she, +thinking the time had come, was about to strike him with the dagger. But +her courage failed her, and tears fell from her eyes on the face of the +sleeping emperor. He started up, awakened by the falling tears, and said +to her, I have had a strange dream. A violent shower came up from the +direction of Saho and suddenly wet my face. And a small damask-colored +snake coiled itself around my neck. What can such a dream betoken? Then +the empress, conscience-stricken, confessed the conspiracy with her +brother. + +The emperor, knowing that no time was to be lost, immediately collected a +force of troops and marched against his brother-in-law. He had entrenched +himself behind palisades of timber and awaited the emperor’s attack. The +empress, hesitating between her brother and her husband, had made her +escape to her brother’s palace. At this terrible juncture she was +delivered of a child. She brought the child to the palisades in sight of +the emperor, and cried out to him to take it under his care. He was deeply +moved by her appeal to him and forthwith planned to rescue both the child +and its mother. He chose from among his warriors a band of the bravest and +most cunning, and commanded them, saying, When ye go to take the child, be +sure that ye seize also the mother. + +But she, fearing that the soldiers would try to snatch her when they came +for the child, shaved off her hair and covered her head with the loose +hair as if it were still adhering. And she made the jewel-strings around +her neck and arms rotten, and she rendered her garments, by which they +might catch hold of her, tender by soaking them in _saké_. When the +soldiers came to her she gave them the child and fled. Then they seized +her by the hair and it came away in their hands; and they clutched at the +jewel-strings and they broke; and then they grasped her garments, but they +had been rendered tender and gave way in their hands. So she escaped from +them and fled. Then they went back to the emperor and reported that they +had been unable to capture the mother, but they had brought the babe. The +emperor was angry at what the soldiers told him. He was angry at the +jewellers who had made the rotten jewel-strings and deprived them of their +lands. He called to the empress through the burning palisades around the +palace—for the soldiers had set fire to the palace—saying, A child’s name +must be given by its mother; what shall be the name of this child? And she +answered, Let it be called Prince Homu-chiwake. And again he called: How +shall he be reared? She replied, Take for him a foster-mother and bathing +woman who shall care for him. Then he asked again, saying: Who shall +loosen the small, fresh pendant which you have tied upon him? And she gave +directions concerning this also. Then the emperor paused no longer, but +slew the rebellious prince in his burning palace, and the empress perished +with her wicked brother. + +Following this is a long legend concerning this child which was dumb from +its birth, and how he was sent to worship at the temple of the deities of +Izumo, and how he miraculously attained the power of speech and was +brought back to his father. + +It was during the reign of this emperor also that Tajima-mori was sent to +China to fetch specimens of the orange-tree for introduction into Japan. +He returned with them, but when he reached the capital the emperor was +dead. The messenger was shocked and brought the specimens of the +orange-tree to the burial place of the emperor, where he died from grief. + +Up to this time it seems to have been the cruel custom to bury with the +deceased members of the imperial family, and perhaps with others of high +rank, the living retainers and horses who had been in their service. It is +said that when the emperor’s younger brother died (B.C. 2) they buried +along with him his living retainers, placing them upright in a circle +around him and leaving their heads uncovered. Night and day were heard the +agonizing cries of these thus left to die of starvation. The emperor was +greatly moved and resolved that this terrible custom should be abolished. +Four years later the empress herself died, and the emperor called together +his counsellors to propose some plan by which this practice of living +sacrifices could be avoided. Thereupon one of his counsellors, +Nomi-no-Sukuné, advanced and begged the emperor to listen to a scheme +which he had to present. He suggested that, instead of burying the living +retainers with their master or mistress, clay images of men and women and +horses be set up in a circle around the burial place. The plan pleased the +emperor vastly, and images were at once made and buried around the dead +empress. As a mark of his high appreciation Nomi-no-Sukuné was appointed +chief of the clay-workers guild. + +It appears probable that this cruel usage of burying living retainers with +their dead master was not entirely ended by this substitution of clay +images. As late as A.D. 646 the emperor found it necessary to prescribe +regulations for funerals and to forbid the burial of living retainers. Mr. +Satow(55) has given a most interesting account of this edict which +pertains not only to the practice of burial of retainers, but also to the +size of vaults and mounds and the number of laborers who might be employed +in preparing the structure. + +The images used as a substitute for living retainers were called _Tsuchio +Ningio_ (clay images). They have been found in many parts of the country, +especially in the home provinces where the burial of the imperial families +and the connected nobility took place. This burying of images seems to +have died out about A.D. 700. Its discontinuance probably was owing to the +growing prevalence of Buddhism which discountenanced a custom founded on a +religion anterior to it. + + [Illustration] + + Buried Images + + +The Emperor Suinin was succeeded by his younger son Keikō who became the +twelfth emperor. He reigned fifty-nine years, and died at the age of one +hundred and forty-three. His son, Prince O-usu, who afterward was known as +Yamato-dake, is represented as pursuing a most daring and romantic career. +The myths concerning him are among the most picturesque in Japanese +history. + +The first adventure narrated of him was regarding his elder brother. His +father asked him, Why does not thy elder brother make his appearance at +the imperial banquets? Do thou see after this and teach him his duty. + +A few days after his father said again to him, Why dost not thy brother +attend to his duty? Hast thou not warned him as I bade thee? + +The young prince replied that he had taken that trouble. Then his father +said, How didst thou take the trouble to warn him? And the prince coolly +told him that he had slain him and thrown his carcass away. + +The emperor was alarmed at the coolness and ferocity of his son, and +bethought how he might employ him advantageously. Now there were at Kumaso +in Kyūshū two brothers, fierce and rebellious bandits, who paid small +respect to the imperial wishes. The emperor conceived that it would be a +fitting achievement for his fearless son to put an end to these reckless +outlaws. So Yamato-dake borrowed from his aunt her female apparel, and +hiding a sword in the bosom of his dress, he sought out the two outlaws in +their hiding-place. They were about to celebrate the occupancy of a new +cave which they had fitted up for themselves. They had invited a goodly +number of their neighbors, and especially of the female sex. Prince +Yamato-dake, who was young and fresh-looking, put on his female disguise +and let down his hair which was still long. He sauntered about the cave +and went in where the two outlaws were amusing themselves with their +female visitors. They were surprised and delighted to see this new and +beautiful face. They seated her between them and did their best to +entertain her. + +Suddenly, when the outlaws were off their guard, he drew his sword from +his bosom and slew the elder brother. The younger rushed out of the door +of the cave, the prince close at his heels. With one hand he clutched him +by the back and with the other thrust him through with his sword. As he +fell he begged the prince to pause a moment and not to withdraw his sword +from his fatal wound. + +Then the outlaw said, Who art thou? And he told him and for what purpose +he had come. + +The outlaw said, There were in the west none so brave as we two brothers. +From this time forward it shall be right to praise thee as the August +Child Yamato-dake (the bravest in Yamato). + +As soon as he had said this, the prince “ripped him up like a ripe +melon.”(56) + +Then after he had subdued and pacified the rebellious princes of the +districts about the straits of Shimonoseki he returned to the emperor and +made his report. + +Following this account of Yamato-dake’s adventures in the West, there are +given the interesting traditions concerning his expedition to the East, +and his encounters with the Ainos, who inhabited the northern part of the +island. That there was a basis of fact to these traditions there cannot be +a doubt. Yet the events have such an air of fable and poetry that it is +impossible to separate the fact from the legend. As we have done in +previous instances, we give the stories in their essential entirety, +leaving to scholars hereafter the task of winnowing the grains of fact out +of the chaff which the imagination of the race has left for us. + +Prince Yamato-dake took on his expedition to the East the Prince +Mi-suki-tomo-mimi-take. The emperor gave him these instructions: “Subdue +and pacify the savage deities, and likewise the unsubmissive people of the +twelve roads(57) of the East.” + +Prince Yamato-dake first visited the temple of the Sun Goddess in Isé, +where he worshipped at the shrine of his great ancestress. He must have +had a presentiment that he never would return alive from this expedition. +His aunt Yamato-hime,(58) who was the priestess of this temple, gave him +on his departure the sword(59) which the Impetuous-Male-Deity discovered +in the tail of the snake which he slew in Izumo. She also gave him a bag +which he was not to open until he found himself in pressing difficulty. + +He came to the land of Owari, and appears there to have been smitten by +the charms of the Princess Miyazu. And, planning to wed her on his way +back, he plighted to her his troth and went on. Then he came to the +province of Sagami, where he met the chief of the land. But he deceived +him and said that in the midst of a vast moor there is a lagoon where +lives a deity. Yamato-dake went over the moor to find the deity. Whereupon +the chief set fire to the grass, expecting to see him consumed. But +Yamato-dake seeing his danger, and being assured that the time of pressing +difficulty had come, opened the bag which his aunt, Yamato-hime, had given +him. There he found a fire drill,(60) with which a fire could be struck. +He cut away the grass around him with the sword which had been given him, +and then set fire to the moor. When he was safe from the fire he sought +out and slew the traitorous chief and all the chiefs who were associated +with him. + +From Sagami he undertook to cross in a boat the waters of Yedo bay to +Kazusa opposite. But the sea was rough and they were on the point of being +overwhelmed and drowned. Then his wife, the Princess Oto-Tachibana, who +accompanied him on this expedition, threw out mats from the boat, and +saying, “I will enter the sea instead of the prince; you must finish the +task on which you are sent,” she sprang from the boat and sat down on the +mats(61) she had thrown out. Immediately the waves were quiet and the boat +sailed on in safety. And the comb of the princess was washed ashore, and +the people built for it a sacred mausoleum in which it was kept. + +Then Prince Yamato-dake penetrated the regions occupied by the Ainos(62) +and subdued them. Having accomplished this principal object of his +undertaking, he returned by way of the Usui pass opposite to mount Fuji. +As he stood in this lofty position and looked out on the sea where his +wife had sacrificed herself for his safety, he cried out: “Azuma ha ya!” +(O my wife!) Azuma is a name often used in poetry for the part of Japan +north of this pass. But whether this myth was invented to explain the +name, or the name was derived from the incident, it is impossible to +determine. + +Then Prince Yomato-dake went into the high lands of Shinano and after he +had settled the disturbances which existed there, he came back to Owari +where he had left the Princess Miyazu. In one of his excursions into the +rebellious regions he was stricken with a fatal illness. In his enfeebled +condition he struggled on, almost unable to walk. He made his way towards +Isé. At Ōtsu, a village on the coast of Owari bay, he recovered the sword +which he had left on his way to the East. In his painful journey he sat +down under a pine tree. The spirit of poesy even in his pain came upon him +and he sang this little poem(63) in praise of the pine tree: + + + O mine elder brother, the single pine tree + That art on cape Ōtsu, which directly faces Owari! + If thou single pine tree! wert a person, + I would gird my sword upon thee, + I would clothe thee with my garments,— + O mine elder brother, the single pine tree! + + +He went on a little farther to Nobono and his sickness became more +serious. And there in the open fields he felt that his end had come. He +sent the spoils of his expedition to the temple of his great ancestress, +the Sun Goddess. He sent his faithful companion Prince Kibi-no-Takehito to +the emperor to carry his last message. It was: “I have chastised the +eastern barbarians according to your imperial order with the help of the +gods and with your imperial influence. I hoped to return in triumph with +my weapons wrapped in white. But I have been seized with a mortal disease, +and I cannot recover. I am lying in the sweet open fields. I do not care +for my life. I only regret that I cannot live to appear before thee and +make my report of my expedition.” + +And he died in the thirty-second year of his age. And they buried him +there and built a mausoleum over his remains. The emperor lamented the +death of his gallant and immortal son, and made an imperial progress into +the regions which he had conquered and pacified. + +The successor to the Emperor Keikō was known by the canonical name of +Seimu. He was the thirteenth emperor, and was the grandson of his +predecessor, having been a son of the hero Yamato-dake who was the crown +prince until his death. The Emperor Seimu reigned fifty-nine years and +died at the age of one hundred and eight. Nothing noteworthy is narrated +of his reign. + +His successor, the fourteenth emperor, was Chūai, his eldest son. He +reigned only eight years and died at the age of fifty-two. It is +remarkable that his capital was in the island of Kyūshū and not in the +Main island, like his predecessors from the time of the Emperor Jimmu. +This removal was probably due to the preparations which had already begun +for the invasion of Korea. The island of Kyūshū is most favorably situated +for the preparation and sailing of such an expedition. The wife of this +emperor was Jingō-Kōgō, who was a much more forcible and energetic +character than her husband. + +She is one of the heroines around whom much tradition has gathered, and +her successful invasion of Korea is an event which the Japanese writers +and artists are never tired of representing. The legend—for undoubtedly +much of the story is legendary—is essentially as follows: + +The emperor was busy in Kyūshū in reducing to subjection the tribes of the +Kumaso who inhabited the southern portion of the island. Up to this time +these restless tribes had given much trouble to the empire and expeditions +were constantly needed to keep them in order. They were unquestionably of +a kindred race with the Japanese who accompanied the Emperor Jimmu into +the Main island. The empress, afterward known as Jingō-Kōgō and the +faithful prime-minister Take-no-uchi(64) were at their temporary palace at +Kashihi. The empress in an interview on the campaign became divinely +possessed. And she spoke to the emperor in the name of the deity that +possessed her saying, “There is a land at the westward, and in that land +there is abundance of various treasures dazzling to the eye, from gold and +silver downwards. I will now bestow this land upon thee.” + +Then the emperor replied, “If you ascend to a high place and look +westward, no country is to be seen; there is only the great sea.” And he +pushed away the lute upon which he was playing and said, “They are lying +deities which have spoken to you.” Then the deity was very angry and spoke +again through the empress. “This empire is not a land over which thou art +fit to rule. Go thou the one road.” + +The prime-minister Take-no-uchi then said to the emperor, “I am filled +with awe, my heavenly sovereign, at this fearful message. I pray thee +continue playing thy august lute.” Then he played softly; and gradually +the sound died away and all was still. And they took a light and looking +in his face, behold he was dead. + +The empress and the prime-minister Take-no-uchi concealed for the time the +death of the emperor, and she herself proceeded to carry out the plan for +the invasion of Korea. With indefatigable energy she gathered her forces +and equipped a fleet for the descent upon Korea. She set out from Wani in +Kyūshū in the tenth month of the year A.D. 202. Even the fish of the sea +were her allies, for with one accord they bore the ship in which she +sailed across the intervening straits on their backs. + +The coming of the Japanese was a complete surprise to the people of Korea. +At this time the peninsula now known to us as Korea and to the Japanese as +Chōsen, was divided into three kingdoms, Kōrai, Shiraki, and Kudara. The +fleet of Jingō-Kōgō landed in the kingdom of Shiraki. The king was so +completely unprepared for this incursion that he at once offered his +subjection and proposed to become a tributary kingdom. The proposition was +accepted. The kings of Kōrai and Kudara made similar proposals which also +were accepted. Each was to make an immediate contribution to the empress, +and annually thereafter to send tribute to the capital of Japan. Thus they +became the three tributary countries (_sankan_) dependent on Japan. +Although this invasion of a foreign country without cause or provocation +must be pronounced indefensible, yet it is not unlikely that the subject +kingdoms were quite as safe and free under the distant and little +intermeddlesome dominion of the Japanese empire, as they had been in the +past or were likely to be in the future from their troublesome neighbors, +China and the restless Mongolian tribes. To Japan the connection with the +continent was of momentous value. It opened up a natural and easy way for +the influx of those continental influences which were to be of so great +service in their future history. + +The empress, having within three years completely accomplished the object +of her expedition, returned with her fleet to Kyūshū. She brought back +with her hostages from the conquered kingdoms, to ensure their fulfilment +of the promises they had made. She had learned many lessons of government +which she was not slow to introduce into her administration at home. Soon +after reaching Kyūshū she was delivered of the son of whom she was +pregnant at the time of the death of the emperor, and who afterwards +became the Emperor Ōjin. + +The object which she and her faithful prime-minister had in concealing the +death of the emperor was accomplished. They now made the fact public, and +proclaimed her own son as her successor. Two older sons of Chūai by +another empress were unwilling to submit to the rule of a younger brother. +But the Empress Jingō, who had now become a national idol by her Korean +expedition, soon put down the conspiracy of these princes and reigned till +the end of her life and left a quiet succession to her son. + +She is said to have reigned as empress-regent(65) sixty-eight years, and +to have died at the age of one hundred. + +Her son became the fifteenth emperor and is known by the canonical name of +Ōjin. He commenced his reign in the year A.D. 270, and reigned forty years +and died at the age of one hundred and ten. But the beginning of his reign +is reckoned in the government list from the death of his father. The +Emperor Ōjin is widely worshipped as Hachiman the god of war, although he +is by no means noted as a warrior. The explanation of this curious +circumstance is found in the fact that his mother was pregnant with him +during her famous invasion of Korea, and her heroism and success are +attributed to the martial character of her unborn son. + +The good fruits of the Korean conquest particularly showed themselves in +A.D. 284, when the king of Kudara sent his usual tribute to the emperor of +Japan. The ambassador for that year was Ajiki, a learned man who was +familiar with Chinese literature. At the request of the emperor he gave +the young prince, who afterwards became the Emperor Nintoku, lessons in +the Chinese language and literature. The year following the king of Kudara +seeing how much his efforts to furnish Chinese learning were appreciated, +sent an eminent Chinese scholar, Wani, who took with him the _Confucian +Analects_ and the _Thousand Character Essay_, two noted Chinese classics +and presented them to the emperor. The prince continued his studies under +Wani and became a very learned man. + +The emperor had three sons between whom he wished to divide his authority, +wishing however to establish his youngest son as the crown prince and his +successor. He summoned them before him and put this question to the elder, +“Which should be preferred, a younger son or an older?” Then the elder son +replied that he thought the older son should be preferred. But the emperor +turned to the second son and asked him the same question. He replied that +as the older son was more grown and less of a care, he thought the younger +son would be more of a favorite. The emperor was pleased with this reply +because it coincided with his own sentiment. He created his youngest son, +Prince Waka-iratsu, the crown prince and ordered his second son, Prince +Osasagi, to assist him. He gave the charge of the mountains, rivers, +forests, fields, etc. to his eldest son. + +So when the Emperor Ōjin died A.D. 310, the younger son urged his brother +to accept the imperial power; but he declined, saying: “How can I disobey +the commands of my father?” The oldest of the three brothers, learning of +the controversy, undertook to secure the authority for himself by a plot. +The conspiracy was, however, soon put down and the elder brother slain. +The friendly dispute between the two other brothers lasted three years and +was finally ended by the younger committing suicide, and thus devolving +the imperial office on his remaining brother. This brother was the noted +Emperor Nintoku. He began his reign in the year A.D. 313, and died A.D. +399 in the one hundred and tenth year of his age. He was a most careful +and considerate ruler. By observing his subjects he was convinced that +they were overburdened and impoverished with the taxes which the +government collected from them. So he announced by an imperial decree that +for three years all taxes should be remitted. Even the sums which were +necessary to keep the palace in repair and to provide his court with +suitable clothing were not collected. And the palace grew shabby, and its +roof leaked, and he himself went about in coarse and cheap garments. And +the farmers came to him and begged that they might contribute to his +wants. But he refused, and suffered three years to pass. In the meantime +the country revived, and the farmers being relieved from the burdens which +they had so long borne entered on a long period of encouraging prosperity. +He surveyed the land from a high outlook, and saw the curling smoke and +the fertile fields and rejoiced. Then he gave commands, and the taxes were +renewed, and the people paid them willingly, and they in their gratitude +called Nintoku the Sage Emperor. + +It was in the reign of the Emperor Nintoku that the noted prime-minister +Prince Take-no-uchi is said to have died. He had served six emperors, +viz.: Keikō, Seimu, Chūai, Jingō-Kōgō, Ōjin, and Nintoku. His age(66) is +given variously from two hundred and eighty-two to three hundred and +eighty, in different books, one of which is a Chinese work and one a +Korean. It will be remembered that he was the chief adviser of the warlike +Empress Jingō in her invasion of Korea, and took an active part in the +events which followed that expedition. That there was such a figure in +Japanese history there can be little doubt, but that much of his life and +the great age to which he lived are like many of the stories of the +characters in the midst of which he lived, legendary and mythical, no one +can question. + +It was in this reign also that we have it stated that historiographers +were sent out to the provinces and directed to make record of all +important events and forward them to the court. + +We have now reached a point in Japanese history where the accounts +compiled by the historians of the times have written records on which to +rely. The legendary and marvellous stories which have been the bulk of the +preceding history may now be replaced by the soberer narrations which +writing has preserved for us. It will be seen that the lives(67) of the +emperors now drop from the astonishing age which in previous years they +attained to a very moderate and reasonable length. In the subsequent +chapters will be found the sober and chastened story to which Japanese +history is henceforth reduced. + + + + + +CHAPTER V. NATIVE CULTURE AND CONTINENTAL INFLUENCES. + + +Before going on to the meagre story which is supplied to us by the early +years of Japanese history, it will be well to glean from the myths and +legends which tradition has preserved the lessons which they contain. +Although we may be unable to concede the truth of these traditions in +their entirety, and believe in the celestial origin of the race and the +wonders of the divine age, we may be able to obtain from them many +important facts regarding the habits and manner of life of the early +Japanese. + +We have often referred to the admirable work Mr. Chamberlain has done in +his translation of the _Kojiki_, and in the scholarly notes he has added. +But in our present enquiries we must give him still greater credit for the +important lessons which he has drawn from the myths and legends of the +_Kojiki_ in his learned introduction. No writer at the present day can +afford to dispense with the deductions which he has been able to draw from +the oldest writings of the Japanese, and from the traditions of an older +date which these writings have preserved. Relying therefore chiefly on +this learned introduction,(68) we propose to enumerate in a summary manner +the particulars concerning the early Japanese life. + +In the first place the government of the early Japanese was of the tribal +order. The emperor was the chieftain of an expedition which came from the +island of Kyūshū and established a government by conquest. The chiefs of +the various localities were reduced to subjection and became tributary to +the emperor, or were replaced by new chiefs appointed by the emperor. The +government was therefore essentially feudal in its characteristics. The +emperor depended for the consideration of his plans and for their +execution upon officers who were attached to his court. There were guilds +composed of those who manufactured various articles, or who were employed +to execute special plans. Thus we have guilds of clay image makers, guilds +of ladies attendant on the emperor, guilds of butlers, guilds of cooks, +guilds of guards, etc. To each of these there was a captain who became by +appointment hereditary chief. We have no mention of money for the payment +of services rendered. The taxes were probably paid in kind. And all +transactions as far as they are mentioned at all seem to have been of the +nature of barter. + +The religious notions of the prehistoric Japanese were founded on the +myths relating to their ancestor. Notwithstanding the vast number of +deities who came into existence according to tradition, most of them +vanish as soon as they are named and are no more heard of. Even deities +like Izanagi and Izanami, who are represented as taking so important a +part in events, are not perpetuated as objects of worship in Japanese +history, and have no temples erected to their memory and no service +prescribed or maintained in their honor. The most important deity in the +Pantheon of the Japanese was Amaterasu-ō-mi-kami, who is also called in +Chinese characters Tensho Daijin or the Sun Goddess. She appears not only +in the myths concerning the origin of the Japanese race, but as the +grandmother of the divine prince Hiko-ho-no-ni-nigi, who first came down +to rule the Japanese empire. In the Shintō temples at Isé the principal +deity worshipped at Gekū is Uké-moche-no-Kami, and the secondary deities +Ninigi-no-Mikoto, who came down to found the Japanese empire and was the +grandmother of the Emperor Jimmu, and two others. At the Naikū the +principal deity is Amaterasu-ō-mi-kami (from heaven shining great deity), +also called the Sun Goddess, and two secondary deities. The temples at +Isé, especially those that are dedicated to the Sun Goddess, are the most +highly regarded of any in Japan. Other temples of considerable popularity +are situated in other parts of the empire. Thus there are Shintō temples +in Kyūshū and in Izumo, which are old parts of Japan settled long before +Buddhism was introduced. + +The Shintō religion must be regarded as the primitive religion of the +Japanese people. It prevailed among them long before Buddhism was +propagated by priests from Korea. It differs from all known systems of +religion, in having no body of dogma by which its adherents are held +together. The greatest advocate of Shintoism, Moto-ori, a writer of the +18th century, admits that it has no moral code. He asserts that +“morals(69) were invented by the Chinese because they were an immoral +people, but in Japan there was no necessity for any system of morals, as +every Japanese acted rightly if he only consulted his own heart.” + +Reference is frequently made in the early stories to divination, or the +process of obtaining the will of the gods by indirection. The oldest +method of divination was by using the shoulder-blade of a deer. It was +scraped entirely free from flesh, and then placed over a fire made from +cherry wood. The divine will was determined by the cracks caused by the +fire in the bone. A later method of divination was by using the shell of a +tortoise in the same way as the shoulder-blade of the deer was used. They +had superstitions about fighting with the back to the sun; about using +only one light in the house at once; about breaking off the teeth of a +comb in the night-time; about the destination of the first arrow shot in +battle, etc. + +The superstition of impurity being attached to the mother at the birth of +a child, and to the house and those associated with it in which a death +occurred, is often mentioned. A mother, when about to be delivered, was +required to retire alone into a separate dwelling or hut without windows. +This cruel custom has prevailed in the island of Hachijō(70) down almost +to the present time. A custom prevailed, also, of abandoning the dwelling +in which a death had occurred. The dead body was removed to a mourning +hut, where amid sobs and weeping the mourners continued to hold a +carousal, feasting upon the food provided for the dead. This abandonment +of the house occupied by the living may explain the custom, so often +referred to, of each new emperor occupying a different palace from that of +his predecessor. We have already referred to the dreadful custom which +prevailed until the reign of the Emperor Suinin, of burying living +retainers around the sepulchre of their dead master. The custom was +replaced by burying clay images of servants and animals around the tomb, +and this continued till about A.D. 700. + +There is no evidence that children received any kind of education other +than a training in the use of arms and implements. The art of writing was +brought over from Korea in A.D. 284. Up to this time there is nothing to +show that the Japanese possessed any means of recording the events which +occurred. No books existed, and reading and writing were unknown. The +language spoken by the people was an ancient form of that which now +prevails. The earliest examples of this language are found in the songs +preserved in the _Kojiki_ and _Nihongi_. As in every language, the +earliest preserved specimens are poetry, so in Japanese the fragments +which have been remembered and brought down to us, are scraps of songs. +The origin of this language is, like the origin of the race, impossible at +present to verify. It seems plain that the race came from the continent by +way of Korea. If this is to be taken as the origin of the race, then the +language which developed into the Japanese came from the northern tribes +of China and of Siberia. + +There is no indication of the method by which the early Japanese reckoned +time. The sun in the daytime and the cocks by night, must have given them +their division of hours. The year made itself apparent by the changes of +temperature. It was not, however, till the introduction of calendars from +China that anything like an accurate system of estimating and recording +time was introduced. + +The food of the primitive Japanese was much more largely animal than it +became in later times. To the early Japanese there was no restriction in +the use of animal food, such as the Buddhists introduced. Fish and +shell-fish have always been, and doubtless from the first were, principal +articles of food. The five grains, so called, are often referred to, and +are specially mentioned in the Shintō rituals, whose origin goes back to +prehistoric times. These grains(71) are rice, millet, barley, and two +kinds of beans. Silkworms and their food plant, the mulberry, are likewise +spoken of. The only kind of drink referred to is _saké_. It will be +remembered that in the myth concerning the Impetuous Male Deity in Izumo, +the old man and old woman were directed to prepare eight tubs of _saké_, +by drinking which the eight-headed serpent was intoxicated. In the +traditional history of the emperors, they are represented as drinking +_saké_, sometimes even to intoxication. And in the rituals recited when +offerings are made to their deities, the jars of _saké_ are enumerated +among the things offered. The Japanese writers claim that _saké_ was a +native discovery, but there is a well supported belief that in very early +times they borrowed the art of manufacturing it from the Chinese. There is +at least a difficulty in believing that this liquor should have been +invented independently in the two countries. Chopsticks are mentioned in +early Japanese times, and clay vessels for food, and cups for drinking +made of oak leaves. On the whole, the conclusions to be drawn from the +earliest traditions concerning the Japanese lead us to regard them as +having attained a material degree of civilization in all matters +pertaining to food and drink. Yet it cannot be regarded as other than +strange that milk, cheese and butter are nowhere mentioned, and had never +been used. + +In the matter of clothing we have little except hints to guide us in +forming inferences. The rituals enumerate(72) “bright cloth, soft cloth, +and coarse cloth.” Mr. Satow remarks(73) on this enumeration that “in the +earliest ages the materials used were the bark of the paper-mulberry +(_broussonetia papyrifera_), wistaria tendrils and hemp, but when the +silkworm was introduced the finer fabric naturally took the place of the +humbler in the offerings to the gods.” The paper-mulberry which is now +used for making paper, was in early times twisted into a thread and woven +into a very serviceable cloth. Cotton(74) which now furnishes so large a +part of the clothing of the people is nowhere mentioned. The skins of +animals were doubtless used as clothing before the introduction of +Buddhism made the killing of animals uncommon. In the legend of the +purification of Izanagi(75) we read of a girdle, of a skirt, of an upper +garment, of trousers, and of a hat. What the shapes of these garments were +we cannot tell, but the number of different garments indicates a +considerable development in the ideas of clothing. In the same myth, and +in many other places, mention is made of the bracelets which Izanagi wore +on the left and right arm. And when he wished to show his pleasure in the +daughter who had been produced in washing his left eye, he invested her +with his necklace taken from his own neck. Jewelry seems in these +prehistoric times to have been more commonly worn than in modern +historical times. The jewels(76) used were the _magatama_ and _kudatama_ +which have been found in the ancient burial places. + + [Illustration] + + Magatama and Kudatama. + + +Rings have also been found which are believed to date back to prehistoric +times. From the clay images which have come down to us it is now +ascertained that the rings were worn as ornaments to the ears and never as +rings to the fingers. These rings are of copper or bronze, plated with +gold or silver. Combs and mirrors are spoken of, but how the metal mirrors +are made we do not know. + +The only indications of the character of the houses(77) used by the early +Japanese are found in the traditions respecting the primitive Shintō +temples. The early methods of building were perpetuated in these temples, +and in the eighteenth century a very persistent effort was made for the +revival of pure Shintō. Under the influence of this movement the temples +at Isé and elsewhere were purified from the contaminations which had been +introduced by Buddhism. After the close of the war which resulted in the +restoration of the emperor to his proper authority in 1868 a small temple +in the most severe Shintō style was built at Kudan, one of the picturesque +heights of Yedo, in memory of the soldiers who perished in the conflict. +From a careful examination of all that can illustrate the houses of the +early Japanese, we infer that they were of extreme simplicity. Stone was +never used. The structures were entirely of wood. Even the palaces of the +emperors were what we would call merely huts. Four upright posts sunk in +the ground formed the corners. At the half-way intervals between these +posts, were planted four other posts; those at the gable ends were high +enough to sustain the ridge pole. On the other sides on the top of the +posts were laid two plates. Abutting on these plates and crossing each +other at the ridge pole stood the rafters, which sustained the thatched +roof. In the absence of nails and pins, the timbers were fastened together +by the tough tendrils of climbing plants. A hole in the gable end +permitted the escape of the smoke from the fire built on the ground floor. +Around the sides of the interior stood a raised couch on which the +occupants sat by day and slept at night. The other parts of the floor were +uncovered and consisted only of earth. They used mats made from the skins +of animals or from rushes, on which they sat and slept. The doors of their +dwellings were fastened by means of iron hooks, and swung on hinges unlike +the modern Japanese door which always is made to slide. + +The agricultural plants spoken of are numerous but leave unmentioned many +of the plants of first importance. Tea, now so extensively cultivated, is +nowhere spoken of. Tobacco was a late importation and came in with the +Portuguese in the sixteenth century. Cotton was not introduced, as we have +already said, until the beginning of the ninth century. Potatoes, +including both the sweet potato and the white potato, are unmentioned. The +orange came to Japan according to the received tradition at the close of +the reign of the Emperor Suinin (A.D. 29-70). + +Very little is said of the implements used by the primitive Japanese. +Metal of any kind was almost unknown. We read of swords and fish-hooks, +but these are the only implements referred to which seem to have been made +of metal. Pots and cups of earthenware were used. The axes which they must +have used to cut down the trees for building and for fuel must have been +of stone, or sometimes of deer’s horn. Archæologists both native and +foreign have brought to light many ancient implements of the Stone age. An +interesting and detailed account of these discoveries will be found in the +work on _Japanese Archæology_ by Henry Von Siebold, Yokohoma, 1879. + +The arms used by the warriors were spears, bows and arrows, and swords. +Numerous arrow heads have been found which bear a striking likeness to +those found in Europe and America. Spear heads of flint have also been +found. That the people were emerging from the Stone age is shown by the +swords made of metal which they are represented as habitually using. They +also seem to have had a small sword or dagger, as in the myth of the +traitorous plot entered into by the empress and her brother against the +Emperor Suinin. Castles in the modern sense are not referred to, although +the same word _shiro_ is used to represent the stockades with which they +protected themselves. The castles of modern times, such as those at +Kumamoto, Owari, and Yedo, are without doubt the outgrowth of the +primitive stockade, and the same name has continued to be applied in all +the successive changes. + +Few domestic animals are mentioned. The horse is spoken of as an animal +for riding, but not for driving. The same thing may be said of the use of +horses in Japan even until modern times. The domestic fowl is referred to +in the myth of the disappearance of the Sun Goddess. Dogs are mentioned in +the later parts of the traditional period, but not cats. The cow and the +products of the cow are not referred to. To these domestic animals may be +added the cormorant,(78) which was used for fishing, in the same way that +it is used in the eastern parts of China and to a small extent in the +waters of Owari and Mino at the present time. The wild animals of that day +were the deer, the bear, the boar, the hare, etc. These animals were +hunted for their flesh and for their skins. + +The islands of Japan being largely interspersed with water much of the +travel even from the earliest time was performed in boats. The expedition +of Jimmu from the island of Kyūshū was in part conducted in the boats +which the colony had constructed for the purpose. Whether these boats were +of the form now used in Japan it is impossible to determine. It is +probable however that the present form of boat is an evolution of the +primitive boat, which was used by the prehistoric Japanese and which was a +part of the equipment with which their ancestors came over from Korea to +the islands of Japan. Travel on land was principally on foot, although as +we have said the horse was used at this early day for riding. No wheeled +vehicle is mentioned. The bullock cart used in later times was restricted +to the use of the imperial household, and probably was introduced by the +Buddhists. There were government roads constructed from the home provinces +in different directions to those more distant. It is said that this scheme +was more fully carried out after the return of the Empress Jingō from her +conquest of Korea. + +Let us now turn from these evidences of native culture to the events of +Japanese history which have to do with the introduction of the +civilization from the continent. For three thousand years before the +Christian era China has been looked upon as one of the cultured nations of +the earth. No written language has ever been or is now understood by so +many people as the Chinese. The Chinese were a civilized people centuries +before the Japanese had, even according to their own uncertain legends, +emerged into the light as an empire. If we accept the opinion which seems +most reasonable, that the Japanese came over to the Japanese islands from +the continent by way of Korea, and belong to the Mongol tribes of central +Asia, then we must assume that the Japanese were closely related to a +large section of the Chinese. They have been from the beginning of their +history a receptive people. They have stood ready to welcome the good +things which were offered to them, coming from whatever direction. They +accepted eagerly the Chinese written language and the philosophy with +which it came charged. They accepted Buddhism with its priesthood and +dogma and ritual, and permitted it to crowd their native religion until it +became a pitiful minority. They have in recent times accepted with a +hearty impetuosity the civilization of western nations, and are absorbing +it as rapidly as the habits and thoughts of a people can take in so +important a change. + +We have already referred to the first introduction(79) of Chinese +literature into Japan. It took place in the reign of the Emperor Ōjin A.D. +284. The ambassador who brought the tribute from Korea that year was Ajiki +who was familiar with the Chinese literature. He gave lessons in Chinese +to the crown prince. The next year the king of Korea sent out an eminent +scholar named Wani,(80) who continued to give instruction to the crown +prince. From this time a knowledge of Chinese gradually spread and +scholars were attached to the government to make a written record of the +events which took place. Historiographers were sent out during the reign +of the Emperor Hanzei, A.D. 404, who were directed to make a record of all +important events and forward them to the court. These steps soon began to +show themselves in the absence of the wonderful and legendary from the +narrative of events. Beginning with the reign of the Emperor Richū the +ages of the emperors which before his time had been of such a marvellous +length now drop to a reasonable and moderate period. + +The nineteenth emperor was Inkyō, the fourth son of the Emperor Nintoku. +He was of an amiable and philanthropic temperament, and accepted the +position of emperor with great reluctance. His health was delicate, and he +feared to take upon himself such a responsibility. In the meantime there +was an interregnum, and the court officials were anxious to have him enter +upon the duties of emperor. At last he consented and became emperor A.D. +412. It was during his reign that confusion arose concerning the family +names, or rather, that the confusion which had been long growing now had +its settlement. Family names had been a matter of growth, and many persons +claimed the right to use a certain name who were in no wise entitled to +it. The emperor took a singular and effectual method to settle the +troublesome and personal questions that arose. He summoned all those who +claimed to belong to any family whose claim was disputed to appear at +Amakashi and show that they were entitled to the names they claimed. He +placed jars of boiling water and required each one to plunge his hand in +the water. He who was injured by the hot water was pronounced a deceiver, +and he who came off unhurt was pronounced as entitled to the name. The +emperor took occasion to settle the questions concerning names, and put +the matter on a more stable basis. And as the art of writing now began to +be more common among the people mistakes in regard to names did not again +seriously recur. + +The emperor’s ill-health was the occasion for the introduction of another +of the civilizing arts of the continent. When the annual tribute from +Korea was sent it so chanced that the ambassador who came with it was a +person versed in the medical art. If we estimate this man’s science or +skill by that of the Chinese practitioner of a later day, we should +certainly not place a very high value on it. It is narrated, however, that +he cured the imperial invalid, and by this means gained great credit for +his profession, and added another to the obligations which Japan owed to +the continent. + +After the death of the Emperor Inkyō there was a quarrel about the +succession between his two sons, Prince Kinashi-no-Karu and Prince +Anaho-no-Ōji. The courtiers all favored the latter, who was the younger +brother, and he surrounded his elder brother in the house of +Monobe-no-Ōmai. Seeing no way of escape he committed suicide.(81) The +younger brother then became the twentieth emperor, who is known under the +canonical name of Ankō. He had another difficulty growing out of social +complications. He wanted to make the younger sister of Okusaka-no-Ōji, who +was the brother of the preceding Emperor Inkyō, the wife of +Ōhatsuse-no-Ōji, his own younger brother, who afterwards became the +Emperor Yuriyaku. He sent as a messenger the court official, Ne-no-Ōmi, to +ask the consent of her elder brother, who gladly gave it, and as a token +of his gratitude for this high honor he sent a rich necklace. Ne-no-Ōmi, +overcome with covetousness, kept the necklace for himself, and reported to +the emperor that Okusaka-no-Ōji refused his consent. The emperor was very +angry, and sent a detachment of troops against the supposed offender. They +surrounded the house and put him to death. His chief attendants, knowing +his innocence, committed suicide by the side of their dead master. The +emperor then completed his design of taking the sister of Okusaka-no-Ōji +as the wife of the Prince Ōhatsuse-no-Ōji, and he also took his widow and +promoted her to be his empress. + +Out of these circumstances arose serious troubles. His new empress had a +young son by her first husband named Mayuwa-no-Ō, said to have been only +seven years old. With his mother he was an inmate of the palace, and was +probably a spoiled and wayward boy. The emperor was afraid lest this boy, +when he came to understand who had been the cause of the death of his +father, would undertake to revenge himself. He talked with the empress +about his fears and explained his apprehensions. The boy accidentally +heard the conversation, and was probably stimulated thereby to do the very +thing which the emperor feared. Creeping stealthily into the room where +the emperor lay asleep he stabbed him and then fled, taking refuge in the +house of the Grandee Tsubura. The emperor was fifty-six years of age at +the time of his death. This tragical event produced a great excitement. +The younger brother of the emperor, Ōhatsuse, amazed and angry because his +two older brothers were not, as he thought, sufficiently enraged by the +murder of the emperor, killed them both. Then he attacked the Grandee +Tsubura and the boy Mayuwa in their refuge. Seeing no way of escape +Tsubura, at the request of the boy, first slew him and then killed +himself. + +Subsequently Ōhatsuse, who seemed to have been of a violent disposition, +murdered Ichinobe-no-Oshiha, son of the seventeenth emperor, Richū. His +two sons, then merely boys, Ōke and Woke (literally big basket and little +basket), hearing of this catastrophe escaped into the province of Harima +where they worked as cow-herds. Ōhatsuse was crowned as the twenty-first +emperor and is known by the canonical name of Yūriyaku Tennō. + +In the year A.D. 470 an ambassador came from Go in China and by order of +the emperor was entertained by the Grandee Ne-no-Ōmi. A court official, +Toneri, was directed to see that this duty was suitably performed. Now +Ne-no-Ōmi, it will be remembered, was the grandee who, on a former +occasion, was sent by the Emperor Ankō to solicit the hand of the Princess +Hatahi-no-Ōji for the present emperor, who was then the crown prince. In +order to entertain the Chinese ambassador with becoming magnificence, +Ne-no-Ōmi robed himself in a gorgeous manner and among other things put on +the rich necklace which he had stolen. Toneri reported to the emperor the +superb entertainment which Ne-no-Ōmi had accorded to the Chinese +ambassador, and especially the necklace which he wore. The emperor +innocently asked that Ne-no-Ōmi should appear before him in order that he +might see his superb dress. The empress, who was with her husband when +Ne-no-Ōmi came in, recognized the necklace which had been sent by her +brother to the late emperor. The theft was charged and Ne-no-Ōmi compelled +to confess. The emperor proclaimed the innocence of Okusaka-no-Ōji and his +great regret at the mistaken punishments. + +There are many traditions current in Japanese early history concerning +this emperor. In one he is represented in his imperial journeys to have +seen a house belonging to Lord Shiki built with a raised roof like that of +the imperial palace. He was greatly enraged that any subject should dare +to take such a liberty, and sent his attendants to burn the house down. +The poor frightened lord hastened to the emperor and humbly apologized for +his stupidity. And he presented to the emperor in token of his humble +submission a white dog clothed with cloth and led by a string. So he was +forgiven and his house was spared. + +In another legend he is said to have come upon a beautiful girl by the +river side washing clothes. He stopped and conferred with her, and said to +her, “Do not thou marry a husband, I will send for thee.” With this he +returned to the palace and forgot about his promise. But the poor girl did +not forget. Year after year passed, till at last after eighty years of +waiting she was a very old woman. Then she thought, “My face and form are +lean and withered, there is no longer any hope. Nevertheless, if I do not +show the Heavenly Sovereign how truly I have waited, my disappointment +will be unbearable.” And so with such gifts as she could afford she +presented herself before the emperor. He wondering at her and her gifts +asked her, “What old woman art thou, and why art thou come hither?” She +replied, “Having in such and such a month and such and such a year +received the Heavenly Sovereign’s commands, I have been reverently +awaiting the great command until this day, and eighty years have passed +by. Now, my appearance is decrepit and there is no longer any hope. +Nevertheless, I have come forth in order to show and declare my +faithfulness.” Thereupon the Heavenly Sovereign, greatly agitated, +exclaimed, “I had quite forgotten my command; and thou meanwhile, ever +faithfully awaiting my commands, hast vainly let pass by the years of thy +prime. It is too pitiful.” He sent her back to her home with such +consolation as rich gifts could impart. + +We give one more of the legends which cling to the name of this emperor. + +He was making an imperial progress to the moor of Akizu for the purpose of +hunting. And as he sat down to rest a horse-fly bit his august arm. But +immediately a dragon-fly came and seized the horse-fly and flew away. +Thereupon he composed an august song as follows: + + + Who is it tells in the great presence that game is lying on the + peak of Womuro, at Mi-Yeshinu? Our Great Lord who tranquilly + carries on the government, being seated on the throne to await the + game, a horse-fly alights on and stings the fleshy part of his arm + fully clad in a sleeve of white stuff, and a dragon-fly quickly + eats up the horse-fly. That it might properly bear its name, the + land of Yamato was called the Island of the Dragon-Fly.(82) + + +After a long reign Yūriyaku is said in _Kojiki_ to have died at the age of +one hundred and twenty-four. + +The son of the Emperor Yūriyaku, Prince Shiraka, succeeded him. He is +known in history as the Emperor Seinei. He lived only five years after his +accession and left no descendant to fill the throne. Search was +accordingly made for some one of imperial blood who might become emperor. +It will be remembered that the Emperor Yūriyaku, before his accession, had +murdered Prince Ichinobe-no-Oshiwa, son of the eighteenth emperor, and +that his two sons, then young boys, Princes Ōke and Woke, made their +escape into the province of Harima. A new governor of this province had +just arrived and was in attendance at the festivities in honor of the +opening of a new cave(83) by a citizen of the place. As usual there was +feasting, and drinking, and dancing. The two young men Ōke and Woke, who +occupied menial positions in this household, were called upon to dance. +After some hesitation they each in succession danced and sang some of the +songs which they had learned in their boyhood.(84) The new governor +recognized these songs to be such as were taught at the court, and on +enquiring found the young men to be grandsons of the Emperor Richū. He +brought them to the palace and presented them to their aunt Queen Ii-Toyo. +After a friendly contest between the two brothers, the younger one, Prince +Woke, became the twenty-third emperor under the canonical name of Kenzō. +His reign was a very short one, only eight years according to the _Kojiki_ +and three years according to the _Nihongi_. The only incident of +consequence recorded of him is that he sought out the burial place of his +father, who had been murdered by the Emperor Yūriyaku, and transferred his +remains to a fitting mausoleum. He also contemplated the desecration of +the mausoleum of the murderer as a mark of his vengeance, but was +dissuaded by his brother from the undertaking. + +He died without children and was succeeded by his elder brother Prince Ōke +who became A.D. 488 the twenty-fourth emperor under the canonical name of +Ninken. + +Concerning the emperor and several of his successors there is little of +interest to record. The twenty-fifth emperor, Muretsu (A.D. 499), who was +a son of the emperor Ninken, was chiefly notable for his cruelty. Some of +the acts recorded of him can only be equalled by those of the degenerate +occupants of the imperial throne of Rome in its worst days. He reigned +eleven years and died without children. The twenty-sixth emperor was +Keitai Tennō, who was the fifth descendant from Ōjin Tennō. The only +noticeable events in his reign were an expedition to Korea to settle +difficulties which had then intervened, and an expedition to Chikushi, the +northern part of Kyūshū, to repress tumults which had arisen. The next +emperors were Ankan Tennō and Senkuwa Tennō, whose reigns were uneventful. + +The twenty-ninth emperor was Kimmei Tennō, (A.D. 540-571), who was the son +of Keitai Tennō. He reigned thirty-two years and died at the age of +sixty-three. It was during his reign, in A.D. 552, that an ambassador from +Kudara, one of the three provinces of Korea, presented to the emperor an +image of Shaka, and also Buddhist books explaining the doctrine. He +commended highly the new religion, and the emperor was deeply impressed +with its novelties. This seems the more probable because up to this time +Japan looked upon China and Korea as leaders in civilization, and +therefore was disposed to regard what had obtained a footing there as +worthy of acceptance. + +The prime-minister Soga-no-Iname favored the new religion, and urged that +the image of Shaka which had been brought over should be duly set up and +worshipped. But the ministers Monobe-no-Okoshi and Kumako opposed the +proposition, saying, “Our country has its own gods; and they perhaps will +be angry with us if we pay our devotions to a foreign god.” + +But the emperor settled the matter by saying, “Let Iname try it.” He gave +the idol to Iname with the directions that he should set it up and pray to +it. Accordingly Iname took the image of Shaka and established it in a +house of his own, which he created a temple, and worshipped it. + +But shortly after this an epidemic broke out in the country, and Okoshi +and Kumako declared that it was due to the strange god which had been +received from the western barbarians, and besought the emperor to have it +thrown away. The image therefore by the emperor’s command was thrown into +the sea near Naniwa,(85) and the temple in which it had been erected was +destroyed. This was the first movement towards the introduction of +Buddhism. + +In the reign of the thirtieth emperor, Bitatsu Tennō, A.D. 572, who was +the son of Kimmei Tennō, Kudara again made a contribution of Buddhist +emblems, viz.: books of Buddhist doctrine; a priest of Ritsu sect; a +priest; a nun; a diviner; an image maker; and a Buddhist temple carpenter. +These were all housed in the temple of Owake-no-O at Naniwa. Seven years +after this two Japanese ambassadors who had been sent to Kudara brought +back with them several Buddhist images of stone, which the Daijin Umako +obtained as his possession. He built several Buddhist temples in which he +placed the images and other precious relics which he had secured. He also +built a pagoda and houses in which the priests and nuns resided. When +Umako was sick he asked from the emperor that he might avail himself of +the Buddhist ritual. The emperor gave him this privilege, but commanded +him to restrict it to himself. + +The Emperor Bitatsu died A.D. 585 at the age of forty-eight. His successor +was Emperor Yōmei the thirty-first in order from the Emperor Jimmu. He was +by his mother a descendant of the Soga family and his first wife was also +a daughter of the prime-minister, the Noble Iname who was also of the Soga +family. The bitter hostility between the members of the court who favored +Buddhism and those who opposed it continued. The leader of the former +party was Umako now the prime-minister, while the opponents of Buddhism +were led by Moriya. One of the occasions when their hostility broke out +was when the emperor was taken sick and he wished to try the effect of the +Buddhist Sampō, that is, the three precious elements of Buddhism, Buddha, +the rites of Buddhism, and the Buddhist priests. Moriya and his party +advised against this conformity to Buddhism, but Umako supported him in +his wishes and introduced a Buddhist priest into the palace to attend upon +the emperor. In spite of all this effort, however, the emperor died, +having reigned only three years. + +The death of the emperor was the signal for the breaking out of serious +disturbances. Moriya the champion of the old religion was killed and his +party overpowered. From this time Buddhism may be said to have triumphed +in Japan. The thirty-second emperor, Sujun, was crowned A.D. 588. He was +the son of the Emperor Kimmei, and at the time of his accession was +sixty-nine years of age. The communication with Korea continued, and more +and more of the Buddhist culture was introduced. Umako, who now had +undisputed sway in the government, sent out to Korea persons to study the +Buddhist faith, and consecrated many priests and nuns and erected temples +for the new worship. + +But everything did not move smoothly. Umako, with all his zeal and +enthusiasm for Buddhism, was suspected of personal ambition, and was +looked upon with distrust. A plot to assassinate the emperor was planned +by Umako, which terminated his life, after a reign of only four years, in +the seventy-third year of his age. + +The thirty-third sovereign was the Empress Suiko, who was the sister of +the Emperor Yōmei. Her coronation took place A.D. 593. Her reign was +chiefly remarkable for the active influence of Umaydo-no-Ōji (A.D. +572-622), who was the second son of the Emperor Yōmei, and who was made +crown prince under the empress, and aided her in the administration of the +political affairs of the government. This prince is better known by his +posthumous title of Shōtoku Taishi (great teacher of the divine virtue), +and is held in great reverence as the principal founder and promoter of +Buddhism in Japan. His name has been linked with many legends, which are +still current after the lapse of fourteen hundred years. It is said that +as soon as he was born he was able to speak, and was in all respects a +very clever boy. His memory was wonderfully acute. He had Napoleon the +Great’s talent of attending to several things at the same time. He could +hear the appeals of eight persons at once, and give to each a proper +answer. From this circumstance he sometimes went by the name of +Yatsumimi-no-Ōji, that is, Prince of Eight Ears. + +The prince threw the whole influence of the government in favor of +Buddhism. Many temples were built in different central districts for the +convenience of the new religion. Under his influence the officers of the +government rivalled each other in founding temples and maintaining them at +their own expense. He took as his teacher a priest who had recently come +from Korea, and from him for the first time learned the five Buddhist +commandments: + + 1. Against stealing. + 2. Against lying. + 3. Against intemperance. + 4. Against murder. + 5. Against adultery. + +He gave command to an artificer in copper to make large images of Buddha +for each of the officers in the government. The king of Koma in Korea +hearing of this great undertaking sent a contribution of three hundred +_ryō_ of gold. The images were finished in due time and an imposing +religious ceremonial was held in honor of the event. Many of the principal +temples of Buddhism in different parts of Japan take their origin from the +time of Shōtoku Taishi, and no single character in history is so +intimately connected with the development of Buddhism. + +It was not only as a religious reformer, however, that he deserves to be +remembered. He was a a most painstaking and enlightened ruler. He +studiously gathered from the Chinese the elements and methods of +government and adapted them to his own country.