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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:48:15 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:48:15 -0700 |
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diff --git a/29798-h/29798-h.html b/29798-h/29798-h.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c06b02 --- /dev/null +++ b/29798-h/29798-h.html @@ -0,0 +1,15738 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /><meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /><link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" /><meta name="DC.Creator" content="David Murray" /><meta name="DC.Title" content="Japan" /><meta name="DC.Date" content="August 25, 2009" /><meta name="DC.Language" content="English" /><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="Project Gutenberg" /><meta name="DC.Identifier" content="http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/29798" /><meta name="DC.Rights" content="This text is in the public domain." /><title>The Project Gutenberg EBook of Japan by David Murray</title><style type="text/css">/* +The Gnutenberg Press - default CSS2 stylesheet + +Any generated element will have a class "tei" and a class "tei-elem" +where elem is the element name in TEI. +The order of statements is important !!! 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You may copy it, + give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project + Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this + eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: Japan + +Author: David Murray + +Release Date: August 25, 2009 [Ebook #29798] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPAN*** +</pre></div> + </div> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + + </div> + + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Japan</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style="font-size: 144%">By</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">David Murray, Ph.D., LL.D.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Late Advisor to the Japanese Minister of Education</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Third Edition</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">London</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">T. Fisher Unwin</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Paternoster Square</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1896</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Copyright by T. Fisher Unwin, 1894</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">(For Great Britain)</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Copyright by G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1894</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">(For the United States of America</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc1">Preface.</a></li><li><a href="#toc3">Chapter I. The Japanese Archipelago.</a></li><li><a href="#toc5">Chapter II. The Original And Surviving Races.</a></li><li><a href="#toc7">Chapter III. Myths And Legends.</a></li><li><a href="#toc9">Chapter IV. Founding The Empire.</a></li><li><a href="#toc11">Chapter V. Native Culture And Continental Influences.</a></li><li><a href="#toc13">Chapter VI. The Middle Ages Of Japan.</a></li><li><a href="#toc15">Chapter VII. Emperor And Shōgun.</a></li><li><a href="#toc17">Chapter VIII. From The Ashikaga Shōguns To The Death +Of Nobunaga.</a></li><li><a href="#toc19">Chapter IX. Toyotomi Hideyoshi.</a></li><li><a href="#toc21">Chapter X. The Founding Of The Tokugawa Shōgunate.</a></li><li><a href="#toc23">Chapter XI. Christianity In The Seventeenth Century.</a></li><li><a href="#toc25">Chapter XII. Feudalism In Japan.</a></li><li><a href="#toc27">Chapter XIII. Commodore Perry And What Followed.</a></li><li><a href="#toc29">Chapter XIV. Revolutionary Preludes.</a></li><li><a href="#toc31">Chapter XV. The Restored Empire.</a></li><li><a href="#toc33">Appendix I. List Of Emperors.</a></li><li><a href="#toc35">Appendix II. List Of Year Periods.</a></li><li><a href="#toc37">Appendix III. List Of Shōguns.</a></li><li><a href="#toc39">Appendix IV. Laws Of Shōtoku Taishi.</a></li><li><a href="#toc41">Footnotes</a></li></ul> + </div> + + </div> +<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageiii">[pg iii]</span><a name="Pgiii" id="Pgiii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> +<a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Preface.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is the object of this book to trace the story of +Japan from its beginnings to the establishment of +constitutional government. Concerned as this story +is with the period of vague and legendary antiquity +as well as with the disorders of mediæval time and +with centuries of seclusion, it is plain that it is not +an easy task to present a trustworthy and connected +account of the momentous changes through which +the empire has been called to pass. It would be +impossible to state in detail the sources from which +I have derived the material for this work. I place +first and as most important a residence of several +years in Japan, during which I became familiar with +the character of the Japanese people and with the +traditions and events of their history. Most of the +works treating of Japan during and prior to the +period of her seclusion, as well as the more recent +works, I have had occasion to consult. They will be +found referred to in the following pages. Beyond +all others, however, I desire to acknowledge my obligations +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageiv">[pg iv]</span><a name="Pgiv" id="Pgiv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic Society of +Japan</span></span>. A list of the contributors to these transactions +would include such names as Satow, Aston, +Chamberlain, McClatchie, Gubbins, Geerts, Milne, +Whitney, Wigmore and others, whose investigations +have made possible a reasonably complete knowledge +of Japan. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the German Asiatic +Society</span></span> are scarcely less noteworthy than those of +her sister society. To these invaluable sources of +information are to be added Chamberlain's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things +Japanese</span></span>, Rein's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span> +and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Industries of Japan</span></span>, +Griffis' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mikado's Empire</span></span>, +Mounsey's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Satsuma Rebellion</span></span>, +Dening's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Hideyoshi</span></span>, the published papers +of Professor E. S. Morse, and the two handbooks +prepared successively by Mr. Satow and Mr. Chamberlain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To friends who have taken an interest in this publication +I owe many thanks for valuable and timely +help: to Dr. J. C. Hepburn, who for so many years +was a resident in Yokohama; to Mr. Benjamin Smith +Lyman of Philadelphia who still retains his interest +in and knowledge of things Japanese; to Mr. Tateno, +the Japanese Minister at Washington, and to the +departments of the Japanese government which +have furnished me material assistance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the spelling of Japanese words I have followed, +with a few exceptions, the system of the Roman +Alphabet Association (Rōmaji Kai) as given in its +published statement. I have also had constantly at +hand Hepburn's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary</span></span>, +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dictionary of Towns +and Roads</span></span>, by Dr. W. N. Whitney, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Murray's +Handbook of Japan</span></span>, by B. H. Chamberlain. In +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv" id="Pgv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +accordance with these authorities, in the pronunciation +of Japanese words the consonants are to be +taken at their usual English values and the vowels +at their values in Italian or German. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">david murray.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/frontispiece.png" width="322" height="465" alt="Illustration" title="Bell At Kyoto" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Bell At Kyoto</div></div> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name="Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> +<a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter I. The Japanese Archipelago.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first knowledge of the Japanese empire was +brought to Europe by Marco Polo after his return +from his travels in China in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1295. He had +been told in China of <span class="tei tei-q">“Chipangu,<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> an island towards +the east in the high seas, 1500 miles from the +continent; and a very great island it is. The people +are white, civilized, and well favored. They +are idolaters, and are dependent on nobody. And +I can tell you the quantity of gold they have is +endless; for they find it in their own islands.”</span> The +name Chipangu is the transliteration of the Chinese +name which modern scholars write Chi-pen-kue, by +which Japan was then known in China. From it +the Japanese derived the name Nippon, and then +prefixed the term Dai (great), making it Dai Nippon, +the name which is now used by them to designate +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page002">[pg 002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +their empire. Europeans transformed the Chinese +name into Japan, or Japon, by which the country is +known among them at present. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Marco Polo's mention of this island produced a +great impression on the discoverers of the fifteenth +century. In Toscanelli's map, used by Columbus +as the basis of his voyages, <span class="tei tei-q">“Cipango”</span> occupies a +prominent place to the east of Asia, with no American +continent between it and Europe. It was the +aim of Columbus, and of many subsequent explorers, +to find a route to this reputedly rich island and to +the eastern shores of Asia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The islands composing the empire of Japan are +situated in the northwestern part of the Pacific +ocean. They are part of the long line of volcanic +islands stretching from the peninsula of Kamtschatka +on the north to Formosa on the south. The direction +in which they lie is northeast and southwest, +and in a general way they are parallel to the +continent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The latitude of the most northern point of Yezo +is 45° 35', and the latitude of the most southern +point of Kyūshū is 31°. The longitude of the most +eastern point of Yezo is 146° 17', and the longitude +of the most western point of Kyūshū is 130° 31'. +The four principal islands therefore extend through +14° 35' of latitude and 15° 46' of longitude. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Kurile islands<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> extending from Yezo northeast +to the straits separating Kamtschatka from the +island of Shumushu belong also to Japan. This last +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +island has a latitude of 51° 5' and a longitude of +157° 10'. In like manner the Ryūkyū islands, lying +in a southwest direction from Kyūshū belong to Japan. +The most distant island has a latitude of 24° +and a longitude of 123° 45'. The whole Japanese +possessions therefore extend through a latitude of +27° 5' and a longitude of 33° 25'. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The empire consists of four large islands and not +less than three thousand small ones. Some of these +small islands are large enough to constitute distinct +provinces, but the greater part are too small to have +a separate political existence, and are attached for +administrative purposes to the parts of the large +islands opposite to which they lie. The principal +island is situated between Yezo on the north and +Kyūshū on the south. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From Omasaki, the northern extremity at the +Tsugaru straits, to Tōkyō, the capital, the island +runs nearly north and south a distance of about 590 +miles, and from Tōkyō to the Shimonoseki straits +the greatest extension of the island is nearly east and +west, a distance of about 540 miles. That is, measuring +in the direction of the greatest extension, the +island is about 1130 miles long. The width of the +island is nowhere greater than two hundred miles +and for much of its length not more than one +hundred miles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Among the Japanese this island has no separate +name.<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> It is often +called by them Hondo<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +may be translated Main island. By this translated +name the principal island will be designated in these +pages. The term Nippon or more frequently Dai +Nippon (Great Nippon) is used by them to designate +the entire empire, and it is not to be understood as +restricted to the principal island. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The second largest island is Yezo, lying northeast +from the Main island and separated from it by the +Tsugaru straits. Its longest line is from Cape +Shiretoko at its northeast extremity to Cape Shira-kami +on Tsugaru straits, about 350 miles; and +from its northern point, Cape Soya on the La Perouse +straits to Yerimosaki, it measures about 270 +miles. The centre of the island is an elevated peak, +from which rivers flow in all directions to the ocean. +Hakodate the principal port is situated on Tsugaru +straits and possesses one of the most commodious +harbors of the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The third in size of the great islands of Japan is +Kyūshū, a name meaning nine provinces, referring +to the manner in which it was divided in early times. +It lies south from the western extremity of the Main +island. Its greatest extension is from north to +south, being about 200 miles. Its width from east +to west varies from sixty to ninety miles. Its +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +temperature and products partake of a tropical +character. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To the east of Kyūshū lies Shikoku (meaning four +provinces) which is the fourth of the great islands +of Japan. It is about one half as large as Kyūshū, +which in climate and productions it much resembles. +It is south of the western extension of the Main +island and is nearly parallel to it. Its length is +about 170 miles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the early history of Japan one of its names +among the natives was Ōyashima, meaning the +Great Eight Islands. The islands included in this +name were: the Main island, Kyūshū, Shikoku, +Awaji, Sado, Tsushima, Oki, and Iki. The large +island of Yezo had not then been conquered and +added to the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Awaji is situated in the Inland sea between the +Main island and Shikoku. It is about fifty miles +long and has an area of 218 square miles. Sado is +situated in the Japan sea, off the northwest coast +of the Main island. It is about forty-eight miles +long and has an area of about 335 square miles. +Tsushima lies half-way between Japan and Korea, +and has a length of about forty-six miles, and an +area of about 262 square miles. Oki lies off the +coast of Izumo and has an area of about 130 square +miles. Finally Iki, the smallest of the original +great eight islands, lies west of the northern extremity +of Kyūshū and has an area of fifty square +miles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Japanese islands are invested on the east +by the Pacific ocean. They are separated from +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page006">[pg 006]</span><a name="Pg006" id="Pg006" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the continent by the Okhotsk sea, the Japan sea, +and the Yellow sea. The Kuro Shiwo (black current) +flows from the tropical waters in a northeast +direction, skirting the islands of Japan on their east +coasts, and deflecting its course to the eastward +carries its ameliorating influences to the west coast +of America. It is divided by the projecting southern +extremity of the island of Kyūshū, and a perceptible +portion of it flows on the west coast of the Japanese +islands through the Japan sea and out again into +the Pacific ocean through the Tsugaru and the La +Perouse straits. The effect of the Kuro Shiwo +upon the climate and productions of the lands along +which it flows is not greatly different from that of +the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic ocean, which in +situation, direction, and volume it resembles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The body of water known among foreigners as +the Inland sea, but which the Japanese call Seto-no-Uchi-Umi +(the sea within the straits), is a picturesque +sheet of water situated between the Linschoten +straits on the east and the Shimonoseki straits on +the west. The latter is seven miles long and at its +narrowest part not more than two thousand feet +wide. It separates Kyūshū on the south from the +Main island on the north. The Inland sea is occupied +by an almost countless number of islands, which +bear evidence of volcanic origin, and are covered +with luxuriant vegetation. The lines of steamers +from Shanghai and Nagasaki to the various ports on +the Main island, and numberless smaller craft in +every direction, run through the Inland sea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The principal islands of Japan are interspersed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with mountains, hills and valleys. Yezo the most +northern of these islands is traversed by two ranges +of mountains; the one being the extension of the +island of Saghalien, the other the extension of the +Kurile islands. These two ranges cross each other +at the centre of the island, and here the greatest +elevation is to be found. The shape given to the +island by these intersecting ranges is that of a four-pointed +star. The rivers in nearly all cases flow +from the centre outward to the sea. There are few +large rivers. The most important is the Ishikari +which empties into Ishikari bay. The valley of +this river is the most rich and fertile part of the +island. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The mountain ranges on the Main island extend +usually in the greatest direction of the island. In the +northern and central portions the ranges chiefly run +north and south. In the western extension of this +island the mountain ranges run in nearly an east and +west direction. The ordinary height attained by +these ranges is not great, but there are many volcanic +peaks which rise out of the surrounding mass to a +great elevation. The highest mountain in Japan is +Fuji-san (sometimes called Fuji-yama). It is almost +conical in shape; although one side has been deformed +by a volcanic eruption which occurred in +1707. It stands not far from the coast, and is directly +in view from the steamers entering the bay of +Tōkyō on their way to Yokohama. It is about sixty +miles from Tōkyō in a direct line, and there are +many places in the city from which it can be seen. +Its top is covered with snow during ten months of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name="Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the year, which the heat of August and September +melts away. The height of Fuji-san according to the +measurement of English naval officers is 12,365 feet.<a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Next to Fuji-san the mountains most worthy of +notice are Gas-san in Uzen, Mitake in Shinano, the +Nikkō mountains in Shimotsuke, Haku-san in Kaga, +Kirishima-yama in Hyūga, and Asama-yama in +Shinano. Asama-yama is about 8,000 feet high, and +is an active volcano. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From time immemorial the Japanese islands have +been affected with earthquakes. Occasionally they +have been severe and destructive, but usually slight +and ineffective. It is said that not less than five +hundred shocks<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> occur in Japan each year. The last +severe earthquake was in the autumn of 1891, when +the central part of the Main island, especially in the +neighborhood of Gifu, was destructively disturbed. +During the long history of the empire many notable +cases<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> have occurred. Mr. Hattori-Ichijo in a paper +read before the Asiatic Society of Japan, March, 1878, +has compiled a list of destructive earthquakes, and +has deduced from it some important generalizations. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Closely associated with earthquakes in Japan as +elsewhere are the phenomena of volcanoes. The +whole archipelago bears evidence of volcanic formation. +The long line of islands stretching from +Kamtschatka to Borneo is plainly the product of +continued volcanic action. Dr. Rein<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> enumerates +eighteen active volcanoes now in existence within +the empire. Fuji-san in all its beauty was no doubt +thrown up as a volcano. The last time it was in +action was in 1707, when in connection with a series +of severe earthquake shocks, an eruption took place +on the south side of the mountain, and its symmetrical +form was destroyed by the production of the +new crater, Hōye-san. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Among the mountainous districts many small lakes +are found, a few of which are large enough to be +navigated. In Yezo there are six considerable lakes. +In the Main island the largest lake is Biwa, in the +beautiful mountain region north of Kyōto. It received +its name from its fancied resemblance to the +shape of a musical instrument called a +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">biwa</span></span>. There +is a legend that this lake came into existence in a +single night, when the volcanic mountain Fuji-san +300 miles distant was raised to its present height. +It is about fifty miles long and about twenty miles +broad at its greatest width. It is said to be not less +than 330 feet at its greatest depth. It is navigated +by steamboats and smaller craft. It is situated +about 350 feet above the ocean. Lake Suwa in +Shinano is 2,635 feet above the ocean. Lake Chūzenji +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in the Nikkō mountains is 4,400 feet; and +Hakoné lake near Yokohama is 2,400 feet. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Owing to the narrowness of the Main island, there +are no rivers of a large size. Most of them take +their rise in the mountainous regions of the middle +of the islands, and by a more or less circuitous route +find their way to the ocean. The Tone-gawa +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">gawa</span></span> +means river) is the longest and broadest of the +rivers of Japan. It rises in Kōtsuke and flows in an +eastern direction, receiving many tributaries, attains +a breadth of more than a mile, and with a current +much narrowed, empties into the Pacific ocean at +Chōshi point. It is about 170 miles long and is +navigated by boats for a great distance. The +Shinano-gawa, which may be named as second in +size, rises in the province of Shinano, flows in a +northern direction, and empties into the Japan sea +at Ni-igata. The Kiso-gawa also rises in the high +lands of Shinano, and, flowing southward, empties +into Owari bay. The Fuji-kawa<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> takes its rise in +the northern part of the province of Kai, and in its +course skirting the base of Fuji-san on the west, +empties into Suruga bay. It is chiefly notable for +being one of the swiftest streams in Japan and liable +to sudden and great floods. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To these rivers may be added the Yodo-gawa, +which is the outlet of Lake Biwa, in the province of +Ōmi, and which flows through Kyōto, and empties +into the Inland sea at Ōsaka. This river is navigable +for flat-bottomed steamboats as far as Kyōto. In +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the islands of Kyūshū and Shikoku there are no +large rivers; but there are many streams which give +to these islands their richness and fertility. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The climate of Japan, as might be expected from +its great stretch from north to south, and the varied +circumstances of ocean currents, winds, and mountains, +is very different in the different parts. The +latitude of Tōkyō is 35°, which is not very different +from that of Cyprus in the Mediterranean, or the +city of Raleigh in North Carolina. Besides the +latitude of the islands of Japan, the most noticeable +cause of their climatic condition is the Kuro Shiwo +(black current). This current flows from the tropical +regions near the Philippine islands, impinges on the +southern islands, and is divided by them into two +unequal parts. The greater part skirts the Japanese +islands on their east coast, imparting to them that +warm and moist atmosphere, which is one source of +the fertility of their soil and beauty of their vegetation. +To this important cause must be added another, +which is closely related to it in its effects. +The Japanese islands are in the region of the north-east +monsoon,<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> which affects in a marked degree the +climate of all parts over which the winds extend. +The same monsoon blows over the eastern countries +of the continent, but the insular character of Japan +and the proximity of the warm current on both sides +of the islands give to the winds which prevail a +character which they do not possess on the continent. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +During the greater part of September the +northern wind blows, which brings a colder temperature, +condensing the moisture contained in the +atmosphere. This month is therefore generally a +rainy month. Gradually the atmosphere becomes +more dry, and the beautiful autumn and early winter +follow in course. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The winter is very different in the different parts. +On the east coast the temperature is very moderate. +Even as far north as Tōkyō the snow rarely falls to +a depth of more than a few inches, and then rapidly +melts away. Ice seldom forms to a thickness, even +on protected waters, to permit skating. In all this +region, however, snow covers the high mountains. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the west coast of the Main island the conditions +are very different. The winds of the continent take +up the moisture of the Japan sea, and carry it to +the west coast, and then, coming in contact with high +ranges of mountains which run down the middle of +the island, impart their moisture in the form of rain +in summer, and snow in winter. These circumstances +produce extraordinary falls of snow on the west +coast. This is particularly true of the provinces of +Kaga, Noto, Etchū, Echigo, and even farther north, +especially in the mountainous regions. In the +northern part of these districts the snow is often as +much as twenty feet deep during the winter months. +The inhabitants are obliged to live in the second +stories of their houses and often find it necessary to +make steps from their houses out to the top of the +snow. One effect of these deep snows is to cover up +with a safe protection the shrubs and tender plants +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which would otherwise be exposed to the chilling +winds of winter. By this means the tea-shrub and +the camellia, which could not withstand the open +winter winds, are protected so as to grow luxuriantly. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The southern islands are materially warmer than +the Main island. The tropical current together with +the warm sunshine due to their low latitude, immerses +them in a moist and warm atmosphere. +Their productions are of a sub-tropical character. +Cotton, rice, tobacco, sugar, sweet potatoes, oranges, +yams, and other plants of a warm latitude, flourish +in Kyūshū and Shikoku. The high mountains and +the well watered valleys, the abundance of forest +trees, and wild and luxuriant vegetation,<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> give to +these islands an aspect of perennial verdure. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The productions of the Main island are, as might +be expected, far more various. In the southern +part, especially that part bordering on the Inland +sea, the productions are to a large extent similar to +those in the southern islands. Rice and cotton are +raised in great abundance. Tea flourishes particularly +in the provinces near Kyōto and also in the +rich valleys of the east coast. Silk-raising is a +principal occupation. Nearly one half in value of +all the exports from Japan is raw and manufactured +silk, and a large part of the remainder is tea. The +principal food raised in nearly all the islands is rice. +The streams of water which abound everywhere +make the irrigation which rice cultivation requires +easy and effective. Besides the rice which is raised +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in paddy land there is also a variety called upland +rice. This grows without irrigation but is inferior +to the principal variety in productiveness. In the +early rituals of the Shintō temples prayers were +always offered for the five cereals. These were +understood to be rice, millet, barley, beans, and +sorghum. All these have been cultivated from early +times, and can be successfully raised in almost all +parts of the islands. Rice cannot, however, be raised +north of the Main island. Millet, barley, and beans +are cultivated everywhere, and are the principal +articles of food among the country population. +Buckwheat is also cultivated in all northern parts. +It is believed to have been introduced from Manchuria +where it is found growing wild. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The domestic animals of Japan are by no means +so abundant as in the corresponding parts of the +continent. The horse has existed here from antiquity +but was only used for riding or as a pack-horse, but +never until recently was used for driving. The cow, +owing perhaps to the restrictive influence of the +Buddhist doctrines, was never used for food. Even +milk, butter, and cheese, which from time immemorial +formed such important articles of food throughout +Europe and among the nomadic peoples of Asia, +were never used. Sheep are almost unknown even +to this day, and where they have been introduced +it is only in very recent times and by foreign enterprise. +Goats are sometimes but not commonly +found. On the island of Ōshima,<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a> off the province +of Izu, they had multiplied to so great an extent +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and were so destructive to vegetation that about +1850 the inhabitants combined to extirpate them. +Swine are found in the Ryūkyū islands, where they +had been brought from China and they are found +only incidentally in other places when introduced by +foreigners. Dogs and cats and barnyard fowl are +found in all the islands. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Wild animals are only moderately abundant, as is +natural in a country so thickly inhabited. The black +bear is found frequently in the well-wooded mountains +of Yezo and the northern part of the Main +island. The great bear, called also by the Japanese +the red bear, and which is the same as the grizzly +bear of North America, is also common in the Kurile +islands and in Yezo. The wolf is sometimes found +and the fox is common. The superstitions concerning +the fox are as remarkable as those in the north +of Europe, and have doubtless prevented its destruction. +Deer are found in abundance in almost all +parts of the islands. They are, however, most common +in Yezo where immense herds feed upon the +plentiful herbage. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The waters around Japan abound in fish. The +coast is indented by bays and inlets which give +opportunity for fishing. The warm currents flowing +past the islands bring a great variety of fish which +otherwise would not reach these islands. By far the +most common article of food, other than vegetable, +is the fish of various kinds and the shell-fish which +are caught on the coasts and carried inland to almost +all parts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The division of the empire into provinces +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kuni</span></span>) +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was an important step in practical administration, +and it is often referred to in these pages. This division +was first made by the Emperor Seimu <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +131-190, when thirty-two provinces were constituted. +The northern boundary of the empire was indicated +by a line across the Main island from Sendai bay to +a place on the west coast nearly corresponding to +the present situation of Ni-igata. North of this line +was the acknowledged territory of the Ainos, and +even south of it were many tracts which were the +disputed border. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Empress Jingō, after her return from the +expedition against Korea in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 303, introduced +the Korean system of division, by constituting the +home provinces and circuits. After some changes +and subdivisions in subsequent times the apportionment +was settled as follows: <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gokinai</span></span> or the five +home provinces, viz. Yamashiro, Yamato, Kawachi, +Izumi, and Settsu; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tōkaidō</span></span>, or eastern sea circuit, +15 provinces; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tōzandō</span></span>, or eastern mountain circuit, +eight provinces; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sanindō</span></span>, or mountain back circuit, +eight provinces; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sanyōdō</span></span>, or mountain front circuit, +eight provinces; and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saikaidō</span></span>, or western sea circuit, +nine provinces; in all sixty-eight provinces. After +the close of the war of restoration in 1868, the large +territories in the north of the Main island represented +by the provinces of Mutsu and Dewa, which had +been conquered from the Ainos, were subdivided +into seven provinces, thus making seventy-three. +Still later the island of Yezo, with which were associated +the Kurile islands, was created a circuit +under the name of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hok-kaidō</span></span>, or north sea circuit, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +having eleven provinces. The number of existing +provinces therefore is eighty-four. In recent times +these eighty-four provinces have for administrative +purposes been consolidated into three imperial cities +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">fu</span></span>), forty-two prefectures +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ken</span></span>), and one territory +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">chō</span></span>). The imperial cities +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">fu</span></span>) are Tōkyō, Ōsaka, +and Kyōto; the one territory (<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">chō</span></span>) +comprises the island of Yezo and the adjacent small islands including +the Kuriles; and the prefectures (<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ken</span></span>) have +been formed from the provinces by combining and +consolidating them in accordance with their convenience +and proximity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There are only a few large cities in Japan, but +very many of a small size.<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> +Tōkyō,<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> the capital, +contains 1,155,200 inhabitants. Ōsaka, the second +largest city contains 473,541; Kyōto, the old +capital, 289,588; Nagoya, 170,433; Kōbé, 136,968; +and Yokohama, 127,987. These are all the cities +containing as many as 100,000 inhabitants. Besides +these there are four cities which have between +100,000 and 60,000; twelve which have between +60,000 and 40,000, and twelve which have between +40,000 and 30,000. The number of smaller +towns is very great. The division of the country +into <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">daimiates</span></span>, +and the maintenance of a <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">daimyō</span></span> +town in each led to the establishment of many cities +and large villages. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The population of the empire of Japan is to a large +extent massed in cities and villages. Even in the +country, among the farmers, the people are gathered +in settlements with wide spaces of cultivated and +uncultivated land between. This is due in a great +measure to the character of the crops and to the +primitive nature of the cultivation. Rice, which is +the most common crop, requires irrigation for its +successful tillage. This limits the area occupied to +the valleys and to those hillsides where the streams +can be diverted to the rice fields. The area of land +under actual cultivation is about 12,000,000 acres. +It has been estimated that the average amount of +land under cultivation is only three quarters of an +acre for each of those engaged in farming. This +amount seems to us very little and can only be +explained by the character of the cultivation. The +land almost always is made to bear two crops each +year. As soon as one crop is cleared away, and often +even before that, another is planted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to the census<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> of 1890 the population of +the Japanese empire is as follows: +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwazoku (nobles)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">3,768</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shizoku (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span>)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2,008,641</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Heimin (common people)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">38,441,052</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Total</td><td class="tei tei-cell">40,453,461</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The areas of the several large islands and their +dependencies together with their population are +given below: +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Sq. m.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Population.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Main island and dependencies</td><td class="tei tei-cell">87,485</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">31,052,068</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shikoku and dependencies</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7,031</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2,879,260</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kyūshū and dependencies</td><td class="tei tei-cell">16,841</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">6,228,419</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Yezo and dependencies</td><td class="tei tei-cell">36,299</td><td class="tei tei-cell">293,714</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Totals</td><td class="tei tei-cell">147,656</td><td class="tei tei-cell">40,453,461</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 30%; text-align: center"><img src="images/shintoists-preacher.png" width="440" height="592" alt="Illustration" title="Shintoists: Preacher" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Shintoists: Preacher</div></div> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 30%; text-align: center"><img src="images/shintoists-dancer.png" width="386" height="544" alt="Illustration" title="Shintoists: Dancer" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Shintoists: Dancer</div></div> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 30%; text-align: center"><img src="images/shintoists-assistant.png" width="396" height="1008" alt="Illustration" title="Shintoists: Assistant" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Shintoists: Assistant</div></div> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 30%; text-align: center"><img src="images/shintoists-mirror-dance.png" width="484" height="1016" alt="Illustration" title="Shintoists: The Mirror Dance" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Shintoists: The Mirror Dance</div></div> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> +<a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter II. The Original And Surviving Races.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the present population of Japan there are two +distinct races, the Ainos and the Japanese. Of the +former there is only a small number now remaining +in the island of Yezo. There was also a remnant in +the island of Saghalien, but in 1875, when a treaty +was made with Russia ceding the Japanese claim +to the southern half of Saghalien in exchange for +the Kurile islands, permission was granted for all +Japanese subjects who wished, to remove to the +Japanese island of Yezo. Accordingly among other +Japanese subjects seven hundred and fifty Ainos +removed to the valley of the Ishikari, where they +have continued to reside. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 40%; text-align: center"><img src="images/aino.png" width="324" height="462" alt="Illustration" title="Aino Family" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Aino Family</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Ainos are probably the original race, who in +early times inhabited the Main island down to the +Hakoné pass and possibly farther to the south. +From Japanese history we learn that the military +forces of the empire were constantly employed to +suppress the disturbances caused by the barbarous +people of the north. The necessity of this forcible +repression, which frequently recurred, was a chief +reason for the formation of a military class in the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +early history of Japan. One of the duties imposed +on Yamato-dake by his imperial father (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 71-130) +was to chastise and subdue the Yemishi. This is the +name by which the barbarous peoples of the north +and east were known among the Japanese. According +to Chamberlain<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> in his translation of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>, the +Chinese characters with which the Yemishi is written +mean Prawn Barbarians, in allusion to the long +beards which make their faces resemble a prawn's +head. The hairy people now known as Ainos are +almost certainly referred to. The origin of the term +Aino is unknown. By the Japanese it is believed +to be derived from <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">inu</span></span>, meaning a dog, +and to have been bestowed on them in contempt. The name is +not used by the Ainos themselves. In common +with the inhabitants of the Kurile islands and the +Japanese portion of Saghalien they call themselves +Yezo. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The present characteristics of the Ainos have led +many to doubt whether they are really the descendants +of the hardy barbarians who so long withstood +the military power of the Japanese. But the effect of +centuries of repression and conquest must be taken +into account. The Ainos have become the peaceable +and inoffensive people which we now find them, +by many generations of cruel and imperious restraint. +That they should have become in this +sequence of events a quiet and submissive people is +not wonderful. The number of Ainos in the island +of Yezo is given in 1880, which is the last census +made of them, as 16,637<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a>; and this number is believed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to be gradually decreasing. Travellers who +have visited them unite in testifying to their great +amiability and docility. Physically they are a sturdy +and well developed race. The characteristic which +has been noticed in them more than any other is the +abundant growth of hair. The men have a heavy +and bushy head of hair and a full beard which is +allowed to grow down to their chests. Other parts +of the body are also covered with a growth which +far surpasses that of the ordinary races. In the +matter of food, clothing, houses and implements, +they remain in the most primitive condition. In +personal habits they are far less cleanly than their +Japanese neighbors. Travellers<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href="#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> who have remained +with them for many weeks assert that in all that +time they never saw them wash either their persons +or their clothes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +They practise few arts. The making of pottery +even in its rudest forms is unknown. All vessels in +use are obtained by barter from the Japanese. Occasionally +an old-fashioned Japanese matchlock gun +is found among them, but mainly their hunting is +carried on with bows and arrows. Their fishing is +conducted with the rude apparatus which their ancestors +used. They have no written language, and +even the pictorial writing, which has often been +found among rude people, seems to be utterly unknown +among them. Their religious ideas<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href="#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> are of +the most vague and incoherent description. The objects +of worship are chiefly inanimate objects such as +rivers, rocks and mountains. They seem to have a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +certain fear of the spirit land. They do not readily +talk about their deceased ancestors. Their places of +burial are concealed, and foreigners rarely obtain +access to them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In their rude superstitions the bear seems to have +a singular part. Whether their traditions concerning +this animal had their origin in some earlier fear +of the bear as a ferocious neighbor it is impossible +to determine. In every community the men capture +each spring a young cub which they bring home. +They entrust it to a woman who feeds it on the milk +from her breast. When it is too old to be further +nursed in this way, it is confined in a bear cage provided +for the purpose. Then in the autumn of the +following year the grand bear festival is held. At +an appointed signal the door of the cage is opened +and the bear, which has been infuriated by hunger +and teasing attacks, rushes out. The assembled +hunters rush upon him with bows and arrows, clubs +and knives, and after an exciting struggle despatch +him. The carcass is cut in pieces and distributed +among the families of the community, who feast +upon it with great delight. Mingled with this rough +and exciting scene is much <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span> drinking. +This is one accomplishment which they have learned from +the Japanese. The men are all confirmed <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span> +drinkers, and both men and women persistent smokers. +Of the meaning and object of this bear feast the +Ainos themselves are ignorant. It goes back to a +period beyond their present traditions. Whether it +has in it an element of bear worship it is impossible +to learn. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The remains of the Stone age which are found in +the northern part of the Main island are usually +attributed to the Ainos. These remains have been +collected and studied both by native scholars and +by foreigners. Among the most important of them +have been the articles found in shell heaps uncovered +in different parts of the empire. The first<a id="noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a> to which +foreign attention was drawn was that at Ōmori, near +Tōkyō. Since then many others have been opened +and many valuable finds have been reported. The +shell heaps have evidently been used like kitchen-middens +in Europe and elsewhere, as places for +dumping the refuse of shell-fish used for food. +These became places for the throwing of useless +and broken articles used in the household, and thus +have been the means of preserving many of the +implements used in prehistoric times. The most +significant discovery made in these shell heaps was +that at Ōmori, of the bones of human beings artificially +broken in such a way as to indicate that cannibalism +had been prevalent at the time. Whether +this can be assumed as sufficient proof of so grave a +charge has been disputed. It is claimed<a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href="#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a> that in at +least seven similar shell heaps no human bones and +no evidences of cannibalism were found. If however +the case is considered as sufficiently proved, it +is clear from this as well as from many other circumstances +that the Ainos of that early day were by no +means the mild and gentle race which we now find +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +them. It is interesting to note that Marco Polo<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href="#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a> +mentions cannibalism as one of the customs which +were believed to exist in Japan in his day. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Besides the Ainos there is evidence of the existence +of another savage tribe, which at an early date +seems to have been found in many parts of the Main +island, and at a later date in the island of Yezo and +the Kurile islands on the north. They are the so-called +pit-dwellers. In the very earliest writings of +the Japanese we find references to them. They dug +pits in the earth and built over them a roof, and +used these pits or cellars as rooms in which to sleep. +The Japanese conquerors in the central parts of +the Main island had many conflicts with these pit-dwellers. +And in the north and east they as well as +the Ainos were encountered by the military forces +of the empire. They were probably driven north +by the more powerful Ainos and have almost disappeared. +Abundant evidence<a id="noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a> however is found in +the island of Yezo of their previous existence. The +Ainos in their traditions call them Koro-pok-guru,<a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href="#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a> +or hole-men. Among the Japanese they are spoken +of as Ko-bito, or dwarfs. There are said to be still +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in Yezo the remains of villages where these men +lived in earlier times. In the Kurile islands, in the +peninsula of Kamtschatka, and in the southern part +of Saghalien remnants of this primitive people are +met with. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Turning now to the Japanese race which extends +from the Kurile islands on the north to the Ryūkyū +islands on the south, we see at once that it is a +mixed race containing widely different elements. +Even after the many centuries during which the +amalgamation has been going on, we recognize still +the varying types to which the individuals tend. In +the south more than in the north, and more among +the ruling classes than in the laboring classes there +are specimens of a delicate, refined appearance, face +oval, eyes oblique, nose slightly Roman, and frame +delicate but well proportioned. Then there is +another type which has been recognized by all observers. +It is found more in the north than the +south and is much more common among the laboring +population than among the higher classes. The +face is broad and the cheek bones prominent. The +nose is flat and the eyes are horizontal. The frame +is robust and muscular, but not so well proportioned +and regular as in the former type. These two +types with many intervening links are found everywhere. +The characteristics are perhaps more marked +among the women than the men. Especially among +the aristocracy the women have been less affected +by weather and exposure and physical exertion than +the men. In the regions about Kyōto and in the +western portions of the Main island the prevalence +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of what may be called the aristocratic type is most +marked. Even in the time of the Dutch trade +with Japan, Kaempfer<a id="noteref_25" name="noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> refers to the women of Saga, +on the south coast of the Inland sea, as <span class="tei tei-q">“handsomer +than in any other Asiatic country.”</span> The northern +regions, including the old provinces of Mutsu and +Dewa, show a much larger element of the more +robust type. The men are more muscular and of a +darker complexion. Their faces are broader and +flatter and their hair and beard more abundant. +They show probably the influence of the admixture +with the Aino race, which within historic times inhabited +these provinces. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dr. Baelz, a German scholar who has spent many +years in Japan, has devoted much study to the races +of Japan, and has made elaborate measurements +both of living specimens and skeletons. His conclusions +may be safely followed, as having been reached by adequate +study and by personal investigation.<a id="noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> +Mainly following him therefore we give briefly the +results of the best thought in regard to the ethnography +of the races now inhabiting the Japanese +islands. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Ainos of the present day are the descendants +of the original occupants of northern and central +portions of the Main island. Their share in the +ancestry of the present Japanese people is not great, +but still sensible, and has contributed to the personal +peculiarities which are found in the inhabitants +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of these regions. They probably came originally +from the continent by way of the Kurile islands, or +by the island of Saghalien. They belong to the +northern group of the Mongolians who inhabit the +regions about Kamtschatka and adjacent parts of +Siberia. They have left marks of their occupancy +on the Main island as far south as the Hakoné pass, +in the shell heaps, flint arrow-heads, and remains of +primitive pottery which are still found. These +marks indicate a low degree of civilization, and the +persistence with which they withstood the Japanese +conquerors, and the harshness and contempt with +which they were always treated, have prevented them +from mingling to any great extent with their conquerors +or accepting their culture. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The twofold character of the Japanese race as it is +seen at present can best be explained by two extensive +migrations from the continent. The first of +these migrations probably took place from Korea, +whence they landed on the Main island in the province +of Izumo. This will account for the mythological +legends which in the early Japanese accounts +cluster to so great an extent around Izumo. It will +also explain why it was that when Jimmu Tennō +came on his expedition from the island of Kyūshū, +he found on the Main island inhabitants who in all +essential particulars resembled his own forces, and +with whom he formed alliances. This first migration +seems to have belonged to a rougher and more +barbarous tribe of the Mongolian race, and has given +rise to the more robust and muscular element now +found among the people. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The second migration may have come across by +the same route and landed on the island of Kyūshū. +They may have marched across the island or skirted +around its southern cape and spread themselves out +in the province of Hyūga, where in the Japanese +accounts we first find them. This migration probably +occurred long after the first, and came evidently +from a more cultured tribe of the great Mongolian +race. That they came from the same race is evident +from their understanding the same language, and +having habits and methods of government which +were not a surprise to the new-comers, and in which +they readily co-operated. On the contrary, the ruder +tribes at the north of the Main island were spoken of +as Yemishi,—that is, barbarians, and recognized from +the first as different and inferior. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While the natural and easiest route to Japan would +be by way of the peninsula of Korea, and by the +narrow straits about 125 miles in width,—divided +into two shorter parts by the island Tsushima lying +about half-way between,—it is possible that this +second migration may have taken place through +Formosa and the Ryūkyū islands. This would perhaps +account better for the Malay element which is +claimed by many to be found in the population of +the southern islands. This is attempted to be accounted +for by the drifting of Malay castaways along +the equatorial current upon the Ryūkyū islands, +whence they spread to the southern islands of Japan. +But the existence of this Malay element is denied +by many observers who have visited the Ryūkyū +islands and aver that among the islanders there is no +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +evidence of the existence at any time of a Malay immigration, +that the language is only slightly different +from the Japanese, and in personal appearance they +are as like to the Koreans and Chinese as the Japanese +themselves. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Some of the most important measurements which +Dr. Baelz has made of the Japanese races are here +given, converted into English measures for more +ready comprehension. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The average height of the males among the +Japanese, as obtained by the measurements of skeletons +verified by measurements of living specimens, +is 5.02 feet, ranging from 4.76 feet to 5.44 feet. The +average height of the females measured was 4.66 +feet, ranging from 4.46 feet to 4.92 feet. Referring +to the skulls measured by him he says that relatively +they are large, as is always the case among people +of small size. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The measurements of the Ainos by Dr. Scheube +as given by Dr. Rein<a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> are: average height of males +4.9 feet to 5.2 feet, and of females 4.8 feet to 5.0 +feet, which do not differ very greatly from the measurements +of the Japanese as given by Dr. Baelz. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> +<a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter III. Myths And Legends.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The art of writing and printing was not introduced +into Japan until <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 284, when it was brought +from China. Up to that time therefore no written +accounts existed or could exist of the early history +of the country. Oral tradition was the only agency +by which a knowledge of the events of that epoch +could be preserved and transmitted. That such a +method of preserving history<a id="noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href="#note_28"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> is uncertain and questionable +no one can doubt. We may expect to find +therefore in the accounts which have come down to +us of those centuries which transpired before written +records were introduced, much that is contradictory +and unintelligible, and much out of which the truth +can be gleaned only by the most painstaking research. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The oldest book of Japanese history which has +come down to us is called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>,<a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href="#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Records of +Ancient +</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic"> +Matters</span></span>. This work was undertaken by the +direction of the Emperor Temmu (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 673-686), who +became impressed with the necessity of collecting +the ancient traditions which were still extant, and +preserving them in a permanent record. Before the +work was ended the emperor died, and for twenty-five +years the collected traditions were preserved in +the memory of Hiyeda-no-are. At the end of that +time the Empress Gemmyō superintended its completion, +and it was finally presented to the Court in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 711. By a comparison of this work with +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chronicles of Japan</span></span>, +which was completed <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 720, +only nine years after the other, we are convinced +that the era of Chinese classicism had not yet fallen +upon the country. The style of the older book is a +purer Japanese, and imparts to us the traditions of +Japanese history uncolored by Chinese philosophical +ideas and classic pedantry which shortly after overwhelmed +Japanese literature. But in many particulars +these two works, almost equally ancient, +supplement and explain each other. The events +given in the two are in most respects the same, the +principal difference being that the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chronicles</span></span> is +much more tinctured with Chinese philosophy, and +the myths concerning the creation especially show +the influence of that dual system which had been +introduced to give a philosophical aspect to the +Japanese cosmogony. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span><a id="noteref_30" name="noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> has been translated into English, to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which have been added a valuable introduction and +notes. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Chronicles of Japan</span></span>) +has never been translated entire into English, but has been +used by scholars in connection with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>. +Among the Japanese it has always been more highly +esteemed than the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>, perhaps because of its +more learned and classical style. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Besides these two historical works the student of +early times finds his chief assistance in the Shintō +rituals<a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href="#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> contained in a +work called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yengishiki</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Code +of Ceremonial Law</span></span>). They have been in part translated +by Mr. Satow, who for many years was the +learned Japanese secretary of the British legation, +and who read two papers on them before the Asiatic +Society of Japan, and afterward prepared an article +on the same subject for the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster +Review</span></span>.<a id="noteref_32" name="noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It will be apparent from these circumstances that +the knowledge of the earlier events, indeed of all +preceding the ninth century, must be derived from +tradition and cannot claim the same certainty as +when based on contemporaneous documents. Not +only the whole of the so-called divine age, but the +reigns of the emperors from Jimmu to Richū, must +be reckoned as belonging to the traditional period +of Japanese history, and must be sifted and weighed +by the processes of reason. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Relying on the narratives of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span> and the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span>, Japanese scholars have constructed a table +of the emperors which has been accepted by the great +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +mass of the readers, both foreign and native. It will +be found in the Appendix.<a id="noteref_33" name="noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> It must be remembered +that the names of these early emperors, their ages at +the time of accession and at the time of death, and +the length of reign, must have all been handed down +by tradition during almost a thousand years. That +errors and uncertainties should have crept in seems +inevitable. Either the names and order of the successive +emperors, or the length of time during which +they reigned would be liable to be misstated. If we +examine the list of emperors<a id="noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a> we find that the ages +at death of the first seventeen, beginning with Jimmu +and ending with Nintoku, sum up 1853 years, with +an average of 109 years<a id="noteref_35" name="noteref_35" href="#note_35"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> for each. The age of +Jimmu is given as 127 years; of Kōan 137 years, of +Kōrei 128 years, of Keikō 143 years, of Nintoku, the +last, 110 years, etc. Then suddenly the ages of the +emperors from Richū onward drop to 67, 60, 80, 56, +etc., so that the ages of the seventeen emperors, beginning +with Richū, have an average of only 61-½ years. +This reasonable average extends down through the +long series to the present time. It is plain that up +to this time there must have existed a different system +of reckoning the ages than that which pertained +afterwards. Either the original epoch of the Emperor +Jimmu has been rendered more remote and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the lives of the emperors have been prolonged to fill +up the space, or, if we assume the epoch of Jimmu +to be correct, we must suppose that a number of the +emperors have been dropped from the count. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The sudden depression in the ages occurs about the +time of the introduction of writing from China, which +occurred in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 284. Wani, who came from Korea +to Japan bringing continental culture with him, was +appointed tutor to the heir-apparent who became +the Emperor Nintoku. During his and subsequent +reigns a knowledge of Chinese writing gradually +spread, so that the annals of the Imperial court were +kept in regular and stated order. This will account +without difficulty for the sudden change and for the +irregularity of the early chronology. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Notwithstanding the almost absolute certainty +of error which exists in the received Japanese chronology, +it is by far more convenient to accept it in +the form it is presented to us, and use it as if it were +true. The early history must be treated as traditional +and only the later period from the beginning +of the fourth century can be accepted as in any +sense historical. Yet the events of the earlier period +which have been preserved for us by oral tradition +are capable with due care and inspection of furnishing +important lessons and disclosing many facts in +regard to the lives and characteristics of the primitive +Japanese. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In writing the history of Rome, Dr. Thomas Arnold<a id="noteref_36" name="noteref_36" href="#note_36"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a> +said that the only way to treat its early history +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was to give the early legends in as nearly the form in +which they had been handed down as possible; that +in this way the spirit of the people would be preserved +and the residuum of truth in them would +become the heritage of the present generation. We +have tried to treat the myths and legends of Japanese +history in this manner, and have given the principal +stories as they are preserved among the Japanese. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Origin of the Celestial Deities.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The scene opens in the plain of high heaven. +When heaven and earth began there were three +deities<a id="noteref_37" name="noteref_37" href="#note_37"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a> in existence, that is: +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Master-of-the-August-Centre-of-Heaven,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">High-August-Producing-Wondrous-Deity,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Divine-Producing-Wondrous-Deity.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These three came into existence without creation +and afterwards died. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then two other deities were born from a thing +that sprouted up like unto a reed shoot when the +earth, young and like unto floating oil, drifted about +medusa-like, viz.: +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pleasant-Reed-Shoot-Prince-Elder-Deity,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Heavenly-Externally-Standing-Deity.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These two deities likewise came into existence without +creation and afterward died. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The five deities above named are called the +Heavenly Deities. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Next were born, +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Earthly-Eternally-Standing-Deity,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Luxuriant-Integrating-Master-Deity.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These two deities likewise came into existence +without creation and afterwards died. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Next were born, +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mud-Earth-Lord and Mud-Earth-Lady,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Germ-Integrating-Deity and Life-Integrating-Deity,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Elder-of-the-Great-Place and Elder-Lady-of-the-Great-Place,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Perfect-Exterior and Oh-Awful-Lady,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The-Male-who-invites and The-Female-who-invites;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">or Izanagi and Izanami.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The two deities named above together with these +five pairs are called the seven divine generations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Creation of the Japanese Islands.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then the heavenly deities gave commandment to +Izanagi and Izanami to make, consolidate, and give +birth to this drifting land. For their divine mission +they received a heavenly jewelled spear. With this, +standing on the floating bridge of heaven, they reached +down and stirred the brine and then drew up the spear. +The brine that dripped from the end of the spear was +piled up and became the island of Onogoro<a id="noteref_38" name="noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a> or Self-Coagulated +Island. Then the pair descended upon +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +this island and erected thereon a palace eight +fathoms long. Here they lived and begat successive +islands. The first was the island of Hirugo, +which, as it was a miscarriage, they put in a boat of +bulrushes and let it float away. The second was the +island of Awa, which also is not reckoned among their +offspring. The next was the island of Awaji,<a id="noteref_39" name="noteref_39" href="#note_39"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> and +the next the land of Iyo by which is understood the +present island of Shikoku. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +So in succession they produced the islands of Mitsugo, +near the island of Oki, the island of Tsukushi, +which is now called Kyūshū, the island of Iki, the +island of Tsu, and the island of Sado, and lastly the +Great-Yamato-the-Luxuriant-Island-of-the-Dragon-Fly, +which is supposed to mean the principal island, +named in these pages the Main island. Afterward +they produced Kojima in Kibi, Ōshima, the island +of Adzuki, the island of Hime, the island of Chika, +and the islands of Futago. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus were finished the labors of this industrious pair +in producing the islands of Japan. Then they turned +to the duty of begetting additional deities, and thirty-five +are named as their descendants. But as their +names do not appear in the record of subsequent +events, we omit them here. Finally the Deity of +Fire was born, and the mother in giving birth to +this child died and departed into hades. Izanagi +was overwhelmed with grief at his wife's death. The +tears which he shed turned into the Crying-Weeping-Female-Deity. +In his madness he drew the ten-grasp<a id="noteref_40" name="noteref_40" href="#note_40"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sabre with which he was augustly girded, and +cut off the head of the Deity of Fire. Three deities +were born from the blood that stuck to the blade; +three were born from the blood that besprinkled the +sword guard; two were born from the blood which +oozed out through his fingers as they grasped the +hilt; and eight were born from the head and trunk +of the slaughtered deity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Descent into Hades.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then Izanagi resolved to follow his spouse into +the land of hades. At the gate of the palace of +hades she came out to meet him. After an interview +with him she went back to seek the advice of +the deities of hades. To her impatient husband +she seemed to tarry too long. So he broke off the +end-tooth of the comb stuck in his hair, and kindling +it as a torch he went in. He was appalled by the +dreadful pollution of the place, and by the loathsome +condition of his spouse. He fled from the +scene followed by the furious guards. By guile and +by force, however, he escaped and came again to +the upper regions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Purification of Izanagi.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then Izanagi, in order to purify himself from the +pollution of hades, came to a small stream on the +island of Tsukushi. So he threw down the august +staff which he carried and it became a deity. He +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +took off his girdle and it became a deity. He threw +down his skirt and it became a deity. And he +took off his upper garment and it became a deity. +And from his trousers which he threw down there +was born a deity. Three deities were born from the +bracelet which he took from his left arm, and three +from the bracelet which he took from his right arm. +Thus twelve deities were born from the things which +he took off. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then he found that the waters in the upper reach +were too rapid, and the waters in the lower reach +were too sluggish. So he plunged into the waters of +the middle reach. And as he washed, there were +born successive deities, whose names it is not needful +to mention. But when he washed his left +august eye there was born from it the +Heaven-Shining-Great-August-Deity,<a id="noteref_41" name="noteref_41" href="#note_41"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a> +or as she is often called the +Sun Goddess. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When he washed his right august eye there was +born His-Augustness-Moon-Night-Possessor. Then +when he washed his august nose there was born His-Brave-Swift-Impetuous-Male-Augustness. +Thus fourteen deities were born from his bathing. All +these deities, as well as those before produced, seem +to have come into being in full maturity, and did +not need years of growth to develop their final +powers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Izanagi was greatly delighted with the beauty and +brilliancy of these last three children. He took +from his neck his august necklace and gave it to the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Sun Goddess, saying, Rule thou in the plains of high +heaven. Then he gave command to the Moon-Night-Possessor, +Rule thou the dominion of the +night. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And to His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness he +commanded, Rule thou the plain of the sea. +But His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness did not assume +command of his domain, but cried and wept +till his beard reached the pit of his stomach. Then +Izanagi said to him, How is it that thou dost not +take possession of thy domain, but dost wail and +weep? He replied, I weep because I wish to go to +my mother in hades. Then Izanagi said, If that be +so thou shalt not dwell in this land. So he expelled +him with a divine expulsion (whatever that may +mean). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Visit of His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness to the +Heavenly Plains.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness said, I +will first take leave of my sister who rules in the +plains of heaven. When the Sun Goddess saw her +brother coming she put jewels in her hair and on +her arms, slung two quivers of arrows on her back, +put an elbow pad upon her left arm, and, brandishing +her bow, she went out to meet him. She demanded +of him why he ascended hither. Then he replied +that he had no malicious intentions; that his august +father had expelled him with a divine expulsion, +and that he had come to take leave of her before +departing to the land of hades. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thereupon she proposed to him a test of his sincerity. +They stood on opposite sides of the tranquil +river of heaven. She begged him to reach her +his mighty sabre. She broke it into three pieces +and crunched the pieces in her mouth, and blew the +fragments away. Her breath and the fragments +which she blew away were turned into three female +deities. Then His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness took +the jewels which she wore in her hair, and the jewels +which she wore in her head-dress, and the jewels +she wore on her left arm, and the jewels she wore on +her right arm, and crunched them and blew them +out, and they were turned into five male deities. +Then the Sun Goddess declared that the three +female deities which were produced from her +brother's sword belonged to him, and the five male +deities which were produced from her own jewels +belonged to her. But His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness +was angry at this decision, and broke down the +fences of her rice fields, and filled up the water +sluices, and defiled her garden. And as she sat with +her maidens in the weaving hall, he broke a hole in +the roof and dropped upon them a piebald horse +which he had flayed with a backward flaying.<a id="noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href="#note_42"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Retirement of the Sun Goddess.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then the Sun Goddess closed the door of the +cave in which the weaving hall was, and the whole +plain of heaven and the Central-Land-of-Reed-Plains +were darkened, and night prevailed, and portents of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +woe were seen on every hand. Myriads of deities +assembled in the bed of the tranquil river of heaven +and besought the deity Thought-Includer, child of +the High-August-Producing-Wondrous-Deity, the +second of the original trio of deities, to propose a +plan for inducing the Sun Goddess to reappear. +They gathered the cocks of the barn-door fowl and +made them crow; they wrought a metal mirror; +they constructed a string of beautiful jewels; they +performed divination with the shoulder-blade of a +stag; they took a plant of Sakaki and hung on its +branches the strings of jewels, the mirror, and offerings +of peace. Then they caused the rituals to be +recited, and a dance to be danced, and all the assembled +deities laughed aloud. The Sun Goddess heard +these sounds of merriment and was amazed. She +softly opened the door and looked out, and asked +the meaning of all this tumult. They told her it +was because they had found another goddess more +illustrious than she. At the same time they held +before her luminous face the mirror which they had +made. Astonished, she stepped out, and they shut +and fastened the door behind her. And the plain +of heaven and the Central-Land-of-Reed-Plains became +light again. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then the assembled deities took council together, +and caused His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness to be +punished and expelled with a divine expulsion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness in Izumo.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +So His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness came to the +river Hi in Izumo. And he found there an old +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +man and an old woman and a young girl, and they +were weeping. And he asked them why they wept. +And the old man answered. I once had eight +daughters; but every year an eight-forked serpent +comes and devours one of them; and now it is the +time for it to come again. Then the deity said, +Wilt thou give me thy daughter if I save her from +the serpent? And he eagerly promised her. Then +the deity said, Do you brew eight tubs of strong +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span>, +and set each on a platform within an enclosure. +So they brewed and set the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span> according to +his bidding. Then the eight-forked serpent came and +putting a head in each tub drank up all the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span>, +and being intoxicated therewith went to sleep. The +deity then with his sabre hacked the serpent in +pieces, and the blood flowed out and reddened the +river. But when he came to the middle tail his sabre +was broken, and when he searched he found that +within the tail was a great sword which he took out. +And this is the herb-quelling-great-sword. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then His-Impetuous-Male-Augustness built for +himself a palace and dwelt there with his wife, and +made the old man the master of his palace. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Here follows a line of legends relating to the +deities of the land of Izumo, which do not concern +particularly our story, except that they show that +Izumo was closely connected with the early migrations +from the continent. It must be remembered +that Izumo lies almost directly opposite to Korea, +and that this would be a natural point to which +the nomadic tribes of Asia would turn in seeking for +new fields in which to settle. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plans for Pacifying the Land.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then the heavenly deities consulted together how +they might pacify the lands of Japan. They sent +down one of their number to report on its condition. +But he went no farther than the floating bridge of +heaven, and seeing the violence which prevailed he +returned. Then they sent another; but he made +friends with the insurgent deities and brought back +no report. Again they sent an envoy, who married +the daughter of the insurgent deity, and for eight +years sent back no report. After this they sent a +pheasant down to inquire why a report was not sent. +This bird perched on a cassia tree at the palace gate +of the delinquent envoy, and he hearing its mournful +croaking shot it with an arrow, which flew up +through the ether and landed in the plains of heaven. +The arrow was shot down again and killed the +envoy. Finally two other envoys were sent down, +who landed in Izumo, and after some parley with +the refractory deities of the land received their +adhesion and settled and pacified the land. Then +they returned to the heavenly plains and reported +that peace was established. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Descent of the August Grandchild.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Central-Land-of-Reed-Plains<a id="noteref_43" name="noteref_43" href="#note_43"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> being now reported +as peaceful, the heavenly deities sent +His-Augustness-Heaven-Plenty-Earth-Plenty-Heaven's-Sun-Height-Prince-Rice-Ear-Ruddy-Plenty,<a id="noteref_44" name="noteref_44" href="#note_44"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a> +who was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a grandson of Her-Augustness-the-Sun-Goddess, to +dwell in and rule over it. There were joined to him +in this mission<a id="noteref_45" name="noteref_45" href="#note_45"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a> the Deity-Prince-of-Saruta as his +vanguard and five chiefs of companies. They gave +him also the string of jewels and the mirror with +which the Sun Goddess had been allured from the +cave, and also the herb-quelling-great-sword which +His-Augustness-the-Impetuous-Male-Deity had +taken from the tail of the serpent. And they +charged him saying, Regard this mirror precisely as +if it were our august spirit, and reverence it as if +reverencing us. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then His-Augustness-Heaven's-Prince-Rice-Ear-Ruddy-Plenty, +taking leave of the plains of heaven, +and pushing asunder the heavenly spreading clouds, +descended upon the peak of Takachiho<a id="noteref_46" name="noteref_46" href="#note_46"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a> in Tsukushi, +a mountain which is still pointed out in the present +island of Kyūshū. And noting that the place was +an exceedingly good country, he built for himself a +palace and dwelt there. And he married a wife who +was the daughter of a deity of the place, who bore +him three sons whom he named Prince Fire-Shine, +Prince Fire-Climax, and Prince Fire-Subside. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Princes Fire-Shine and Fire-Subside.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now Prince Fire-Shine was a notable fisherman +and Prince Fire-Subside was a hunter. And Prince +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Fire-Subside said unto his elder brother, Let us exchange +our occupations and try our luck. And +after some hesitation on the part of the elder +brother the exchange was made. But Prince Fire-Subside +was not successful and lost the fish-hook in +the sea. Then Prince Fire-Shine proposed to his +younger brother to exchange back the implements +which they had used. But the younger brother +said he had had no luck and had lost the hook in +the sea. But Prince Fire-Shine was angry and +demanded his hook. Then Prince Fire-Subside +broke his sword into many fragments and made +them into fish-hooks, which he gave to his brother +in place of the one he had lost. But he would not +receive them. Then he made a thousand fish-hooks +and offered these. But he said, I want my original +hook. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And as Prince Fire-Subside was weeping by the +sea shore the Deity Salt-Possessor came to him and +asked him why he wept. He replied, I have exchanged +a fish-hook with my elder brother, and have +lost it, and he will not be satisfied with any compensation +I can make, but demands the original hook. +Then the Deity Salt-Possessor built a boat and set +him in it, and said to him, Sail on in this boat along +this way, and you will come to a palace built of +fishes' scales. It is the palace of the Deity Ocean-Possessor. +There will be a cassia tree by the well +near the palace. Go and sit in the top of that tree, +and the daughter of the Ocean-Possessor will come +to thee and tell thee what to do. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +So he sailed away in the boat and came to the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +palace of the Ocean-Possessor, and he climbed the +cassia tree and sat there. And the maidens of the +daughter of the Sea Deity came out to draw water, +and saw the beautiful young man sitting in the tree. +Then he asked them for some water. And they +drew water and gave it to him in a jewelled cup. +Without drinking from it he took the jewel from his +neck and put it in his mouth and spat it into the +vessel, and it clung to the vessel. So the maidens +took the vessel and the jewel clinging to it into the +palace to their mistress. And they told her that a +beautiful young man was sitting in the cassia tree +by the well. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Sea Deity then went out himself and recognized +the young man as Prince Fire-Subside. He +brought him into the palace, spread rugs for him to +sit on, and made a banquet for him. He gave him +his daughter in marriage, and he abode there three +years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At last one morning his daughter reported to the +Sea Deity that Prince Fire-Subside, although he had +passed three years without a sigh, yet last night he +had heaved one deep sigh. The Sea Deity asked +him why he sighed. Then Prince Fire-Subside told +him about his difficulty with his brother, and how +he would accept no compensation for his lost fish-hook, +but demanded the return of the original. +Thereupon the Sea Deity summoned together all +the fishes of the sea and asked them if any one of +them had swallowed this hook. And all the fishes +said that the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">tai</span></span> +had complained of something sticking +in its throat, and doubtless that was the lost +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +hook. The throat of the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">tai</span></span> +therefore being examined, +the hook was found and given to Prince +Fire-Subside. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then the Sea Deity dismissed him to his own +country, and gave him two jewels, a flow-tide jewel +and an ebb-tide jewel. And he set him on the head +of an immense crocodile and bade the crocodile convey +him carefully and come back and make a report. +And Prince Fire-Subside gave the recovered hook to +his brother. But a spirit of animosity still dwelt in +his heart, and he tried to kill his brother. Then +Prince Fire-Subside threw out the flow-tide jewel, +and the tide came in upon the Prince Fire-Shine and +was about to drown him. And he cried out to his +brother and expressed his repentance. Then Prince +Fire-Subside threw out the ebb-tide jewel and the +tide flowed back and left him safe. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then Prince Fire-Shine bowed his head before his +younger brother, and said, Henceforth I will be thy +guard by day and night, and will faithfully serve +thee. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And His-Augustness-Prince-Fire-Subside succeeded +his father and dwelt in the palace of +Takachiho five hundred and eighty years. The +place of his tomb is still shown on Mount Takachiho +in the province of Hyūga of the island of Kyūshū. +And he left as his successor his son, whom the +daughter of the Sea Deity had borne him. And +this son was the father of His-Augustness-Divine-Yamato-Iware-Prince, +who is known to posterity by +his canonical name of Jimmu, the first emperor of +Japan. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> +<a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter IV. Founding The Empire.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have now come to the time when the movements +which resulted in the establishment of the +empire of Japan took place. The events are still +overlaid with myth and legend, which could only +have been transmitted by oral tradition. But they +have to do with characters and places which are tied +to the present by stronger cords than those of the +divine age. What the events really were which are +involved in the myths of the preceding chapter it is +impossible to predicate. That the celestial invasion +of the island of Kyūshū means the coming thither +of a chief and his followers from the continent by +way of Korea seems most reasonable. The inter-mixture +of Izumo with these legends may mean +that another migration of a kindred race took place +to that part of the Main island. The easy access to +both Izumo and Kyūshū from Korea makes these +migrations the natural explanation of the landing +of the Japanese upon these fertile and tempting +islands. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Without settling the difficult ethnographical questions +which are involved in this problem, we propose +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to follow the Kyūshū invaders into the Main island. +We will note the slow and laborious steps by which +they proceeded to establish a government, which +through many changes and emergencies continues +to this day. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Prince, whom we will continue to call Jimmu,<a id="noteref_47" name="noteref_47" href="#note_47"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a> +had an elder brother, Prince Itsu-se, who seems, however, +to have been less active and energetic than the +younger. At least, even from the first it is Prince +Jimmu who is represented as taking the initiative in +the movements which were now begun. The two +brothers consulted together and resolved to conduct +an expedition towards the east. It will be remembered +that their grandfather had established his +palace on Mount Takachiho, which is one of the two +highest peaks in Kyūshū, situated in the province +of Hyūga, nearly in the middle of the southern +extension of the island of Kyūshū. It was from +this place that the two brothers started on their expedition. +It was no doubt such an expedition as +the Norse Vikings of a later day often led into the +islands of their neighbors. They had with them a +force composed of the descendants of the invaders +who had come with their grandfather from the continent. +They marched first through the country +called Toyo, which was a luxuriant and fertile region +on the northeast part of the island. Thence +they marched to the palace of Wokada, situated in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a district of the island of Tsukushi, lying on the +northwest coast facing Tsushima and the peninsula +of Korea, and bordering on the straits of the Inland +sea. Here they remained a year and probably +built the boats by which they crossed the Inland sea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From Tsukushi they crossed to the province of +Aki in the Main island on the coast of the Inland +sea, where it is said they remained seven years. +The progress seems like that of the hordes of the +Goths in the early ages of European history. It +was not merely a military expedition, but a migration +of a tribe with all its belongings, women and +children, old men and old women, and household +and agricultural effects. The military band under +Prince Jimmu and his brother formed the vanguard +and protection of the tribe. During their seven +years' sojourn in Aki they were compelled to resort +to agriculture as well as fishing for their support. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then they skirted along the north coast of the +Inland sea to Takashima in the province of Kibi. +Thence they crept with their awkward boats eastward +among the luxuriant islands. They met a +native of the coast out in his boat fishing and engaged +his services as a guide. He conducted them +to Naniwa, which now bears the name of Ōsaka, +where they encountered the swift tides and rough +sea which navigators still meet in this place. Finally +they landed at a point which we cannot recognize, +but which must have been in the neighborhood of +Ōsaka at the mouth of the Yodo river. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Here their conflicts with the natives began. The +whole region seems to have been occupied by tribes +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +not unlike their own, who had probably come thither +from the settlements in Izumo. The first to dispute +their progress was Prince Nagasuné (Long Legs), +of Tomi, who raised an army and resisted the landing +of the invaders. It was in the battle that ensued +at this place that Prince Itsu-se, the elder brother, +received a wound in his hand from an arrow shot by +Prince Nagasuné. The reason given reveals a curious +superstition which seems to have prevailed from +this early time. The Japanese prince on receiving +the wound exclaims, <span class="tei tei-q">“It is not right for me, an +august child of the Sun Goddess, to fight facing the +sun. It is for this reason that I am stricken by the +wretched villain's hurtful hand.”</span> Prince Itsu-se, after +a few days, died from the effects of the wound. He +is buried on mount Kama in the province of Kii. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is needless to recount all the legends which +cluster around this invasion of the central provinces +of Japan; about the wild boar which came out of +the mountains near Kumano, before which Prince +Jimmu and all his warriors fell down in a faint; +about the miraculous sword which was sent down +from the heavenly plains to aid him in subduing the +Central-Land-of-Reed-Plains; about a crow eight feet +long which was sent to guide him in his expedition, +and about the deities with tails who in several +places were encountered. To our conception they +seem meaningless, and do not in any measure contribute +to the progress of the story. They bear +evidence of a later invention, and do not belong +legitimately to the narrative. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At Uda, on the east coast of the Yamato peninsula, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +there lived two brothers named Ukashi. The +elder brother undertook to deceive Prince Jimmu, +and set a trap in which to capture and slay him. +But the younger brother revealed the plot, whereupon +the followers of Prince Jimmu compelled the +traitor to retreat into his own trap, where they killed +him. The younger brother was honored and rewarded +by Jimmu, and appears afterward among +the hereditary princes of the country. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Again, as he was making his progress through the +country Prince Jimmu came upon a company of the +savages known as pit-dwellers,<a id="noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href="#note_48"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a> whom the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span> +calls earth-spiders, and describes them as having +tails. There appear to have existed at this period +remnants of these tribes as far south as the 35th +parallel. At a later period they were driven out by +the Ainos, and nothing but some of their relics now +exists, even in Yezo. The peculiarity by which they +were known was, that they lived in a sort of pit dug +out of the earth in the sides of the mountains, over +which they built a roof of limbs and grass. In the +present case there were eighty of the warriors of +this tribe. Prince Jimmu made a banquet for them +in one of their pits and assigned an equal number of +his own men to act as attendants. Each of these +attendants was girded with a sword. Then from a +post outside he sang a song,<a id="noteref_49" name="noteref_49" href="#note_49"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a> and at a given signal +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in this song the eighty attendants fell upon the +eighty earth-spiders and slew them all. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus having subdued all opposing forces and +brought the country into subjection, Prince Jimmu +established himself in a palace built for him at Kashiwara +in the province of Yamato. This is usually +regarded by Japanese historians as the beginning of +the empire, and the present era<a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href="#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a> is reckoned from +this establishment of a capital in Yamato. From +the record of the length of the reigns of the several +emperors contained in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>, +and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span>, +and later books, the date of the accession of the +Emperor Jimmu is fixed at 660 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> We have given +elsewhere<a id="noteref_51" name="noteref_51" href="#note_51"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> +our reason for believing the record of +the early reigns of doubtful authenticity. Nevertheless, +as it is impossible to propose a definite +change, it is better to use the accepted scheme with +its admitted defects. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Emperor Jimmu after his accession continued +to reign seventy-five years and, according to the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>, died at the age of one hundred and thirty-seven. +The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span>, however, gives his age at +death as one hundred and twenty-seven, and this +has been adopted by the government in its published +chronology.<a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" href="#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> His burial place is said to be on the +northern side of mount Unebi in the province of +Yamato. It is just to assign to the Emperor Jimmu +the exalted place which the Japanese claim for him +in their history. That he was a prince of high enterprise +is evident from his adventurous expedition +from the home of his family into the barbarous and +unknown regions of the Main island. He accomplished +its conquest with less slaughter and cruelty +than the customs of the times seemed to justify. +He made it his policy to effect terms with the native +princes and seek their co-operation in his government. +He extended his sway so that it covered Anato, now +known as Nagato, and Izumo on the west, and +reached probably to Owari on the east. All this +time he had held a firm hand on the island from +which he had come, so that few if any outbreaks +occurred among its restless Turanian or native inhabitants. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Emperor Jimmu was succeeded by his third +son, known by his canonical name as the Emperor +Suizei. The reigning emperor, it seems, exercised +the right to select the son who should succeed him. +This was not always the oldest son, but from the +time he was chosen he was known as <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">taishi</span></span>, +which is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +nearly equivalent to the English term crown prince. +The Emperor Suizei, it is said, occupied a palace at +Takaoka, in Kazuraki, in the province of Yamato. +This palace was not far from that occupied by his +father, yet it was not the same. And in the reigns +of the successive sovereigns down to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 709, when +the capital was for a time established at Nara, we +observe it as a most singular circumstance that each +new emperor resided in a new palace. In the first +place, the palace spoken of in these early times was +probably a very simple structure. Mr. Satow, in his +paper<a id="noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href="#note_53"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a> on the temples at Isé, gives an account of the +form and construction of the prehistoric Japanese +house. The Shintō temple in its pure form is probably +a survival of the original palace. Before the +introduction of edge-tools of iron and boring implements +or nails, the building must have been +constructed in a very primitive fashion. It will be +understood that stone or brick were never used. +Wood was the only material for the frame. The +roof was thatched with rushes or rice straw. The +pure Shintō temples of modern times are built with +the utmost simplicity and plainness. Although +the occasion for adhering to primitive methods has +long since passed away, yet the buildings are conformed +to the styles of structure necessary before +the introduction of modern tools and appliances. +To build a new palace therefore for a new emperor +involved by no means such an outlay of time and +work as might be imagined. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is not improbable that when a young man was +chosen crown prince he had an establishment of his +own assigned to him, and this became his palace +which he occupied when he became emperor. When +a man died, and especially when an emperor died, it +was an ancient custom to abandon his abode. It +became unclean by the presence in it of a dead body, +and therefore was no longer used. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"><img src="images/shinto-temple.png" width="329" height="307" alt="Illustration" title="Shinto Temple" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Shinto Temple</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nothing is narrated of the immediate successors +of the Emperor Jimmu of importance to this story. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +The accounts contained in either of the oldest histories +relate merely to the genealogies of the several +sovereigns. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Emperor Suizei was, as we have seen, the +third son of Jimmu and reigned thirty-two years, +dying at the age of eighty-four.<a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href="#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The third emperor was Annei, the only son of the +Emperor Suizei. He reigned thirty-seven years and +died at the age of fifty-seven. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fourth emperor was Itoku, the oldest son of +the Emperor Annei. He reigned thirty-three years +and died at the age of seventy-seven. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fifth emperor was Kōshō, the oldest son of +the Emperor Itoku. He reigned eighty-two years +and died at the age of one hundred and fourteen +years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The sixth emperor was Kōan, the oldest son of +the Emperor Kōshō. He reigned one hundred and +one years and died at the age of one hundred and +thirty-seven. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The seventh emperor was Kōrei, the second son +of the Emperor Kōan. He reigned seventy-five +years and died at the age of one hundred and twenty-eight. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The eighth emperor was Kōgen, the oldest son of +the Emperor Kōrei. He reigned fifty-six years and +died at the age of one hundred and sixteen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ninth emperor was Kaikwa, a younger son +of the Emperor Kōgen. He reigned fifty-nine years +and died at the age of one hundred and eleven. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The tenth emperor was Sūjin, a younger son +of the Emperor Kaikwa. He reigned sixty-seven +years and died at the age of one hundred and nineteen. +It is narrated that during his reign a pestilence +broke out which was so severe that the country +was almost depopulated. The emperor was greatly +disturbed by this calamity, and there appeared to +him in the night a divine vision. The Great Deity, +the Great Master of Things, appeared and revealed +to him, that if he would cause him to be appropriately +worshipped the pestilence would cease. The +worship was accordingly ordained and executed, and +the pestilence forthwith abated. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In this reign expeditions were also sent into the +northwestern and northeastern districts of the Main +island to repress the disturbances which had arisen. +The reports from these expeditions were in each +case favorable, and the whole empire was in a condition +of quiet and prosperity, such as had not before +existed. Taxes were for the first time levied on the +proceeds of the chase and on the handiwork of the +women. Reservoirs for the collection of water, used +in the irrigation of the rice crops, were constructed +in the imperial provinces, and encouragement was +everywhere given to the growing industries of the +country. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Emperor Sūjin was succeeded by his younger +son who is known as the eleventh emperor under the +name of Suinin. He is said to have reigned ninety-nine +years, and to have died at the age of one +hundred and forty-one. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A conspiracy came near ending the life of this +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +emperor. A brother of the empress was ambitious +to attain supreme authority. He approached his +sister with the subtle question, Which is dearer to +thee, thine elder brother or thy husband? She replied, +My elder brother is dearer. Then he said, +If I be truly the dearer to thee, let me and thee rule +the empire. And he gave her a finely tempered +dagger and said to her, Slay the emperor with this +in his sleep. So the emperor, unconscious of danger, +was sleeping one day with his head on the lap of the +empress. And she, thinking the time had come, +was about to strike him with the dagger. But her +courage failed her, and tears fell from her eyes on +the face of the sleeping emperor. He started up, +awakened by the falling tears, and said to her, I +have had a strange dream. A violent shower came +up from the direction of Saho and suddenly wet my +face. And a small damask-colored snake coiled +itself around my neck. What can such a dream +betoken? Then the empress, conscience-stricken, +confessed the conspiracy with her brother. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The emperor, knowing that no time was to be lost, +immediately collected a force of troops and marched +against his brother-in-law. He had entrenched himself +behind palisades of timber and awaited the +emperor's attack. The empress, hesitating between +her brother and her husband, had made her escape +to her brother's palace. At this terrible juncture +she was delivered of a child. She brought the child +to the palisades in sight of the emperor, and cried +out to him to take it under his care. He was deeply +moved by her appeal to him and forthwith planned +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to rescue both the child and its mother. He chose +from among his warriors a band of the bravest and +most cunning, and commanded them, saying, When +ye go to take the child, be sure that ye seize also the +mother. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But she, fearing that the soldiers would try to +snatch her when they came for the child, shaved off +her hair and covered her head with the loose hair as +if it were still adhering. And she made the jewel-strings +around her neck and arms rotten, and she +rendered her garments, by which they might catch +hold of her, tender by soaking them in <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span>. +When the soldiers came to her she gave them the +child and fled. Then they seized her by the hair +and it came away in their hands; and they clutched +at the jewel-strings and they broke; and then they +grasped her garments, but they had been rendered +tender and gave way in their hands. So she escaped +from them and fled. Then they went back to the +emperor and reported that they had been unable to +capture the mother, but they had brought the babe. +The emperor was angry at what the soldiers told +him. He was angry at the jewellers who had made +the rotten jewel-strings and deprived them of their +lands. He called to the empress through the burning +palisades around the palace—for the soldiers +had set fire to the palace—saying, A child's +name must be given by its mother; what shall be +the name of this child? And she answered, Let it +be called Prince Homu-chiwake. And again he +called: How shall he be reared? She replied, Take +for him a foster-mother and bathing woman who +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +shall care for him. Then he asked again, saying: +Who shall loosen the small, fresh pendant which you +have tied upon him? And she gave directions concerning +this also. Then the emperor paused no +longer, but slew the rebellious prince in his burning +palace, and the empress perished with her wicked +brother. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Following this is a long legend concerning this +child which was dumb from its birth, and how he +was sent to worship at the temple of the deities of +Izumo, and how he miraculously attained the power +of speech and was brought back to his father. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was during the reign of this emperor also that +Tajima-mori was sent to China to fetch specimens +of the orange-tree for introduction into Japan. He +returned with them, but when he reached the capital +the emperor was dead. The messenger was shocked +and brought the specimens of the orange-tree to the +burial place of the emperor, where he died from grief. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Up to this time it seems to have been the cruel +custom to bury with the deceased members of the +imperial family, and perhaps with others of high +rank, the living retainers and horses who had been +in their service. It is said that when the emperor's +younger brother died (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 2) they buried along with +him his living retainers, placing them upright in a +circle around him and leaving their heads uncovered. +Night and day were heard the agonizing cries of +these thus left to die of starvation. The emperor +was greatly moved and resolved that this terrible +custom should be abolished. Four years later the +empress herself died, and the emperor called together +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +his counsellors to propose some plan by which this +practice of living sacrifices could be avoided. Thereupon +one of his counsellors, Nomi-no-Sukuné, advanced +and begged the emperor to listen to a scheme +which he had to present. He suggested that, instead +of burying the living retainers with their master or +mistress, clay images of men and women and horses +be set up in a circle around the burial place. The +plan pleased the emperor vastly, and images were at +once made and buried around the dead empress. +As a mark of his high appreciation Nomi-no-Sukuné +was appointed chief of the clay-workers guild. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It appears probable that this cruel usage of burying +living retainers with their dead master was not +entirely ended by this substitution of clay images. +As late as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 646 the emperor found it necessary +to prescribe regulations for funerals and to forbid +the burial of living retainers. Mr. Satow<a id="noteref_55" name="noteref_55" href="#note_55"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> has given +a most interesting account of this edict which pertains +not only to the practice of burial of retainers, +but also to the size of vaults and mounds and the +number of laborers who might be employed in preparing +the structure. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The images used as a substitute for living retainers +were called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tsuchio Ningio</span></span> (clay images). They +have been found in many parts of the country, especially +in the home provinces where the burial of the +imperial families and the connected nobility took +place. This burying of images seems to have died +out about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 700. Its discontinuance probably +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was owing to the growing prevalence of Buddhism +which discountenanced a custom founded on a religion +anterior to it. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"><img src="images/buried-images.png" width="320" height="407" alt="Illustration" title="Buried Images" /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Buried Images</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Emperor Suinin was succeeded by his younger +son Keikō who became the twelfth emperor. He +reigned fifty-nine years, and died at the age of one +hundred and forty-three. His son, Prince O-usu, +who afterward was known as Yamato-dake, is represented +as pursuing a most daring and romantic +career. The myths concerning him are among the +most picturesque in Japanese history. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first adventure narrated of him was regarding +his elder brother. His father asked him, Why does +not thy elder brother make his appearance at the +imperial banquets? Do thou see after this and +teach him his duty. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A few days after his father said again to him, +Why dost not thy brother attend to his duty? +Hast thou not warned him as I bade thee? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The young prince replied that he had taken that +trouble. Then his father said, How didst thou +take the trouble to warn him? And the prince +coolly told him that he had slain him and thrown +his carcass away. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The emperor was alarmed at the coolness and +ferocity of his son, and bethought how he might +employ him advantageously. Now there were at +Kumaso in Kyūshū two brothers, fierce and rebellious +bandits, who paid small respect to the imperial +wishes. The emperor conceived that it would be a +fitting achievement for his fearless son to put an +end to these reckless outlaws. So Yamato-dake borrowed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +from his aunt her female apparel, and hiding +a sword in the bosom of his dress, he sought out the +two outlaws in their hiding-place. They were about +to celebrate the occupancy of a new cave which they +had fitted up for themselves. They had invited a +goodly number of their neighbors, and especially +of the female sex. Prince Yamato-dake, who was +young and fresh-looking, put on his female disguise +and let down his hair which was still long. He +sauntered about the cave and went in where the two +outlaws were amusing themselves with their female +visitors. They were surprised and delighted to see +this new and beautiful face. They seated her between +them and did their best to entertain her. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Suddenly, when the outlaws were off their guard, +he drew his sword from his bosom and slew the elder +brother. The younger rushed out of the door of the +cave, the prince close at his heels. With one hand +he clutched him by the back and with the other +thrust him through with his sword. As he fell he +begged the prince to pause a moment and not to +withdraw his sword from his fatal wound. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then the outlaw said, Who art thou? And he +told him and for what purpose he had come. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The outlaw said, There were in the west none so +brave as we two brothers. From this time forward +it shall be right to praise thee as the August Child +Yamato-dake (the bravest in Yamato). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As soon as he had said this, the prince <span class="tei tei-q">“ripped +him up like a ripe melon.”</span><a id="noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href="#note_56"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then after he had subdued and pacified the rebellious +princes of the districts about the straits of +Shimonoseki he returned to the emperor and made +his report. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Following this account of Yamato-dake's adventures +in the West, there are given the interesting traditions +concerning his expedition to the East, and his +encounters with the Ainos, who inhabited the northern +part of the island. That there was a basis of +fact to these traditions there cannot be a doubt. Yet +the events have such an air of fable and poetry that +it is impossible to separate the fact from the legend. +As we have done in previous instances, we give the +stories in their essential entirety, leaving to scholars +hereafter the task of winnowing the grains of fact +out of the chaff which the imagination of the race +has left for us. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Prince Yamato-dake took on his expedition to the +East the Prince Mi-suki-tomo-mimi-take. The emperor +gave him these instructions: <span class="tei tei-q">“Subdue and +pacify the savage deities, and likewise the unsubmissive +people of the twelve roads<a id="noteref_57" name="noteref_57" href="#note_57"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a> of the East.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Prince Yamato-dake first visited the temple of the +Sun Goddess in Isé, where he worshipped at the +shrine of his great ancestress. He must have had a +presentiment that he never would return alive from +this expedition. His aunt Yamato-hime,<a id="noteref_58" name="noteref_58" href="#note_58"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> +who was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the priestess of this temple, gave him on his departure +the sword<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href="#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a> +which the Impetuous-Male-Deity +discovered in the tail of the snake which he slew in +Izumo. She also gave him a bag which he was not +to open until he found himself in pressing difficulty. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +He came to the land of Owari, and appears there +to have been smitten by the charms of the Princess +Miyazu. And, planning to wed her on his way back, +he plighted to her his troth and went on. Then he +came to the province of Sagami, where he met the +chief of the land. But he deceived him and said that +in the midst of a vast moor there is a lagoon where +lives a deity. Yamato-dake went over the moor to +find the deity. Whereupon the chief set fire to the +grass, expecting to see him consumed. But Yamato-dake +seeing his danger, and being assured that the +time of pressing difficulty had come, opened the +bag which his aunt, Yamato-hime, had given him. +There he found a fire drill,<a id="noteref_60" name="noteref_60" href="#note_60"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a> with which a fire could +be struck. He cut away the grass around him with +the sword which had been given him, and then set +fire to the moor. When he was safe from the fire +he sought out and slew the traitorous chief and all +the chiefs who were associated with him. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From Sagami he undertook to cross in a boat the +waters of Yedo bay to Kazusa opposite. But the +sea was rough and they were on the point of being +overwhelmed and drowned. Then his wife, the +Princess Oto-Tachibana, who accompanied him on +this expedition, threw out mats from the boat, and +saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“I will enter the sea instead of the prince; +you must finish the task on which you are sent,”</span> she +sprang from the boat and sat down on the mats<a id="noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href="#note_61"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> she +had thrown out. Immediately the waves were +quiet and the boat sailed on in safety. And the +comb of the princess was washed ashore, and the +people built for it a sacred mausoleum in which it +was kept. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then Prince Yamato-dake penetrated the regions +occupied by the Ainos<a id="noteref_62" name="noteref_62" href="#note_62"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a> +and subdued them. Having +accomplished this principal object of his undertaking, +he returned by way of the Usui pass +opposite to mount Fuji. As he stood in this lofty +position and looked out on the sea where his wife +had sacrificed herself for his safety, he cried out: +<span class="tei tei-q">“Azuma ha ya!”</span> (O my wife!) Azuma is a name +often used in poetry for the part of Japan north of +this pass. But whether this myth was invented to +explain the name, or the name was derived from the +incident, it is impossible to determine. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then Prince Yomato-dake went into the high +lands of Shinano and after he had settled the disturbances +which existed there, he came back to +Owari where he had left the Princess Miyazu. In +one of his excursions into the rebellious regions he +was stricken with a fatal illness. In his enfeebled +condition he struggled on, almost unable to walk. +He made his way towards Isé. At Ōtsu, a village +on the coast of Owari bay, he recovered the sword +which he had left on his way to the East. In his +painful journey he sat down under a pine tree. The +spirit of poesy even in his pain came upon him and +he sang this little poem<a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href="#note_63"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a> in praise of the pine tree: +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">O mine elder brother, the single pine tree</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">That art on cape Ōtsu, which directly faces Owari!</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">If thou single pine tree! wert a person,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">I would gird my sword upon thee,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">I would clothe thee with my garments,—</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">O mine elder brother, the single pine tree!</span></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +He went on a little farther to Nobono and his +sickness became more serious. And there in the +open fields he felt that his end had come. He sent +the spoils of his expedition to the temple of his great +ancestress, the Sun Goddess. He sent his faithful +companion Prince Kibi-no-Takehito to the emperor +to carry his last message. It was: <span class="tei tei-q">“I have chastised +the eastern barbarians according to your imperial +order with the help of the gods and with your +imperial influence. I hoped to return in triumph +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with my weapons wrapped in white. But I have been +seized with a mortal disease, and I cannot recover. +I am lying in the sweet open fields. I do not care +for my life. I only regret that I cannot live to +appear before thee and make my report of my +expedition.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And he died in the thirty-second year of his age. +And they buried him there and built a mausoleum +over his remains. The emperor lamented the death +of his gallant and immortal son, and made an imperial +progress into the regions which he had conquered +and pacified. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The successor to the Emperor Keikō was known +by the canonical name of Seimu. He was the +thirteenth emperor, and was the grandson of his +predecessor, having been a son of the hero Yamato-dake +who was the crown prince until his death. The +Emperor Seimu reigned fifty-nine years and died at +the age of one hundred and eight. Nothing noteworthy +is narrated of his reign. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +His successor, the fourteenth emperor, was Chūai, +his eldest son. He reigned only eight years and +died at the age of fifty-two. It is remarkable that +his capital was in the island of Kyūshū and not in +the Main island, like his predecessors from the time +of the Emperor Jimmu. This removal was probably +due to the preparations which had already begun +for the invasion of Korea. The island of Kyūshū +is most favorably situated for the preparation and +sailing of such an expedition. The wife of this +emperor was Jingō-Kōgō, who was a much more +forcible and energetic character than her husband. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +She is one of the heroines around whom much tradition +has gathered, and her successful invasion of +Korea is an event which the Japanese writers and +artists are never tired of representing. The legend—for +undoubtedly much of the story is legendary—is +essentially as follows: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The emperor was busy in Kyūshū in reducing to +subjection the tribes of the Kumaso who inhabited +the southern portion of the island. Up to this time +these restless tribes had given much trouble to the +empire and expeditions were constantly needed to +keep them in order. They were unquestionably of +a kindred race with the Japanese who accompanied +the Emperor Jimmu into the Main island. The +empress, afterward known as Jingō-Kōgō and the +faithful prime-minister Take-no-uchi<a id="noteref_64" name="noteref_64" href="#note_64"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a> were at their +temporary palace at Kashihi. The empress in an interview +on the campaign became divinely possessed. +And she spoke to the emperor in the name of the +deity that possessed her saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“There is a land at +the westward, and in that land there is abundance of +various treasures dazzling to the eye, from gold and +silver downwards. I will now bestow this land upon +thee.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then the emperor replied, <span class="tei tei-q">“If you ascend to a +high place and look westward, no country is to be +seen; there is only the great sea.”</span> And he pushed +away the lute upon which he was playing and said, +<span class="tei tei-q">“They are lying deities which have spoken to you.”</span> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Then the deity was very angry and spoke again +through the empress. <span class="tei tei-q">“This empire is not a land +over which thou art fit to rule. Go thou the one +road.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The prime-minister Take-no-uchi then said to the +emperor, <span class="tei tei-q">“I am filled with awe, my heavenly sovereign, +at this fearful message. I pray thee continue +playing thy august lute.”</span> Then he played softly; +and gradually the sound died away and all was still. +And they took a light and looking in his face, behold +he was dead. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The empress and the prime-minister Take-no-uchi +concealed for the time the death of the emperor, and +she herself proceeded to carry out the plan for the +invasion of Korea. With indefatigable energy she +gathered her forces and equipped a fleet for the +descent upon Korea. She set out from Wani in +Kyūshū in the tenth month of the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 202. +Even the fish of the sea were her allies, for with one +accord they bore the ship in which she sailed across +the intervening straits on their backs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The coming of the Japanese was a complete surprise +to the people of Korea. At this time the +peninsula now known to us as Korea and to the +Japanese as Chōsen, was divided into three kingdoms, +Kōrai, Shiraki, and Kudara. The fleet of +Jingō-Kōgō landed in the kingdom of Shiraki. The +king was so completely unprepared for this incursion +that he at once offered his subjection and proposed +to become a tributary kingdom. The proposition +was accepted. The kings of Kōrai and Kudara +made similar proposals which also were accepted. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Each was to make an immediate contribution to the +empress, and annually thereafter to send tribute to +the capital of Japan. Thus they became the three +tributary countries (<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">sankan</span></span>) dependent on +Japan. Although this invasion of a foreign country without +cause or provocation must be pronounced indefensible, +yet it is not unlikely that the subject kingdoms +were quite as safe and free under the distant and +little intermeddlesome dominion of the Japanese +empire, as they had been in the past or were likely +to be in the future from their troublesome neighbors, +China and the restless Mongolian tribes. To Japan +the connection with the continent was of momentous +value. It opened up a natural and easy way for +the influx of those continental influences which were +to be of so great service in their future history. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The empress, having within three years completely +accomplished the object of her expedition, returned +with her fleet to Kyūshū. She brought back with +her hostages from the conquered kingdoms, to ensure +their fulfilment of the promises they had made. +She had learned many lessons of government which +she was not slow to introduce into her administration +at home. Soon after reaching Kyūshū she was +delivered of the son of whom she was pregnant at +the time of the death of the emperor, and who afterwards +became the Emperor Ōjin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The object which she and her faithful prime-minister +had in concealing the death of the emperor +was accomplished. They now made the fact public, +and proclaimed her own son as her successor. Two +older sons of Chūai by another empress were unwilling +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to submit to the rule of a younger brother. +But the Empress Jingō, who had now become a +national idol by her Korean expedition, soon put +down the conspiracy of these princes and reigned +till the end of her life and left a quiet succession to +her son. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +She is said to have reigned as empress-regent<a id="noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href="#note_65"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> sixty-eight +years, and to have died at the age of one +hundred. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Her son became the fifteenth emperor and is +known by the canonical name of Ōjin. He commenced +his reign in the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 270, and reigned +forty years and died at the age of one hundred and +ten. But the beginning of his reign is reckoned +in the government list from the death of his +father. The Emperor Ōjin is widely worshipped as +Hachiman the god of war, although he is by no +means noted as a warrior. The explanation of this +curious circumstance is found in the fact that his +mother was pregnant with him during her famous +invasion of Korea, and her heroism and success are +attributed to the martial character of her unborn son. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The good fruits of the Korean conquest particularly +showed themselves in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 284, when the king +of Kudara sent his usual tribute to the emperor of +Japan. The ambassador for that year was Ajiki, a +learned man who was familiar with Chinese literature. +At the request of the emperor he gave the +young prince, who afterwards became the Emperor +Nintoku, lessons in the Chinese language and literature. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +The year following the king of Kudara seeing +how much his efforts to furnish Chinese learning +were appreciated, sent an eminent Chinese scholar, +Wani, who took with him the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Confucian Analects</span></span> and +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Thousand Character Essay</span></span>, two noted Chinese +classics and presented them to the emperor. The +prince continued his studies under Wani and became +a very learned man. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The emperor had three sons between whom he +wished to divide his authority, wishing however to +establish his youngest son as the crown prince and +his successor. He summoned them before him and +put this question to the elder, <span class="tei tei-q">“Which should be +preferred, a younger son or an older?”</span> Then the +elder son replied that he thought the older son +should be preferred. But the emperor turned to the +second son and asked him the same question. He +replied that as the older son was more grown and +less of a care, he thought the younger son would be +more of a favorite. The emperor was pleased with +this reply because it coincided with his own sentiment. +He created his youngest son, Prince Waka-iratsu, +the crown prince and ordered his second son, +Prince Osasagi, to assist him. He gave the charge +of the mountains, rivers, forests, fields, etc. to his +eldest son. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +So when the Emperor Ōjin died <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 310, the +younger son urged his brother to accept the imperial +power; but he declined, saying: <span class="tei tei-q">“How can I disobey +the commands of my father?”</span> The oldest of the +three brothers, learning of the controversy, undertook +to secure the authority for himself by a plot. +The conspiracy was, however, soon put down and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the elder brother slain. The friendly dispute between +the two other brothers lasted three years +and was finally ended by the younger committing +suicide, and thus devolving the imperial office on +his remaining brother. This brother was the noted +Emperor Nintoku. He began his reign in the year +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 313, and died +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 399 in the one hundred and +tenth year of his age. He was a most careful and +considerate ruler. By observing his subjects he +was convinced that they were overburdened and +impoverished with the taxes which the government +collected from them. So he announced by an imperial +decree that for three years all taxes should +be remitted. Even the sums which were necessary +to keep the palace in repair and to provide his court +with suitable clothing were not collected. And the +palace grew shabby, and its roof leaked, and he himself +went about in coarse and cheap garments. And +the farmers came to him and begged that they might +contribute to his wants. But he refused, and suffered +three years to pass. In the meantime the +country revived, and the farmers being relieved from +the burdens which they had so long borne entered +on a long period of encouraging prosperity. He +surveyed the land from a high outlook, and saw the +curling smoke and the fertile fields and rejoiced. +Then he gave commands, and the taxes were renewed, +and the people paid them willingly, and they +in their gratitude called Nintoku the Sage Emperor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was in the reign of the Emperor Nintoku that +the noted prime-minister Prince Take-no-uchi is said +to have died. He had served six emperors, viz.: +Keikō, Seimu, Chūai, Jingō-Kōgō, Ōjin, and Nintoku. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +His age<a id="noteref_66" name="noteref_66" href="#note_66"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a> is given variously from two hundred and +eighty-two to three hundred and eighty, in different +books, one of which is a Chinese work and one a +Korean. It will be remembered that he was the +chief adviser of the warlike Empress Jingō in her +invasion of Korea, and took an active part in the +events which followed that expedition. That there +was such a figure in Japanese history there can be +little doubt, but that much of his life and the great +age to which he lived are like many of the stories of +the characters in the midst of which he lived, legendary +and mythical, no one can question. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was in this reign also that we have it stated +that historiographers were sent out to the provinces +and directed to make record of all important events +and forward them to the court. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have now reached a point in Japanese history +where the accounts compiled by the historians of the +times have written records on which to rely. The +legendary and marvellous stories which have been +the bulk of the preceding history may now be replaced +by the soberer narrations which writing has +preserved for us. It will be seen that the lives<a id="noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href="#note_67"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a> of +the emperors now drop from the astonishing age +which in previous years they attained to a very +moderate and reasonable length. In the subsequent +chapters will be found the sober and chastened +story to which Japanese history is henceforth +reduced. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> +<a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter V. Native Culture And Continental Influences.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before going on to the meagre story which is +supplied to us by the early years of Japanese history, +it will be well to glean from the myths and legends +which tradition has preserved the lessons which they +contain. Although we may be unable to concede +the truth of these traditions in their entirety, and +believe in the celestial origin of the race and the +wonders of the divine age, we may be able to obtain +from them many important facts regarding the +habits and manner of life of the early Japanese. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have often referred to the admirable work +Mr. Chamberlain has done in his translation of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>, and in the scholarly notes he has added. +But in our present enquiries we must give him +still greater credit for the important lessons which +he has drawn from the myths and legends of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span> in his learned introduction. No writer at the +present day can afford to dispense with the deductions +which he has been able to draw from the oldest +writings of the Japanese, and from the traditions of +an older date which these writings have preserved. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Relying therefore chiefly on this learned +introduction,<a id="noteref_68" name="noteref_68" href="#note_68"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a> +we propose to enumerate in a summary manner +the particulars concerning the early Japanese life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the first place the government of the early +Japanese was of the tribal order. The emperor was +the chieftain of an expedition which came from the +island of Kyūshū and established a government by +conquest. The chiefs of the various localities were +reduced to subjection and became tributary to the +emperor, or were replaced by new chiefs appointed +by the emperor. The government was therefore +essentially feudal in its characteristics. The emperor +depended for the consideration of his plans +and for their execution upon officers who were attached +to his court. There were guilds composed +of those who manufactured various articles, or who +were employed to execute special plans. Thus we +have guilds of clay image makers, guilds of ladies +attendant on the emperor, guilds of butlers, guilds +of cooks, guilds of guards, etc. To each of these +there was a captain who became by appointment +hereditary chief. We have no mention of money for +the payment of services rendered. The taxes were +probably paid in kind. And all transactions as far +as they are mentioned at all seem to have been of +the nature of barter. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The religious notions of the prehistoric Japanese +were founded on the myths relating to their ancestor. +Notwithstanding the vast number of deities +who came into existence according to tradition, +most of them vanish as soon as they are named and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +are no more heard of. Even deities like Izanagi and +Izanami, who are represented as taking so important +a part in events, are not perpetuated as objects of +worship in Japanese history, and have no temples +erected to their memory and no service prescribed +or maintained in their honor. The most important +deity in the Pantheon of the Japanese was Amaterasu-ō-mi-kami, +who is also called in Chinese characters +Tensho Daijin or the Sun Goddess. She appears +not only in the myths concerning the origin of the +Japanese race, but as the grandmother of the divine +prince Hiko-ho-no-ni-nigi, who first came down to +rule the Japanese empire. In the Shintō temples at +Isé the principal deity worshipped at Gekū is Uké-moche-no-Kami, +and the secondary deities Ninigi-no-Mikoto, +who came down to found the Japanese +empire and was the grandmother of the Emperor +Jimmu, and two others. At the Naikū the principal +deity is Amaterasu-ō-mi-kami (from heaven shining +great deity), also called the Sun Goddess, and two +secondary deities. The temples at Isé, especially +those that are dedicated to the Sun Goddess, are the +most highly regarded of any in Japan. Other +temples of considerable popularity are situated in +other parts of the empire. Thus there are Shintō +temples in Kyūshū and in Izumo, which are old +parts of Japan settled long before Buddhism was +introduced. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Shintō religion must be regarded as the primitive +religion of the Japanese people. It prevailed +among them long before Buddhism was propagated +by priests from Korea. It differs from all known +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +systems of religion, in having no body of dogma by +which its adherents are held together. The greatest +advocate of Shintoism, Moto-ori, a writer of the 18th +century, admits that it has no moral code. He asserts +that <span class="tei tei-q">“morals<a id="noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href="#note_69"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a> were invented by the Chinese +because they were an immoral people, but in Japan +there was no necessity for any system of morals, as +every Japanese acted rightly if he only consulted his +own heart.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Reference is frequently made in the early stories +to divination, or the process of obtaining the will of +the gods by indirection. The oldest method of divination +was by using the shoulder-blade of a deer. It +was scraped entirely free from flesh, and then placed +over a fire made from cherry wood. The divine will +was determined by the cracks caused by the fire in +the bone. A later method of divination was by +using the shell of a tortoise in the same way as the +shoulder-blade of the deer was used. They had +superstitions about fighting with the back to the +sun; about using only one light in the house at once; +about breaking off the teeth of a comb in the night-time; +about the destination of the first arrow shot in +battle, etc. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The superstition of impurity being attached to the +mother at the birth of a child, and to the house and +those associated with it in which a death occurred, is +often mentioned. A mother, when about to be delivered, +was required to retire alone into a separate +dwelling or hut without windows. This cruel custom +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +has prevailed in the island of Hachijō<a id="noteref_70" name="noteref_70" href="#note_70"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a> down +almost to the present time. A custom prevailed, +also, of abandoning the dwelling in which a death +had occurred. The dead body was removed to a +mourning hut, where amid sobs and weeping the +mourners continued to hold a carousal, feasting upon +the food provided for the dead. This abandonment +of the house occupied by the living may explain the +custom, so often referred to, of each new emperor +occupying a different palace from that of his predecessor. +We have already referred to the dreadful +custom which prevailed until the reign of the Emperor +Suinin, of burying living retainers around the +sepulchre of their dead master. The custom was +replaced by burying clay images of servants and +animals around the tomb, and this continued till +about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 700. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is no evidence that children received any +kind of education other than a training in the use of +arms and implements. The art of writing was +brought over from Korea in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 284. Up to this +time there is nothing to show that the Japanese possessed +any means of recording the events which occurred. +No books existed, and reading and writing +were unknown. The language spoken by the people +was an ancient form of that which now prevails. The +earliest examples of this language are found in the +songs preserved in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span> +and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span>. As in +every language, the earliest preserved specimens are +poetry, so in Japanese the fragments which have +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +been remembered and brought down to us, are +scraps of songs. The origin of this language is, like +the origin of the race, impossible at present to verify. +It seems plain that the race came from the continent +by way of Korea. If this is to be taken as the origin +of the race, then the language which developed into +the Japanese came from the northern tribes of China +and of Siberia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is no indication of the method by which the +early Japanese reckoned time. The sun in the daytime +and the cocks by night, must have given them +their division of hours. The year made itself apparent +by the changes of temperature. It was not, +however, till the introduction of calendars from +China that anything like an accurate system of estimating +and recording time was introduced. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The food of the primitive Japanese was much +more largely animal than it became in later times. +To the early Japanese there was no restriction in the +use of animal food, such as the Buddhists introduced. +Fish and shell-fish have always been, and doubtless +from the first were, principal articles of food. The +five grains, so called, are often referred to, and are +specially mentioned in the Shintō rituals, whose origin +goes back to prehistoric times. These grains<a id="noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href="#note_71"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a> +are rice, millet, barley, and two kinds of beans. Silkworms +and their food plant, the mulberry, are likewise +spoken of. The only kind of drink referred to +is <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span>. It will be remembered that in the myth +concerning the Impetuous Male Deity in Izumo, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the old man and old woman were directed to prepare +eight tubs of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span>, +by drinking which the eight-headed +serpent was intoxicated. In the traditional +history of the emperors, they are represented as +drinking <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span>, sometimes even to intoxication. +And in the rituals recited when offerings are made to their +deities, the jars of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span> are enumerated among +the things offered. The Japanese writers claim that +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span> +was a native discovery, but there is a well supported +belief that in very early times they borrowed the art +of manufacturing it from the Chinese. There is at +least a difficulty in believing that this liquor should +have been invented independently in the two countries. +Chopsticks are mentioned in early Japanese +times, and clay vessels for food, and cups for drinking +made of oak leaves. On the whole, the conclusions +to be drawn from the earliest traditions concerning +the Japanese lead us to regard them as having +attained a material degree of civilization in all +matters pertaining to food and drink. Yet it cannot +be regarded as other than strange that milk, cheese +and butter are nowhere mentioned, and had never +been used. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the matter of clothing we have little except +hints to guide us in forming inferences. The rituals +enumerate<a id="noteref_72" name="noteref_72" href="#note_72"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“bright cloth, soft cloth, and +coarse cloth.”</span> Mr. Satow remarks<a id="noteref_73" name="noteref_73" href="#note_73"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a> +on this enumeration +that <span class="tei tei-q">“in the earliest ages the materials used were +the bark of the paper-mulberry (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">broussonetia papyrifera</span></span>), +wistaria tendrils and hemp, but when the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +silkworm was introduced the finer fabric naturally +took the place of the humbler in the offerings to the +gods.”</span> The paper-mulberry which is now used for +making paper, was in early times twisted into a +thread and woven into a very serviceable cloth. +Cotton<a id="noteref_74" name="noteref_74" href="#note_74"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a> which now furnishes so large a part of the +clothing of the people is nowhere mentioned. The +skins of animals were doubtless used as clothing before +the introduction of Buddhism made the killing +of animals uncommon. In the legend of the purification +of Izanagi<a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75" href="#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> we read of a girdle, of a skirt, of +an upper garment, of trousers, and of a hat. What +the shapes of these garments were we cannot tell, +but the number of different garments indicates a considerable +development in the ideas of clothing. In +the same myth, and in many other places, mention +is made of the bracelets which Izanagi wore on the +left and right arm. And when he wished to show +his pleasure in the daughter who had been produced +in washing his left eye, he invested her with his necklace +taken from his own neck. Jewelry seems in +these prehistoric times to have been more commonly +worn than in modern historical times. The +jewels<a id="noteref_76" name="noteref_76" href="#note_76"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a> +used were the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">magatama</span></span> and +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kudatama</span></span> +which have been found in the ancient burial places. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"><img src="images/magatama-kudatama.png" width="323" height="418" alt="Illustration" title="Magatama and Kudatama." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Magatama and Kudatama.</div></div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Rings have also been found which are believed to +date back to prehistoric times. From the clay +images which have come down to us it is now ascertained +that the rings were worn as ornaments to +the ears and never as rings to the fingers. These +rings are of copper or bronze, plated with gold or +silver. Combs and mirrors are spoken of, but how +the metal mirrors are made we do not know. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The only indications of the character of the +houses<a id="noteref_77" name="noteref_77" href="#note_77"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a> used by the early Japanese are found in the +traditions respecting the primitive Shintō temples. +The early methods of building were perpetuated in +these temples, and in the eighteenth century a very +persistent effort was made for the revival of pure +Shintō. Under the influence of this movement +the temples at Isé and elsewhere were purified +from the contaminations which had been introduced +by Buddhism. After the close of the war which +resulted in the restoration of the emperor to his +proper authority in 1868 a small temple in the most +severe Shintō style was built at Kudan, one of the +picturesque heights of Yedo, in memory of the soldiers +who perished in the conflict. From a careful +examination of all that can illustrate the houses +of the early Japanese, we infer that they were of +extreme simplicity. Stone was never used. The +structures were entirely of wood. Even the palaces +of the emperors were what we would call merely +huts. Four upright posts sunk in the ground formed +the corners. At the half-way intervals between +these posts, were planted four other posts; those at +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the gable ends were high enough to sustain the +ridge pole. On the other sides on the top of the +posts were laid two plates. Abutting on these plates +and crossing each other at the ridge pole stood the +rafters, which sustained the thatched roof. In the +absence of nails and pins, the timbers were fastened +together by the tough tendrils of climbing plants. +A hole in the gable end permitted the escape of the +smoke from the fire built on the ground floor. +Around the sides of the interior stood a raised couch +on which the occupants sat by day and slept at +night. The other parts of the floor were uncovered +and consisted only of earth. They used mats made +from the skins of animals or from rushes, on which +they sat and slept. The doors of their dwellings +were fastened by means of iron hooks, and swung +on hinges unlike the modern Japanese door which +always is made to slide. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The agricultural plants spoken of are numerous +but leave unmentioned many of the plants of first +importance. Tea, now so extensively cultivated, is +nowhere spoken of. Tobacco was a late importation +and came in with the Portuguese in the sixteenth +century. Cotton was not introduced, as we have already +said, until the beginning of the ninth century. +Potatoes, including both the sweet potato and the +white potato, are unmentioned. The orange came +to Japan according to the received tradition at the +close of the reign of the Emperor Suinin (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +29-70). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Very little is said of the implements used by the +primitive Japanese. Metal of any kind was almost +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +unknown. We read of swords and fish-hooks, but +these are the only implements referred to which +seem to have been made of metal. Pots and cups of +earthenware were used. The axes which they must +have used to cut down the trees for building and +for fuel must have been of stone, or sometimes of +deer's horn. Archæologists both native and foreign +have brought to light many ancient implements of +the Stone age. An interesting and detailed account +of these discoveries will be found in the work on +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japanese Archæology</span></span> by Henry Von Siebold, Yokohoma, +1879. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The arms used by the warriors were spears, bows +and arrows, and swords. Numerous arrow heads +have been found which bear a striking likeness to +those found in Europe and America. Spear heads +of flint have also been found. That the people were +emerging from the Stone age is shown by the swords +made of metal which they are represented as habitually +using. They also seem to have had a small +sword or dagger, as in the myth of the traitorous +plot entered into by the empress and her brother +against the Emperor Suinin. Castles in the modern +sense are not referred to, although the same word +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">shiro</span></span> is used to represent the stockades with +which they protected themselves. The castles of modern +times, such as those at Kumamoto, Owari, and Yedo, +are without doubt the outgrowth of the primitive +stockade, and the same name has continued to be +applied in all the successive changes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Few domestic animals are mentioned. The horse +is spoken of as an animal for riding, but not for +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +driving. The same thing may be said of the use of +horses in Japan even until modern times. The domestic +fowl is referred to in the myth of the disappearance +of the Sun Goddess. Dogs are mentioned +in the later parts of the traditional period, but not +cats. The cow and the products of the cow are not +referred to. To these domestic animals may be +added the cormorant,<a id="noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href="#note_78"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a> which was used for fishing, in +the same way that it is used in the eastern parts of +China and to a small extent in the waters of Owari +and Mino at the present time. The wild animals of +that day were the deer, the bear, the boar, the hare, +etc. These animals were hunted for their flesh and +for their skins. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The islands of Japan being largely interspersed +with water much of the travel even from the earliest +time was performed in boats. The expedition of +Jimmu from the island of Kyūshū was in part conducted +in the boats which the colony had constructed +for the purpose. Whether these boats were of the +form now used in Japan it is impossible to determine. +It is probable however that the present form of boat +is an evolution of the primitive boat, which was used +by the prehistoric Japanese and which was a part of +the equipment with which their ancestors came over +from Korea to the islands of Japan. Travel on land +was principally on foot, although as we have said the +horse was used at this early day for riding. No +wheeled vehicle is mentioned. The bullock cart used +in later times was restricted to the use of the imperial +household, and probably was introduced by the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Buddhists. There were government roads constructed +from the home provinces in different directions to +those more distant. It is said that this scheme +was more fully carried out after the return of the +Empress Jingō from her conquest of Korea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now turn from these evidences of native +culture to the events of Japanese history which have +to do with the introduction of the civilization from +the continent. For three thousand years before the +Christian era China has been looked upon as one of +the cultured nations of the earth. No written language +has ever been or is now understood by so many +people as the Chinese. The Chinese were a civilized +people centuries before the Japanese had, even according +to their own uncertain legends, emerged into +the light as an empire. If we accept the opinion +which seems most reasonable, that the Japanese came +over to the Japanese islands from the continent by +way of Korea, and belong to the Mongol tribes of +central Asia, then we must assume that the Japanese +were closely related to a large section of the Chinese. +They have been from the beginning of their history +a receptive people. They have stood ready to welcome +the good things which were offered to them, +coming from whatever direction. They accepted +eagerly the Chinese written language and the philosophy +with which it came charged. They accepted +Buddhism with its priesthood and dogma and ritual, +and permitted it to crowd their native religion until +it became a pitiful minority. They have in recent +times accepted with a hearty impetuosity the civilization +of western nations, and are absorbing it as +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +rapidly as the habits and thoughts of a people can +take in so important a change. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have already referred to the first introduction<a id="noteref_79" name="noteref_79" href="#note_79"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> +of Chinese literature into Japan. It took place in +the reign of the Emperor Ōjin <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 284. The ambassador +who brought the tribute from Korea that year +was Ajiki who was familiar with the Chinese literature. +He gave lessons in Chinese to the crown +prince. The next year the king of Korea sent out +an eminent scholar named Wani,<a id="noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href="#note_80"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> who continued +to give instruction to the crown prince. From this time +a knowledge of Chinese gradually spread and scholars +were attached to the government to make a written +record of the events which took place. Historiographers +were sent out during the reign of the +Emperor Hanzei, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 404, who were directed to make +a record of all important events and forward them to +the court. These steps soon began to show themselves +in the absence of the wonderful and legendary +from the narrative of events. Beginning with the +reign of the Emperor Richū the ages of the emperors +which before his time had been of such a +marvellous length now drop to a reasonable and +moderate period. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The nineteenth emperor was Inkyō, the fourth +son of the Emperor Nintoku. He was of an amiable +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and philanthropic temperament, and accepted the +position of emperor with great reluctance. His +health was delicate, and he feared to take upon himself +such a responsibility. In the meantime there +was an interregnum, and the court officials were +anxious to have him enter upon the duties of emperor. +At last he consented and became emperor +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 412. It was during his reign that confusion +arose concerning the family names, or rather, that +the confusion which had been long growing now had +its settlement. Family names had been a matter of +growth, and many persons claimed the right to use +a certain name who were in no wise entitled to it. +The emperor took a singular and effectual method +to settle the troublesome and personal questions +that arose. He summoned all those who claimed to +belong to any family whose claim was disputed to +appear at Amakashi and show that they were entitled +to the names they claimed. He placed jars of +boiling water and required each one to plunge his +hand in the water. He who was injured by the hot +water was pronounced a deceiver, and he who came +off unhurt was pronounced as entitled to the name. +The emperor took occasion to settle the questions +concerning names, and put the matter on a more +stable basis. And as the art of writing now began +to be more common among the people mistakes in +regard to names did not again seriously recur. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The emperor's ill-health was the occasion for the +introduction of another of the civilizing arts of the +continent. When the annual tribute from Korea +was sent it so chanced that the ambassador who +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +came with it was a person versed in the medical art. +If we estimate this man's science or skill by that of +the Chinese practitioner of a later day, we should +certainly not place a very high value on it. It is +narrated, however, that he cured the imperial invalid, +and by this means gained great credit for his +profession, and added another to the obligations +which Japan owed to the continent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After the death of the Emperor Inkyō there was +a quarrel about the succession between his two sons, +Prince Kinashi-no-Karu and Prince Anaho-no-Ōji. +The courtiers all favored the latter, who was the +younger brother, and he surrounded his elder +brother in the house of Monobe-no-Ōmai. Seeing +no way of escape he committed suicide.<a id="noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href="#note_81"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a> The +younger brother then became the twentieth emperor, +who is known under the canonical name of +Ankō. He had another difficulty growing out of +social complications. He wanted to make the +younger sister of Okusaka-no-Ōji, who was the +brother of the preceding Emperor Inkyō, the wife +of Ōhatsuse-no-Ōji, his own younger brother, who +afterwards became the Emperor Yuriyaku. He sent +as a messenger the court official, Ne-no-Ōmi, to ask +the consent of her elder brother, who gladly gave it, +and as a token of his gratitude for this high honor +he sent a rich necklace. Ne-no-Ōmi, overcome with +covetousness, kept the necklace for himself, and reported +to the emperor that Okusaka-no-Ōji refused +his consent. The emperor was very angry, and sent +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a detachment of troops against the supposed offender. +They surrounded the house and put him to +death. His chief attendants, knowing his innocence, +committed suicide by the side of their dead master. +The emperor then completed his design of taking +the sister of Okusaka-no-Ōji as the wife of the Prince +Ōhatsuse-no-Ōji, and he also took his widow and +promoted her to be his empress. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Out of these circumstances arose serious troubles. +His new empress had a young son by her first husband +named Mayuwa-no-Ō, said to have been only +seven years old. With his mother he was an inmate +of the palace, and was probably a spoiled and wayward +boy. The emperor was afraid lest this boy, +when he came to understand who had been the +cause of the death of his father, would undertake to +revenge himself. He talked with the empress about +his fears and explained his apprehensions. The boy +accidentally heard the conversation, and was probably +stimulated thereby to do the very thing which +the emperor feared. Creeping stealthily into the +room where the emperor lay asleep he stabbed him +and then fled, taking refuge in the house of the +Grandee Tsubura. The emperor was fifty-six years +of age at the time of his death. This tragical event +produced a great excitement. The younger brother +of the emperor, Ōhatsuse, amazed and angry because +his two older brothers were not, as he thought, +sufficiently enraged by the murder of the emperor, +killed them both. Then he attacked the Grandee +Tsubura and the boy Mayuwa in their refuge. Seeing +no way of escape Tsubura, at the request of the +boy, first slew him and then killed himself. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Subsequently Ōhatsuse, who seemed to have been +of a violent disposition, murdered Ichinobe-no-Oshiha, +son of the seventeenth emperor, Richū. His +two sons, then merely boys, Ōke and Woke (literally +big basket and little basket), hearing of this catastrophe +escaped into the province of Harima where they +worked as cow-herds. Ōhatsuse was crowned as the +twenty-first emperor and is known by the canonical +name of Yūriyaku Tennō. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 470 an ambassador came from Go +in China and by order of the emperor was entertained +by the Grandee Ne-no-Ōmi. A court official, Toneri, +was directed to see that this duty was suitably performed. +Now Ne-no-Ōmi, it will be remembered, +was the grandee who, on a former occasion, was sent +by the Emperor Ankō to solicit the hand of the +Princess Hatahi-no-Ōji for the present emperor, who +was then the crown prince. In order to entertain +the Chinese ambassador with becoming magnificence, +Ne-no-Ōmi robed himself in a gorgeous manner and +among other things put on the rich necklace which +he had stolen. Toneri reported to the emperor the +superb entertainment which Ne-no-Ōmi had accorded +to the Chinese ambassador, and especially the necklace +which he wore. The emperor innocently asked +that Ne-no-Ōmi should appear before him in order +that he might see his superb dress. The empress, +who was with her husband when Ne-no-Ōmi came in, +recognized the necklace which had been sent by her +brother to the late emperor. The theft was charged +and Ne-no-Ōmi compelled to confess. The emperor +proclaimed the innocence of Okusaka-no-Ōji and his +great regret at the mistaken punishments. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There are many traditions current in Japanese early +history concerning this emperor. In one he is represented +in his imperial journeys to have seen a house +belonging to Lord Shiki built with a raised roof like +that of the imperial palace. He was greatly enraged +that any subject should dare to take such a liberty, +and sent his attendants to burn the house down. The +poor frightened lord hastened to the emperor and +humbly apologized for his stupidity. And he presented +to the emperor in token of his humble submission +a white dog clothed with cloth and led by a +string. So he was forgiven and his house was spared. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In another legend he is said to have come upon a +beautiful girl by the river side washing clothes. He +stopped and conferred with her, and said to her, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Do not thou marry a husband, I will send for thee.”</span> +With this he returned to the palace and forgot about +his promise. But the poor girl did not forget. Year +after year passed, till at last after eighty years of +waiting she was a very old woman. Then she +thought, <span class="tei tei-q">“My face and form are lean and withered, +there is no longer any hope. Nevertheless, if I do not +show the Heavenly Sovereign how truly I have +waited, my disappointment will be unbearable.”</span> And +so with such gifts as she could afford she presented +herself before the emperor. He wondering at her and +her gifts asked her, <span class="tei tei-q">“What old woman art thou, and +why art thou come hither?”</span> She replied, <span class="tei tei-q">“Having +in such and such a month and such and such a year +received the Heavenly Sovereign's commands, I have +been reverently awaiting the great command until +this day, and eighty years have passed by. Now, my +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +appearance is decrepit and there is no longer any +hope. Nevertheless, I have come forth in order to +show and declare my faithfulness.”</span> Thereupon the +Heavenly Sovereign, greatly agitated, exclaimed, <span class="tei tei-q">“I +had quite forgotten my command; and thou meanwhile, +ever faithfully awaiting my commands, hast +vainly let pass by the years of thy prime. It is too +pitiful.”</span> He sent her back to her home with such +consolation as rich gifts could impart. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We give one more of the legends which cling to +the name of this emperor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +He was making an imperial progress to the moor +of Akizu for the purpose of hunting. And as he +sat down to rest a horse-fly bit his august arm. But +immediately a dragon-fly came and seized the horse-fly +and flew away. Thereupon he composed an +august song as follows: +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Who is it tells in the great presence that +game is lying on the peak of Womuro, at +Mi-Yeshinu? Our Great Lord who tranquilly +carries on the government, being +seated on the throne to await the game, a +horse-fly alights on and stings the fleshy +part of his arm fully clad in a sleeve of +white stuff, and a dragon-fly quickly eats +up the horse-fly. That it might properly +bear its name, the land of Yamato was +called the Island of the Dragon-Fly.</span><a id="noteref_82" name="noteref_82" href="#note_82"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After a long reign Yūriyaku is said in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span> to have +died at the age of one hundred and twenty-four. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The son of the Emperor Yūriyaku, Prince Shiraka, +succeeded him. He is known in history as the +Emperor Seinei. He lived only five years after his +accession and left no descendant to fill the throne. +Search was accordingly made for some one of imperial +blood who might become emperor. It will be +remembered that the Emperor Yūriyaku, before his +accession, had murdered Prince Ichinobe-no-Oshiwa, +son of the eighteenth emperor, and that his two +sons, then young boys, Princes Ōke and Woke, made +their escape into the province of Harima. A new +governor of this province had just arrived and was +in attendance at the festivities in honor of the opening +of a new cave<a id="noteref_83" name="noteref_83" href="#note_83"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> +by a citizen of the place. As +usual there was feasting, and drinking, and dancing. +The two young men Ōke and Woke, who occupied +menial positions in this household, were called upon +to dance. After some hesitation they each in succession +danced and sang some of the songs which +they had learned in their boyhood.<a id="noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a> The new governor +recognized these songs to be such as were +taught at the court, and on enquiring found the +young men to be grandsons of the Emperor Richū. +He brought them to the palace and presented them +to their aunt Queen Ii-Toyo. After a friendly contest +between the two brothers, the younger one, +Prince Woke, became the twenty-third emperor +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +under the canonical name of Kenzō. His reign was +a very short one, only eight years according to the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span> and three years according +to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span>. The +only incident of consequence recorded of him is that +he sought out the burial place of his father, who had +been murdered by the Emperor Yūriyaku, and transferred +his remains to a fitting mausoleum. He also +contemplated the desecration of the mausoleum of +the murderer as a mark of his vengeance, but was +dissuaded by his brother from the undertaking. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +He died without children and was succeeded by +his elder brother Prince Ōke who became <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 488 +the twenty-fourth emperor under the canonical name +of Ninken. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Concerning the emperor and several of his successors +there is little of interest to record. The +twenty-fifth emperor, Muretsu (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 499), who was a +son of the emperor Ninken, was chiefly notable for +his cruelty. Some of the acts recorded of him can +only be equalled by those of the degenerate occupants +of the imperial throne of Rome in its worst +days. He reigned eleven years and died without +children. The twenty-sixth emperor was Keitai +Tennō, who was the fifth descendant from Ōjin +Tennō. The only noticeable events in his reign +were an expedition to Korea to settle difficulties +which had then intervened, and an expedition to +Chikushi, the northern part of Kyūshū, to repress +tumults which had arisen. The next emperors were +Ankan Tennō and Senkuwa Tennō, whose reigns +were uneventful. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The twenty-ninth emperor was Kimmei Tennō, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 540-571), who was the son of Keitai Tennō. +He reigned thirty-two years and died at the age of +sixty-three. It was during his reign, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 552, +that an ambassador from Kudara, one of the three +provinces of Korea, presented to the emperor an +image of Shaka, and also Buddhist books explaining +the doctrine. He commended highly the new +religion, and the emperor was deeply impressed with +its novelties. This seems the more probable because +up to this time Japan looked upon China and Korea +as leaders in civilization, and therefore was disposed +to regard what had obtained a footing there as worthy +of acceptance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The prime-minister Soga-no-Iname favored the +new religion, and urged that the image of Shaka +which had been brought over should be duly set up +and worshipped. But the ministers Monobe-no-Okoshi +and Kumako opposed the proposition, saying, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Our country has its own gods; and they +perhaps will be angry with us if we pay our devotions +to a foreign god.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But the emperor settled the matter by saying, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Let Iname try it.”</span> He gave the idol to Iname +with the directions that he should set it up and pray +to it. Accordingly Iname took the image of Shaka +and established it in a house of his own, which he +created a temple, and worshipped it. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But shortly after this an epidemic broke out in +the country, and Okoshi and Kumako declared that +it was due to the strange god which had been received +from the western barbarians, and besought +the emperor to have it thrown away. The image +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +therefore by the emperor's command was thrown +into the sea near Naniwa,<a id="noteref_85" name="noteref_85" href="#note_85"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> and the temple in +which it had been erected was destroyed. This was the +first movement towards the introduction of Buddhism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the reign of the thirtieth emperor, Bitatsu +Tennō, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 572, who was the son of Kimmei Tennō, +Kudara again made a contribution of Buddhist emblems, +viz.: books of Buddhist doctrine; a priest of +Ritsu sect; a priest; a nun; a diviner; an image +maker; and a Buddhist temple carpenter. These +were all housed in the temple of Owake-no-O at Naniwa. +Seven years after this two Japanese ambassadors +who had been sent to Kudara brought back +with them several Buddhist images of stone, which +the Daijin Umako obtained as his possession. He +built several Buddhist temples in which he placed +the images and other precious relics which he had +secured. He also built a pagoda and houses in +which the priests and nuns resided. When Umako +was sick he asked from the emperor that he might +avail himself of the Buddhist ritual. The emperor +gave him this privilege, but commanded him to +restrict it to himself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Emperor Bitatsu died <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 585 at the age of +forty-eight. His successor was Emperor Yōmei the +thirty-first in order from the Emperor Jimmu. He +was by his mother a descendant of the Soga family +and his first wife was also a daughter of the prime-minister, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Noble Iname who was also of the Soga +family. The bitter hostility between the members +of the court who favored Buddhism and those who +opposed it continued. The leader of the former +party was Umako now the prime-minister, while the +opponents of Buddhism were led by Moriya. One +of the occasions when their hostility broke out was +when the emperor was taken sick and he wished to +try the effect of the Buddhist Sampō, that is, the +three precious elements of Buddhism, Buddha, the +rites of Buddhism, and the Buddhist priests. Moriya +and his party advised against this conformity to +Buddhism, but Umako supported him in his wishes +and introduced a Buddhist priest into the palace to +attend upon the emperor. In spite of all this effort, +however, the emperor died, having reigned only +three years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The death of the emperor was the signal for the +breaking out of serious disturbances. Moriya the +champion of the old religion was killed and his +party overpowered. From this time Buddhism may +be said to have triumphed in Japan. The thirty-second +emperor, Sujun, was crowned <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 588. He +was the son of the Emperor Kimmei, and at the +time of his accession was sixty-nine years of age. +The communication with Korea continued, and more +and more of the Buddhist culture was introduced. +Umako, who now had undisputed sway in the +government, sent out to Korea persons to study the +Buddhist faith, and consecrated many priests and +nuns and erected temples for the new worship. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But everything did not move smoothly. Umako, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with all his zeal and enthusiasm for Buddhism, was +suspected of personal ambition, and was looked +upon with distrust. A plot to assassinate the +emperor was planned by Umako, which terminated +his life, after a reign of only four years, in the +seventy-third year of his age. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The thirty-third sovereign was the Empress +Suiko, who was the sister of the Emperor Yōmei. +Her coronation took place <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 593. Her reign was +chiefly remarkable for the active influence of +Umaydo-no-Ōji (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 572-622), who was the second +son of the Emperor Yōmei, and who was made +crown prince under the empress, and aided her in +the administration of the political affairs of the +government. This prince is better known by his +posthumous title of Shōtoku Taishi (great teacher +of the divine virtue), and is held in great reverence +as the principal founder and promoter of +Buddhism in Japan. His name has been linked +with many legends, which are still current after the +lapse of fourteen hundred years. It is said that as +soon as he was born he was able to speak, and was +in all respects a very clever boy. His memory was +wonderfully acute. He had Napoleon the Great's +talent of attending to several things at the same +time. He could hear the appeals of eight persons +at once, and give to each a proper answer. From +this circumstance he sometimes went by the name +of Yatsumimi-no-Ōji, that is, Prince of Eight Ears. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The prince threw the whole influence of the government +in favor of Buddhism. Many temples were +built in different central districts for the convenience +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the new religion. Under his influence the officers +of the government rivalled each other in founding +temples and maintaining them at their own expense. +He took as his teacher a priest who had recently +come from Korea, and from him for the first time +learned the five Buddhist commandments: +</p> + +<table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">1. Against stealing.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">2. Against lying.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">3. Against intemperance.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">4. Against murder.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">5. Against adultery.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +He gave command to an artificer in copper to +make large images of Buddha for each of the officers +in the government. The king of Koma in Korea +hearing of this great undertaking sent a contribution +of three hundred <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ryō</span></span> of gold. The images were +finished in due time and an imposing religious ceremonial +was held in honor of the event. Many of the +principal temples of Buddhism in different parts of +Japan take their origin from the time of Shōtoku +Taishi, and no single character in history is so intimately +connected with the development of Buddhism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was not only as a religious reformer, however, +that he deserves to be remembered. He was a +a most painstaking and enlightened ruler. He +studiously gathered from the Chinese the elements +and methods of government and adapted them to +his own country.