(86) From his time the +study of Chinese literature became the essential culture of the active +minds of Japan. + +Shōtoku Taishi died A.D. 622, having been the principal officer of the +government for twenty-nine years. + +The impulse which Shōtoku had given to Buddhism did not subside. In the +year following his death officers were appointed to govern the growing +religious communities, called Sosho and Sozu, which in dignity and power +corresponded to archbishops and bishops in Christian nomenclature. The +first archbishop was Kwankin, a priest from Kudara, and the first bishop +was Tokuseki of Kurabe. These officials examined every priest and nun and +made a register of them. A census of Buddhism is also given which belongs +to this same period. According to this there were forty-six Buddhist +temples and 1385 priests and nuns. + +In the year A.D. 626, Soga-no-Umako the _daijin_ and a life-long friend +and promoter of Buddhism died, and two years later the Empress Suiko died. +So nearly all the prominent participants in the events which had taken +place since the first entrance of Buddhism into Japan, had disappeared. In +the meantime a religion had taken possession of a field in which it was +destined to exert a wide influence and undergo a national development. + +Along with this religion had come a literature and a culture, which when +absorbed into the life of this people gave them the permanent +characteristics which we now recognize as the Japanese civilization. The +freer and more frequent intercourse with China and Korea brought with it +not only a knowledge of books and writing, but many improvements in arts +and many new arts and agricultural industries. When the forces of the +Empress Jingō returned from Korea they brought with them persons skilled +in many industrial occupations. It is a tradition that a descendant of the +Kan dynasty in China had fled to Korea on the fall of that dynasty, and in +the twentieth year of the Emperor Ōjin (A.D. 290) had migrated to Japan +with a colony who were familiar with weaving and sewing. In the +thirty-seventh year of the same emperor an officer was sent to China to +obtain more weavers and sewers. The cultivation of the mulberry tree and +the breeding of silk-worms(87) was introduced from China in A.D. 457, and +in order to encourage this industry the empress herself engaged in it. At +this early period this important industry was begun, or at least received +an impulse which has been continued down to the present time. + +With these industrial arts came in rapid succession the elements of a +higher civilization. Books on almanac-making, astronomy, geography and +divination were brought to Japan from Korea and China. The Chinese +calendar(88) was first used in the reign of the Empress Suiko under the +regency of Shōtoku Taishi. This almanac was based on the lunar periods and +the civil year began with the new moon occurring about the beginning of +February. But as the length of the civil year is not an exact multiple of +the number of days contained in a lunation, the twelve lunar months used +by the Chinese and Japanese will be about eleven days shorter than the +solar year. Hence to prevent the discrepancy from increasing and throwing +the seasons entirely out of their place in the calendar, an intercalary +month was inserted nearly every third year. It was inserted not at the end +of the year but whenever the discrepancy had reached the number of days in +a lunation. The month thus inserted was called by the same name as the +preceding with an explanatory prefix. From this period therefore the dates +of Japanese events may be relied upon with some degree of certainty. For +events occurring before this period, a knowledge of which must have been +transmitted by oral tradition, the dates assigned to them in the _Nihongi_ +must have been computed by counting back to the supposed time according to +the calendar in use at the time of the writing. + +The astronomy and geography introduced into Japan along with +almanac-making in the fifth century were without question very primitive +sciences. At this time even in Europe the knowledge of these sciences was +not advanced beyond the imperfect notions of the Greeks. It was not until +the sixteenth century, when the discoveries of the Portuguese and the +Spaniards and the English had revealed the shape and the divisions of the +earth, and the Jesuits had carried this knowledge to China and Japan, that +anything like a correct astronomy or geography was possible. By +divination, which is mentioned as one of the sciences brought over from +Korea, was meant the determination of future events or of lucky or unlucky +conditions. + +The most important civilizing force introduced from China at this period +was the formal institutions of education. Although the first establishment +of a school dates from the reign of the Emperor Tenji (A.D. 668-671), yet +it was not till the reign of the Emperor Mommu (A.D. 697-707) that the +university was regularly organized. Branch schools were also established +in the several provinces. In the university there were departments for +Chinese literature, for medicine, for astronomy and almanac-making, and +for astrology. Under the first head were included the art of writing the +Chinese characters, the practice of composition, the study of the Chinese +classics, and the reading of books of Chinese history. In like manner the +training of the students in medicine chiefly consisted in making them +familiar with the methods which prevailed in China. The properties of +medicinal plants, the variations of the pulse in health and disease and in +the changing seasons, and the anatomy of the human body were the chief +subjects of study. The human cadaver was never dissected, but a knowledge +of anatomy was obtained from diagrams which were wholly hypothetical. In +early times medical officers were appointed to experiment with medicines +upon monkeys, and also to dissect the bodies of monkeys. From these +dissections, as well as from the printed diagrams of Chinese books the +imperfect knowledge which they had reached was derived. It was not till +1771 that Sugita Genpaku(89) and several other Japanese scholars had an +opportunity to dissect the body of a criminal, and by personal observation +found the utter falsity of the Chinese diagrams on which they had hitherto +relied, and the correctness of the Dutch books, which they had, contrary +to the laws of the country, learned to read. + +The great reverence felt for Chinese culture led to the introduction at an +early date of the Chinese system of official rank. The system remained in +force down to the restoration in 1868. The officers were _Daijō-daijin_ +(Prime-Minister), _Sa-daijin_ (Minister of the Left), _U-daijin_ (Minister +of the Right), together with eight boards,(90) charged with the various +duties of administration. These boards were divided into sections, and the +various departments of the government were respectively performed by them. +In this way the administration became thoroughly bureaucratic, in +imitation of the Chinese empire, to which the Japanese at this time looked +up with the most complete reverence. + +In addition to these official boards, six official ranks were also +introduced from China. These ranks were designated, first, virtue; second, +humanity; third, propriety; fourth, truth; fifth, righteousness, and +sixth, wisdom. Each of these ranks(91) was divided into two orders termed +respectively the Greater and the Lesser. Thus there were twelve +distinctions in this system. It was introduced in the reign of the Empress +Suiko, A.D. 604, and is generally attributed to the Regent Shōtoku, who +was a great admirer of the continental civilization. It existed in this +form until the time of the Emperor Kōtoku, when, A.D. 649, it was extended +to nineteen distinctions. These were not given to the individual in +recognition of talent, but to families to be by them transmitted to their +posterity as hereditary rank. + +For many years during this period of active intercourse with China and +Korea, Dazaifu, situated on the west coast of Kyūshū, north of the present +situation of Nagasaki, was the recognized port where strangers were +received. This city was the seat of a vice-royalty, having control over +the nine provinces of Kyūshū. The office of vice-governor was considered a +place of honorable banishment to which distinguished men who were +distasteful at court could be sent. + +These continental influences continued for many years and indeed have +never ceased. There has always existed a class of scholars who looked upon +Chinese learning as the supreme pinnacle to which the human mind could +attain. This was especially true of the admirers of Confucius and +Confucianism. Although it was not until a much later period that the +culture of a Chinese philosophy attained its highest mark, yet even in the +early arrangement of the studies in the university we see the wide +influence which the writings of the Chinese classics exerted. + +We close this chapter with an event which evinced the advance which +Japanese civilization had made, and aided greatly in promoting this +advance in the subsequent centuries. This event was the publication of the +_Kojiki_ (Record of Ancient Things) and the _Nihongi_ (Chronicles of +Japan). A book still older than these is said to have been composed in +A.D. 620, but it perished in a fire in A.D. 645, although a fragment is +said to have been rescued. The circumstances attending the preparation of +the _Kojiki_ are given by Mr. Satow in his paper(92) on the “Revival of +Pure Shintō,” and also by Mr. Chamberlain(93) in his introduction to the +translation. The Emperor Temmu had resolved to take measures to preserve +the true traditions from oblivion. He had the records carefully examined +and compiled. Then these collated traditions were one by one committed to +one of the household officers, Hiyeda-no-Are, who had a marvellously +retentive memory. Before the work of compilation was finished the emperor +died; but the Empress Gemmyō, who after an interval succeeded him, carried +it on to its completion in A.D. 712. By her direction the traditions were +taken down from Are’s dictation in the form in which we now have them. It +is by no means a pleasing or attractive work, even in the opinion of the +Japanese. It is bald and archaic in its form and composition. It is, +however, notable as being freer from the admixture of Chinese learning, +and therefore a better index of the native culture of the race than the +works which followed it.(94) Much of it consists of mere genealogies of +the emperors and naked statements of leading events, but there are besides +this many legends and poems which bear evidence of having been handed down +in essentially their present form. As an authority for the chronology of +the early events it is, of course, of small value. It is evident that +where a narrative of events has been carried through many centuries by +tradition alone, without written records to check or assist it, no +dependence can be placed on the chronology of the events, further than, +perhaps, on the order of sequence. + +Only eight years after the publication of the _Kojiki_, a second work +termed _Nihongi_ or Chronicles of Japan was issued. It was prepared by +imperial command and appeared in A.D. 720 in the reign of the Empress +Genshō. It differs from the older book in being composed in the Chinese +idiom, and in being much more tinctured with the ideas of Chinese +philosophy. These two works, so nearly contemporaneous, both of them +composed in so great a degree of the legendary elements of Japanese +history, must be looked upon as marking a distinct epoch in the story of +Japan. + + + + + +CHAPTER VI. THE MIDDLE AGES OF JAPAN. + + +The theory of the Japanese government during the greater part of its long +career has been that of an absolute monarchy. The emperor was supposed to +hold in his hands the supreme authority, and to dispose, as he saw fit, of +honors and emoluments, offices and administrative duties. There was no +fundamental law of succession, by which the order of accession to the +throne was regulated. The reigning emperor usually selected during his +lifetime some one of his sons, or, if he had no sons, some other prince of +the imperial family, who became the crown prince during the life of the +emperor, and on his death succeeded to the throne.(95) The selection was +usually made with the concurrence of the officers of the court, and very +often must be credited entirely to the preference of these officers. +Sometimes the emperor died before the appointment of a crown prince had +taken place. In this case the selection lay in the hands of the court +officers, and many cases are recorded in the history of the empire where +serious disturbances arose between the partisans of different aspirants to +the throne. These disturbances usually account for the _interregna_ which +are so often found between the reigns of successive sovereigns. + +To the freedom which has prevailed, not only in the imperial house but +also in all the families of the empire, in regard to the rights of +succession, must be attributed the long and unbroken line which the +imperial house of Japan is able to show. That a line of sovereigns should +continue from the time of Jimmu down to the present without break by +reason of the failure of children, is of course impossible. But the +difficulty disappears when it is remembered, that in case of the failure +of a son to succeed, the father provided for the want by adopting as his +son some prince of the imperial family, and appointing him as his heir. +With this principle of adoption must be mentioned the practice of +abdication(96) which produced a marked and constantly recurring influence +in the history of Japan. Especially was this the case in the middle ages +of Japanese history. The practice spread from the imperial house downwards +into all departments of Japanese life. Although the principle of +abdication and adoption was probably brought from China and was adopted by +the Japanese as a mark of superior culture, yet these practices were +carried to a much greater extent in Japan than was ever thought of in +their original home. We shall see in the story of Japanese times the +amazing and ludicrous extent to which the abdication of reigning +sovereigns was carried. We shall witness even the great and sagacious +Ieyasu himself, after holding the office of shōgun for only two years, +retiring in favor of his son Hidetada, and yet from his retirement +practically exercising the authority of the office for many years. + +In A.D. 668 the Emperor Tenji(97) began a brief reign of three years. As +he had been regent during the two preceding reigns, and chiefly managed +the administration, very little change occurred after his accession to +power. His reign is mainly remarkable for the first appearance in a +prominent position of the Fujiwara family. The emperor appointed his +counsellor Nakatomi-no-Kamatari as _nai-daijin_ (private minister), an +office next in rank after _sa-daijin_, and which was created at this time. +Nakatomi, was authorized to assume the family name of Fujiwara, meaning +wistaria-field. The ancestor of this family, Nakatomi-no-Muraji,(98) was +fabled to have come down from the celestial plains to the island of +Kyūshū. The family therefore ranks with that of the emperor as the oldest +and most honored in the empire. From the time of its establishment down to +the present it has enjoyed many honors and privileges, and has played a +very distinguished part in the history of the country. This family first +became prominent during the reign of the Emperor Kōtoku. The Soga family +from the times of the first introduction of Buddhism had grown to be the +most powerful and influential in the empire. Umako had held the position +of _daijin_ and his son Yemishi became _daijin_ after his father’s death. +Yemishi presumed upon his promotion to this high office and put on the +airs of hereditary rank. He built castles for himself and son and +organized guards for their defence. His son Iruka became _daijin_ after +his father’s death and conducted himself with even greater arrogance. At +last his conduct became intolerable and he was assassinated A.D. 645. The +chief actor in this plot was Nakatomi-no-Kamatari, who was at this time on +intimate terms with the prince who afterwards became the Emperor Tenji. + +Further experiences, this time disastrous, with Korea were encountered +during this reign. A Japanese garrison had been maintained in Kudara, the +western division of Korea. But at this time the people of Shiraki with +help from China attacked this garrison and compelled it to retreat to +Japan. Along with the Japanese came many of the Koreans who had been +friendly with them, and who carried with them, like the Huguenots when +driven from France, a knowledge of many arts and a culture which were +eagerly welcomed by the rising Japanese empire. They were colonized in +convenient quarters in different provinces, and as an encouragement freed +from taxation for a time. Their influence upon the opening civilization of +Japan cannot be overlooked or neglected in our estimate of the forces +which conspired to produce the final result. In the book of Japanese +annals called _Nihon Shoki_ there is a statement(99) that in the fifth +month of the second year of _Reiki_ (A.D. 717) 1799 Koreans were collected +together in the province of Musashi and formed the district of “Koma-gōri” +or Korean district. Again in the third year of _Tempyō Hoji_ (A.D. 760) +forty inhabitants of Shinra (a kingdom of Korea) and thirty-four priests +and priestesses came to Japan and founded the “Shinra-gōri,” or Korean +district. These events occurred not long after the time we are now +considering and show that the Korean colonization still continued and that +the influence of the arts and culture which the colonists introduced was +marked and important. + +Few events are noted during the reigns which succeeded. The following are +the most worthy of mention. The Emperor Temmu (A.D. 673-686) added several +new degrees of rank to those already established. He also favored the +Buddhist religion by making its services obligatory, and by forbidding the +eating of flesh. Silver was first discovered in Tsushima A.D. 674, which +was followed twenty years later by the manufacture of the first silver +money. Copper was discovered in Musashi in the reign of the Empress Gemmyō +(A.D. 708-715) and the making of copper money came into vogue. Before that +time the copper money in use was obtained from Korea and China. Gold coin +is said to have been first issued under the Emperor Junnin (A.D. 759-765). +An observatory was established for the inspection of the stars in +connection with the new department of astrology. The cultivation of the +lacquer tree and the mulberry and the raising of silk-worms were still +further encouraged and extended. Cremation was first practised about A.D. +700 in the case of a Buddhist priest who left directions that his body +should be burned. Since that time cremation has been employed for the +disposal of the dead by the Shin (or Monto) sect, and is now authorized +but not made obligatory by the government. The progress made by Buddhism +is shown by the census of temples which was made in the reign of the +Empress Jito (A.D. 690-702) and which gave the number as 545. The +publication of the _Kojiki_ in A.D. 712, and of the _Nihongi_ eight years +later, has already been referred to at the close of the preceding chapter. +These works are still looked upon as the foundations of Japanese +literature and the highest authorities of Japanese history. + +In the reign of the Empress Gemmyō (A.D. 710) the imperial residence was +fixed at Nara. Up to this time the custom(100) derived from antiquity had +prevailed of changing the residence on the accession of each new emperor. +But the court continued at Nara for a period of seventy-five years running +through seven reigns; and in consequence Nara has always been looked upon +with peculiar reverence, and is the seat of several of the most notable +Buddhist and Shintō temples(101) and structures. It is here that +Kasuga-no-miya was founded in A.D. 767 and dedicated to the honor of the +ancestor of the Fujiwara family. Here also is Tō-dai-ji a Buddhist temple +famed for containing the bronze statue of Great Buddha. This colossal idol +was constructed in A.D. 736 under the Emperor Shōmu, during the time that +the imperial court resided at Nara. The height of the image is fifty-three +feet, being seven feet higher than the Daibutsu at Kamakura. The temple +was built over the image and in A.D. 1180 was destroyed by a fire which +melted the head of the image. This was replaced. The temple was burned +again A.D. 1567, from which time the image has remained as the Japanese +say “a wet god.” + +In A.D. 794(102) during the reign of the Emperor Kwammu (A.D. 782-806) the +capital was removed to Kyōto on the banks of the Kamogawa. The situation +and the environs are lovely, and justify the affectionate reverence with +which it has ever been regarded. Here were built the palaces and offices +for the emperor and his court. It was officially called Miyako, that is, +residence of the sovereign. It continued to be occupied as the capital +until A.D. 1868, when the court was moved to Tōkyō. At this time the name +of the city was changed to Saikyō, which means western capital, in +distinction from Tōkyō, which means eastern capital. + +The Emishi in the northern part of the Main island continued to give much +trouble to the government. During the reign of the Emperor Shōmu (A.D. +724-756) Fujiwara-no-Umakai was sent against these restless neighbors and +succeeded in reducing them to subjection, which lasted longer than usual. +A fort was built to keep them in subjection, called the castle of Taga. +There is still standing a stone monument at Taga, between Sendai and +Matsushima, on which is an inscription which has been translated by Mr. +Aston,(103) of the British legation. The inscription gives the date of its +first construction, which corresponds to A.D. 724, and of its restoration, +A.D. 762. Mr. Aston points out that the _ri_ here mentioned is not the +present Japanese _ri_ equivalent to miles 2.44, but the ancient _ri_ which +is somewhat less than half a mile. This makes it evident that the part of +the Main island north of a point near Sendai was at this time denominated +Yezo, and was occupied by the barbarous tribes who then as now called +themselves Yezo. + +The employment of a Fujiwara in this expedition was probably purely +perfunctory. So far as we know, this family, which had by this time risen +to a position of great influence, was in no respect military, and the +appointment of Umakai as chief of the forces sent against the Ainos was +due to the political prominence of his family. For many centuries the +relations of the Fujiwara family to the imperial house was most intimate. +Indeed the late Viscount Mori,(104) in his introduction to _Education in +Japan_, speaks of this relation as a “proprietorship.” “The throne for a +time became virtually the property of one family, who exclusively +controlled it.” This family was that of Fujiwara,(105) to which reference +has already been made. The founder of this house, Kamatari, was a man of +great talent and administrative ability, and his immediate successors were +worthy of their ancestor’s fame, and in succession filled the office of +_daijin._ In this way the office came to be regarded as hereditary in the +Fujiwara family. The office of _kuambaku_, also from about A.D. 880, +became hereditary in the Fujiwara house. Owing to the great age and +prominence of the family, it became customary to marry the emperors and +princes of the imperial house to ladies taken from it, so that after a +time the mothers and wives of the princes of the imperial house were +without exception descendants of the Fujiwara, and the offices of the +court were in the hands of this family. In this condition of things the +abdication of emperors, before they had reigned long enough to learn the +duties of their position, became the common practice. This vicious custom +was encouraged by the Fujiwara, because it placed greater authority in +their hands, and left them to conduct the administration without +troublesome interference. The Emperor Seiwa (A.D. 859-880) commenced to +reign when he was nine years of age, and abdicated when he was +twenty-six.(106) Shujaku (A.D. 931-952) became emperor when he was eight +years of age and abdicated at the age of twenty-three. Toba became emperor +(A.D. 1108) at five years of age, and resigned at the age of twenty. +Rokujō was made emperor (A.D. 1166) at the age of two and resigned at the +age of four. Takakura, who succeeded Rokujō (A.D. 1169), was eight years +of age and abdicated at the age of nineteen. It often happened that there +were living at the same time several retired emperors, besides the actual +emperor.(107) Thus, in the period when Ichijō began his reign at the age +of seven (A.D. 987), there were three retired emperors still living, viz.: +Reizei, who began to reign (A.D. 968) at eighteen, and retired at twenty; +Enyū, who began to reign (A.D. 970) at eleven, and retired at twenty-six; +Kwazan, who began to reign (A.D. 985) at seventeen, and retired at +nineteen. At a period somewhat later than the one now under consideration, +during the reign of Go-Nijō, who had just been made emperor (A.D. 1301) at +seventeen, and who retired at nineteen, there were four retired emperors +living. When the emperors retired they often went into a Buddhist +monastery, taking the title of _hō-ō_ or _cloistered emperor_. From this +sacred seclusion they continued many times to wield the powers of +government. + +The object of this abdication was twofold. The sovereigns themselves often +became restless and dissatisfied in the constrained attitude which they +were compelled to maintain. If they were in the least ambitious to meet +the requirements of their elevated position and realized in any degree the +legitimate claims which their country had upon them, their natural efforts +to take part in the administration were promptly checked, and they were +reminded that it was unbecoming and unfitting for the descendants of the +gods to mingle in ordinary earthly affairs. In this way it often fell out +that the ablest of the emperors retired from the actual position of +reigning emperor in order to free themselves from the restraints of +etiquette and from the burden of _ennui_ which held them captive. They +assumed the dignity of retired emperors, and often from their retirement +wielded a greater influence and exerted a far more active part in the +administration of affairs than they ever had been able to do when upon the +imperial throne. + +Besides this motive which affected the occupants of the throne, there was +a corresponding one which led the officers of the court to encourage and +perhaps sometimes to compel the emperors to abdicate. These administrative +officers, into whose hands the management of the government had fallen, +were desirous to retain their authority, and therefore whenever an emperor +exhibited signs of independence, or any disposition to think or act for +himself, they contrived means to have him retire and leave in his place +some inexperienced boy who could be more easily controlled. + +In this kind of supervising statesmanship the Fujiwara family became, and +for centuries remained, supreme experts. For a period of four hundred +years, from A.D. 645 to 1050, they monopolized nearly all the important +offices in the government. The wives and concubines of the feeble emperors +were all taken from its inexhaustible _repertoire_. The men of the family, +among whom were always some of administrative ability, found it a task of +no great difficulty to rule the emperor who was supposed to be divinely +inspired to rule the empire, especially when he was usually a boy whose +mother, wife, and court favorites were all supplied from the Fujiwara +family. This kind of life and environment could not fail to produce on the +successive emperors a sadly demoralizing effect. They were brought up in +an enervating atmosphere and their whole life was spent in arts and +employments which, instead of developing in them a spirit of independence +and a high ambition and ability to govern well the empire committed to +them, led them to devote themselves to pleasures, and to leave to others +less fortunate the duty of administering the affairs of government. + +The same circumstances which demoralized the occupants of the imperial +throne served in a certain though less degree to enervate and enfeeble the +Fujiwara family. Although they sometimes appointed one of their number the +commander of an expedition against the Emishi, or to put down fresh +revolts in the island of Kyūshū, yet his duties were purely honorary. He +usually remained at home and sent one or more of the active military +chieftains to lead the forces against the enemy in the field. If the +expedition was successful, however, the honorary commander did not forget +to have himself duly promoted, and rewarded with additional lands and +income. + +Other families besides the Fujiwara, rose in these long and weary +centuries to prominence, and seemed on the point of disputing the security +of their position. Thus the Tachibana in the eighth century attained high +honors and distinction. It was an old family, and even as far back as the +legend of Yamato-dake(108) we find that a princess of the Tachibana family +was his wife, who sacrificed herself in the bay of Yedo to appease the +turbulent waters. It was Maroyé, a member of the Tachibana family and a +favorite of the Emperor Shōmu (A.D. 724-756), who compiled the collection +of ancient Japanese poetry called Man-yōshū or collection of Myriad +Leaves. + +Another family which attained prominence was the Sugawara. It originated +in the province of Kawachi. The most noted representative of this family +was Sugawara Michizané, who was first conspicuous as the teacher of the +young prince who afterward became the Emperor Uda (A.D. 888-898). He was a +brilliant scholar in Chinese, which was then the learned language of the +East. Even down to modern times his family has been devoted to learning. +The Sugawara(109) and Ōye families both had adopted literature as their +hereditary profession, and the government made them an allowance for the +expenses(110) of those who might be pursuing their studies in the national +university. The influence of Michizané over the emperor was marked and +salutary. Under his wise tutelage Uda showed so much independence that the +Fujiwara _Kwambaku_ found means to lead him to abdicate in favor of his +son, who became the sixtieth emperor, and is known under the historic name +of Daigo. Michizané became the counsellor and was created _nai-daijin_ +under the new emperor, who at the time of his accession was only fourteen +years old. But the _Kwambaku_ Tokihira determined to free himself from the +adverse influence of this wise and honest counsellor. So he had him sent +in a kind of honorable banishment to Dazaifu, the seat of the vice-royalty +of the island of Kyūshū. It is said that he died here in A.D. 903. There +was a great re-action in regard to him after his death, and he was +canonized under the name of Tenjin(111) (Heavenly god), and is held sacred +as the patron saint of men of letters and of students. The twenty-fifth +day of each month is kept as a holiday in schools, sacred to Tenjin-Sama, +and the twenty-fifth of June as an annual _matsuri_. + + [Illustration] + + Michizane. + + +But the families which finally displaced the Fujiwara from their position +of supremacy were what were technically called the military families. The +separation of officers into civil and military was made under the reforms +introduced from China. The Fujiwara in the main restricted themselves to +civil duties. Wherever it was necessary to send military expeditions +against the barbarians of the north, or rebels in Kyūshū, or into the +disaffected districts of Korea, commanders were selected from families +devoted to military service. The Taira family was of this class. Hei is +the Chinese equivalent of the Japanese name Taira, and is more often used +in the literature of the times. The Taira family sprang from the Emperor +Kwammu (A.D. 782-806) through one of his concubines. The great-grandson of +Kwammu, Takamochi, received permission to adopt the name of Taira, and +thus became the founder of the family. They were the military vassals of +the crown for many generations. + +A little later than the Taira arose another family, the Minamoto, whose +equivalent Chinese name was Gen. It sprang from the Emperor Seiwa (A.D. +859-880). His son Tadazumi became minister of war. Tadazumi had two sons, +who were granted the family name of Minamoto; the descendants of one of +them, Tsunemoto, being created military vassals. + +The almost constant wars in which the empire was engaged led to the +extension of the military class. From the time now under discussion the +military class came to be looked upon as a distinct and separate part of +the population. It was composed of those who in the time of war showed an +aptitude for arms, and who were most serviceable in the campaigns which +they undertook. Gradually they became distinct from the agricultural +peasantry, and by education and training came to look upon arms as their +legitimate profession. They naturally attached themselves to the military +commanders who led them in their various expeditions, and thus were in +time regarded as the standing troops of the empire. This growth of a +military class, whose commanders were restless and ambitious, gradually +undermined the authority which the Fujiwara up to the tenth century had +almost unrestrictedly exercised. The employment of commanders from the +military families raised in them an ambition to share in the powers of +government. The struggles which ensued, first between the Fujiwara and +Taira, and then between the Taira and Minamoto, continued to keep the +country embroiled for more than a century. The suffering and desolation +resulting from these weary internecine wars can only be paralleled by such +conflicts as that between the White and Red Roses in England, or the +Thirty Years’ War in Germany. Of these struggles it will be possible to +give only an outline. + +It has already been mentioned that the Taira family sprang from the +Emperor Kwammu,(112) whose great-grandson, Takamochi received permission +to take Taira as his family name. The Emperor Shirakawa tired of the +arrogance of the Fujiwara in A.D. 1087 retired into a cloister, and from +this seclusion continued to exercise a controlling influence in the +conduct of affairs. Tadamori a descendant of Taira-no-Takamochi was a +favorite in his court, and even had a _liaison_ with one of his +concubines. + +The ex-emperor complaisantly informed the courtier that if the child to be +born proved to be a daughter he himself would adopt it, but if a son then +it should belong to Tadamori. Accordingly the child being a son was a +Taira, and rose to great eminence as Taira-no-Kiyomori. Tadamori acquired +for himself great credit by his successful expedition against Korean +pirates who had cruised along the eastern coasts of Japan. In the troubles +which subsequently arose in reference to the succession the Taira took an +important part. The Emperor Toba, who succeeded to the throne in A.D. 1108 +at the age of six, abdicated in A.D. 1123 at the age of twenty-six. Both +his father, the ex-Emperor Horikawa, and his grandfather, the ex-Emperor +Shirakawa, were still living in retirement. He was succeeded by his son +the Emperor Shutoku in A.D. 1124, then six years old, who after reigning +seventeen years abdicated. He had a son but was succeeded A.D. 1142 by his +brother Konoye who was four years of age. This mature youth reigned +thirteen years and died without abdicating. On his death-bed he adopted as +the crown prince his brother Go-Shirakawa, thus displacing the lineal +heir. The succession was now bitterly disputed. The Minamoto chiefly +espoused the cause of the displaced heir, while Kiyomori and the Taira +together with Minamoto-no-Yoshitomo supported Go-Shirakawa. In a battle +fought A.D. 1156 Kyomori won the victory. This victory raised him to a +pinnacle of power. He began a career of nepotism and patronage which was +not inferior to that of the Fujiwara. The ex-Emperor Shutoku and his son +were banished to the province of Sanuki where it is said that Shutoku died +of starvation. Tametomo a member of the Minamoto clan who was famed for +his great strength and for his skill in archery was sent as an exile to +the island of Hachijō, southeast of the promontory of Izu. From this +island he escaped, and it is a tradition that he made his way to the +Ryūkyū islands where he rose to prominence and became the ancestor of the +kings of these islands. + +Yoshitomo of the Minamoto clan, who had sided with Kiyomori in the recent +dynastic conflict was a brother of the Tametomo just mentioned. He was +greatly offended by the violent use which Kiyomori made of the power which +had come into his hands. With all the Minamoto and Fujiwara he conspired +to overthrow the victorious and arrogant Taira. But Kiyomori suspecting +the plans of his enemies took measures to counteract them and suddenly +fell upon them in the city of Kyōto. Yoshitomo was obliged to save himself +by fleeing to Owari, where he was assassinated by the agents of Kiyomori. +The death of the head of the Minamoto only made the tyrant more determined +to crush all opposition. Even the ex-Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who was a +son-in-law of Kiyomori, but who showed some signs of disapproval, was sent +into exile. Several of the sons of Yoshitomo were put to death; but +Yoritomo then a boy of thirteen was saved by the interference of the +mother-in-law of Kiyomori, and was sent into exile in the province of Izu, +and put into the safe-keeping of two faithful Taira men, one of whom Hōjō +Tokimasa will be heard of hereafter. + +Besides the four sons of Yoshitomo by his wife, he had also three sons by +a concubine named Tokiwa. She was a woman of great beauty, and for that +reason as well as because she was the mother of the romantic hero +Yoshitsuné, she has often been chosen by Japanese artists as the subject +of their pictures. Tokiwa and her three children, of whom Yoshitsuné was +then an infant at the breast, fled at the breaking out of the storm upon +Yoshitomo and the Minamoto clan. They are often represented as wandering +through a storm of snow, Yoshitsuné being carried as an infant on the back +of his mother, and the other two little ones pattering along with unequal +steps at her side. In this forlorn condition they were met by one of the +Taira soldiers, who took pity on them and gave them shelter. From him they +learned that Kiyomori had taken the mother of Tokiwa prisoner, and held +her in confinement, knowing that this would surely bring back to him the +fair fugitive and her children. In the Chinese teachings of that day, in +which Tokiwa had been educated, the duty of a child to its mother was +paramount to that of a mother to her child. So Tokiwa felt that it was +unquestionably her duty to go back at once to the capital and surrender +herself in order to procure the release of her mother. But her maternal +heart rebelled when she remembered that her babes would surely be +sacrificed by this devotion. Her woman’s wit devised a scheme which might +possibly furnish a way between these terrible alternatives. She determined +to surrender herself and her children to Kiyomori, and depend upon her +beauty to save them from the fate which had been pronounced upon all the +Minamoto. So with her little flock she went back and gave herself up to +the implacable tyrant. Softened by her beauty and urged by a number of his +courtiers, he set her mother at liberty in exchange for her becoming his +concubine, and distributed her children in separate monasteries. The chief +interest follows the youngest boy, Yoshitsuné, who was sent to the +monastery at Kurama Yama(113) near Kyōto. Here he grew up a vigorous and +active youth, more devoted to woodcraft, archery, and fencing than to the +studies and devotions of the monastery. At sixteen years of age he was +urged by the priests to become a monk and to spend the rest of his days in +praying for the soul of his father. But he refused, and shortly after he +escaped from the monastery in company with a merchant who was about to +visit the northern provinces. Yoshitsuné reached Mutsu, where he entered +the service of Fujiwara-no-Hidehira, then governor of the province. Here +he spent several years devoting himself to the military duties which +chiefly pertained to the government of that rough and barbarous province. +He developed into the gallant and accomplished soldier who played a +principal part in the wars which followed, and became the national hero +around whose name have clustered the choicest traditions of his country. + +Meanwhile, as we have seen, Yoritomo,(114) the oldest son of Yoshitomo, +and by inheritance the head of the Minamoto clan, had been banished to Izu +and committed to the care of two faithful Taira adherents. Yoritomo +married Masago, the daughter of Hōjō Tokimasa, one of these, and found +means to induce Tokimasa to join him in his plans to overthrow the tyrant +Kiyomori, who now ruled the empire with relentless severity. Even the +retired emperor joined in this conspiracy and wrote letters to Yoritomo +urging him to lead in the attempt to put down the Taira. Yoritomo summoned +the scattered members of the Minamoto clan and all the disaffected +elements of every kind to his assistance. It does not seem that this +summons was responded to with the alacrity which was hoped for. The +inexperience of Yoritomo and the power and resources of him against whom +they were called upon to array themselves, led the scattered enemies of +Kiyomori to hesitate to join so hopeless a cause. The rendezvous of the +Minamoto was at Ishibashi Yama, and it is said that only three hundred men +gathered at the call. They were followed and attacked by a greatly +superior force, and utterly routed. It is a tradition that Yoritomo and +six friends, who had escaped from the slaughter of this battle, hid +themselves in the hollow of an immense tree. Their pursuers, in searching +for them, sent one of their number to examine this tree. He was secretly a +friend of the Minamoto, and when he discovered the fugitives he told them +to remain, and announced to those who sent him that the tree was empty. He +even inserted his spear into the hollow and turned it about to show that +there was nothing there. When he did this two doves(115) flew out, and the +artful soldier reported that spiders’ webs were in the mouth of the +opening. + +Yoritomo now fled to the promontory of Awa, east of what became known +afterward as Yedo bay. He sent messages in every direction summoning the +enemies of Kiyomori to join him. His brother Yoshitsuné gathered what +forces he could from the north and marched to the region which was to +become famous as the site of Kamakura. He was joined by others of his clan +and soon felt himself in such a position as to assume the aggressive. He +fixed upon Kamakura as his headquarters about A.D. 1180, and as his power +increased it grew to be a great city. It was difficult of access from +Kyōto and by fortifying the pass of Hakoné,(116) where the mountainous +regions of Shinano come down to the eastern coast not far from Fujisan, it +was rendered safe from attacks coming from the south. + +While these notes of preparation were being sounded Kiyomori, who as +_daijō-daijin_ had ruled the empire for many years, died A.D. 1181, at the +age of sixty-four. He was fully aware of the portentous clouds which were +gathering around his family. On his death-bed he is said to have warned +them of the danger arising from the plans of Yoritomo. According to the +_Nihon-Gwaishi_, he said, “My regret is only that I am dying, and have not +yet seen the head of Yoritomo of the Minamoto. After my decease do not +make offerings to Buddha on my behalf nor read sacred books. Only cut off +the head of Yoritomo of the Minamoto and hang it on my tomb.” + +The death of Kiyomori(117) hastened the triumph of Yoritomo. Munemori the +son of Kiyomori became the head of the Taira clan, and continued the +contest. But Yoritomo’s combinations speedily reduced the country to his +power. Yoshitsuné with his army from the north was at Kamakura; Yoshinaka, +a cousin of Yoritomo, was in command of an army gathered in the highlands +of Shinano; while Yoritomo himself led the forces collected in Awa, Kazusa +and Musashi. The point to which all the armies were directed was the +capital where the Taira were still in full control. Yoshinaka was the +first to come in collision with the forces of the capital. Munemori had +sent out an army to oppose Yoshinaka who was swiftly approaching along the +Nakasendō. The Taira army was completely defeated and Yoshinaka marched +victoriously into the capital. Munemori with the reigning emperor Antoku, +then only a child six years of age, and all the imperial court crossed the +Inland sea to Sanuki, the northern province of the island of Shikoku. The +two retired emperors Go-Shirakawa, and Takakura who sympathized with the +revolutionary movements of Yoritomo, remained behind and welcomed +Yoshinaka to the capital. The retirement of the emperor from the palace +was taken as his abdication, and his younger brother, Go-Toba, then seven +years old, was proclaimed emperor. + +Yoshinaka, puffed up by his rapid success, and disregarding the paramount +position of Yoritomo, assumed the superintendence of the government and +had himself appointed _sei-i-shōgun_,(118) which was the highest military +title then bestowed upon a subject. He even went so far as to antagonize +Yoritomo and undertook to pluck the fruits of the military movements which +had brought about this revolution of the government. + +Yoritomo at once despatched Yoshitsuné at the head of his army to Kyōto to +put down this most unexpected and unnatural defection. He met Yoshinaka’s +army near lake Biwa and inflicted upon it a severe defeat. Overwhelmed +with shame and knowing that he deserved no consideration at the hands of +his outraged relatives, Yoshinaka committed suicide. Yoshitsuné then +followed the fugitive court. He destroyed the Taira palace at Hyōgo, and +then crossed over to Sanuki, whither the court had fled. Alarmed by the +swift vengeance which was pursuing them, Munemori together with the +emperor and his mother and all the court hastily embarked for what they +hoped might be an asylum in the island of Kyūshū. They were pursued by the +Minamoto army in the junks which had brought them to Sanuki. They were +overtaken at Dan-no-ura not far from the village of Shimonoseki, in the +narrow straits at the western extremity of the Inland sea. The naval +battle which here took place is the most famous in the annals of the +Japanese empire. According to the _Nihon-Gwaishi_ the Taira fleet +consisted of five hundred junks, and the Minamoto of seven hundred. The +vessels of the Taira were encumbered by many women and children of the +escaping families, which put them at a great disadvantage. The young +emperor, with his mother and grandmother, were also the precious freight +of this fugitive fleet. Of course, at this early date the vessels which +contended were unlike the monstrous men-of-war which now make naval +warfare so stupendous a game. They were not even to be compared with the +vessels which made up the Spanish Armada in A.D. 1588, or the ships in +which the gallant British sailors repulsed them. Cannon were no part of +their armament. The men fought with bows and arrows, and with spears and +swords. It was, however, a terrible hand-to-hand fight between men who +felt that their all was at stake. Story-tellers draw from this battle some +of their most lurid narratives, and artists have depicted it with +realistic horrors. The grandmother of the emperor, the widow of Kiyomori, +seeing that escape was impossible, took the boy emperor in her arms, and +in spite of the remonstrances of her daughter, who was the boy’s mother, +she plunged into the sea, and both were drowned. + +The great mass of the Taira perished in this battle, but a remnant escaped +to the island of Kyūshū and hid themselves in the inaccessible valleys of +the province of Higo. Here they have been recognized in recent times, and +it is claimed that they still show the surly aversion to strangers which +is an inheritance derived from the necessity under which they long rested +to hide themselves from the vengeance which pursued them.(119) + +This battle was decisive in the question of supremacy between the Taira +and Minamoto clans. The same policy of extermination which Kiyomori had +pursued against the Minamoto was now remorselessly enforced by the +Minamoto against the Taira. The prisoners who were taken in the battle +were executed to the last man. Munemori was taken prisoner and +decapitated. Whenever a Taira man, woman, or child was found, death was +the inevitable penalty inflicted. Yoritomo stationed his father-in-law +Hōjō Tokimasa at Kyōto to search out and eradicate his enemies as well as +to supervise the affairs of the government. + +It will be remembered that Go-Toba, a mere child (A.D. 1186) only seven +years of age, had been put on the throne, in the place of the fugitive +Antoku. Now that the latter had perished at Dan-no-ura, there could be no +question about the legitimacy and regularity of Go-Toba’s accession. The +retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who had been a friend and promoter of the +schemes of Yoritomo, was still alive, and rendered important aid in the +re-organization of the government. + +The darkest blot upon the character of Yoritomo is his treatment of his +youngest brother Yoshitsuné. It was he who had by his generalship and +gallantry brought these terrible wars to a triumphant conclusion. He had +crushed in the decisive battle of Dan-no-ura the last of the enemies of +Yoritomo. With his victorious troops he marched northward, and with +prisoners and captured standards was on his way to lay them at the feet of +his now triumphant brother at Kamakura. But the demon of jealousy had +taken possession of Yoritomo. He resented the success and fame of his more +winning and heroic brother. He sent orders to him not to enter Kamakura, +and to give up his trophies of battle at Koshigoye near to Enoshima. Here +at the monastery of Mampukuji is still kept the draft of the touching +letter(120) which he sent to his brother, protesting his loyalty and +denying the charges of ambition and self-seeking which had been made +against him. But all this availed nothing. Yoshitsuné returned to Kyōto +and, in fear of bodily harm from the machinations of his brother, made his +escape with his faithful servant Benkei,(121) into his old asylum with his +friend Fujiwara Hidehira the governor of Mutsu. Shortly after his arrival, +however, Hidehira died, and his son Yasuhira abjectly connived at his +assassination(122) A.D. 1189, with a view to secure Yoritomo’s favor. He +was at the time of his death only thirty years of age. He has lived down +to the present time in the admiring affection of a warlike and heroic +people. Although Yoritomo is looked upon as perhaps their greatest hero, +yet their admiration is always coupled with a _proviso_ concerning his +cruel treatment of his brother. + +In order not to rest under the imputation of having encouraged this +assassination, Yoritomo marched at the head of a strong force and +inflicted punishment upon Yasuhira for having done what he himself desired +but dared not directly authorize. + +The way was now clear for Yoritomo to establish a system of government +which should secure to him and his family the fruits of his long contest. +In A.D. 1190, he went up to the capital to pay his respects to the Emperor +Go-Toba as well as to the veteran retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa. The latter +was now in his sixty-sixth year, and had held his place through five +successive reigns, and was now the friend and patron of the new +government. He died, however, only two years later. Yoritomo knew the +effect produced by a magnificent display, and therefore made his progress +to the capital with all the pomp and circumstance which he could command. +The festivities were kept up for a month, and the court and its +surroundings were deeply impressed with a sense of the power and +irresistible authority of the head of the Minamoto clan. + +Yoritomo did not, however, choose to establish himself at Kyōto amid the +atmosphere of effeminacy which surrounded the court. After his official +visit, during which every honor and rank which could be bestowed by the +emperor were showered upon his head and all his family and friends, he +returned to his own chosen seat at Kamakura. Here he busied himself in +perfecting a system which, while it would perpetuate his own power, would +also build up a firm national government. + +His first step, A.D. 1184, was to establish a council at which affairs of +state were discussed, and which furnished a medium through which the +administration might be conducted. The president of this council was +Ōye-no-Hiromoto.(123) Its jurisdiction pertained at first to the +Kwantō—that is, to the part of the country east of the Hakoné barrier. +This region was more completely under the control of the Minamoto, and +therefore could be more easily and surely submitted to administrative +methods. He also established a criminal tribunal to take cognizance of +robberies and other crimes which, during the lawless and violent +disturbances in the country, had largely prevailed. + +But the step, which was destined to produce the most far-reaching results, +consisted in his obtaining from the emperor the appointment of five of his +own family as governors of provinces, promising on his part to supervise +their actions and to be responsible for the due performance of their duty. +Up to this time the governors and vice-governors of provinces had always +been appointed from civil life and were taken from the families +surrounding the imperial court. He also was authorized to send into each +province a military man, who was to reside there, to aid the governor in +military affairs. Naturally, the military man, being the more active, +gradually absorbed much of the power formerly exercised by the governor. +These military men were under the authority of Yoritomo and formed the +beginning of that feudal system which was destined to prevail so long in +Japan. He also received from the court, shortly after his visit to Kyōto, +the title of _sei-i-tai-shōgun_, which was the highest military title +which had ever been bestowed on a subject. This is the title which, down +to A.D. 1868, was borne by the real rulers of Japan. The possession of the +power implied by this title enabled Yoritomo to introduce responsible +government into the almost ungoverned districts of the empire, and to give +to Japan for the first time in many centuries a semblance of peace. + +There were also many minor matters of administration which Yoritomo, in +the few remaining years of his life, put in order. He obtained from the +emperor permission to levy a tax on the agricultural products of the +country, from which he defrayed the expenses of the military government. +He established tribunals for the hearing and determining of causes, and +thus secured justice in the ordinary affairs of life. He forbade the +priests and monks in the great Buddhist monasteries, who had become +powerful and arrogant, to bear arms, or to harbor those bearing arms. + + [Illustration] + + Yoritomo. + + +In all these administrative reforms Yoritomo was careful always to secure +the assent and authority of the imperial court.(124) In no case did he +assume or exercise independent authority. In this way was introduced at +this time that system of dual government which continued until the +resignation of the Tokugawa Shōgun in 1868. After his first visit to +Kyōto, in A.D. 1190, Yoritomo devoted the remaining years of his life to +the confirmation of his power and the encouragement of the arts of peace. +In A.D. 1195 he made a second magnificent visit to Kyōto and remained four +months. It is because of these peaceful results, which followed the long +internecine struggles, that the Japanese regard Yoritomo as one of their +most eminent and notable men. Under the influence of his court Kamakura +grew to be a great city and far outranked even Kyōto in power and +activity, though not in size. + +In the autumn of the year A.D. 1198, when returning from the inspection of +a new bridge over the Sagami river, he had a fall from his horse which +seriously injured him. He died from the effects of this fall in the early +part of the following year, in the fifty-third year of his age. He had +wielded the unlimited military power for the last fifteen years. His death +was almost as much of an epoch in the history of Japan as his life had +been. We shall see in the chapters which follow the deplorable results of +that system of effeminacy and nepotism, of abdication and regency, which +Yoritomo had to resist, and which, had he lived twenty years more, his +country might have escaped. + + + + + +CHAPTER VII. EMPEROR AND SHŌGUN. + + +The death of Yoritomo brought into prominence the very same system which +had been the bane of the imperial house during many centuries. His son and +the hereditary successor to his position and power was Yoriiye, then +eighteen years of age. He was the son of Masago, and therefore the +grandson of Hōjō Tokimasa, who had been Yoritomo’s chief friend and +adviser. He was an idle, vicious boy, and evinced no aptitude to carry on +the work of his father. In this wayward career he was not checked by his +grandfather, and is even said to have been encouraged to pursue a life of +pleasure and gayety, while the earnest work of the government was +transacted by others. Tokimasa assumed the duties of president of the +Council as well as guardian of Yoriiye, and in these capacities conducted +the administration entirely according to his own will. The appointments of +position and rank which the father had received from the emperor were in +like manner bestowed upon the son. He was made head of the military +administrators stationed in the several provinces, and he also received +the military title of _sei-i-tai-shōgun_, to which Yoritomo had been +appointed. But these appointments were only honorary, and the duties +pertaining to them were all performed by the guardian of the young man. + +In the year A.D. 1203, that is in the fourth year succeeding Yoritomo’s +death, Yoriiye was taken sick, and was unable to fulfil his duties even in +the feeble manner which was customary. His mother consulted with Tokimasa, +and they agreed that Yoriiye should abdicate and surrender the headship of +the military administration to his brother Semman, who was twelve years of +age, and his son Ichiman. Yoriiye seems to have resisted these +suggestions, and even resorted to force to free himself from the influence +of the Hōjō. But Tokimasa was too powerful to be so easily dispensed with. +Yoriiye was compelled to yield, and he retired to a monastery and gave up +his offices. Not content with this living retirement, Tokimasa contrived +to have him assassinated. Semman, his brother, was appointed +_sei-i-tai-shōgun_, and his name changed to Sanetomo. But Sanetomo did not +long enjoy his promotion, because his nephew, the son of his murdered +predecessor, deemed him responsible for his father’s murder, and took +occasion to assassinate him. Then in turn the nephew was put to death for +this crime, and thus by the year A.D. 1219 the last of the descendants of +the great Yoritomo had perished. In the meantime Tokimasa had, A.D. 1205, +retired to a Buddhist monastery in his sixty-eighth year, and in A.D. +1216, when he was seventy-eight, he died. The court at Kamakura was now +prepared to go on in its career of effeminacy after the pattern of that at +Kyōto. + +Mesago, the widow of Yoritomo and daughter of Tokimasa, although she too +had taken refuge in a Buddhist nunnery, continued to exercise a ruling +control in the affairs of the government. She solicited from the court at +Kyōto the appointment of Yoritsuné, a boy of the Fujiwara family, only two +years old, as _sei-i-tai-shōgun_ in the place of the murdered Sanetomo. +The petition was granted, and this child was entrusted to the care of the +Hōjō, who, as regents(125) of the shōgun, exercised with unlimited sway +the authority of this great office. The situation of affairs in Japan at +this time was deplorable. Go-Toba and Tsuchi-mikado were both living in +retirement as ex-emperors. Juntoku was the reigning emperor, who was under +the influence and tutelage of the ex-Emperor Go-Toba. Fretting under the +arrogance of the Hōjō, Go-Toba undertook to resist their claims. But +Yoshitoku, the Hōjō regent at this time, quickly brought the Kyōto court +to terms by the use of his military power. The ex-Emperor Go-Toba was +compelled to become a monk, and was exiled to the island of Oki. The +Emperor Juntoku was forced to abdicate, and was banished to Sado, and a +grandson of the former Emperor Takakura placed on the throne. Even the +ex-Emperor Tsuchi-mikado, who had not taken any part in the conspiracy, +was sent off to the island of Shikoku. The lands that had belonged to the +implicated nobles were confiscated and distributed by Yoshitoku among his +own adherents. The power of the Hōjō family was thus raised to its supreme +point. They ruled both at Kyōto and Kamakura with resistless authority. +They exercised at both places this authority without demanding or +receiving the appointment to any of the high positions which they might +have claimed. They were only the regents of young and immature shōguns, +who were the appointees of a court which had at its head an emperor +without power or influence, and which was controlled by the creatures of +their own designation. This lamentable state of things lasted for many +years. The shōguns during all this time were children sent from Kyōto, +sons of emperors or connections of the royal family. The Hōjō ruled them +as well as the country. Whenever it seemed best, they relentlessly deposed +them, and set up others in their places. In A.D. 1289 the Regent Sadatoki, +it is said, became irritated with one of these semi-royal shōguns, named +Koreyasu, and in order to show his contempt for him, had him put in a +_nori-mono_(126) with his heels upward, and sent him under guard to Kyōto. +Some of the Hōjō regents, however, were men of character and efficiency. +Yasutoki, for instance, who became regent in A.D. 1225, was a man of +notable executive ability, taking Yoritomo as his model. Besides being a +soldier of tried capacity, he was a true friend of the farmer in his +seasons of famine and trial, and a promoter of legal reforms and of the +arts, which found a congenial home among the Japanese. + +But this condition of affairs could not last always. The very same +influences which put the real power into the hands of the regents were at +work to render them unfit to continue to wield it. Abdication and +effeminacy were gradually dragging down the Hōjō family to the same level +as that of the shōguns and emperors. In A.D. 1256 Tokiyori, then only +thirty years old, resigned the regency in favor of his son Tokimune, who +was only six years. He himself retired to a monastery, from which he +travelled as a visiting monk throughout the country. In the meantime his +son was under the care of a tutor, Nagatoki, who, of course, was one of +the Hōjō family. Thus it had come about that a tutor now controlled the +regent; who was supposed to control the shōgun; who was supposed to be the +vassal of the emperor; who in turn was generally a child under the control +of a corrupt and venal court. Truly government in Japan had sunk to its +lowest point, and it was time for heroic remedies! + +Occasionally, in the midst of this corruption and inefficiency, an event +occurs which stirs up the national enthusiasm and makes us feel that there +is still left an element of heroism which will ultimately redeem the +nation from impending ruin. Such was the Mongolian invasion of Japan in +A.D. 1281. According to accounts given by Marco Polo, who evidently +narrates the exaggerated gossip of the Chinese court,(127) Kublai Khan had +at this time conquered the Sung dynasty in China and reigned with +unexampled magnificence. He had heard of the wealth of Japan and deemed it +an easy matter to add this island empire to his immense dominions. His +first step was to despatch an embassy to the Japanese court to demand the +subjection of the country to his authority. This embassy was referred to +Kamakura, whence it was indignantly dismissed. Finally he sent an invading +force in a large number of Chinese and Korean vessels who took possession +of Tsushima, an island belonging to Japan and lying midway between Korea +and Japan. Trusting to the effects of this success a new embassy was sent, +which was brought before the Hōjō regent at Kamakura. The spot on the +seashore is still pointed out where these imperious ambassadors were put +to death, and thus a denial which could not be misunderstood was given to +the demands of the Grand Khan. A great invading force, which the Japanese +put at a hundred thousand men, was immediately sent in more than three +hundred vessels, who landed upon the island of Kyūshū. This army was met +and defeated(128) by Tokimune, and, a timely typhoon coming to their aid, +the fleet of vessels was completely destroyed. Thus the only serious +attempt at the invasion of Japan which has ever been made was completely +frustrated. + +But notwithstanding this heroic episode the affairs of Japan remained in +the same deplorable condition. As a rule children continued to occupy the +imperial throne and to abdicate whenever their Hōjō masters deemed it +best. Children of the imperial house or of the family of Fujiwara were +sent to Kamakura to become shōguns. And now at last the Hōjō regency had +by successive steps come down to the same level, and children were made +regents, whose actions and conduct were controlled by their inferiors. + +In the midst of this state of things, which continued till A.D. 1318, +Go-Daigo became emperor. Contrary to the ordinary usage, he was a man +thirty-one years old, in the full maturity of his powers. He was by no +means free from the vices to which his surroundings inevitably tended. He +was fond of the gayety and pomp which the court had always cultivated. But +he realized the depth of the degradation to which the present condition of +affairs had dragged his country. A famine brought great suffering upon the +people, and the efforts which the emperor made to assist them added to his +popularity, and revealed to him the reverence in which the imperial throne +was held. His son Moriyoshi, as early as A.D. 1307, was implicated in +plans against the Hōjō, which they discovered, and in consequence +compelled Go-Daigo to order his retirement into a monastery. Later +Go-Daigo undertook to make a stand against the arrogance and intolerance +of the Hōjō and induced the Buddhist monks to join him in fortifying +Kasagi in the province of Yamato. But this effort of the emperor was +fruitless. Kasagi was attacked and destroyed and the emperor taken +prisoner. As a punishment for his attempt he was sent as an exile to the +island of Oki. The Hōjō Regent Takatoki put Go-Kōgen on the throne as +emperor. But Go-Daigo from his exile continued his exertions against the +Hōjō, and assistance came to him from unexpected quarters. He effected his +escape from the island and, having raised an army, marched upon Kyōto. +Kusunoki Masashigé, who had given his aid to the emperor on former +occasions, now exerted himself to good purpose. He is held in admiring +remembrance to this day by his grateful country as the model of patriotic +devotion, to whom his emperor was dearer than his life. Another character +who stands out prominently in this trying time was Nitta Yoshisada. He was +a descendant of Yoshiiye, who, for his achievements against the Emishi, +had received the popular title of Hachiman-tarō. Nitta was a commander in +the army of the Hōjō, which had been sent against Kusunoki Masashigé. But +at the last moment he refused to fight against the army of the emperor and +retired with his troops and went over to the side of Masashigé. He +returned to his own province of Kōtsuke and raised an army to fight +against the Hōjō. With this force he marched at once against Kamakura +through the province of Sagami. His route lay along the beach. But at +Inamura-ga-saki the high ground, which is impassable for troops, juts out +so far into the water that Nitta was unable to lead them past the +promontory. Alone he clambered up the mountain path and looked out upon +the sea that lay in his way. He was bitterly disappointed that he could +not bring his force in time to share in the attack upon the hateful Hōjō +capital. He prayed to the Sea-god to withdraw the sea and allow him to +pass with his troops. Then he flung his sword into the waves in token of +his earnestness and of the dire necessity in which he found himself. +Thereupon the tide retreated and left a space of a mile and a half, along +which Nitta(129) marched upon Kamakura. + +The attack was spirited and was made from three directions simultaneously. +It was resisted with determined valor on the part of the Hōjō. The city +was finally set on fire by Nitta, and in a few hours was reduced to ashes. +Thus the power and the arrogant tyranny of the Hōjō family were sealed. It +had lasted from the death of Yoritomo, A.D. 1199, to the destruction of +Kamakura, A.D. 1333, in all one hundred and thirty-four years. It was a +rough and tempestuous time and the Hōjō have left a name in their country +of unexampled cruelty and rapacity. The most unpardonable crime of which +they were guilty was that of raising their sacrilegious hands against the +emperor and making war against the imperial standard. For this they must +rest under the charge of treason, and no merits however great or +commanding can ever excuse them in the eyes of their patriotic countrymen. + +The restoration of Go-Daigo to the imperial throne, under so popular an +uprising, seemed to betoken a return to the old and simple system of +Japanese government. The intervention of a shōgun between the emperor and +his people, which had lasted from the time of Yoritomo, was contrary to +the precedents which had prevailed from the Emperor Jimmu down to that +time. It was the hope and wish of the best friends of the government at +this time to go back to the original precedents and govern the country +directly from Kyōto with the power and authority derived from the emperor. +But the emperor was not equal to so radical a change from the methods +which had prevailed for more than a century. He gave great offence by the +manner in which he distributed the forfeited fiefs among those who had +aided his restoration. To Ashikaga Taka-uji he awarded by far the greatest +prize, while to Kusunoki and Nitta, who had in the popular estimation done +much more for him, he allotted comparatively small rewards. Among the +soldiers, who in the long civil wars had lost the ability to devote +themselves to peaceful industries, this disappointment was most +conspicuous. They had expected to be rewarded with lands and subordinate +places, which would enable them to live in that feudal comfort to which +they deemed their exertions had entitled them. + +At this time a feud broke out between Ashikaga Taka-uji and Nitta. The +former had accused Nitta of unfaithfulness to his emperor and Nitta was +able to disprove the charge. He received the imperial commission to punish +Ashikaga and marched with his army upon him in the province of Tōtōmi. In +the battles (A.D. 1336) which ensued, the forces of Ashikaga were +completely victorious. The emperor and his court were obliged to flee from +Kyōto and took up their residence in a Buddhist temple at Yoshino in the +mountainous district south of Kyōto. This was the same monastery where +Yoshitsuné and Benkei had taken refuge previous to their escape into +Mutsu. Almost every tree and every rock in the picturesque grounds of this +romantic spot(130) bear some evidence of the one or other of these +memorable refugees. The southern dynasty lasted in all fifty-seven years, +down to A.D. 1374, and although it was compelled to starve out a miserable +existence in exile from the capital, it is yet looked upon by historians +as the legitimate branch; while the northern dynasty, which enjoyed the +luxury of a palace and of the capital, is condemned as illegitimate. + +This period of exile witnessed many notable events in the bloody history +of the country. Ashikaga Taka-uji was of course the ruling spirit while he +lived. He proclaimed that Go-Daigo had forfeited the throne and put Kōmyō +Tennō, a brother of Kōgen Tennō upon it in his stead. The insignia of the +imperial power were in the possession of Go-Daigo, but Kōmyō, being +supported by the battalions of Ashikaga, cared little for these empty +baubles. The bloody sequence of affairs brought with it the death of the +heroic Kusunoki Masashige. He with Nitta and other patriots had undertaken +to support Go-Daigo. It is said that contrary to his military judgment he +attacked the forces of Ashikaga, which were vastly superior in number. The +battle took place A.D. 1336, on the Minato-gawa, near the present site of +Hyōgo. The Ashikaga forces had cut off Kusunoki with a small band of +devoted followers from the main army. Seeing that his situation was +hopeless and that his brave troops must be destroyed, with one hundred and +fifty men—all that were left of his little army—he retired to a farmer’s +house near by and there they all committed _hara-kiri_.(131) Kusunoki +Masashige, when about to commit suicide, said to his son Masatsura: “For +the sake of keeping yourself out of danger’s way or of reaping some +temporal advantage, on no account are you to submit to Taka-uji. By so +doing you would bring reproach on our name. While there is a man left who +belongs to us let our flag be hoisted over the battlements of Mount Konzo, +as a sign that we are still ready to fight in the emperor’s cause.” + +A little later than this, in A.D. 1338, the great companion and friend of +Kusunoki, Nitta Yoshisada, came to his end. He had undertaken to promote +the cause of the Emperor Go-Daigo in the northwestern provinces by +co-operating with Fuji-wara-no-Yoritomo. Nitta with about fifty followers +was unexpectedly attacked by Ashikaga Tadatsune, with three thousand men +near Fukui in the province of Echizen. There was no way of escape with his +little troop. In this condition he was urged to secure his personal +safety. But he refused to survive his comrades. Then he rode with his +brave company upon the enemy until his horse was disabled and he himself +was pierced in the eye with an arrow. He drew out the arrow with his own +hand, and then, in order that his body might not be identified, with his +sword cut off his own head, at least so it is said! Each member of his +troop followed this grewsome example, and it was only after examining the +bodies of these headless corpses and the finding upon one a commission +from the Emperor Go-Daigo, that the remains of the heroic Nitta were +recognized. The head was sent to Kyōto and there exposed by the Ashikaga +commander, and the body was buried near the place where the tragic death +occurred.(132) + +The Ashikaga family had now the uninterrupted control of affairs. They +resided at Kyōto and inherited in succession the office of shōgun. +Taka-uji, the founder of the Ashikaga shōgunate, and who had held the +office from A.D. 1334, died in A.D. 1358, when about fifty-three years +old. He was succeeded by his son Yoshinori who was shōgun from A.D. 1359 +to A.D. 1367. Having retired he was succeeded by his grandson Yoshimitsu +who in turn retired in favor of his son Yoshimotsu. By this time the +precedents of abdication and effeminacy began to tell upon the Ashikaga +successors, and like all the preceding ruling families it gradually sank +into the usual insignificance. Some of the Ashikaga shōguns, however, were +men of uncommon ability and their services to their country deserve to be +gratefully remembered. A number of them were men of culture and evinced +their love of elegance and refinement by the palaces which they built in +Kyōto. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu was shōgun from A.D. 1368 to 1393, and at the +latter date retired in favor of his young son Yoshimotsu, but lived in +official retirement in Kyōto till A.D. 1409. He built the palace now known +as the Buddhist monastery Kinkakuji.(133) Its name is derived from +_kinkaku_ (golden pavilion) which Yoshimitsu erected. The whole palace was +bequeathed by him to the Zen sect of Buddhists and is still one of the +sights best worth seeing in Kyōto. + +Yoshimitsu has been visited by much obloquy because he accepted from the +Chinese government the title of King of Japan, and pledged himself to the +payment of one thousand ounces of gold as a yearly tribute. It is said in +explanation of this tribute that it was to compensate for damages done by +Japanese pirates to Chinese shipping. But it was probably negotiated for +the purpose of securing an ambitious title on the one hand and on the +other making a troublesome neighbor a tributary kingdom. + +Another building which takes its origin from the Ashikaga is the Tō-ji-in. +It was founded by Ashikaga Taka-uji and contains carved and lacquered +wooden figures of the Ashikaga shōguns which are believed in most cases to +be contemporary portraits.(134) + +Another of the notable Ashikaga shōguns was Yoshimasa, who held the office +from A.D. 1443-1473. He retired at the latter date, and lived as retired +shōgun until A.D. 1490. In this interval of seclusion he cultivated the +arts, and posed as the patron of literature and painting. That curious +custom called _cha-no-yu_, or tea ceremonies,(135) is usually adjudged to +him as its originator, but it is most probable that he only adopted and +refined it until it became the fashionable craze which has come down to +modern times. These ceremonies and his other modes of amusement were +conducted in a palace which he had built called _gin-kaku_ (silver +pavilion). Yoshimasa left this palace to the monks of Shō-koku-ji, with +directions that it should be converted into a monastery, and in that +capacity it still serves at the present time. + +The period of the two imperial dynasties lasted until A.D. 1392, when a +proposition was made by the Shōgun Yoshimitsu to the then reigning emperor +of the south, that the rivalry should be healed. It was agreed that +Go-Kameyama of the southern dynasty should come to Kyōto and surrender the +insignia to Go-Komatsu, the ruling emperor of the northern dynasty. This +was duly accomplished, and Go-Kameyama, having handed over the insignia to +Go-Komatsu, took the position of retired emperor. Thus the long rivalry +between the northern and southern dynasties was ended, and Go-Komatsu +stands as the ninety-ninth in the official list of emperors. In that list, +however, none of the other emperors(136) of the northern dynasty appear, +they being regarded as pretenders, and in no case entitled to the dignity +of divine rulers of Japan. + +This settlement of dynastic difficulties and the unrestricted ascendancy +of the Ashikaga shōguns gave the country a little interval of peace. The +condition of the peasantry at this time was most deplorable. The continual +wars between neighboring lords and with the shōguns had kept in the field +armies of military men, who were forced to subsist on contributions +exacted from the tillers of the soil. The farmers everywhere were kept in +a state of uncertainty, and had little encouragement to cultivate crops +which were almost sure to fall into the hands of others. + +On the coasts of Kyūshū and other islands facing towards the continent +piracy also sprang up and flourished apace. It was indeed an era of piracy +all over the world. The Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch traders of this +period were almost always ready to turn an honest penny by seizing an +unfortunate vessel under the pretence that it was a pirate. The whole +coast of China, according to the accounts of Pinto, swarmed with both +European and Asiatic craft, which were either traders or pirates, +according to circumstances. Under this state of things, and with the +pressure of lawlessness and want behind them, it was not surprising that +the inhabitants of the western coasts of Japan should turn to a piratical +life. + +Knowing the Japanese only since centuries of enforced isolation had made +them unaccustomed to creep beyond their own shores, we can scarcely +conceive of their hardihood and venturesomeness during and subsequent to +this active period. Mr. Satow(137) has gathered a most interesting series +of facts pertaining to the intercourse between Japan and Siam, beginning +at a period as early as that now under review. Not only did this +intercourse consist in sending vessels laden with chattels for traffic, +but a colony of Japanese and a contingent of Japanese troops formed part +of the assistance which Japan furnished to her southern neighbor. + +While these signs of activity were apparent on the coast, the provinces in +the interior were alive with political unrest. Particularly the principal +daimyōs, who had never since the days of Yoritomo felt a master’s power +over them, took the present occasion to extend their dominions over their +neighbors. For centuries the conflicts among them were almost unending. It +is needless to undertake to disentangle the story of their wars. These +daimyōs were a far more distinct and pressing reality than the harmless +emperor, or even than the far-removed shōgun. While their ceaseless civil +wars rendered the condition of the country so uncertain and so unsettled, +yet the authority of the local rulers tended to preserve peace and +dispense a rude kind of justice among their own subjects. Thus while in +many parts of Japan poverty and desolation had eaten up everything, and +lawlessness and robbery had put an end to industry, yet there were some +favored parts of the islands where the strong hand of the daimyōs +preserved for their people the opportunities of life, and kept alive the +chances of industry.(138) + + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. FROM THE ASHIKAGA SHŌGUNS TO THE DEATH OF NOBUNAGA. + + +In almost the worst period of the Ashikaga anarchy, A.D. 1542, the +Portuguese made their first appearance in Japan. Galvano, who had been +governor of the Moluccas, gives an account of this first visit, when three +fugitives from a Portuguese vessel in a Chinese junk were driven upon the +islands of southern Japan. Concerning the doings(139) of these fugitives +we have no account in any foreign narratives. + +But Fernam Mendez Pinto,(140) in his travels, etc., gives a detailed +narrative of the visit which he and his companions made a few years later +in a ship with a Chinese captain and merchandise. The exact year cannot be +ascertained from Pinto’s narrative, but Hildreth(141) assumes that it +could not have been earlier than A.D. 1545. Pinto landed on Tane-ga-shima, +an island south of the extreme southern point of the island of Kyūshū. +They were received with great cordiality by the prince, who evinced the +utmost curiosity concerning the Portuguese who were on this ship. Pinto +naïvely confesses that “we rendered him answers as might rather fit his +humor than agree with the truth, ... that so we might not derogate from +the great opinion he had conceived of our country.”(142) + +As a return for some of the kindnesses which the prince showed them, the +Portuguese gave him a _harquebuse_, and explained to him the method of +making powder. The present seems to have been most acceptable, and Pinto +declares the armorers commenced at once to make imitations of it, “so that +before their departure (which was five months and a half after) there were +six hundred of them made in the country.” And a few years later he was +assured that there were above thirty thousand in the city of Fucheo,(143) +the capital of Bungo, and above three hundred thousand in the whole +province. And so they have increased from this one _harquebuse_ which they +gave to the prince of Tane-ga-shima, until every hamlet and city in the +empire in a short time were supplied with them.(144) + +A short time after their reception at Tane-ga-shima the Prince of Bungo, +who was a relative of the Prince of Tane-ga-shima, sent for one of the +Portuguese, and Pinto, by his own consent, was selected as being of a +“more lively humor.” He was received with great consideration, and proved +himself of vast service in curing the prince of gout, with which he was +affected. His success in this cure gave him immense repute, and he was +initiated into all the gayeties and sports of the prince’s court. In +particular he amused and interested them all by firing the matchlock which +he had brought with him. A son of the prince of about sixteen or seventeen +years of age was infatuated with this sport, and one day, unknown to +Pinto, he undertook to load and fire the matchlock, as he had seen the +foreigner do. An explosion occurred, by which the young prince was much +injured, and owing to this Pinto came near being put to death for having +wrought this disaster. But the young prince had more sense than the +attendants, and at his request Pinto was given a chance to bind up the +wounds and take care of him. The result was that the young prince quickly +recovered, and the fame of this cure was spread everywhere. “So that,” +says Pinto, “after this sort I received in recompense of this my cure +above fifteen hundred ducats that I carried with me from this place.” + +Pinto made a second visit to Japan in the interests of trade in 1547, +which was attended by a circumstance which had far-reaching results. In +critical circumstances they were called upon to take off two fugitives who +appealed to them from the shore. A company of men on horseback demanded +the return of the fugitives, but without answer they pulled off to the +ship and took them aboard. The principal of these two fugitives(145) was +Anjiro, whom the Jesuits usually name Anger, and his companion was his +servant. They were taken in the Portuguese vessel to Malacca, where Pinto +met Father Francis Xavier, who had just arrived upon his mission to the +East. Xavier became intensely interested in these Japanese fugitives, and +took them to Goa, then the principal seat of Jesuit learning and the seat +of an archbishopric in the East Indies. Here both the Japanese became +converts and were baptized, Anjiro receiving the name of Paulo de Santa +Fé(146) (Paul of the Holy Faith), and his companion the name of John. They +learned to speak and write the Portuguese language, and were instructed in +the elements of the Christian religion. With these efficient helps Xavier +was ready to enter Japan and commence the evangelization on which his +heart had long been set. + +At last arrangements were made with a Chinese vessel, which according to +Pinto’s account was a piratical craft, to convey Xavier and his companions +to Japan. They arrived at Kagoshima, the capital of the province of +Satsuma, August 15, A.D. 1549. Besides Xavier and his Japanese companions +there were Cosme de Torres, a priest, and Jean Ferdinand, a brother of the +Society of Jesus. They were cordially received by the Prince of Satsuma, +and after a little, permission was given them to preach the Christian +religion in the city of Kagoshima. The family and relatives of Anjiro, who +lived in Kagoshima, were converted and became the first fruits of the +mission. In the letters which Xavier wrote home about this time we have +his early impressions concerning the Japanese. The princess took great +interest in the subjects discussed by Anjiro, and was especially struck +with a picture of the Madonna and child which he showed her. She asked to +have the heads of the Christian faith put in writing in order that she +might study them. For this reason a creed and a catechism were prepared +and translated into the Japanese language, for the use of the princess and +other enquirers. In one of his early letters he says: “I really think that +among barbarous nations there can be none that has more natural goodness +than Japan.”(147) In the same letter he says: “They are wonderfully +inclined to see all that is good and honest and have an eagerness to +learn.” Xavier, in letter 79, narrates his meeting with the Buddhist +priest whom he calls Ningh-Sit, which name he says means Heart of Truth. +This priest was eighty years old, and in the conversation expressed great +surprise that Xavier should have come all the way from Portugal to preach +to the Japanese. + +The biographers of Xavier have given us the fullest details of his life +and works. That he was a man of the most fervent piety as well as the most +conspicuous ability, is apparent from the energy and success with which he +conducted his short but brilliant mission. Both in their accounts of him, +as well as in the papal bull announcing his canonization, the claim is +distinctly set forth of his possession of miraculous power. He is +represented as having raised a Japanese girl from the dead; as possessing +the gift of tongues, that is, as being able to speak in fluent Japanese, +although he had not learned the language; as having given an answer which +when heard was a satisfactory reply to the most various and different +questions,(148) such as, “the immortality of the soul, the motions of the +heavens, the eclipses of the sun and moon, the colors of the rainbow, sin +and grace, heaven and hell.” + + [Illustration] + + St. Francis Xavier. + + +Yet it must be stated that Xavier himself does not claim these miraculous +powers. Indeed among the letters published by Father Horace Tursellini is +one in which he thus speaks of himself: “God grant that as soon as +possible we may learn the language of Japan in order to make known the +divine mysteries; then we shall zealously prosecute our Christian work. +For they speak and discourse much about us, but we are silent, ignorant of +the language of the country. At present we are become a child again to +learn the elements of the language.” + +The desire for trade with the Portuguese seems to have been a principal +reason for the ready reception of the missionaries. And when the +Portuguese merchant ships resorted to Hirado, an island off the west coast +of Kyūshū, instead of the less accessible Kagoshima, the Prince of +Kagoshima turned against the missionaries and forbade them from preaching +and proselyting. From Kagoshima Xavier went to Hirado, where he was +received with a salvo of artillery from a Portuguese vessel then at anchor +there. Here he made a short stay, preaching the gospel as usual and with +the approval of the prince establishing a church. Leaving Kosmé de Torres +at Hirado and taking with him Fernandez and the two Japanese assistants he +touched at Hakata, famous as the place where the Mongol invaders were +repulsed. Then he crossed over to the Main island and travelling by land +along the Sanyōdō he entered Yamaguchi in the province of Nagato. His +humble and forlorn appearance did not produce a favorable impression on +the people of this city and he was driven out with obloquy. He set out for +Kyōto with a party of Japanese merchants, and as it was winter and Xavier +had to carry; on his back a box containing the vestments and vessels for +the celebration of mass, the journey was trying and difficult. He arrived +at Kyōto A.D. 1550 in the midst of great political troubles. A fire had +destroyed a great part of what had been once a beautiful and luxurious +city. Many of the principal citizens had abandoned it and taken up their +residence with local princes in the provinces. Xavier could obtain a +hearing neither from the emperor nor from the Ashikaga shōguns, who +maintained a representative in the capital at this time. He preached in +the street as he could obtain opportunity. But the atmosphere was +everywhere unfavorable, and he resolved to abandon the field for the +present. Accordingly he went back to Bungo, whence he sailed for China +November 20, A.D. 1551, with the purpose of establishing a mission. He had +spent two years and three months in Japan and left an impression which has +never been effaced. He died on his way, at the little island of Sancian, +December 2, A.D. 1552, aged forty-six. His body was carried to Malacca and +afterward to Goa, where it was buried in the archiepiscopal +cathedral.(149) + +The departure and death of Xavier did not interrupt the work of the +mission in Japan. Kosmé de Torres was left in charge and additional +helpers, both priests and lay brothers, were sent to prosecute what had +been so conspicuously begun. The political disturbances in Yamaguchi for a +time interfered with the labors of the missionaries there. Bungo was the +principal province where their encouragement had made their success most +conspicuous. The prince had not indeed been baptized but he had permitted +the fathers to preach and he had allowed converts to adopt the new +religion, so that the work had assumed a promising appearance. The Prince +of Ōmura became a convert and by his zeal in the destruction of idols and +other extreme measures aroused the hostility of the Buddhist priesthood. +In Kyōto the progress of the work encountered many vicissitudes. The +political troubles arising out of the contests between Mōri of Chōshū and +the rival house interfered with the propagation of Christianity both in +Yamaguchi and Kyōto. Mōri himself, the most powerful prince of his time +and who once held the control in ten provinces, was hostile to the +Christians. By his influence the work in Kyōto was temporarily abandoned +and the fathers resorted to Sakai, a seaport town not far from Ōsaka, +where a branch mission was established. + +It was in A.D. 1573 that Nagasaki became distinctively a Christian city. +At that time the Portuguese were seeking various ports in which they could +conduct a profitable trade, and they found that Nagasaki possessed a +harbor in which their largest ships could ride at anchor. The merchants +and Portuguese fathers therefore proposed to the Prince of Ōmura, in whose +territory the port of Nagasaki was situated, to grant to them the town +with jurisdiction over it. The prince at first refused, but finally by the +intervention of the Prince of Arima the arrangement was made.(150) The +transference to Nagasaki of the foreign trade at this early day made it a +very prosperous place. The Prince of Ōmura had the town laid out in +appropriate streets, and Christian churches were built often on the sites +of Buddhist temples which were torn down to give place for them. It is +said that in A.D. 1567 “there was hardly a person who was not a +Christian.” + +We shall have occasion often in the subsequent narrative to refer to the +progress of Christianity in the empire. In the meantime we must trace the +career of Nobunaga, who exerted a powerful effect on the affairs of his +country and particularly upon the condition of both Buddhism and +Christianity. He must be regarded always as one of the great men of Japan +who at an opportune moment intervened to rescue its affairs from anarchy. +He prepared the way for Hideyoshi and he, in turn, made it possible for +Ieyasu to establish a peace which lasted without serious interruption for +two hundred and fifty years. + +Ota Nobunaga was descended from the Taira family through Ota Chikazane, a +great-grandson of Taira Kiyomori. The father of Chikazane had perished in +the wars between the Taira and Minamoto families, and his mother had +married as her second husband the chief man in the village of Tsuda in the +province of Ōmi. The step-child was adopted by a Shintō priest of the +village of Ota in the province of Echizen, and received the name of Ota +Chikazane. When he grew up, he became a Shintō priest and married and +became the father of a line of priests. One of this succession was Ota +Nobuhide, who seems to have reverted from the priestly character back to +the warlike habits of his ancestors. In the general scramble for land, +which characterized that period, Nobuhide acquired by force of arms +considerable possessions in the province of Owari, which at his death in +A.D. 1549 he left to his son Ota Nobunaga. This son grew up to be a man of +large stature, but slender and delicate in frame. He was brave beyond the +usual reckless bravery of his countrymen. He was by character and training +fitted for command, and in the multifarious career of his busy life, in +expeditions, battles, and sieges, he showed himself the consummate +general. Like many other men of genius he was not equally as skilful in +civil as military affairs. He was ambitious to reduce the disorders of his +country, and he was able to see in a great measure the success of his +schemes. But he failed in leaving when he died any security for the +preservation and continuance of that peace and unity which he had +conquered. + +At the time Nobunaga became prominent, the Emperor Go-Nara had died and +Ōgimachi in A.D. 1560 had just succeeded to the throne as the one hundred +and fifth emperor. Ashikaga Yoshifusa had become shōgun in A.D. 1547 as a +boy eleven years old, and was at this time a young man, who as usual +devoted himself to pleasure while the affairs of government were conducted +by others. Both emperor and shōgun were almost powerless in the empire, +the real power being held by the local princes. In many cases they had +largely increased their holdings by conquest, and were almost entirely +independent of the central authority. For more than a century this +independence had been growing, and at the time of Nobunaga there was +little pretence of deferring to the shōgun in any matter growing out of +the relations of one prince to the other, and none at all in reference to +the internal government of the territories within their jurisdiction. The +principal local rulers at this time were the following: Imagaya Yoshimoto +controlled the three provinces of Suruga, Tōtōmi, and Mikawa; Hōjō Ujiyasu +from the town of Odowara ruled the Kwanto, including the provinces of +Sagami, Musashi, Awa, Kazusa, Shimosa, Hitachi, Kōtsuke, and Shimotsuke; +Takeda Shingen ruled the province of Kai and the greater part of the +mountainous province of Shinano; Uesugi Kenshin held under his control the +northwestern provinces of Echizen, Echigo, Etchū, and Noto; Mōri Motonari +after a severe contest had obtained control of almost all the sixteen +provinces which composed the Chūgoku or central country; the island of +Kyūshū had been the scene of frequent civil wars and was now divided +between the houses of Shimazu of Satsuma, Ōtomo of Bungo, and Ryōzoji of +Hizen; and finally the island of Shikoku was under the control of +Chōsokabe Motochika.(151) Besides these principal rulers, there were many +smaller holders who occupied fiefs subordinate to the great lords, and +paid for their protection and their suzerainty in tribute and military +service. In the letters of the Jesuit missionaries of this period the +great lords are denominated _kings_, but neither according to the theory +of the Japanese government, nor the actual condition of these rulers can +the name be considered appropriate. The term daimyō(152) came into its +full and modern use only when Ieyasu reorganized and consolidated the +feudal system of the empire. But even at the period of Nobunaga the name +was employed to indicate the owners of land. We prefer to continue down to +the time of the Tokugawa shōguns the use of the terms _prince_ and +_principality_ for the semi-independent rulers and their territories. + +The holdings which Ota Nobunaga inherited from his father consisted only +of four small properties in the province of Owari. Acting according to the +fashion of the times he gradually extended his authority, until by A.D. +1559 we find him supreme in Owari with his chief castle at Kiyosu near to +the city of Nagoya. His leading retainers and generals were Shibata +Genroku and Sakuma Yemon, to whom must be added Hideyoshi,(153) who +gradually and rapidly rose from obscurity to be the main reliance of his +prince. Nobunaga was a skilful general, and whenever an interval occurred +in his expeditions against his hostile neighbors he employed the time in +carefully drilling his troops, and preparing them for their next +movements. He found in Hideyoshi an incomparable strategist, whose plans, +artifices, and intrigues were original and effective, and were worth more +to his master than thousands of troops. + +It was not difficult in those days to find excuses to invade neighboring +domains, and hence we find Nobunaga, as soon as he had made himself master +of Owari, on one pretext or another making himself also master of the +provinces of Mino, Ōmi, and Isé. Before this was accomplished, however, we +see plain indications both on the part of Nobunaga and his retainers that +the ultimate aim in view was the subjugation of the whole country, and the +establishment of a government like that of Yoritomo. + +At this time (A.D. 1567) the affairs of the Ashikaga shōguns, who ruled in +the name of the emperor, were in a state of great confusion. Yoshiteru, +the shōgun, had been assassinated by one of his retainers, Miyoshi +Yoshitsugu. The younger brother of Yoshiteru was Yoshiaki, who desired to +succeed, but this did not comport with the designs of the assassins. +Accordingly after making several unsuccessful applications for military +aid he finally applied to Nobunaga. This was exactly the kind of alliance +that Nobunaga wanted to justify his schemes of national conquest. With his +own candidate in the office of shōgun, he could proceed without impediment +to reduce all the princes of the empire to his supreme authority. He +therefore undertook to see Yoshiaki established as shōgun, and for this +purpose marched a large army into Kyōto. Yoshiaki was installed as shōgun +in A.D. 1568, and at his suggestion the emperor conferred on Nobunaga the +title of Fuku-shōgun(154) or vice-shōgun. This was Nobunaga’s first +dealings with the imperial capital, and the presence of his large army +created a panic among the inactive and peaceful citizens. + +He appointed Hideyoshi as commander-in-chief of the army at the capital, +who with a sagacity and energy that belonged to his character set himself +to inspire confidence and to overcome the prejudice which everywhere +prevailed against the new order of things. Kyōto had suffered so much from +fires and warlike attacks, and still more by poverty and neglect, that it +was now in a lamentable condition. To have somebody, therefore, with the +power and spirit to accomplish his ends, undertake to repair some of the +wastes, and put in order what had long run to ruin, was an unexpected and +agreeable surprise. The palaces of the emperor and the shōgun were +repaired and made suitable as habitations for the heads of the nation. +Streets and bridges, temples and grounds were everywhere put in order. +Kyōto for the first time in many centuries had the benefit of a good and +strong government. + +It was the custom to celebrate the establishment of a new year-period with +popular rejoicings. The period called Genki was begun in December A.D. +1570 by the Emperor Ōgimachi. Nobunaga brought to Kyōto on this occasion a +very large army in order to impress on the minds of the nation his +overwhelming military power. He intended, moreover, to march his forces, +as soon as this celebration was over, against Prince Asakura Yoshikage of +the province of Echizen, who had not yet submitted himself to Nobunaga’s +authority, and who had not given in his adhesion to the new shōgun. Taking +with him Hideyoshi and all the troops that could be spared from Kyōto, +Nobunaga marched north into the domains of Yoshikage. He was aided in his +resistance by Asai Nagamasa, the governor of the castle of Itami in the +province of Ōmi. An attempt had been made by Nobunaga to conciliate +Nagamasa by giving him his sister in marriage. But Nagamasa was still +cool, and now at this critical time he turned to help Nobunaga’s enemy. +The unexpected combination came very near causing Nobunaga a disastrous +defeat. At an important battle which was fought in this short campaign, we +see together the three most noted men of their time, Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, +and Ieyasu. The last of the three was only a few years younger than +Hideyoshi, and had already shown indications of the clear and steady +character of which he afterward gave such indubitable proof. The result +was the defeat of Nobunaga’s enemies and his victorious return to the +castle of Gifu in the province of Mino. + +But his way was not yet quite free from obstacles. Asakura Yoshikage and +Asai Nagamasa although defeated were not crushed, and made various efforts +to regain the advantage over Nobunaga. The most noted of these was when +Nobunaga was absent from Kyōto with troops quelling a disturbance in +Ōsaka, Asakura and Asai took advantage of the opportunity and marched a +strong force upon the city. They had proceeded as far as Hiei-zan on the +borders of Lake Biwa. This mountain was then occupied by an immense +Buddhist monastery called Enriaku-ji from the year-period when it was +established. It was said, that at this time there were as many as three +thousand buildings belonging to the monastery. The monks of this +establishment were exceedingly independent, and were so numerous and +powerful that they were able to exact whatever concessions they desired +from the government at Kyōto, from which they were only a few miles +distant. They disliked Nobunaga and his powerful government with which +they dared not take their usual liberties. Accordingly they made common +cause with Asakura and Asai and furnished them with shelter and supplies +on their march to Kyōto. But Nobunaga met them before they reached Kyōto, +and so hemmed them in that they were glad to sue for peace and get back to +their own provinces as well as they could. But on the ill-fated monastery +Nobunaga in A.D. 1571 visited a terrible revenge. He burned their +buildings, and what monks survived the slaughter he drove into banishment. +The monastery was partially restored subsequently by Ieyasu, but it was +restricted to one hundred and twenty-five buildings and never afterwards +was a political power in the country. + +During these years of Nobunaga’s supremacy, the Jesuit fathers had been +pushing forward their work of proselyting and had met with marvellous +success. The action of the Buddhist priests in siding with his enemies and +the consequent aversion with which he regarded them, led Nobunaga to favor +the establishment of Christian churches. In the letters of the fathers at +this period frequent references are made to Nobunaga and of his favorable +attitude toward Christianity and their hope that he would finally become a +convert. But it is plain that the fathers did not comprehend fully the +cause for the enmity of Nobunaga to the Buddhist monks, and his political +reasons for showing favor to the Christian fathers. He remained as long as +he lived friendly to the Christian church, but made no progress towards an +avowal of his faith. Under his patronage a church was built in Kyōto, and +another at Azuchi on Lake Biwa, where he built for himself a beautiful +castle and residence. By this patronage and the zeal of the fathers the +Christian church rose to its greatest prosperity(155) during the closing +years of Nobunaga’s life. In the year A.D. 1582 a mission was sent to the +pope, consisting of representatives from the Christian princes of Bungo, +Arima, and Ōmura. This mission consisted of two young Christian princes +about sixteen years of age, accompanied by two counsellors who were of +more mature years, and by Father Valignani, a Portuguese Jesuit, and by +Father Diego de Mesquita as their preceptor and interpreter. They visited +the capitals of Portugal and Spain, which at this time were combined under +the crown of Philip II. of Spain, and were received at both with the most +impressive magnificence. They afterward visited Rome and were met by the +body-guard of the pope and escorted into the city by a long cavalcade of +Roman nobles. They were lodged in the house of the Jesuits, whence they +were conducted by an immense procession to the Vatican. The Japanese +ambassadors rode in this procession on horseback dressed in their richest +native costume. They each presented to the pope the letter(156) which they +had brought from their prince, to which the reply of the pope was read. +The presents which they had brought were also delivered, and after a +series of most magnificent entertainments, and after they had been +decorated as Knights of the Gilded Spears, they took their departure. In +the meantime Pope Gregory XIII., who had received them, a few days later +suddenly died A.D. 1585. His successor was Pope Sixtus V., who was equally +attentive to the ambassadors, and who dismissed them with briefs addressed +to their several princes. + +Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiaki, whom Nobunaga had been instrumental in +installing, became restive in the subordinate part which he was permitted +to play. He sought out the princes who still resisted Nobunaga’s supremacy +and communicated with them in reference to combining against him. He even +went so far as to fortify some of the castles near Kyōto. Nobunaga took +strenuous measures against Yoshiaki, and in A.D. 1573 deposed him. He was +the last of the Ashikaga shōguns, and with him came to an end a dynasty +which had continued from Taka-uji in A.D. 1335 for two hundred and +thirty-eight years. + +Nobunaga assumed the duties which had hitherto been performed by the +shōgun, that is he issued orders and made war and formed alliances in the +name of the emperor. But he never took the name of shōgun(157) or presumed +to act in a capacity which from the time of Yoritomo had always been +filled by a member of the Minamoto family, while he was a member of the +Taira family. Whether this was the cause of his unwillingness to call +himself by this title to which he might legitimately have aspired we can +only conjecture. Of one thing we may be sure, that he was disinclined to +arouse the enmity of the ambitious princes of the empire, whose +co-operation he still needed to establish his power on an enduring basis, +by assuming a position which centuries of usage had appropriated to +another family. The emperor bestowed upon him the title of _nai-daijin_, +which at this time however was a purely honorary designation and carried +no power with it. + +The Prince of Chōsū was one of the most powerful of those who had not yet +submitted to the supremacy of Nobunaga. The present prince was Mōri +Terumoto, the grandson of the Mōri Motonari who by conquest had made +himself master of a large part of the central provinces. Nobunaga +despatched Hideyoshi with the best equipped army that at that time had +ever been fitted out in Japan, to subdue the provinces lying to the west +of Kyōto. He did not overrate the ability of the general to whom he +entrusted this task. They set out in the early part of the year A.D. 1578. +Their first movement was against the strongholds of the province of +Harima, which he reduced. We for the first time find mention in this +campaign of Kuroda(158) Yoshitaka, who in the invasion of Korea was a +notable figure. His services to Hideyoshi at this time were most signal. +The campaign lasted about five years and added five provinces to +Nobunaga’s dominions. Then after a visit to Kyōto he continued his +conquests, never meeting with a defeat. The most remarkable achievement +was the capture of the castle of Takamatsu, in the province of Sanuki. +This castle was built with one side protected by the Kōbe-gawa and two +lakes lying on the other sides, so that it was impossible to approach it +by land with a large force. Hideyoshi, with the genius for strategy which +marked his character, saw that the only way to capture the fort was to +drown it out with water. He then set his troops to dam up the river below +the fortress. Gradually this was accomplished and as the water rose the +occupants of the castle became more uncomfortable. Hideyoshi understanding +his master’s character feared to accomplish this important and critical +exploit without Nobunaga’s knowledge. He therefore wrote asking him to +come without delay to his assistance. Nobunaga set out with a group of +generals, among whom was Akechi Mitsuhide, with the troops under their +command. They started from Azuchi on Lake Biwa, which was occupied as +Nobunaga’s headquarters. They were to proceed to the besieged fort by the +shortest route. Nobunaga with a small escort went by way of Kyōto, +expecting soon to follow them. He took up his temporary abode in the +temple of Honnōji. It was observed that Akechi with his troops took a +different route from the others and marched towards Kyōto. When spoken to +about his purpose he exclaimed, “My enemy is in the Honnōji.” He explained +to his captains his purpose and promised them unlimited plunder if they +assisted him. He led his troops to Kyōto and directly to the Honnōji. +Nobunaga hearing the noise looked out and at once saw who were the +traitors. He defended himself for a time, but soon saw that he was +hopelessly surrounded and cut off from help. He retired to an inner room +of the temple, set it on fire, and then calmly committed _hara-kiri_. His +body was buried in the burning and falling ruins. His death occurred in +A.D. 1582. + +Thus ended the career of one of Japan’s great men. He had shown the +possibility of uniting the provinces of Japan under one strong government. +He had given to Kyōto and the provinces lying east and north of it a +period of peace and quiet under which great progress had been made in +agriculture, the arts and in literature. He was a warrior and not a +statesman, and for this reason less was done than might have been in +confirming and solidifying the reforms which his conquest had made +possible. Personally he was quick-tempered and overbearing, and often gave +offence to those who were not able to see through his rough exterior to +the true and generous heart which lay beneath. The cause of the plot +against him was probably the consequence of a familiarity with which he +sometimes treated his military subordinates. It is said that on one +occasion in his palace when he had grown somewhat over-festive he took the +head of his general Akechi(159) under his arm and with his fan played a +tune upon it, using it like a drum. Akechi was mortally offended and never +forgave the humiliating joke. His treason, which resulted in Nobunaga’s +death, was the final outcome of this bit of thoughtless horse-play. + + + + + +CHAPTER IX. TOYOTOMI HIDEYOSHI. + + +The death of Nobunaga in the forty-ninth year of his age left the country +in a critical condition. Sakuma and Shibata had been his active retainers +and generals for many years, and they had the most bitter and envious +hatred toward Hideyoshi, whom they had seen advance steadily up to and +past them in the march of military preferment. It was to Hideyoshi that +the country looked to take up the work which Nobunaga’s death had +interrupted. Akechi began to realize when too late that he must reckon +with him for his terrible crime. He appointed two of his lieutenants to +assassinate Hideyoshi on his way back to the capital. He sent word to Mōri +Terumoto, who was trying to raise the siege of the castle of Takamatsu, +concerning Nobunaga’s death, hoping that this tragedy would encourage +Terumoto to complete his designs. + +In the meantime the news had reached Hideyoshi. Terumoto had heard of the +starting of Nobunaga with additional troops, and had determined to make +peace with Hideyoshi. He had sent messengers with a proposition for peace. +The measures for taking the castle had succeeded and it was surrendered. +In this state of things Hideyoshi(160) pursued a course which was +characteristic of him. He sent word to Terumoto that Nobunaga was now dead +and that therefore his proposition for peace might, if he wished, be +withdrawn. You must decide, he said, whether you will make peace or not; +it is immaterial whether I fight or conclude a treaty of peace. To such a +message there could be only one answer. Peace was at once concluded and +Hideyoshi started for Kyōto to deal with the traitors. + +The attempt to assassinate Hideyoshi on his journey came very near being +successful. He was in such eagerness to reach his destination that he +hurried on without regard to his army which accompanied him. A small +body-guard kept up as well as they could with their impatient chief. At +Nishinomiya in this journey Hideyoshi, when in advance of his body-guard, +was attacked by a band of the assassins. His only way of escape was by a +narrow road between rice fields, leading to a small temple. When he had +traversed part of this lane he dismounted, turning his horse around along +the way he had come, and stabbed him in the hind leg. Mad with pain, he +galloped back with disastrous effect upon the band which was following +him. Meanwhile Hideyoshi hurried to the temple. Here the priests were all +in a big common bath-tub, taking their bath. Hastily telling them who he +was, and begging their protection, he stripped off his clothes and plunged +in among the naked priests. When the assassins arrived, they could find +nothing but a bath-tub full of priests, whom they soon left in search of +the fugitive. As they disappeared, the anxious body-guard arrived, and +were astonished and amused to find their chief clad in the garb of a +priest and refreshed after his hurried journey with a luxurious bath.(161) + +Hideyoshi, as soon as he arrived at Kyōto, issued an invitation to all the +princes to join him in punishing those who had brought about the death of +Nobunaga. A battle was fought at Yodo, not far from Kyōto, which resulted +in the complete defeat of Akechi. He escaped, however, from this battle, +but on his way to his own castle he was recognized by a peasant and +wounded with a bamboo spear. Seeing now that all hope was gone, he +committed _hara-kiri_, and thus ended his inglorious career. His head was +exposed in front of Honnōji, the temple where Nobunaga perished. + +As might have been expected, this premature death of Nobunaga—for he was +only forty-nine years old—created an intense excitement. The idea of +heredity had so fixed a place in men’s minds, that the only thought of +Nobunaga’s friends and retainers was to put forward in his place some one +who should be his heir. There were living two sons, both by concubines, +viz. Nobuo and Nobutaka, and a grandson, Sambōshi, still a child, who was +a son of his son Nobutada, now deceased. Each of these representatives had +supporters among the powerful retainers of the dead prince. It may be +assumed that each was supported not because of the rightful claim which he +had to the estates and the power which the dead prince had left behind +him, but solely because the supporters of the successful heir would be +entrusted with special authority, and endowed with conquered provinces. It +is sufficient to explain here that Hideyoshi supported the candidacy of +the grandson, Sambōshi, probably with no higher motive nor more +disinterested purpose than the others. After a noisy and hot debate it was +finally agreed that the grandson should be installed as successor, and +Hideyoshi undertook to be his guardian. He had a large army at Kyōto, and +with this he felt strong enough to carry things with a high hand. He +appointed a funeral ceremony to be held in honor of Nobunaga, to which all +the princes were invited, and he posted his troops in such a way as to +command every avenue of approach. He claimed for himself, as guardian of +the child Sambōshi, precedence of all the princes and generals. So at the +funeral service, with the child Sambōshi in his arms, he proceeded in +advance of all others to pay memorial honors to the dead. He supported +this action with such an overwhelming display of military force that his +enemies were afraid to show any resistance. + +The disappointed princes retired to their provinces and hoped that by some +fortuitous circumstances they might still be able to circumvent the plans +of Hideyoshi. He saw well that he must meet the opposition which would be +concentrated on him by activity and force. As a general not one of his +enemies could compare with him in fertility of resources, in decisiveness +of action, and in command of military strength. His first contest was with +his old comrade in arms Shibata Katsuie, who had served with him under +Nobunaga, and who was intensely jealous of Hideyoshi’s rapid rise in +military rank and territorial authority. Shibata had championed the cause +of Nobutaka in the contest as to the successor of Nobunaga. He had command +of troops in Echizen, and Nobutaka was governor of the castle of Gifu in +the province of Mino. The campaign was a short and decisive one. The +battle was fought at Shigutake and resulted in the complete defeat of +Shibata and his allies. It is notable that in this battle artillery were +used and played a conspicuous part. Shibata after his overthrow committed +_hara-kiri_. Nobutaka having escaped also put an end to himself. Thus the +active enemies of Hideyoshi in the north and west were overcome and the +forfeited territory made use of to reward his friends. + +His next contest was with the adherents of Nobuo, the other son of +Nobunaga. This was made memorable by the assistance which Ieyasu rendered +to Nobuo. Hideyoshi’s army, himself not being present, was defeated. +Ieyasu being satisfied with this victory and knowing that he could not +ultimately triumph now made peace with Hideyoshi. The island of Shikoku, +which was under the control of Chōsokabe Motochika was reduced to +subjection in a brief campaign and the chiefs compelled to do duty to +Hideyoshi as their head. + +It seems that at this time Hideyoshi was ambitious to attain official +appointment which would legitimately descend to his children and make him +the founder of a new line of shōguns. He applied to the ex-shōgun +Yoshiaki, whom Nobunaga had deposed(162) and who was now living in +retirement, intimating that it would be to his interest to adopt him as +his son so that he could be appointed by the emperor as shōgun. But +Yoshiaki declined to comply with this suggestion on account of Hideyoshi’s +humble origin. In place of this appointment, however, he was installed +A.D. 1585 by the Emperor Ōgimachi as _Kuambaku_, which is higher in rank +than any other office in the gift of the imperial court. Hitherto this +title had been borne exclusively by members of the Fujiwara family, and it +must have been a severe blow to their aristocratic pride to have a humble +plebeian who had risen solely by his own talents thus elevated by imperial +appointment to this dignified position. He also received at this time the +name of Toyotomi(163) by which he was afterward called, and in recognition +of his successful conquest of much territory he received A.D. 1575 the +honorary title of Chikuzen-no-kami. + +There were a few years from about A.D. 1583—with an important exception +which will be given below—when peace reigned in all the territories of +Japan, and when Hideyoshi devoted himself wisely and patiently to the +settlement of the feudal condition of the country. It was at this time he +began building his great castle at Ōsaka which occupied about two years. +Workmen were drawn from almost all parts of Japan, and a portion of it is +said to have been finer and more massive than had ever been seen in Japan. +This magnificent work(164) survived its capture by Ieyasu in 1614 and +remained undisturbed down to the wars of the restoration in 1868, when it +was burned by the Tokugawa troops at the time they were about to evacuate +it. + +The exception to which reference is made above was the important campaign +which Hideyoshi was called upon to conduct in the island of Kyūshū against +the Satsuma clan.(165) The distance at which Kyūshū lay from the centre of +imperial operations, the mountainous and inaccessible character of a great +part of the territory, made it no easy matter to deal with the refractory +inhabitants of this island. The Satsuma clan even at that early day had a +reputation for bravery and dash which made them feared by all their +neighbors. The prince of Satsuma at this time was Shimazu Yoshihisa, a +member of the same family who held the daimiate until the abolition of the +feudal system. It is a tradition that the first of this family was a son +of Yoritomo, who in the year A.D. 1193 was appointed governor of Satsuma. +Like all the feudal princes of the period, the prince of Satsuma was +ambitious to extend his dominion as far as possible. Hyūga, Bungo, Higo, +and Hizen were either wholly or in part subject to his authority, so that +by the year A.D. 1585 it was the boast of the prince that eight provinces +acknowledged him as lord.(166) + +It was in this critical period that Hideyoshi was appealed to for help by +the threatened provinces. He first sent a special envoy to Kagoshima, who +was directed to summon the prince to Kyōto to submit himself to the +emperor and seek investiture from him for the territories which he held. +Shimazu received this message with scorn, tore up the letter and trampled +it under his feet, and declared that to a man of mean extraction like +Hideyoshi he would never yield allegiance. Both parties recognized the +necessity of deciding this question by the arbitrament of war. + +Hideyoshi called upon thirty-seven provinces to furnish troops for this +expedition. It is said that 150,000 men were assembled at Ōsaka ready to +be transported into Kyūshū. The vanguard, consisting of 60,000 men under +Hidenaga, the brother of Hideyoshi, set sail January 7, A.D. 1587. Troops +from the western provinces joined these, so that this advanced army +numbered not less than 90,000 men. + +In due time, January 22d, Hideyoshi himself, with his main army, +consisting of 130,000 men, left Ōsaka, marching by land to Shimonoseki, +and from this point crossing over to Kyūshū. The Satsuma armies were in +all cases far outnumbered, and step by step were compelled to retreat upon +Kagoshima. Hideyoshi had by means of spies(167) acquired a complete +knowledge of the difficult country through which his armies must march +before reaching Kagoshima. After much fighting the Satsuma troops were at +last driven into the castle of Kagoshima, and it only remained for +Hideyoshi to capture this stronghold in order to end in the most brilliant +manner his undertaking. + +It was at this juncture that Hideyoshi made one of these surprising and +clever movements which stamp him as a man of consummate genius. Instead of +capturing the fortress and dividing up the territory among his deserving +generals, as was expected, he restored to the Shimazu family its original +buildings, viz., the provinces of Satsuma and Ōsumi and half the province +of Hyūga, only imposing as a condition that the present reigning prince +should retire in favor of his son, and that he should hold his fief as a +grant from the emperor. Thus ended one of the most memorable of the +campaigns which Hideyoshi had up to this time undertaken, and with this +also closed a series of events which exerted a permanent influence on the +history of Japan. + +It will be desirable at this point to trace the incidents which had +transpired in connection with the Jesuit fathers. It will be remembered +that the work of the fathers(168) was much interfered with by the +political troubles which preceded the advent of Nobunaga. Owing to their +taking sides with his enemies he was very much incensed against the +Buddhist priests and visited his indignation upon them in a drastic +measure.(169) His desire to humiliate the Buddhist priests probably led +him to assume a favorable attitude towards the Christian fathers. As long +therefore as Nobunaga lived, churches were protected and the work of +proselyting went on. Even after the death of Nobunaga in A.D. 1582 nothing +occurred for some time to interfere with the spread of Christianity. +Hideyoshi was too much occupied with political and military affairs to +give much attention to the circumstances concerning religion. Indeed the +opinion of Mr. Dening(170) in his _Life of Hideyoshi_ is no doubt true, +that he was in no respect of a religious temperament. Even the +superstitions of his own country were treated with scant courtesy by this +great master of men. + +Gregory XIII. seeing what progress the Jesuits were making, and realizing +how fatal to success any conflict between rival brotherhoods would be, +issued a brief in A.D. 1585, that no religious teachers except Jesuits +should be allowed in Japan. This regulation was exceedingly distasteful to +both the Dominicans and the Franciscans, especially after the visit of the +Japanese embassy to Lisbon, Madrid, and Rome had directed the attention of +the whole religious world to the triumphs which the Jesuits were making in +Japan. Envy against the Portuguese merchants for their monopoly of the +Japanese trade had also its place in stirring up the Spaniards at Manila +to seek an entrance to the island empire. The opposition with which +Christianity had met was represented as due to the character and behavior +of the missioners. In view of these circumstances the Spanish governor of +Manila sent a letter to Hideyoshi, asking for permission to open trade +with some of the ports of Japan. Four Franciscans attached themselves to +the bearer of this letter and in this way were introduced into the +interior of Japan. Among the valuable presents sent to Hideyoshi by the +governor of Manila was a fine Spanish horse(171) with all its equipments. +These Franciscans who came in this indirect way were permitted to +establish themselves in Kyōto and Nagasaki. They were at once met by the +protest of the Jesuits who urged that the brief of the pope excluded them. +But these wily Franciscans replied that they had entered Japan as +ambassadors and not as religious fathers, and that now when they were in +Japan the brief of the pope did not require them to leave. + +A very bitter state of feeling from the first therefore manifested itself +between the Jesuits and Franciscans. The latter claimed that the +opposition they met with was due to the plots and intrigues of the +Jesuits, and they openly avowed that the Jesuit fathers through cowardice +failed to exert themselves in the fulfilment of their religious duties, +and in a craven spirit submitted to restrictions on their liberty to +preach. Hideyoshi’s suspicion was aroused against the foreigners about +this time, A.D. 1587, by the gossip of a Portuguese sea-captain which had +been reported to him. This report represented the captain as saying: “The +king, my master, begins by sending priests who win over the people; and +when this is done he despatches his troops to join the native Christians, +and the conquest is easy and complete.”(172) This plan seemed so exactly +to agree with experiences in China, India, and the East Indies, that +Hideyoshi resolved to make it impossible in Japan. He therefore issued an +edict in the year A.D. 1587 commanding all foreign religious teachers on +pain of death to depart from Japan in twenty days. This edict, however, +gave leave to Portuguese merchants “to traffic and reside in our ports +till further order; but withal we do hereby strictly forbid them, on pain +of having both their ships and merchandises confiscated, to bring over +with them any foreign religious.”(173) + +In consequence of this edict, in A.D. 1593 six Franciscans and three +Jesuits were arrested in Ōsaka and Kyōto and taken to Nagasaki, and there +burnt. This was the first case of the execution of Christians by the order +of the government. To explain the transportation of these missionaries to +Nagasaki and their execution there, it should be stated that in A.D. 1586, +at the close of the Satsuma campaign, Nagasaki had been taken from the +prince of Ōmura and made a government city, to be controlled by a governor +appointed immediately from Kyōto. Shortly after this, in A.D. 1590, on +account of its superior harbor, it was fixed upon as the only port at +which foreign vessels would be admitted. + +There was still one refractory element in his dominions which it was +necessary to deal with. Hōjō Ujimasa maintained a hostile attitude at +Odawara. He was determined once for all to reduce this rebellious chief +and the others who might be influenced by his example. It is unnecessary +to give the details of this short but decisive undertaking. Only one +incident deserves to be given as illustrative of the character of +Hideyoshi. In sending troops to the field of action it was necessary that +a large number of horses should cross the sea of Enshū,(174) which was +usually very rough at that time of year. The boatmen, as is usual, were +very superstitious, and had a decided aversion to transporting the horses +in their boats; averring that the god of the sea Ryūgū had a special +dislike for horses. Hideyoshi sent for the boatmen and told them that he +had undertaken this expedition at the command of the emperor, and that the +god of the sea was too polite to interfere in anything pertaining to the +transportation of troops for such a purpose. He said however that he would +make it all right by writing a letter to Ryūgū, instructing him to insure +the safe passage of the ships. This was done, and a letter addressed “Mr. +Ryūgū” was thrown into the sea. The boatmen were satisfied, and the horses +were taken over without difficulty.(175) + +With the fall of Odawara the whole of the Kwantō, comprising the provinces +of Sagami, Musashi, Kōtsuke, Shimotsuke, Hitachi, Shimōsa, Kazusa, and Awa +came into the possession of Hideyoshi. During the progress of the siege, +it is said that he and Ieyasu were standing in a watch tower which they +had built on the heights above the castle of Odawara. Hideyoshi pointed to +the great plain before them and said(176): “Before many days I will have +conquered all this, and I propose to give it into your keeping.” + +Ieyasu thanked him warmly and said: “That were indeed great luck.” + +Hideyoshi added: “Wilt thou reside here at Odawara as the Hōjō have done +up to this time?” + +Ieyasu answered: “Aye, my lord, that I will.” + +“That will not do,” said Hideyoshi. “I see on the map that there is a +place called Yedo about twenty _ri_ eastward from us. It is a position far +better than this, and that will be the place for thee to live.” + +Ieyasu bowed low and replied: “I will with reverence obey your lordship’s +directions.” + +In accordance with this conversation after the fall of Odawara, Ieyasu was +endowed with the provinces of the Kwantō and took up his residence at +Yedo. This is the first important appearance of Yedo in the general +history of Japan. It had however an earlier history, when in the fifteenth +century it appears as a fishing village called _Ye-do_, that is _door of +the bay_. Near this fishing village Ōta Dōkwan, a feudal baron, built +himself in A.D. 1456 a castle. With the advent of Ieyasu, Yedo became a +place of first importance, a rank which it still holds. The object of +Hideyoshi in thus entrusting this great heritage to Ieyasu seems to have +been to secure him by the chains of gratitude to himself and his family. +Already Ieyasu was connected by marriage with Hideyoshi, his wife being +Hideyoshi’s sister. By making him lord of an immense and powerful country +he hoped to secure him in perpetual loyalty to himself and his heirs. + +In order that he might be free from the cares and responsibilities of the +government at home, Hideyoshi retired from the position of _kwambaku_ A.D. +1591 and took the title of _Taikō_. By this title he came to be generally +known in Japanese history, Taikō Sama, or my lord Taikō, being the form by +which he was commonly spoken of. His nephew and heir Hidetsugu was at this +time promoted to the title of _kwambaku_, and was ostensibly at the head +of the government. The Jesuit fathers speak of him as mild and amiable, +and as at one time a hopeful student of the Christian religion. They note +however a strange characteristic in him, that he was fond of cruelty and +that when criminals were to be put to death he sought the privilege of +cutting them into pieces and trying cruel experiments upon their suffering +bodies. + +In A.D. 1592 Taikō Sama had by one of his wives a son, whom he named +Hideyori. Over this new-born heir, whom, however, many suspect of not +being Taikō Sama’s son, he made great rejoicing throughout the empire. He +required his nephew to adopt this new-born son as his heir, although he +had several sons of his own. The result of this action was a feeling of +hostility between the uncle and nephew. Hidetsugu applied to Mōri, the +chief of Chōsū, to aid him in the conflict with his uncle. But Mōri was +too wary to enter upon such a contest with the veteran general. Instead of +helping Hidetsugu, he revealed to Taikō Sama the traitorous proposition of +his nephew. Hidetsugu was thereupon stripped of his office and sent as an +exile to the monastery of Kōya-san in the province of Kii. A year later he +was commanded with his attendants to commit _hara-kiri_; and with an +unusual exhibition of cruelty, his counsellors, wives, and children were +likewise put to death. + +Hideyoshi had for a long time contemplated the invasion of Korea and +ultimately of China. In a conversation with Nobunaga when he was about to +set out on his conquest of the western provinces he is represented as +saying(177): “I hope to bring the whole of Chūgoku into subjection to us. +When that is accomplished I will go on to Kyūshū and take the whole of it. +When Kyūshū is ours, if you will grant me the revenue of that island for +one year, I will prepare ships of war, and purchase provisions, and go +over and take Korea. Korea I shall ask you to bestow on me as a reward for +my services, and to enable me to make still further conquests; for with +Korean troops, aided by your illustrious influence, I intend to bring the +whole of China under my sway. When that is effected, the three countries +[China, Korea, and Japan] will be one. I shall do it all as easily as a +man rolls up a piece of matting and carries it under his arm.” He had +already carried out part of this plan; he had brought the whole of Chūgoku +and of the island of Kyūshū under his rule. It remained for him to effect +the conquest of Korea and China in order to complete his ambitious +project. + +For this purpose he needed ships on a large scale, for the transportation +of troops and for keeping them supplied with necessary provisions. From +the foreign merchants, who traded at his ports, he hoped to obtain ships +larger and stronger than were built in his own dominions. It was a great +disappointment to him when he found this impossible, and that the +merchants, whom he had favored, were unwilling to put their ships at his +disposal. It is claimed by the Jesuit fathers that this disappointment was +the chief reason for the want of favor with which Hideyoshi regarded them +during the last years of his life. It is also advanced as one reason for +his entering on the invasion of Korea, that he might thus employ in +distant and dangerous expeditions some of the Christian princes whose +fidelity to himself and loyalty to the emperor he thought he had reason to +doubt. He was ambitious, so they said, to rival in his own person the +reputation of the Emperor Ōjin, who rose in popular estimation to the rank +of Hachiman, the god of war, and who is worshipped in many temples, +because, while he was still unborn, his mother led a hostile and +successful expedition into this same Korea. + +The immediate pretext(178) for a war was the fact that for many years the +embassies which it had been the custom to send from Korea to Japan with +gifts and acknowledgments had been discontinued. In A.D. 1582 he sent an +envoy to remonstrate, who was unsuccessful. Subsequently he sent the +prince of Tsushima, who had maintained at Fusan, a port of Korea, a +station for trade, to continue negotiations. After some delay and the +concession of important conditions the prince had the satisfaction, in +A.D. 1590, of accompanying an embassy which the government of Korea sent +to Hideyoshi. They arrived at Kyōto at the time when Hideyoshi was absent +on his campaign against Hōjō Ujimasa at Odawara. He allowed them to await +his return, and even when he had resumed his residence at the capital he +showed no eagerness to give them an audience. On the pretence that the +hall of audience needed repairs, he kept them waiting many months before +he gave orders for their reception. It seemed that he was trying to +humiliate them in revenge for their dilatoriness in coming to him. It is +not impossible that he had already made up his mind to conduct an +expedition in any event into Korea and China, and the disrespect with +which he treated the embassy was with the deliberate intention of widening +the breach already existing. + +Mr. Aston has given us an account of the reception which was finally +accorded to the ambassadors, drawn from Korean sources, and which shows +that they were entertained in a very unceremonious fashion. They were +surprised to find that in Japan this man whom they had been led to look +upon as a sovereign was only a subject. They presented a letter from the +king of Korea conveying his congratulations and enumerating the gifts(179) +he had sent. These enumerated gifts consisted of horses, falcons, saddles, +harness, cloth of various kinds, skins, ginseng, etc. These were articles +which the Japanese of an earlier age had prized very highly and for the +more artistic production of some of which the Koreans had rendered +material assistance. Hideyoshi suggested that the embassy should return to +their own country at once without waiting for an answer to their letter. +This they were unwilling to do. So they waited at Sakai whence they were +to sail, till the _kwambaku_ was pleased to send them a message for their +king. It was so arrogant in tone that they had to beg for its modification +several times before they dared to carry it home. The letter plainly +announced his intention to invade China and called upon the Koreans to aid +him in this purpose. + +The ambassadors went home with the conviction that it was Hideyoshi’s +intention to invade their country. At their instigation the government +made what preparations it could, by repairing fortresses, and collecting +troops, arms, and provisions. The country was a poor country, and had had +the good fortune or the misfortune to remain at peace for two hundred +years. The arts of war had been forgotten. They had no generals who could +cope with the practised soldiers of Japan. Firearms which had been +introduced into the military equipments of Japanese armies were almost +unknown in Korea. It is true that they had been taken under the protection +of China and could call upon her for aid. But China was distant and slow, +and Korea might be destroyed before her slumbering energies could be +aroused. + +The preparations which Hideyoshi made, as was his custom, were thorough +and extensive. Each prince in Kyūshū, as being nearest to the seat of war, +was required to furnish a quota of troops in proportion to his revenues. +Each prince in Shikoku and in the Main island, in like manner, was to +provide troops proportionate to his revenue and his proximity to the seat +of war. Princes whose territories bordered on the sea were to furnish +junks and boats, and men to handle them. The force which was thus +assembled at Nagoya, now called Karatsu, in Hizen was estimated at 300,000 +men, of whom 130,000 were to be immediately despatched. Hideyoshi did not +personally lead this force. It was under the command of two generals who +were independent of each other, but were ordered to co-operate. One of +these generals was Konishi Yukinaga Settsu-no-kami, whom the Jesuit +fathers refer to under the name of Don Austin. From an humble position in +life he had risen to high and responsible rank in the army. Under the +influence of Takeyama, a Christian prince, whom the Jesuit fathers call +Justo Ucondono, he had been converted to Christianity. Hideyoshi, as has +been pointed out, was desirous of securing the help of the Christian +princes in Kyūshū, and therefore appointed a Christian as one of the +generals-in-chief. Under him were sent the contingents from Bungo, Ōmura, +Arima, and other provinces where the Christian element was predominant. +This division of the invading army may therefore be looked upon as +representing the Christian population of the empire. The other +general-in-chief was Katō Kiyomasa,(180) who had been associated with +Hideyoshi ever since the times of Nobunaga. He was the son of a blacksmith +and in A.D. 1563 he became one of Hideyoshi’s retainers. He was a man of +unusual size and of great personal bravery. He commanded an army collected +mainly from the northern and eastern provinces, which comprised the +experienced veterans of Hideyoshi’s earlier campaigns. He is usually +spoken of as inimical to the Christians, but this enmity probably grew up +along with the ill-feeling between the two armies in Korea. + +Konishi’s division arrived in Korea April 13, A.D. 1592, and captured the +small town of Fusan, which had been the port at which the Japanese had for +generations maintained a trading post. After the arrival of Katō the two +divisions marched towards the capital, reducing without difficulty the +castles that lay in their way. The greatest terror prevailed among the +inhabitants, and the court, with King Riyen at its head, resolved to flee +into the province bordering on China. The armies reached the capital and +then set out northward. The dissensions between the commanders had by this +time reached such a point that they determined to separate. Katō traversed +the northeastern provinces and in his course captured many Koreans of +rank. + +Konishi marched to the north and found the king at Pingshang on the +borders of the river Taitong-Kiang. Here he was joined by Kuroda Noritaka, +whom the Jesuit fathers named Condera(181) Combiendono, and by Yoshitoshi +the prince of Tsushima, who had marched with their forces by a different +route. An effort at negotiations at this point met with no success. The +king continued his flight northward to Ichiu, a fortified town on the +borders of China. After he left a sharp contest took place between the +besiegers and defenders, which resulted in the abandonment of the town and +its capture by the Japanese. The stores of grain which had been collected +by the Koreans were captured with the town. + +Konishi was anxious to conduct further military operations in connection +with the Japanese vessels which had been lying all this time at Fusan. +Directions were accordingly sent to have the junks sent round to the +western coast. The Koreans picked up courage to show fight with their +vessels, which seemed to have been of a superior construction to those of +their enemies. They allured the Japanese boats out to sea and then turned +upon them suddenly and treated them so roughly that they were glad to get +back to the protection of the harbor and to give up the purpose of +cruising along the western coast. The result of this little success +encouraged the Koreans so much that it may be said to have been a turning +point in the invasion. + +In the meantime the piteous appeals of the Koreans to China had produced +some effect. A small army of five thousand men, which was raised in the +adjoining province of Laotung, was sent to their aid. This insufficient +force rashly undertook to attack the Japanese in Pingshang. But they led +the invaders into the town, and then so thoroughly routed them that the +escaped remnants made their way back to Laotung. This experience led the +Chinese officials to see that if they wished to help the Koreans at all +they must despatch a stronger force. This they set to work at once to do. +They endeavored to gain some time by pretending to enter upon negotiations +for an armistice. During the autumn months of A.D. 1592 the Japanese +troops were almost idle. And they were very much taken by surprise when +near the end of the year the Chinese army, forty thousand strong, besides +Koreans, made its appearance on the scene. The Japanese commander had no +time to call for help, and before he realized the imminency of the danger +Pingshang was attacked. Being far outnumbered Konishi deemed it prudent to +make his escape from the beleaguered town, and to save his army by a +retreat, which was a painful and inglorious one. + +The other division of the Japanese army under Katō, who had occupied the +west coast, found its position untenable with a superior Chinese army +threatening it. It also was compelled to retreat towards the south. But +the veteran army of Katō was not content to yield all that it had gained +without a struggle. A bloody engagement followed near Pachiung, in which +the Chinese and Korean army suffered a significant defeat. The Chinese +army then retired to Pingshang, and Katō was not in a condition to follow +it over the impassable winter roads and with deficient supplies. The +Japanese troops had suffered an experience such as never befell them under +the redoubtable leadership of Hideyoshi. And the Chinese had had enough of +the terrible two-handed swords which the Japanese soldier could wield so +effectively.(182) + +The chief obstacle to peace was the mutual distrust with which each of the +three parties regarded the others. Korea hated the Japanese with a perfect +and justifiable hatred; she also feared and despised the pompous and +pretentious pride of China. But in the negotiations which ensued the +country which had suffered most had least to say. It remained for the two +greater powers to come to some agreement which should be satisfactory to +them; and whether Korea were satisfied or not was of secondary moment. + +The Japanese envoy proceeded to Peking and is said to have negotiated +peace on these conditions: That the emperor of China should grant to +Hideyoshi the honor of investiture, that the Japanese troops should all +leave Korea, and that Japan should engage never to invade Korea again. +There was some jangling about the withdrawal of the Japanese soldiers but +at last this matter was arranged. + +An embassy was sent by the Chinese government to Japan to carry out the +ceremony of investiture. They arrived in the autumn of the year A.D. 1596. +Taikō Sama made elaborate preparations for their reception. Some fears +were felt as to how Taikō Sama would regard this proposition of +investiture when he came to understand it. The Buddhist priest, who was to +translate the Chinese document into Japanese(183) for the benefit of Taikō +Sama, was urged to make some modification in the wording to conciliate his +ambition. But he was too honest to depart from the true rendering. He read +to Taikō Sama and the assembled court a letter from the Chinese emperor +granting him investiture as king of Japan, and announced having sent by +the ambassadors the robe and the golden seal pertaining to the office. + +Taikō Sama listened with amazement,(184) as he for the first time realized +that the Emperor of China by this document had undertaken to invest him as +king of Japan instead of (“Ming emperor”). He was in an uncontrollable +rage. He tore off the robe which he had put on. He snatched the document +from the reader and tore it into shreds, exclaiming: “Since I have the +whole of this country in my grasp, did I wish to become its emperor I +could do so without the consent of the barbarians.” He was with difficulty +restrained from taking the life of the Japanese ambassador who had +negotiated the treaty. He sent word to the Chinese envoys who had brought +the robe and seal to begone back to their country and to tell their +emperor that he would send troops to slaughter them like cattle. Both +Korea and China knew that a new invasion would surely result from this +disappointment. Katō and Konishi the Japanese generals in the previous +campaign and who had gone home during the interval were ordered back to +take command of the old troops and of fresh recruits which were to be +sent. They busied themselves with repairing the fortifications which had +been left in possession of the Japanese garrisons. + +The disgraced and frightened Chinese ambassadors made their way back to +Peking. They were ashamed to present themselves without showing something +in return for the gifts they had carried to Taikō Sama. They purchased +some velvets and scarlet cloth, which they represented as the presents +which had been sent. They pretended that Taikō Sama was much pleased with +the investiture, and that his invasion of Korea was due to the fact that +the Korean government had interfered to prevent the free and kindly +intercourse between China and Japan. The cloth and velvet, however, were +at once recognized as European productions and not derived from Japan. So +the ambassadors were charged with deceit and at last confessed. + +The Japanese army was reinforced, it is said, with 130,000 fresh troops. +Supplies, however, were difficult to obtain, and the movements were much +hindered. A small Chinese army of 5,000 men arrived at the end of the year +A.D. 1597 to aid the Koreans. An attack on the Japanese ships at Fusan was +made by the Korean navy, but it was without difficulty repelled and most +of the attacking ships destroyed. After some material advantages, which, +however, were not decisive, the Japanese troops were forced to return to +Fusan for the winter. The principal engagement was at Yöl-san, a strong +position, accessible both by sea and land. It was garrisoned by troops of +Katō’s division, who were brave and determined. The army composed of +Chinese and Koreans, under the Chinese commander-in-chief Hsing-chieh, +laid siege to this fortress, and succeeded in cutting off all its +communications. But Kuroda and Hachisuka came to Katō’s assistance, and +compelled the Chinese general to raise the siege and retreat to Söul, the +Korean capital. It was in one of the battles fought during the summer of +A.D. 1598, that 38,700 heads of Chinese and Korean soldiers are said to +have been taken. The heads were buried in a mound after the ears and noses +had been cut off. These grewsome relics of savage warfare were pickled in +tubs and sent home to Kyōto, where they were deposited in a mound in the +grounds of the temple of Daibutsu, and over them a monument erected which +is marked _mimi-zuka_ or ear-mound. There the mound and monument can be +seen to this day.(185) + +The death of Taikō Sama occurred on the day equivalent to the 18th of +September, A.D. 1598, and on his death-bed he seems to have been troubled +with the thought of the veteran warriors who were uselessly wearing out +their lives in Korea. In his last moments he opened his eyes and exclaimed +earnestly: “Let not the spirits of the hundred thousand troops I have sent +to Korea become disembodied in a foreign land.”(186) Ieyasu, on whom +devolved the military responsibility after the Taikō’s death, and who had +never sympathized with his wishes and aims regarding Korea, did not delay +the complete withdrawal of the troops which still remained in Korea. + +Thus ended a chapter in the history of Japan, on which her best friends +can look back with neither pride nor satisfaction. This war was begun +without any sufficient provocation, and its results did nothing to advance +the glory of Japan or its soldiers. The great soldier who planned it and +pushed it on with relentless energy gained nothing from it except +vexation. Much of the time during which the war lasted he sat in his +temporary palace at Nagoya in Hizen, waiting eagerly for news from his +armies. Instead of tidings of victories and triumphs and rich conquests, +he was obliged too often to hear of the dissensions of his generals, the +starving and miseries of his soldiers, and the curses and hatred of a +ruined and unhappy country. All that he had to show for his expenditure of +men and money were several _saké_ tubs of pickled ears and noses with +which to form a mound in the temple of Daibutsu, and the recollection of +an investiture by the emperor of China, which could only bring to him pain +and humiliation. + +The only beneficial results to Japan that can be traced to all this was +the introduction into different provinces of some of the skilled artisans +of Korea. The prince of Satsuma, Shimazu Yoshihiro, in A.D. 1598, brought +home with him when he returned from the Korean war seventeen families of +Korean potters,(187) who were settled in his province. They have lived +there ever since, and in many ways still retain the marks of their +nationality. It is to them that Satsuma _faïence_ owes its exquisite +beauty and its world-wide reputation. + + [Illustration] + + Hideyoshi. + + +When the Taikō realized that his recovery was impossible he tried to +arrange the affairs of the empire in such a way as to secure a +continuation of the power in his son Hideyori, who was at that time only +five years old. For this purpose he appointed a council consisting of +Tokugawa Ieyasu, Maeda Toshi-ie, Mōri Terumoto, Ukita Hide-ei and Uesugi +Kagekatsu, of which Ieyasu was the president and chief. These were to +constitute a regency during his son’s minority. He also appointed a board +of associates, who were called middle councillors, and a board of military +officers called _bugyo_. He called all these councillors and military +officers into his presence before he died, and made them swear allegiance +to his successor Hideyori. There seems to have been among them a suspicion +of the fidelity of Ieyasu, for the Taikō is represented as saying to two +of his friends: “You need not be anxious about Ieyasu. He will not rebel +against my house.(188) Cultivate friendship with him.” Thus in his +sixty-second year died (September, 1598) the greatest soldier, if not the +greatest man, whom Japan has produced. That he rose from obscurity solely +by his own talents, is a more conspicuous merit in Japan than in most +other countries. Family and heredity have always counted for so much in +this land of the gods, that few instances have occurred in which men of +humble birth have risen to eminence. That one such in spite of his low +birth, in spite of personal infirmities, in spite of the opposition and +envy of contemporaries, had risen to so high a position in the empire, has +been a source of pride and encouragement to thousands of his countrymen. + +The Taikō was buried close to the Daibutsu temple, which he himself had +built to shelter the colossal figure of Buddha, constructed in imitation +of the Daibutsu which Yoritomo had built at Kamakura. The figure was to be +one hundred and sixty feet in height, and the workmen had it nearly +finished when a terrible earthquake in A.D. 1596 shook down the building. +In the following year the temple was rebuilt, and the image was completed +up to the neck. The workmen were preparing to cast the head, when a fire +broke out in the scaffolding and again destroyed the temple, and also the +image. It was one of the schemes of Ieyasu, so it is said, to induce the +young Hideyori to exhaust his resources upon such expensive projects, and +thus render him incapable of resisting any serious movement against +himself. He therefore suggested to the boy and his mother that this temple +and image, which Hideyoshi had begun, should not fail of erection. They +therefore resumed the construction, and carried it on with great +lavishness. It took until A.D. 1614 to complete the work, and when it was +about to be consecrated with imposing ceremonies, Ieyasu, who by this time +was supreme in the empire, suddenly forbade the progress of the ceremony. +He affected to be offended by the inscription which had been put on the +bell,(189) but the real reason was probably his desire to find some +pretext by which he could put a quarrel upon the adherents of Hideyori. + + + + + +CHAPTER X. THE FOUNDING OF THE TOKUGAWA SHŌGUNATE. + + +Among all the friends and retainers of Hideyoshi the most prominent and +able was Tokugawa Ieyasu. He was six years younger than Hideyoshi, and +therefore in A.D. 1598, when the Taikō died, he was fifty-six years old. +He was born at the village of Matsudaira in the province of Mikawa A.D. +1542. His family counted its descent from Minamoto Yoshi-ie, who in the +eleventh century had by his military prowess in the wars against the Ainos +earned the heroic name of Hachiman-Tarō. Therefore he was, as custom and +tradition now for a long time had required for those holding the office of +shōgun, a descendant from the Minamoto family.(190) The name Tokugawa, +which Ieyasu rendered famous, was derived from a village in the province +of Shimotsuke, where his ancestors had lived. His first experiences in war +were under Nobunaga, side by side with Hideyoshi. He proved himself not +only a capable soldier, prudent and painstaking, but also a good +administrator in times of peace. Hideyoshi had such confidence in him, and +so much doubt about the wisdom of requiring the guardians to wait until +his son, a mere child five years old, had grown up to years of +responsibility, that he is represented as having said to Ieyasu: “I +foresee that there will be great wars after my decease; I know too that +there is no one but you who can keep the country quiet. I therefore +bequeath the whole country to you, and trust you will expend all your +strength in governing it. My son Hideyori is still young. I beg you will +look after him. When he is grown up, I leave it to you to decide whether +he will be my successor or not.”(191) + +As soon as the Taikō was dead, and the attempt was made to set in motion +the machinery he had designed for governing the country, troubles began to +manifest themselves. The princes whom he had appointed as members of his +governing boards, began immediately to quarrel among themselves. On Ieyasu +devolved the duty of regulating the affairs of the government. For this +purpose he resided at Fushimi, which is a suburb of Kyōto. His most active +opponent was Ishida Mitsunari, who had been appointed one of the five +_bugyō_, or governors, under the Taikō’s arrangement. They grew jealous of +Ieyasu, because, under the existing order of things, the governors were of +very minor importance. Mitsunari had acquired his influence with the +Taikō, not through military achievements, but by intrigue and flattery. He +was cordially detested by such disinterested friends as Katō Kiyomasa and +others. + +The ground on which the opposition to Ieyasu was based was that he was not +faithfully performing his duty, as he had promised to the dying Taikō, +towards his child and heir. It is not improbable that even at this early +day it was seen that Ieyasu proposed to disregard the pretensions of the +youthful son of Hideyoshi, in the same way that he in his day had +disregarded the claims of the heir of Nobunaga. The rough and warlike +times, and the restless and ambitious manners of the feudal lords of these +times, made it impossible to entrust the country to the hands of a child. + +Under this strained relation, the members of the regency divided into two +parties. Speaking broadly, it was again a contest between the north and +the south of Japan. Ieyasu’s association had been from the beginning with +the Kwantō, and now more than ever his power was centred about Yedo. +Mitsunari on the contrary had leagued himself with the princes of Chōsū +and Satsuma, and with others of minor importance, all more or less +representative of the southern half of the empire. The Christians chiefly +sided with Hideyori and his adherents. Mitsunari himself was a Christian +convert, and the Jesuit fathers explain that his position and that of the +other Christian leaders were due to their conscientious desire to fulfil +their oath of fidelity to Hideyori. That Ieyasu should have been derelict +in such a solemn duty was a sufficient cause for their opposition to him. + +Events now rushed rapidly to a culmination. One of the most powerful of +the princes allied against Ieyasu was Uesugi Kagekatsu, the lord of Echigo +and Aizu. He had retired to Aizu after having solemnly made a +covenant(192) with the others engaged in the plot to take measures against +Ieyasu. He was summoned to Kyōto to pay his respects to the emperor, but +on some trivial excuse he declined to come. Ieyasu now saw that nothing +but war would settle the disputes which had arisen. He repaired to Yedo +and to Shimotsuké, and made preparations for the conflict which he saw +impending. + +In the meantime the members of the league were busy. Mitsunari sent an +urgent circular to all the feudal princes, charging Ieyasu with certain +misdeeds and crimes, the chief of which was that instead of guarding the +inheritance of the Taikō for his son, he was with the blackest guilt +endeavoring to seize it for himself. A formidable army was gathered at +Ōsaka consisting of 128,000 men.(193) Made up as it was from different +provinces and officered by its provincial leaders, it lacked that element +of unity and accord which is so essential to an army. The first movement +was against the castle of Fushimi, which was the centre from which Ieyasu +governed the country. After a short siege it fell and then, it is said, +was accidentally burned to the ground. + +The news of the attack upon Fushimi was brought to Ieyasu in Shimotsuké, +and a council of his friends and retainers was held to determine what +steps must be taken to meet the emergency. It was urged that the time had +come when Ieyasu should meet his enemies, and settle by battle the +questions which had risen between them. It was determined that all the +scattered troops should be gathered together, and that they should march +to Fushimi prepared to encounter the enemy in battle at whatever point +they should meet them. The eldest son of Ieyasu, Hideyasu, was put in +charge of Yedo and entrusted with the care of the surrounding provinces. +This was an important trust, because the powerful prince Uesugi lay to the +north of him and would seize the first opportunity to attack him. To +Fukushima was given the command of the vanguard. The principal army was +divided into two parts, one of which was to march along the Tōkaidō under +the command of Ieyasu himself, the other was placed under the charge of +Ieyasu’s second son Hidetada, and was to take the route along the +Nakasendō. The whole army consisted of 75,000 men, a number much smaller +than the army of the league, but which had the advantage of being +controlled by one mastering and experienced commander. + +The armies met at Sekigahara,(194) a little village on the Nakasendō, +October, A.D. 1600. One place on the neighboring hill is still pointed out +whence Ieyasu witnessed the battle and issued his orders. Both sides +fought with determined bravery, and the battle lasted the whole day. +Cannon and other firearms were to some extent made use of, but the +old-fashioned weapons, the sword and the spear, were the terrible means by +which the victory was decided. For a long time the battle raged without +either party obtaining a decisive advantage. Notwithstanding his +inferiority in numbers Ieyasu was completely victorious. The carnage was +dreadful. The number of the confederate army said to have been killed was +40,000.(195) This seems like an impossible exaggeration, and the Japanese +annalists are, like those of other nations, given to heightened +statements. But that the loss of life on both sides was very great there +can be no doubt. + +Two ghastly mounds called Kubi-zuka, or head piles, are still shown where +the heads of the decapitated confederates were buried. This battle must +always stand with that at Dan-no-ura between the Minamoto and Taira +families, as one of the decisive battles in the history of Japan. By it +was settled the fate of the country for two hundred and fifty years. + +It was fortunate that the victor in this battle was a man who knew how to +secure the advantages to be derived from a victory. It is said that at the +close of this battle when he saw success perching on his banners, he +repeated to those around him the old Japanese proverb: “After victory +tighten the strings of your helmet.”(196) The division of Hidetada joined +him after the battle, and he promptly followed up his victory by seizing +the castles on his way and taking possession of Kyōto and Ōsaka. The +feudal princes who had stood aloof or opposed him nearly all came forward +and submitted themselves to his authority. Uesugi and Satake in the north, +who had been among his most active opponents, at once presented themselves +to Hideyasu at Yedo and made their submission. Mōri, the powerful lord of +the western provinces, who had been most active in the confederation +against him, sent congratulations on his victory, but they were coldly +received. Finally he was pardoned, being however deprived of six out of +his eight provinces. He was suffered to retain of all his rich inheritance +only Suō and Nagato. Several of the leaders were captured, among whom were +Mitsunari, Konishi, and Ōtani, who being Christians deemed it unworthy +their faith to commit _hara-kiri_. They were carried to Kyōto where they +were beheaded and their heads exposed in the dry bed of the Kamo-gawa. + +The work of reducing to order the island of Kyūshū was entrusted to the +veteran generals Katō Kiyomasa and Kuroda Yoshitaka. The former undertook +the reduction of Hizen, and the latter that of Bungo, Buzen, and Chikuzen. +The house of Shimazu, although it had taken sides against Ieyasu in the +great contest, duly made its submission and was treated with great +consideration. The whole of the territory assigned to it by Hideyoshi +after the war of A.D. 1586 was restored to it, namely, the whole of the +provinces of Satsuma and Ōsumi, and one half of the province of Hyūga. To +Katō Kiyomasa(197) was given the province of Higo, which had, after the +Korean war, been assigned to Konishi in recognition of his services, but +which was now taken from his family because he had been one of Ieyasu’s +active opponents. The Kuroda family received as its inheritance a portion +of the province of Chikuzen with its capital at Fukuoka, which it held +until the abolition of feudal tenures in 1871. + +Ieyasu was a peaceful and moderate character, and in the settlement of the +disturbances which had marked his advent to power, he is notable for +having pursued a course of great kindness and consideration. With the +exception of the cases already mentioned there were no executions for +political offences. It was his desire and ambition to establish a system +of government which should be continuous and not liable, like those of +Nobunaga and Taikō Sama, to be overturned at the death of him who had +founded it. By the gift of Taikō Sama he had already in his possession a +large part of the Kwantō. And by the result of the war which had ended at +Sekigahara, he had come into possession of a great number of other fiefs, +with which he could reward those who had been faithful to him. It was the +difficult and delicate part of his work to distribute judiciously among +his supporters and retainers the confiscated estates. To realize how +completely the feudal system as reformed by Ieyasu was bound to him and +constituted to support and perpetuate his family, it is only necessary to +examine such a list of the daimyōs(198) as is given in Appert’s _Ancien +Japon_.(199) Out of the two hundred and sixty-three daimyōs there +enumerated, one hundred and fifty-eight are either vassals or branches of +the Tokugawa family. But while he thus carefully provided the supports for +his own family, he spared many of the old and well-rooted houses, which +had incorporated themselves into the history of the country. He built his +structure on the old and tried foundation stones. With far-sighted +statesmanship he recognized that every new form of government, to be +permanent, must be a development from that which precedes it, and must +include within itself whatever is lasting in the nature of its forerunner. + +The dual form of government had for many centuries existed in Japan, and +the customs and habits of thinking, and the modes of administering justice +and of controlling the conduct of men had become adapted to this system. +It was therefore natural that Ieyasu should turn his attention to +reforming and perfecting such a form of government. A scheme of this kind +seemed best adapted to a country in which there existed on the one hand an +emperor of divine origin, honored of all men, but who by long neglect had +become unfit to govern, and in whom was lodged only the source of honor; +and on the other hand an executive department on which devolved the +practical duty of governing, organizing, maintaining, and defending. +Though he was compelled to look back through centuries of misrule, and +through long periods of war and usurpation, he could see straight to +Yoritomo, the first of the shōguns, and could trace from him a clear +descent in the Minamoto family. To this task, therefore, he set himself: +to maintain the empire in all its heaven-descended purity and to create a +line of hereditary shōguns who should constitute its executive department. + +In pursuance of this plan, he sent his son Hidetada to the emperor to make +a full report of everything that had been done in the settlement of the +affairs of the country. The emperor was graciously pleased to approve his +acts and to bestow upon him, A.D. 1603, the hereditary title of +Sei-i-tai-shōgun. This was the title borne by Yoritomo when he was the +real ruler of the country. Since that time there had been a long line of +shōguns, the last of whom was Ashikaga Yoshiaki, whom Nobunaga deposed in +1573, and who had died 1597. With this new appointment began a line of +Tokugawa shōguns that ended only with the restoration in 1868. + +Ieyasu’s most radical change in the system of government consisted in the +establishment of the seat of his executive department at Yedo. Since A.D. +794 Kyōto had been the capital where successive emperors had reigned, and +where Nobunaga and Hideyoshi exercised executive control. Kamakura had +been the seat of Yoritomo and his successors. But Ieyasu saw advantages in +establishing himself in a new field, to which the traditions of idleness +and effeminacy had not attached themselves, and where the associations of +his own warlike career would act as a stimulus to his contemporaries and +successors. He remained at Fushimi until necessary repairs could be made +to the Castle of Yedo(200) and the roads between it and the capital put in +order. The place which henceforth was to be the principal capital of the +country first comes into notice, as we have before mentioned, as a castle +built by Ōta Dōkwan in A.D. 1456. He had been placed here by the +authorities of Kamakura to watch the movements of the restless princes of +the north. Recognizing the strength and convenience of the high grounds on +the border of Yedo bay, he built a castle which, through many +transformations and enlargements, finally developed into the great feudal +capital of the Tokugawa shōguns. It was here that Ieyasu, after the fall +of Odawara, by the advice of Hideyoshi,(201) established himself for the +government of the provinces of the Kwantō which had been given to him. + +And it was without doubt this earlier experience which led him to select +Yedo as the centre of his feudal government. The reputation which this +eastern region bore for roughness and want of culture, as compared with +the capital of the emperor at Kyōto, seemed to him an advantage rather +than an objection. He could here build up a system of government free from +the faults and weaknesses which had become inseparable from the old seats +of power. After the repairs and enlargements had been completed he took up +his residence there. Besides this castle, Ieyasu had for his private +residence, especially after his retirement from the shōgunate, an +establishment at Sumpu, now called Shizuoka. Here he was visited by +English and Dutch envoys in reference to the terms of allowing trade, and +here, after the manner of his country, he maintained his hold upon the +administration of affairs, notwithstanding his formal retirement. + +A continued source of disquietude and danger to the empire, or at least to +the plans of Ieyasu for a dynasty of Tokugawa shōguns, lay in Hideyori, +the son and heir of Taikō Sama. He was born in 1592, and was therefore at +this time, 1614, in his twenty-third year. As long as he lived he would be +naturally and inevitably the centre to which all the disaffected elements +of the country would gravitate. The failure of Ieyasu to support the cause +of his old master’s son would always prove a source of weakness to him, +especially in a country where fidelity to parents and superiors was held +in such high esteem. He determined, therefore, to bring to a conclusion +these threatening troubles which had so long been hanging over him. +Accordingly, on the ground that Hideyori was plotting with his enemies +against the peace of the state, he set out from Sumpu, where he was then +residing as retired shōgun, with an army of seventy thousand men. Hideyori +and his mother had for a long time resided at the castle of Ōsaka, and +against this Ieyasu directed his large army. It was bravely and skilfully +defended, and without the help of artillery, which at this early day was +rarely used in sieges, a long time elapsed before any decided advantage +was gained. At last the defenders were tempted beyond the protection of +their fortifications, and a battle was fought June 3, 1615. It is +described by the Jesuit fathers, two of whom witnessed it, as being +sanguinary beyond the example of the bloody battles of the Japanese civil +wars. It resulted in the complete overthrow of Hideyori’s adherents, and +the destruction of the castle by fire. Both Hideyori and his mother were +said to have perished in the conflagration. Reports were current that they +had, however, escaped and taken refuge in some friendly locality. But no +trace of them was ever found, and it was taken for granted that this was +the end of Hideyori and his party. + +Before ending this chapter, which is designed to record the establishment +of the Tokugawa shōguns, reference should be made to the settlement of the +questions left in dispute by Taikō Sama respecting Korea. There remained +after the war, with all its attendant atrocities and sufferings, a feeling +of intense bitterness towards the Japanese on the part both of the Koreans +and Chinese. The absence of any sufficient cause for the invasion, and the +avowed purpose of Taikō Sama to extend his conquests to China had awakened +against him and his armies a hatred which generations could not wipe out. +Soon after the recall of the Japanese troops which followed the death of +Taikō Sama, Ieyasu opened negotiations with Korea through the daimyō of +Tsushima. He caused the government to be informed that any friendly +overtures on its part would be received in a like spirit. The king of +Korea accordingly despatched an embassy with an autograph letter, +addressed to the “King of Japan.” A translation of this letter will be +found in Mr. Aston’s last paper(202) on Hideyoshi’s invasion of Korea. +Among other things it says: “The sovereign and subjects of this country +were profoundly grieved, and felt that they could not live under the same +heaven with your country.... However your country has now reformed the +errors of the past dynasty and practises the former friendly relations. If +this be so, is it not a blessing to the people of both countries? We have +therefore sent you the present embassy in token of friendship. The +enclosed paper contains a list of some poor productions of our country. Be +pleased to understand this.” This letter was dated in the year 1607. A +friendly answer was returned to it, and from this time it may be +understood that the relations between the two countries were placed on a +satisfactory basis. These steps were taken on the part of Korea with the +knowledge and approval of China, which now claimed to hold a protectorate +over the peninsula of Korea. The same negotiations therefore which +resulted in peaceful relations with Korea brought about a condition of +amity with China which was not disturbed until very recent times. + +The ruinous effects of this invasion, however, were never overcome in +Korea itself. Her cities had been destroyed, her industries blotted out, +and her fertile fields rendered desolate. Once she had been the fruitful +tree from which Japan was glad to gather her arts and civilization, but +now she was only a branchless trunk which the fires of war had charred and +left standing. + + [Illustration] + + Tokugawa Crest. + + + + + +CHAPTER XI. CHRISTIANITY IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. + + +To the readers of the story of Japan the most interesting episode is that +of the introduction and subsequent extirpation of Christianity. We have +therefore given an account of the first arrival of the Jesuit missionaries +with the sainted Xavier at their head, and we have seen their labors +crowned with a very wide success. During the times of Nobunaga and +Hideyoshi the question had assumed something of a political aspect. In +several of the provinces of Kyūshū the princes had become converts and had +freely used their influence, and sometimes their authority, to extend +Christianity among their subjects. In Kyōto and Yamaguchi, in Ōsaka and +Sakai, as well as in Kyūshū, the Jesuit fathers had founded flourishing +churches and exerted a wide influence. They had established colleges where +the candidates for the church could be educated and trained. They had +organized hospitals and asylums at Nagasaki and elsewhere, where those +needing aid could be received and treated. + +It is true that the progress of the work had met with a severe setback in +A.D. 1587, when Taikō Sama issued an edict expelling all foreign religious +teachers from Japan. In pursuance of this edict nine foreigners who had +evaded expulsion were burnt at Nagasaki. The reason for this decisive +action on the part of Taikō Sama is usually attributed to the suspicion +which had been awakened in him by the loose and unguarded talk of a +Portuguese sea captain.(203) But other causes undoubtedly contributed to +produce in him this intolerant frame of mind. Indeed, the idea of +toleration as applied to religious belief had not yet been admitted even +in Europe. At this very time Philip II., who had united in his own person +the kingdoms of Spain and Portugal, was endeavoring to compel, by force of +arms, the Netherlands to accept his religious belief, and was engaged +throughout all his immense dominions in the task of reducing men’s minds +to a hideous uniformity. + +Even in several of the provinces of Japan where the Jesuits had attained +the ascendancy, the most forcible measures had been taken by the Christian +princes to compel all their subjects to follow their own example and adopt +the Christian faith. Takeyama, whom the Jesuit fathers designate as Justo +Ucondono, carried out in his territory at Akashi a system of bitter +persecution. He gave his subjects the option of becoming Christians or +leaving his territory. Konishi Yukinaga, who received part of the province +of Higo as his fief after the Korean war enforced with great persistency +the acceptance of the Christian faith, and robbed the Buddhist priests of +their temples and their lands. The princes of Ōmura and Arima, and to a +certain extent the princes of Bungo, followed the advice of the Jesuit +fathers in using their authority to advance the cause of Christianity. The +fathers could scarcely complain of having the system of intolerance +practised upon them, which, when circumstances were favorable, they had +advised to be applied to their opponents. It was this impossibility of +securing peace and harmony, and the suspicion of the territorial ambition +of Spain and Portugal, which drove Taikō Sama to the conclusion that the +foreign religious teachers and the faith which they had so successfully +propagated, were a source of imminent danger to his country. To him it was +purely a political question. He had no deep religious impressions which +had led him to prefer the precepts of the old Japanese faith to those of +Christianity. These systems could not apparently live together, and it +seemed to him the safest and most sensible way to extinguish the weaker +and most dangerous before it became too strong. Hence he began that policy +of repression and expulsion which his successor reluctantly took up. + +During the first years of Ieyasu’s supremacy the Christians were not +disturbed. He was too much occupied with the establishment of the new +executive department which he had planned. In 1606 the Portuguese resident +bishop, Father Louis Cerqueria, was received by Ieyasu at Kyōto. The +fathers speak of this audience with great hopefulness, and did not seem to +be aware that the court which most of the Christian princes were at that +time paying to Hideyori was likely to prejudice Ieyasu against them. Again +in 1607 Ieyasu, who was then at Kofu in the province of Kai awaiting the +completion of his castle at Yedo, expressed a desire to see the +Provincial. Accordingly when he waited on Ieyasu he was received very +cordially. The Christian fathers were much encouraged by these indications +of the favor of Ieyasu. But whatever they may have been, they cannot be +interpreted as showing any intention on his part to promote their +religious proselytism. Even in the very midst of these assumed favors he +issued in 1606 what may be called a warning proclamation,(204) announcing +that he had learned with pain that, contrary to Taikō Sama’s edict, many +had embraced the Christian religion. He warned all officers of his court +to see that the edict was strictly enforced. He declared that it was for +the good of the state that none should embrace the new doctrine; and that +such as had already done so must change immediately. + +This proclamation of Ieyasu did not, however, prevent the Catholics at +Nagasaki from celebrating in a gorgeous manner the beatification(205) of +Ignatius Loyola, the founder and first General of the Society of Jesus. +The bishop officiated in pontifical robes, and the members of the society, +together with the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians, made a solemn +procession through the city. This celebration was in distinct +contravention of the orders which had been issued against such public +displays. It was made more emphatic by being also held on the same day in +the province of Arima, whose daimyō was an ardent advocate of the +Christian doctrine. These open and determined infractions of the +directions of the government provoked Ieyasu to take severe measures. He +began by punishing some of the native Christians connected with his own +court, who were charged with bribery and intrigue in behalf of the daimyō +of Arima. A number of these accused Christians were banished and their +estates confiscated. + +In the meantime both the English and Dutch had appeared on the scene, as +will be more fully detailed in the next chapter. Their object was solely +trade, and as the Portuguese monopoly hitherto had been mainly secured by +the Jesuit fathers, it was natural for the new-comers to represent the +motive of these fathers in an unfavorable and suspicious light. “Indeed,” +as Hildreth(206) says, “they had only to confirm the truth of what the +Portuguese and Spanish said of each other to excite in the minds of the +Japanese rulers the gravest distrust as to the designs of the priests of +both nations.”(207) + +Whether it is true as charged that the minds of the Japanese rulers had +been poisoned against the Jesuit fathers by misrepresentation and +falsehood, it may be impossible to determine definitely; but it is fair to +infer that the cruel and intolerant policy of the Spanish and Portuguese +would be fully set forth and the danger to the Japanese empire from the +machinations of the foreign religious teachers held up in the worst light. + +During the latter years of Ieyasu’s life, after he had settled the affairs +of the empire and put the shōgunate upon a permanent basis, we see growing +evidence of his prejudice against Christianity. That he had such prejudice +in a very pronounced form is clear from his reference to the “false and +corrupt school” in chapter xxxi. of the _Legacy_. And he had inherited +from Taikō Sama the conviction that the spread of this foreign faith was a +menace to the peace of the empire. The instructions(208) which were issued +to the members of the Society of Jesus, however, forbade any father to +meddle in secular affairs or to interfere in any way with the political +concerns of the government in which they were laboring. That there were +occasional instances of the disregard of this regulation by the +enthusiastic members of the order may be supposed, but it will be unjust +and unfounded to attribute to this society a settled policy of +interference in the affairs of the nations where they were employed as +missionaries. + +Ieyasu, evidently having made up his mind that for the safety of the +empire Christianity must be extirpated, in 1614 issued an edict(209) that +the members of all religious orders, whether European or Japanese, should +be sent out of the country; that the churches which had been erected in +various localities should be pulled down, and that the native adherents of +the faith should be compelled to renounce it. In part execution of this +edict all the members of the Society of Jesus, native and foreign, were +ordered to be sent to Nagasaki. Native Christians were sent to Tsugaru, +the northern extremity of the Main island. Takeyama, who had already been +banished by Taikō Sama to the province of Kaga, was ordered to leave the +country. He was sent in a Chinese ship to Manila, where he soon after +died. In order to repress any disturbance that might arise from the +execution of this edict, ten thousand troops were sent to Kyūshū, where +the converts were much the most numerous, and where the daimyōs in many +cases either openly protected or indirectly favored the new faith. + +In accordance with this edict, as many as three hundred persons are said +to have been shipped from Japan October 25, 1614. All the resident Jesuits +were included in this number, excepting eighteen fathers and nine +brothers, who concealed themselves and thus escaped the search. Following +this deportation of converts the most persistent efforts continued to be +made to force the native Christians to renounce their faith. The accounts +given, both by the foreign and by the Japanese writers, of the +persecutions which now broke upon the heads of the Christians are beyond +description horrible. A special service was established by the government +which was called the Christian Enquiry,(210) the object of which was to +search out Christians in every quarter and drive them to a renunciation of +their faith. Both the foreign priests who had remained in the country in +spite of the edict and the native converts were hunted down and punished +with the most appalling tortures. Rewards were offered for information +involving Christians of every position and rank, even of parents against +their children and of children against their parents. At what time this +practice began it is difficult to say, but that rewards were used at an +early period is evident from the re-issue of an edict in 1655, in which it +is stated(211) that formerly a reward of 200 pieces of silver was paid for +denouncing a father (_bateren_) and 100 for denouncing a brother +(_iruman_); but from this time the rewards should be: for denouncing a +father, 300 pieces; a brother, 200 pieces; and a catechist, 50 pieces. In +1711 this tariff was raised, for denouncing a father to 500 pieces, a +brother to 300 pieces, and a catechist to 100 pieces; also for denouncing +a person who, having recanted, returned to the faith, 300 pieces. These +edicts against Christianity were displayed on the edict-boards as late as +the year 1868. + +The persecution began in its worst form about 1616. This was the year in +which Ieyasu died, but his son and successor carried out the terrible +programme with heartless thoroughness. It has never been surpassed for +cruelty and brutality on the part of the persecutors, or for courage and +constancy on the part of those who suffered. The letters of the Jesuit +fathers are full of descriptions of the shocking trials to which the +Christians were subjected. The tortures inflicted are almost beyond +belief. Mr. Gubbins, in the paper(212) to which reference has already been +made, says: “We read of Christians being executed in a barbarous manner in +sight of each other, of their being hurled from the tops of precipices, of +their being buried alive, of their being torn asunder by oxen, of their +being tied up in rice-bags, which were heaped up together, and of the pile +thus formed being set on fire. Others were tortured before death by the +insertion of sharp spikes under the nails of their hands and feet, while +some poor wretches by a refinement of horrid cruelty were shut up in cages +and there left to starve with food before their eyes. Let it not be +supposed that we have drawn on the Jesuit accounts solely for this +information. An examination of the Japanese records will show that the +case is not overstated.”(213) + +The region around Nagasaki was most fully impregnated with the new +doctrine, and it was here that the persecution was by far the most severe. +This was now an imperial city, governed directly by officers from the +government of Yedo. The governor is called Kanwaytsdo by Warenius, relying +on Caron and Guysbert, but I have been unable to identify him by his true +Japanese name. Beginning from 1616 there was a continuous succession of +persecutions. In 1622 one hundred and thirty men, women, and children were +put to death, among whom were two Spanish priests, and Spinola an Italian. +The next year one hundred more were put to death. The heroism of these +martyrs awakened the greatest enthusiasm among the Christians. In the +darkness of the night following the execution many of them crept to the +place where their friends had been burnt and tenderly plucked some charred +fragments of their bodies, which they carried away and cherished as +precious relics. To prevent the recurrence of such practices the officers +directed that the bodies of those burnt should be completely consumed and +the ashes thrown into the sea. Guysbert in his account mentions that among +those executed at Hirado was a man who had been in the employ of the Dutch +factory and his wife. They had two little boys whom the factor offered to +take and have brought up by the Dutch. But the parents declined, saying +that they preferred to have the boys die with them. A plan was devised by +which the heads of households were required to certify that none of their +families were Christians, and that no priests or converts were harbored by +them. + +All this terrible exercise of power and the constantly recurring scenes of +suffering were more than the governor could endure, and so we find him at +last complaining that he could not sleep and that his health was impaired. +At his earnest petition he was relieved and a new governor appointed in +1626. He signalized his entrance upon his duties by condemning thirteen +Christians to be burnt, viz.: Bishop Franciscus Parquerus, a Portuguese, +seventy years old; Balthazar de Tores, a Dominican, fifty-seven years old, +together with five Portuguese and five Japanese laymen. When it came to +the crisis the five Portuguese renounced their faith and escaped death. On +the twelfth of July nine more were executed, five by burning and four by +beheading. On the twenty-ninth of July a priest was caught and executed +who had concealed himself in a camp of lepers, and who had hoped in that +way to escape detection. + +The governor exerted himself to bring about recantations on the part of +those who had professed themselves Christians. He promised special favors +to such as would renounce their faith, and in many cases went far beyond +promises to secure the result. He set a day when all the apostates dressed +in their best clothes should present themselves at his office. Fifteen +hundred appeared on this occasion, and were treated with the greatest +kindness and consideration. But the officers began to see that putting +Christians to death would not prevent others from embracing the same +doctrine. There grew up such an enthusiasm among the faithful that they +sought rather than avoided the crown of martyrdom. As Guysbert points out, +the knowledge of the Christian religion possessed by these converts must +have been exceedingly small; they knew the Lord’s prayer and the _Ave +Maria_, and a few other prayers of the Church, but they had not the +Scriptures to read, and many of them could not have read them even if they +had been translated into their own language. And yet these humble and +ignorant people withstood death, and tortures far worse than death, with a +heroism worthy of all praise. + +On the eighth of February, 1627, twelve persons were captured in a +hiding-place about a mile from Nagasaki; they were first branded with a +hot iron on the forehead, and then on each cheek; then because they would +not recant they were burnt to death. Subsequently forty more were +captured, among whom were a father and mother with their three young +children. The children were frightened at the dreadful preparations, and +would have recanted, but their parents refused to permit them to take +advantage of the offers of clemency. After the branding and beating, those +who were not yet driven to recant were sent off to the boiling springs of +Onsen in Arima. Here they were tortured by having the boiling water of the +springs poured upon them, and by being compelled to breathe the +suffocating sulphurous air which these springs emitted. + +On the fourteenth of the following May, nine martyrs suffered all the +torments which could be contrived and finally were drowned. August +seventeenth five Christians were burnt and eighteen otherwise put to +death, of whom one was a Franciscan monk and the rest were natives. +October twenty-sixth three Japanese magnates who had joined Hideyori +against Ieyasu were discovered to be Christians, and were shipped off to +Macao. In the following year, 1628, it is said that three hundred and +forty-eight persons were tortured for their faith, including torture by +the boiling springs, beating with clubs, and burning. It had been reduced +to such a science that when they saw a subject becoming weak and likely to +die, they suspended their torments until he revived. Whenever a priest was +captured in any household the whole family by whom he had been concealed +were put to death. + +Another new governor was sent to Nagasaki on the 27th of July, 1629. He +came with the high purpose of rooting out every vestige of Christianity. +He set about his work in the most systematic manner. Nagasaki, it must be +understood, is laid out in streets which can be closed up by gates. Each +street had its head man, and every five houses in each street were under +the special charge of a separate overseer. These overseers were +responsible as to what occurred and who were concealed in each of the +houses under his charge. The gates were all closed at night and opened +again in the morning. + +The governor went through these streets house by house, and examined every +person in every house. If the occupants were not Christians, or if they +renounced their Christianity, they were allowed to go undisturbed; but if +any one persisted in the new doctrine he was sent off to be tortured by +hot water at the boiling springs. This torture was now improved by +requiring the victim to have his back slit open and the boiling water +poured directly on the raw flesh. He used the most monstrous means to +force the people to renounce their faith. He compelled naked women to go +through the streets on their hands and knees, and many recanted rather +than suffer such an ordeal. Other cases are recorded too horrible to be +related, and which only the ingenuity of hell could have devised. That any +should have persisted after such inhuman persecutions seems to be almost +beyond belief. Guysbert says that in 1626 Nagasaki had forty thousand +Christians, and in 1629 not one was left who acknowledged himself a +believer. The governor was proud that he had virtually exterminated +Christianity. + +But the extermination had not yet been attained. The severity of the +measures adopted in Nagasaki had indeed driven many into the surrounding +provinces, so that every place of shelter was full. They awaited in terror +the time when they too should be summoned to torture and death. Usually +they had not long to wait, for the service of the Christian Enquiry was +active and diligent. New refinements of cruelty were constantly invented +and applied. The last and one of the most effectual is denominated by the +foreign historians of these scenes the _Torment of the Fosse_. Mathia +Tanner, S. J., in his _History of the Martyrs of Japan_, published in +Prague, 1675, gives minute accounts of many martyrdoms. His descriptions +are illustrated by sickening engravings of the tortures inflicted. Among +these he gives one illustrating the suspension of a martyr in a pit on the +16th of August, 1633. The victim is swathed in a covering which confines +all parts of the body except one hand with which he can make the signal of +recantation. A post is planted by the side of the pit, with an arm +projecting out over it. The martyr is then drawn up by a rope fastened to +the feet and run over the arm of the post. He is then lowered into the pit +to a depth of five or six feet and there suffered to hang. The suffering +was excruciating. Blood exuded from the mouth and nose, and the sense of +pressure on the brain was fearful. Yet with all this suffering the victim +usually lived eight or nine days. Few could endure this torture, and it +proved a most effectual method of bringing about recantations. Guysbert +says that he had many friendly conversations with those who had +experienced the torture of the _Fosse_. They solemnly assured him “that +neither the pain caused by burning with fire, nor that caused by any other +kind of torture, deserves to be compared with the agony produced in this +way.” Not being able longer to endure the suffering, they had recanted and +been set free. Yet it is told as a miraculous triumph of faith that a +young girl was submitted to this torture, and lived fifteen days without +recanting and at last died. + +It is surely not unnatural that human nature should succumb to such +torments. Even the well seasoned nerves of the Jesuit fathers were not +always able to endure to the end. The enemies of the Jesuits delight in +narrating the apostasy of Father Christopher Ferreyra, seventy years old, +a Portuguese missionary and the provincial of the order. He was captured +in Nagasaki, 1633, and was tortured by suspension in the _Fosse_. After +five hours he gave the signal of recantation and was released. He was kept +for some time in prison and compelled to give information concerning the +members of his order in Japan. He was set at liberty and forced to marry, +assuming the Japanese dress and a Japanese name. There was a report set on +foot by the Jesuits that in his old age when on his death-bed he recovered +his courage and declared himself a Christian, whereupon he was immediately +carried off by the Japanese officers to the torture of the _Fosse_, where +he perished a penitent martyr. + +It was at this time that the method of trial called _E-fumi_,(214) or +trampling on the cross, was instituted. At first pictures on paper were +used, then slabs of wood were substituted as more durable, and finally in +the year 1660 an engraver of Nagasaki, named Yusa, cast bronze plates from +the metal obtained by despoiling the altars of the churches. These plates +were about five inches long and four inches wide and one inch thick, and +had on them a figure of Christ on the cross. We take from the French +edition of Kæmpfer’s _History of Japan_(215) an account of what he calls +“this detestable solemnity.” It was conducted by an officer called the +_kirishitan bugyō_, or Christian inquisitor, and began on the second day +of the first month. In Nagasaki it was commenced at two different places +at once, and was carried on from house to house until the whole city was +finished. The officers of each street were required to be present. The +metal plate on which was a figure of the Saviour upon the cross was laid +upon the floor. Then the head of the house, his family, and servants of +both sexes, old and young, and any lodgers that might be in the house, +were called into the room. The secretary of the inquisitor thereupon made +a list of the household and called upon them one by one to set their feet +on the plate. Even young children not able to walk were carried by their +mothers and made to step on the images with their feet. Then the head of +the family put his seal to the list as a certificate to be laid before the +governor that the inquisition had been performed in his house. If any +refused thus to trample on the cross they were at once turned over to the +proper officers to be tortured as the cases required. + +This same method of trial was used in the provinces about Nagasaki, the +governor lending to the officers the plate which they might use. + +Without following the entire series of events which resulted in the +extirpation of Christianity, it will be sufficient to give a brief +narrative of the closing act in this fearful tragedy. It is just, however, +to explain that the Shimabara rebellion was not due to the Christians +alone, but that other causes contributed to and perhaps originated it. In +view, however, of the cruel persecutions to which the Christians were +subjected, it is not surprising that they should have been driven to +engage in such a rebellion as that in Arima.(216) The wonder rather is +that they were not often and in many places impelled to take up arms +against the inhumanities of their rulers. The explanation of this absence +of resistance will be found in the scattered condition of the Christian +communities. Nowhere, unless it might be in Nagasaki, was the number of +converts collected in one place at all considerable. They were everywhere +overawed by the organized power of the government, and the experience of +those who joined in this Arima insurrection did not encourage a repetition +of its horrors. + +The beginning of the revolt is traced to the misgovernment of the daimyō +of Arima. The original daimyō had been transferred by the shōgun to +another province, and when he removed from Arima he left nearly all his +old retainers behind him. The newly instituted daimyō, on the contrary, +who came to occupy the vacated province brought with him a full complement +of his own followers. To make room for these new retainers the old ones +were displaced placed from their dwellings and holdings, and compelled to +become farmers or to take up any other occupation which they could find. +Like the _samurai_ of other parts of Japan who had been unaccustomed to +any calling except that of arms, these displaced retainers proved very +unsuccessful farmers, and were of course very much dissatisfied with the +new course of things. The daimyō was a cruel and inconsiderate man, who +made small account of the hardships and complaints of the _samurai_ +farmers. The taxes were made heavier than they could pay, and when they +failed to bring in the required amount of rice, he ordered them to be +dressed in straw rain-coats which were tied around their neck and arms. +Their hands were fastened behind their backs, and in this helpless +condition the rain-coats were set on fire. Many were fatally burned, and +some to escape the burning threw themselves into the water and were +drowned. + +This senseless cruelty awakened an intense feeling of hatred against the +daimyō. And when his son who succeeded him was disposed to continue the +same tyrannical policy, the farmers rose in insurrection against their +lord. The peasants of the island of Amakusa, which lies directly opposite +to the province of Arima, also joined in this rising, owing to their +discontent against the daimyō of Karatsu. + +The Christians, who had so long groaned under the persecutions of their +rulers, seized this opportunity to rise, and joined the farmers. They +declared that the time had now come for them to avenge the innocent blood +of Christians and priests who had perished throughout the empire. The +rising of the Christians began at the village of Oyei in Amakusa, October, +1637. The excitement was intense, and in a few days it is said that eight +thousand three hundred men and one thousand women were assembled at this +village. They chose as their chief Shirō Tokisada, the son of the head man +of the village of Hara, who proposed to march immediately upon Nagasaki +and open negotiations with foreign nations, and if possible obtain from +them the help of troops. He was an enthusiast and without experience in +war. The leading spirit in the insurrection seems to have been a +_rônin_(217) named Ashizuka, who recommended that the insurgents should +cross over to Shimabara. But Shirō and his enthusiastic followers resolved +to attack the castle of Tomioka situated on the north-west coast of +Amakusa. They were, however, unable to make any impression upon it, and +were obliged to withdraw. Ashizuka and a few followers succeeded in +breaking into the castle of Shimabara and seizing the arms and ammunition +and provisions which were stored there. The government rice stores were +seized both on the mainland and on the island of Amakusa. All the +insurgents, including men, women, and children, then gathered into a +deserted castle at Hara, which was capable of holding 40,000 to 50,000 +persons. It was supposed to be impregnable, and was put in order and +provisioned for a long siege. The number gathered here is estimated by the +Japanese writers at 40,200, but this number without doubt is an +exaggeration. + +The local rulers finding themselves unable to cope with the rebellion, and +seeing its proportions swelling every day, appealed to Yedo for help. The +shōgun at this time was Iemitsu, the son of the preceding shōgun, and +grandson of Ieyasu. He possessed many of the good qualities of his +grandfather, and is looked upon, with the exception of Ieyasu, as the +greatest of the Tokugawa line. He had imbibed all the prejudices of his +predecessors against foreigners and against the religion of the +foreigners. He feared that this rebellion was begun at their instigation, +and would be carried on with their encouragement and help. He prepared +therefore for a sharp and desperate struggle, which he was determined +should be carried out to the bitter end. + +Itakura Naizen was sent down as commander-in-chief, and given full powers. +Under his direction the siege of the castle, in which the rebels were +gathered, was commenced on the 31st of December, 1637. The daimyōs of +Kyūshū, on the demand of the government, sent additional troops, so that +the besieging army amounted to 160,000 men. Yet with all this force, urged +on by an ambition to end this rebellion, no serious effect had yet been +produced on the castle. The attacks which had been made had produced no +breach in its walls. We have no information concerning the progress of +affairs among the inmates. It must be remembered that a part of the rebels +were _samurai_ farmers, who were inured to arms, and who knew perfectly +that neither consideration nor mercy would be shown them or their families +in case the castle were taken. The remainder of the besieged force were +the Christian insurgents, who had been driven to this rebellion by their +cruel persecution. Nothing could be worse than what they had already +endured, and they had no expectation that if they were beaten in this +contest any pity would be shown to them. Despair made the attitude of both +divisions of the rebels one of determined resistance, and their obstinacy +led the besiegers to put forth every effort. + + [Illustration] + + Pleasure Yacht. + + + [Illustration] + + Pleasure Yacht. + + + [Illustration] + + Merchant Vessel. + + +One step which they took in this matter led to much discussion and to the +widening of the breach between the Dutch and the Portuguese. On the 11th +of January, 1638, the besiegers applied to the Dutch at Hirado for a +supply of gunpowder, which request was complied with, and at the same time +an apology was tendered that no larger quantity could be sent. Again, on +the 15th of February a request for cannon to be used in the siege was +received, and the guns were sent. Mr. Koeckebacker says: “We gave the +largest and most uniform guns in our possession.”(218) Finally, on the +19th of February, Mr. Koeckebacker was asked to send one of the Dutch +ships(219) then at Hirado to the assistance of the besiegers. The _de Ryp_ +was accordingly sent, and Mr. Koeckebacker himself accompanied her. The +guns which had been first sent were mounted as a land battery, and the +guns of the _de Ryp_ from her anchorage in the bay were trained on the +castle. It was a new experience for the Japanese to see cannon used in the +siege of a castle, but the effect was much less than had been expected. No +practicable breach was made, and the final result seemed as far off as +ever. “During the fifteen days from the 24th of February to the 12th of +March, there were thrown into the camp of the enemy four hundred and +twenty-six cannon balls from the twenty guns of the ship _de Ryp_.”(220) + +In the meantime the Japanese officers began to feel that it was not a +dignified proceeding to call upon a foreign nation to help them to put +down a local rebellion. Even the insurgents had shot an arrow into the +imperial camp to which a letter was attached, deriding them for calling +for assistance when there were so many courageous soldiers in Japan. +Whatever may have been the cause, the Dutch received notice on the 12th of +March that their ship was no longer required, and accordingly they +returned to Hirado. The castle was taken by assault on the 12th of April, +1638, after a siege which had lasted one hundred and two days, and about +seven months from the breaking out of the rebellion. By special orders +from Yedo the insurgents captured in the castle were to the last man, +woman, and child put to death.(221) The father of Shirō, the young leader, +was crucified, and Shirō himself was decapitated, and his head exposed for +seven days on the great pier at Nagasaki. The daimyō, whose misgovernment +had brought on this rebellion in Amakusa, was stripped of most of his +territories, and he was so intensely hated in what remained to him that he +committed _hara-kiri_. The daimyō of Arima, whose misconduct and neglect +had driven the _samurai_ farmers into their fatal rising, was also +permitted to take his own life. + +The help, which the Dutch rendered in this siege, exposed them to much +vituperation. Naturally, the Jesuit historians have taken a very +unfavorable view of the Dutch share in this sad transaction. Dr. Geerts in +his defence of the Dutch argues: “Koeckebacker did no more than any one +else of any nationality would probably have done in the same difficult +position.... His endeavor was to preserve from decline or destruction the +interests intrusted to him, and this was done at the smallest possible +price.... Moreover, the letters of Koeckebacker clearly show that the +Japanese government did not ask the aid of the Dutch in the persecution of +Christians, as has often been asserted by foreign authors, who have not +taken the trouble to inform themselves thoroughly on the subject, but they +requested the guns and the aid of the Dutch vessel for the purpose of +subduing rebellious subjects.... There could be no valid reason for +Koeckebacker to refuse the pressing request for aid, and consequently he +agreed to give assistance, as every wise man would have done in his +place.... Koeckebacker did not take part in the general massacre which +followed on the 11th of April, when the fortress of the rebels was taken +by the imperial troops, as he left with his ship for Hirado on the 12th of +March, leaving the guns behind in Arima. Had it been in his power to +prevent such a general massacre after the fortress had been taken, and the +rebels were prisoners, he would no doubt have done so.”(222) + +This frightful termination to the rebellion, followed as it was by severe +and persistent measures against Christians everywhere, was apparently the +death-blow to the church in the empire. No further efforts were made, +either by the daimyōs of provinces or by the heads of the church, to make +open headway against the determined efforts of the government. Whatever +was done was in secret, and every means was tried on the part of those who +still clung to the Christian belief, and especially of those who were +still daring enough to try to minister to them, to conceal their locality +and their identity.(223) + +The history of Christianity in Japan from this time downward was that of a +scattered and dismembered remnant struggling for existence. A long line of +edicts reaching to modern times was directed against “the corrupt sect,” +repeating again and again the directions for its suppression. The +_kirishitan bugyō_, or Christian inquisitor, had his office in Yedo, and +under him was a numerous and active corps of assistants. Inouye +Chikugo-no-Kami for a long time held this position. A place is still +pointed out called _Karishitan Zaka_, or Christian Valley, where once +stood the house in which were confined a number of the foreign priests. +Here may be seen the grave of Father Chiara, who had under torture abjured +his faith, and remained a prisoner for forty years, dying 1685.(224) +Professor Dixon says that “there are two bamboo tubes inserted in sockets +in front of the tomb, which I have never found empty, but always full of +flowers in bloom. No one knows who offer these flowers, but they must be +descendants of the Doshin Christians, or believers in Christianity, or +worshippers of Koshin.” Here also was confined Father Baptiste Sidotti, a +Sicilian Jesuit who ventured to enter Japan in 1707 with the purpose of +resuming the work of the Jesuits which the persecution had interrupted. + +And yet with all this vigilance and severity on the part of the +government, what was the amazement of the Christian world to learn that +the old faith still survived! In the villages around Nagasaki there were +discovered in 1865,(225) not only words and symbols which had been +preserved in the language, but even communities where had been kept alive +for more than two centuries the worship bequeathed to them by their +ancestors. We shall have occasion hereafter to refer to this interesting +memento of the Christianity of the seventeenth century. + + + + + +CHAPTER XII. FEUDALISM IN JAPAN. + + +Ieyasu was not only a general of eminent abilities, who had from his youth +been accustomed to the responsibility and management of great campaigns, +but he was a statesman who knew how to secure the advantage to be obtained +from victories and conquests. After the decisive battle of Sekigahara, +when the control of the empire became fixed in his hands, we hear little +more of him as a general, excepting in the battle at Ōsaka, when the +fortunes of Hideyori were finally and definitely settled. The common +conception of Ieyasu is not that of a great commander like Hideyoshi, but +rather of an organizer and law-maker, who out of confused and dismembered +provinces and principalities of the empire constructed a firm and abiding +state.(226) After his settlement of the dissensions at home, and his +admirable adjustment of the outstanding difficulties with Korea and China, +which we have already traced, we shall find Ieyasu principally engaged in +framing a government which should be suited to the peculiar wants and +founded on the historical antecedents of the country. + + [Illustration] + + Ieyasu. + + +There was one characteristic of Ieyasu which has not received sufficient +attention. Although not a great scholar in any sense, even in the age in +which he lived, he was more familiar than most men of affairs of his day +with the Chinese classical writings, and was in the more leisurely periods +of his life a noted patron of learned men. The Chinese classics were said +to have been brought to Japan at an early period, even before the first +introduction of Buddhism. But the period was too early and the condition +of the country too rude to make the reading and study of the philosophical +and political writings of Confucius and Mencius an essential part of the +education of the people. The culture which Buddhism brought with it, +accompanied with a knowledge of the writing and reading of the Chinese +letters, was all that obtained any currency during the disturbed and +warlike ages of Japanese history. But when peace was at last established +by the supremacy of Ieyasu, and the active Japanese intellect had some +other employment than fighting, then learning took a great start. And as +the only idea which the Japanese possessed of learning was that which +prevailed in China and was imbedded in the Chinese writings, they +naturally turned to them for thought and systematic training. + +Fortunately Ieyasu was a man who appreciated at its full value the effect +of learning on the character of his people. He caused the Confucian +classics(227) to be printed at a press which he patronized in Fushimi, and +this was said to be the first time these works had ever been printed in +Japan. He gathered scholars about him at Fushimi, at Yedo, and after his +retirement at Shizuoka (Sumpu). He favored education and encouraged the +daimyōs to establish schools where the children of their retainers could +be taught not only military accomplishments but the elements of a good +education. The Chinese classics were made the essentials of such an +education, and the chief duty of a school was to teach the pupils to read +and write and understand the works which their venerable and learned +neighbor had furnished them. + + [Illustration] + + Mixing Ink For Writing. + + +Unfortunately this movement in behalf of learning was hampered by the +impracticable nature of the Chinese written language. Instead of a few +characters representing sounds, like European alphabets, it consists of +thousands of symbols, each representing an idea. The pupil must therefore +spend years in learning to make, and know and read the mere signs of +language. And in the modern necessities of printing,(228) the compositor +must handle not less than 4,000 or 5,000 Chinese characters, besides the +Japanese _kana_ and other needful marks. The _kana_ here mentioned were +the result of a promising effort which was made to simplify the Chinese +written language by expressing it in symbols representing sounds. +Forty-seven _kana_ letters—by repetition extended to fifty—each +representing a syllable, are used to express Japanese words. + + [Illustration] + + Styles Of Letters: (Chinese Proverb: Hiroku koriwo aisuruwo jintoyu. To +love universally is true humility.) 1. Kaisho (book letters). 2. Ditto. 3. + Gyosho (script letters). 4. Ditto. 5. Hirasaua (Japanese script). + + + [Illustration] + + Japanese Syllabary. + + +The castle of Yedo was reconstructed and enlarged after the battle of +Sekigahara, while Ieyasu continued to reside at Fushimi. The Jesuit +fathers, who accompanied the Father Provincial on his visit to Ieyasu, +assert that 300,000 men were employed in this work. Very much of the +ground where the present city of Tōkyō now stands, was then, according to +old maps, covered with water. In excavating the moat which surrounds the +castle, and the canals connecting this moat with the Sumida-gawa, immense +quantities of earth were obtained, which were used to fill up lagoons and +to reclaim from the shallow bay portions which have now become solid land. +This work of building the castle and fitting the city for the residence of +a great population, was carried on by many of the successors of Ieyasu. +The third shōgun, Iemitsu, the grandson of Ieyasu, made great improvements +both to the castle and the city, so that the population and position of +Yedo in no long time placed it as the chief city of the empire.(229) + +The task to which Ieyasu devoted himself during the years of his residence +at Yedo was that of consolidating and settling the feudal system of the +empire. The daimyōs had for centuries been so accustomed to conduct +themselves independently, and to govern each his own province in his own +way, that they might be expected to resent any efforts to restrict their +action. Fortunately Ieyasu was a mild and temperate man, who, while he +could act with firmness, was most considerate of the feelings and motives +of others. After the decisive victory of Sekigahara he readily and +cordially made terms with his enemies, and did not show himself rapacious +in exacting from them undue penalties for their hostility. To the daimyō +of Satsuma, as we have already seen, he restored the entire territory +which Taikō Sama had given him. The daimyō of Chōshū was allowed to keep +two of the provinces out of the ten which he had acquired by conquest, yet +these two made him still one of the richest and most powerful princes in +the empire. With others he dealt in the same liberal spirit, so that out +of the old proud daimyōs whom he spared and permitted to continue in their +holdings, he created for himself a body of fast friends. + +But it must be remembered that the end Ieyasu had in view was to establish +a system which should continue loyal to his successors, and to a line of +successors who should be of his own family. Hence out of the confiscated +territories, and out of those which were in part vacated as a fine on the +former holders, and out of those which had become vacant by natural +causes, he carved many fiefs with which he endowed members of his own +family and those retainers who were closely affiliated with him. He had +twelve children,(230) nine sons and three daughters. The daughters were +married to three daimyōs. The oldest of his sons, Nobuyasu, had died at an +early age. His second son, Hideyasu, had been adopted by Taikō Sama, and +to him Ieyasu gave the province of Echizen as his fief. The third son, +Hidetada, who shared with his father the command of the forces at the +battle Sekigahara, had married a daughter of Taikō Sama, and succeeded his +father as shōgun. On his youngest three sons he bestowed the rich +provinces of Owari, Kii, and Mito, and constituted the families to which +they gave rise as the _Go-san-ké_, or the three honorable families. In +case of a failure in the direct line, the heir to the shōgunate was to be +chosen from one of these families. + +Without undertaking to give a detailed account of the feudal system as +modified and established by Ieyasu, it will be sufficient to give the +classes of daimyōs as they continued to exist under the Tokugawa +shōgunate.(231) It must be understood that feudalism existed in Japan +before the time of Ieyasu. It can be traced to the period when Yoritomo +obtained from the emperor permission to send into each province a _shiugo_ +who should be a military man, and should act as protector of the _kokushū_ +or governor, who was always a civilian appointed by the emperor. These +military protectors were provided with troops, for the pay of whom +Yoritomo got permission from the emperor to levy a tax. Being active men, +and having troops under their command, they gradually absorbed the entire +authority, and probably in most cases displaced the _kokushū_, who only +represented the powerless government at Kyōto. Under the disturbed times +which followed the fall of the house of Yoritomo these _shiugo_ became the +hereditary military governors of the provinces, and usurped not only the +functions but the name of _kokushū_. They became a class of feudal barons +who, during the interval when no central authority controlled them, +governed each one his own province on his own responsibility. Even after +the establishment of a central authority, and continuously down to the +abolition of feudalism, the government of the people was in the hands of +the daimyō of each province. The assessment of taxes, the construction of +roads and bridges, the maintenance of education, the punishment of crime, +the collection of debts, the enforcement of contracts, and indeed the +whole circle of what was denominated law were in the hands of the local +government. In truth, in Japan as in other feudal countries there was +scarcely such a thing as law in existence. The customs that prevailed, the +common-sense decisions of a magistrate, the final determinations of the +daimyō, were authoritative in every community. And in all these each +province was in a great degree a law unto itself. + +The classes of daimyōs as arranged and established by Ieyasu were not +altered by his successors, although the number included under each class +was liable to minor changes. Before Ieyasu’s time there were three classes +of daimyōs, viz.: eighteen _kokushū_, who may be termed lords of +provinces, thirty-two _ryōshu_ or lords of smaller districts, and two +hundred and twelve _jōshu_ or lords of castles, that is two hundred and +sixty-two in all. The distinction between the first two was one of rank, +but the third differed from the others in the fact that the assessment in +each case was less than 100,000 _kōku_ of rice. The number of _kokushū_ +daimiates was increased by the addition of Kii and Owari, to which Ieyasu +appointed two of his sons as daimyōs. A third son he appointed daimyō of +Mito, which was already of the _kokushū_ rank. He vacated this place by +compelling the previous holder to accept in place of it another daimiate +of equivalent value. + +Ieyasu divided all daimyōs into two distinct classes, the _fudai_ and the +_tozama_. The term _fudai_ was used to designate those who were considered +the vassals of the Tokugawa family. The _tozama_ daimyōs were those who +were considered as equal to the vassals of the Tokugawa family, but who +were not in fact vassals. Of the former there were originally one hundred +and seventy-seven, and of the latter eighty-six.(232) Twenty-one of the +_fudai_ daimyōs were relatives of the shōgun’s family, of whom three, as +has been stated, were the “honorable families.” All the others, numbering +eighteen, bore the name of Matsudaira, one of the family names of Ieyasu, +derived from a small village in the province of Mikawa, where Ieyasu was +born. This was allowed to them as a special honor. + +We give here the classification of the daimyōs as enumerated by M. +Appert(233) in his list for the epoch about 1850: + +1. Go-san-ké (three honorable families) 3 +2. Fudai daimyōs (vassals of Tokugawa family) 137 +3. Tozama daimyōs (equal to vassals) 99 +4. Kamon (all the other branches of Tokugawa family) 18 +5. Daimyōs, not classified 6 +Total 263 + +The five leading _tozama_ daimyōs were Kaga, Sendai, Aizu, Chōshū, and +Satsuma, and although they ranked after the _go-san-ké_, they had some +superior advantages. They were classed as _kyakubun_, or guests, and +whenever they paid a visit to the capital of the shōgun, they were met by +envoys and conducted to their residences. + +Besides these daimyōs of different classes, Ieyasu established an inferior +kind of feudal nobility, which was termed _hatamoto_. This means literally +_under the flag_. They had small holdings assigned to them, and their +income varied very greatly. Mr. Gubbins, in his paper, puts the number at +about 2,000. It was the custom to employ the members of this minor class +of aristocracy very largely in filling the official positions in the +shōgun’s government. Indeed, it was held as a common maxim, that the +offices should be filled by poor men rather than by rich.(234) The +_gokenin_, numbering about 5,000, were still another class who were +inferior to the _hatamoto_. They had small incomes, and were mostly +employed in subordinate positions. Beneath these again stood the ordinary +fighting men, or common _samurai_, who were the retainers of the daimyōs +and of the shōgun. They were the descendants of the soldiers of the time +of Yoritomo, who appointed _shiugo_ to reside with a company of troops in +each province, for the purpose of keeping the peace. They had already +grown to claim a great superiority over the common people, and Ieyasu +encouraged them in this feeling of superciliousness. The people were +divided into four classes, arranged in the following order: _samurai_, +farmers, artisans, and merchants. And in his _Legacy_ Ieyasu thus +expresses himself(235): “The _samurai_ are masters of the four classes. +Farmers, artisans, and merchants may not behave in a rude manner towards +_samurai_ ... and a _samurai_ is not to be interfered with in cutting down +a fellow who has behaved to him in a manner other than is expected.” Again +he says(236): “A girded sword is the living soul of a _samurai_.” + +The authority coming from so high and so revered a source did not grow +less during the centuries of feudalism which followed. The _samurai_ did +not fail to use all the privileges which were allowed them by Ieyasu’s +testamentary law. Especially in the large cities where great numbers of +them were gathered, and where idleness led them into endless evil +practices, the arrogance and overbearing pride of the _samurai_ made them +an intolerable nuisance. Nevertheless it must be allowed that nearly all +that was good, and high-minded, and scholarly in Japan was to be found +among the ranks of the feudal retainers. It is to them that the credit +must be given of the great changes and improvements which have been +initiated since Japan was opened up to foreigners. They were the students +who went out into the world to learn what western science had to teach +them. They have been pioneers in a return to a central authority and to +the experiment of a representative government, and to the principles of +freedom and toleration to which the country is committed. To them Japan +owes its ancient as well as its modern system of education. Its old stores +of literature, it is true, are not due to them, but surely all its modern +development in newspapers, magazines, history, political science, and +legal and commercial codes, is to be traced to the adaptability and energy +of the old _samurai_ class. + + [Illustration] + + Sword-Maker. + + +The _samurai_ had the privilege of carrying two swords; the principal one +(_katana_) was about four feet long, nearly straight, but slightly curved +toward the point, the blade thick and ground to a keen though blunt edge. +It was carried in a scabbard thrust through the _obi_ or belt on the left +side, with the edge uppermost. Besides the _katana_ the _samurai_ carried +also a short sword about nine and a half inches long, called _wakizashi_. +The blade of the sword was fastened to the hilt by a pin of wood and could +be readily detached. On the part of the blade inserted in the hilt, the +maker’s name was always inscribed, and it was a special matter of pride +when he was one of the famous sword-smiths of Japan. The most noted makers +were Munechika, Masamune, Yoshimitsu, and Muramasa, who ranged from the +tenth down through the fourteenth century. The quality of the Japanese +sword has been a matter of national pride, and the feats which have been +accomplished by it seem almost beyond belief. To cleave at one blow three +human bodies laid one upon another; to cut through a pile of copper coins +without nicking the edge, were common tests which were often tried.(237) + + [Illustration] + + Sword, Spears, And Matchlock. + + +It was an essential part of the education of a young _samurai_ that he +should be trained thoroughly in martial exercises. The latter part of +every school day was given up to this kind of physical training. He was +taught to ride a horse, to shoot with the bow, to handle the spear, and +especially to be skilled in the etiquette and use of the sword.(238) They +went through again and again the tragic details of the commission of +_hara-kiri_, and had it impressed on their youthful imaginations with such +force and vividness, that when the time for its actual enactment came they +were able to meet the bloody reality without a tremor and with perfect +composure.(239) + +The foundation of the relations between the feudal chiefs and their +retainers lay in the doctrine of Confucius. The principles which he lays +down fitted in admirably to the ideas which the historical system of +Japanese feudalism had made familiar. They inculcated absolute submission +of the son to the father, of the wife to her husband, and of the servant +to his master, and in these respects Japanese feudalism was a willing and +zealous disciple. On these lines Ieyasu constructed his plans of +government, and his successors enthusiastically followed in his footsteps. + + [Illustration] + + Daibutsu At Kamakura. + + +In religious belief the nation by the time of Ieyasu was largely +Buddhistic. Through ten centuries and a half the active propagation of +this faith had been going on, until now by far the greater number of the +population were Buddhists. In his _Legacy_ Ieyasu expresses a desire to +tolerate all religious sects except the Christian. He says: “High and low +alike may follow their own inclinations with respect to religious tenets +which have obtained down to the present time, except as regards the false +and corrupt school (Christianity). Religious disputes have ever proved the +bane and misfortune of the empire, and should determinedly be put a stop +to.”(240) + +While he was therefore tolerant towards all the different sects of +Buddhism and towards the old Shintō faith of the country, he particularly +patronized the Jōdo sect to which his ancestors had been attached, and to +which he charges his posterity to remain faithful.(241) In the archives of +the Buddhist temple Zōjōji at Shiba in Tōkyō was preserved an account +written by the head priest of the time, how Ieyasu, in 1590, visited the +temple and took it under his patronage, saying,(242) “For a general to be +without an ancestral temple of his own is as though he were forgetful of +the fact that he must die.... I have now come to beg of you to let me make +this my ancestral temple here.” So that from the time of Ieyasu the Jōdo +was the authorized sect to which the court of the shōguns was especially +attached, and to this is to be attributed the fact that its temples and +monasteries in Tōkyō have always been of the most majestic and gorgeous +character.(243) + +Ieyasu did not long hold the office of shōgun, which the emperor had +conferred upon him in 1603. It is not easy to understand why a man, who +was only sixty-three years of age and who was still in vigorous health, +should wish to throw off the responsibilities of office and retire to +private life. We must remember, however, that it was the custom of his +country, consecrated by the usage of the imperial house and of the shōguns +and regents who had preceded him. Morever, though he surrendered to his +son the title of shōgun, he retained in his own hands a large part of the +power which he had hitherto exercised. + +It may be supposed that he was anxious to establish the succession of the +shōgunate unquestionably in his own family. For this purpose he deemed it +wise to initiate a successor while he still had the influence and the +power to compel the acquiescence of the feudal lords of the empire. Acting +upon these considerations Ieyasu, in 1605, retired in favor of his third +son Hidetada. He received from the emperor the title of +_sei-i-tai-shōgun_, which his father had held. Ieyasu took up his +residence at Sumpu(244) (now Shizuoka), which was situated on Suruga bay, +one hundred and fourteen miles from the shōgun’s capital. Here he +maintained a court and practically in all important matters governed the +country. He was free, however, from the petty details of the +administration, and devoted himself as an amateur to a literary life, to +the collection and printing of books, and to the encouragement and +patronage of literary men, in which he delighted. + +In the meantime important events had been taking place which had great +influence on the history of Japan. The contest between the Spanish on the +one hand, and the Dutch and English on the other, was not confined to the +Atlantic, but broke out in the Pacific, where the Portuguese and Spaniards +had so long been predominant. A preliminary to the opening of trade with +the Dutch were the arrival of William Adams and his extraordinary +experiences in Japan. As we learn from his own letters,(245) he was born +near Rochester in England, 1574, and when twelve years old was apprenticed +to Nicholas Diggins as a pilot. With him he served for twelve years, then +took service as pilot major of a fleet of five sail, which was about to be +despatched by the “Indish Companie” to take part in the trade of the East +Indies. This fleet had a rough time, and with fevers and scurvy and want +of food a great part of the crews of the five vessels died. They sailed by +the way of the straits of Magellan, then northward past Chili, and +westward across the broad Pacific. Two of the ships turned back at the +straits and returned to Holland. A third vessel was captured by the +Spaniards, and the pinnace of a fourth was seized by eight men, and run +into some island on their way, supposed to be one of the Sandwich Islands, +and there wrecked, and the eight men probably eaten. The two vessels still +remaining were the _Hope_ and the _Charity_. The former of these was never +more heard of. The sole remaining vessel was the _Charity_, of which +Jaques Maihore was the master, and William Adams was the pilot. Sickness, +especially the scurvy, which was the frightful scourge on board the +vessels of that day, had reduced the crew, so that only four were able to +walk, of whom Adams was one, and four more could creep on their knees. + +In this condition they reached, on the eleventh of April, 1600, the +northeastern coast of the island of Kyūshū, landing in the province of +Bungo, whose prince in earlier days had been the friend and patron of the +Portuguese Jesuits. They were kindly received, the governor of the +district furnishing a guard to protect their property—too late however for +the preservation of much of it—and a house in which the sick could be +cared for. In a few days a Portuguese Jesuit and other Portuguese arrived +from Nagasaki, through whom the Dutch could communicate with the natives. +The national and religious animosity between the strangers and their +interpreters could not fail, however, to manifest itself. The Portuguese +tried to create the impression that the refugees were pirates and unworthy +of protection and help. + +In accordance with the usual custom, word was immediately sent to Ieyasu +(whom Adams calls the emperor), who at this time was at the castle of +Ōsaka. He sent boats to Bungo, by which Adams and one of the crew were +conveyed to his castle. Adams gives an interesting account of his +reception, of the questions asked concerning his country, and its +relations to the Spanish and Portuguese. He took occasion to explain, that +the object of the Dutch in entering the East was purely that of trade, +that they had in their own country many commodities which they would be +glad to exchange for the products of the eastern nations. + +After this interview Adams was kept thirty-nine days in prison, expecting +to suffer the punishment of crucifixion, which he understood was the +common mode of disposing of such characters. He found afterwards that the +Portuguese had been using means to poison the mind of Ieyasu by +representing them as dangerous characters, and recommending that all the +refugees should be put to death as a warning to others. But he tells +us(246) that Ieyasu answered them, that “we as yet had done to him nor to +none of his lands any harm or dammage [and it was] against Reason and +Justice to put us to death. If our countreys had warres the one with the +other, that was no cause that he should put us to death.” + +While Adams was thus kept in prison, the _Charity_ had been brought to +Sakai, near to Ōsaka. Finally he was set at liberty, and suffered to +revisit his ship, where he found the captain and remnant of the crew. The +goods and clothing on board had been stolen by the natives, which Ieyasu +tried to recover for them. But everything had been so scattered that it +was impossible to regain it, “savinge 50,000 Rs in reddy money was +commanded to be geven us” [as compensation]. After this settlement they +were ordered to sail with their ship to the “land of Quanto and neere to +the citie Eddo,” whither Ieyasu was about to proceed by land. Here they +had a mutiny among their men, which ended in the entire disbanding of the +crew, and the dividing up among them the money which they had received for +their goods. Each man was left to shift for himself. The captain got +permission to sail in a Japanese junk to Patan, where he hoped to meet +Dutch vessels. + +Adams himself was kept about the shōgun’s court, and was made useful in +various ways. His first achievement was to build a vessel of about +eighteen tons burthen, which gained him great favor, in which he made +several short voyages. Then in 1609, by command of the shōgun, he built +another ship of one hundred and twenty tons burthen, which also was a +successful venture. For it so happened that the governor of Manila was on +his way to Nova Spania(247) in a large ship of one thousand tons burthen, +and was wrecked on the east coast of Japan, in the province of Shimosa. +The governor and those of his comrades who were saved from the shipwreck +were sent on to Acapulco in the ship which Adams had just built. In the +year following, the governor, in recognition of their kindness to him, +sent back to the Japanese government a much larger vessel as a present, +the original being sent to and retained at Manila. + +Adams was a straightforward, honest fellow, and commended himself to +Ieyasu by usefulness not only in such matters as building ships, but in +furnishing information concerning foreign affairs, which at this time were +pressing on the government. In order to render him more content, Ieyasu +gave him a small holding at Hemi, near the present town of Yokosuka, a few +hours’ sail from Yedo. He himself speaks of this property as “a living +like unto a lordship in England, with eighty or ninety husbandmen, that be +as my slaves or servants.”(248) He probably also had a residence in Yedo, +for there is to this day a street called _An-jin-chō_, or Pilot Street, +near Nihonbashi, which is popularly believed to have been the street in +which Adams lived. He himself says that he was known among the Japanese as +“An-gin Sama,” or Mr. Pilot. To console himself for the loss of his wife +and children left in England, he married a Japanese wife, who, with +several children, is mentioned by Captain Cocks in the visit above +referred to. Notwithstanding his frequent endeavors to get back to +England, he was never able to return, but after much important service +both to the Dutch and English, to which we shall refer below, he died May +6, 1620.(249) + +The first appearance of the Dutch after Adams’ shipwreck, as above +described, was in 1609, when the _Red Lion_ and the yacht _Griffon_ +arrived at Hirado. They were well received by the daimyō, and a deputation +was sent to Yedo to visit the shōgun. Adams, in his second letter, speaks +of their being “received in great friendship, making conditions with the +emperor (shōgun) yearly to send a ship or two.” They were given a letter +addressed to the “King of Holland,” with which they went back, arriving +home July, 1610. This letter, among other things, promises, “that they +(your subjects), in all places, countries, and islands under mine +obedience, may traffic and build homes serviceable and needful for their +trade and merchandises, where they may trade without any hindrance at +their pleasure, as well in time to come as for the present, so that no man +shall do them any wrong. And I will maintain and defend them as mine own +subjects.”(250) + +In accordance with this agreement the first vessel to arrive was a small +yacht in July, 1611. A deputation from this vessel also went to visit the +shōgun and the retired shōgun. It so chanced that a Portuguese party had +preceded them by a few days. These deputations met at the court of Ieyasu. +By the assistance of Adams, who was ready to do a favor to his old +friends, the Dutch were kindly welcomed by the ex-shōgun’s court, and in +spite of the hostility, or perhaps aided by the hostility, of the +Portuguese, they received from him a patent for continued trade. As given +in Kaempfer in translation it is as follows: + +“All Dutch ships that come into my empire of Japan, whatever place or port +they may put into, we do hereby expressly command all and every one of our +subjects not to molest the same in any way, nor to be a hindrance to them; +but, on the contrary, to show them all manner of help, favor and +assistance. Every one shall beware to maintain the friendship, in +assurance of which we have been pleased to give our imperial word to these +people; and every one shall take care that our commands and promises be +inviolably kept. + +“Dated (in Japanese equivalent to) August 30, 1611.”(251) + +This was the authority on which the Dutch trade in Japan began, and under +which, with many changes and vicissitudes, it continued to the time when +the country was opened by treaty to foreign nations. + +The effort made by English merchants to open a trade with the Japanese was +made only a little after this time. Indeed, it is said that the report +brought back by the Dutch in the _Red Lion_ concerning Adams’ presence and +influence in Japan, gave the impulse which started an expedition under +Captain John Saris in January, 1611. Saris was an old adventurer in the +East, and therefore fitted to encounter the varied experiences of his +proposed trip. He carried a letter from James I., then king of England, to +Ieyasu the retired shōgun. At Bantam on his way he found that Adams’ first +letter,(252) contained in the collection of his letters, and dated October +22, 1611, had just been received by the English merchants. It encouraged +Saris to push on in his expedition. He arrived at Hirado, June, 1613, +where the daimyō welcomed him and immediately sent off a special messenger +to the shōgun’s court to summon Adams to their aid. He came at once, and +by his advice Captain Saris with a party set out to pay his respects to +the retired shōgun. He gives an interesting account(253) of this journey +and visit, which resulted in a charter of privileges(254) for the London +East India Company to trade in any port of the empire. Having arranged to +his great satisfaction this important matter he returned to Hirado, where +he established a factory to serve as the basis for future English trade. +In this, however, he encountered no little opposition from the Dutch +traders, who had a factory in the same place. For while these enterprising +nations, who had been allies in the days of the Armada, could combine very +readily in opposition to the Spanish and Portuguese, it was not easy for +either of them to look on complacently while the other secured for itself +superior advantages in the matter of trade. Captain Saris tried to come to +some agreement with his rivals, so that the prices of commodities might be +kept up, but he was compelled to see the Dutch factory, in order to crowd +him out of the field, putting the goods which they had for sale at prices +which were ruinous to both. Having established matters, however, on as +satisfactory a footing as he could arrange, and having left his comrade, +Captain Cocks, in charge of the English factory, he sailed for home. + +The subsequent events in the history of English trade with Japan may as +well be traced here. The relations of the English and Dutch in the East +grew steadily more inimical. Perhaps this was due to the increasing +rivalry in trade and navigation which prevailed between them at home. In +1617 the London East India Company fitted out an expedition of five large +vessels. This fleet arrived in the East in the summer of the following +year. After much hostile skirmishing in which the Dutch obtained the +permanent advantage, and the English commander was about to retire, word +was brought to them from Europe that a peace had been arranged between the +two countries. The English and Dutch vessels accordingly sailed to Japan, +where they took a hand at trade; because in those days ships always were +sent to the East prepared either to fight or trade as the case required. +But this amicable arrangement did not last many years. The massacre at the +Spice Islands in 1623, for which Cromwell afterward exacted an indemnity, +ended all attempts at co-operation in the East. Soon after this the +English company withdrew entirely from the Japanese trade, having lost in +the effort forty thousand pounds. The Dutch were thus left without a +rival, and we shall see on what conditions and at what sacrifices they +continued to maintain their monopoly. + +During the period of Ieyasu’s retirement, which lasted from 1605 until his +death in 1616, he devoted himself, as we have seen, to the consolidation +of his family dynasty and to such literary occupations as his leisure +allowed. He was a patron of the art derived from Korea, which then was +popular in Japan, of printing with movable types.(255) This art fell into +disuse afterwards, but during Ieyasu’s retirement in Sumpu he interested +himself in printing with blocks as well as by the new method. When he died +he was engaged in seeing through the press an edition of an important +Chinese work. + +He left behind him a document, called the _Legacy of Ieyasu_, which to +those desirous of studying the character and motives of the founder of the +Tokugawa dynasty possesses a supreme interest. Some doubt has been thrown +by Japanese critics on the authenticity of this composition. It has been +asserted that it was not the work of Ieyasu and therefore not worthy of +the reverence in which it has been held. But whether the _Legacy_(256) was +originally composed by him or approved and sanctioned by him, matters +little for our purpose. It dates from the time of the founding of the +Tokugawa shōgunate, and has been an unimpeachable authority during all its +history. One of the singular features in the disposition of the _Legacy_, +to which Professor Grigsby directs attention, was the secrecy in which it +was kept. The original was preserved in Kyōto and was never seen, while an +authenticated copy was kept at the shōgun’s court in Yedo, and once a year +was open to the inspection of all above a certain rank. To us it seems +unaccountable that a body of so-called laws, by which the conduct of men +was to be guided, should be kept secret from them. But it must be +remembered that in those days there were no such things as laws in the +sense we now understand the term. There were magistrates who heard causes +and complaints, but their decisions were based not on laws which had been +enacted by the government, but upon prevailing custom and upon the innate +sense of justice which was assumed to be present in the mind of every man. +Whatever laws or rules therefore were in existence were not for the +information of the people, but for the guidance of the magistrates. + +The _Legacy of Ieyasu_ consists of one hundred chapters, arranged without +any attempt at logical order. Each chapter treats of a single, separate +subject, and is usually of a very moderate length. As Professor Grigsby +has pointed out: “Sixteen chapters consist of moral maxims and +reflections; fifty-five are connected with politics and administrations; +twenty-two refer to legal matters, and in seven Ieyasu relates episodes of +his own personal history.” The moral maxims are quoted chiefly from the +works of the Chinese sages, Confucius and Mencius. While the collection on +the whole has a military aspect, and plainly encourages and promotes the +well-being of a military class, yet we see in it the mild and peaceful +nature of Ieyasu. The fifteenth chapter says: “In my youth my sole aim was +to conquer and subjugate inimical provinces and to take revenge on the +enemies of my ancestors. Yuyō teaches, however, that ‘to assist the people +is to give peace to the empire,’ and since I have come to understand that +the precept is founded on sound principle, I have undeviatingly followed +it. Let my posterity hold fast this principle. Any one turning his back +upon it is no descendant of mine. The people are the foundation of the +empire.” + +His estimate of the social relations is given in the forty-sixth chapter, +in which he says: “The married state is the great relation of mankind. One +should not live alone after sixteen years of age, but should procure a +mediator and perform the ceremony of matrimonial alliance. The same +kindred, however, may not intermarry. A family of good descent should be +chosen to marry into; for when a line of descendants is prolonged, the +foreheads of ancestors expand. All mankind recognize marriage as the first +law of nature.” + +The old custom of servants and retainers following their masters to death, +and committing suicide in order to accompany them, is referred to in the +seventy-fifth chapter.(257) It is not improbable that some exhibition of +this custom occasionally was seen in the days of Ieyasu, for he very +sternly condemns it thus: “Although it is undoubtedly an ancient custom +for a vassal to follow his lord to death, there is not the slightest +reason in the practice.... These practices are strictly forbidden, more +especially to primary retainers, and also to secondary retainers even to +the lowest. He is the opposite of a faithful servant who disregards this +prohibition; his posterity shall be impoverished by the confiscation of +his property, as a warning to those who disobey the laws.”(258) + +It is not necessary to follow in detail the line of Tokugawa shōguns. Few +of them impressed themselves in any marked manner on the history of their +country. Iemitsu, the third shōgun, who was a grandson of Ieyasu, was a +man of great ability, and left many marks of his talents upon the empire. +Under his administration the capital made great advances. He bound the +daimyōs to his house by requiring them to maintain residences in Yedo +under the surveillance of the government. His mausoleum is placed with +that of his grandfather amid the august glories of Nikkō. Tsunayoshi +(1681-1709) during his incumbency was more than usually interested in the +peaceful prosperity of his country, and is gratefully remembered for his +patronage of education and letters. But on the whole they were content to +fill the office of shōgun in a perfunctory manner, and to leave to +subordinates the duty of governing. + +Japan reached the acme of her ancient greatness during the Tokugawa +dynasty. The arts which have given her such a deservedly high rank +attained their greatest perfection. Keramics and lacquer, which are her +most exquisite arts, achieved a degree of excellence to which we can now +only look back with hopeless admiration. Metal-work, as shown in the +manufacture of bronze and in the forging and mounting of swords, was +scarcely less notable. The still higher art of painting, which came to +Japan from China, rose during the Tokugawa period to the rank which it +still holds in the estimation of the artistic world. + +The best evidence, however, of the civilization of a people is found in +their social condition. To learn the true culture of a nation it is +necessary to study their education and literature, their laws and system +of government, and their morals and religion. In some of these particulars +it is still difficult to obtain an adequate knowledge of Japan. But +gradually they are being revealed to us. The laws and legal +precedents(259) which prevailed during the Tokugawa period have been +unearthed from the archives of the Department of Justice and are being +published in the _Transactions of the Asiatic Society_. + +The medical and scientific advancement of Japan in the seventeenth and +eighteenth centuries was not co-ordinate with her progress in the arts. +They were hampered with the old Chinese notions about a male principle and +a female principle which were conceived to prevail in nature, and with the +five elements to which the human organs were supposed to correspond. +Fortunately nature has ways of healing diseases in spite of theories and +drugs. To this benign principle must be assigned the fact that the human +race has survived the surgery and medicaments of mediæval Europe as well +as mediæval China and Japan. In one particular the medical art of Japan +seems to have been differently, perhaps better, conducted than in Europe. +It is narrated by the Japanese annalists,(260) that if a physican made a +mistake in his prescription or in his directions for taking the medicine +he was punished by three years’ imprisonment and a heavy fine; and if +there should be any impurity in the medicine prescribed or any mistake in +the preparation, sixty lashes were inflicted besides a heavy fine. + + [Illustration] + + Oban. Gold Coin, 1727. + + +Three peculiar modes of medical practice deserve notice. The first was +acupuncture, which consisted in inserting a thin needle through the skin +into the muscles beneath. A second was the cauterization by _moxa_(261) +(Japanese _mogusa_). This was effected by placing over the spot a small +conical wad of the fibrous blossoms of mugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris +latifolia_). The cone was kindled at the top and slowly burned till it was +consumed. A painful blister was produced on the spot, which was believed +to have a wholesome effect in the case of many complaints. A third mode of +treatment is the practice of _massage_ (_amma_), which western nations +have borrowed, and which in Japan it has long been the exclusive privilege +of the blind to apply. + + [Illustration] + + Cauterizing With Moxa. + + +Many of the improved notions of western medicine were introduced by the +Dutch, and this accounts for the unprecedentedly rapid advance which this +science has made since the opening of the country. + + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. COMMODORE PERRY AND WHAT FOLLOWED. + + +The most potent cause which led to the breaking down of the Tokugawa +Shōgunate, was the attitude which the empire had assumed toward foreign +nations. There were other causes which co-operated with this, but none +which were capable of such far-reaching and revolutionary effects. We have +seen that this attitude was due to the fears entertained concerning the +designs of the Portuguese and the Spanish. These fears may have been +unfounded, but they were none the less real and operative. Such fears may +have been stimulated by the Dutch, who had no reason to deal tenderly with +the fanatical enemies of the independence and religion of their country. +The spirit of trade with large profits was at the bottom of the great +enterprises which were sent out from Europe to the East and West Indies +during the seventeenth century. + +The rivalry between the Dutch and Portuguese resulted in the banishment of +the latter, and the establishment of the Dutch at Nagasaki in 1640. They +occupied the little artificial island of Deshima, about three acres in +extent, where were erected their houses, their offices and stores, and +where for more than two hundred years their trade was conducted. And this, +together with a like limited arrangement with the Chinese, was the sole +foreign intercourse allowed with Japan. + +It is plain now that this seclusion was a great mistake. It would have +been of inestimable value to this enterprising and progressive people, to +have kept in the race for improvement with the other nations of the world. +They would not at this late day be compelled, under a dreadful strain of +resources, to provide themselves with the modern appliances of +civilization. Long since they would have tried the experiments with which +they are now engaged, and would have found a way through the intricacies +of politics to a free and stable government. To Ieyasu and his successors +the way of safety seemed to be, to shut themselves up and sternly deny +admittance to the outside world, while they continued to work out their +destiny in their own way. + +With whatever shortcomings the Dutch are to be charged in their +intercourse with Japan, the world owes a great debt of gratitude to them +for what they accomplished. Whatever was known concerning Japanese history +and civilization down to the times of Commodore Perry, came chiefly from +the Dutch. And not less than the debt of the rest of the world is that of +Japan herself. Although the influence of the government was always exerted +against the admission of foreign ideas, not a few of the seeds of western +civilization were by them planted in a fertile soil and bore abundant +fruit. To Kaempfer and Baron von Siebold particularly we must always look +for our knowledge of the Japan of the days of its seclusion. Many efforts +were made at successive times to open intercourse by the representatives +of different nations. The Russians were the most persistent, and their +attempts did not cease until the imprisonment of Captain Galowin in 1811. +In comparatively recent times numerous essays were made resulting in +disappointment. The American brig _Morrison_ in 1837, the British +surveying ship _Saramang_ in 1845, Captain Cooper in 1845, Commodore +Biddle in 1848, Admiral Cecille in 1848, Commander Glynn in 1849, and +Commander Matheson in the same year, all made efforts to communicate with +the government, but were rebuffed. It is plain that affairs were rapidly +verging towards a point when the isolation of Japan must be given up. + +Several causes contributed to the creation of a special interest in the +United States of America, concerning the opening of negotiations with +Japan. One of these was the magnitude to which the whale fishery had +attained, and the large financial investments(262) held in this industry +by American citizens. A second cause was the opening of China to foreign +trade as a result of the opium war. But the most active cause was the +discovery of gold in California in 1848, and the consequent development of +that state as a centre of trade. It was an early scheme to run a line of +steamers from San Francisco to the newly opened ports of China. To +Hongkong the distance is about 6,149 nautical miles, and if a steamer is +to traverse the whole distance without a break, she must carry an enormous +load of coal. The only remedy lay in establishing a coaling station on the +Japanese islands, and this could only be effected when Japan abandoned her +policy of seclusion and entered with a free heart into the comity of +nations. + +The interest of the government and people of the United States at last +eventuated in the expedition under Commodore Matthew C. Perry. He had for +a long time been convinced of the importance and feasibility of such an +undertaking, and when he was summoned to take charge of it he made the +most thorough preparation for his task. + +At his suggestion the government procured all available books, maps, and +charts, and he made himself master of every conceivable detail. From +manufacturing establishments he secured models of railways, telegraphic +lines, and other interesting industrial equipments. He realized the +necessity of taking with him such a naval force that its appearance in +Japanese waters would produce a profound impression upon the government. +And knowing that all his predecessors, who had sought access by way of +Nagasaki, had been repelled, he resolved to avoid it and its Portuguese +and Dutch traditions and venture boldly into the bay of Yedo. + +As soon as it was known that a diplomatic expedition was to be despatched +to Japan under the command of Commodore Perry he was deluged with +applications, both from England and America, to be permitted to join it. + +But Perry resolutely declined all these enterprising offers. In his long +career as a naval officer he had seen the danger of admitting on board +men-of-war persons who were not under the authority of the commander. From +such dangers he meant to be free. He therefore refused to take on board +the ships of his squadron any but regularly accredited officers and men +over whom he exercised legitimate control. He even made it a rule that if +any of the officers kept diaries during the progress of the expedition, +they should be the property of the Navy Department and could not be +published without its permission and authority. + +Commodore Perry carried with him a friendly letter from the President of +the United States to the Emperor of Japan,(263) who is therein addressed +as “Great and Good Friend.” The letter pointed out the contiguity of the +two countries and the importance of their friendship and commercial +intercourse; it announced that Commodore Perry had been sent to give +assurance of the friendly sentiment of the President, and to arrange for +privileges of trade, for the care of shipwrecked sailors, and for the +appointment of a convenient port where coal and other supplies might be +obtained by the vessels of the United States. + +After some provoking delays and disappointments the expedition sailed from +Norfolk on the 24th of November, 1852,(264) proceeding by the way of the +cape of Good Hope to the China sea. There taking on board Dr. S. Wells +Williams as interpreter, and visiting several ports in China, the Bonin +islands, and the Ryūkyū islands, they sailed to Japan. The squadron, led +by the _Susquehanna_ and followed by the _Mississippi_, the _Plymouth_, +and the _Saratoga_, entered Yedo bay, July 8, 1853.(265) + + [Illustration] + + Commodore M. C. Perry. + + +The Japanese government had been warned of the preparation and coming of +this expedition by the Dutch. Eager to maintain their position with the +government the King of the Netherlands addressed to the Shōgun a letter in +1844 suggesting the relaxation of the laws excluding foreign nations from +trade. But in the following year he received an answer declining to make +any changes. + +With all the warning, however, which the government had received and the +preparations which had been made for the momentous occasion, the +appearance of the squadron at the entrance of Yedo bay was an intense +surprise. Two large steam frigates—the _Susquehanna_ and the +_Mississippi_—and two sloops-of-war—the _Plymouth_ and the +_Saratoga_,—although much inferior to the squadron promised, composed such +an array as had never before made its appearance in Yedo bay. As they +plowed through the peaceful waters, in full view of the white-capped peak +of Fuji-yama, every height and vantage ground along the shore seemed alive +with troops and with wondering and alarmed inhabitants. The vessels came +to anchor off the village of Uraga, which is not far from the present site +of the dockyards at Yokosuka. + +The account(266) of the preliminary negotiations conducted by Commodore +Perry with the officers of the government is interesting, as showing the +efforts made by them to send him to Nagasaki, and his absolute refusal to +go thither or conduct his business through the Dutch or Chinese. When +there seemed no other way, consent was given to receive, through an +officer of adequate rank, the letter from the President of the United +States to the Emperor of Japan. When he had formally delivered this +letter, he took his departure with an intimation that he would return at a +future day and receive the answer.(267) + +There can be no doubt that the display of force which Commodore Perry took +care to make in all his transactions with the Japanese officials at the +same time that he was careful to convey assurances of his friendly +purposes and objects, produced a deep impression on the government with +which he had to deal. It is useless to deny that it was on this display of +force that Commodore Perry largely relied for the success of his +expedition. That he was prepared to use force had it been necessary we may +feel sure.(268) But the instructions of his government and his own sense +of international justice bound him to exhaust every peaceful resource +before resorting to measures of coercion. + +The government of the shōgun was greatly troubled by this responsibility +so suddenly laid upon it. They knew not what would be the result of their +refusal to enter upon negotiations when Perry returned. The seclusion in +which they had kept themselves so long had cut them off from a knowledge +of the relations in which the nations of the world stood to each other. +Notwithstanding Commodore Perry’s protestations of friendliness, they were +afraid of his great ships and their powerful armaments. Should they, as +they might easily do, make their way up the bay till they were within +gunshot of the capital, what resistance could the government show, or how +could it prevent them from battering down the castle and all the daimyōs’ +residences. + +The sentiment of loyalty to the emperor and opposition to the shōgun, +which had been growing up so insidiously and had now become really +formidable, was a source of the greatest perplexity to the Yedo +government. Should they proceed with their negotiations and make a treaty +with the Americans, this anti-shōgun sentiment was ready to manifest +itself against them with terrible effect. If they refused to negotiate, +then they must be ready to meet the invaders of their soil with their +miserable obsolete armor and with hearts that two hundred years of peace +had rendered more obsolete than their armor. + +The first thing to be done was to consult the daimyōs and learn to what +extent they could rely on their co-operation. The daimyō of Mito,(269) a +descendant of the famous Mitsukuni, seemed to have inherited one at least +of the opinions of his ancestor. He advocated the observance of a greater +reverence for the emperor at Kyōto, and criticised the assumption of +imperial powers by the shōgun. At the same time he was an ardent +foreign-hater, and in 1841 had been placed in confinement because he had +melted down the bells of the Buddhist temples of his domains, and cast +cannon for their protection. But now he was pardoned and appointed to take +measures for the defence of the country. On the 15th of July—the American +squadron was still in the bay, for it left on the 17th—the daimyō of Mito +sent in to the government a memorial(270) setting forth his decisive views +on the subject. He gave ten reasons against a treaty and in favor of war. +We give them here in Mr. Nitobe’s translation: + +“1. The annals of our history speak of the exploits of the great, who +planted our banners on alien soil; but never was the clash of foreign arms +heard within the precincts of our holy ground. Let not our generation be +the first to see the disgrace of a barbarian army treading on the land +where our fathers rest. + +“2. Notwithstanding the strict interdiction of Christianity, there are +those guilty of the heinous crime of professing the doctrines of this evil +sect. If now America be once admitted into our favor, the rise of this +faith is a matter of certainty. + +“3. What! Trade our gold, silver, copper, iron, and sundry useful +materials for wool, glass, and similar trashy little articles! Even the +limited barter of the Dutch factory ought to have been stopped. + +“4. Many a time recently have Russia and other countries solicited trade +with us; but they were refused. If once America is permitted the +privilege, what excuse is there for not extending the same to other +nations? + +“5. The policy of the barbarians is first to enter a country for trade, +then to introduce their religion, and afterward to stir up strife and +contention. Be guided by the experience of our forefathers two centuries +back; despise not the teachings of the Chinese Opium War. + +“6. The Dutch scholars say that our people should cross the ocean, go to +other countries and engage in active trade. This is all very desirable, +provided they be as brave and strong as were their ancestors in olden +time; but at present the long-continued peace has incapacitated them for +any such activity. + +“7. The necessity of caution against the ships now lying in the harbor +(_i.e._, Perry’s squadron) has brought the valiant _samurai_ to the +capital from distant quarters. Is it wise to disappoint them? + +“8. Not only the naval defence of Nagasaki but all things relating to +foreign affairs have been entrusted to the two clans of Kuroda and +Nabeshima. To hold any conference with a foreign power outside of the port +of Nagasaki—as has been done this time at Uraga—is to encroach upon their +rights and trust. These powerful families will not thankfully accept an +intrusion into their vested authority. + +“9. The haughty demeanor of the barbarians now at anchorage has provoked +even the illiterate populace. Should nothing be done to show that the +government shares the indignation of the people, they will lose all fear +and respect for it. + +“10. Peace and prosperity of long duration have enervated the spirit, +rusted the armor, and blunted the swords of our men. Dulled to ease, when +shall they be aroused? Is not the present the most auspicious moment to +quicken their sinews of war?” + +The government sent to all the daimyōs copies of the American letter to +the shōgun, and asked for their opinions concerning the course to be +pursued. Many answers were immediately received. They almost unanimously +declared against the opening of the country. Some advocated the +alternative suggested in the letter itself, to open the country +temporarily and try the experiment for three years, or five years, or ten +years. In the meantime the defences of the country and new and improved +arms and armaments could be perfected. The government did indeed busy +itself during Perry’s absence in hurrying forward defensive preparations. +The line of forts which still are visible in the shallow water of the bay +opposite Shinagawa, the southern suburb of the capital, were hastily +constructed. Bells from monasteries and metal articles of luxury were +melted down and cast into cannon. Lessons were given and became quickly +fashionable in the use of European small-arms and artillery. The military +class from the various clans flocked to Yedo and Kyōto in large numbers, +expecting to be called upon to defend their country against the impudent +intrusion of the barbarians. + +During this busy time of perplexity and preparation the Shōgun +Ieyoshi,—the twelfth of the Tokugawa dynasty—died August 25, 1853. His son +Iesada succeeded him as the thirteenth shōgun. The death of the reigning +shōgun did not produce any marked effect upon the policy of the +government. Long before this time the custom of abdication, and the habits +of luxury and effeminacy in which the family of the shōgun was reared, had +dragged the house down to the usual impotent level. The government was +conducted by a system of bureaucracy which relieved the titular shōguns +from all responsibility and allowed them to live in profitless +voluptuousness. So that one died and another reigned in his stead without +causing more than a ripple upon the surface of current events. + +Shortly after the departure of the American squadron from Yedo bay, the +Russian Admiral Pontiatine appeared in the harbor of Nagasaki, and made +application for a national agreement to open ports for trade, to adjust +the boundary line between the two nations across the island of Saghalien, +and to live in neighborly intimacy. English vessels were also in Chinese +waters watching the Russians, and the war, usually called the Crimean war, +actually broke out in the spring of 1854. A visit from these vessels might +therefore be expected at any time. + +Commodore Perry during the interval between his two visits to Japan sailed +to the ports of China where the Taiping rebellion was then in action. The +confusion and insecurity occasioned by this uprising rendered the presence +of the squadron most acceptable to the American merchants. + +On the 13th of February, 1854, he made his appearance a second time in +Yedo bay with a fleet of seven ships, viz., three steam frigates and four +sloops-of-war. Three additional vessels were to join, and did join, the +fleet in Yedo bay. So that when the fleet was all mustered there were ten +fully armed vessels, comprising such an array as had never before appeared +in Japanese waters. + +After some haggling about the place where the negotiations should be +conducted, it was finally settled that the place of meeting should be at +Kanagawa, near the village (now the city) of Yokohama. Here after much +deliberation and discussion, proposals and amendments, banquets and +presents, a treaty was agreed upon. The signing and exchange took place on +the 31st of March, 1854. It was immediately sent to Washington for +ratification. + +As this was the first formal treaty(271) made with any western country we +give a synopsis of its provisions. + +Art. I. Peace and amity to exist between the two countries. + +Art. II. The port of Shimoda to be opened immediately and the port of +Hakodate to be opened in one year, and American ships to be supplied with +necessary provisions in them. + +Art. III. Shipwrecked persons of either nation to be cared for, and +expenses to be refunded. + +Art. IV. Shipwrecked and other persons not to be imprisoned but to be +amenable to just laws. + +Art. V. Americans at Shimoda and Hakodate not to be subject to +confinement; free to go about within defined limits. + +Art. VI. Further deliberation to be held between the parties to settle +concerning trade and matters requiring to be arranged. + +Art. VII. Trade in open ports to be subject to such regulations as the +Japanese government shall establish. + +Art. VIII. Wood, water, provisions, coal, etc., to be procured only +through appointed Japanese officers. + +Art. IX. If at any future day privileges in addition to those here +enumerated are granted to any other nation, the same to be allowed to +Americans. + +Art. X. Ships of the United States not to resort to other ports than +Shimoda and Hakodate except in stress of weather. + +Art. XI. Consuls or agents of the United States to reside at Shimoda. + +Art. XII. The ratification of this treaty to be exchanged within eighteen +months. + + ------------------------------------- + +As might have been expected, as soon as this treaty with the United States +had been signed there was a rush of other nations to obtain similar terms. +Admiral Sir John Sterling, acting in behalf of the government of Great +Britain, negotiated a treaty which was signed at Nagasaki on the 15th of +October, 1854. Admiral Pontiatine negotiated a similar treaty for Russia, +which was signed at Shimoda on the 7th of February, 1855. A treaty with +the Netherlands was signed on the 30th of January, 1856. + +None of these were in any general sense commercial treaties, providing for +trade and making regulations by which it might be conducted. They were +rather preliminary conventions, making arrangements for vessels to obtain +necessary provisions, and stipulating for the protection of those +suffering shipwreck, and for vessels driven under stress of weather to +take shelter in the harbors of Japan. They each provided for admission to +two ports: The American treaty to Shimoda and Hakodate; the English treaty +to Nagasaki and Hakodate; the Russian treaty to Shimoda and Hakodate. + +All these treaties contained what is called “the most favored nation +clause,” so that where the privileges granted to any one nation were in +excess of those granted previously to others, these privileges were also +without further negotiation extended to the nations that had already made +treaties. + +These dealings with foreign nations produced the most intense excitement +throughout the empire. The old sentiment of hostility to foreign +intercourse showed itself in unmistakable intensity. The song of the Black +Ship, by which term the vessels of foreign nations were designated, was +heard everywhere. Two distinct parties came into existence called the +_Jo-i_ party, who wished to expel the barbarians; and the _Kai-koku_ +party, who were in favor of opening the country.(272) The members of the +latter party were principally connected with the shōgun’s government, and +had become impressed with the folly of trying to resist the pressure of +the outside world. The _Jo-i_ party was made up of the conservative +elements in the country, who clung to the old traditions of Japan that had +matured during the two centuries of the Tokugawa rule. Besides these +conservatives there was also a party who nourished a traditional dislike +to the Tokugawa family, and was glad to see it involved in difficulties +which were sure to bring down upon it the vengeance of the nation. These +were chiefly found among the southwestern daimiates such as Satsuma, +Chōshū, Hizen, and Tosa. The daimyō of Mito(273) although connected with +the shōgun’s family was bitterly hostile to the policy of holding any +friendly relations with foreigners. He was therefore regarded as the head +of the _Jo-i_ party, and many of the disaffected _samurai_ rallied about +him as their champion and leader. + +It was charged against the shōgun that in making treaties with foreign +nations he had transcended the powers(274) that rightly belonged to him. +He was not the sovereign of Japan and never had been. He was only the +chief executive under the emperor, and was not even next in rank to the +emperor. It was impossible, therefore, that treaties made by the shōgun +and not ratified by his sovereign should be regarded by the Japanese as +legitimate and binding. + +The question of the legality of the treaties which the shōgun had made was +an important one, and interested not only the Japanese themselves but the +foreigners whose privileges under these treaties were at stake. There is +no doubt that Commodore Perry as well as all the subsequent negotiators, +believed that in making treaties with the shōgun they were dealing with a +competent authority. The precedents occurring in the history of Japan +seemed all to bear in this direction. The Portuguese and the Spanish had +dealt with the shōgun and never with the emperor. The Dutch had received +from Ieyasu the privileges of trade and had ever since continued under the +shōgun’s protection. Captain Saris in his negotiations in 1614 received +written assurances of protection and privileges of trade from the shōgun. + +It was because the shōgun’s power had become weakened, and there had grown +up an active sentiment against him, that the question in reference to his +legitimate authority arose. “Had the treaty” (with Perry) “been concluded +when the power of Yedo was at its former height, it is probable that no +questions would have been asked.”(275) + +According to the terms of the treaty made with the United States it was +provided that a consul should be appointed “to reside at Shimoda at any +time after the expiration of eighteen months from the signing the treaty.” +In execution of this provision the United States government sent out +Townsend Harris, who arrived in August, 1856. After some hesitation he was +allowed to take up his residence at Shimoda. He was a man of great +patience and tact, and gradually urged his way into the confidence of the +government. He became the counsellor and educator of the officials in +everything pertaining to foreign affairs. He was received December 7, +1857, by the shōgun with the ceremony due to his new rank of +plenipotentiary which he had then received.(276) In a despatch, dated July +8, 1858, he tells of a severe illness which he had suffered; how the +shōgun sent two physicians to attend him, and when a bulletin was sent to +Yedo that his case was hopeless, the physicians “received peremptory +orders to cure me, and if I died they would themselves be in peril.” + +The principal effort of Mr. Harris was the negotiation of a commercial +treaty which should make provision for the maintenance of trade in +specified ports of Japan. The treaties already made by Japan with foreign +nations only provided for furnishing vessels with needed supplies, and for +the protection of vessels driven by stress of weather and of persons +shipwrecked on the Japanese islands. It remained to agree upon terms, +which should be mutually advantageous, for the regular opening of the +ports for trade and for the residence at these ports of the merchants +engaged in trade. + +The excitement occasioned by the steps already taken rendered the shōgun’s +government exceedingly reluctant to proceed further in this direction. It +was only after much persuasion, and with a desire to avoid appearing to +yield to the appearance of force(277) with which the English were about to +urge the negotiation of a commercial treaty, that at last, on the 17th of +June, 1857, a treaty “for the purpose of further regulating the +intercourse of American citizens within the empire of Japan” was duly +concluded. The port of Nagasaki was to be opened in addition to those +already stipulated. American citizens were to be permitted to reside at +Shimoda and Hakodate for the purpose of supplying the wants of the vessels +which visited there. + +This does not seem to have been adequate, for only about a year later a +further treaty, revoking that of June, 1857, was arranged. It was signed +at Yedo on the 29th of July, 1858. Equivalent treaties were negotiated by +other nations, and it is under the terms of these that the intercourse +between Japan and the nations of Europe and America is still conducted. +They provided for the opening of the ports of Ni-igata and Hyōgo, and for +the closing of Shimoda, which had been found unsuitable, and the opening +in its place of Kanagawa.(278) They fixed dates for the opening of the +cities of Yedo and Ōsaka, and provided for the setting apart of suitable +concessions in each of them for residence and trade. They provided that +all cases of litigation in which foreigners were defendants should be +tried in the consular court of the nation to which the defendant belonged, +and all cases in which Japanese citizens were defendants should be tried +in Japanese courts. They fixed the limits within which foreigners at any +of the treaty ports could travel, but permitted the diplomatic agent of +any nation to travel without limitation. They prohibited the importation +of opium. Commercial regulations were attached to the treaties and made a +part of them, which directed that a duty of five _per centum_ should be +paid on all goods imported into Japan for sale, except that on +intoxicating liquors a duty of thirty-five _per centum_ should be exacted. +All articles of Japanese production exported were to pay a duty of five +_per centum_, except gold and silver coin and copper in bars. These trade +regulations stipulated that five years after the opening of Kanagawa the +export and import duties should be subject to revision at the desire of +either party. The treaties themselves provide that on and after 1872 +either of the contracting parties may demand a revision of the same upon +giving one year’s notice of its desire. + +These stipulations in reference to a revision of the treaties, and +especially of the tariff of duties to be paid on imported goods, have been +a source of great anxiety and concern to the Japanese government. The +small duty of five _per centum_, which it has been permitted to collect on +the goods imported, is scarcely more than enough to maintain the machinery +of collection. And while the initiative is given to it to ask for a +revision of the treaties, it has never yet been able to obtain the consent +of the principal nations concerned to any change in the original hard +terms. + +Another provision in the treaties which has been the occasion of endless +debate is that which requires all foreigners to remain under the +jurisdiction of the consuls of their respective countries. It is claimed +on the part of the Japanese that this provision, which was reasonable when +the treaties were first made, is no longer just or necessary. The laws +have been so far perfected, their judges and officers have been so +educated, and the machinery of their courts have been so far conformed to +European practice that it is no longer reasonable that foreigners residing +in Japan should be under other than Japanese jurisdiction. It is earnestly +to be hoped that these sources of irritation between Japan and the treaty +powers may speedily be removed, and that the efforts of this progressive +race to fall into line in the march of civilization may be appreciated and +encouraged. + +Any one who reads the diplomatic correspondence covering this period will +see how serious were the troubles with which the country was called upon +to deal. He will realize also how almost impossible it was for the +diplomatic representatives of the western powers to comprehend the +difficulties of the situation or know how to conduct the affairs of their +legations with justice and consideration. + +A succession of murders and outrages occurred, which awakened the fears of +the foreign residents. It is plain enough now that this state of things +was not so much due to the want of effort on the part of the government to +carry out its agreements with foreign nations, as to the bitter and +irreconcilable party hatred which had sprung up in consequence of these +efforts. The feudal organization of the government, by which the first +allegiance was due to the daimyō, rendered the condition of things more +demoralized. It was an old feudal custom, whenever the retainers of a +daimyō wished to avenge any act without committing their lord, they +withdrew from his service and became _ronins_. Most of the outrages which +occurred during the years intervening between the formation of the +treaties and the restoration were committed by these masterless men. +Responsibility for them was disclaimed by the daimyōs, and the government +of Yedo was unable to extend its control over these wandering +swash-bucklers. There was no course for the foreign ministers to pursue +but to hold the shōgun’s government responsible for the protection of +foreigners and foreign trade. This government, which was called the +_bakufu_,(279) had made the treaties with the foreign powers, as many +claimed, without having adequate authority, and had thus assumed to be +supreme in matters of foreign intercourse. It was natural therefore that +the representatives of the treaty powers should look to the _bakufu_ for +the security of those who had come hither under the sanction of these +treaties. + +It was in consequence a bloody time through which the country was called +to pass. The prime minister and the head of the _bakufu_ party was Ii +Kamon-no-kami,(280) the daimyō of Hikoné in the province of Mino. On +account of the youth of the shōgun he was created regent. He was a man of +great resolution and unscrupulous in the measures by which he attempted to +carry out the policy to which he was committed. By his enemies he was +called the “swaggering prime minister (_bakko genro_).” Assured that the +foreign treaties could not be abrogated without dangerous collisions with +foreign nations, he sought to crush the opposition which assailed them. +The daimyō of Mito, who had been the head of the anti-foreign party at +Yedo, he compelled to resign and confined him to his private palace in his +province. Numerous other persons who had busied themselves with +interfering with his schemes and in promoting opposition in Kyōto, he also +imprisoned. + +Suddenly on the 23d of March, 1860, Ii Kamon-no-kami was assassinated as +he was being carried in his _norimono_ from his _yashiki_ outside the +Sakurada gate to the palace of the shōgun. + +The assassins were eighteen _ronins_ of the province of Mito, who wished +to avenge the imprisonment of their prince. They carried the head of the +murdered regent to the Mito castle, and after exhibiting it to the +gloating eyes of the prince, exposed it upon a pike at the principal gate. + +The death of the regent was an irreparable blow to the government. There +was no one who could take his place and assume his _rôle_. His loss must +be reckoned as one of the principal events which marked the decadence of +the shōgun’s power. + + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. REVOLUTIONARY PRELUDES. + + +The outrages which now succeeded each other with terrible frequency were +not confined to the native members of the opposing parties. Foreigners, +who were so essentially the cause of the political disturbances in Japan, +were particularly exposed to attacks. On the 14th of January, 1861, Mr. +Heusken, the secretary and interpreter of the American legation, when +riding home at night from the Prussian legation in Yedo, was attacked by +armed assassins and mortally wounded. The object of this murder is +supposed to have been the desire of one of the ministers of foreign +affairs to take revenge on Mr. Heusken,(281) for his activity in promoting +foreign intercourse. + +The weakness and the fears of the government were shown by the warning, +which they sent to the foreign ministers to avoid attending the funeral of +Mr. Heusken, lest further outrages might be committed. They did attend, +however, and no disturbances occurred. It only remains to mention that Mr. +Harris subsequently made an arrangement with the government for the +payment of an indemnity(282) of $10,000 to the mother of Mr. Heusken, who +was then living at Amsterdam in Holland. + +The next circumstance which awakened universal attention was an attack +made on the British legation, on the night of the 5th of July, 1861. At +this time the British minister occupied as a legation the buildings of the +temple Tozenji, situated at Takanawa in the city of Yedo. It was guarded +by a company of Japanese troops, to whom the government had entrusted its +protection. Mr. Alcock had just returned by an overland journey from +Nagasaki, and with a number of other Englishmen was domiciled in the +legation. The attacking party consisted of fourteen _ronins_ belonging to +the Mito clan, who had banded themselves together to take vengeance on the +“accursed foreigners.” Several of the guards were killed, and Mr. +Oliphant,(283) the secretary of legation, and Mr. Morrison, H. B. M’s +consul at Nagasaki, were severely wounded. On one of the party who was +captured was found a paper,(284) which set forth the object of the attack +and the names of the fourteen _ronins_ who had conspired for its +accomplishment. + +That the government regarded such outrages with alarm is certain. They +took the earliest opportunity to express their distress that the legation +under their protection had thus been invaded. They assured Mr. Alcock with +the most pitiable sincerity that “they had no power of preventing such +attacks upon the legation, nor of providing against a renewal of the same +with a greater certainty of success.” “They could not,” they said, +“guarantee any of the representatives against these attempts at +assassination, to which all foreigners in Japan were liable, whether in +their houses or in the public thoroughfares.”(285) They pretended to +punish, and yet were afraid openly to punish the persons engaged in this +attack.(286) They promised to do what they could for the protection of the +foreign representatives; but their measures necessarily consisted in +making the legations a kind of prison where the occupants were confined +and protected. + +And yet, with all these assurances of danger, the foreign representatives +seem to have been singularly ignorant of the real difficulties with which +the government had to deal. This was due, no doubt, to the want of candor +on the part of the Japanese officials in not explaining frankly and fully +to them the political complications which existed between the governments +of Yedo and Kyōto. They represented a widespread discontent to have grown +up since the negotiation of the treaties, owing to the increased price of +provisions, the derangement of the currency, and the danger of famine. In +view of these pressing difficulties they asked for the postponement of the +time fixed by the treaties for opening a port on the western coast and +Hyōgo on the Inland sea, and for the establishment of definite concessions +in the cities of Yedo and Ōsaka. These modifications of the treaties were +finally accepted, and it was arranged that the opening of the ports named +above should be postponed for a period of five years from the first of +January, 1863. + +This postponement of the opening of the ports was the chief reason for +sending to foreign countries their first embassy. This set out from +Yokohama in January, 1862, and visited the United States, then England, +and the other treaty powers. They were everywhere received with the utmost +kindness and distinction. The immediate object of their mission was, as we +have seen, accomplished. The opening of additional ports was deferred on +condition that in those already opened the obstacles which had been put in +the way of trade should be removed. + +But, besides the attainment of this end, the visit of the embassy to +foreign capitals and countries produced a salutary influence both on the +foreigners whom they met and on the influential personages of which it +consisted. The former learned to their surprise that they had a +cultivated, intelligent, and clever race to deal with, whose +diplomatists,(287) although inexperienced in European politics, were not +unqualified to enter the courts of western capitals. But the revelation to +the Japanese envoys was still greater and more surprising. For the first +time they saw the terrible armaments of western powers, and realized the +futility of attempting to make armed resistance to their measures. But +they encountered on every hand not hatred and aversion, but the warmest +interest and kindness,(288) and a desire to render them every courtesy. +Instead of barbarians, as they had been taught to regard all foreigners, +they found everywhere warm-hearted and intelligent friends who were +anxious to see their country treated with justice and consideration. + +On the 26th of June, 1862, a year after the first, a second attack was +made upon the British legation. Lieutenant-Colonel Neale was at this time +_chargé d’affaires_, and had just removed from Yokohama and resumed the +occupancy of the temple of Tozenji. The government took the precaution to +establish guards, who daily and nightly made their rounds to protect the +buildings. Besides this there was a guard detailed from the British fleet +to render the legation more secure. The officials persisted in claiming +that only one person, Itō Gumpei, was engaged in the attack, and that it +was a matter of private revenge for an insult which one of the English +guards had put upon him. Two of these guards were killed in the attack, +and Itō Gumpei the assassin escaped to his own house, where he was +permitted to commit _hara-kiri_. There was probably no plot on the part of +those whose duty it was to protect the legation. But the uncertainty which +hung over the affair, and the repetition of the violence of the preceding +year led Colonel Neale to abandon his residence at Yedo and return to +Yokohama. An indemnity of £10,000 was demanded and finally paid for the +families of the two members of the guard who had been murdered. + +In the meantime the relations between the courts at Kyōto and Yedo had +become more and more strained. The efforts at reconciliation, such as the +marriage between the young shōgun and the sister of the emperor in 1861, +produced no permanent effect. The disease was too deep-seated and serious +to be affected by such palliations. Shimazu Saburō, the uncle(289) and +guardian of the young daimyō of Satsuma, came in 1862 to Kyōto with the +avowed purpose of advising the emperor in this emergency. He was +accompanied by a formidable body of Satsuma troops, and on these he relied +to have his advice followed. + +On his way thither he had been joined by a body of _ronins_ who were +contemplating the accomplishment of some enterprise which should be +notable in the expulsion of foreigners. They imagined that the powerful +head of the Satsuma clan would be a suitable leader for such an +enterprise. They approached him therefore and humbly petitioned to be +received under his standard. Not quite satisfied to have such a band of +reckless ruffians under his command, he, however, scarcely dared to refuse +their petition. He therefore permitted them to join his escort and march +with him to Kyōto. + +The emperor’s court, although bitterly hostile to the liberal policy which +prevailed at Yedo, were alarmed by the desperate allies which Shimazu was +bringing with him. He presented their memorial to the emperor, and favored +their wishes to use all the force of the country to dislodge the hated +foreigner from its soil. Other powerful daimyōs were collected at the same +time at the imperial capital, and its peaceful suburbs resounded with the +clank of warlike preparations. The most notable of these was the daimyō of +Chōshū, who at this time was joined with the Satsuma chief in the measures +against the shōgun’s government. + +Shimazu continued his journey to Yedo in the summer of 1862, where he +endeavored to impress on the _bakufu_ the necessity of taking measures to +pacify the country. It is safe to say that his suggestions were coldly +received, and he was made to feel that he was in an enemy’s camp. It is +said that the shōgun refused to receive him personally, but referred him, +for any business which he had to present, to the council. It is certain, +therefore, when he left Yedo in September, 1862, with his train and +escort, he was in no amiable frame of mind. And it was in this condition +of irritation that he became the chief actor in an event which was the +saddest of all the collisions between the Japanese and the foreigners. + +The Satsuma train left Yedo on the morning of the 14th of September by way +of the _Tōkaidō_, which runs through Kawasaki and skirts the village of +Kanagawa. It consisted of a semi-military procession of guards on foot and +on horseback, of _norimonos_, in which the prince and his high military +and civil attendants were carried, of led-horses for them to ride when +they desired, and of a long straggling continuation of pack-horses and men +carrying the luggage of the train. It was said to contain not less than +eight hundred _samurai_ in attendance on their master. + +The etiquette of the road for such trains was well settled in feudal +Japan. The right of way was always accorded to the daimyō, and all +unmilitary persons or parties were required to stand at the side of the +road while the train was passing, to dismount if on horseback, and to bow +to the daimyō’s _norimono_ as it was carried past. It may be supposed that +the _samurai_ in attendance upon the incensed Shimazu were in no humor to +have these rules trifled with, and especially would not deal very tenderly +with any foreigners who might fall in their way. + +On the afternoon of the day on which the Satsuma train left Yedo, a small +riding party left Yokohama for the village of Kawasaki, on a visit to the +temple at that place. It consisted of one lady and three gentlemen, one of +whom was Mr. Charles L. Richardson, who had for many years been a merchant +at Shanghai, but who was visiting Japan previous to his return to England. +A few miles north of the village of Kanagawa they encountered the head of +the train, and for some distance passed successive parts of it. They were +either ignorant of the etiquette which required them to withdraw during +the passage of such a cavalcade, or underrated the danger of disregarding +it. + +Presently they came upon the troop which had special charge of the +_norimono_ in which the prince was carried. It was surrounded by a +formidable body of retainers, armed with swords and spears. The reckless +riders paid little heed to their scowling looks, and rode carelessly on, +sometimes even threading their way through the interstices of the +straggling train. When they were nearly opposite to the prince’s +_norimono_, which they were about to pass without dismounting or saluting, +they were so alarmed by the evidences of danger that one of the gentlemen +called out to Mr. Richardson who was riding ahead, “Don’t go on, we can +turn into a side road.” The other also exclaimed, “For God’s sake let us +have no row.” Richardson, who was foolhardy and ignorant of those with +whom he had to deal, answered, “Let me alone, I have lived fourteen years +in China and know how to manage these people.” Suddenly a soldier from the +centre of the procession rushed upon them with a heavy two-handed sword +and struck Richardson a fatal blow on his side under the left arm. Both +the other gentlemen were also severely wounded, and the lady had her +bonnet knocked off by a blow aimed at her, but escaped unhurt. They all +started at full speed towards home, riding over the Japanese guards who +undertook to interfere. All except Richardson reached Kanagawa without +further hurt; he after riding a few rods fell from his horse and died from +the effect of his terrible wound.(290) + +The excitement in the town was intense. There was a proposition to +organize immediately a force and pursue after the train, in order to +capture the murderer and the Satsuma chief. It was with no small effort +and with the almost unanimous sentiment of the foreign community against +him, that Colonel Neale, the British _chargé d’affaires_, restrained them +from an act which would have brought quick vengeance upon the town and +involved Great Britain in a war with Japan. A demand was made upon the +government for the capture and punishment of the assassin of Mr. +Richardson, and for the payment of an indemnity of £100,000, by the +shōgun’s government and an additional sum by the daimyō of Satsuma. + +Neither the surrender of the assassin nor the payment of this indemnity +was willingly undertaken by Satsuma. It ended therefore in Admiral Kuper +being despatched with a squadron of seven vessels to Kagoshima in order to +enforce on the recalcitrant daimyō the terms agreed upon with the +government at Yedo. He arrived on the 11th of August, 1863, and was +received with frowning batteries and a terrible typhoon of wind and rain. +Negotiation failed to effect a settlement and the naval force was called +upon to play its part. Three valuable new steamers, which the daimyō had +recently purchased, were captured and burned. The batteries which lined +the shore were dismantled by the guns of the ships. The city of Kagoshima, +said to have had at this time a population of 180,000 and to have been one +of the most prosperous towns in Japan, was almost completely destroyed by +fire. After this drastic lesson the money demanded was paid, but the +murderer of Richardson was not and probably could not be surrendered, and +never has been publicly known. + +The most important result which followed this severe experience was its +moral effect on the Satsuma leaders. They had become convinced that +western skill and western equipments of war were not to be encountered by +the antiquated methods of Japan. To contend with the foreigner on anything +like equal terms it would be necessary to acquire his culture and +dexterity, and avail themselves of his ships and armaments. It was not +long after this therefore, that the first company of Japanese +students(291) were sent to London under the late Count Terashima by the +daimyō of Satsuma, and the purchase of cannon and ships of war was +authorized. + +In the meantime another collision still more serious had occurred with the +treaty powers. The daimyō of Chōshū had, as we have seen, taken sides with +the court of Kyōto against the more liberal policy of the shōgun’s +government. He had placed men-of-war as guards and had erected batteries +within his territory on the shores of the Shimonoseki straits through +which ships usually passed on their way to and from the western ports. It +is claimed, and is not improbable, that he was encouraged by the Kyōto +statesmen to attack foreign ships on their way through these narrow +straits, in order to embroil the Yedo government with the treaty powers. + +Accordingly on the 25th of June, 1863 the _Pembroke_, a small American +merchant steamer on her way from Yokohama to Nagasaki was fired upon by +two men-of-war belonging to the daimyō of Chōshū. She was not hit or hurt +and escaped through the Bungo channel without injury. Shortly afterwards, +on the 8th of July, the French gunboat _Kienchang_ while at anchor in the +straits, was also fired upon and severely injured. And lastly the Dutch +ship-of-war _Medusa_, in spite of a warning from the _Kienchang_, +undertook to pass the straits and was fired upon by the ships and +batteries of the daimyō of Chōshū, to which she responded with decisive +effect. + +News of these hostile acts was brought immediately to Yokohama. The U. S. +Steamship _Wyoming_ was lying there, and was at once despatched to avenge +the insult to the American flag. She arrived at Shimonoseki on July 16th, +and in a conflict with ships and batteries sunk a brig and exploded the +boiler of a steamer. On the 20th inst. the French frigate _Semiramis_ and +the gunboat _Tancrede_ under the command of Admiral Juares arrived to +exact vengeance for the attack on the _Kienchang_. One of the batteries +was silenced, and a force of two hundred and fifty men were landed who +destroyed what remained. + +These acts of signal vengeance were followed by negotiations for damages. +The shōgun’s government disavowed the actions of their rebellious +subordinate; but this did not free them from responsibility for the +injuries which he had inflicted. The American minister secured the payment +of twelve thousand dollars for alleged losses by the _Pembroke_, although +as we have seen the vessel got off without any damage. Negotiations in +regard to freeing the Inland sea from obstructions dragged along for +almost a year. The _bakufu_ promised to take measures to reduce to a +peaceful attitude the daimyō of Chōshū whose territories bordered on the +narrow straits of Shimonoseki. But the growing political disturbances of +the nation and the impoverishment of the shōgun’s treasury made it +impossible to carry out its pacific designs. + +Finally an expedition was organized by the treaty powers to visit +Shimonoseki, in order to destroy whatever might be in existence there. It +consisted of nine British(292) ships-of-war, four Dutch, three French, and +one steamer, chartered for the occasion to represent the United +States.(293) It sailed from Yokohama on the 28th and 29th of August, 1864. +The attack was made from the 5th to the 8th of September. The daimyō, +finding it useless to contend against such overwhelming odds, gave in his +absolute submission. + +After the return of the expedition the representatives of the allied +powers held a conference with the Japanese ministers of foreign affairs +with reference to the final settlement of this unfortunate business. A +convention(294) was entered into between the interested parties, dated the +22d of October, 1864, by which an indemnity of three million dollars was +to be paid by Japan to the four powers for damages and for expenses +entailed by the operations against the daimyō of Chōshū. This sum was to +be paid in instalments of half a million dollars each. The four powers +agreed among themselves as to the division of this indemnity: That France, +the Netherlands, and the United States, in consideration of the actual +attacks made on their shipping, were to receive each one hundred and forty +thousand dollars, and that the remaining sum should be divided equally +between the four powers. + +It has always been felt that the exaction of this large indemnity was a +harsh if not an unwarrantable proceeding. The government of Yedo had +disavowed and apologized for the conduct of the rebellious daimyō, and +promised, if time were allowed, to reduce him to subjection. Of the powers +which were allied in the expedition, Great Britain had suffered no damage, +and the United States had already received an indemnity for the injuries +and expenses of the vessel fired upon. To insist, therefore, upon the +government not only paying for the damage inflicted, but for the expense +of an unnecessarily large and costly expedition to suppress the rebellious +subordinate, which was sent contrary to the express protest of the +responsible government, seems too much like that overbearing diplomacy +with which western nations have conducted their intercourse in the +East.(295) The promised sum, however, was at last, after much financial +distress, all paid, and the painful episode was ended. + +One undesigned benefit resulted from the Shimonoseki expedition. Just as +the bombardment of Kagoshima had taught the daimyō of Satsuma the folly of +resisting western armaments, so now the daimyō of Chōshū had learned by an +expensive experience the same bitter lesson. For the future these two +powerful clans might therefore be counted on, not only to oppose the +moribund government of Yedo, but to withstand the folly of trying to expel +the foreigners who by treaty with an unauthorized agent had been admitted +into the country. The Chōshū leaders had also taken advantage of their +experiences in this conflict with foreigners to put their troops on a +better basis as regards arms and organization. For the first time the +privilege of the _samurai_ to do all the fighting, was disregarded, and a +division(296) of troops was formed from the common people, which was armed +with foreign muskets and drilled in the western tactics. They went by the +name of “irregular troops” (_kiheitai_), and played no small part in +rendering nugatory the efforts of the shōgun to “chastise” the daimyō of +Chōshū in 1865 and 1866. + +Another noteworthy military event deserves mention here. Colonel Neale had +applied to his government for a military guard to protect British +interests at Yokohama. Two companies of the 20th regiment were sent from +Hongkong, and with the consent of the Japanese government took up their +residence in 1864 at barracks in the foreign settlement. They were +afterwards joined by a French contingent, and for many years they were a +familiar sight, and gave a sense of security to the nervous residents. + +While these serious collisions were taking place between Japan and the +foreign powers, there was an increasing and irreconcilable animosity +developed between the Kyōto and Yedo governments. The ostensible reason, +which was put forward on all occasions, was the difference of opinion upon +the question of the foreign treaties and foreign intercourse. The Yedo +government had by the force of circumstances become practically familiar +with the views of the representatives of foreign nations, and had been +convinced that the task of expelling foreigners and returning again to the +ancient policy of seclusion was far beyond the power of Japan. On the +contrary, the court of the emperor was a hot-bed of anti-foreign sentiment +in which all the ancient prejudices of the empire naturally flourished, +and where the feudal princes who were jealous of the shōgun found a ready +element in which to foment difficulties. + +Two important games were in progress. Yedo was the field on which one of +these was to be decided, and the players were the representatives of the +treaty powers on the one side, and the shōgun’s government on the other. +Victory had already been virtually declared in favor of an open country +and foreign intercourse. The other game was being played at Kyōto between +the shōgun’s friends and his enemies. The stake was a momentous one, +namely, to determine whether the present dual government was to continue +and who was hereafter to wield the destinies of the empire. + +The government of the shōgun had long been convinced that it was necessary +to make the best of the presence of foreigners in the country and that it +was vain to make further exertions for their expulsion. But a vast number +of the feudal retainers of the daimyōs were still bitterly hostile, and +took frequent occasion to commit outrages, for which the government was +held responsible. Besides the cases which have been already mentioned, a +new legation which the British government had built in Gotenyama, a site +which the Japanese government had set apart in Yedo for foreign legations, +was burned to the ground in 1863. In the same year the temple buildings in +Yedo which the United States had leased for a legation were burned. Twice +the shōgun’s castle in Yedo had been destroyed by fire. A murderous attack +was made upon British subjects in Nagasaki; Lieutenant de Cannes of the +French troops was assassinated in 1864; and in the same year Major Baldwin +and Lieutenant Bird, two British officers, were murdered at Kamakura. + +These repeated outrages seriously disturbed the Yedo government, and led +to several attempts to curtail the privileges which by the treaties were +secured to foreigners. The last proposition of the kind which was made was +one conveyed to the French government by an embassy sent out in 1864. They +presented a request to have the port of Kanagawa closed up and trade to be +confined to Hakodate and Nagasaki. They received no encouragement, +however, and returned with their eyes “opened by the high state of +material and moral prosperity which surrounded them,” and reported the +complete failure of their attempts at persuasion. “The _bakufu_ +reprimanded them for having disgraced their functions, and, reducing their +incomes, forced them to retire into private life.”(297) + +It is necessary now to trace the course of events at Kyōto. According to +the theory of the government of Japan the emperor was the supreme and +unlimited ruler and the shōgun was his executive. The maintenance of the +emperor and his court was a function of the shōgun, and hence it was +almost always possible for him to compel the emperor to pursue any policy +which he might desire. + +At the time now under review Kōmei, the father of the present emperor, +occupied the imperial throne. He had succeeded to this dignity in 1847 at +the age of eighteen, and he died in 1866 at the age of thirty-seven. The +shōgun was Iemochi, who in 1858 had been chosen from the family of Kii, +because of the failure of an heir in the regular line. At the time of his +election he was a boy of twelve years of age, and was placed under the +guardianship of the prime minister Ii Kamon-no-kami. After the +assassination of the prime minister in 1861, Hitotsubashi Gyōbukyō, a son +of the daimyō of Mito, was appointed guardian, and served in this capacity +until the shōgun’s death. + +Around the court of the emperor were gathered many discordant elements. +The party of the shōgun was always represented, and the daimyō of Aizu, +its ardent friend and champion, had the honorable distinction of guarding +the imperial palace. By invitation many other daimyōs were at Kyōto with +retinues of officers and attendants, and with guards of troops. The +southern and western daimyōs were present in imposing numbers, and +although they did not always agree among themselves, they were in harmony +in the general purpose to discredit the government at Yedo and to promote +the imperial authority. + +The expulsion of foreigners was the common subject of discussion and +agitation. Although again and again it had been assured that it was +impossible to dislodge the treaty powers from their position in the +country, the court still continued to direct its efforts to this object. +For the first time in two hundred and thirty years,(298) when Iemitsu went +up to the imperial court, the Shōgun Iemochi visited Kyōto in 1863 in +order to consult about the affairs of the country. In accordance with the +precedent set by Iemitsu, the shōgun distributed on this occasion rich +presents to the emperor and the officers of his court. He also scattered +among the townspeople his largesses, until “the whole populace, moistened +in the bath of his mercy and goodness, were greatly pleased and +gratified.”(299) + +Conferences(300) were held between the daimyōs who were present in Kyōto +and the officials of the court, and in spite of the objections and +remonstrances of the Yedo official, an imperial edict was issued and +entrusted to the shōgun for execution, to expel from the country the hated +foreigners. This edict was notified to the representatives of the treaty +powers by the Yedo officials. They seemed, however, to regard their duty +fully done when this notice was given. No serious steps were ever taken to +carry out these expulsive measures, unless the obstruction of navigation +of the Shimonoseki straits by the daimyō of Chōshū be regarded of this +character. + +In 1863 a plot was alleged to have been formed by the Chōshū men to seize +the emperor and carry him off to their own territory. The object aimed at +by this plot was of course to get the court out of the hands of the +shōgun’s friends, and surround it by influences favorable to the plans of +the southern daimyōs. The court, however, became alarmed by the reports in +circulation, and steps were taken to forbid the Chōshū troops, who guarded +Sakaimachi gate, access to the grounds of the imperial palace. Offended by +this action they retired to their own territory. Seven of the most +prominent court nobles (_kuges_)(301) who sympathized with Chōshū in his +aims and purposes accompanied them, and were thereupon deprived of their +rank and revenue. + +The departure of the Chōshū clansmen and the triumph of the shōgun’s party +seemed to have put an end to the anti-foreign policy. The emperor and his +court had been forced to the conclusion that the effort to expel the +treaty powers was far beyond the powers of Japan, even if it were united +and its exertions directed from one centre. From this time may be +estimated to begin a new phase in the contest which was to end in the +restoration of the original form of government. + +The territory of Chōshū had become the rendezvous for all the disaffected +elements of the empire. The daimyō was looked upon as the patriotic leader +of the country, and _ronins_ from all parts hastened to enroll themselves +under his banner. In the summer of 1864 the Chōshū forces, to the number +of several thousand, composed not only of the _samurai_ of the province, +but also of the disaffected _ronins_ who had gathered there, and of the +“irregular troops,” _kiheitai_, which had been organized, started to +re-enter Kyōto in order to regain the position they had previously +occupied. The contest which followed has been described with lurid +distinctness by native annalists. They were encountered by Hitotsubashi in +command of the troops of Aizu, Echizen, Hikoné, and other loyal clans. +After a battle which lasted several days, and which raged chiefly about +the imperial palace, the Chōshū troops were completely defeated and forced +to retire. It gives us an idea of the terrible earnestness of these +Japanese warriors to read how a little remnant of the Chōshū troops took +refuge on Tennōzan; and when they heard their pursuers approaching, how +seventeen of them committed _hara-kiri_(302); and lest their heads should +be recognized and their names disgraced, how they had thrown themselves +into the flames of a temple which they had set on fire. Three of the +company who had performed the friendly act of decapitation for their +comrades had escaped by mountain roads and made their way back to Chōshū. + + [Illustration] + + Kido Takeyoshi. + + +The usual concomitant of fighting in a town had followed, and a great part +of Kyōto had been destroyed by fire.(303) The Satsuma troops had taken an +important part in this repulse of Chōshū. They had intervened at a very +critical moment, and had captured a considerable number of Chōshū +prisoners. But they had treated them with great consideration, and +subsequently had even sent them home with presents, so that the Chōshū men +felt they really had friends instead of enemies in the warlike southern +clan. It is in this battle we catch the first glimpse of the Chōshū +leader, Kido Takeyoshi, then known as Katsura Kogorō.(304) He must have +been about thirty-four years of age, and already gave promise of the +talents which made him one of the most conspicuous and influential +statesmen of the restoration. + +In 1865 Sir Harry Parkes arrived in Japan as the envoy plenipotentiary of +the British government. He had resided in China from boyhood, and had been +especially conspicuous in the war between China and Great Britain in 1860. +His career in Japan continued until 1883, when he was promoted to the +court of Peking. He had the good fortune to be the representative of his +country during the most momentous years of modern Japanese history, and in +many of the most important events he exerted an influence which was +decisive. + + [Illustration] + + Udaijin Iwakura Tomomi. + + +The troubles in Chōshū were finally brought to a close. The efforts of the +shōgun, although conducted at great expense, were unavailing. Satsuma, +when summoned to render aid in crushing the rebellious prince, declined to +join in the campaign. Through the efforts of Saigō Kichinoske,(305) a +treaty of amity was effected between the two clans. The kind treatment of +the Chōshū prisoners in the attack on Kyōto was remembered, and the help +and alliance of the powerful Kyūshū clan were eagerly accepted. Peace was +negotiated between the shōgun and the rebels. Thus the Chōshū episode was +ended, with no credit to the shōgun’s party, but with a distinct gain to +the cause of the imperial restoration.(306) + +It had long been recognized that the treaties which had been made by the +foreign powers would possess a greatly increased influence on the Japanese +people if they could have the sanction of the emperor. The shōgun Iemochi +had been summoned to Kyōto by the emperor to consult upon the concerns of +the nation, and was occupying his castle at Ōsaka. The representatives of +the foreign powers thereupon concluded that it would be a timely movement +to proceed with their naval armaments to Hyōgo, and wait upon the shōgun +at Ōsaka, with the purpose of urging him to obtain the imperial approval +of the treaties. This was accordingly done, and an impressive display of +the allied fleets was made at the town, which has since been opened to +foreign trade. + +The shōgun was both young and irresolute, and personally had neither +weight nor influence. But his guardian, Hitotsubashi, was a man of mature +years and judgment. He recognized the importance of obtaining the approval +of the emperor to the foreign treaties, and of thus ending the long and +ruinous agitation which prevailed in the country. + +A memorial(307) was presented to the emperor in the name of the shōgun, +setting forth the embarrassment under which the administration of the +country had been conducted on account of the supposed opposition of the +emperor to the treaties, and begging him to relieve them by signifying his +sanction; and assuring him that if this is not given, the foreign +representatives who are at Hyōgo will proceed to the capital and demand it +at his hands. + +It ended in the sanction of the treaties being signified October 23, 1865, +by the following laconic decree(308) addressed to the shōgun: “The +imperial consent is given to the treaties, and you will therefore +undertake the necessary arrangements therewith.” + +During this critical time the Shōgun Iemochi died September 19, 1866, at +his castle in Ōsaka at the age of eighteen. He had been chosen in 1858, in +the absence of a regular heir, by the determined influence of Ii +Kamon-no-kami, who was then all-powerful at Yedo. He was too young to have +any predominating influence upon affairs. Until the assassination of the +prime minister Ii Kamon-no-kami in 1861 the boy shōgun had been under his +guardianship. Since then that duty had been devolved upon Hitotsubashi, a +son of the diamyō of Mito, who had been himself strongly pressed for the +office of shōgun, but who was alleged to be too mature and resolute a +character for the prime minister’s purposes. As guardian, Hitotsubashi had +taken an active part in the effort to obtain the sanction of the treaties, +and the final success of this important step must in a great measure be +attributed to him. + +After the death of Iemochi without direct heirs, the office of shōgun was +offered to Hitotsubashi as a representative of Mito, one of the “honorable +families” from whom a shōgun was to be chosen in case of a failure of +direct heirs. It is said that he accepted the office with great +reluctance, knowing the troubles which would surely await him who assumed +it. He assented only on the command of the emperor and the assurance of +support from many of the diamyōs. He has thus the distinction of becoming +the last of the long line of Tokugawa shōguns, under the name of Tokugawa +Yoshinobu.(309) + +A few months after the death of Iemochi, on the 3d of February, 1867, +Emperor Kōmei also died from an attack of small-pox. He is said to have +been strongly prejudiced against foreigners and foreign intercourse, and +it was claimed at the time of his death, that when he sanctioned the +foreign treaties the divine nature left him to fall a prey to the ravages +of ordinary disease. His son Mutsuhito, then in his fifteenth year, +succeeded him and is now the reigning emperor, the one hundred and +twenty-first of his line. + + [Illustration] + + The Reigning Emperor. + + +It was thought that the death of an emperor of strong prejudices and of a +mature age would naturally favor a more complete control by the new +shōgun. It was not to be anticipated that an emperor, still only a youth, +would pursue the same policy as his father, and undertake to assume a real +and active part in the government of his country. But the shōgun and his +friends underrated the influences which were gathered at Kyōto, and which +now went far beyond an anti-foreign sentiment and were chiefly concerned +with schemes for restoring the imperial power and unifying the form of +government. + +The daimyō of Tosa, who was a man of liberal sentiments and of great +penetration, addressed a letter to the shōgun in October, 1867, in which +he frankly says: “The cause [of our trouble] lies in the fact that the +administration proceeds from two centres, causing the empire’s eyes and +ears to be turned in two different directions. The march of events has +brought about a revolution, and the old system can no longer be persevered +in. You should restore the governing power into the hands of the sovereign +and so lay a foundation on which Japan may take its stand as the equal of +other countries.”(310) + + [Illustration] + + Imperial Crests. + + +The shōgun being deeply impressed with the wisdom of this advice drew up a +document addressed to his vassals, asking their opinion of the +advisability of his resignation. Among other things he says: “It appears +to me that the laws cannot be maintained in face of the daily extension of +our foreign relations, unless the government be conducted by one head, and +I propose therefore to surrender the whole governing power into the hands +of the imperial court. This is the best I can do for the interests of the +empire.”(311) According to this announced resolution, on the 19th of +November, 1867, the shōgun resigned into the hands of the emperor his +authority. This surrender was accepted, and thus a dynasty which had +lasted from 1603 came to an end. That this surrender might be declined and +the power still continue to be held by the Tokugawa, was perhaps the hope +and wish of the last shōgun. But it was not to be. The powerful clans who +for years had labored for the destruction of the Tokugawa primacy were +ready to undertake the responsibility of a new government. And although +the change was not to be effected without a struggle, yet from this point +may be counted to begin the new period of the restoration. + + + + + +CHAPTER XV. THE RESTORED EMPIRE. + + +The resignation of the shōgun was accepted by the emperor, on the +understanding that a conference of the daimyōs was to be called and its +opinion taken in reference to the subsequent conduct of affairs. In the +meantime the ex-shōgun, under the command of the emperor, was to continue +the administration, particularly of those interests which concerned the +foreign powers. But the allied western daimyōs feared the effect of +leaving the administration in the hands of their enemies. The possession +of the person of the emperor was always reckoned an important advantage. +Especially was this the case when the emperor was only a boy, whose +influence in the affairs of the government could have little weight. They +resolved, therefore, to take measures which would definitely ensure the +termination of the shōgun’s power, and secure for themselves the result +for which they had been so long laboring. + +On January 3, 1868, by a so-called order of the emperor,(312) but really +by the agreement of the allied daimyōs, the troops of the Aizu clan, who +were in charge of the palace gates, were dismissed from their duty, and +their place assumed by troops of the clans of Satsuma, Tosa, Aki, Owari, +and Echizen. The _kugés_ who surrounded the court and who were favorable +to the Tokugawa party were discharged and forbidden to enter its +precincts. The vacant places were filled by adherents of the new order of +things. The offices of _kwambaku_ and _shōgun_ were by imperial edict +abolished. A provisional plan of administration was adopted and persons of +adequate rank appointed to conduct the several departments. “A decree was +issued announcing that the government of the country was henceforth solely +in the hands of the imperial court.”(313) + +One of the first acts of the new government was to recall the daimyō of +Chōshū, who had been expelled from Kyōto, in 1863, and to invite back the +_kugés_ who had been exiled and deprived of their revenues and honors. The +sentence of confiscation which had been pronounced upon them was abrogated +and they were restored to their former privileges. One of them, Sanjo +Saneyoshi, as prime minister spent the remainder of his life in reviving +the ancient and original form of government. The Chōshū troops who had +been driven out of the capital in 1863, were recalled and given a share +with the loyal clans in guarding the palace of the emperor. + +This powerful clan,(314) which had suffered such a varied experience, was +destined to take and maintain a leading position in the future development +of the restored empire. + +The Aizu and other clans which had been devoted friends of the Tokugawa +shōguns were especially outraged by this conciliatory spirit shown to the +Chōshū troops. They claimed that this clan by resisting the imperial +commands had merited the opprobrious title of rebels (_chōtoki_), and were +no longer fit for the association of loyal clans. But the Chōshū daimyō +had been restored to the favor of his emperor, and moreover was allied +with the clans whose power was paramount at Kyōto, so that the +disapprobation of the Tokugawa adherents had little terror for him. + +At the suggestion of his friends the shōgun retired to his castle at +Ōsaka, and the troops attached to his cause also retreated and gathered +under his standard. The situation of affairs was for a time uncertain. The +shōgun had resigned, and his resignation had been accepted, but he had +been asked by the emperor to continue his administration. Subsequently, +under the pressure of the allied clans, the emperor had abolished the +shōgunate and entrusted the administration to a provisional government. +This last action the friends of the ex-shōgun resented as the doings of +revolutionists. It is believed that he himself was averse to further +conflict. Any step which he might take in the vindication of his rights +must involve war with the allied clans, and he was not a man of war. + +While these critical events were taking place, the representatives of +foreign powers came down from Yedo to Hyōgo with an impressive array of +men-of-war. By invitation of the ex-shōgun they visited him at Ōsaka. In +reply to the representatives he made an address,(315) complaining of the +arbitrary conduct of those who now had possession of the imperial person, +and notifying them that he was willing and able to protect their rights +under the treaties, and asking them to await the action of a conference to +be summoned. In consequence of the conflict which was now imminent, the +representatives of the treaty powers issued a notice to their citizens +that neutrality must be maintained under all circumstances, and arms and +ammunition must not be sold to either party. + +The first armed conflict between the two parties took place during the +closing days of January, 1868. Two of the allied daimyōs, Owari and +Echizen, were sent to Ōsaka to confer with the ex-shōgun, in the hope that +some terms might be agreed upon, by which further difficulty could be +avoided. They were both Tokugawa daimyōs, Owari belonging to one of the +_go-sanké_ families, and Echizen being a descendant of Ieyasu’s son. They +offered to the ex-shōgun an honorable appointment, and if he would come to +Kyōto they assured him a ready audience before the emperor. He promised to +obey the emperor’s command and visit the capital. + +After the envoys had gone his friends raised suspicions in his mind +concerning his personal safety. The daimyōs of Aizu and Kuwana offered to +accompany him in case he determined to go. They organized, therefore, a +force of about 10,000 men with which they proposed to escort him. He must +have known that a formidable military escort like this would precipitate a +conflict. However, he set out. The news of the preparations of the +ex-shōgun was brought to Kyōto, and aroused a determination to resist his +invasion of the capital. He had been invited to the palace by the emperor, +but he was to come as a peaceful visitor. If he had determined to come +with a guard composed of the enemies of the empire he must be resisted. + +Troops of the Satsuma and Chōshū clans were, therefore, posted to +intercept the march of the ex-shōgun’s escort. It is believed that they +numbered about 1,500(316) men. The fighting took place on the roads +leading from Ōsaka to Kyōto, and lasted during the 28th, 29th, and 30th of +January. It ended in the complete defeat of the rebel army, although it so +far outnumbered its adversaries. + +The ex-shōgun being thus disappointed in his plan to enter the capital +with a commanding force retired to his castle at Ōsaka, from which he +proceeded on a steam corvette to Yedo.(317) The castle at Ōsaka was burnt, +and the defeated troops made their way by land to the same rendezvous. The +antipathy existing between the Satsuma clan and the Tokugawa adherents +showed itself in a very pronounced manner in Yedo. The Satsuma _yashiki_, +which was occupied by troops of that clan and by _ronins_ favorable to +them was surrounded by Tokugawa troops and burnt. Collisions between the +two parties were of constant occurrence, which continued until the arrival +of the imperial troops restored order. In Hyōgo too, which with Ōsaka was +opened to foreign trade on the first of January, 1868, there were +difficulties between the foreigners and anti-foreign element in the +population. But these troubles rapidly disappeared, because the new +government took pains at once to make it plain that the treaties with +foreign powers were to be kept, and outrages committed against those who +were in the country under these treaties were not to be tolerated. + +On February 8, 1868, the emperor sent to the foreign representatives a +request that they communicate to their governments the fact that hereafter +the administration of both internal and external affairs would be +conducted by him, and that officers would be appointed to conduct the +business which may arise under the foreign treaties. + +In token of the sincerity of this communication an invitation was conveyed +to the representatives of the powers then at Hyōgo to present themselves +before the emperor on March 23d. The significance of this event can +scarcely now be conceived. Never before in the history of the empire had +its divine head deigned to admit to his presence the despised foreigner, +or put himself on an equality with the sovereign of the foreigner. The +event created in the ancient capital the utmost excitement. The French and +Dutch ministers had each in turn been conducted to the palace and had been +received in audience. No serious incident had occurred. But during the +progress of Sir Harry Parkes,(318) the British representative, from his +lodgings to the palace, two fanatical _samurai_ rushed upon his escort, +and before they could be overpowered wounded nine of them. One of the +would-be assassins was killed and the other was captured after being +desperately wounded. The party returned at once to the lodgings of the +envoy who fortunately was uninjured. + +The court, by whose invitation the ministers had undertaken to present +themselves before the emperor, was overwhelmed with mortification. High +officers at once waited upon Sir Harry and tendered their sympathy and +profound regret. After making every reparation in their power, +arrangements were made to hold the audience on the day following that +originally appointed. It was held accordingly without further incident. +Warned by this alarming occurrence, the government issued an edict, that +as the treaties had now been sanctioned by the emperor, the protection of +foreigners was henceforth his particular care; that if therefore any +_samurai_ were to be guilty of an outrage against them, he should be +degraded from his rank, and denied the honorable privilege of committing +_hara-kiri_; he should suffer the punishment of a common criminal and have +his head exposed in token of dishonor. Miyeda Shigeru, the surviving +culprit, was thus punished. + +The scene of the brief contest was now shifted to the east. The ex-shōgun +seemed to vacillate between a complete surrender of his power and a +provisional retention of it until the will of the nation could be taken by +a conference of the daimyōs. On the arrival of the imperial forces in Yedo +the final terms of his future treatment were announced to the ex-shōgun: +That he retire to Mito, and there live in seclusion; that the castle in +Yedo be evacuated; and that the vessels and armaments now in the +possession of the ex-shōgun be surrendered. These terms were accepted, and +he took up his residence in his ancestral province of Mito. Subsequently +he was permitted to remove to the castle of Sumpu at Shizuoka. With him +the dynasty of Tokugawa shōguns vanishes from history. + +His adherents, however, still continued to resist the imperial forces. For +months the Aizu troops hovered about Yedo, and at last came to blows with +the imperial troops at the grounds of the Uyeno temple on July 4, 1868. It +was a hard-fought battle, and was at last decided by an Armstrong gun in +the hands of the Hizen troops. The fine old temple was destroyed, and the +rebel forces withdrew to the north. + +Further complications arose—fighting at Utsunomiya, etc.,—but at last they +were ended by the surrender of the castle of Wakamatsu, where the daimyō +of Aizu had made a stand. With generous fortitude he took the blame upon +himself and submitted to the clemency of his sovereign. + +It is only necessary now in order to bring to a close the account of this +short military contest, to refer to the movements of the fleet lying at +Shinagawa. It will be remembered that by the terms accepted by the +ex-shōgun these vessels were to be surrendered to the imperial forces. +There were seven of them, mounting in all eighty-three guns. They were +under the command of Enomoto Izumi-no-kami, who had learned in Holland the +science of naval war. He did not approve of his master surrendering these +muniments of war. On the morning of the day when the vessels were to be +delivered over to the imperial commander, they had disappeared from their +anchorage. In the night Enomoto had got up steam, crept out through Yedo +bay, and sailed northward to more friendly climes. The imperial fleet +followed, and after some manœuvring at Sendai proceeded to Hakodate. Here +the warlike operations between the rebels and the imperial troops lasted +till July, 1869. Finally, the leaders, Enomoto and Matsudaira Tarō, seeing +that it was hopeless to contend longer against a constantly increasing +enemy, offered to commit _hara-kiri_, in order that their followers might +be saved by a surrender. Their unselfish purpose was not, however, +permitted. Then it was determined that the two leaders should give +themselves up to the besiegers, to save the rest. This was done. The +prisoners were sent to Yedo, and their gallant conduct and heroic devotion +to the cause of their prince were so keenly appreciated that they were all +pardoned. + +While these events were transpiring in the east and north, the work of +establishing a system of administration was proceeded with at Kyōto. + +A constitution was drawn up, detailing the various departments of the +government, and the duties of the officers in each. These departments +were: 1. Of supreme administration; 2. of the Shintō religion; 3. of home +affairs; 4. of foreign affairs; 5. of war; 6. of finance; 7. of judicial +affairs; 8. of legislative affairs. This scheme underwent several changes, +and for a long time was regarded as only tentative. + +The ablest men in the movements which were now in progress were afraid of +the traditions of indulgence and effeminacy which attached to the court at +Kyōto. In order to restore the government to a true and self-respecting +basis, it seemed necessary to cut loose from the centuries of seclusion in +which the emperor had remained, and enter upon the work of governing the +empire as a serious and solemn task. It was in this spirit that Ōkubo +Toshimichi of Satsuma, one of the ablest of the statesmen of the new era, +made in 1868 a novel and startling proposition. It was in a memorial(319) +addressed by him to the emperor. He proposed that the emperor should +abandon the traditions which had grown up respecting his person and his +court, and rule his empire with personal supervision. To do this +successfully, he recommended that the capital be transferred from the +place of its degrading superstitions to a new home. He suggested that +Ōsaka be the place selected. + +If the emperor’s court had been under the same influences as had governed +it in past years, such a proposition would have been received with horror. +Perhaps even the bold proposer would have been deemed fit for the ceremony +of _hara-kiri_. But the men who surrounded the emperor belonged to a +different school, and the emperor himself, although he was still an +inexperienced youth, had already begun to breathe the freer air of a new +life. The proposition was welcomed, and led to the great change which +followed. After discussion and consideration it was determined that the +emperor should make his residence not in Ōsaka, which would have been a +great and impressive change, but in Yedo, where for two hundred and fifty +years the family of Ieyasu had wielded the destinies of the empire. By +this change more than any other was emphasized the fact that hereafter the +executive as well as the ultimate power was to be found in the same +imperial hands. + +Acting on these principles the emperor followed his victorious army and, +November 26, 1869, arrived at Yedo and took up his residence in the +castle. Reports were made to him of the complete settlement of all +difficulties in the north and the establishment of peace. In token of his +arrival the name of Yedo had been changed to Tōkyō(320) (eastern capital), +by which name it has since been known. As a compensation to the +disappointed and disheartened citizens of Kyōto, their city received the +corresponding designation of Saikyō (western capital). The year-period, +which from January, 1865, had borne the name of Keiō, had been changed to +_Meiji_(321) (Enlightened Peace), and was fixed to begin from January, +1868. Heretofore the year-periods had been changed whenever it seemed +desirable to mark a fortunate epoch. But by the edict establishing the +_Meiji_ year-period, it was settled that hereafter an emperor was to make +but one change in the year-period during his reign. + +The emperor returned to the western capital during the spring of 1869 for +a brief visit. The usual etiquette of mourning for his father required his +presence at the imperial tomb. He also availed himself of this visit to +wed the present empress, who was a princess of the house of Ichijō,(322) +one of the ancient families descended from the Fujiwara. He came back +again in April, but there was so much opposition on the part of the +inhabitants of the ancient capital to the complete loss of their emperor, +that it was deemed most prudent for the newly married empress to remain +behind. She did not set out for Tōkyō to join her husband until the +November following, where she arrived without incident. + +A surprising reminiscence of the Christianity which was supposed to have +been extinguished in the seventeenth century came to light in 1865. +Several Christian communities in the neighborhood of Nagasaki(323) were +discovered, who had preserved their faith for more than two hundred years. +Without priests, without teachers, almost without any printed instruction, +they had kept alive by tradition through successive generations a +knowledge of the religion which their ancestors had professed. These +communities had no doubt maintained a discreet quiet as to the tenets of +their belief. They had a traditional fear of the persecution to which +their fathers had been subjected and sought by silence to remain +undisturbed. It was the rejoicing at their discovery which directed the +attention of the government to the fire which had been so long +smouldering. + +A new edict of the imperial government, displayed upon the public +edict-boards in 1868, first called the notice of the foreign +representatives to the measures which were being taken.(324) It was as +follows: “The evil sect called Christian is strictly prohibited. +Suspicious persons should be reported to the proper officers, and rewards +will be given.” Nearly all the ministers of foreign powers remonstrated +against this proclamation, as throwing discredit on the religions of their +countries. The Japanese officials defended the punishment of Christians by +alleging the national prejudice against them, which had come from the +preceding centuries. They argued that the question was one of purely +domestic concern, of which foreign nations could have no adequate +knowledge, and in which they had no right to interfere. + +The Christians chiefly lived in Urakami, a village near Nagasaki. They +were said to number about four thousand. Orders were sent by the +government from Tōkyō in June, 1868, that all the families who would not +recant should be deported and put in the charge of daimyōs in different +provinces. Only a small part of the Christians were thus exiled. The +government probably dealt with greater leniency because they found the +treaty powers so deeply interested. Subsequently the measures taken +against the native Christians were withdrawn. In March, 1872, those who +had been dispersed among the daimyōs were granted permission to return to +their homes, and persecution for religious belief was ended forever. + +On April 17, 1869, before his court and an assembly of daimyōs, the +emperor took what has been called the charter oath(325) in five articles, +in substance, as follows: + +1. A deliberative assembly shall be formed, and all measures decided by +public opinion. + +2. The principles of social and political economics should be diligently +studied by both the superior and inferior classes of our people. + +3. Every one in the community shall be assisted to persevere in carrying +out his will for all good purposes. + +4. All the absurd usages of former times should be disregarded, and the +impartiality and justice displayed in the workings of nature be adopted as +the basis of action. + +5. Wisdom and ability should be sought after in all quarters of the world +for the purpose of firmly establishing the foundations of the empire. + +The promise in the first article to establish a deliberative assembly was +watched with the greatest solicitude. And when during the same year the +_kogisho_(326) (parliament) was called together, great hopes were +entertained of its usefulness. It was composed of persons representing +each of the daimiates, who were chosen for the position by the daimyōs. It +was a quiet peaceful debating society,(327) whose function was to give +advice to the imperial government. + +That it was a thoroughly conservative body is apparent from the result of +its discussion upon several of the traditional customs of Japan. On the +proposition to recommend the abolition of the privilege of _hara-kiri_ the +vote stood: Ayes 3, noes 200, and not voting 6. On the proposition to +abolish the wearing of swords, which was introduced and advocated by Mori +Arinori, the final vote was unanimously against it in a house of 213.(328) +After a short and uneventful career the _kogisho_ was dissolved in the +autumn of the same year in which it was summoned. It had been a step, but +not a very important step, in the direction of parliamentary government. + +We must now give an account of the most remarkable event in the modern +history of Japan. We refer to the termination of feudalism by the +voluntary surrender of their feudal rights on the part of the daimyōs. +This action was a logical consequence of the restoration of the executive +power into the hands of the emperor. It was felt by the statesmen of this +period that in order to secure a government which could grapple +successfully with the many questions which would press upon it, there must +be a centralization of the powers which were now distributed among the +powerful daimyōs of the empire. To bring this about by force was +impossible. To discover among the princes a willingness to give up their +hereditary privileges and come down to the position of a powerless +aristocracy was something for which we have hitherto looked in vain. + + [Illustration] + + Mori Arinori. + + +Doubtless the _fainéant_ condition of nearly all the daimyōs at this time +made the accomplishment of this event more easy. With only a few +exceptions, the hereditary princes of the provinces had come to be merely +the formal chiefs of their daimiates. The real power was in the hands of +the energetic and capable _samurai_, who were employed to manage the +affairs. They saw that any scheme for transferring the political authority +of the daimyōs to the central government would render more important their +services. They would become not merely the formal administrative +functionaries, but the real officers to whom responsible duties and trusts +would be confided. Some of this class of subordinates had already in the +new imperial government tasted the savoriness of this kind of service, and +they were ready to carry out a plan which seemed to have patriotism and +practicability in its favor. + +The most notable circumstance in this series of events was the +presentation to the emperor of an elaborate memorial signed by the daimyōs +of Chōshū, Satsuma, Tosa, Hizen, Kaga, and others, offering him the lists +of their possessions and men. This memorial(329) appeared in the official +gazette March 5, 1869. Its preparation is attributed to Kido Takayoshi, +and bears supreme evidence to his learning and statesmanship. With lofty +eloquence the memorial exclaims: “The place where we live is the emperor’s +land, and the food which we eat is grown by the emperor’s men. How can we +make it our own? We now reverently offer up the lists of our possessions +and men, with the prayer that the emperor will take good measures for +rewarding those to whom reward is due and taking from those to whom +punishment is due. Let the imperial orders be issued for altering and +remodelling the territories of the various classes.... This is now the +most urgent duty of the emperor, as it is that of his servants and +children.” + +The example thus set by the most powerful and influential daimyōs was +followed rapidly by others. Two hundred and forty-one(330) of the daimyōs +united in asking the emperor to take back their hereditary territories. +And in the end only a small number remained who had not so petitioned. +Prince Azuki in his memorial says: “1. Let them restore the territories +which they have received from the emperor and return to a constitutional +and undivided country. 2. Let them abandon their titles and under the name +of _kwazoku_ (persons of honor) receive such properties as may serve for +their wants. 3. Let the officers of the clans abandoning that title, call +themselves officers of the emperor, receiving property equal to that which +they have hitherto held.” + +In response to these memorials a decree(331) was issued by the emperor +August 7, 1869, announcing the abolition of the daimiates, and the +restoration of their revenues to the imperial treasury. It was also +decreed that the ranks of court nobles (_kugés_) and of daimyōs be +abolished and the single rank of _kwazoku_ be substituted. + +Thus at one stroke the whole institution of feudalism which had flourished +from the time of Yoritomo was cut away. The government made provision for +the administration by creating prefectures (_ken_) to take the place of +daimiates. This was done in 1871. At first the daimyōs were appointed +governors of the prefectures. But it was soon found that these hereditary +princes were as a class utterly unfit for the chief executive offices of +their old provinces. Hence, one by one other competent persons were +appointed to vacancies, until it came to be understood that competence and +fitness were to be the requisite qualifications for such appointments. + +The financial questions involved in the suppression of the feudal system +were serious and difficult. When the daimyōs surrendered their fiefs, they +did so with the understanding that they themselves should “receive such +properties as may serve their wants,”(332) and that the emperor should +take “measures for rewarding those to whom reward is due.”(333) It was +decided that each ex-daimyō, and each of the suzerains that were dependent +on him, should receive one tenth of the amount of their income from their +fiefs. The ex-daimyōs received this amount free of any claims upon them +for the support of the non-productive _samurai_, who formed the standing +armies of each clan. The central government assumed all the payments to +the _samurai_ for services of whatever kind. This heavy charge of the +government was met by borrowing $165,000,000,(334) which was added to the +national debt. With this sum they undertook to capitalize the pensions, +which was finally accomplished by a compulsory enactment. Each claimant +received from the government interest-bearing bonds for the amount of his +income reckoned at from five to fourteen years’ purchase according to its +sum. Thus to the great relief of the country the matter of pensions was +disposed of. + +To many of the _samurai_ this summary settlement had unfortunate results. +The lump sums which they received were often soon consumed, and they were +left penniless and helpless. The traditions under which they had been +trained led them to look down upon labor and trade with disdain, and +rendered them unfit to enter successfully on the careers of modern life. +In many cases worry and disappointment, and in others poverty and want, +have been the sequels which have closely followed the poor and obsolete +_samurai._ + +Several minor but noteworthy steps in reform were taken. The ancient +disqualifications of the _eta_ and _heimin_ were removed in 1871, and +these pariahs placed on the same legal footing as the rest of the +population. The first railway in Japan was opened between Yokohama and +Tōkyō in 1872. The European calendar, so far as it regarded the beginning +of the year and the beginning of the months, was adopted in 1873. The year +was still counted from Jimmu Tennō, 1873 of the Christian era +corresponding to 2533 of the Japanese era, and also by the _Meiji_ +year-period, the commencement of which was from 1868. + +Several international events deserve notice here. A number of Ryūkyū +islanders (vassals of Japan) had been shipwrecked on Formosa and some +killed by the semi-savage inhabitants. To punish this cruelty, and to +insure a more humane treatment in the future, the Japanese government sent +an expedition under General Saigō Tsugumichi. They made short work of the +inhuman tribes and enforced upon them the lesson of civility. China, who +claimed a sovereignty over this island, acknowledged the service Japan had +rendered, and agreed to pay an indemnity for the expenses of the +expedition. + +The long-pending dispute between Russia and Japan concerning the boundary +in Saghalien was settled in 1875 by a treaty(335) which exchanged the +Japanese claims in Saghalien for the Kurile islands (Chishima). + +An unexpected attack by the Koreans upon a Japanese steamer asking coal +and provisions awakened an intense excitement in Japan. An expedition +after the pattern of Commodore Perry’s, under the command of General +Kuroda Kiyotaka, was despatched in January, 1876, to come to an +understanding with the Koreans. The negotiations were entirely successful, +and a treaty(336) of amity and commerce was concluded, and thus another of +the secluded kingdoms of the East had been brought into the comity of +nations. Then outbreaks of this kind in Saga, in Higo, in Akizuki, and in +Chōshū occurred, but they were all put down without difficulty or delay. +The promptness with which the government dealt with these factions boded +no good to the reactionary movements that were ready to break out in other +places. + +Although the Satsuma clan had taken the most prominent part in the +destruction of the shōgunate and in the restoration of an imperial +government, there was in it a greater amount of conservatism and +opposition to modern innovations than was to be found elsewhere. Indeed, +the clan had split into two distinct parties, the one aiding in all the +reforms and changes which the government was attempting to carry out, the +other holding resolutely to the old feudal traditions which they saw +endangered by the present attitude of the emperor’s counsellors. The +latter party had for its leaders Shimazu Saburō and Saigō Takamori, both +of whom had played conspicuous parts in the recent history of their +country. The government had tried to conciliate these two influential men +and to secure their co-operation in the administration. But both had +retired from Tōkyō, and declined longer to share the responsibility of a +course which they could not approve. + +Saigō, who was the idol of the _samurai_, after his retirement established +near Kagoshima a military school, where the young men of that class were +drilled in the duties of the army. Branch schools on the same model were +also carried on in several other places in the province. In all it was +said that not less than 20,000 young _samurai_ were receiving a training +in these dangerous schools. They were filled with the most violent +antipathy to the government and were with difficulty restrained, even by +their leaders, from outbreaks in sympathy with the uprisings which +elsewhere were taking place. + +The government was naturally solicitous concerning these collections of +inflammable material. A collision with the students over the removal of +some stores of arms and ammunition, revealed their readiness to break into +rebellion. It is not improbable that designing conspirators took advantage +of the open and chivalric character of Saigō to push him into the +initiation of hostilities. Admiral Kawamura, himself a Satsuma man and a +connection of Saigō, was sent down to hold an interview with him and if +possible to make a peaceful settlement. But the interview was declined. +The rebellious elements were at once gathered together, and Saigō, at the +head of a force of 14,000 men, started about the middle of February, 1877, +on his march up the west coast of Kyūshū, on his way to Tōkyō. The +conspirators estimated that a force of 30,000 troops could be counted on +to take part in the expedition. + +The first impediment in their march was the castle of Kumamoto,(337) where +the government had a garrison of 2,000 to 3,000 men under General Tani. +Saigō determined to reduce it before making further progress. He spent +several weeks in this vain attempt. This was a precious delay for the +government, which it spent in organizing and sending forward troops for +opposing the advance of the rebels. All available forces were collected +and put in motion to the seat of war. Prince Arisugawa-no-miya was +appointed commander-in-chief and established his headquarters at Fukuoka. + +The equipment of troops at the seat of government was under the +supervision of General Saigō Tsugumichi, a younger brother of the rebel +leader. Loyal as he was to his emperor, it was a painful task for him to +organize war against his brother. With native delicacy he left to others +the duty of fighting on the field, and confined himself to the less +conspicuous part of gathering and sending troops as they were needed. + +The rebels had besieged Kumamoto and had already reduced it to great +straits. But the imperial forces came in time to its relief. There was +desperate fighting, but at last the besiegers were compelled to withdraw. + +They retreated toward the east coast with the apparent purpose of seeking +a way to the north by Hyūga and Bungo. Promptly they were followed and +confined to a defensive attitude. The most desperate battles were fought +in this part of the campaign. Though disappointed and outnumbered, the +rebels fought with consummate bravery. They were almost in the shadow of +the mountains where their celestial ancestor was fabled to have descended +upon the Japanese islands.(338) Their last stand was at Nobeoka in the +northeast corner of Hyūga. Their leaders realized that to continue the +contest would only cause unnecessary and hopeless slaughter. + +Under these circumstances Saigō saw that to end the fighting and save his +followers he must leave them. Accordingly with about two hundred of those +who were personally devoted to him, he broke through the imperial line and +escaped to Kagoshima. The army, finding they were forsaken, surrendered, +August 19, 1877. Saigō, with his little band, entrenched himself on the +summit of the hill Shiroyama overlooking Kagoshima. Here he was surrounded +by the imperial forces and bombarded night and day. The veteran leader was +at last wounded in the thigh, and seeing that all hope of escape was gone, +he requested one of his lieutenants to perform for him the friendly office +of severing his head from his body. After the capture of the stronghold, +the bodies of Saigō and his comrades were discovered. Admiral Kawamura +himself with tender hands washed the bloody head of his dead friend, and +saw that the bodies of all were decently buried. Thus, on September 24, +1877, the last and most serious of the attempts which have been made to +disturb the empire in its new career came to an end. + +There was, however, one mournful sequel to this rebellion. Ōkubo +Toshimichi, a statesman and patriot of the purest type, had from the +beginning resisted the reactionary movements of his clan. At the time of +the rebellion he was minister of Home Affairs and put forth all his +exertions to suppress it. A baseless slander that he had sent to Satsuma +hired assassins to take Saigō’s life, had been used by the reckless +conspirators to force the rebel leader to an outbreak. This was believed +by many of the _samurai_, not only in Satsuma but in other provinces. On +May 14, 1878, Tōkyō was startled by the news that Ōkubo, while driving +through a secluded spot in the old castle grounds, on his way to the +emperor’s palace, had been murdered. The assassins were from the province +of Kaga, and gave as the reason for their crime their desire to avenge the +death of Saigō. Japan could ill afford to spare at this time her most +clear-headed statesman and her noblest and most unflinching patriot. + + [Illustration] + + Okubo Toshimichi. + + +What followed these important events must be told in a summary manner. +There was a powerful and growing party in the empire, who looked forward +to a modification of the absolute form of government to which they had +returned in 1868. This party was particularly aggressive in the province +of Tosa. They recalled to themselves and others the solemn pledge which +the emperor had given to his people in his charter oath,(339) when he +announced that “a deliberative assembly shall be formed, and all measures +decided by public opinion.” + +The ruling minds in the government feared that the people were too +inexperienced and too unaccustomed to deciding and acting for themselves +to be entrusted with the grave duty of constitutional government. As a +preparation for so important a step local assemblies were authorized and +established in 1878. Matters referring to the government of each _fu_ and +_ken_ were to be discussed, and to a certain extent decided in these +assemblies. It was believed that the experience gained in such bodies +would go far towards preparing men for service in an imperial legislative +body. The expectations founded on these local assemblies were realized and +in a fair degree they continued to fulfil their purpose. + +In further pursuance of the plan of constitutional government, the +emperor, on February 11, 1889, at his palace, promulgated a +constitution(340) for his people. In the presence of his cabinet and court +he took a solemn oath to govern under its limitations and powers. This +constitution contains seven chapters consisting of one hundred and eleven +articles: Chapter I. The Emperor; II. Rights and Duties of Subjects; III. +The Imperial Diet; IV. The Ministers of State and Privy Council; V. The +Judicature; VI. Finance; VII. Supplementary Rules. The emperor also +announced that the imperial diet would be convoked in the twenty-third +year of _Meiji_ (1890), and that the constitution would go into effect at +the date of its assembling. + + [Illustration] + + Ito Hirobumi. + + +It would seem that no great advance can be secured in Japan without the +sacrifice of a valuable life. As Ii Kamon-no-kami was murdered in 1860, +and as Ōkubo fell by the assassin’s hand at the close of the Satsuma +rebellion, so now on the very day when the emperor was to promulgate this +liberal constitution, Viscount Mori Arinori fell a victim to the fanatical +hatred of one who looked with distrust upon the progress which his country +was making. No one could look, or did look, on this progress with more +interest than Mori. He had so long and so earnestly advocated a liberal +and tolerant policy in the councils of his country, and had been a leader +in all that was high and noble, that we cannot regard, except with +profound regret, his untimely death. + + + + + +APPENDIX I. LIST OF EMPERORS. + + +(The list here printed is the official list issued by the government, and +has been revised by Mr. Tateno, the Japanese Minister at Washington.) + +Name. Date of Date of Age at + Access. Death. Death. +1. Jimmu 660 B.C. 585 B.C. 127 +2. Suizei 581 549 84 +3. Annei 548 511 57 +4. Itoku 510 477 77 +5. Kōshō 475 393 114 +6. Kōan 392 291 137 +7. Kōrei 290 215 128 +8. Kōgen 214 158 116 +9. Kaikwa 157 98 111 +10. Sūjin 97 30 A.D. 119 +11. Suinin 29 A.D. 70 141 +12. Keikō 71 130 143 +13. Seimu 131 190 108 +14. Chūai 192 200 52 +Jingō (Empress Regent)(341) 201 269 100 +15. Ōjin 270 310 110 +16. Nintoku 313 399 110 +17. Richū 400 405 67 +18. Hanzei 406 411 60 +19. Inkyō 412 453 80 +20. Ankō 454 456 56 +21. Yūriyaku 457 479 —— +22. Seinei 480 484 41 +23. Kenzō 485 487 —— +24. Ninken 488 498 50 +25. Muretsu 499 506 18 +26. Keitai 507 531 82 +27. Ankan 534 535 70 +28. Senkwa 536 539 73 +29. Kimmei 540 571 63 +30. Bidatsu 572 585 48 +31. Yōmei 586 587 69 +32. Sujun 588 592 73 +33. Suiko (Empress) 593 628 75 +34. Jomei 629 641 49 +35. Kōkyoku (Empress) 642 —— —— +36. Kōtoku 645 654 59 +37. Saimei (re-accession of 655 661 68 +Kōkyoku +38. Tenji 668 671 58 +39. Kōbun 672 672 25 +40. Temmu 673 686 65 +41. Jitō (Empress) 690 702 58 +42. Mommu 697 707 25 +43. Gemmyō (Empress) 708 721 61 +44. Genshō (Empress) 715 748 69 +45. Shōmu 724 756 56 +46. Kōken (Empress) 749 —— —— +47. Junnin 759 765 33 +48. Kōken (re-enthroned) 765 770 53 +49. Kōnin 770 781 73 +50. Kwammu 782 806 70 +51. Heijō 806 824 51 +52. Saga 810 842 57 +53. Ninna 824 840 55 +54. Nimmyō 834 850 41 +55. Montoku 851 858 32 +56. Seiwa 859 880 31 +57. Yōzei 877 949 82 +58. Kōko 885 887 58 +59. Uda 888 931 65 +60. Daigo 898 930 46 +61. Shujaku 931 952 30 +62. Muragami 947 967 42 +63. Reizei 968 1011 62 +64. Enyū 970 991 33 +65. Kwazan 985 1008 41 +66. Ichiyō 987 1011 32 +67. Sanjō 1012 1017 42 +68. Go-Ichijō 1017 1028 29 +69. Go-Shujaku 1037 1045 37 +70. Go-Reizei 1047 1068 44 +71. Go-Sanjō 1069 1073 40 +72. Shirakawa 1073 1129 77 +73. Horikawa 1087 1107 29 +74. Toba 1108 1156 54 +75. Shutoku 1124 1164 46 +76. Konoye 1142 1155 17 +77. Go-Shirakawa 1156 1192 66 +78. Nijō 1159 1165 23 +79. Rokujō 1166 1176 13 +80. Takakura 1169 1181 21 +81. Antoku 1181 1185 15 +82. Go-Toba 1186 1239 60 +83. Tsuchi-mikado 1199 1231 37 +84. Juntoku 1211 1242 46 +85. Chūkyō 1222 1234 17 +86. Go-Horikawa 1221 1234 23 +87. Yojō 1232 1242 12 +88. Go-Saga 1242 1272 53 +89. Go Fukakusa 1246 1304 62 +90. Kameyama 1259 1305 57 +91. Go-Uda 1274 1324 58 +92. Fushimi 1288 1317 53 +93. Go-Fushimi 1298 1336 49 +94. Go-Nijyō 1301 1308 24 +95. Hanazono 1308 1348 52 +96. Go-Daigo 1318 1339 52 +97. Go-Murakami 1339 1368 41 +98. Go-Kameyama 1373 1424 78 +99. Go-Komatsu 1382 1433 57 +100. Shōkō 1414 1428 28 +101. Go-Hanazono 1429 1470 52 +102. Go-Tsuchi-mikado 1465 1500 59 +103. Go-Kashiwabara 1521 1526 63 +104. Go-Nara 1536 1557 62 +105. Ōgimachi 1560 1593 77 +106. Go-Yojō 1586 1617 47 +107. Go-Mizuo 1611 1680 85 +108. Myōshō (Empress) 1630 1696 74 +109. Go-Kōmyō 1643 1654 22 +110. Go-Nishio 1656 1685 49 +111. Reigen 1663 1732 79 +112. Higashiyama 1687 1709 35 +113. Naka-mikado 1710 1737 37 +114. Sakuramachi 1720 1750 31 +115. Momozono 1747 1762 22 +116. Go-Sakuramachi (Empress) 1763 1813 74 +117. Go-Momozono 1771 1779 22 +118. Kōkaku 1780 1840 70 +119. Jinkō 1817 1846 47 +120. Kōmei 1847 1867 37 +121. Mutsuhito (reigning 1868 +emperor) + + + + + +APPENDIX II. LIST OF YEAR PERIODS.(342) + + +Name. Japanese Era. Christian Era. +Taikwa 1305 645 +Hakuchi 1310 650 +Saimei 1315 655 +Tenji 1322 662 +Sujaku 1332 672 +Hakuhō 1333 673 +Suchō 1346 686 +Jitō 1347 687 +Momm 1357 697 +Daihō 1361 701 +Keiun 1364 704 +Wadō 1368 708 +Reiki 1375 715 +Yōrō 1377 717 +Jinki 1384 724 +Tembiō 1389 729 +Tembiō shōhō 1409 749 +Tembiō hōji 1417 757 +Tembiō jingo 1425 765 +Jingo keiun 1427 767 +Hōki 1430 770 +Tenō 1441 781 +Enriaku 1442 782 +Daidō 1466 806 +Kōnin 1470 810 +Tenchō 1484 824 +Jōwa 1494 834 +Kajō 1508 848 +Ninju 1511 851 +Saikō 1514 854 +Tenan 1517 857 +Jōgwan 1519 859 +Gwangiō 1537 877 +Ninna 1545 885 +Kwampei 1549 889 +Shōtai 1558 898 +Engi 1561 901 +Enchō 1583 923 +Jōhei 1591 931 +Tengiō 1598 938 +Tenriaku 1607 947 +Tentoku 1617 957 +Ōwa 1621 961 +Kōhō 1624 964 +Anna 1628 968 +Tenroku 1630 970 +Ten-en 1633 973 +Jōgen 1636 976 +Tengen 1638 978 +Eikwan 1643 983 +Kwanna 1645 985 +Ei-en 1647 987 +Eiso 1649 989 +Shōriaku 1650 990 +Chōtoku 1655 995 +Chōhō 1659 999 +Kwankō 1664 1004 +Chōwa 1672 1012 +Kwannin 1677 1017 +Ji-an 1681 1021 +Manju 1684 1024 +Chōgen 1688 1028 +Chōriaku 1697 1037 +Chōkiū 1700 1040 +Kwantoku 1704 1044 +Eijō 1706 1046 +Tengi 1713 1053 +Kōhei 1718 1058 +Jiriaku 1725 1065 +Enkiū 1729 1069 +Jōhō 1734 1074 +Jōriaku 1737 1077 +Eihō 1741 1081 +Ōtoku 1744 1084 +Kwanji 1747 1087 +Kahō 1754 1094 +Eichō 1756 1096 +Jōtoku 1757 1097 +Kowa 1759 1099 +Chōji 1764 1104 +Kajō 1766 1106 +Tennin 1768 1108 +Tenei 1770 1110 +Eikiū 1773 1113 +Genei 1778 1118 +Hō-an 1780 1120 +Tenji 1784 1124 +Daiji 1786 1126 +Tenjō 1791 1131 +Chōjō 1792 1132 +Hō-en 1795 1135 +Eiji 1801 1141 +Kōji 1802 1142 +Tenyō 1804 1144 +Kiū-an 1805 1145 +Nimbiō 1811 1151 +Kiūju 1814 1154 +Hōgen 1816 1156 +Heiji 1819 1159 +Eiriaku 1820 1160 +Ōhō 1821 1161 +Chōkwan 1823 1163 +Eiman 1825 1165 +Ninan 1826 1166 +Ka-ō 1829 1169 +Jō-an 1831 1171 +Angen 1835 1175 +Jishō 1837 1177 +Yōwa 1841 1181 +Ju-ei 1842 1182 +Genriaku 1844 1184 +Bunji 1845 1185 +Kenkiū 1850 1190 +Shōji 1859 1199 +Kennin 1861 1201 +Genkiū 1864 1204 +Kenei 1866 1206 +Jōgen 1867 1207 +Kenriaku 1871 1211 +Kempō 1873 1213 +Jōkiū 1879 1219 +Jō-ō 1882 1222 +Gennin 1884 1224 +Karoku 1885 1225 +Antei 1887 1227 +Kwangi 1889 1229 +Jō-ei 1892 1232 +Tempuku 1893 1233 +Bunriaku 1894 1234 +Katei 1895 1235 +Riakunin 1898 1238 +En-ō 1899 1239 +Ninji 1900 1240 +Kwangen 1903 1243 +Hōji 1907 1247 +Kenchō 1909 1249 +Kōgen 1916 1256 +Shōka 1917 1257 +Shōgen 1919 1259 +Bunō 1920 1260 +Kōchō 1921 1261 +Bunei 1924 1264 +Kenji 1935 1275 +Kōan 1938 1278 +Shō-ō 1948 1288 +Einin 1953 1293 +Shōan 1959 1299 +Kengen 1962 1302 +Kagen 1963 1303 +Tokuji 1966 1306 +Enkiō 1968 1308 +Ōchō 1971 1311 +Shōwa 1972 1312 +Bumpō 1977 1317 +Gen-ō 1979 1319 +Genkō 1981 1321 +Shōchū 1984 1324 +Kariaku 1986 1326 +Gentoku 1989 1329 +Shōkiō 1992 1331 +Kemmu 1994 1334 +Engen 1996 1336 +Kōkoku 1999 1339 +Shōhei 2006 1346 +Kentoku 2030 1370 +Bunchū 2032 1372 +Tenju 2035 1375 +Kōwa 2041 1381 +Genchū 2044 1384 +Meitoku 2050 1390 +Ō-ei 2054 1394 +Shōchō 2088 1428 +Eikiō 2089 1429 +Kakitsu 2101 1441 +Bunan 2104 1444 +Hōtoku 2109 1449 +Kōtoku 2112 1452 +Kōshō 2115 1455 +Chōroku 2117 1457 +Kwanshō 2120 1460 +Bunshō 2126 1466 +Ōnin 2127 1467 +Bummei 2129 1469 +Chōkō 2147 1487 +Entoku 2149 1489 +Mei-ō 2152 1492 +Bunki 2161 1501 +Eishō 2164 1504 +Dai-ei 2181 1521 +Kōroku 2188 1528 +Tembun 2192 1532 +Kōji 2215 1555 +Eiroku 2218 1558 +Genki 2230 1570 +Tenshō 2233 1573 +Bunroku 2252 1592 +Keichō 2256 1596 +Genna 2275 1615 +Kwanei 2284 1624 +Shōhō 2304 1644 +Kei-an 2308 1648 +Jō-ō 2312 1652 +Meireki 2315 1655 +Manji 2318 1658 +Kwambun 2321 1661 +Empō 2333 1673 +Tenna 2341 1681 +Jōkiō 2344 1684 +Genroku 2348 1688 +Hō-ei 2364 1704 +Shōtoku 2371 1711 +Kiōhō 2376 1716 +Gembun 2396 1736 +Kwampō 2401 1741 +Enkiō 2404 1744 +Kwanen 2408 1748 +Hōreki 2411 1751 +Meiwa 2424 1764 +Anei 2432 1772 +Temmei 2441 1781 +Kwansei 2449 1789 +Kiōwa 2461 1801 +Bunkwa 2464 1804 +Bunsei 2478 1818 +Tempō 2490 1830 +Kōkwa 2504 1844 +Ka-ei 2508 1848 +Ansei 2514 1854 +Manen 2520 1860 +Bunkiū 2521 1861 +Genji 2524 1864 +Kei-ō 2525 1865 +Meiji 2528 1868 + + + + + +APPENDIX III. LIST OF SHŌGUNS.(343) + + +_I.—The Dynasty of Minamoto. 1186-1219._ + +1. Minamoto Yoritomo, 1186-1199, died; received his appointment as shōgun +in 1192. + +NOTE.—In this as in the later cases, the dates will be cited which +correspond to the attainment of power and its general recognition, but +which do not, in many cases, correspond to the grant of the title, which +frequently was much later. + +2. Minamoto Yori-iye, 1199-1203, son of the preceding, first deposed by +his grandfather, Hōjō Tokimasa, and banished to Izu, there was murdered in +1204. + +3. Minamoto Sanetomo, 1203-1219, eleven years old, brother of the +preceding, murdered by his nephew Kokio, the son of Yori-iye. + +_The Time of the Shadow Shōguns. 1220-1338._ + +The shōguns of this period, taken partly from the Fujiwara family, partly +from the princes of the imperial house, were mostly children, and in every +instance the weak agents of the Hōjō family, whose chiefs, as regents +(_shiken_), had the power in their hands, although the nominal bearers of +the same were likewise principally only children. + +4. Fujiwara Yoritsune, 1220-1243, nine years old, dethroned by Hōjō +Tsunetoki, died 1256. + +5. Fujiwara Yoritsugu, 1244-1251, son of the preceding, seven years old, +deposed by H. Tokeyori, died 1256. + +6. Munetaka Shino, 1252-1265, eleven, according to others thirteen, years +old, deposed by H. Tokimune, died 1274. + +7. Koreyasu Shino, 1266-1289, son of the preceding, three years old, +deposed by H. Sadatoki, died 1325 (1326?). + +8. Hisa-akira Shino, or, as he was called, Kumei Shino, 1289-1307, sixteen +years old, deposed by H. Sadatoki, died 1328. + +9. Morikuni Shino, 1308-1333, son of the preceding, seven years old, +dethroned by Nitsuda Yoshisada, died in the same year. + +10. Moriyoshi Shino, 1333-1334, son of the reigning Emperor Go-Daigo, +dethroned by Taka-uji, murdered, in 1335, by Minamoto Nao-yoshi. + +11. Nari-Yoshi Shino, 1334-1338, dethroned and murdered by Taka-uji. + +_II.—The Regents of the Hōjō Family._ + +Hōjō Tokimasa, died 1215, did not have the title of regent (_shiken_). + +Hōjō Yoshitoki, 1205-1224, from 1205 regent (_shiken_), murdered. + +Hōjō Yasutoki, 1225-1242, died. + +Hōjō Tsunetoki, 1243-1246, grandson of the preceding, retired in favor of +his younger brother, Tokiyori, and died thirty-three years old. + +Hōjō Tokiyori, 1246-1256, retired in favor of his son, Tokimune, and died +1263, thirty-seven years old. + +Hōjō Tokimune, 1257-1284, seven years old, under the guardianship of H. +Nagatoki and H. Masamura, died. + +Hōjō Sadatoki, 1284-1300, adopted son of the preceding, retired in favor +of Morotoki, the grandson of Tokiyori, but continued to exercise a potent +influence over the regency, died 1311. + +Hōjō Morotoki, 1300-1311, died. + +Hōjō Takatoki, 1312-1326, the son of Sadatoki, nine years old, under the +guardianship of Hirotoki and Mune-nobu, retired in favor of his younger +brother, Yasuye, who likewise soon withdrew. + +Until the fall of the Hōjō family Takatoki really conducted the regency, +although others held the title. After the taking of Kamakura by Nitta +Yoshisada in 1333, he killed himself. + +_III.—The Dynasty of Ashikaga. 1334-1573._ + +12. Ashikaga Taka-uji, 1334-1358, died fifty-three years old. + +13. Ashikaga Yoshimori, 1359-1367, retired in favor of his son Yoshimitsu, +died 1408, fifty-one years old. + +14. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, 1368-1393, retired in favor of his son, +Yoshimochi, at the age of thirty-seven years, died 1409. + +15. Ashikaga Yoshimochi, 1394-1422, retired in favor of his son, +Yoshikatsu. + +16. Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, 1423-1425, died nineteen years old. Ashikaga +Yoshimochi, 1425-1428, the fifteenth shōgun, took the power again, and +died forty-three years old. + +17. Ashikaga Yoshinobu, 1428-1441, murdered by Akamatsu Mitsusuke, +forty-eight years old. From 1429 called Yoshinori. + +18. Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, 1441-1443, son of the preceding, eight years old, +died. + +19. Ashikaga Yoshinari, called Yoshimasa, 1443-1473, brother of the +preceding, eight years old, retired, and died in 1490. + +20. Ashikaga Yoshinao, 1473-1489, died twenty-five years old; from 1488, +called Yoshihiro. + +21. Ashikaga Yoshimura, 1490-1493, nephew of Yoshimasa, twenty-five years +old, taken prisoner and dethroned by Hosokawa Motomoto. + +22. Ashikaga Yoshimitsi, 1493-1508, had to flee, died 1511; from 1449 +called Yoshitaku, and from 1502 Yoshisumi; Yoshitada, 1508-1521, is +Yoshimura, who from the year 1501 bore the name, and since that time was +the shōgun of the enemy at war with Yoshisumi, had to flee, was deposed, +and died, 1523. + +23. Ashikaga Yoshinaru, 1521-1546, son of Yoshisumi, retired in favor of +his son, Yoshifushi, died 1550, forty years old. + +24. Ashikaga Yoshifushi, 1547-1565, eleven years old, killed himself in +his palace, having been confined there by the rebels. + +25. Ashikaga Yoshigi-ei or Yoshinaga, 1568 died, important as opposition +shōgun. + +26. Ashikaga Yoshi-aki, 1568-1573, deposed by Nobunaga, died 1597. + +_IV.—The Time of the Usurpation. 1573-1603._ + +27. Taira-no-Nobunaga, 1573-1582, killed himself, having been forced to do +so by Akechi Mitsuhide. + +Akechi Mitsuhide, who usurped the title of shōgun, ruled only twelve days, +and fell conquered by Hideyoshi 28. Samboshi, 1582-1586, grandson of +Nobunaga. + +29. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 1586-1598, was never shōgun, but kwambaku; (on his +retirement called Taikō-sama). + +30. Hidetsugu, 1591-1595, nephew of the preceding, killed himself, was +also kwambaku. + +31. Hideyori, 1600-1615, son of Hideyoshi, killed himself, conquered by +Ieyasu. According to other accounts, he escaped and fled to Satsuma; was +Naifu (Minister of the Interior) from 1603. + +_V.—The Dynasty of the Tokugawa. 1603-1868._ + +32. Ieyasu, 1603-1605, died 1616; 1603 appointed shōgun (posthumous title +Gongensama). The shōguns of this dynasty frequently retired, as soon as +their successors grew up, but in spite of this fact they continued to lead +the regency. + +33. Hidetada, 1605-1623, died 1632, son of the preceding. + +34. Iemitsu, 1623-1651, died 1652, son of the preceding. + +35. Ietsuna, 1651-1680, died, son of the preceding. + +36. Tsunayoshi, 1681-1709, son of Iemitsu, killed by his wife. + +37. Ienobu, 1709-1712, grandson of Iemitsu, died. + +38. Ietsugu (Ietsubo according to Klaproth), 1713-1715, died, son of the +preceding. + +39. Yoshimune, 1716-1745, retired, died 1751, formerly fifth Prince of +Kii. + +40. Ieshige, 1745-1760 (according to others 1761 or 1762), son of the +preceding, died. + +41. Ieharu, 1760-1786, son of the preceding, died. + +42. Ienari, 1787-1836, died 1841, son of the preceding. + +43. Ieyoshi, 1837-1852, son of the preceding. + +44. Iesada, 1853-1857, son of the preceding. + +45. Iemochi, 1858-1866, died, formerly thirteenth Prince of Kii. + +46. Yoshihisa (Yoshinobu according to Adams, vol. ii. p. 37), 1867-1868, +son of the Prince of Mito, Nari-akira, adopted by the Prince of +Hitotsubashi, retired at the fall of shōgunate in 1867. + + + + + +APPENDIX IV. LAWS OF SHŌTOKU TAISHI.(344) + + +[From _Dai Nihonshi_, vol. xii., folio 28 to 31.] + +I.—Harmony shall be esteemed and obedience shall be held in regard. +Because dissensions prevail, therefore men are often unfaithful to their +prince and disobedient to their fathers. Let adjoining districts be left +in peace, thus harmony between superior and inferior shall be cultivated +and co-operation in matters of state shall be promoted, and thus the right +reason of all things may be reached and the right thing accomplished. + +II.—Let bountiful honor be always paid to the three precious elements of +Buddhism, that is, to its priests, its ritual, and its founder. It is the +highest religion in the universe, and all people in all generations must +pay becoming reverence to its doctrines. Do not harshly censure men’s +wickedness but teach them faithfully until they yield obedience. Unless +men rely upon Buddhism there is no way to convert them from the wrong to +the right. + +III.—To the commands of the Emperor men must be duly obedient. The prince +must be looked upon as the heaven and his subjects as the earth. The earth +contains all things and the heaven stretches over it. The four seasons +pass orderly along and the spirit of the universe is harmonious. If the +earth were to cover the heaven the effect would be distraction. Hence the +prince must command and the subject obey; superiors must act and inferiors +yield. Men ought therefore to pay due heed to the orders of the Emperor; +if not they will bring ruin on themselves. + +IV.—Politeness must be the chief rule of conduct for all officers and +their colleagues in the court. The first principle governing subjects must +be politeness. When superiors are not polite then inferiors will not keep +in the right; when inferiors are not polite their conduct degenerates into +crime. When both prince and subjects are polite, then social order is +never disturbed and the state is kept in a condition of tranquillity. + +V.—Covetousness and rapacity must be expelled from the hearts of officers, +and they must adjudicate with just discrimination in all suits that come +before them. Even in a single day there are thousands of such suits, and +in the course of years how great must be the accumulation! If the suit is +won through bribery, then the poor man can obtain no justice but only the +rich. The poor man will have no sure place of dependence, and subjects +will be driven to abandon their duty. + +VI.—To punish vice and to encourage virtue is the rule in good ancient +law. The virtuous man must therefore be promoted, and the vicious man must +be surely punished. The man who is untruthful is a powerful instrument to +endanger the state and a keen weapon to destroy the nation. The flatterer +loves to tell the faults of the inferior to the superior, and also to +disclose the errors of the superior to the inferior. Such men are alike +unfaithful to the prince and unfriendly to fellow citizens, and in the end +fail not to stir up social disorder. + +VII.—The duty of men in the government must be assigned according to their +capacity. When intelligent men take service the applause of the people +follows, but when bad men are in office calamities ensue. If wise officers +are put on duty the matters of state are well managed, and the community +is free from danger and prosperity prevails. Therefore in ancient times +the wise king never selected the office for the man, but always selected +the man to suit the office. + +VIII.—Too often officers and their colleagues come early to their offices +and retire soon; so that the public work accomplished in a single day is +small. It is incumbent on them to devote sufficient time to their tasks; +if not, then the work of the government cannot be done. + +IX.—Everything must be faithfully done, because fidelity is the origin of +justice. The distinction between good and bad, between success and +failure, depends on fidelity. When both prince and subjects are faithful +then there are no duties which cannot be accomplished, but when both are +unfaithful nothing can be done. + +X.—Give up all thoughts of indignation and be not angered with others on +account of a disagreement of opinion. Each one may have a different point +of view and may therefore come to a different conclusion. If the one side +be right then the other must be wrong, or the cases may be just reversed. +It would be unjust to set down one man as surely wise and another as +positively stupid; because men cannot attain perfection in their +characters. It is impossible to decide either side to be perfectly right +or perfectly wrong. While you are angry with another who has a different +view from you, you cannot be sure lest you be in the wrong. Therefore +though you may think yourself in the right, it is safer to follow the +opinions of the many. + +XI.—Let merit and demerit be carefully considered, and let rewards and +punishments be meted out accordingly. In times past this has often failed +to be justly done. It is incumbent on all who are entrusted with the +direction of public affairs and on all officers of the government to look +carefully after the distribution of rewards and punishments. + +XII.—Governors of provinces and their deputies must be careful not to +impose too heavy duties on their subjects. One state never has more than +one prince, and in like manner the subjects cannot have more than one +master. The prince is the head of all his dominions and of all his +subjects. The officers of government are also the subjects of the prince; +and there is no reason why they should dare to lay undue burdens upon +others who are subjects of the same prince. + +XIII.—Each officer of the government has his appointed duty. Sometimes +officers complain of the stagnation of business, which, however, is caused +by their own absence from their appointed duties. They must not make a +pretence of the performance of their duties, and by their neglect +interrupt public affairs. + +XIV.—Subjects and officers must not be jealous of each other. If one +person is envious of another, the second is sure to be envious of the +first. Thus the evils of jealousy never end. If men shall envy each other +on account of their talent and wisdom, no single wise man would ever be +obtained for government service through a thousand years. What a noble +method of governing a state would that be which expelled from its service +all wise men! + +XV.—To sacrifice private interests for the public good is the duty of the +subject. When men are selfish there must be ill-will; when ill-will comes, +then with it must come iniquity, which will disturb the public welfare. +Ill-will is sure to bring about the breaking of wholesome rules and the +violation of the laws of the state. It is for this reason that the harmony +between superior and inferior spoken of in the first article is so +important. + +XVI.—To select a convenient season in which to employ men for public work +is the rule of good ancient law. Winter is a time of leisure; but during +the season between spring and autumn, in which they are employed on their +farms and in feeding silk-worms, it is not expedient to take men from +their work, or interfere with them in their efforts to supply food and +clothing. + +XVII.—Important matters should only be settled after due conference with +many men. Trifling matters may be decided without conference, because they +are not so material in their effects; but weighty matters, on account of +their far-reaching consequences, must be discussed with many councillors. +It is thus that the right way shall be found and pursued. + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +_ 1 The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian_; translated by Colonel + Henry Yule, C.B. Second edition, London, 1875, vol. ii., p. 235. + + 2 These islands belonged to Russia until 1875, when by a treaty they + were ceded to Japan in exchange for the rights of possession which + she held in the island of Saghalien. + + 3 E. M. Satow, _Transactions of the Asiatic Society_, vol. i., p. 30. + + 4 This word is not a _proper name_ but a descriptive designation, and + must be understood in this way when used by Dr. Griffis in his + _Mikado’s Empire_ and by Dr. Rein in his two works on Japan. In the + successive issues of the _Résumé Statistique_, published by the + Statistical Bureau, the term Nippon is used to designate the + principal island. This name has the advantage of having been used + extensively in foreign books, but its restricted use is contrary to + the custom of Japan. After much consideration we have determined to + designate the principal island by the term “Main island,” which is + the translation of the word _Hondo_. + + 5 See Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. 108. + + 6 See Chamberlain’s _Things Japanese_, second edition, p. 122. + + 7 One of the most notable of these is that which occurred in 1596 when + Hideyoshi was at Fushimi. In 1854 a series of shocks followed by + tidal waves occurred on the east coast of the Main island. The town + of Shimoda, which had been opened as a port for foreign trade was + almost destroyed, and the Russian frigate _Diana_ which was lying + there was so injured that she had to be abandoned. In 1855 a severe + earthquake occurred at Yedo, which was accompanied by a great fire. + About 16,000 dwelling-houses and other buildings are said to have + been destroyed, and a large number of lives were lost. _Transactions + of Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. vi., p. 249. + + 8 Rein’s _Japan_, p. 44. In _Things Japanese_ second edition, p. 122, + Japan is credited with no less than fifty-one active volcanoes. + + 9 The word _gawa_ (river) takes the form _kawa_ when euphony so + requires. + + 10 Dr. Rein was the first clearly to apprehend and state the influence + of the northeast monsoon on the climate of Japan. See Rein’s + _Japan_, p. 104. + + 11 Camellia trees are frequently found from twenty to twenty-five feet + high. + + 12 Chamberlain, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. xi., p. 162. + + 13 These details of the population, area, etc., are taken from the + government publication, _Résumé Statistique de l’Empire du Japon_, + 1892. + + 14 In the population of the imperial cities is included that of the + suburban districts politically attached to them. + +_ 15 Résumé Statistique_ (Government publication), 1892, p. 11. + +_ 16 Asiatic Society Transactions_, supplement to vol. x., p. 213. + + 17 Batchelor, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. x., p. 211. + + 18 Batchelor, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. x., p. 216. + + 19 Miss Bird’s _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_, vol. ii., p. 96. + + 20 Professor E. S. Morse, _Memoirs of the University of Tokio_, vol. + i., part i. + + 21 Henry von Siebold, _Notes on Japanese Archæology_, p. 14. + + 22 “But I must tell you one thing still concerning that island (Japan) + (and ’tis the same with the other Indian Islands), that if the + natives take prisoner an enemy who cannot pay a ransom, he who hath + the prisoner summons all his friends and relations, and they put the + prisoner to death, and then they cook him and eat him, and they say + there is no meat in the world so good!”—_The Book of Ser Marco + Polo_, London, 1875, vol. ii., p. 245. + + 23 Professor Milne, _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, + vol. viii., p. 82. + + 24 Rev. John Batchelor, _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, + vol. x., p. 209. + + 25 Hildreth’s _Japan_, etc., p. 337. + +_ 26 Mittheilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft_, etc., as reviewed in + _The Chrisanthemum_, May, 1883. + + 27 Rein’s _Japan_, p. 383. + + 28 “We know that for all points of detail and for keeping a correct + account of time, tradition is worthless.”—_The History of Rome_, by + Rev. Thomas Arnold, D.D., 1864, p. 10. + + 29 For easy access to this valuable Japanese work we are indebted to + the translation by Basil Hall Chamberlain, _Transactions of the + Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. x., Supplement. + + 30 See Chamberlain’s translation of _Kojiki_, or _Records of Ancient + Matters_, _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. x., + Supplement. + + 31 Satow, “Ancient Japanese Rituals,” _Transactions of the Asiatic + Society of Japan_, vols. vii. and ix. + + 32 Satow, _Westminster Review_, July, 1878. + + 33 See Appendix I. + + 34 Bramsen, _Japanese Chronological Tables_, p. 30. + + 35 I remember presenting this point to a Japanese scholar in this way, + and he answered me that he thought this great age of the Japanese + emperors no more wonderful or unreasonable than the ages of the + patriarchs in the Bible. + + 36 “I wished to give these legends at once with the best effect, and at + the same time with a perpetual mark, not to be mistaken by the most + careless reader,—they are legends and not history.”—_The History of + Rome_ by Thomas Arnold, D.D., 1864, Preface, p. vii. + + 37 For the translation of these names, and for the principal events of + these myths, we rely upon Mr. Chamberlain’s translation of the + _Kojiki_, and his admirable notes and introduction. _Transactions of + the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. x., Supplement. + + 38 This is supposed to have been one of the small islands off the coast + of Awaji in the Inland sea. + + 39 An island about fifty miles long in the Inland sea. + + 40 This probably means that the sword was ten breadths of the hand in + length. + + 41 The Japanese name of this most venerated goddess is + Amaterasu-ō-mi-kami. + + 42 There seemed to have been an old superstition about flaying from the + tail toward the head. + + 43 This is one of the ancient names of the Main island of Japan. + + 44 The name of this prince of which the translation is here given is + usually shortened to Ninigi-no-Mikoto. + + 45 Nakatomi-no-Muraji is also among these, who was the ancestor of the + Fujiwara family that from the reign of the Emperor Tenji attained + great political distinction. + + 46 Dr. Rein in 1875 was shown an old sword on the top of this mountain + which is claimed to have been carried on this occasion.—Rein’s + _Japan_, p. 214, note. + + 47 This canonical name was given to him in the reign of the Emperor + Kwammu, who commanded Mifune-no-Mikoto to select suitable canonical + names for all past emperors, and these have since been used. + + 48 See Milne’s paper on “Pit-Dwellers of Yezo and Kurile Islands,” + _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. x., p. 187. + + 49 A large number of songs are handed down in the traditions of this + period. They are in the most ancient form of the language and are + not easy to translate. We give as a specimen Jimmu’s song from + Chamberlain’s translation of _Kojiki_, _Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. x., Supplement, p. 142. + + Into the great cave of Ōsaka people have entered in abundance and + are there. Though people have entered in abundance and are there, + the children of the augustly powerful warriors will smite and finish + them with their mallet-headed swords, their stone-mallet swords: the + children of the augustly powerful warriors, with their mallet-headed + swords, their stone-mallet swords, would now do well to smite. + + 50 For example, the organization of a parliament took place in 1890, + which in the Japanese reckoning would be 2550 from Jimmu’s setting + up his capital in Yamato. + + 51 See p. 32. + + 52 See list of emperors, Appendix I. + + 53 Satow, _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. ii. p. + 113. + + 54 We follow in these figures the chronology which has been authorized + by the government. Appendix I. + + 55 E. M. Satow, “Ancient Sepulchral Mounds in Kaudzuke,” _Transactions + of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. viii., pp. 11, 330. + + 56 Chamberlain’s translation of _Kojiki_,—_Transactions of the Asiatic + Society of Japan_, vol. x., Supplement, p. 208. + + 57 The roads or circuits here spoken of refer to the roads constructed + by the government along contiguous provinces and used for the + passage of troops and other government purposes. These circuits have + continued in use down to the present time. + + 58 Yamato-hime or Yamato-princess had been appointed high priestess of + the temples in Isé, and in that capacity had charge of the imperial + regalia which were deposited there. She is a very celebrated person + in Japanese legendary story and is said to have lived several + hundred years. + + See Chamberlain’s translation of _Kojiki_, p. 183, note 7; _Asiatic + Society Transactions_, vol. x., Supplement. + + 59 See p. 45. + + 60 See Satow’s paper on the use of the fire drill in Japan, + _Transactions of Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. vii., p. 223. + + 61 It is one of the favorite subjects of Japanese art to represent the + Princess Oto-Tachibana sitting upon a pile of mats and the boat with + her husband sailing off in the quieted waters. + + 62 The name by which these savage tribes were designated was Yemishi; + the name however is written in Chinese characters which signify + Prawn-Barbarians; in allusion to their heavy beards which gave them + the appearance of prawns. See p. 22. + + 63 See Chamberlain’s translation of _Kojiki_,—_Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. x., Supplement, p. 218. + + 64 He is chiefly notable to foreigners because he is said to have lived + through the reigns of three emperors and to have reached the age of + three hundred years. + + 65 She is not included in the government list of emperors, and is given + in Appendix I. as empress-regent. + + 66 See _Kokushian_, compiled under the Department of Education. _Ad + Locum_. + + 67 See Appendix I. + +_ 68 Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. x., Supplement. + + 69 E. M. Satow, _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. + ii., p. 135. + + 70 E. M. Satow, _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. + vi., p. 435. + + 71 Satow, “Ancient Japanese Rituals,” _Asiatic Society Transactions_, + vol. vii., p. 423. + + 72 E. M. Satow, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. vii., p. 109. + + 73 Ditto, p. 119. + + 74 Cotton is said to have been brought to Japan from India in the reign + of the Emperor Kwammu, A.D. 800. T. B. Poate, _Transactions of the + Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. iv., p. 146. + +_ 75 Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. x., Supplement, + pp. 39 and 40. + + 76 Henry von Siebold, _Japanese Archæology_, Yokohama, 1879, p. 16. The + diagram in the text is from this work on Archæology, and shows the + variety of jewels in use in prehistoric times. + + 77 For the so called cave dwellings see p. 68. + +_ 78 Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. v., p. 110. + + 79 See p. 32. + + 80 In the _Kojiki_ it is said that the king of Kudara sent with Wani + the _Confucian Analects_ in ten volumes and the _Thousand Character + Essay_ in one volume. It conflicts seriously with the chronology of + this period to learn, as both Mr. Satow and Mr. Chamberlain have + pointed out, that the _Thousand Character Essay_ was not written + until two centuries after the date assigned to the advent of Wani. + + 81 The _Kojiki’s_ statement is that the elder brother was banished to + Iyo. + + 82 The name, “Island of the Dragon-Fly” had already been given to the + Main island by Jimmu Tenno. + + 83 In these early days a _muro_ or excavation of the earth, roofed with + timber, was often used as a residence. See p. 68. + + 84 In this story the princes are represented as boys, but as they fled + on the murder of their father by the Emperor Yūriyaku before his + accession, this must have been at least twenty-eight years before; + so that they could not have been less than forty years of age. + + 85 After the triumph of Buddhism a temple called Tennoji was erected + near this place in honor of this image, which was miraculously + rescued from the sea and is still preserved at this temple. + + 86 See the laws which he compiled and published as found in the 12th + volume of _Dai Nihon Shi_, Appendix IV. + + 87 This must mean that improved methods of silk culture were + introduced, for we have seen that this art was already known to the + Japanese. + + 88 Bramsen’s _Japanese Chronological Tables_, Tokio, 1880, p. 18. + + 89 The author is indebted to the valuable paper read before the Asiatic + Society of Japan by Willis Norton Whitney, M.D., for much of the + information concerning medicine in Japan.—_Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. xii., part iv., p. 329. + + 90 For an enumeration of these boards and the officers and duties of + each, see Walter Dickson’s _Japan_, p. 72. + + 91 See a note by Mr. Satow in Adams’ _History of Japan_, London, vol. + i., p. 24. + +_ 92 Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. iii., part i. + +_ 93 Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. x., Supplement. + + 94 The _Kojiki_ has been translated into English by Professor B. H. + Chamberlain, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. x., Supplement. + + 95 See Mori Arinori’s introduction to _Education in Japan_, New York, + 1873, p. 17. + + 96 See a paper on “Abdication and Adoption,” by Mr. Shigeno An-Eki, + translated by Mr. Walter Dening, in _Asiatic Society Transactions_, + vol. xv., p. 72. + + 97 His predecessor died A.D. 661, and there was an _interregnum_ during + which Tenji was regent till A.D. 668, when he was made emperor. + + 98 See p. 47, note. + + 99 Quoted in Henry von Siebold’s _Japanese Archæology_, Yokohama 1879, + p. 8. + + 100 See p. 58. + + 101 Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook of Japan_, London, 1884. + + 102 For ten years preceding 794 the capital was a wanderer. + + 103 See the _Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan_, vol. viii., + p. 88. The inscription is in part as follows: + + Castle of Taga, + Distant from the capital, Ri 1500 + Distant from the frontier of Yezo, Ri 120 + Distant from Hitachi, Ri 412 + Distant from Shimotsuke, Ri 274 + Distant from Makkatsu, Ri 3000. + +_ 104 Education in Japan_, New York, 1873, p. 17. + + 105 See p. 47. + + 106 These instances are taken from the paper on abdication and adoption, + by Shigeno An-eki, as translated by Mr. Walter Dening, _Asiatic + Society Transactions_, vol. xv., p. 74. + + 107 See Chamberlain’s _Things Japanese_, under the article on + abdication. Yokohama, 1892. + + 108 See p. 66 _et seq._ + + 109 At the time that Dickson collected his statistics of the families of + the court, two of the Sugawara family were teachers of the young + emperor. Six families of _kuges_ count their descent from the + Sugawara. Dickson’s _Japan_, London, 1869, p. 59. + + 110 See chapter on “Education in the Early Ages,” by Otsuki Sinji, in + _Japanese Education_, New York, 1876, p. 64. + + 111 While I write these lines there is hanging before me a _kakemono_ + representing Sugawara Michizané, which it has been proposed to hang + in every public school under the care of the Department of + Education, as an emblem of the true scholarly temperament. + + 112 See p. 132. + + 113 See Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. 383. + + 114 He was born in A.D. 1146 and therefore was twelve years older than + Yoshitsuné. + + 115 Doves are not eaten by the Minamoto to this day, owing, it is said, + to this miraculous interposition in behalf of Yoritomo. + + 116 About A.D. 1618 Hakoné was created a barrier to separate the eastern + from the central provinces. Persons were not allowed to go through + this barrier without a passport. + + 117 In A.D. 1286, more than a century after his death, a monument was + erected to Kiyomori in Hyōgo which still exists. Satow and Hawes’ + _Handbook_, p. 338. + + 118 The title of shōgun is said to have been created by the Emperor + Sujin, who divided the empire into four military divisions, each + commanded by a shōgun or general. When Yoshinaka assumed control in + Kyōto at the time of his victory he was appointed _sei-i-shōgun_ + (barbarian compelling general). Subsequently Yoritomo secured the + supreme military authority and having resigned the civil offices + held by him he was appointed by imperial edict _sei-i-tai-shōgun_ or + great barbarian compelling general. + + See G. Appert’s _Ancien Japon_, vol. iii., p. 84; also Satow’s note + to Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. i., p. 42. + + 119 Adams, in his _History of Japan_, vol. i., p. 37, gives a quaint + quotation from _Nihon-Gwaishi_ as follows: “The crimes of the Heishi + against the imperial family were atoned for by their services, and + heaven therefore would not cut off their posterity. And this + probably was right.” + + 120 See Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. 57. + + 121 There are almost as many legends current concerning Benkei as his + master. Their first encounter was upon the Gojō bridge in Kyōto, + where Benkei prowled for the purpose of robbing passengers. + Yoshitsuné, then only a youth of sixteen years, displayed so much + agility and swordsmanship that the veteran robber yielded to him, + and ever after followed him as his faithful body servant. The + _Japanese Fairy World_, by W. E. Griffis, contains the legend of + Benkei stealing a huge bell five feet high from the monastery at + Miidera, and carrying it on his shoulders to Hiyēsan (see p. 93). + When Yoshitsuné was compelled to flee from the vengeance of his + brother, he came with Benkei, both disguised as begging priests, to + a guarded barrier. The custodians refused them passage, but Benkei, + who was cunning as well as strong, pulled out from his bosom a roll + of blank paper and pretended to read a commission from the abbot of + Hōkōji, in Kyōto, authorizing the two travellers to collect funds + throughout the country for casting a great bell for their temple. + The custodians were deeply impressed with this holy message and + allowed the travellers to pass without further question. + + 122 There are many legends, existing among the Ainos, of Yoshitsuné + having lived among them and taught them improved arts of hunting and + fishing. There is a wooden image of him at the village of Upper + Piratori, which is saluted (not worshipped) in token of honor to his + memory. Rev. John Batchelor, who has lived as a missionary among the + Ainos many years, is of the opinion that this reverence is largely + due to a desire on the part of the Ainos to conciliate their + Japanese masters. It has seemed not unreasonable to suppose that the + traditions concerning Yoshitsuné among the Ainos have been carried + from the Main island by the retreating tribes, and that Yoshitsuné + never lived with them in Yezo, but was only familiar with them in + the wild regions of Mutsu and Dewa. + + See paper by Rev. J. Batchelor, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. + xvi., part 1, p. 20. + + 123 Ōye-no-Hiromoto was a powerful adherent of Yoritomo, and was a + member of his administrative council. He was the ancestor of the + Mōri family, who afterward became famous as the daimyōs of Chōshū. + + 124 We owe to Kaempfer, perhaps, the erroneous notion which has been + repeated by subsequent writers that there was both an ecclesiastical + and a temporal emperor. This was never true. There has been only one + emperor, who, in the Japanese theory, was the direct descendant of + divine ancestors and who has always been the supreme authority. From + the time of Yoritomo, however, the administration was in the hand of + an hereditary shōgun who always received the commission of the + emperor for the performance of his duties. See Kaempfer’s _Histoire + de l’Empire du Japon_, vol. i., p. 182. + + 125 The Japanese term is _Shikken_, which is usually translated + _regent_. + + 126 A travelling palanquin. + + 127 See _Travels of Marco Polo_, second edition, London, 1875, vol. ii., + p. 240. + + 128 In the year A.D. 1890 two pictures were brought to light which + represent the events of this memorable battle. They are believed to + have been painted about A.D. 1294 by Naganori and Nagatoki, painters + of the Tosa school. They have been in the family of one of the + captains in the Japanese army of that day, and while the figures of + the men and horses are not well drawn the pictures in other respects + have great historical value. Alongside of the scenes represented, + legends are written in explanation. It is said that these valuable + historical pictures are likely to come into the Household Department + and thus be more carefully preserved than they are likely to be in a + private house.—_Japan Weekly Mail_, 1890, p. 581. + + 129 For a description of this locality, which is justly famed in + Japanese annals, see Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. 56. + + 130 See Chamberlain’s _Handbook_, 1891, p. 337. + + 131 Quite an animated and interesting controversy took place a few years + ago with reference to this suicide of Kusunoki. Popular opinion + strongly justifies the act and rewards with its highest approval the + memory of the patriot. But Mr. Fukuzawa, one of the most radical of + the public men of to-day and an active and trenchant writer, + condemned the act as indefensible and cowardly. + + 132 Mr. Griffis says that when he resided in Fukui in A.D. 1871—more + than five hundred years after the event,—he saw the grave of the + heroic Nitta almost daily strewed with flowers.—_The Mikado’s + Empire_, 1876, p. 190. + + 133 Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. 356. + + 134 It is an evidence of the feeling which still exists towards the + Ashikaga shōguns that in 1863 these figures were taken from the + Tō-ji-in and beheaded and the heads pilloried in the dry bed of the + Kamogawa, at the spot where it is customary to expose the heads of + the worst criminals. Several of the men who were guilty of this + outrage were captured and were put into the hands of various daimyōs + by whom they were kept as prisoners.—Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. + 357. + + 135 See the full account of tea ceremonies in Chamberlain’s _Things + Japanese_, 1892, p. 404. + + 136 The official list of emperors will be found in Appendix I. The names + of the northern which are not included in this list are as follows: + + DATE OF ACCESSION. + + Kōmiō, 1996 years from Jimmu, 1336 A.D. + Shukō, 2009 years from Jimmu, 1349 A.D. + Go-Kōgen, 2012 years from Jimmu, 1352 A.D. + Go-Enyū, 2032 years from Jimmu, 1372 A.D. + Go-Komatsu, 2043 years from Jimmu, 1383 A.D. + + 137 See _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. xiii., p. 139. + + 138 It is said that in this disastrous time the poverty of the country + was so great that when, in A.D. 1500, Go-Tsuchimikado died at his + palace in Kyōto, the corpse was kept for forty days because the + means for the usual funeral expenses could not be had. M. von Brandt + as quoted in Rein’s _Japan_, p. 261. + + 139 Mr. W. A. Woolley, in a paper read before the Asiatic Society of + Japan, gives an account derived from Japanese sources as follows: + “Amongst those who landed on this occasion was one of the _Literati_ + of China, who acted as interpreter between the foreigners and the + chief of the island Hyōbu-no-jō Tokitada. [Since both the Chinese + and Japanese used the same ideographic characters, they could + understand each other’s writing but not speech.] In reply to + questions the interpreter is represented as having described his + friends the foreigners as being ignorant of etiquette and + characters, of the use of wine cups and chop sticks, and as being, + in fact, little better than the beasts of the field. The chief of + the foreigners taught Tokitada the use of firearms, and upon leaving + presented him with three guns and ammunition, which were forwarded + to Shimazu Yoshihisa, and through him to the shōgun.”—_Asiatic + Society Transactions_, vol. ix., p. 128. + + 140 See _Adventures of Mendez Pinto_, done into English by Henry Cogan, + London, 1891, pp. 259 etc. + + 141 Hildreth’s _Japan_, etc., 1855, p. 27, note. + +_ 142 Adventures of Mendez Pinto_, p. 281. + + 143 This is the name by which Pinto calls this city (see _Adventures of + Mendez Pinto_, London, 1891, p. 265); the real name, however, at + this time was Fumai, and is now Ōita. + + 144 The author himself saw in Japan in 1874 the native hunters using an + old-fashioned matchlock, in which the powder was fired by a slow + burning match, which was brought down to the powder by a trigger. + This kind of firearm, which was in use in Europe in the fifteenth + century, was taken to Japan by the Portuguese, and continued to be + used there until the re-organization of the army introduced the + modern form of gun. + + 145 In the accounts given by the biographers of Xavier, it is said that + there were two companions of Anjiro who in the subsequent baptism + received the names of John and Anthony. + + 146 This was the name of the seminary in Goa where Anjiro had been + educated. + + 147 See Coleridge’s _Life and Letters of St. Francis Xavier_, London, + 1872, p. 237. + + 148 Bouhour’s _Life of Xavier_, p. 274. + + 149 In the _Life of St. Francis Xavier_ by Bartholi and Maffei the + following circumstance is given: “It seems that a rat had invaded + the sanctuary and gnawed the ornaments of the altar. The sacristan + appealed to the saint thus: ‘Father Francis! people say that you + passed from this life in the vicinity of China; that you were a + saint, that your body still remains entire and incorrupt at Goa. Now + here am I your sacristan; and I ask is it consistent with your honor + that a rat should have the audacity to gnaw the ornaments of your + altar? I demand his death at your hand.’ On opening the door of the + sanctuary the next morning the sacristan found the culprit quite + dead.” + + 150 See Woolley, “Historical Notes on Nagasaki”, _Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. ix., p. 129. + + 151 For these facts concerning Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, and the condition + of the country during their times, the author is largely indebted to + the _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, by Walter Dening, Tokio, 1890. + + 152 The word _daimyō_ means _great name_, and was used in reference to + the ownership of land; _shomyō_ means _small name_, and was at first + employed to indicate the small land-owner. But the word never + obtained currency, the small land-owner always preferring to call + himself a daimyō. See Chamberlain’s _Things Japanese_, p. 84. + + 153 The element of comedy shows itself from the beginning in Hideyoshi’s + character when he adopted the calabash, in which he had carried + water, as his symbol of victory. He added a new one for each + victory, and at last adopted a bunch of calabashes for his + coat-of-arms. Afterwards he had this constructed of gold, which was + carried as the emblem of his triumphant career. + + 154 See Dening’s _Life of Hideyoshi_, p. 207. + + 155 In Chamberlain’s _Things Japanese_ the estimate is given that at + this most prosperous time the number of Japanese professing + Christianity was not less than six hundred thousand, p. 297. + + 156 See the letter which the ambassador from the Prince of Bungo + presented on this occasion. Hildredth’s _Japan_, etc., p. 89. + + 157 In the First Part (1873) of _Mittheilungen der Deutschen + Gesellschaft für Natur und Völkerkunde Ostasiens_, p. 15, the times + of Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, etc., are termed “die zeit der usurpatoren,” + the time of the usurpers. But Nobunaga and Hideyoshi were no more + usurpers than the Tokugawas, who succeeded them by force of arms. + + 158 Mr. Satow with rare literary insight has identified this Kuroda with + the Condera Combiendono of the Jesuit fathers. _Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. vii., p. 151. + + 159 See Shiga’s _History of Nations_, Tōkyō, 1888, p. 128. + + 160 Dening’s _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, p. 274. + + 161 See Dening’s _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, p. 278. + + 162 See p. 189. + + 163 His original name was Nakamura Hyoshi, the family taking its name + from the village where he was born. Then at his induction to manhood + A.D. 1553 his name was changed to Tokichi Takayoshi. At another turn + in his career he became Kinoshita Tokichi Takayoshi. In the year + A.D. 1562 he received permission to use the name Hideyoshi instead + of Tokichi, and A.D. 1575 his name was again changed to Hashiba, + which the Jesuit fathers wrote Faxiba. + + 164 See Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. 341. + + 165 The facts here related concerning this most interesting episode in + the life of Hideyoshi are chiefly taken from a paper furnished by + Mr. J. H. Gubbins to the _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. viii., + p. 92. + + 166 The Emperor Ōgimachi retired from the throne A.D. 1586, and was + succeeded by Go-Yojō, then sixteen years old. It shows of how small + account the emperors had become, that this change in the head of the + nation is scarcely mentioned in the histories of the time. + + 167 The spies and guides employed by Hideyoshi were priests of the Shin + sect of Buddhists, who after the fall of Kagoshima were discovered + and crucified. A decree was also issued that every inhabitant of + Satsuma who was connected with this sect must renounce his creed. To + this day there exists among the people of Satsuma a general + hostility to the Buddhists which can be traced to this trying + episode. See _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. viii., p. 143. + + 168 See p. 178. + + 169 See p. 186. + + 170 See Dening’s _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, pp. 148, 344. + + 171 When Father Valignani came to Japan in A.D. 1577 it is said that he + brought as one of his presents a beautiful Arabian horse. It is not + improbable that some of the improved breeds, now seen in the + southern provinces, owe their origin to these valuable horses sent + over as presents. + + 172 See Chamberlain’s _Things Japanese_, 1892, p. 298, note. According + to Charlevoix this indiscreet speech was made by a Spanish captain. + See Gubbin’s paper, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. vi., part + ii., p. 16. + + 173 For the text of this edict see Dickson’s _Japan_, p. 172. + + 174 See Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, 2d ed., p. 72. + + 175 See Dening’s _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, p. 405. + + 176 See Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. i., p. 66. + + 177 See Dening’s _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, p. 263. + + 178 We are indebted to Mr. W. G. Aston for a full and clear account of + Hideyoshi’s invasion of Korea, which he had derived not only from + Japanese books and documents, but from Korean sources which, until + his researches, were inaccessible. See _Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. vi., p. 227; ix., pp. 87, 213. + + 179 The peculiarly Eastern form of expression is noticeable in + announcing these presents: “You will find enclosed a list of some of + the poor productions of our country, which we beg you will refrain + from laughing at immoderately.” + + 180 He became one of the most famous heroes of Japan, and is worshipped + under the name of Seishōkō, at a shrine connected with the temple of + Hommonji at Ikegami. Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. 30. + + 181 See Mr. Satow’s identification of this name. _Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. vii., p. 151. + + 182 See Mr. Aston’s paper, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. ix., p. + 90. + + 183 A Japanese scholar could read such a document in the ideographic + Chinese characters without translation; but Taikō Sama was not a + scholar and therefore was not aware of the purport of the document + until it was translated to him. + + 184 See Mr. Aston’s description of this humiliating scene as given in + _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. ix., p. 217; also Dening’s + _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, p. 360. + + 185 See Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. 369. + + 186 See Dening’s _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, p. 380. + + 187 See Mr. Satow’s paper entitled “The Korean Potters in Satsuma,” + _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. vi., p. 193; also as referred + to in Mr. Satow’s paper, Mr. Ninagawa’s _Notice Historique et + Descriptive sur les Arts et Industries Japonais_, part v., Tōkyō, + 1877. + + 188 “In point of fact, however, making Ongoschio (Ieyasu) regent was + placing a goat in charge of a kitchen garden.”—_Warenius_, p. 20. + + 189 See Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. 368. + + 190 See the pedigree of Ieyasu as given in _Mittheilungen der Deutschen + Gesellschaft_, etc., Heft i., p. 19. + + 191 See Dening’s _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, p. 377. + + 192 This covenant is said to have been signed with blood in accordance + with a custom still occasionally prevalent, in which a drop of blood + is drawn from the middle finger and sealed by pressing it with the + thumb nail. Rein’s _Japan_, p. 297, note. + + 193 See Dening’s _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, p. 397. + + 194 This place receives its name from a barrier that was erected in the + ninth century to control the travel towards the capital. Its meaning + is, “Plain of the Barrier.” See Chamberlain’s _Handbook_, p. 268. + + 195 See Dening’s _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, p. 399. + + 196 This proverb is quoted as having been used by Hideyoshi when + remonstrating with Nobunaga about following up his victory over + Imagawa Yoshimoto. See Dening’s _Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi_, p. + 156. + + 197 Kiyomasa was a bitter enemy of the Christians, owing no doubt to the + rivalry and antagonism which had sprung up with Konishi, who was a + Christian, in the Korean war. He is termed Toronosqui by the Jesuit + fathers from a personal name Toronosuke which he bore in his youth, + and he is characterized as “_vir ter execrandus_,” on account of his + persecution of the Christians in his province. Perhaps on account of + this fierce opposition he was greatly admired by the Buddhists, and + is worshipped under the name of Seishōkō by the Nichiren sect at a + shrine in the temple of Hommonji at Ikegami. Another monument to his + memory is the Castle of Kumamoto, which he built and which still + stands as one of the best existing specimens of the feudal castles + of Japan. As an evidence of its substantial character, in A.D. 1877, + under the command of General Tani, it withstood the siege of the + Satsuma rebels and gave the government time to bring troops to crush + the rebellion. + + 198 The plural of this word is here and elsewhere used in its English + form, although no such plural is found in Japanese. + +_ 199 Ancien Japon_, par G. Appert, Tōkyō, 1888, vol. ii. + + 200 A full account of the Castle of Yedo will be found in a paper by Mr. + J. R. H. McClatchie in the _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. vi., + part 1, p. 119. + + 201 See p. 207. + +_ 202 Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. xi., p. 124. + + 203 See p. 204. + + 204 See Dickson’s _Japan_, p. 227. + + 205 His beatification was decreed by the pope in 1609, and his + canonization in 1622. + + 206 Hildreth’s _Japan_, etc., p. 176. + + 207 The Jesuit historians relate with malicious satisfaction how one of + the Spanish friars, in a dispute with one of Adams’ shipwrecked + company, to sustain the authority of the church appealed to the + miraculous power which its priests still possessed. And when the + Hollander challenged an exhibition of such power, the missionary + undertook to walk on the surface of the sea. A day was appointed. + The Spaniard prepared himself by confession, prayer, and fasting. A + great crowd of the Japanese assembled to see the miracle, and the + friar, after a confident exhortation to the multitude, stepped, + crucifix in hand, into the water. But he was soon floundering over + his head, and was only saved from drowning by some boats sent to his + assistance.—Hildreth’s _Japan_, etc., p. 140. + + 208 “This will seem to you less strange, if you consider how the Apostle + St. Paul commands us to obey even secular superiors and gentiles as + Christ himself, from whom all well-ordered authority is derived: for + thus he writes to the Ephesians (vii. 5): ‘be obedient to them that + are your temporal lords according to the flesh, with fear and + trembling in the simplicity of your heart, as to Christ; not seeming + to the eye, as it were pleasing men, but as the servants of Christ + doing the will of God from the heart, with a good will seeming as to + the Lord and not to men.’ ” + + The above is an extract from an Epistle of St. Ignatius, the 26th of + March, 1553, which is still regarded as authoritative and is read + every month to each of the houses. It was supplied to me by Dr. Carl + Meyer and verified by Rev. D. H. Buel, S. J. of St. Francis Xavier’s + College, New York City. Dr. Meyer has also pointed out that the + Second General Congregation, 1565, severely forbids any Jesuit to + act as confessor or theologian to a prince longer than one or two + years, and gives the minutest instructions to prevent a priest from + interfering in any way with political and secular affairs in such a + position. + + 209 This edict of Ieyasu is given by Mr. Satow in his contributions to + the debate on Mr. Gubbins’ _Review of the Introduction of + Christianity into China and Japan_. Fifteen rules to guide the + Buddhist priests in guaranteeing the orthodoxy of their parishioners + are also given.—_Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. vi., part i., + p. 46. + + 210 See Gubbins’ paper, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. vi., part + i., p. 35. + + 211 See Mr. Satow’s contributions to the debate on Mr. Gubbins’ paper, + _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. vi., part i., p. 51. + +_ 212 Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. vi., part 1, p. 35. + + 213 See chapter xi. of a _Description of the Kingdom of Japan and Siam_, + by Bernhard Warenius, M.D., Cambridge, Printing-House of John Hayes, + Printer to the University, A.D. 1673. The volume is in Latin, which, + as well as a translation of the same in manuscript, has been + furnished to me by Mr. Benjamin Smith Lyman, of Philadelphia. + Warenius was a Lutheran, and need not be suspected of being + prejudiced in favor of the Jesuits. See also _History of the Martyrs + of Japan_, _Prague_, 1675, by Mathia Tanner, containing many + engravings of the horrible scenes, such as burnings, crucifixions, + and suspensions in the pit, etc.; also _Histoire des Vingt-six + Martyrs du Japon, Crucifié à Nagasaqui le 5 Février, 1597_, par D. + Bouix, Paris, 1862. + + 214 See Woolley’s “Historical Notes on Nagasaki,” _Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. ix., part 2, p. 134; also Mr. Satow’s + contributions to the discussion of Mr. Gubbins’ paper, _Asiatic + Society Transactions_, vol. vi., part 2, p. 52. Specimens of the + metal plates are in the Uyeno Museum of Tōkyō. + + 215 See Kæmpfer’s _Histoire de l’Empire de Japon_, tome i., p. 287. + + 216 In the narrative which we give of this insurrection we have relied + chiefly upon the accounts of Mr. Gubbins in his “Review of the + Introduction of Christianity,” _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. + vi., part 1, p. 36; of Mr. Woolley in his “Historical Notes on + Nagasaki,” _do._, vol. ix., part 2, p. 140; and on Dr. Geerts’ paper + on the “Arima Rebellion and the Conduct of Koeckebacker,” _do._, + vol. xi., p. 51. Mr. Gubbins and Mr. Woolley had access to Japanese + authorities, and we have in their papers been enabled to see this + bloody episode for the first time from a Japanese standpoint. Dr. + Geerts has rendered an invaluable service in giving us translations + of letters written by Koeckebacker, the head of the Dutch factory + during the events, which show us how this insurrection was regarded + by the Dutch East India Company. + + 217 A _rônin_ was a retainer who had given up the service of his feudal + master, and for the time being was his own master. + + 218 See Dr. Geerts’ paper, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. xi., p. + 75. + + 219 The ships in use at this time among the Japanese were far less + seaworthy than those of European nations. The accompanying figures + given by Charlevoix, although probably somewhat fanciful, show the + impractical character of the vessels of that time. + + 220 See Dr. Geerts’ paper, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. xi., p. + 111. + + 221 Mr. Koeckebacker says: “The rebels counted in all, young and old, as + it was said, about forty thousand. They were all killed except one + of the four principal leaders, being an artist who formerly used to + gain his livelihood by making idols. This man was kept alive and + sent to Yedo.”—Dr. Geerts’ paper, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, + vol. xi., part 1, p. 107. + + There is a tradition that a number of the prisoners who were + captured at this castle were hurled down from the rocks of the + island now called Papenberg in Nagasaki harbor. But Dr. Geerts + ridicules this notion and says: “A little local knowledge would show + it to be impossible to throw people from the rocks on Papenberg into + the sea, as the rocks are by no means steep bluffs, but possess an + inclined shape and a shore. A little knowledge of the Dutch language + would further show that the name Papenberg means ‘mountain of the + priest,’ in allusion to the shape of a Roman Catholic priest’s cap + or bonnet.”—_Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. xi., part 1, p. + 115. + + 222 See Dr. Geerts’ paper, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. xi., + part 1, pp. 110 and 111. + + 223 A Japanese writer thus sums up the result of the effort to introduce + Christianity into his country: “After nearly a hundred years of + Christianity and foreign intercourse, the only apparent results of + this contact with another religion and civilization were the + adoption of gunpowder and firearms as weapons, the use of tobacco + and the habit of smoking, the making of sponge-cake, the + naturalization into the language of a few foreign words, and the + introduction of new and strange forms of disease.”—Shigetaka Shiga’s + _History of Nations_, Tōkyō, 1888. The words introduced into the + language from the Portuguese, except several derived from + Christianity, are as follows: _tabako_, tobacco; _pan_ (_pāo_), + bread; _kasutera_ (from Castilla), sponge-cake; _tanto_, much; + _kappa_ (_capa_), a waterproof; _kappu_ (_copa_), a cup or wine + glass; _birōdo_ (_vellendo_), velvet; _biidoro_ (_vidro_), + glass.—Rein’s _Japan_, p. 312. + + 224 See Mr. Satow’s contributions to the discussion of Mr. Gubbins’ + paper, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. vi., part 1, p. 61; also + Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. 22; also Griffis’ _Mikado’s Empire_, + p. 262; and Professor Dixon’s paper on the Christian Valley, + _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. xvi., p. 207. + + 225 See Chamberlain’s _Things Japanese_, 1892, p. 300. + + 226 See _Legacy of Ieyasu_, cap. xv. + + 227 The _Confucian_ classics consist of the Four Books, viz.: _The Great + Learning_, _The Doctrine of the Mean_, _The Confucian Analects_, and + _The Sayings of Mencius_; and the Five Canons, viz.: _The Book of + Changes_, _The Book of Poetry_, _The Book of History_, _The Canon of + Rites_, and _Spring and Autumn_ (_Annals of the State of Lu_, by + Confucius). Chamberlain’s _Things Japanese_, 1892, p. 92. + + 228 An accurate and amusing account of the printing of a modern + newspaper in Japan is given in Mr. Henry Norman’s _Real Japan_, p, + 43 _et seq._ + + 229 For a history of the city of Yedo, and reference to the disasters to + which it has been subject from fires, earthquakes, and pestilences, + see Satow and Hawes’ _Handbook_, p. 6. See also “The Castle of + Yedo,” by T. R. H. McClatchie, _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. + vi., part 1, and “The Feudal Mansions of Yedo,” _Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. vii., part 3. + + 230 See Dickson’s _Japan_, p. 294. + + 231 Those who desire a fuller explanation of this complicated and + difficult matter are referred to Dr. Yoshida’s _Staatsverfassung und + Lehnwesen von Japan_, Hague, 1890, and to the paper on “The Feudal + System in Japan,” by J. H. Gubbins, Esq., _Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. xv., part 2; also to the introduction by + Professor Wigmore, _do._, vol. xx., Supplement, p. 25. + + 232 In the _Legacy of Ieyasu_ will be found the following statement: + “The _fudai_ are those _samurai_ who followed me and proffered me + their fealty before the overthrow of the castle of Ōsaka in the + province of Sesshū. The _tozama_ are those _samurai_ who returned + and submitted to me after its downfall, of whom there were + eighty-six.”—See _Legacy of Ieyasu_, cap. vii. + +_ 233 Ancien Japon_, vol. ii. + + 234 Dickson’s _Japan_, p. 303. + + 235 See _Legacy of Ieyasu_, cap. xiv. + + 236 See _Legacy of Ieyasu_, cap. xxxvii. + + 237 For the general history of the sword, see Mitford’s _Tales of Old + Japan_, vol. i., p. 70; T. R. H. McClatchie’s, The sword of Japan, + _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. vi., p. 55; Chamberlain’s + _Things Japanese_, 1892, p. 396. For the mode of manufacture, see + Rein’s _Industries of Japan_, p. 430; and especially for the + artistic decoration of swords, see Satow and Hawes’ _Hand-book_, p. + 114. + + 238 I have been told by a young Satsuma _samurai_ that when he was a boy + it was a test of skill with the sword, to set a chop-stick (which + was about six inches long) on its end and before it could fall over + to draw a sword from its scabbard and cut it in two. + + 239 For an account of _hara-kiri_ see the “Story of the Forty-Seven + Ronins” in Mitford’s _Tales of Old Japan_, vol. i., p. 1. + + 240 See _Legacy of Ieyasu_, cap. xxxi. + + 241 See _Legacy of Ieyasu_, cap. xxviii. + + 242 T. R. H. McClatchie, “The Castle of Yedo,” _Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. vi., part 1, p. 131. + + 243 As illustrative of Buddhism at its greatest splendor we give here + the figures of the great bronze image of Buddha at Kamakura, and of + the great bell at the temple of Daibutsu in Kyōto. [Transcriber’s + Note: This bell is shown as the Frontispiece to the book.] The + former was erected about A.D. 1252 after plans initiated by Yoritomo + before his death. The statue in its sitting posture is nearly fifty + feet in height. It is constructed of separate plates of bronze + brazed together. Formerly it was enclosed in a temple, but this was + twice destroyed by tidal waves, and since its last destruction in + 1494 it has not been rebuilt. + + The bell given in the illustration is that at the temple of + Daibutsu, the inscription on which is said to have offended Ieyasu. + It is nearly fourteen feet in height and nine feet in diameter. Its + weight is more than sixty-three tons.—See Satow and Hawes’ + _Handbook_, p. 368. + + 244 In the account given by Don Rodrigo de Vivero, the late governor of + Manila, of a visit made in 1608 by him in behalf of Spanish trade, + Yedo is described as a city of seven hundred thousand inhabitants, + and Sumpu, which he calls Suruga, where the emperor (as he + denominates Ieyasu) lived, is estimated to contain from five to six + hundred thousand inhabitants. He was so pleased with the country + through which he travelled that he declares, “if he could have + prevailed upon himself to renounce his God and his king he should + have preferred that country to his own.”—See Hildreth’s _Japan_, + etc., pp. 145, 147. + + 245 These letters were written from Japan between 1611 and 1617. They + were printed in part in Purchas’ _Pilgrimes_, and are included in + the publications of the Hackluyt Society. From the latter source + they were printed in pamphlet form by the _Japan Gazette_ at + Yokohama, 1879. It is from this last source these references are + taken. + + 246 First letter of Adams in pamphlet edition. Yokohama, 1878, p. 8. + + 247 This name, Nova Spania or New Spain, was first given to the + peninsula of Yucatan, and was afterward extended to the territory of + Mexico conquered by Cortez. Finally it was given to all the Spanish + provinces extending on the Pacific coast from Panama to Van Couver’s + island. Acapulco was the principal harbor on the Pacific coast.—See + Prescott’s _Conquest of Mexico_. + + 248 Captain Cocks in his “Diary,” contained in Purchas’ _Pilgrimes_, + part 1, book iv., gives an account of a visit he made to Yedo in + 1616, on the business of the English trade, at which time he visited + Adams’ seat, which he calls “Phebe,” doubtless mistaking the sound + of the real name “Meni.”—See Chamberlain’s _Things Japanese_, 1892, + p. 15. + + 249 His place of burial was identified in 1872 by Mr. James Walter of + Yokohama on a beautiful hill near Yokosuka, where both he and his + Japanese wife lie buried. His will, which was deposited in the + archives of the East India Company in London, divided his estate + equally between his Japanese and English families. His Japanese + landed estate was probably inherited by his Japanese son. His + personal estate is stated at about five hundred pounds sterling.—See + _Letters of William Adams_, p. 39. + + 250 Hildreth’s _Japan_, etc., p. 142, quoted from Purchas, vol. i., p. + 406. + + 251 Hildreth’s _Japan_, etc., p. 157. + + 252 See _Letters of William Adams_, No. 1. + + 253 See Purchas’ _Pilgrimes_, part 1, book iv. + + 254 These privileges are given in full by Hildreth, p. 169, taken from + Purchas. + + 255 Mr. Satow has collected many facts concerning the history of + printing in Japan, and among others has shown that printing with + movable type in Korea was used as early as 1317, that is one hundred + and twenty-six years before the date of the first printed book in + Europe.—_Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. x., p. 63. + + 256 A translation of this document was made by Mr. J. F. Lowder and + published in Yokohama in 1874. We are indebted to W. E. Grigsby, + Esq., formerly professor of law in the University of Tōkyō, for a + valuable paper on the _Legacy of Ieyasu_ in which a careful analysis + is given and a comparison of its details is made with the provisions + for the regulation of early communities elsewhere.—See _Asiatic + Society Transactions_, vol. iii., part 2, p. 131. + + 257 Ieyasu may have had in mind a shocking example of _junshi_ (dying + with the master) which occurred in his own family. Tadayoshi, his + fifth son, to whom had been assigned an estate in Owari, died young, + and five of his retainers, in order to follow their master, + committed _hara-kiri_ in accordance with the old feudal custom. This + is believed to have been almost the last instance of the kind, and + must have touched Ieyasu very closely.—_Mikado’s Empire_, by W. E. + Griffis, D.D., p. 272. + + 258 Notwithstanding this positive prohibition left by Ieyasu, + occasionally the strength of the old feudal habit was too great for + the more merciful spirit. It is said when the third shōgun of the + Tokugawa family (Iemitsu) died, two of the daimyōs, Hotta of Sakura + and Abe of Bingo, committed _hara-kiri_. Hotta’s sword, still + stained with blood, is retained in the _kura_ of the daimiate at + _Tōkyō_, and on the anniversary of the event is shown to the + _samurai_, who appear on the occasion in full dress. + + 259 See _Asiatic Society Transactions_, vol. xx., Supplement, in which + Prof. J. H. Wigmore has undertaken to publish the material + discovered by him, with a valuable introduction on the + “Administrative and Commercial Institutions of Old Japan.” + + 260 See Whitney’s “Notes on Medical Progress in Japan,” _Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. xii., part 4, p. 276. + + 261 See a description of this process in Kaempfer’s _History of Japan_, + and also in Whitney’s “Medical Progress,” _Asiatic Society + Transactions_, vol. xii., part 4, p. 289. + + 262 See Griffis’ _Life of Matthew Calbraith Perry_, p. 296. + + 263 The term emperor was employed in this letter in accordance with the + usage of the Jesuit Fathers, the Dutch writers, and William Adams, + all of whom designated the shōgun as emperor, although this term + could be properly applied only to the Tennō at Kyōto. + +_ 264 Official Narrative of the Japan Expedition_, vol. i., p. 80. + +_ 265 Official Narrative of the Japan Expedition_, vol. i., p. 231. + + 266 See the _Official Narrative of the Japan Expedition_, vol i., p. 233 + _et seq_; also Griffis’ _Life of M. C. Perry_, p. 314 _et seq_; also + Bayard Taylor’s _India, China, and Japan_, 1855, p. 411 _et seq_. + + 267 I have received from Mr. F. S. Conover, who was a member of the + Japan expedition as lieutenant of the navy, many interesting details + of experiences in Yedo which I have incorporated in my account. + + 268 “The question of landing by force was left to be decided by the + development of succeeding events; it was of course the very last + measure to be resorted to, and the last that was to be desired; but + in order to be prepared for the worst, the Commodore caused the + ships constantly to be kept in perfect readiness, and the crews to + be drilled as thoroughly as they are in the time of active + war.”—_Japan Expedition_, vol. i., p. 235. + + 269 See the _Kinsé Shiriaku_, a history of Japan from 1853 to 1869, + translated by E. M. Satow, Yokohama, 1876. + + 270 See Nitobe’s _Intercourse between the United States and Japan_, p. + 39. + + 271 See _Treaties and Conventions between Japan and Other Powers_, p. + 735. + + 272 See the _Constitutional Development of Japan_, by Toyokichi Iyenaga, + Ph.D., Johns Hopkins Press, 1891, p. 12. + + 273 See p. 279. + + 274 See selections from a pamphlet by a German resident at Yokohama + given in Mossman’s _New Japan_, pp. 142, 143, and quoted in Nitobe’s + _Intercourse between the United States and Japan_. “The reason the + Tycoon breaks his promise is because he cannot keep it, and the + reason he cannot keep it, is because he had no right to give it.” + + 275 See Nitobe’s _Intercourse between the United States and Japan_, p. + 59. + + 276 Prince Hotta was at this time president of the Council of State + (_Gorōjiu_) and had charge of this first audience. I have seen in + the possession of his descendant, the present occupant of the + beautiful family _yashiki_ in Tōkyō, the original of the memorandum + showing the arrangement of the rooms through which Mr. Harris was to + pass, and the position where he was to stand during the delivery of + his congratulatory remarks. + + 277 In a despatch to the Secretary of State, dated November 25, 1856, + Mr. Harris explains the condition of the negotiations in reference + to a commercial treaty. He narrates his interview at Hongkong with + Sir John Bowring, who told him that he was empowered to negotiate a + commercial treaty. Mr. Harris shrewdly observes: “I shall call their + (the Japanese government’s) attention to the fact that by making a + treaty with me they would save the point of honor that must arise + from their apparently yielding to the force that backs the + plenipotentiary and not to the justice of their demands.” + + 278 Although Kanagawa was made an open port for trade by these treaties, + the adjoining village of Yokohama was found practically better + suited for the purpose. The very proximity of Kanagawa to the + _Tōkaidō_, which led foreigners to prefer it when the treaties were + made, proved to be an objection in the disordered times that + followed. On this account Yokohama rapidly rose to the importance + which it still holds. + + 279 The word means Curtain Government, in reference to the curtain with + which the camp of a general was surrounded. The term is equivalent + to Military Government, and is used to designate the shōgun’s as + distinguished from the emperor’s court. + + 280 See _The Life of Ii Naosuke_, by Shimada Saburo, Tōkyō, 1888; also + the _Constitutional Development of Japan_, by Toyokichi Iyenaga, + Ph.D., Johns Hopkins University, 1891, p. 15. + + 281 Mr. Heusken who had gone to Japan with Mr. Townsend Harris in 1858 + was a Hollander by birth. The Dutch language at that time was almost + the only medium through which communication could be had with the + Japanese. A native interpreter turned the sentiment into Dutch, and + then a person who understood both Dutch and English translated it + into the latter tongue. This circuitous system of interpretation + was, however, soon remedied by native scholars learning English, and + by English and American scholars learning Japanese. + + 282 See _American Diplomatic Correspondence_, November 27, 1861. + + 283 A full account of this affair may be found in Alcock’s _Capital of + the Tycoon_, and in the _Life of Laurence Oliphant_. + + 284 A translation of this paper cited from the correspondence presented + to Parliament is given in Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. i., p. + 138. + + 285 See Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. i., p. 139. + + 286 In Mr. Satow’s translation of _Kinsé Shiriaku_ (p. 18) it is said + that the _bakufu_ ordered the house of Mito to arrest the men who + had broken into the English temple residence, but they made their + escape into Ōshiu and Dewa. + + 287 See the account of the negotiations of this embassy with Earl + Russell in Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. i., p. 177 _et seq._ + + 288 One of the officials naïvely told the American minister when + speaking of the reception of the embassy in the United States: “We + did not believe you when you told us of the friendly feeling of your + country for us; but we now see that all you said was true.” + + 289 The daimyō was really his own son who had been adopted by his + brother, the former daimyō, and who on the death of his brother had + succeeded him as daimyō. Shimazu Saburō was therefore legally the + uncle of his own son. + + 290 Dr. J. C. Hepburn, a resident in Kanagawa at this time, attended to + the wounded men at the U. S. Consulate. In a letter to me after + reading the above account, he says that, “it was the common report + at the time that Richardson did ride into Satsuma’s train and that + he (Satsuma) said, ‘Kill him.’ It was the general belief that + Richardson brought the whole catastrophe on himself.” + + 291 In addition to Terashima there were in the company Mori Arinori, + Yoshida Kiyonari, Hatakeyama Yoshinari, and others. They became + deeply imbued with the spirit of western institutions and with the + principles of constitutional liberty and toleration. Their influence + upon the new career of their country was marked and salutary. + Through the agency of Mr. Laurence Oliphant a part of them became + misled with the delusions of Thomas Lake Harris, and with him + removed to Brocton on the shores of Lake Erie, U. S. where they + resided for a time as members of the Brotherhood of the New Life. + They had as associates in this singular community Lady Oliphant and + her distinguished son, and like them were called upon to perform the + ordinary menial employments connected with the community. + + 292 It should be stated here that a despatch to the British envoy from + Earl Russell arrived just after the sailing of the expedition in + which he says: “That Her Majesty’s government positively enjoin you + not to undertake any military operation whatever in the interior of + Japan; and they would indeed regret the adoption of any measures of + hostility against the Japanese government or princes, even though + limited to naval operations, unless absolutely required by + self-defence.” Had this order arrived in time, it is probable that + the expedition would not have sailed.—_Correspondence Respecting + Affairs in Japan_, 1875, No. 1, p. 45. + + 293 It will be remembered that the United States at this time had + occasion to use all her ships-of-war at home in the civil war that + was raging. + + 294 See _Treaties and Conventions between the Empire of Japan and Other + Powers_, p. 318. + + 295 The only additional circumstance that deserves mention in this + connection is that in response to a widely expressed public + sentiment the Congress of the United States in 1883 refunded to + Japan $785,000.87, her share in this indemnity.—See _Treaties and + Conventions between the Empire of Japan and Other Powers_, p. 320. + + 296 See translation of _Kinsé Shiriaku_, Yokohama, 1876, p. 59. + + 297 See translation of _Kinsé Shiriaku_, Yokohama, p. 50. + + 298 See translation of _Kinsé Shiraku_, Yokohama, p. 24. + + 299 See citation in Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. i., p. 260. + + 300 Toyokichi Iyenaga, Ph.D., in his pamphlet on the _Constitutional + Development of Japan_, p. 17, traces the evolution of the present + parliamentary institutions to the conferences which were held at + this and subsequent times. + + 301 Among these was Sanjō Saneyoshi, who afterwards for many years was + the prime minister of the restored government. + + 302 See Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. i., p. 431. + + 303 The annalist from whom Adams quotes gives the number of houses + burned as 27,000. Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. i., p. 434. + + 304 See the Genji Yumé Monogatari and Satow’s note in Adams’ _History of + Japan_, vol. i., p. 407. + + 305 This distinguished soldier is better known under the name of Saigō + Takamori. He was originally an ardent anti-foreign partisan, and + through this sentiment became an advocate of a restoration of the + emperor. His services in this revolutionary movement were rewarded + by a pension granted and accepted by the emperor’s express + command.—See Mounsey’s _Satsuma Rebellion_, London, p. 22. + + 306 In this reconciliation of the Satsuma and Chōshū clans the court + noble, Iwakura Tomomi, took a prominent part, and after the + restoration was complete he became one of the principal officers in + the new government, holding the office of _Udaijin_ until his death. + He is best known to foreigners as the head of an embassy which + visited western countries in 1872-3. + + 307 See this memorial as given in Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. ii., + p. 24. + + 308 See Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. ii., p. 24. + + 309 See Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. ii., p. 37. + + 310 Translation of _Kinsé Shiriaku_, Yokohama, p. 30. + + 311 Translation of _Kinsé Shiraku_, Yokohama, p. 80. + + 312 See translation of _Kinsé Shiriaku_, Yokohama, p. 82. + + 313 See translation of _Kinsé Shiriaku_, Yokohama, p. 82. + + 314 With that talent for nicknaming which the Japanese exhibit, the + leading party in the new government was called _Sat-chō-to_; derived + from the first syllables of the clans, Satsuma, Chōshū, and Tosa. + + 315 See Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. ii., p. 84. + + 316 The numbers here given, of 10,000 troops in the rebel army and 1,500 + in the imperial army, are much less than those claimed by the + Japanese authorities, but Mr. Satow who had means of ascertaining + the truth gives the numbers as stated in the text. See Adams’ + _History of Japan_, vol. ii., p. 99, note. + + 317 An incident connected with this return illustrates both the times + and customs of the country. Hori Kura-no-kami, a prominent retainer + of the ex-shōgun, besought his master to commit _hara-kiri_ as the + only way in which his own honor and the dignity of the Tokugawa clan + could be preserved. He offered to join him in this tragic ceremony, + but the ex-shōgun declined to end his life in this way. Thereupon + the devoted retainer retired and in the presence of his own friends + himself committed _hara-kiri_. + +_ 318 American Diplomatic Correspondence_, April 3, 1868. + + 319 An English translation of this memorial will be found in Black’s + _New Japan_, vol. ii., p. 84. It shows what prejudices the statesmen + of that day had to overcome. See also _American Diplomatic + Correspondence_, 1868, p. 727. + + 320 See _Kinsé Shiriaku_, Yokohama, p. 116. + + 321 See _Kinsé Shiriaku_, Yokohama, p. 125. Also _American Diplomatic + Correspondence_, March 14, 1871. + + 322 This house was one of the five regent families (_go-sekké_) all of + the Fujiwara clan, from whom the _kwambaku_, _daijō-daijin_, or + _sesshō_, the highest officers under the emperor, were always filled + and from which the emperors selected their wives.—Dickson’s _Japan_, + p. 52. + + 323 See Chamberlain’s _Things Japanese_, 1892, p. 300. + + 324 Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. ii., p. 126. _American Diplomatic + Correspondence_, May 30, 1868. + + 325 Iyenaga’s _Constitutional Development of Japan_, p. 33. + + 326 See the despatch of Sir Harry Parkes, _British State Papers_, Japan, + 1870. + + 327 See Iyenaga’s _Constitutional Development of Japan_, p. 35. + + 328 See _British State Papers_, 1870, Japan. + + 329 A translation of this memorial will be found in the _British State + Papers_, 1870, Japan; also cited in Adams’ _History of Japan_, vol. + ii., p. 181. + + 330 See an analysis of the daimyōs who joined in this memorial in + _British State Papers_, 1870, Japan. + + 331 See _British State Papers_, 1870, Japan. + + 332 See Prince Azuki’s _Memorial_. + + 333 See Kido’s Original _Memorial_. + + 334 See Mounsey’s _Satsuma Rebellion_, pp. 247, 248. + +_ 335 Treaties and Conventions between Japan and Other Powers_, Tōkyō, + 1864, p. 646. + +_ 336 Treaties and Conventions between Japan and Other Powers_, Tōkyō, + 1884, p. 171. + + 337 This castle was built by Katō Kiyomasa after his return from the + Korean war. It still stands, being one of the most notable castles + of Japan. + + 338 See p. 47. + + 339 See p. 380. + + 340 This able document was prepared by Count Itō Hirobumi. An official + translation was published at Yokohama in 1889. + + 341 In the official list Jingō is not reckoned, and the time of her + reign is counted with that of her son and successor. + + 342 From _Japanese Chronological Tables_, by William Bramsen, 1880. + + The system of counting from year-periods (_nengō_) was introduced + from China. These periods of Japanese history do not correspond to + the reigns of the emperors. A new one was chosen whenever it was + deemed necessary to commemorate an auspicious or ward off a malign + event. By a notification issued in 1872 it was announced that + hereafter the year-period should be changed but once during the + reign of an emperor. The current period, _Meiji_ (Enlightened + Peace), will therefore continue during the reign of the present + emperor. + + The numbers in the second column of this table indicate the years as + counted from the founding of the empire by Jimmu Tennō. According to + the official chronology this occurred B.C. 660. + + 343 Translated from the chronology of the shōguns in _Mittheilungen der + deutschen Gesellschaft fur Natur und Volkerkunde Ostasiens_, Heft 3, + 1873. + + 344 The translation of these laws of Shōtoku Taishi was furnished by Mr. + Tsuji Shinji, late vice-minister of state for education, and by Mr. + Matsumoto Kumpei. + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPAN*** + + + +CREDITS + + +August 25, 2009 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by Steven Gibbs, Brian James, David King, and the + Online Distributed Proofreading Team at + <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 29798-0.txt or 29798-0.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/9/7/9/29798/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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