<a id="noteref_86" name="noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a> +From his time the study of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Chinese literature became the essential culture of +the active minds of Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Shōtoku Taishi died <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 622, having been the +principal officer of the government for twenty-nine +years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The impulse which Shōtoku had given to Buddhism +did not subside. In the year following his +death officers were appointed to govern the growing +religious communities, called Sosho and Sozu, which +in dignity and power corresponded to archbishops +and bishops in Christian nomenclature. The first +archbishop was Kwankin, a priest from Kudara, and +the first bishop was Tokuseki of Kurabe. These +officials examined every priest and nun and made a +register of them. A census of Buddhism is also +given which belongs to this same period. According +to this there were forty-six Buddhist temples +and 1385 priests and nuns. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 626, +Soga-no-Umako the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">daijin</span></span> +and a life-long friend and promoter of Buddhism +died, and two years later the Empress Suiko died. +So nearly all the prominent participants in the events +which had taken place since the first entrance of +Buddhism into Japan, had disappeared. In the +meantime a religion had taken possession of a field +in which it was destined to exert a wide influence and +undergo a national development. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Along with this religion had come a literature and +a culture, which when absorbed into the life of this +people gave them the permanent characteristics which +we now recognize as the Japanese civilization. The +freer and more frequent intercourse with China and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Korea brought with it not only a knowledge of +books and writing, but many improvements in arts +and many new arts and agricultural industries. +When the forces of the Empress Jingō returned +from Korea they brought with them persons skilled +in many industrial occupations. It is a tradition +that a descendant of the Kan dynasty in China had +fled to Korea on the fall of that dynasty, and in the +twentieth year of the Emperor Ōjin (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 290) had +migrated to Japan with a colony who were familiar +with weaving and sewing. In the thirty-seventh +year of the same emperor an officer was sent to +China to obtain more weavers and sewers. The +cultivation of the mulberry tree and the breeding of +silk-worms<a id="noteref_87" name="noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> was introduced from China in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +457, and in order to encourage this industry the +empress herself engaged in it. At this early period +this important industry was begun, or at least received +an impulse which has been continued down +to the present time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With these industrial arts came in rapid succession +the elements of a higher civilization. Books on +almanac-making, astronomy, geography and divination +were brought to Japan from Korea and China. +The Chinese calendar<a id="noteref_88" name="noteref_88" href="#note_88"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a> was first used in the reign of +the Empress Suiko under the regency of Shōtoku +Taishi. This almanac was based on the lunar +periods and the civil year began with the new moon +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +occurring about the beginning of February. But as +the length of the civil year is not an exact multiple +of the number of days contained in a lunation, the +twelve lunar months used by the Chinese and +Japanese will be about eleven days shorter than the +solar year. Hence to prevent the discrepancy from +increasing and throwing the seasons entirely out of +their place in the calendar, an intercalary month +was inserted nearly every third year. It was inserted +not at the end of the year but whenever the discrepancy +had reached the number of days in a lunation. +The month thus inserted was called by the +same name as the preceding with an explanatory +prefix. From this period therefore the dates of +Japanese events may be relied upon with some +degree of certainty. For events occurring before +this period, a knowledge of which must have been +transmitted by oral tradition, the dates assigned to +them in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span> must have been computed by +counting back to the supposed time according to the +calendar in use at the time of the writing. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The astronomy and geography introduced into +Japan along with almanac-making in the fifth century +were without question very primitive sciences. +At this time even in Europe the knowledge of these +sciences was not advanced beyond the imperfect +notions of the Greeks. It was not until the sixteenth +century, when the discoveries of the Portuguese +and the Spaniards and the English had +revealed the shape and the divisions of the earth, +and the Jesuits had carried this knowledge to China +and Japan, that anything like a correct astronomy +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +or geography was possible. By divination, which is +mentioned as one of the sciences brought over from +Korea, was meant the determination of future events +or of lucky or unlucky conditions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most important civilizing force introduced +from China at this period was the formal institutions +of education. Although the first establishment of a +school dates from the reign of the Emperor Tenji +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 668-671), yet it was not till the reign of the +Emperor Mommu (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 697-707) that the university +was regularly organized. Branch schools were also +established in the several provinces. In the university +there were departments for Chinese literature, +for medicine, for astronomy and almanac-making, and +for astrology. Under the first head were included +the art of writing the Chinese characters, the practice +of composition, the study of the Chinese classics, and +the reading of books of Chinese history. In like +manner the training of the students in medicine +chiefly consisted in making them familiar with the +methods which prevailed in China. The properties +of medicinal plants, the variations of the pulse in +health and disease and in the changing seasons, and +the anatomy of the human body were the chief +subjects of study. The human cadaver was never +dissected, but a knowledge of anatomy was obtained +from diagrams which were wholly hypothetical. In +early times medical officers were appointed to experiment +with medicines upon monkeys, and also to +dissect the bodies of monkeys. From these dissections, +as well as from the printed diagrams of Chinese +books the imperfect knowledge which they had +reached was derived. It was not till 1771 that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Sugita Genpaku<a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" href="#note_89"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a> and several other Japanese +scholars had an opportunity to dissect the body of a criminal, +and by personal observation found the utter falsity +of the Chinese diagrams on which they had hitherto +relied, and the correctness of the Dutch books, which +they had, contrary to the laws of the country, learned +to read. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The great reverence felt for Chinese culture led to +the introduction at an early date of the Chinese system +of official rank. The system remained in force +down to the restoration in 1868. The officers were +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Daijō-daijin</span></span> (Prime-Minister), +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Sa-daijin</span></span> (Minister of +the Left), <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">U-daijin</span></span> (Minister of the Right), +together with eight boards,<a id="noteref_90" name="noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a> charged with the various duties +of administration. These boards were divided into +sections, and the various departments of the government +were respectively performed by them. In this +way the administration became thoroughly bureaucratic, +in imitation of the Chinese empire, to which +the Japanese at this time looked up with the most +complete reverence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In addition to these official boards, six official +ranks were also introduced from China. These ranks +were designated, first, virtue; second, humanity; +third, propriety; fourth, truth; fifth, righteousness, +and sixth, wisdom. Each of these ranks<a id="noteref_91" name="noteref_91" href="#note_91"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a> was divided +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +into two orders termed respectively the Greater and +the Lesser. Thus there were twelve distinctions in +this system. It was introduced in the reign of the +Empress Suiko, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 604, and is generally attributed +to the Regent Shōtoku, who was a great admirer of +the continental civilization. It existed in this form +until the time of the Emperor Kōtoku, when, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +649, it was extended to nineteen distinctions. These +were not given to the individual in recognition of +talent, but to families to be by them transmitted to +their posterity as hereditary rank. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For many years during this period of active +intercourse with China and Korea, Dazaifu, situated +on the west coast of Kyūshū, north of the present +situation of Nagasaki, was the recognized port where +strangers were received. This city was the seat of a +vice-royalty, having control over the nine provinces +of Kyūshū. The office of vice-governor was considered +a place of honorable banishment to which +distinguished men who were distasteful at court +could be sent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These continental influences continued for many +years and indeed have never ceased. There has +always existed a class of scholars who looked upon +Chinese learning as the supreme pinnacle to which +the human mind could attain. This was especially +true of the admirers of Confucius and Confucianism. +Although it was not until a much later period that +the culture of a Chinese philosophy attained its highest +mark, yet even in the early arrangement of the +studies in the university we see the wide influence +which the writings of the Chinese classics exerted. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We close this chapter with an event which evinced +the advance which Japanese civilization had made, +and aided greatly in promoting this advance in the +subsequent centuries. This event was the publication +of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span> (Record of Ancient Things) and +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span> (Chronicles of Japan). A book still +older than these is said to have been composed in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 620, but it +perished in a fire in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 645, although +a fragment is said to have been rescued. The circumstances +attending the preparation of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span> +are given by Mr. Satow in his paper<a id="noteref_92" name="noteref_92" href="#note_92"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Revival of Pure +Shintō,”</span> and also by Mr. Chamberlain<a id="noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href="#note_93"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a> in +his introduction to the translation. The Emperor +Temmu had resolved to take measures to preserve +the true traditions from oblivion. He had the +records carefully examined and compiled. Then +these collated traditions were one by one committed +to one of the household officers, Hiyeda-no-Are, who +had a marvellously retentive memory. Before the +work of compilation was finished the emperor died; +but the Empress Gemmyō, who after an interval succeeded +him, carried it on to its completion in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +712. By her direction the traditions were taken +down from Are's dictation in the form in which we +now have them. It is by no means a pleasing or +attractive work, even in the opinion of the Japanese. +It is bald and archaic in its form and composition. +It is, however, notable as being freer from the admixture +of Chinese learning, and therefore a better +index of the native culture of the race than the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +works which followed it.<a id="noteref_94" name="noteref_94" href="#note_94"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> Much of it consists of +mere genealogies of the emperors and naked statements +of leading events, but there are besides this +many legends and poems which bear evidence of +having been handed down in essentially their present +form. As an authority for the chronology of the early +events it is, of course, of small value. It is evident +that where a narrative of events has been carried +through many centuries by tradition alone, without +written records to check or assist it, no dependence +can be placed on the chronology of the events, further +than, perhaps, on the order of sequence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Only eight years after the publication of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>, a second +work termed <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span> or Chronicles +of Japan was issued. It was prepared by imperial +command and appeared in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 720 in the reign of +the Empress Genshō. It differs from the older book +in being composed in the Chinese idiom, and in +being much more tinctured with the ideas of Chinese +philosophy. These two works, so nearly contemporaneous, +both of them composed in so great a +degree of the legendary elements of Japanese history, +must be looked upon as marking a distinct +epoch in the story of Japan. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> +<a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VI. The Middle Ages Of Japan.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The theory of the Japanese government during +the greater part of its long career has been that of +an absolute monarchy. The emperor was supposed +to hold in his hands the supreme authority, and to +dispose, as he saw fit, of honors and emoluments, +offices and administrative duties. There was no +fundamental law of succession, by which the order +of accession to the throne was regulated. The +reigning emperor usually selected during his lifetime +some one of his sons, or, if he had no sons, some +other prince of the imperial family, who became the +crown prince during the life of the emperor, and on +his death succeeded to the throne.<a id="noteref_95" name="noteref_95" href="#note_95"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a> The selection +was usually made with the concurrence of the officers +of the court, and very often must be credited +entirely to the preference of these officers. Sometimes +the emperor died before the appointment of a +crown prince had taken place. In this case the +selection lay in the hands of the court officers, and +many cases are recorded in the history of the empire +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +where serious disturbances arose between the +partisans of different aspirants to the throne. These +disturbances usually account for the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">interregna</span></span> which +are so often found between the reigns of successive +sovereigns. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To the freedom which has prevailed, not only in +the imperial house but also in all the families of the +empire, in regard to the rights of succession, must +be attributed the long and unbroken line which the +imperial house of Japan is able to show. That a +line of sovereigns should continue from the time of +Jimmu down to the present without break by reason +of the failure of children, is of course impossible. +But the difficulty disappears when it is remembered, +that in case of the failure of a son to succeed, the +father provided for the want by adopting as his son +some prince of the imperial family, and appointing +him as his heir. With this principle of adoption +must be mentioned the practice of abdication<a id="noteref_96" name="noteref_96" href="#note_96"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a> which +produced a marked and constantly recurring influence +in the history of Japan. Especially was this +the case in the middle ages of Japanese history. +The practice spread from the imperial house downwards +into all departments of Japanese life. Although +the principle of abdication and adoption was probably +brought from China and was adopted by the +Japanese as a mark of superior culture, yet these +practices were carried to a much greater extent in +Japan than was ever thought of in their original +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +home. We shall see in the story of Japanese times +the amazing and ludicrous extent to which the abdication +of reigning sovereigns was carried. We shall +witness even the great and sagacious Ieyasu himself, +after holding the office of shōgun for only two years, +retiring in favor of his son Hidetada, and yet from +his retirement practically exercising the authority of +the office for many years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 668 the Emperor Tenji<a id="noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href="#note_97"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a> began a brief +reign of three years. As he had been regent during +the two preceding reigns, and chiefly managed the +administration, very little change occurred after his +accession to power. His reign is mainly remarkable +for the first appearance in a prominent position of +the Fujiwara family. The emperor appointed his +counsellor Nakatomi-no-Kamatari as <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">nai-daijin</span></span> +(private minister), an office next in rank after +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">sa-daijin</span></span>, +and which was created at this time. Nakatomi, +was authorized to assume the family name of +Fujiwara, meaning wistaria-field. The ancestor of +this family, Nakatomi-no-Muraji,<a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" href="#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a> was fabled to +have come down from the celestial plains to the +island of Kyūshū. The family therefore ranks with +that of the emperor as the oldest and most honored +in the empire. From the time of its establishment +down to the present it has enjoyed many honors and +privileges, and has played a very distinguished part +in the history of the country. This family first became +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +prominent during the reign of the Emperor +Kōtoku. The Soga family from the times of the +first introduction of Buddhism had grown to be the +most powerful and influential in the empire. Umako +had held the position of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">daijin</span></span> and his son +Yemishi became <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">daijin</span></span> after his father's +death. Yemishi presumed upon his promotion to this high office and +put on the airs of hereditary rank. He built castles +for himself and son and organized guards for their +defence. His son Iruka became <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">daijin</span></span> after his +father's death and conducted himself with even +greater arrogance. At last his conduct became intolerable +and he was assassinated <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 645. The +chief actor in this plot was Nakatomi-no-Kamatari, +who was at this time on intimate terms with the +prince who afterwards became the Emperor Tenji. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Further experiences, this time disastrous, with +Korea were encountered during this reign. A +Japanese garrison had been maintained in Kudara, +the western division of Korea. But at this time the +people of Shiraki with help from China attacked this +garrison and compelled it to retreat to Japan. Along +with the Japanese came many of the Koreans who +had been friendly with them, and who carried with +them, like the Huguenots when driven from France, +a knowledge of many arts and a culture which were +eagerly welcomed by the rising Japanese empire. +They were colonized in convenient quarters in different +provinces, and as an encouragement freed from +taxation for a time. Their influence upon the +opening civilization of Japan cannot be overlooked +or neglected in our estimate of the forces which conspired +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to produce the final result. In the book of +Japanese annals called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihon Shoki</span></span> there is a +statement<a id="noteref_99" name="noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a> +that in the fifth month of the second year of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Reiki</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 717) 1799 Koreans were +collected together in the province of Musashi and formed the +district of <span class="tei tei-q">“Koma-gōri”</span> or Korean district. Again +in the third year of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tempyō Hoji</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +760) forty inhabitants +of Shinra (a kingdom of Korea) and thirty-four +priests and priestesses came to Japan and +founded the <span class="tei tei-q">“Shinra-gōri,”</span> or Korean district. +These events occurred not long after the time we +are now considering and show that the Korean +colonization still continued and that the influence of +the arts and culture which the colonists introduced +was marked and important. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Few events are noted during the reigns which succeeded. +The following are the most worthy of mention. +The Emperor Temmu (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 673-686) added several +new degrees of rank to those already established. +He also favored the Buddhist religion by making its +services obligatory, and by forbidding the eating of +flesh. Silver was first discovered in Tsushima <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +674, which was followed twenty years later by the +manufacture of the first silver money. Copper was +discovered in Musashi in the reign of the Empress +Gemmyō (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 708-715) and the making of copper +money came into vogue. Before that time the +copper money in use was obtained from Korea and +China. Gold coin is said to have been first issued +under the Emperor Junnin (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 759-765). An +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +observatory was established for the inspection of the +stars in connection with the new department of +astrology. The cultivation of the lacquer tree and +the mulberry and the raising of silk-worms were still +further encouraged and extended. Cremation was +first practised about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 700 in the case of a Buddhist +priest who left directions that his body should be +burned. Since that time cremation has been employed +for the disposal of the dead by the Shin (or +Monto) sect, and is now authorized but not made +obligatory by the government. The progress made +by Buddhism is shown by the census of temples +which was made in the reign of the Empress Jito +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 690-702) and which gave the number as 545. +The publication of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span> in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 712, and of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihongi</span></span> eight years later, has already been referred +to at the close of the preceding chapter. These +works are still looked upon as the foundations of +Japanese literature and the highest authorities of +Japanese history. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the reign of the Empress Gemmyō (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 710) +the imperial residence was fixed at Nara. Up to +this time the custom<a id="noteref_100" name="noteref_100" href="#note_100"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> +derived from antiquity had +prevailed of changing the residence on the accession +of each new emperor. But the court continued at +Nara for a period of seventy-five years running +through seven reigns; and in consequence Nara has +always been looked upon with peculiar reverence, +and is the seat of several of the most notable +Buddhist and Shintō temples<a id="noteref_101" name="noteref_101" href="#note_101"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a> and structures. It is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +here that Kasuga-no-miya was founded in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 767 +and dedicated to the honor of the ancestor of the +Fujiwara family. Here also is Tō-dai-ji a Buddhist +temple famed for containing the bronze statue of +Great Buddha. This colossal idol was constructed +in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 736 under the Emperor Shōmu, during the +time that the imperial court resided at Nara. The +height of the image is fifty-three feet, being seven feet +higher than the Daibutsu at Kamakura. The temple +was built over the image and in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1180 was destroyed +by a fire which melted the head of the image. This +was replaced. The temple was burned again <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1567, from which time the image has remained as +the Japanese say <span class="tei tei-q">“a wet god.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 794<a id="noteref_102" name="noteref_102" href="#note_102"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a> during the reign of the Emperor +Kwammu (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 782-806) the capital was removed to +Kyōto on the banks of the Kamogawa. The situation +and the environs are lovely, and justify the +affectionate reverence with which it has ever been +regarded. Here were built the palaces and offices +for the emperor and his court. It was officially +called Miyako, that is, residence of the sovereign. It +continued to be occupied as the capital until <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1868, when the court was moved to Tōkyō. At +this time the name of the city was changed to Saikyō, +which means western capital, in distinction from +Tōkyō, which means eastern capital. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Emishi in the northern part of the Main +island continued to give much trouble to the government. +During the reign of the Emperor Shōmu +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 724-756) Fujiwara-no-Umakai was sent against +these restless neighbors and succeeded in reducing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +them to subjection, which lasted longer than usual. +A fort was built to keep them in subjection, called +the castle of Taga. There is still standing a stone +monument at Taga, between Sendai and Matsushima, +on which is an inscription which has been +translated by Mr. Aston,<a id="noteref_103" name="noteref_103" href="#note_103"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a> of the British legation. +The inscription gives the date of its first construction, +which corresponds to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 724, and of its +restoration, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 762. Mr. Aston points out that the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ri</span></span> here mentioned is +not the present Japanese <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ri</span></span> +equivalent to miles 2.44, but the ancient <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ri</span></span> +which is somewhat less than half a mile. This makes it +evident that the part of the Main island north of a +point near Sendai was at this time denominated +Yezo, and was occupied by the barbarous tribes who +then as now called themselves Yezo. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The employment of a Fujiwara in this expedition +was probably purely perfunctory. So far as we +know, this family, which had by this time risen to a +position of great influence, was in no respect military, +and the appointment of Umakai as chief of the +forces sent against the Ainos was due to the political +prominence of his family. For many centuries the +relations of the Fujiwara family to the imperial +house was most intimate. Indeed the late Viscount +Mori,<a id="noteref_104" name="noteref_104" href="#note_104"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a> in his introduction to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Education in Japan</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +speaks of this relation as a <span class="tei tei-q">“proprietorship.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The +throne for a time became virtually the property of +one family, who exclusively controlled it.”</span> This +family was that of Fujiwara,<a id="noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href="#note_105"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a> to which reference has +already been made. The founder of this house, +Kamatari, was a man of great talent and administrative +ability, and his immediate successors were +worthy of their ancestor's fame, and in succession +filled the office of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">daijin.</span></span> In this way the +office came to be regarded as hereditary in the Fujiwara +family. The office of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kuambaku</span></span>, also from about +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 880, became hereditary in the Fujiwara house. +Owing to the great age and prominence of the +family, it became customary to marry the emperors +and princes of the imperial house to ladies taken +from it, so that after a time the mothers and wives +of the princes of the imperial house were without +exception descendants of the Fujiwara, and the +offices of the court were in the hands of this family. +In this condition of things the abdication of emperors, +before they had reigned long enough to learn +the duties of their position, became the common +practice. This vicious custom was encouraged by +the Fujiwara, because it placed greater authority +in their hands, and left them to conduct the administration +without troublesome interference. The +Emperor Seiwa (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 859-880) commenced to reign +when he was nine years of age, and abdicated when +he was twenty-six.<a id="noteref_106" name="noteref_106" href="#note_106"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a> +Shujaku (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 931-952) became +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +emperor when he was eight years of age and abdicated +at the age of twenty-three. Toba became +emperor (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1108) at five years of age, and resigned +at the age of twenty. Rokujō was made emperor +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1166) at the age of two and resigned at the +age of four. Takakura, who succeeded Rokujō +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1169), was eight years of age and abdicated at +the age of nineteen. It often happened that there +were living at the same time several retired emperors, +besides the actual emperor.<a id="noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href="#note_107"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a> Thus, in the period +when Ichijō began his reign at the age of seven +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 987), there were three retired emperors still +living, viz.: Reizei, who began to reign (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 968) at +eighteen, and retired at twenty; Enyū, who began +to reign (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 970) at eleven, and retired at twenty-six; +Kwazan, who began to reign (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 985) at +seventeen, and retired at nineteen. At a period +somewhat later than the one now under consideration, +during the reign of Go-Nijō, who had just been +made emperor (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1301) at seventeen, and who +retired at nineteen, there were four retired emperors +living. When the emperors retired they often went +into a Buddhist monastery, taking the title of +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hō-ō</span></span> +or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cloistered emperor</span></em>. From this sacred seclusion +they continued many times to wield the powers of +government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The object of this abdication was twofold. The +sovereigns themselves often became restless and dissatisfied +in the constrained attitude which they were +compelled to maintain. If they were in the least +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +ambitious to meet the requirements of their elevated +position and realized in any degree the legitimate +claims which their country had upon them, their +natural efforts to take part in the administration +were promptly checked, and they were reminded +that it was unbecoming and unfitting for the descendants +of the gods to mingle in ordinary earthly affairs. +In this way it often fell out that the ablest of the +emperors retired from the actual position of reigning +emperor in order to free themselves from the restraints +of etiquette and from the burden of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ennui</span></span> +which held them captive. They assumed the dignity +of retired emperors, and often from their retirement +wielded a greater influence and exerted a far more +active part in the administration of affairs than they +ever had been able to do when upon the imperial +throne. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Besides this motive which affected the occupants +of the throne, there was a corresponding one which +led the officers of the court to encourage and perhaps +sometimes to compel the emperors to abdicate. +These administrative officers, into whose hands the +management of the government had fallen, were desirous +to retain their authority, and therefore whenever +an emperor exhibited signs of independence, or +any disposition to think or act for himself, they +contrived means to have him retire and leave in his +place some inexperienced boy who could be more +easily controlled. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In this kind of supervising statesmanship the +Fujiwara family became, and for centuries remained, +supreme experts. For a period of four hundred +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +years, from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 645 to 1050, they monopolized +nearly all the important offices in the government. +The wives and concubines of the feeble emperors +were all taken from its inexhaustible <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">repertoire</span></em>. The +men of the family, among whom were always some +of administrative ability, found it a task of no great +difficulty to rule the emperor who was supposed to +be divinely inspired to rule the empire, especially +when he was usually a boy whose mother, wife, and +court favorites were all supplied from the Fujiwara +family. This kind of life and environment could +not fail to produce on the successive emperors a +sadly demoralizing effect. They were brought up +in an enervating atmosphere and their whole life +was spent in arts and employments which, instead +of developing in them a spirit of independence and +a high ambition and ability to govern well the empire +committed to them, led them to devote themselves +to pleasures, and to leave to others less +fortunate the duty of administering the affairs of +government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The same circumstances which demoralized the +occupants of the imperial throne served in a certain +though less degree to enervate and enfeeble the +Fujiwara family. Although they sometimes appointed +one of their number the commander of an expedition +against the Emishi, or to put down fresh revolts +in the island of Kyūshū, yet his duties were purely +honorary. He usually remained at home and sent +one or more of the active military chieftains to lead +the forces against the enemy in the field. If the +expedition was successful, however, the honorary +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +commander did not forget to have himself duly +promoted, and rewarded with additional lands and +income. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Other families besides the Fujiwara, rose in these +long and weary centuries to prominence, and seemed +on the point of disputing the security of their position. +Thus the Tachibana in the eighth century attained +high honors and distinction. It was an old +family, and even as far back as the legend of Yamato-dake<a id="noteref_108" name="noteref_108" href="#note_108"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> +we find that a princess of the Tachibana +family was his wife, who sacrificed herself in the bay +of Yedo to appease the turbulent waters. It was +Maroyé, a member of the Tachibana family and a +favorite of the Emperor Shōmu (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 724-756), who +compiled the collection of ancient Japanese poetry +called Man-yōshū or collection of Myriad Leaves. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another family which attained prominence was +the Sugawara. It originated in the province of +Kawachi. The most noted representative of this +family was Sugawara Michizané, who was first conspicuous +as the teacher of the young prince who +afterward became the Emperor Uda (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 888-898). +He was a brilliant scholar in Chinese, which was +then the learned language of the East. Even down +to modern times his family has been devoted to +learning. The Sugawara<a id="noteref_109" name="noteref_109" href="#note_109"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a> and Ōye families both +had adopted literature as their hereditary profession, +and the government made them an allowance for +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the expenses<a id="noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href="#note_110"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a> of those who might be pursuing their +studies in the national university. The influence of +Michizané over the emperor was marked and salutary. +Under his wise tutelage Uda showed so much +independence that the Fujiwara <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kwambaku</span></span> found +means to lead him to abdicate in favor of his son, +who became the sixtieth emperor, and is known +under the historic name of Daigo. Michizané became +the counsellor and was created <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">nai-daijin</span></span> under +the new emperor, who at the time of his accession +was only fourteen years old. But the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kwambaku</span></span> +Tokihira determined to free himself from the adverse +influence of this wise and honest counsellor. +So he had him sent in a kind of honorable banishment +to Dazaifu, the seat of the vice-royalty of the +island of Kyūshū. It is said that he died here in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 903. There was a great re-action in regard to +him after his death, and he was canonized under the +name of Tenjin<a id="noteref_111" name="noteref_111" href="#note_111"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a> (Heavenly god), and is held sacred +as the patron saint of men of letters and of students. +The twenty-fifth day of each month is kept as a +holiday in schools, sacred to Tenjin-Sama, and the +twenty-fifth of June as an annual <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">matsuri</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 40%; text-align: center"><img src="images/michizane.png" width="271" height="553" alt="Illustration" title="Michizane." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Michizane.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But the families which finally displaced the Fujiwara +from their position of supremacy were what +were technically called the military families. The +separation of officers into civil and military was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +made under the reforms introduced from China. +The Fujiwara in the main restricted themselves to +civil duties. Wherever it was necessary to send +military expeditions against the barbarians of the +north, or rebels in Kyūshū, or into the disaffected +districts of Korea, commanders were selected from +families devoted to military service. The Taira +family was of this class. Hei is the Chinese equivalent +of the Japanese name Taira, and is more often +used in the literature of the times. The Taira +family sprang from the Emperor Kwammu (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +782-806) through one of his concubines. The great-grandson +of Kwammu, Takamochi, received permission +to adopt the name of Taira, and thus became +the founder of the family. They were the military +vassals of the crown for many generations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A little later than the Taira arose another family, +the Minamoto, whose equivalent Chinese name was +Gen. It sprang from the Emperor Seiwa (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 859-880). +His son Tadazumi became minister of war. +Tadazumi had two sons, who were granted the +family name of Minamoto; the descendants of one +of them, Tsunemoto, being created military vassals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The almost constant wars in which the empire +was engaged led to the extension of the military +class. From the time now under discussion the +military class came to be looked upon as a distinct +and separate part of the population. It was composed +of those who in the time of war showed an +aptitude for arms, and who were most serviceable +in the campaigns which they undertook. Gradually +they became distinct from the agricultural peasantry, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and by education and training came to look upon +arms as their legitimate profession. They naturally +attached themselves to the military commanders +who led them in their various expeditions, and thus +were in time regarded as the standing troops of the +empire. This growth of a military class, whose +commanders were restless and ambitious, gradually +undermined the authority which the Fujiwara up to +the tenth century had almost unrestrictedly exercised. +The employment of commanders from the +military families raised in them an ambition to share +in the powers of government. The struggles which +ensued, first between the Fujiwara and Taira, and +then between the Taira and Minamoto, continued to +keep the country embroiled for more than a century. +The suffering and desolation resulting from these +weary internecine wars can only be paralleled by +such conflicts as that between the White and Red +Roses in England, or the Thirty Years' War in Germany. +Of these struggles it will be possible to give +only an outline. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It has already been mentioned that the Taira +family sprang from the Emperor Kwammu,<a id="noteref_112" name="noteref_112" href="#note_112"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a> whose +great-grandson, Takamochi received permission to +take Taira as his family name. The Emperor +Shirakawa tired of the arrogance of the Fujiwara in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1087 retired into a cloister, and from this +seclusion continued to exercise a controlling influence +in the conduct of affairs. Tadamori a descendant +of Taira-no-Takamochi was a favorite in his court, +and even had a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">liaison</span></em> with one of his concubines. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ex-emperor complaisantly informed the courtier +that if the child to be born proved to be a daughter +he himself would adopt it, but if a son then it should +belong to Tadamori. Accordingly the child being a +son was a Taira, and rose to great eminence as Taira-no-Kiyomori. +Tadamori acquired for himself great +credit by his successful expedition against Korean +pirates who had cruised along the eastern coasts of +Japan. In the troubles which subsequently arose +in reference to the succession the Taira took an important +part. The Emperor Toba, who succeeded to +the throne in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1108 at the age of six, abdicated +in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1123 at the age of twenty-six. Both his father, +the ex-Emperor Horikawa, and his grandfather, the +ex-Emperor Shirakawa, were still living in retirement. +He was succeeded by his son the Emperor Shutoku +in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1124, then six years old, who after reigning +seventeen years abdicated. He had a son but was +succeeded <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1142 by his brother Konoye who was +four years of age. This mature youth reigned +thirteen years and died without abdicating. On his +death-bed he adopted as the crown prince his brother +Go-Shirakawa, thus displacing the lineal heir. The +succession was now bitterly disputed. The Minamoto +chiefly espoused the cause of the displaced +heir, while Kiyomori and the Taira together with +Minamoto-no-Yoshitomo supported Go-Shirakawa. +In a battle fought <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1156 Kyomori won the +victory. This victory raised him to a pinnacle of +power. He began a career of nepotism and patronage +which was not inferior to that of the Fujiwara. +The ex-Emperor Shutoku and his son were banished +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the province of Sanuki where it is said that +Shutoku died of starvation. Tametomo a member +of the Minamoto clan who was famed for his great +strength and for his skill in archery was sent as an +exile to the island of Hachijō, southeast of the promontory +of Izu. From this island he escaped, and it +is a tradition that he made his way to the Ryūkyū +islands where he rose to prominence and became the +ancestor of the kings of these islands. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Yoshitomo of the Minamoto clan, who had sided +with Kiyomori in the recent dynastic conflict was a +brother of the Tametomo just mentioned. He was +greatly offended by the violent use which Kiyomori +made of the power which had come into his hands. +With all the Minamoto and Fujiwara he conspired +to overthrow the victorious and arrogant Taira. But +Kiyomori suspecting the plans of his enemies took +measures to counteract them and suddenly fell upon +them in the city of Kyōto. Yoshitomo was obliged +to save himself by fleeing to Owari, where he was +assassinated by the agents of Kiyomori. The death +of the head of the Minamoto only made the tyrant +more determined to crush all opposition. Even the +ex-Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who was a son-in-law of +Kiyomori, but who showed some signs of disapproval, +was sent into exile. Several of the sons of Yoshitomo +were put to death; but Yoritomo then a boy of +thirteen was saved by the interference of the mother-in-law +of Kiyomori, and was sent into exile in the +province of Izu, and put into the safe-keeping of two +faithful Taira men, one of whom Hōjō Tokimasa +will be heard of hereafter. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Besides the four sons of Yoshitomo by his wife, +he had also three sons by a concubine named Tokiwa. +She was a woman of great beauty, and for that +reason as well as because she was the mother of the +romantic hero Yoshitsuné, she has often been chosen +by Japanese artists as the subject of their pictures. +Tokiwa and her three children, of whom Yoshitsuné +was then an infant at the breast, fled at the breaking +out of the storm upon Yoshitomo and the Minamoto +clan. They are often represented as wandering +through a storm of snow, Yoshitsuné being carried +as an infant on the back of his mother, and the +other two little ones pattering along with unequal +steps at her side. In this forlorn condition they +were met by one of the Taira soldiers, who took pity +on them and gave them shelter. From him they +learned that Kiyomori had taken the mother of Tokiwa +prisoner, and held her in confinement, knowing +that this would surely bring back to him the fair +fugitive and her children. In the Chinese teachings +of that day, in which Tokiwa had been educated, +the duty of a child to its mother was paramount to +that of a mother to her child. So Tokiwa felt that +it was unquestionably her duty to go back at once +to the capital and surrender herself in order to procure +the release of her mother. But her maternal +heart rebelled when she remembered that her babes +would surely be sacrificed by this devotion. Her +woman's wit devised a scheme which might possibly +furnish a way between these terrible alternatives. +She determined to surrender herself and her children +to Kiyomori, and depend upon her beauty to save +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +them from the fate which had been pronounced +upon all the Minamoto. So with her little flock she +went back and gave herself up to the implacable +tyrant. Softened by her beauty and urged by a +number of his courtiers, he set her mother at liberty +in exchange for her becoming his concubine, and +distributed her children in separate monasteries. +The chief interest follows the youngest boy, Yoshitsuné, +who was sent to the monastery at Kurama +Yama<a id="noteref_113" name="noteref_113" href="#note_113"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a> near Kyōto. Here he grew up a vigorous +and active youth, more devoted to woodcraft, +archery, and fencing than to the studies and devotions +of the monastery. At sixteen years of age he +was urged by the priests to become a monk and to +spend the rest of his days in praying for the soul of +his father. But he refused, and shortly after he +escaped from the monastery in company with a +merchant who was about to visit the northern provinces. +Yoshitsuné reached Mutsu, where he entered +the service of Fujiwara-no-Hidehira, then governor +of the province. Here he spent several years devoting +himself to the military duties which chiefly +pertained to the government of that rough and barbarous +province. He developed into the gallant +and accomplished soldier who played a principal +part in the wars which followed, and became the +national hero around whose name have clustered the +choicest traditions of his country. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Meanwhile, as we have seen, Yoritomo,<a id="noteref_114" name="noteref_114" href="#note_114"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> the oldest +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +son of Yoshitomo, and by inheritance the head of +the Minamoto clan, had been banished to Izu and +committed to the care of two faithful Taira adherents. +Yoritomo married Masago, the daughter of +Hōjō Tokimasa, one of these, and found means to +induce Tokimasa to join him in his plans to overthrow +the tyrant Kiyomori, who now ruled the +empire with relentless severity. Even the retired +emperor joined in this conspiracy and wrote letters +to Yoritomo urging him to lead in the attempt to +put down the Taira. Yoritomo summoned the +scattered members of the Minamoto clan and all the +disaffected elements of every kind to his assistance. +It does not seem that this summons was responded +to with the alacrity which was hoped for. The inexperience +of Yoritomo and the power and resources +of him against whom they were called upon to array +themselves, led the scattered enemies of Kiyomori +to hesitate to join so hopeless a cause. The rendezvous +of the Minamoto was at Ishibashi Yama, and it +is said that only three hundred men gathered at the +call. They were followed and attacked by a greatly +superior force, and utterly routed. It is a tradition +that Yoritomo and six friends, who had escaped +from the slaughter of this battle, hid themselves in +the hollow of an immense tree. Their pursuers, in +searching for them, sent one of their number to +examine this tree. He was secretly a friend of the +Minamoto, and when he discovered the fugitives he +told them to remain, and announced to those who +sent him that the tree was empty. He even inserted +his spear into the hollow and turned it about to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +show that there was nothing there. When he did +this two doves<a id="noteref_115" name="noteref_115" href="#note_115"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a> +flew out, and the artful soldier +reported that spiders' webs were in the mouth of the +opening. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Yoritomo now fled to the promontory of Awa, +east of what became known afterward as Yedo bay. +He sent messages in every direction summoning the +enemies of Kiyomori to join him. His brother +Yoshitsuné gathered what forces he could from the +north and marched to the region which was to become +famous as the site of Kamakura. He was +joined by others of his clan and soon felt himself in +such a position as to assume the aggressive. He +fixed upon Kamakura as his headquarters about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1180, and as his power increased it grew to be a +great city. It was difficult of access from Kyōto and +by fortifying the pass of Hakoné,<a id="noteref_116" name="noteref_116" href="#note_116"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a> where the mountainous +regions of Shinano come down to the eastern +coast not far from Fujisan, it was rendered safe from +attacks coming from the south. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While these notes of preparation were being +sounded Kiyomori, who as <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">daijō-daijin</span></span> had ruled +the empire for many years, died <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1181, at the +age of sixty-four. He was fully aware of the portentous +clouds which were gathering around his +family. On his death-bed he is said to have warned +them of the danger arising from the plans of Yoritomo. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +According to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihon-Gwaishi</span></span>, he said, +<span class="tei tei-q">“My regret is only that I am dying, and have not +yet seen the head of Yoritomo of the Minamoto. +After my decease do not make offerings to Buddha +on my behalf nor read sacred books. Only cut off +the head of Yoritomo of the Minamoto and hang it +on my tomb.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The death of Kiyomori<a id="noteref_117" name="noteref_117" href="#note_117"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a> hastened the triumph of +Yoritomo. Munemori the son of Kiyomori became +the head of the Taira clan, and continued the contest. +But Yoritomo's combinations speedily reduced +the country to his power. Yoshitsuné with his army +from the north was at Kamakura; Yoshinaka, a +cousin of Yoritomo, was in command of an army +gathered in the highlands of Shinano; while Yoritomo +himself led the forces collected in Awa, Kazusa +and Musashi. The point to which all the armies +were directed was the capital where the Taira were +still in full control. Yoshinaka was the first to come +in collision with the forces of the capital. Munemori +had sent out an army to oppose Yoshinaka who was +swiftly approaching along the Nakasendō. The +Taira army was completely defeated and Yoshinaka +marched victoriously into the capital. Munemori +with the reigning emperor Antoku, then only a child +six years of age, and all the imperial court crossed +the Inland sea to Sanuki, the northern province of +the island of Shikoku. The two retired emperors +Go-Shirakawa, and Takakura who sympathized with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the revolutionary movements of Yoritomo, remained +behind and welcomed Yoshinaka to the capital. +The retirement of the emperor from the palace was +taken as his abdication, and his younger brother, +Go-Toba, then seven years old, was proclaimed emperor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Yoshinaka, puffed up by his rapid success, and +disregarding the paramount position of Yoritomo, +assumed the superintendence of the government and +had himself appointed +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">sei-i-shōgun</span></span>,<a id="noteref_118" name="noteref_118" href="#note_118"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a> which was the +highest military title then bestowed upon a subject. +He even went so far as to antagonize Yoritomo and +undertook to pluck the fruits of the military movements +which had brought about this revolution of +the government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Yoritomo at once despatched Yoshitsuné at the +head of his army to Kyōto to put down this most +unexpected and unnatural defection. He met +Yoshinaka's army near lake Biwa and inflicted upon +it a severe defeat. Overwhelmed with shame and +knowing that he deserved no consideration at the +hands of his outraged relatives, Yoshinaka committed +suicide. Yoshitsuné then followed the fugitive +court. He destroyed the Taira palace at Hyōgo, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and then crossed over to Sanuki, whither the court +had fled. Alarmed by the swift vengeance which +was pursuing them, Munemori together with the +emperor and his mother and all the court hastily +embarked for what they hoped might be an asylum +in the island of Kyūshū. They were pursued by +the Minamoto army in the junks which had brought +them to Sanuki. They were overtaken at Dan-no-ura +not far from the village of Shimonoseki, in the +narrow straits at the western extremity of the Inland +sea. The naval battle which here took place is the +most famous in the annals of the Japanese empire. +According to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihon-Gwaishi</span></span> the Taira fleet consisted +of five hundred junks, and the Minamoto of +seven hundred. The vessels of the Taira were encumbered +by many women and children of the +escaping families, which put them at a great disadvantage. +The young emperor, with his mother and +grandmother, were also the precious freight of this +fugitive fleet. Of course, at this early date the +vessels which contended were unlike the monstrous +men-of-war which now make naval warfare so stupendous +a game. They were not even to be compared +with the vessels which made up the Spanish +Armada in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1588, or the ships in which the +gallant British sailors repulsed them. Cannon were +no part of their armament. The men fought with +bows and arrows, and with spears and swords. It +was, however, a terrible hand-to-hand fight between +men who felt that their all was at stake. Story-tellers +draw from this battle some of their most lurid +narratives, and artists have depicted it with realistic +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +horrors. The grandmother of the emperor, the +widow of Kiyomori, seeing that escape was impossible, +took the boy emperor in her arms, and in spite +of the remonstrances of her daughter, who was the +boy's mother, she plunged into the sea, and both +were drowned. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The great mass of the Taira perished in this battle, +but a remnant escaped to the island of Kyūshū and +hid themselves in the inaccessible valleys of the +province of Higo. Here they have been recognized +in recent times, and it is claimed that they still show +the surly aversion to strangers which is an inheritance +derived from the necessity under which they +long rested to hide themselves from the vengeance +which pursued them.<a id="noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href="#note_119"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This battle was decisive in the question of supremacy +between the Taira and Minamoto clans. The +same policy of extermination which Kiyomori had +pursued against the Minamoto was now remorselessly +enforced by the Minamoto against the Taira. +The prisoners who were taken in the battle were +executed to the last man. Munemori was taken +prisoner and decapitated. Whenever a Taira man, +woman, or child was found, death was the inevitable +penalty inflicted. Yoritomo stationed his father-in-law +Hōjō Tokimasa at Kyōto to search out and +eradicate his enemies as well as to supervise the +affairs of the government. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It will be remembered that Go-Toba, a mere +child (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1186) only seven years of age, had been +put on the throne, in the place of the fugitive Antoku. +Now that the latter had perished at Dan-no-ura, +there could be no question about the legitimacy +and regularity of Go-Toba's accession. The retired +Emperor Go-Shirakawa, who had been a friend and +promoter of the schemes of Yoritomo, was still alive, +and rendered important aid in the re-organization of +the government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The darkest blot upon the character of Yoritomo +is his treatment of his youngest brother Yoshitsuné. +It was he who had by his generalship and gallantry +brought these terrible wars to a triumphant conclusion. +He had crushed in the decisive battle of +Dan-no-ura the last of the enemies of Yoritomo. +With his victorious troops he marched northward, +and with prisoners and captured standards was on +his way to lay them at the feet of his now triumphant +brother at Kamakura. But the demon of jealousy +had taken possession of Yoritomo. He resented +the success and fame of his more winning and heroic +brother. He sent orders to him not to enter Kamakura, +and to give up his trophies of battle at Koshigoye +near to Enoshima. Here at the monastery of +Mampukuji is still kept the draft of the touching +letter<a id="noteref_120" name="noteref_120" href="#note_120"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a> which he sent to his brother, protesting his +loyalty and denying the charges of ambition and +self-seeking which had been made against him. But +all this availed nothing. Yoshitsuné returned to +Kyōto and, in fear of bodily harm from the machinations +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of his brother, made his escape with his faithful +servant Benkei,<a id="noteref_121" name="noteref_121" href="#note_121"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a> into his old asylum with his friend +Fujiwara Hidehira the governor of Mutsu. Shortly +after his arrival, however, Hidehira died, and his son +Yasuhira abjectly connived at his assassination<a id="noteref_122" name="noteref_122" href="#note_122"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1189, with a view to secure Yoritomo's favor. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +He was at the time of his death only thirty years of +age. He has lived down to the present time in the +admiring affection of a warlike and heroic people. +Although Yoritomo is looked upon as perhaps their +greatest hero, yet their admiration is always coupled +with a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">proviso</span></em> concerning his cruel treatment of his +brother. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In order not to rest under the imputation of having +encouraged this assassination, Yoritomo marched at +the head of a strong force and inflicted punishment +upon Yasuhira for having done what he himself desired +but dared not directly authorize. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The way was now clear for Yoritomo to establish +a system of government which should secure to him +and his family the fruits of his long contest. In +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1190, he went up to the capital to pay his respects +to the Emperor Go-Toba as well as to the +veteran retired Emperor Go-Shirakawa. The latter +was now in his sixty-sixth year, and had held his +place through five successive reigns, and was now +the friend and patron of the new government. He +died, however, only two years later. Yoritomo knew +the effect produced by a magnificent display, and +therefore made his progress to the capital with all +the pomp and circumstance which he could command. +The festivities were kept up for a month, +and the court and its surroundings were deeply impressed +with a sense of the power and irresistible +authority of the head of the Minamoto clan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Yoritomo did not, however, choose to establish +himself at Kyōto amid the atmosphere of effeminacy +which surrounded the court. After his official visit, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +during which every honor and rank which could be +bestowed by the emperor were showered upon his +head and all his family and friends, he returned to +his own chosen seat at Kamakura. Here he busied +himself in perfecting a system which, while it would +perpetuate his own power, would also build up a firm +national government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +His first step, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1184, was to establish a council +at which affairs of state were discussed, and which +furnished a medium through which the administration +might be conducted. The president of this +council was Ōye-no-Hiromoto.<a id="noteref_123" name="noteref_123" href="#note_123"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a> Its jurisdiction pertained +at first to the Kwantō—that is, to the part of +the country east of the Hakoné barrier. This region +was more completely under the control of the +Minamoto, and therefore could be more easily and +surely submitted to administrative methods. He +also established a criminal tribunal to take cognizance +of robberies and other crimes which, during +the lawless and violent disturbances in the country, +had largely prevailed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But the step, which was destined to produce the +most far-reaching results, consisted in his obtaining +from the emperor the appointment of five of his own +family as governors of provinces, promising on his +part to supervise their actions and to be responsible +for the due performance of their duty. Up to this +time the governors and vice-governors of provinces +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +had always been appointed from civil life and were +taken from the families surrounding the imperial +court. He also was authorized to send into each +province a military man, who was to reside there, to +aid the governor in military affairs. Naturally, the +military man, being the more active, gradually absorbed +much of the power formerly exercised by +the governor. These military men were under the +authority of Yoritomo and formed the beginning of +that feudal system which was destined to prevail so +long in Japan. He also received from the court, +shortly after his visit to Kyōto, the title of +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">sei-i-tai-shōgun</span></span>, +which was the highest military title which +had ever been bestowed on a subject. This is the +title which, down to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1868, was borne by the +real rulers of Japan. The possession of the power +implied by this title enabled Yoritomo to introduce +responsible government into the almost ungoverned +districts of the empire, and to give to Japan for the +first time in many centuries a semblance of peace. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There were also many minor matters of administration +which Yoritomo, in the few remaining years +of his life, put in order. He obtained from the +emperor permission to levy a tax on the agricultural +products of the country, from which he defrayed the +expenses of the military government. He established +tribunals for the hearing and determining of +causes, and thus secured justice in the ordinary +affairs of life. He forbade the priests and monks +in the great Buddhist monasteries, who had become +powerful and arrogant, to bear arms, or to harbor +those bearing arms. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"><img src="images/yoritomo.png" width="198" height="319" alt="Illustration" title="Yoritomo." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Yoritomo.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In all these administrative reforms Yoritomo was +careful always to secure the assent and authority of +the imperial court.<a id="noteref_124" name="noteref_124" href="#note_124"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a> In no case did he assume or +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +exercise independent authority. In this way was +introduced at this time that system of dual government +which continued until the resignation of +the Tokugawa Shōgun in 1868. After his first visit +to Kyōto, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1190, Yoritomo devoted the remaining +years of his life to the confirmation of his +power and the encouragement of the arts of peace. +In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1195 he made a second magnificent visit to +Kyōto and remained four months. It is because of +these peaceful results, which followed the long internecine +struggles, that the Japanese regard Yoritomo +as one of their most eminent and notable men. +Under the influence of his court Kamakura grew to +be a great city and far outranked even Kyōto in +power and activity, though not in size. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the autumn of the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1198, when returning +from the inspection of a new bridge over the +Sagami river, he had a fall from his horse which +seriously injured him. He died from the effects of +this fall in the early part of the following year, in +the fifty-third year of his age. He had wielded the +unlimited military power for the last fifteen years. +His death was almost as much of an epoch in the +history of Japan as his life had been. We shall see +in the chapters which follow the deplorable results +of that system of effeminacy and nepotism, of abdication +and regency, which Yoritomo had to resist, +and which, had he lived twenty years more, his +country might have escaped. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> +<a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VII. Emperor And Shōgun.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The death of Yoritomo brought into prominence +the very same system which had been the bane of +the imperial house during many centuries. His son +and the hereditary successor to his position and power +was Yoriiye, then eighteen years of age. He was +the son of Masago, and therefore the grandson of +Hōjō Tokimasa, who had been Yoritomo's chief +friend and adviser. He was an idle, vicious boy, +and evinced no aptitude to carry on the work of his +father. In this wayward career he was not checked +by his grandfather, and is even said to have been +encouraged to pursue a life of pleasure and gayety, +while the earnest work of the government was transacted +by others. Tokimasa assumed the duties of +president of the Council as well as guardian of +Yoriiye, and in these capacities conducted the administration +entirely according to his own will. The +appointments of position and rank which the father +had received from the emperor were in like manner +bestowed upon the son. He was made head of the +military administrators stationed in the several +provinces, and he also received the military title of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">sei-i-tai-shōgun</span></span>, +to which Yoritomo had been appointed. +But these appointments were only honorary, +and the duties pertaining to them were all +performed by the guardian of the young man. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1203, that is in the fourth year +succeeding Yoritomo's death, Yoriiye was taken +sick, and was unable to fulfil his duties even in the +feeble manner which was customary. His mother +consulted with Tokimasa, and they agreed that +Yoriiye should abdicate and surrender the headship +of the military administration to his brother Semman, +who was twelve years of age, and his son Ichiman. +Yoriiye seems to have resisted these suggestions, +and even resorted to force to free himself from the +influence of the Hōjō. But Tokimasa was too +powerful to be so easily dispensed with. Yoriiye +was compelled to yield, and he retired to a monastery +and gave up his offices. Not content with this +living retirement, Tokimasa contrived to have him +assassinated. Semman, his brother, was appointed +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">sei-i-tai-shōgun</span></span>, +and his name changed to Sanetomo. +But Sanetomo did not long enjoy his promotion, +because his nephew, the son of his murdered predecessor, +deemed him responsible for his father's +murder, and took occasion to assassinate him. Then +in turn the nephew was put to death for this crime, +and thus by the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1219 the last of the +descendants of the great Yoritomo had perished. In +the meantime Tokimasa had, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1205, retired to a +Buddhist monastery in his sixty-eighth year, and in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1216, when he was seventy-eight, he died. The +court at Kamakura was now prepared to go on in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +its career of effeminacy after the pattern of that at +Kyōto. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Mesago, the widow of Yoritomo and daughter of +Tokimasa, although she too had taken refuge in a +Buddhist nunnery, continued to exercise a ruling +control in the affairs of the government. She +solicited from the court at Kyōto the appointment +of Yoritsuné, a boy of the Fujiwara family, only two +years old, as <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">sei-i-tai-shōgun</span></span> +in the place of the murdered +Sanetomo. The petition was granted, and +this child was entrusted to the care of the Hōjō, +who, as regents<a id="noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href="#note_125"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a> +of the shōgun, exercised with unlimited +sway the authority of this great office. The +situation of affairs in Japan at this time was deplorable. +Go-Toba and Tsuchi-mikado were both living +in retirement as ex-emperors. Juntoku was the +reigning emperor, who was under the influence and +tutelage of the ex-Emperor Go-Toba. Fretting +under the arrogance of the Hōjō, Go-Toba undertook +to resist their claims. But Yoshitoku, the +Hōjō regent at this time, quickly brought the Kyōto +court to terms by the use of his military power. +The ex-Emperor Go-Toba was compelled to become +a monk, and was exiled to the island of Oki. +The Emperor Juntoku was forced to abdicate, and +was banished to Sado, and a grandson of the former +Emperor Takakura placed on the throne. Even the +ex-Emperor Tsuchi-mikado, who had not taken any +part in the conspiracy, was sent off to the island of +Shikoku. The lands that had belonged to the +implicated nobles were confiscated and distributed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by Yoshitoku among his own adherents. The power +of the Hōjō family was thus raised to its supreme +point. They ruled both at Kyōto and Kamakura +with resistless authority. They exercised at both +places this authority without demanding or receiving +the appointment to any of the high positions +which they might have claimed. They were only +the regents of young and immature shōguns, who +were the appointees of a court which had at its head +an emperor without power or influence, and which +was controlled by the creatures of their own designation. +This lamentable state of things lasted for +many years. The shōguns during all this time were +children sent from Kyōto, sons of emperors or +connections of the royal family. The Hōjō ruled +them as well as the country. Whenever it seemed +best, they relentlessly deposed them, and set up +others in their places. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1289 the Regent +Sadatoki, it is said, became irritated with one of +these semi-royal shōguns, named Koreyasu, and in +order to show his contempt for him, had him put in +a <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">nori-mono</span></span><a id="noteref_126" name="noteref_126" href="#note_126"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a> with his heels upward, and sent him +under guard to Kyōto. Some of the Hōjō regents, +however, were men of character and efficiency. +Yasutoki, for instance, who became regent in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1225, was a man of notable executive ability, taking +Yoritomo as his model. Besides being a soldier of +tried capacity, he was a true friend of the farmer in +his seasons of famine and trial, and a promoter of +legal reforms and of the arts, which found a congenial +home among the Japanese. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But this condition of affairs could not last always. +The very same influences which put the real +power into the hands of the regents were at work +to render them unfit to continue to wield it. Abdication +and effeminacy were gradually dragging down +the Hōjō family to the same level as that of the +shōguns and emperors. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1256 Tokiyori, then +only thirty years old, resigned the regency in favor +of his son Tokimune, who was only six years. He +himself retired to a monastery, from which he +travelled as a visiting monk throughout the country. +In the meantime his son was under the care of a +tutor, Nagatoki, who, of course, was one of the Hōjō +family. Thus it had come about that a tutor now +controlled the regent; who was supposed to control +the shōgun; who was supposed to be the vassal of +the emperor; who in turn was generally a child +under the control of a corrupt and venal court. +Truly government in Japan had sunk to its lowest +point, and it was time for heroic remedies! +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Occasionally, in the midst of this corruption and +inefficiency, an event occurs which stirs up the national +enthusiasm and makes us feel that there is +still left an element of heroism which will ultimately +redeem the nation from impending ruin. Such was +the Mongolian invasion of Japan in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1281. According +to accounts given by Marco Polo, who evidently +narrates the exaggerated gossip of the Chinese +court,<a id="noteref_127" name="noteref_127" href="#note_127"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a> Kublai Khan had at this time conquered the +Sung dynasty in China and reigned with unexampled +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +magnificence. He had heard of the wealth of Japan +and deemed it an easy matter to add this island empire +to his immense dominions. His first step was +to despatch an embassy to the Japanese court to demand +the subjection of the country to his authority. +This embassy was referred to Kamakura, whence it +was indignantly dismissed. Finally he sent an invading +force in a large number of Chinese and +Korean vessels who took possession of Tsushima, an +island belonging to Japan and lying midway between +Korea and Japan. Trusting to the effects of this +success a new embassy was sent, which was brought +before the Hōjō regent at Kamakura. The spot on +the seashore is still pointed out where these imperious +ambassadors were put to death, and thus a denial +which could not be misunderstood was given to +the demands of the Grand Khan. A great invading +force, which the Japanese put at a hundred thousand +men, was immediately sent in more than three hundred +vessels, who landed upon the island of Kyūshū. +This army was met and defeated<a id="noteref_128" name="noteref_128" href="#note_128"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a> by Tokimune, and, +a timely typhoon coming to their aid, the fleet of vessels +was completely destroyed. Thus the only serious +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +attempt at the invasion of Japan which has ever +been made was completely frustrated. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But notwithstanding this heroic episode the affairs +of Japan remained in the same deplorable condition. +As a rule children continued to occupy the imperial +throne and to abdicate whenever their Hōjō masters +deemed it best. Children of the imperial house or +of the family of Fujiwara were sent to Kamakura to +become shōguns. And now at last the Hōjō regency +had by successive steps come down to the same level, +and children were made regents, whose actions and +conduct were controlled by their inferiors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the midst of this state of things, which continued +till <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1318, Go-Daigo became emperor. +Contrary to the ordinary usage, he was a man thirty-one +years old, in the full maturity of his powers. +He was by no means free from the vices to which +his surroundings inevitably tended. He was fond +of the gayety and pomp which the court had always +cultivated. But he realized the depth of the degradation +to which the present condition of affairs had +dragged his country. A famine brought great suffering +upon the people, and the efforts which the emperor +made to assist them added to his popularity, +and revealed to him the reverence in which the imperial +throne was held. His son Moriyoshi, as early +as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1307, was implicated in plans against the +Hōjō, which they discovered, and in consequence +compelled Go-Daigo to order his retirement into a +monastery. Later Go-Daigo undertook to make a +stand against the arrogance and intolerance of the +Hōjō and induced the Buddhist monks to join him +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in fortifying Kasagi in the province of Yamato. But +this effort of the emperor was fruitless. Kasagi was +attacked and destroyed and the emperor taken prisoner. +As a punishment for his attempt he was sent +as an exile to the island of Oki. The Hōjō Regent +Takatoki put Go-Kōgen on the throne as emperor. +But Go-Daigo from his exile continued his exertions +against the Hōjō, and assistance came to him from +unexpected quarters. He effected his escape from +the island and, having raised an army, marched upon +Kyōto. Kusunoki Masashigé, who had given his aid +to the emperor on former occasions, now exerted +himself to good purpose. He is held in admiring +remembrance to this day by his grateful country as +the model of patriotic devotion, to whom his emperor +was dearer than his life. Another character +who stands out prominently in this trying time was +Nitta Yoshisada. He was a descendant of Yoshiiye, +who, for his achievements against the Emishi, had +received the popular title of Hachiman-tarō. Nitta +was a commander in the army of the Hōjō, which +had been sent against Kusunoki Masashigé. But at +the last moment he refused to fight against the army +of the emperor and retired with his troops and went +over to the side of Masashigé. He returned to his +own province of Kōtsuke and raised an army to fight +against the Hōjō. With this force he marched at +once against Kamakura through the province of +Sagami. His route lay along the beach. But at +Inamura-ga-saki the high ground, which is impassable +for troops, juts out so far into the water that Nitta +was unable to lead them past the promontory. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Alone he clambered up the mountain path and +looked out upon the sea that lay in his way. He +was bitterly disappointed that he could not bring his +force in time to share in the attack upon the hateful +Hōjō capital. He prayed to the Sea-god to withdraw +the sea and allow him to pass with his troops. +Then he flung his sword into the waves in token of +his earnestness and of the dire necessity in which he +found himself. Thereupon the tide retreated and +left a space of a mile and a half, along which Nitta<a id="noteref_129" name="noteref_129" href="#note_129"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a> +marched upon Kamakura. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The attack was spirited and was made from three +directions simultaneously. It was resisted with determined +valor on the part of the Hōjō. The city +was finally set on fire by Nitta, and in a few hours +was reduced to ashes. Thus the power and the +arrogant tyranny of the Hōjō family were sealed. It +had lasted from the death of Yoritomo, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1199, to +the destruction of Kamakura, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1333, in all one +hundred and thirty-four years. It was a rough and +tempestuous time and the Hōjō have left a name in +their country of unexampled cruelty and rapacity. +The most unpardonable crime of which they were +guilty was that of raising their sacrilegious hands +against the emperor and making war against the imperial +standard. For this they must rest under the +charge of treason, and no merits however great or +commanding can ever excuse them in the eyes of +their patriotic countrymen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The restoration of Go-Daigo to the imperial throne, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +under so popular an uprising, seemed to betoken a +return to the old and simple system of Japanese government. +The intervention of a shōgun between +the emperor and his people, which had lasted from +the time of Yoritomo, was contrary to the precedents +which had prevailed from the Emperor Jimmu down +to that time. It was the hope and wish of the best +friends of the government at this time to go back +to the original precedents and govern the country +directly from Kyōto with the power and authority +derived from the emperor. But the emperor was +not equal to so radical a change from the methods +which had prevailed for more than a century. He +gave great offence by the manner in which he distributed +the forfeited fiefs among those who had +aided his restoration. To Ashikaga Taka-uji he +awarded by far the greatest prize, while to Kusunoki +and Nitta, who had in the popular estimation +done much more for him, he allotted comparatively +small rewards. Among the soldiers, who in the long +civil wars had lost the ability to devote themselves +to peaceful industries, this disappointment was most +conspicuous. They had expected to be rewarded +with lands and subordinate places, which would enable +them to live in that feudal comfort to which +they deemed their exertions had entitled them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At this time a feud broke out between Ashikaga +Taka-uji and Nitta. The former had accused Nitta +of unfaithfulness to his emperor and Nitta was able +to disprove the charge. He received the imperial +commission to punish Ashikaga and marched with +his army upon him in the province of Tōtōmi. In +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the battles (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1336) which ensued, the forces of +Ashikaga were completely victorious. The emperor +and his court were obliged to flee from Kyōto and +took up their residence in a Buddhist temple at +Yoshino in the mountainous district south of Kyōto. +This was the same monastery where Yoshitsuné and +Benkei had taken refuge previous to their escape +into Mutsu. Almost every tree and every rock in +the picturesque grounds of this romantic spot<a id="noteref_130" name="noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a> +bear some evidence of the one or other of these +memorable refugees. The southern dynasty lasted +in all fifty-seven years, down to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1374, and +although it was compelled to starve out a miserable +existence in exile from the capital, it is yet looked +upon by historians as the legitimate branch; while +the northern dynasty, which enjoyed the luxury of a +palace and of the capital, is condemned as illegitimate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This period of exile witnessed many notable events +in the bloody history of the country. Ashikaga +Taka-uji was of course the ruling spirit while he lived. +He proclaimed that Go-Daigo had forfeited the +throne and put Kōmyō Tennō, a brother of Kōgen +Tennō upon it in his stead. The insignia of the imperial +power were in the possession of Go-Daigo, but +Kōmyō, being supported by the battalions of Ashikaga, +cared little for these empty baubles. The +bloody sequence of affairs brought with it the death of +the heroic Kusunoki Masashige. He with Nitta and +other patriots had undertaken to support Go-Daigo. +It is said that contrary to his military judgment he +attacked the forces of Ashikaga, which were vastly +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +superior in number. The battle took place <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1336, +on the Minato-gawa, near the present site of Hyōgo. +The Ashikaga forces had cut off Kusunoki with a +small band of devoted followers from the main army. +Seeing that his situation was hopeless and that his +brave troops must be destroyed, with one hundred +and fifty men—all that were left of his little army—he +retired to a farmer's house near by and there +they all committed +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>.<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131" href="#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a> Kusunoki Masashige, +when about to commit suicide, said to his son Masatsura: +<span class="tei tei-q">“For the sake of keeping yourself out of +danger's way or of reaping some temporal advantage, +on no account are you to submit to Taka-uji. +By so doing you would bring reproach on our name. +While there is a man left who belongs to us let our +flag be hoisted over the battlements of Mount Konzo, +as a sign that we are still ready to fight in the emperor's +cause.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A little later than this, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1338, the great +companion and friend of Kusunoki, Nitta Yoshisada, +came to his end. He had undertaken to +promote the cause of the Emperor Go-Daigo in the +northwestern provinces by co-operating with Fuji-wara-no-Yoritomo. +Nitta with about fifty followers +was unexpectedly attacked by Ashikaga Tadatsune, +with three thousand men near Fukui in the province +of Echizen. There was no way of escape with his +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +little troop. In this condition he was urged to +secure his personal safety. But he refused to survive +his comrades. Then he rode with his brave +company upon the enemy until his horse was disabled +and he himself was pierced in the eye with an +arrow. He drew out the arrow with his own hand, +and then, in order that his body might not be +identified, with his sword cut off his own head, at +least so it is said! Each member of his troop +followed this grewsome example, and it was only +after examining the bodies of these headless corpses +and the finding upon one a commission from the +Emperor Go-Daigo, that the remains of the heroic +Nitta were recognized. The head was sent to +Kyōto and there exposed by the Ashikaga commander, +and the body was buried near the place +where the tragic death occurred.<a id="noteref_132" name="noteref_132" href="#note_132"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Ashikaga family had now the uninterrupted +control of affairs. They resided at Kyōto and inherited +in succession the office of shōgun. Taka-uji, +the founder of the Ashikaga shōgunate, and who had +held the office from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1334, died in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1358, +when about fifty-three years old. He was succeeded +by his son Yoshinori who was shōgun from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1359 +to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1367. Having retired he was succeeded by +his grandson Yoshimitsu who in turn retired in favor +of his son Yoshimotsu. By this time the precedents +of abdication and effeminacy began to tell upon the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Ashikaga successors, and like all the preceding ruling +families it gradually sank into the usual insignificance. +Some of the Ashikaga shōguns, however, +were men of uncommon ability and their services to +their country deserve to be gratefully remembered. +A number of them were men of culture and evinced +their love of elegance and refinement by the palaces +which they built in Kyōto. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu +was shōgun from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1368 to 1393, and at the latter +date retired in favor of his young son Yoshimotsu, +but lived in official retirement in Kyōto till <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1409. He built the palace now known as the Buddhist +monastery Kinkakuji.<a id="noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href="#note_133"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a> Its name is derived +from <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kinkaku</span></span> (golden pavilion) which Yoshimitsu +erected. The whole palace was bequeathed by him +to the Zen sect of Buddhists and is still one of the +sights best worth seeing in Kyōto. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Yoshimitsu has been visited by much obloquy because +he accepted from the Chinese government the +title of King of Japan, and pledged himself to the +payment of one thousand ounces of gold as a yearly +tribute. It is said in explanation of this tribute that +it was to compensate for damages done by Japanese +pirates to Chinese shipping. But it was probably +negotiated for the purpose of securing an ambitious +title on the one hand and on the other making a +troublesome neighbor a tributary kingdom. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another building which takes its origin from +the Ashikaga is the Tō-ji-in. It was founded by +Ashikaga Taka-uji and contains carved and lacquered +wooden figures of the Ashikaga shōguns which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +are believed in most cases to be contemporary +portraits.<a id="noteref_134" name="noteref_134" href="#note_134"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another of the notable Ashikaga shōguns was +Yoshimasa, who held the office from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1443-1473. +He retired at the latter date, and lived as retired +shōgun until <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1490. In this interval of seclusion +he cultivated the arts, and posed as the patron of +literature and painting. That curious custom called +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">cha-no-yu</span></span>, or tea +ceremonies,<a id="noteref_135" name="noteref_135" href="#note_135"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a> is usually adjudged to +him as its originator, but it is most probable that he +only adopted and refined it until it became the fashionable +craze which has come down to modern times. +These ceremonies and his other modes of amusement +were conducted in a palace which he had built +called <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">gin-kaku</span></span> (silver pavilion). Yoshimasa +left this palace to the monks of Shō-koku-ji, with directions +that it should be converted into a monastery, +and in that capacity it still serves at the present +time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The period of the two imperial dynasties lasted +until <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1392, when a proposition was made by the +Shōgun Yoshimitsu to the then reigning emperor +of the south, that the rivalry should be healed. It +was agreed that Go-Kameyama of the southern dynasty +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +should come to Kyōto and surrender the insignia +to Go-Komatsu, the ruling emperor of the +northern dynasty. This was duly accomplished, +and Go-Kameyama, having handed over the insignia +to Go-Komatsu, took the position of retired emperor. +Thus the long rivalry between the northern and +southern dynasties was ended, and Go-Komatsu +stands as the ninety-ninth in the official list of emperors. +In that list, however, none of the other +emperors<a id="noteref_136" name="noteref_136" href="#note_136"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a> of the northern dynasty appear, they +being regarded as pretenders, and in no case entitled +to the dignity of divine rulers of Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This settlement of dynastic difficulties and the +unrestricted ascendancy of the Ashikaga shōguns +gave the country a little interval of peace. The +condition of the peasantry at this time was most +deplorable. The continual wars between neighboring +lords and with the shōguns had kept in the field +armies of military men, who were forced to subsist +on contributions exacted from the tillers of the soil. +The farmers everywhere were kept in a state of uncertainty, +and had little encouragement to cultivate +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +crops which were almost sure to fall into the hands +of others. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the coasts of Kyūshū and other islands facing +towards the continent piracy also sprang up and +flourished apace. It was indeed an era of piracy +all over the world. The Portuguese, Spanish, and +Dutch traders of this period were almost always +ready to turn an honest penny by seizing an unfortunate +vessel under the pretence that it was a pirate. +The whole coast of China, according to the accounts +of Pinto, swarmed with both European and Asiatic +craft, which were either traders or pirates, according +to circumstances. Under this state of things, and +with the pressure of lawlessness and want behind +them, it was not surprising that the inhabitants of +the western coasts of Japan should turn to a piratical +life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Knowing the Japanese only since centuries of enforced +isolation had made them unaccustomed to +creep beyond their own shores, we can scarcely conceive +of their hardihood and venturesomeness during +and subsequent to this active period. Mr. Satow<a id="noteref_137" name="noteref_137" href="#note_137"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a> +has gathered a most interesting series of facts pertaining +to the intercourse between Japan and Siam, +beginning at a period as early as that now under review. +Not only did this intercourse consist in sending +vessels laden with chattels for traffic, but a colony +of Japanese and a contingent of Japanese troops +formed part of the assistance which Japan furnished +to her southern neighbor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While these signs of activity were apparent on the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +coast, the provinces in the interior were alive with +political unrest. Particularly the principal daimyōs, +who had never since the days of Yoritomo felt a +master's power over them, took the present occasion +to extend their dominions over their neighbors. +For centuries the conflicts among them were almost +unending. It is needless to undertake to disentangle +the story of their wars. These daimyōs were a far +more distinct and pressing reality than the harmless +emperor, or even than the far-removed shōgun. +While their ceaseless civil wars rendered the condition +of the country so uncertain and so unsettled, +yet the authority of the local rulers tended to preserve +peace and dispense a rude kind of justice +among their own subjects. Thus while in many +parts of Japan poverty and desolation had eaten up +everything, and lawlessness and robbery had put an +end to industry, yet there were some favored parts +of the islands where the strong hand of the daimyōs +preserved for their people the opportunities of life, +and kept alive the chances of industry.<a id="noteref_138" name="noteref_138" href="#note_138"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a> +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> +<a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VIII. From The Ashikaga Shōguns To The Death +Of Nobunaga.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In almost the worst period of the Ashikaga anarchy, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1542, the Portuguese made their first appearance +in Japan. Galvano, who had been governor +of the Moluccas, gives an account of this first visit, +when three fugitives from a Portuguese vessel in a +Chinese junk were driven upon the islands of southern +Japan. Concerning the doings<a id="noteref_139" name="noteref_139" href="#note_139"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a> of these fugitives +we have no account in any foreign narratives. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But Fernam Mendez Pinto,<a id="noteref_140" name="noteref_140" href="#note_140"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a> in his travels, etc., gives +a detailed narrative of the visit which he and his +companions made a few years later in a ship with a +Chinese captain and merchandise. The exact year +cannot be ascertained from Pinto's narrative, but +Hildreth<a id="noteref_141" name="noteref_141" href="#note_141"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a> assumes that it could not have been earlier +than <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1545. Pinto landed on Tane-ga-shima, +an island south of the extreme southern point of the +island of Kyūshū. They were received with great +cordiality by the prince, who evinced the utmost +curiosity concerning the Portuguese who were on +this ship. Pinto naïvely confesses that <span class="tei tei-q">“we rendered +him answers as might rather fit his humor +than agree with the truth, ... that so we might +not derogate from the great opinion he had conceived +of our country.”</span><a id="noteref_142" name="noteref_142" href="#note_142"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As a return for some of the kindnesses which the +prince showed them, the Portuguese gave him a +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">harquebuse</span></span>, and explained to him the method of +making powder. The present seems to have been +most acceptable, and Pinto declares the armorers +commenced at once to make imitations of it, <span class="tei tei-q">“so +that before their departure (which was five months +and a half after) there were six hundred of them +made in the country.”</span> And a few years later he +was assured that there were above thirty thousand +in the city of Fucheo,<a id="noteref_143" name="noteref_143" href="#note_143"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> the capital of Bungo, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +above three hundred thousand in the whole province. +And so they have increased from this one <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">harquebuse</span></span> +which they gave to the prince of Tane-ga-shima, +until every hamlet and city in the empire in a short +time were supplied with them.<a id="noteref_144" name="noteref_144" href="#note_144"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A short time after their reception at Tane-ga-shima +the Prince of Bungo, who was a relative of +the Prince of Tane-ga-shima, sent for one of the +Portuguese, and Pinto, by his own consent, was +selected as being of a <span class="tei tei-q">“more lively humor.”</span> He +was received with great consideration, and proved +himself of vast service in curing the prince of gout, +with which he was affected. His success in this cure +gave him immense repute, and he was initiated into +all the gayeties and sports of the prince's court. In +particular he amused and interested them all by +firing the matchlock which he had brought with +him. A son of the prince of about sixteen or seventeen +years of age was infatuated with this sport, and +one day, unknown to Pinto, he undertook to load +and fire the matchlock, as he had seen the foreigner +do. An explosion occurred, by which the young +prince was much injured, and owing to this Pinto +came near being put to death for having wrought +this disaster. But the young prince had more sense +than the attendants, and at his request Pinto was +given a chance to bind up the wounds and take care +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of him. The result was that the young prince +quickly recovered, and the fame of this cure was +spread everywhere. <span class="tei tei-q">“So that,”</span> says Pinto, <span class="tei tei-q">“after +this sort I received in recompense of this my cure +above fifteen hundred ducats that I carried with me +from this place.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pinto made a second visit to Japan in the interests +of trade in 1547, which was attended by a circumstance +which had far-reaching results. In critical +circumstances they were called upon to take off two +fugitives who appealed to them from the shore. A +company of men on horseback demanded the return +of the fugitives, but without answer they pulled off +to the ship and took them aboard. The principal of +these two fugitives<a id="noteref_145" name="noteref_145" href="#note_145"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a> was Anjiro, whom the Jesuits +usually name Anger, and his companion was his servant. +They were taken in the Portuguese vessel to +Malacca, where Pinto met Father Francis Xavier, +who had just arrived upon his mission to the East. +Xavier became intensely interested in these Japanese +fugitives, and took them to Goa, then the principal +seat of Jesuit learning and the seat of an archbishopric +in the East Indies. Here both the Japanese +became converts and were baptized, Anjiro +receiving the name of Paulo de Santa Fé<a id="noteref_146" name="noteref_146" href="#note_146"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a> (Paul of +the Holy Faith), and his companion the name of +John. They learned to speak and write the Portuguese +language, and were instructed in the elements +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the Christian religion. With these efficient helps +Xavier was ready to enter Japan and commence the +evangelization on which his heart had long been set. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At last arrangements were made with a Chinese +vessel, which according to Pinto's account was a +piratical craft, to convey Xavier and his companions +to Japan. They arrived at Kagoshima, the capital +of the province of Satsuma, August 15, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1549. +Besides Xavier and his Japanese companions there +were Cosme de Torres, a priest, and Jean Ferdinand, +a brother of the Society of Jesus. They were cordially +received by the Prince of Satsuma, and after +a little, permission was given them to preach the +Christian religion in the city of Kagoshima. The +family and relatives of Anjiro, who lived in Kagoshima, +were converted and became the first fruits of +the mission. In the letters which Xavier wrote +home about this time we have his early impressions +concerning the Japanese. The princess took great +interest in the subjects discussed by Anjiro, and was +especially struck with a picture of the Madonna and +child which he showed her. She asked to have the +heads of the Christian faith put in writing in order +that she might study them. For this reason a creed +and a catechism were prepared and translated into +the Japanese language, for the use of the princess +and other enquirers. In one of his early letters he +says: <span class="tei tei-q">“I really think that among barbarous nations +there can be none that has more natural goodness +than Japan.”</span><a id="noteref_147" name="noteref_147" href="#note_147"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> In the same letter he says: <span class="tei tei-q">“They +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +are wonderfully inclined to see all that is good and +honest and have an eagerness to learn.”</span> Xavier, in +letter 79, narrates his meeting with the Buddhist +priest whom he calls Ningh-Sit, which name he says +means Heart of Truth. This priest was eighty +years old, and in the conversation expressed great +surprise that Xavier should have come all the way +from Portugal to preach to the Japanese. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The biographers of Xavier have given us the fullest +details of his life and works. That he was a +man of the most fervent piety as well as the most +conspicuous ability, is apparent from the energy and +success with which he conducted his short but brilliant +mission. Both in their accounts of him, as well +as in the papal bull announcing his canonization, the +claim is distinctly set forth of his possession of +miraculous power. He is represented as having +raised a Japanese girl from the dead; as possessing +the gift of tongues, that is, as being able to speak in +fluent Japanese, although he had not learned the +language; as having given an answer which when +heard was a satisfactory reply to the most various +and different questions,<a id="noteref_148" name="noteref_148" href="#note_148"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a> such as, <span class="tei tei-q">“the immortality of +the soul, the motions of the heavens, the eclipses of +the sun and moon, the colors of the rainbow, sin +and grace, heaven and hell.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"><img src="images/xavier.png" width="320" height="417" alt="Illustration" title="St. Francis Xavier." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">St. Francis Xavier.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Yet it must be stated that Xavier himself does +not claim these miraculous powers. Indeed among +the letters published by Father Horace Tursellini +is one in which he thus speaks of himself: <span class="tei tei-q">“God +grant that as soon as possible we may learn the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +language of Japan in order to make known the +divine mysteries; then we shall zealously prosecute +our Christian work. For they speak and discourse +much about us, but we are silent, ignorant of the +language of the country. At present we are become +a child again to learn the elements of the language.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The desire for trade with the Portuguese seems +to have been a principal reason for the ready reception +of the missionaries. And when the Portuguese +merchant ships resorted to Hirado, an island +off the west coast of Kyūshū, instead of the less +accessible Kagoshima, the Prince of Kagoshima +turned against the missionaries and forbade them +from preaching and proselyting. From Kagoshima +Xavier went to Hirado, where he was received with +a salvo of artillery from a Portuguese vessel then at +anchor there. Here he made a short stay, preaching +the gospel as usual and with the approval of the +prince establishing a church. Leaving Kosmé de +Torres at Hirado and taking with him Fernandez +and the two Japanese assistants he touched at +Hakata, famous as the place where the Mongol invaders +were repulsed. Then he crossed over to the +Main island and travelling by land along the +Sanyōdō he entered Yamaguchi in the province of +Nagato. His humble and forlorn appearance did +not produce a favorable impression on the people of +this city and he was driven out with obloquy. He +set out for Kyōto with a party of Japanese merchants, +and as it was winter and Xavier had to carry; +on his back a box containing the vestments and +vessels for the celebration of mass, the journey +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was trying and difficult. He arrived at Kyōto <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1550 in the midst of great political troubles. A fire +had destroyed a great part of what had been once a +beautiful and luxurious city. Many of the principal +citizens had abandoned it and taken up their residence +with local princes in the provinces. Xavier +could obtain a hearing neither from the emperor +nor from the Ashikaga shōguns, who maintained a +representative in the capital at this time. He +preached in the street as he could obtain opportunity. +But the atmosphere was everywhere unfavorable, +and he resolved to abandon the field for +the present. Accordingly he went back to Bungo, +whence he sailed for China November 20, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1551, +with the purpose of establishing a mission. He had +spent two years and three months in Japan and +left an impression which has never been effaced. +He died on his way, at the little island of Sancian, +December 2, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1552, aged forty-six. His body +was carried to Malacca and afterward to Goa, where +it was buried in the archiepiscopal cathedral.<a id="noteref_149" name="noteref_149" href="#note_149"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The departure and death of Xavier did not interrupt +the work of the mission in Japan. Kosmé de +Torres was left in charge and additional helpers, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +both priests and lay brothers, were sent to prosecute +what had been so conspicuously begun. The political +disturbances in Yamaguchi for a time interfered +with the labors of the missionaries there. Bungo +was the principal province where their encouragement +had made their success most conspicuous. +The prince had not indeed been baptized but he +had permitted the fathers to preach and he had +allowed converts to adopt the new religion, so that +the work had assumed a promising appearance. +The Prince of Ōmura became a convert and by his +zeal in the destruction of idols and other extreme +measures aroused the hostility of the Buddhist +priesthood. In Kyōto the progress of the work encountered +many vicissitudes. The political troubles +arising out of the contests between Mōri of Chōshū +and the rival house interfered with the propagation +of Christianity both in Yamaguchi and Kyōto. +Mōri himself, the most powerful prince of his time +and who once held the control in ten provinces, was +hostile to the Christians. By his influence the work +in Kyōto was temporarily abandoned and the fathers +resorted to Sakai, a seaport town not far from +Ōsaka, where a branch mission was established. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1573 that Nagasaki became distinctively +a Christian city. At that time the Portuguese +were seeking various ports in which they +could conduct a profitable trade, and they found +that Nagasaki possessed a harbor in which their +largest ships could ride at anchor. The merchants +and Portuguese fathers therefore proposed to the +Prince of Ōmura, in whose territory the port of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Nagasaki was situated, to grant to them the town +with jurisdiction over it. The prince at first refused, +but finally by the intervention of the Prince of +Arima the arrangement was made.<a id="noteref_150" name="noteref_150" href="#note_150"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a> The transference +to Nagasaki of the foreign trade at this early +day made it a very prosperous place. The Prince +of Ōmura had the town laid out in appropriate +streets, and Christian churches were built often on +the sites of Buddhist temples which were torn down +to give place for them. It is said that in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1567 +<span class="tei tei-q">“there was hardly a person who was not a Christian.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We shall have occasion often in the subsequent +narrative to refer to the progress of Christianity in +the empire. In the meantime we must trace the +career of Nobunaga, who exerted a powerful effect +on the affairs of his country and particularly upon +the condition of both Buddhism and Christianity. +He must be regarded always as one of the great men +of Japan who at an opportune moment intervened +to rescue its affairs from anarchy. He prepared the +way for Hideyoshi and he, in turn, made it possible +for Ieyasu to establish a peace which lasted without +serious interruption for two hundred and fifty years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ota Nobunaga was descended from the Taira family +through Ota Chikazane, a great-grandson of Taira +Kiyomori. The father of Chikazane had perished +in the wars between the Taira and Minamoto +families, and his mother had married as her second +husband the chief man in the village of Tsuda in the +province of Ōmi. The step-child was adopted by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a Shintō priest of the village of Ota in the province +of Echizen, and received the name of Ota Chikazane. +When he grew up, he became a Shintō priest and +married and became the father of a line of priests. +One of this succession was Ota Nobuhide, who seems +to have reverted from the priestly character back to +the warlike habits of his ancestors. In the general +scramble for land, which characterized that period, +Nobuhide acquired by force of arms considerable +possessions in the province of Owari, which at his +death in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1549 he left to his son Ota Nobunaga. +This son grew up to be a man of large stature, but +slender and delicate in frame. He was brave beyond +the usual reckless bravery of his countrymen. He was +by character and training fitted for command, and +in the multifarious career of his busy life, in expeditions, +battles, and sieges, he showed himself the consummate +general. Like many other men of genius +he was not equally as skilful in civil as military affairs. +He was ambitious to reduce the disorders of his +country, and he was able to see in a great measure +the success of his schemes. But he failed in leaving +when he died any security for the preservation and +continuance of that peace and unity which he had +conquered. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the time Nobunaga became prominent, the +Emperor Go-Nara had died and Ōgimachi in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1560 had just succeeded to the throne as the one +hundred and fifth emperor. Ashikaga Yoshifusa had +become shōgun in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1547 as a boy eleven years +old, and was at this time a young man, who as usual +devoted himself to pleasure while the affairs of government +were conducted by others. Both emperor +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and shōgun were almost powerless in the empire, the +real power being held by the local princes. In many +cases they had largely increased their holdings by +conquest, and were almost entirely independent of +the central authority. For more than a century this +independence had been growing, and at the time of +Nobunaga there was little pretence of deferring to +the shōgun in any matter growing out of the relations +of one prince to the other, and none at all in +reference to the internal government of the territories +within their jurisdiction. The principal local +rulers at this time were the following: Imagaya +Yoshimoto controlled the three provinces of Suruga, +Tōtōmi, and Mikawa; Hōjō Ujiyasu from the town +of Odowara ruled the Kwanto, including the provinces +of Sagami, Musashi, Awa, Kazusa, Shimosa, +Hitachi, Kōtsuke, and Shimotsuke; Takeda Shingen +ruled the province of Kai and the greater part of +the mountainous province of Shinano; Uesugi +Kenshin held under his control the northwestern +provinces of Echizen, Echigo, Etchū, and Noto; +Mōri Motonari after a severe contest had obtained +control of almost all the sixteen provinces +which composed the Chūgoku or central +country; the island of Kyūshū had been the +scene of frequent civil wars and was now divided between +the houses of Shimazu of Satsuma, Ōtomo +of Bungo, and Ryōzoji of Hizen; and finally the +island of Shikoku was under the control of Chōsokabe +Motochika.<a id="noteref_151" name="noteref_151" href="#note_151"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a> Besides these principal rulers, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +there were many smaller holders who occupied fiefs +subordinate to the great lords, and paid for their +protection and their suzerainty in tribute and military +service. In the letters of the Jesuit missionaries +of this period the great lords are denominated <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kings</span></em>, +but neither according to the theory of the Japanese +government, nor the actual condition of these rulers +can the name be considered appropriate. The term +daimyō<a id="noteref_152" name="noteref_152" href="#note_152"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a> came into its full and modern use only +when Ieyasu reorganized and consolidated the +feudal system of the empire. But even at the period +of Nobunaga the name was employed to indicate +the owners of land. We prefer to continue down to +the time of the Tokugawa shōguns the use of the +terms <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">prince</span></span> and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">principality</span></span> for the semi-independent +rulers and their territories. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The holdings which Ota Nobunaga inherited from +his father consisted only of four small properties in +the province of Owari. Acting according to the +fashion of the times he gradually extended his +authority, until by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1559 we find him supreme in +Owari with his chief castle at Kiyosu near to the city +of Nagoya. His leading retainers and generals were +Shibata Genroku and Sakuma Yemon, to whom +must be added Hideyoshi,<a id="noteref_153" name="noteref_153" href="#note_153"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a> who gradually and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +rapidly rose from obscurity to be the main reliance +of his prince. Nobunaga was a skilful general, and +whenever an interval occurred in his expeditions +against his hostile neighbors he employed the time +in carefully drilling his troops, and preparing them +for their next movements. He found in Hideyoshi +an incomparable strategist, whose plans, artifices, +and intrigues were original and effective, and were +worth more to his master than thousands of troops. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was not difficult in those days to find excuses +to invade neighboring domains, and hence we find +Nobunaga, as soon as he had made himself master +of Owari, on one pretext or another making himself +also master of the provinces of Mino, Ōmi, and +Isé. Before this was accomplished, however, we +see plain indications both on the part of Nobunaga +and his retainers that the ultimate aim in view was +the subjugation of the whole country, and the establishment +of a government like that of Yoritomo. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At this time (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1567) the affairs of the Ashikaga +shōguns, who ruled in the name of the emperor, +were in a state of great confusion. Yoshiteru, the +shōgun, had been assassinated by one of his retainers, +Miyoshi Yoshitsugu. The younger brother of +Yoshiteru was Yoshiaki, who desired to succeed, but +this did not comport with the designs of the assassins. +Accordingly after making several unsuccessful applications +for military aid he finally applied to Nobunaga. +This was exactly the kind of alliance that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Nobunaga wanted to justify his schemes of national +conquest. With his own candidate in the office of +shōgun, he could proceed without impediment to +reduce all the princes of the empire to his supreme +authority. He therefore undertook to see Yoshiaki +established as shōgun, and for this purpose marched +a large army into Kyōto. Yoshiaki was installed as +shōgun in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1568, and at his suggestion the +emperor conferred on Nobunaga the title of Fuku-shōgun<a id="noteref_154" name="noteref_154" href="#note_154"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a> +or vice-shōgun. This was Nobunaga's first +dealings with the imperial capital, and the presence +of his large army created a panic among the inactive +and peaceful citizens. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +He appointed Hideyoshi as commander-in-chief +of the army at the capital, who with a sagacity and +energy that belonged to his character set himself to +inspire confidence and to overcome the prejudice +which everywhere prevailed against the new order +of things. Kyōto had suffered so much from fires +and warlike attacks, and still more by poverty and +neglect, that it was now in a lamentable condition. +To have somebody, therefore, with the power and +spirit to accomplish his ends, undertake to repair +some of the wastes, and put in order what had long +run to ruin, was an unexpected and agreeable surprise. +The palaces of the emperor and the shōgun +were repaired and made suitable as habitations for +the heads of the nation. Streets and bridges, +temples and grounds were everywhere put in order. +Kyōto for the first time in many centuries had the +benefit of a good and strong government. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was the custom to celebrate the establishment +of a new year-period with popular rejoicings. The +period called Genki was begun in December <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1570 by the Emperor Ōgimachi. Nobunaga brought +to Kyōto on this occasion a very large army in +order to impress on the minds of the nation his +overwhelming military power. He intended, moreover, +to march his forces, as soon as this celebration +was over, against Prince Asakura Yoshikage of the +province of Echizen, who had not yet submitted +himself to Nobunaga's authority, and who had not +given in his adhesion to the new shōgun. Taking +with him Hideyoshi and all the troops that could be +spared from Kyōto, Nobunaga marched north into +the domains of Yoshikage. He was aided in his +resistance by Asai Nagamasa, the governor of the +castle of Itami in the province of Ōmi. An attempt +had been made by Nobunaga to conciliate Nagamasa +by giving him his sister in marriage. But +Nagamasa was still cool, and now at this critical +time he turned to help Nobunaga's enemy. The +unexpected combination came very near causing +Nobunaga a disastrous defeat. At an important +battle which was fought in this short campaign, we +see together the three most noted men of their +time, Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, and Ieyasu. The last +of the three was only a few years younger than +Hideyoshi, and had already shown indications of the +clear and steady character of which he afterward gave +such indubitable proof. The result was the defeat +of Nobunaga's enemies and his victorious return to +the castle of Gifu in the province of Mino. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But his way was not yet quite free from obstacles. +Asakura Yoshikage and Asai Nagamasa although +defeated were not crushed, and made various efforts +to regain the advantage over Nobunaga. The most +noted of these was when Nobunaga was absent from +Kyōto with troops quelling a disturbance in Ōsaka, +Asakura and Asai took advantage of the opportunity +and marched a strong force upon the city. +They had proceeded as far as Hiei-zan on the borders +of Lake Biwa. This mountain was then occupied by +an immense Buddhist monastery called Enriaku-ji +from the year-period when it was established. It +was said, that at this time there were as many as +three thousand buildings belonging to the monastery. +The monks of this establishment were exceedingly +independent, and were so numerous and +powerful that they were able to exact whatever concessions +they desired from the government at Kyōto, +from which they were only a few miles distant. +They disliked Nobunaga and his powerful government +with which they dared not take their usual +liberties. Accordingly they made common cause +with Asakura and Asai and furnished them with +shelter and supplies on their march to Kyōto. But +Nobunaga met them before they reached Kyōto, +and so hemmed them in that they were glad to sue +for peace and get back to their own provinces as well +as they could. But on the ill-fated monastery Nobunaga +in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1571 visited a terrible revenge. He +burned their buildings, and what monks survived the +slaughter he drove into banishment. The monastery +was partially restored subsequently by Ieyasu, but it +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was restricted to one hundred and twenty-five buildings +and never afterwards was a political power in +the country. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During these years of Nobunaga's supremacy, the +Jesuit fathers had been pushing forward their work +of proselyting and had met with marvellous success. +The action of the Buddhist priests in siding with his +enemies and the consequent aversion with which he +regarded them, led Nobunaga to favor the establishment +of Christian churches. In the letters of the +fathers at this period frequent references are made +to Nobunaga and of his favorable attitude toward +Christianity and their hope that he would finally become +a convert. But it is plain that the fathers did +not comprehend fully the cause for the enmity of +Nobunaga to the Buddhist monks, and his political +reasons for showing favor to the Christian fathers. +He remained as long as he lived friendly to the +Christian church, but made no progress towards an +avowal of his faith. Under his patronage a church +was built in Kyōto, and another at Azuchi on Lake +Biwa, where he built for himself a beautiful castle +and residence. By this patronage and the zeal of +the fathers the Christian church rose to its greatest +prosperity<a id="noteref_155" name="noteref_155" href="#note_155"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a> +during the closing years of Nobunaga's +life. In the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1582 a mission was sent to the +pope, consisting of representatives from the Christian +princes of Bungo, Arima, and Ōmura. This +mission consisted of two young Christian princes +about sixteen years of age, accompanied by two +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +counsellors who were of more mature years, and by +Father Valignani, a Portuguese Jesuit, and by Father +Diego de Mesquita as their preceptor and interpreter. +They visited the capitals of Portugal and +Spain, which at this time were combined under the +crown of Philip II. of Spain, and were received at +both with the most impressive magnificence. They +afterward visited Rome and were met by the body-guard +of the pope and escorted into the city by a +long cavalcade of Roman nobles. They were lodged +in the house of the Jesuits, whence they were conducted +by an immense procession to the Vatican. +The Japanese ambassadors rode in this procession +on horseback dressed in their richest native costume. +They each presented to the pope the letter<a id="noteref_156" name="noteref_156" href="#note_156"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> which +they had brought from their prince, to which the +reply of the pope was read. The presents which +they had brought were also delivered, and after a +series of most magnificent entertainments, and after +they had been decorated as Knights of the Gilded +Spears, they took their departure. In the meantime +Pope Gregory XIII., who had received them, a few +days later suddenly died <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1585. His successor +was Pope Sixtus V., who was equally attentive to +the ambassadors, and who dismissed them with +briefs addressed to their several princes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiaki, whom Nobunaga had +been instrumental in installing, became restive in +the subordinate part which he was permitted to play. +He sought out the princes who still resisted Nobunaga's +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +supremacy and communicated with them in +reference to combining against him. He even went +so far as to fortify some of the castles near Kyōto. +Nobunaga took strenuous measures against Yoshiaki, +and in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1573 deposed him. He was the last of +the Ashikaga shōguns, and with him came to an end +a dynasty which had continued from Taka-uji in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1335 for two hundred and thirty-eight years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nobunaga assumed the duties which had hitherto +been performed by the shōgun, that is he issued +orders and made war and formed alliances in the +name of the emperor. But he never took the name +of shōgun<a id="noteref_157" name="noteref_157" href="#note_157"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a> or presumed to act in a capacity which +from the time of Yoritomo had always been filled by +a member of the Minamoto family, while he was a +member of the Taira family. Whether this was the +cause of his unwillingness to call himself by this title +to which he might legitimately have aspired we can +only conjecture. Of one thing we may be sure, that +he was disinclined to arouse the enmity of the ambitious +princes of the empire, whose co-operation he +still needed to establish his power on an enduring +basis, by assuming a position which centuries of +usage had appropriated to another family. The +emperor bestowed upon him the title of +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">nai-daijin</span></span>, +which at this time however was a purely honorary +designation and carried no power with it. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Prince of Chōsū was one of the most powerful +of those who had not yet submitted to the supremacy +of Nobunaga. The present prince was +Mōri Terumoto, the grandson of the Mōri Motonari +who by conquest had made himself master of a +large part of the central provinces. Nobunaga despatched +Hideyoshi with the best equipped army +that at that time had ever been fitted out in Japan, +to subdue the provinces lying to the west of Kyōto. +He did not overrate the ability of the general to +whom he entrusted this task. They set out in the +early part of the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1578. Their first movement +was against the strongholds of the province of +Harima, which he reduced. We for the first time +find mention in this campaign of Kuroda<a id="noteref_158" name="noteref_158" href="#note_158"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a> Yoshitaka, +who in the invasion of Korea was a notable figure. +His services to Hideyoshi at this time were +most signal. The campaign lasted about five years +and added five provinces to Nobunaga's dominions. +Then after a visit to Kyōto he continued his conquests, +never meeting with a defeat. The most +remarkable achievement was the capture of the +castle of Takamatsu, in the province of Sanuki. +This castle was built with one side protected by the +Kōbe-gawa and two lakes lying on the other sides, so +that it was impossible to approach it by land with a +large force. Hideyoshi, with the genius for strategy +which marked his character, saw that the only way +to capture the fort was to drown it out with water. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +He then set his troops to dam up the river below +the fortress. Gradually this was accomplished and +as the water rose the occupants of the castle became +more uncomfortable. Hideyoshi understanding his +master's character feared to accomplish this important +and critical exploit without Nobunaga's knowledge. +He therefore wrote asking him to come without delay +to his assistance. Nobunaga set out with a group +of generals, among whom was Akechi Mitsuhide, +with the troops under their command. They started +from Azuchi on Lake Biwa, which was occupied as +Nobunaga's headquarters. They were to proceed +to the besieged fort by the shortest route. Nobunaga +with a small escort went by way of Kyōto, expecting +soon to follow them. He took up his +temporary abode in the temple of Honnōji. It was +observed that Akechi with his troops took a different +route from the others and marched towards Kyōto. +When spoken to about his purpose he exclaimed, +<span class="tei tei-q">“My enemy is in the Honnōji.”</span> He explained to +his captains his purpose and promised them unlimited +plunder if they assisted him. He led his troops +to Kyōto and directly to the Honnōji. Nobunaga +hearing the noise looked out and at once saw who +were the traitors. He defended himself for a time, +but soon saw that he was hopelessly surrounded and +cut off from help. He retired to an inner room of +the temple, set it on fire, and then calmly committed +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>. His body was buried in the burning +and falling ruins. His death occurred in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1582. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus ended the career of one of Japan's great +men. He had shown the possibility of uniting the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +provinces of Japan under one strong government. +He had given to Kyōto and the provinces lying +east and north of it a period of peace and quiet +under which great progress had been made in agriculture, +the arts and in literature. He was a warrior +and not a statesman, and for this reason less was +done than might have been in confirming and solidifying +the reforms which his conquest had made +possible. Personally he was quick-tempered and +overbearing, and often gave offence to those who +were not able to see through his rough exterior to +the true and generous heart which lay beneath. The +cause of the plot against him was probably the consequence +of a familiarity with which he sometimes +treated his military subordinates. It is said that on +one occasion in his palace when he had grown +somewhat over-festive he took the head of his general +Akechi<a id="noteref_159" name="noteref_159" href="#note_159"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a> under his arm and with his fan played +a tune upon it, using it like a drum. Akechi was +mortally offended and never forgave the humiliating +joke. His treason, which resulted in Nobunaga's +death, was the final outcome of this bit of thoughtless +horse-play. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> +<a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter IX. Toyotomi Hideyoshi.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The death of Nobunaga in the forty-ninth year +of his age left the country in a critical condition. +Sakuma and Shibata had been his active retainers +and generals for many years, and they had the most +bitter and envious hatred toward Hideyoshi, whom +they had seen advance steadily up to and past them +in the march of military preferment. It was to +Hideyoshi that the country looked to take up the +work which Nobunaga's death had interrupted. +Akechi began to realize when too late that he must +reckon with him for his terrible crime. He appointed +two of his lieutenants to assassinate Hideyoshi +on his way back to the capital. He sent word to +Mōri Terumoto, who was trying to raise the siege +of the castle of Takamatsu, concerning Nobunaga's +death, hoping that this tragedy would encourage +Terumoto to complete his designs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the meantime the news had reached Hideyoshi. +Terumoto had heard of the starting of Nobunaga +with additional troops, and had determined to +make peace with Hideyoshi. He had sent messengers +with a proposition for peace. The measures +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for taking the castle had succeeded and it was surrendered. +In this state of things Hideyoshi<a id="noteref_160" name="noteref_160" href="#note_160"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> pursued +a course which was characteristic of him. He +sent word to Terumoto that Nobunaga was now +dead and that therefore his proposition for peace +might, if he wished, be withdrawn. You must decide, +he said, whether you will make peace or not; it is +immaterial whether I fight or conclude a treaty of +peace. To such a message there could be only one +answer. Peace was at once concluded and Hideyoshi +started for Kyōto to deal with the traitors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The attempt to assassinate Hideyoshi on his +journey came very near being successful. He was +in such eagerness to reach his destination that he +hurried on without regard to his army which accompanied +him. A small body-guard kept up as +well as they could with their impatient chief. At +Nishinomiya in this journey Hideyoshi, when in +advance of his body-guard, was attacked by a band +of the assassins. His only way of escape was by a +narrow road between rice fields, leading to a small +temple. When he had traversed part of this lane +he dismounted, turning his horse around along the +way he had come, and stabbed him in the hind leg. +Mad with pain, he galloped back with disastrous +effect upon the band which was following him. +Meanwhile Hideyoshi hurried to the temple. Here +the priests were all in a big common bath-tub, taking +their bath. Hastily telling them who he was, +and begging their protection, he stripped off his +clothes and plunged in among the naked priests. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +When the assassins arrived, they could find nothing +but a bath-tub full of priests, whom they soon left +in search of the fugitive. As they disappeared, the +anxious body-guard arrived, and were astonished +and amused to find their chief clad in the garb of a +priest and refreshed after his hurried journey with a +luxurious bath.<a id="noteref_161" name="noteref_161" href="#note_161"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hideyoshi, as soon as he arrived at Kyōto, issued +an invitation to all the princes to join him in punishing +those who had brought about the death of Nobunaga. +A battle was fought at Yodo, not far from +Kyōto, which resulted in the complete defeat of +Akechi. He escaped, however, from this battle, but +on his way to his own castle he was recognized by a +peasant and wounded with a bamboo spear. Seeing +now that all hope was gone, he committed +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>, +and thus ended his inglorious career. His head was +exposed in front of Honnōji, the temple where +Nobunaga perished. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As might have been expected, this premature +death of Nobunaga—for he was only forty-nine +years old—created an intense excitement. The +idea of heredity had so fixed a place in men's minds, +that the only thought of Nobunaga's friends and retainers +was to put forward in his place some one +who should be his heir. There were living two sons, +both by concubines, viz. Nobuo and Nobutaka, and +a grandson, Sambōshi, still a child, who was a son of +his son Nobutada, now deceased. Each of these +representatives had supporters among the powerful +retainers of the dead prince. It may be assumed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that each was supported not because of the rightful +claim which he had to the estates and the power +which the dead prince had left behind him, but +solely because the supporters of the successful heir +would be entrusted with special authority, and endowed +with conquered provinces. It is sufficient to +explain here that Hideyoshi supported the candidacy +of the grandson, Sambōshi, probably with no higher +motive nor more disinterested purpose than the +others. After a noisy and hot debate it was finally +agreed that the grandson should be installed as successor, +and Hideyoshi undertook to be his guardian. +He had a large army at Kyōto, and with this he felt +strong enough to carry things with a high hand. +He appointed a funeral ceremony to be held in honor +of Nobunaga, to which all the princes were invited, +and he posted his troops in such a way as to command +every avenue of approach. He claimed for +himself, as guardian of the child Sambōshi, precedence +of all the princes and generals. So at the +funeral service, with the child Sambōshi in his arms, +he proceeded in advance of all others to pay +memorial honors to the dead. He supported this +action with such an overwhelming display of military +force that his enemies were afraid to show any +resistance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The disappointed princes retired to their provinces +and hoped that by some fortuitous circumstances +they might still be able to circumvent the plans of +Hideyoshi. He saw well that he must meet the opposition +which would be concentrated on him by activity +and force. As a general not one of his enemies +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +could compare with him in fertility of resources, in +decisiveness of action, and in command of military +strength. His first contest was with his old comrade +in arms Shibata Katsuie, who had served with +him under Nobunaga, and who was intensely jealous +of Hideyoshi's rapid rise in military rank and territorial +authority. Shibata had championed the cause of +Nobutaka in the contest as to the successor of Nobunaga. +He had command of troops in Echizen, and +Nobutaka was governor of the castle of Gifu in the +province of Mino. The campaign was a short and +decisive one. The battle was fought at Shigutake +and resulted in the complete defeat of Shibata and +his allies. It is notable that in this battle artillery +were used and played a conspicuous part. Shibata +after his overthrow committed <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>. +Nobutaka having escaped also put an end to himself. +Thus the active enemies of Hideyoshi in the north +and west were overcome and the forfeited territory +made use of to reward his friends. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +His next contest was with the adherents of Nobuo, +the other son of Nobunaga. This was made memorable +by the assistance which Ieyasu rendered to +Nobuo. Hideyoshi's army, himself not being +present, was defeated. Ieyasu being satisfied with +this victory and knowing that he could not ultimately +triumph now made peace with Hideyoshi. +The island of Shikoku, which was under the control +of Chōsokabe Motochika was reduced to subjection +in a brief campaign and the chiefs compelled to do +duty to Hideyoshi as their head. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It seems that at this time Hideyoshi was ambitious +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to attain official appointment which would +legitimately descend to his children and make him +the founder of a new line of shōguns. He applied +to the ex-shōgun Yoshiaki, whom Nobunaga had deposed<a id="noteref_162" name="noteref_162" href="#note_162"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a> +and who was now living in retirement, intimating +that it would be to his interest to adopt +him as his son so that he could be appointed by the +emperor as shōgun. But Yoshiaki declined to comply +with this suggestion on account of Hideyoshi's +humble origin. In place of this appointment, however, +he was installed <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1585 by the Emperor +Ōgimachi as <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Kuambaku</span></span>, which is higher in rank +than any other office in the gift of the imperial +court. Hitherto this title had been borne exclusively +by members of the Fujiwara family, and it +must have been a severe blow to their aristocratic +pride to have a humble plebeian who had risen +solely by his own talents thus elevated by imperial +appointment to this dignified position. He also +received at this time the name of Toyotomi<a id="noteref_163" name="noteref_163" href="#note_163"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a> by +which he was afterward called, and in recognition of +his successful conquest of much territory he received +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1575 the honorary title of Chikuzen-no-kami. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There were a few years from about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1583—with +an important exception which will be given +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +below—when peace reigned in all the territories of +Japan, and when Hideyoshi devoted himself wisely +and patiently to the settlement of the feudal condition +of the country. It was at this time he began +building his great castle at Ōsaka which occupied +about two years. Workmen were drawn from almost +all parts of Japan, and a portion of it is said to have +been finer and more massive than had ever been +seen in Japan. This magnificent work<a id="noteref_164" name="noteref_164" href="#note_164"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a> survived its +capture by Ieyasu in 1614 and remained undisturbed +down to the wars of the restoration in 1868, when it +was burned by the Tokugawa troops at the time +they were about to evacuate it. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The exception to which reference is made above +was the important campaign which Hideyoshi was +called upon to conduct in the island of Kyūshū +against the Satsuma clan.<a id="noteref_165" name="noteref_165" href="#note_165"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a> The distance at which +Kyūshū lay from the centre of imperial operations, +the mountainous and inaccessible character of a +great part of the territory, made it no easy matter +to deal with the refractory inhabitants of this island. +The Satsuma clan even at that early day had a reputation +for bravery and dash which made them feared +by all their neighbors. The prince of Satsuma at +this time was Shimazu Yoshihisa, a member of the +same family who held the daimiate until the abolition +of the feudal system. It is a tradition that the +first of this family was a son of Yoritomo, who in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1193 was appointed governor of Satsuma. +Like all the feudal princes of the period, the +prince of Satsuma was ambitious to extend his dominion +as far as possible. Hyūga, Bungo, Higo, +and Hizen were either wholly or in part subject to +his authority, so that by the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1585 it was +the boast of the prince that eight provinces acknowledged +him as lord.<a id="noteref_166" name="noteref_166" href="#note_166"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was in this critical period that Hideyoshi was +appealed to for help by the threatened provinces. +He first sent a special envoy to Kagoshima, who was +directed to summon the prince to Kyōto to submit +himself to the emperor and seek investiture from +him for the territories which he held. Shimazu +received this message with scorn, tore up the letter +and trampled it under his feet, and declared that to +a man of mean extraction like Hideyoshi he would +never yield allegiance. Both parties recognized the +necessity of deciding this question by the arbitrament +of war. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hideyoshi called upon thirty-seven provinces to +furnish troops for this expedition. It is said that +150,000 men were assembled at Ōsaka ready to be +transported into Kyūshū. The vanguard, consisting +of 60,000 men under Hidenaga, the brother of +Hideyoshi, set sail January 7, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1587. Troops +from the western provinces joined these, so that this +advanced army numbered not less than 90,000 men. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In due time, January 22d, Hideyoshi himself, with +his main army, consisting of 130,000 men, left Ōsaka, +marching by land to Shimonoseki, and from this +point crossing over to Kyūshū. The Satsuma armies +were in all cases far outnumbered, and step by step +were compelled to retreat upon Kagoshima. Hideyoshi +had by means of spies<a id="noteref_167" name="noteref_167" href="#note_167"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a> acquired a complete +knowledge of the difficult country through which +his armies must march before reaching Kagoshima. +After much fighting the Satsuma troops were at last +driven into the castle of Kagoshima, and it only +remained for Hideyoshi to capture this stronghold +in order to end in the most brilliant manner his +undertaking. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was at this juncture that Hideyoshi made one +of these surprising and clever movements which +stamp him as a man of consummate genius. Instead +of capturing the fortress and dividing up the +territory among his deserving generals, as was expected, +he restored to the Shimazu family its original +buildings, viz., the provinces of Satsuma and +Ōsumi and half the province of Hyūga, only imposing +as a condition that the present reigning +prince should retire in favor of his son, and that he +should hold his fief as a grant from the emperor. +Thus ended one of the most memorable of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +campaigns which Hideyoshi had up to this time +undertaken, and with this also closed a series of +events which exerted a permanent influence on the +history of Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It will be desirable at this point to trace the incidents +which had transpired in connection with the +Jesuit fathers. It will be remembered that the work +of the fathers<a id="noteref_168" name="noteref_168" href="#note_168"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a> +was much interfered with by the +political troubles which preceded the advent of Nobunaga. +Owing to their taking sides with his +enemies he was very much incensed against the +Buddhist priests and visited his indignation upon +them in a drastic measure.<a id="noteref_169" name="noteref_169" href="#note_169"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a> His desire to humiliate +the Buddhist priests probably led him to assume +a favorable attitude towards the Christian fathers. +As long therefore as Nobunaga lived, churches were +protected and the work of proselyting went on. +Even after the death of Nobunaga in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1582 nothing +occurred for some time to interfere with the +spread of Christianity. Hideyoshi was too much +occupied with political and military affairs to give +much attention to the circumstances concerning +religion. Indeed the opinion of Mr. Dening<a id="noteref_170" name="noteref_170" href="#note_170"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a> in his +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Hideyoshi</span></span> is no doubt true, that he was in no +respect of a religious temperament. Even the superstitions +of his own country were treated with scant +courtesy by this great master of men. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Gregory XIII. seeing what progress the Jesuits +were making, and realizing how fatal to success any +conflict between rival brotherhoods would be, issued +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a brief in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1585, that no religious teachers except +Jesuits should be allowed in Japan. This regulation +was exceedingly distasteful to both the Dominicans +and the Franciscans, especially after the visit of the +Japanese embassy to Lisbon, Madrid, and Rome +had directed the attention of the whole religious +world to the triumphs which the Jesuits were making +in Japan. Envy against the Portuguese merchants +for their monopoly of the Japanese trade had also +its place in stirring up the Spaniards at Manila to +seek an entrance to the island empire. The opposition +with which Christianity had met was represented +as due to the character and behavior of the +missioners. In view of these circumstances the +Spanish governor of Manila sent a letter to Hideyoshi, +asking for permission to open trade with +some of the ports of Japan. Four Franciscans attached +themselves to the bearer of this letter and in +this way were introduced into the interior of Japan. +Among the valuable presents sent to Hideyoshi by +the governor of Manila was a fine Spanish horse<a id="noteref_171" name="noteref_171" href="#note_171"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a> +with all its equipments. These Franciscans who +came in this indirect way were permitted to establish +themselves in Kyōto and Nagasaki. They were +at once met by the protest of the Jesuits who urged +that the brief of the pope excluded them. But these +wily Franciscans replied that they had entered +Japan as ambassadors and not as religious fathers, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and that now when they were in Japan the brief of +the pope did not require them to leave. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A very bitter state of feeling from the first therefore +manifested itself between the Jesuits and Franciscans. +The latter claimed that the opposition they +met with was due to the plots and intrigues of the +Jesuits, and they openly avowed that the Jesuit +fathers through cowardice failed to exert themselves +in the fulfilment of their religious duties, and in a +craven spirit submitted to restrictions on their +liberty to preach. Hideyoshi's suspicion was aroused +against the foreigners about this time, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1587, by +the gossip of a Portuguese sea-captain which had +been reported to him. This report represented the +captain as saying: <span class="tei tei-q">“The king, my master, begins +by sending priests who win over the people; +and when this is done he despatches his troops +to join the native Christians, and the conquest +is easy and complete.”</span><a id="noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href="#note_172"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a> This plan seemed +so exactly to agree with experiences in China, +India, and the East Indies, that Hideyoshi resolved +to make it impossible in Japan. He therefore +issued an edict in the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1587 commanding +all foreign religious teachers on pain of death to +depart from Japan in twenty days. This edict, +however, gave leave to Portuguese merchants <span class="tei tei-q">“to +traffic and reside in our ports till further order; but +withal we do hereby strictly forbid them, on pain of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +having both their ships and merchandises confiscated, +to bring over with them any foreign +religious.”</span><a id="noteref_173" name="noteref_173" href="#note_173"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In consequence of this edict, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1593 six +Franciscans and three Jesuits were arrested in +Ōsaka and Kyōto and taken to Nagasaki, and there +burnt. This was the first case of the execution of +Christians by the order of the government. To +explain the transportation of these missionaries to +Nagasaki and their execution there, it should be +stated that in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1586, at the close of the Satsuma +campaign, Nagasaki had been taken from the prince +of Ōmura and made a government city, to be controlled +by a governor appointed immediately from +Kyōto. Shortly after this, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1590, on account +of its superior harbor, it was fixed upon as the only +port at which foreign vessels would be admitted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There was still one refractory element in his +dominions which it was necessary to deal with. +Hōjō Ujimasa maintained a hostile attitude at +Odawara. He was determined once for all to +reduce this rebellious chief and the others who +might be influenced by his example. It is unnecessary +to give the details of this short but decisive +undertaking. Only one incident deserves to be +given as illustrative of the character of Hideyoshi. +In sending troops to the field of action it was necessary +that a large number of horses should cross the +sea of Enshū,<a id="noteref_174" name="noteref_174" href="#note_174"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a> +which was usually very rough at that +time of year. The boatmen, as is usual, were very +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +superstitious, and had a decided aversion to transporting +the horses in their boats; averring that the +god of the sea Ryūgū had a special dislike for +horses. Hideyoshi sent for the boatmen and told +them that he had undertaken this expedition at the +command of the emperor, and that the god of the +sea was too polite to interfere in anything pertaining +to the transportation of troops for such a purpose. +He said however that he would make it all +right by writing a letter to Ryūgū, instructing him +to insure the safe passage of the ships. This was +done, and a letter addressed <span class="tei tei-q">“Mr. Ryūgū”</span> was +thrown into the sea. The boatmen were satisfied, +and the horses were taken over without difficulty.<a id="noteref_175" name="noteref_175" href="#note_175"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">175</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With the fall of Odawara the whole of the +Kwantō, comprising the provinces of Sagami, +Musashi, Kōtsuke, Shimotsuke, Hitachi, Shimōsa, +Kazusa, and Awa came into the possession of +Hideyoshi. During the progress of the siege, it is +said that he and Ieyasu were standing in a watch +tower which they had built on the heights above +the castle of Odawara. Hideyoshi pointed to the +great plain before them and said<a id="noteref_176" name="noteref_176" href="#note_176"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">176</span></span></a>: <span class="tei tei-q">“Before many +days I will have conquered all this, and I propose to +give it into your keeping.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ieyasu thanked him warmly and said: <span class="tei tei-q">“That +were indeed great luck.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hideyoshi added: <span class="tei tei-q">“Wilt thou reside here at +Odawara as the Hōjō have done up to this time?”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ieyasu answered: <span class="tei tei-q">“Aye, my lord, that I will.”</span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“That will not do,”</span> said Hideyoshi. <span class="tei tei-q">“I see on +the map that there is a place called Yedo about +twenty <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ri</span></span> eastward from us. It is a position +far better than this, and that will be the place for thee +to live.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ieyasu bowed low and replied: <span class="tei tei-q">“I will with +reverence obey your lordship's directions.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In accordance with this conversation after the +fall of Odawara, Ieyasu was endowed with the +provinces of the Kwantō and took up his residence +at Yedo. This is the first important appearance of +Yedo in the general history of Japan. It had however +an earlier history, when in the fifteenth century +it appears as a fishing village called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ye-do</span></span>, that is +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">door of the bay</span></span>. Near this fishing village Ōta +Dōkwan, a feudal baron, built himself in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1456 +a castle. With the advent of Ieyasu, Yedo became +a place of first importance, a rank which it still +holds. The object of Hideyoshi in thus entrusting +this great heritage to Ieyasu seems to have been to +secure him by the chains of gratitude to himself and +his family. Already Ieyasu was connected by marriage +with Hideyoshi, his wife being Hideyoshi's +sister. By making him lord of an immense and +powerful country he hoped to secure him in perpetual +loyalty to himself and his heirs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In order that he might be free from the cares +and responsibilities of the government at home, +Hideyoshi retired from the position of +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kwambaku</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1591 and took the title of +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Taikō</span></span>. By this title +he came to be generally known in Japanese history, +Taikō Sama, or my lord Taikō, being the form by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which he was commonly spoken of. His nephew +and heir Hidetsugu was at this time promoted to +the title of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kwambaku</span></span>, and was ostensibly at +the head of the government. The Jesuit fathers speak +of him as mild and amiable, and as at one time a +hopeful student of the Christian religion. They +note however a strange characteristic in him, that +he was fond of cruelty and that when criminals +were to be put to death he sought the privilege of +cutting them into pieces and trying cruel experiments +upon their suffering bodies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1592 Taikō Sama had by one of his wives +a son, whom he named Hideyori. Over this new-born +heir, whom, however, many suspect of not +being Taikō Sama's son, he made great rejoicing +throughout the empire. He required his nephew to +adopt this new-born son as his heir, although he had +several sons of his own. The result of this action +was a feeling of hostility between the uncle and +nephew. Hidetsugu applied to Mōri, the chief of +Chōsū, to aid him in the conflict with his uncle. +But Mōri was too wary to enter upon such a contest +with the veteran general. Instead of helping +Hidetsugu, he revealed to Taikō Sama the traitorous +proposition of his nephew. Hidetsugu was thereupon +stripped of his office and sent as an exile to +the monastery of Kōya-san in the province of Kii. +A year later he was commanded with his attendants +to commit <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>; and with an unusual +exhibition of cruelty, his counsellors, wives, and children +were likewise put to death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hideyoshi had for a long time contemplated the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +invasion of Korea and ultimately of China. In a +conversation with Nobunaga when he was about to +set out on his conquest of the western provinces he +is represented as saying<a id="noteref_177" name="noteref_177" href="#note_177"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">177</span></span></a>: <span class="tei tei-q">“I hope to bring the +whole of Chūgoku into subjection to us. When +that is accomplished I will go on to Kyūshū and +take the whole of it. When Kyūshū is ours, if you +will grant me the revenue of that island for one +year, I will prepare ships of war, and purchase provisions, +and go over and take Korea. Korea I shall +ask you to bestow on me as a reward for my services, +and to enable me to make still further conquests; +for with Korean troops, aided by your illustrious +influence, I intend to bring the whole of China +under my sway. When that is effected, the three +countries [China, Korea, and Japan] will be one. I +shall do it all as easily as a man rolls up a piece of +matting and carries it under his arm.”</span> He had already +carried out part of this plan; he had brought +the whole of Chūgoku and of the island of Kyūshū +under his rule. It remained for him to effect the +conquest of Korea and China in order to complete +his ambitious project. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For this purpose he needed ships on a large scale, +for the transportation of troops and for keeping +them supplied with necessary provisions. From the +foreign merchants, who traded at his ports, he hoped +to obtain ships larger and stronger than were built +in his own dominions. It was a great disappointment +to him when he found this impossible, and +that the merchants, whom he had favored, were unwilling +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to put their ships at his disposal. It is +claimed by the Jesuit fathers that this disappointment +was the chief reason for the want of favor with +which Hideyoshi regarded them during the last +years of his life. It is also advanced as one reason +for his entering on the invasion of Korea, that he +might thus employ in distant and dangerous expeditions +some of the Christian princes whose fidelity to +himself and loyalty to the emperor he thought he +had reason to doubt. He was ambitious, so they +said, to rival in his own person the reputation of the +Emperor Ōjin, who rose in popular estimation to +the rank of Hachiman, the god of war, and who is +worshipped in many temples, because, while he was +still unborn, his mother led a hostile and successful +expedition into this same Korea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The immediate pretext<a id="noteref_178" name="noteref_178" href="#note_178"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">178</span></span></a> for a war was the fact +that for many years the embassies which it had been +the custom to send from Korea to Japan with gifts +and acknowledgments had been discontinued. In +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1582 he sent an envoy to remonstrate, who was +unsuccessful. Subsequently he sent the prince of +Tsushima, who had maintained at Fusan, a port of +Korea, a station for trade, to continue negotiations. +After some delay and the concession of important +conditions the prince had the satisfaction, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1590, of accompanying an embassy which the government +of Korea sent to Hideyoshi. They arrived +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +at Kyōto at the time when Hideyoshi was absent +on his campaign against Hōjō Ujimasa at Odawara. +He allowed them to await his return, and even when +he had resumed his residence at the capital he +showed no eagerness to give them an audience. On +the pretence that the hall of audience needed repairs, +he kept them waiting many months before he +gave orders for their reception. It seemed that he +was trying to humiliate them in revenge for their +dilatoriness in coming to him. It is not impossible +that he had already made up his mind to conduct +an expedition in any event into Korea and China, +and the disrespect with which he treated the embassy +was with the deliberate intention of widening the +breach already existing. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Mr. Aston has given us an account of the reception +which was finally accorded to the ambassadors, +drawn from Korean sources, and which shows that +they were entertained in a very unceremonious fashion. +They were surprised to find that in Japan this +man whom they had been led to look upon as a +sovereign was only a subject. They presented a +letter from the king of Korea conveying his congratulations +and enumerating the gifts<a id="noteref_179" name="noteref_179" href="#note_179"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">179</span></span></a> he had sent. +These enumerated gifts consisted of horses, falcons, +saddles, harness, cloth of various kinds, skins, ginseng, +etc. These were articles which the Japanese +of an earlier age had prized very highly and for the +more artistic production of some of which the Koreans +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +had rendered material assistance. Hideyoshi +suggested that the embassy should return to their +own country at once without waiting for an answer +to their letter. This they were unwilling to do. So +they waited at Sakai whence they were to sail, +till the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kwambaku</span></span> +was pleased to send them a message +for their king. It was so arrogant in tone that +they had to beg for its modification several times +before they dared to carry it home. The letter +plainly announced his intention to invade China and +called upon the Koreans to aid him in this purpose. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ambassadors went home with the conviction +that it was Hideyoshi's intention to invade their +country. At their instigation the government made +what preparations it could, by repairing fortresses, +and collecting troops, arms, and provisions. The +country was a poor country, and had had the good +fortune or the misfortune to remain at peace for +two hundred years. The arts of war had been forgotten. +They had no generals who could cope with +the practised soldiers of Japan. Firearms which +had been introduced into the military equipments of +Japanese armies were almost unknown in Korea. It +is true that they had been taken under the protection +of China and could call upon her for aid. But +China was distant and slow, and Korea might be +destroyed before her slumbering energies could be +aroused. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The preparations which Hideyoshi made, as was +his custom, were thorough and extensive. Each +prince in Kyūshū, as being nearest to the seat of +war, was required to furnish a quota of troops in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +proportion to his revenues. Each prince in Shikoku +and in the Main island, in like manner, was to provide +troops proportionate to his revenue and his +proximity to the seat of war. Princes whose territories +bordered on the sea were to furnish junks and +boats, and men to handle them. The force which +was thus assembled at Nagoya, now called Karatsu, +in Hizen was estimated at 300,000 men, of whom +130,000 were to be immediately despatched. Hideyoshi +did not personally lead this force. It was +under the command of two generals who were independent +of each other, but were ordered to co-operate. +One of these generals was Konishi Yukinaga +Settsu-no-kami, whom the Jesuit fathers refer +to under the name of Don Austin. From an humble +position in life he had risen to high and responsible +rank in the army. Under the influence of Takeyama, +a Christian prince, whom the Jesuit fathers call Justo +Ucondono, he had been converted to Christianity. +Hideyoshi, as has been pointed out, was desirous of +securing the help of the Christian princes in +Kyūshū, and therefore appointed a Christian as one +of the generals-in-chief. Under him were sent the +contingents from Bungo, Ōmura, Arima, and other +provinces where the Christian element was predominant. +This division of the invading army may +therefore be looked upon as representing the Christian +population of the empire. The other general-in-chief +was Katō Kiyomasa,<a id="noteref_180" name="noteref_180" href="#note_180"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">180</span></span></a> who had been +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +associated with Hideyoshi ever since the times of +Nobunaga. He was the son of a blacksmith and in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1563 he became one of Hideyoshi's retainers. +He was a man of unusual size and of great personal +bravery. He commanded an army collected mainly +from the northern and eastern provinces, which comprised +the experienced veterans of Hideyoshi's earlier +campaigns. He is usually spoken of as inimical to +the Christians, but this enmity probably grew up +along with the ill-feeling between the two armies in +Korea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Konishi's division arrived in Korea April 13, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1592, and captured the small town of Fusan, +which had been the port at which the Japanese had +for generations maintained a trading post. After +the arrival of Katō the two divisions marched towards +the capital, reducing without difficulty the +castles that lay in their way. The greatest terror +prevailed among the inhabitants, and the court, with +King Riyen at its head, resolved to flee into the +province bordering on China. The armies reached +the capital and then set out northward. The dissensions +between the commanders had by this time +reached such a point that they determined to separate. +Katō traversed the northeastern provinces +and in his course captured many Koreans of rank. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Konishi marched to the north and found the king +at Pingshang on the borders of the river Taitong-Kiang. +Here he was joined by Kuroda Noritaka, +whom the Jesuit fathers named Condera<a id="noteref_181" name="noteref_181" href="#note_181"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">181</span></span></a> Combiendono, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and by Yoshitoshi the prince of Tsushima, +who had marched with their forces by a different +route. An effort at negotiations at this point met +with no success. The king continued his flight +northward to Ichiu, a fortified town on the borders +of China. After he left a sharp contest took place +between the besiegers and defenders, which resulted +in the abandonment of the town and its capture by +the Japanese. The stores of grain which had been +collected by the Koreans were captured with the +town. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Konishi was anxious to conduct further military +operations in connection with the Japanese vessels +which had been lying all this time at Fusan. +Directions were accordingly sent to have the junks +sent round to the western coast. The Koreans +picked up courage to show fight with their vessels, +which seemed to have been of a superior construction +to those of their enemies. They allured the +Japanese boats out to sea and then turned upon +them suddenly and treated them so roughly that +they were glad to get back to the protection of the +harbor and to give up the purpose of cruising along +the western coast. The result of this little success +encouraged the Koreans so much that it may be said +to have been a turning point in the invasion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the meantime the piteous appeals of the +Koreans to China had produced some effect. A +small army of five thousand men, which was raised +in the adjoining province of Laotung, was sent to +their aid. This insufficient force rashly undertook +to attack the Japanese in Pingshang. But they +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +led the invaders into the town, and then so +thoroughly routed them that the escaped remnants +made their way back to Laotung. This experience +led the Chinese officials to see that if they wished +to help the Koreans at all they must despatch a +stronger force. This they set to work at once to +do. They endeavored to gain some time by pretending +to enter upon negotiations for an armistice. +During the autumn months of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1592 the +Japanese troops were almost idle. And they were +very much taken by surprise when near the end of +the year the Chinese army, forty thousand strong, +besides Koreans, made its appearance on the scene. +The Japanese commander had no time to call for +help, and before he realized the imminency of the +danger Pingshang was attacked. Being far outnumbered +Konishi deemed it prudent to make his escape +from the beleaguered town, and to save his army by +a retreat, which was a painful and inglorious one. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The other division of the Japanese army under +Katō, who had occupied the west coast, found its +position untenable with a superior Chinese army +threatening it. It also was compelled to retreat +towards the south. But the veteran army of Katō +was not content to yield all that it had gained without +a struggle. A bloody engagement followed +near Pachiung, in which the Chinese and Korean +army suffered a significant defeat. The Chinese army +then retired to Pingshang, and Katō was not in a +condition to follow it over the impassable winter +roads and with deficient supplies. The Japanese +troops had suffered an experience such as never befell +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +them under the redoubtable leadership of Hideyoshi. +And the Chinese had had enough of the terrible +two-handed swords which the Japanese soldier +could wield so effectively.<a id="noteref_182" name="noteref_182" href="#note_182"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">182</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The chief obstacle to peace was the mutual distrust +with which each of the three parties regarded +the others. Korea hated the Japanese with a perfect +and justifiable hatred; she also feared and +despised the pompous and pretentious pride of +China. But in the negotiations which ensued the +country which had suffered most had least to say. +It remained for the two greater powers to come to +some agreement which should be satisfactory to +them; and whether Korea were satisfied or not was +of secondary moment. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Japanese envoy proceeded to Peking and is +said to have negotiated peace on these conditions: +That the emperor of China should grant to Hideyoshi +the honor of investiture, that the Japanese +troops should all leave Korea, and that Japan should +engage never to invade Korea again. There was +some jangling about the withdrawal of the Japanese +soldiers but at last this matter was arranged. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An embassy was sent by the Chinese government +to Japan to carry out the ceremony of investiture. +They arrived in the autumn of the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1596. +Taikō Sama made elaborate preparations for their +reception. Some fears were felt as to how Taikō +Sama would regard this proposition of investiture +when he came to understand it. The Buddhist +priest, who was to translate the Chinese document +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +into Japanese<a id="noteref_183" name="noteref_183" href="#note_183"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">183</span></span></a> for the benefit of Taikō Sama, was +urged to make some modification in the wording to +conciliate his ambition. But he was too honest to +depart from the true rendering. He read to Taikō +Sama and the assembled court a letter from the +Chinese emperor granting him investiture as king +of Japan, and announced having sent by the ambassadors +the robe and the golden seal pertaining +to the office. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Taikō Sama listened with amazement,<a id="noteref_184" name="noteref_184" href="#note_184"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">184</span></span></a> as he for +the first time realized that the Emperor of China by +this document had undertaken to invest him as king +of Japan instead of (<span class="tei tei-q">“Ming emperor”</span>). He was in +an uncontrollable rage. He tore off the robe which +he had put on. He snatched the document from +the reader and tore it into shreds, exclaiming: +<span class="tei tei-q">“Since I have the whole of this country in my +grasp, did I wish to become its emperor I could do +so without the consent of the barbarians.”</span> He was +with difficulty restrained from taking the life of +the Japanese ambassador who had negotiated the +treaty. He sent word to the Chinese envoys who +had brought the robe and seal to begone back to +their country and to tell their emperor that he would +send troops to slaughter them like cattle. Both +Korea and China knew that a new invasion would +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +surely result from this disappointment. Katō and +Konishi the Japanese generals in the previous campaign +and who had gone home during the interval +were ordered back to take command of the old +troops and of fresh recruits which were to be sent. +They busied themselves with repairing the fortifications +which had been left in possession of the +Japanese garrisons. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The disgraced and frightened Chinese ambassadors +made their way back to Peking. They were +ashamed to present themselves without showing +something in return for the gifts they had carried to +Taikō Sama. They purchased some velvets and +scarlet cloth, which they represented as the presents +which had been sent. They pretended that Taikō +Sama was much pleased with the investiture, and +that his invasion of Korea was due to the fact that +the Korean government had interfered to prevent +the free and kindly intercourse between China and +Japan. The cloth and velvet, however, were at once +recognized as European productions and not derived +from Japan. So the ambassadors were charged +with deceit and at last confessed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Japanese army was reinforced, it is said, with +130,000 fresh troops. Supplies, however, were difficult +to obtain, and the movements were much hindered. +A small Chinese army of 5,000 men arrived +at the end of the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1597 to aid the Koreans. +An attack on the Japanese ships at Fusan was made +by the Korean navy, but it was without difficulty +repelled and most of the attacking ships destroyed. +After some material advantages, which, however, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were not decisive, the Japanese troops were forced +to return to Fusan for the winter. The principal +engagement was at Yöl-san, a strong position, accessible +both by sea and land. It was garrisoned by +troops of Katō's division, who were brave and determined. +The army composed of Chinese and +Koreans, under the Chinese commander-in-chief +Hsing-chieh, laid siege to this fortress, and succeeded +in cutting off all its communications. But +Kuroda and Hachisuka came to Katō's assistance, +and compelled the Chinese general to raise the siege +and retreat to Söul, the Korean capital. It was in +one of the battles fought during the summer of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1598, that 38,700 heads of Chinese and Korean +soldiers are said to have been taken. The heads +were buried in a mound after the ears and noses +had been cut off. These grewsome relics of savage +warfare were pickled in tubs and sent home to +Kyōto, where they were deposited in a mound in +the grounds of the temple of Daibutsu, and over +them a monument erected which is marked +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">mimi-zuka</span></span> +or ear-mound. There the mound and monument +can be seen to this day.<a id="noteref_185" name="noteref_185" href="#note_185"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">185</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The death of Taikō Sama occurred on the day +equivalent to the 18th of September, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1598, and +on his death-bed he seems to have been troubled +with the thought of the veteran warriors who were +uselessly wearing out their lives in Korea. In his +last moments he opened his eyes and exclaimed +earnestly: <span class="tei tei-q">“Let not the spirits of the hundred +thousand troops I have sent to Korea become disembodied +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in a foreign land.”</span><a id="noteref_186" name="noteref_186" href="#note_186"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">186</span></span></a> Ieyasu, on whom +devolved the military responsibility after the Taikō's +death, and who had never sympathized with his +wishes and aims regarding Korea, did not delay the +complete withdrawal of the troops which still remained +in Korea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus ended a chapter in the history of Japan, +on which her best friends can look back with +neither pride nor satisfaction. This war was begun +without any sufficient provocation, and its results +did nothing to advance the glory of Japan or +its soldiers. The great soldier who planned it and +pushed it on with relentless energy gained nothing +from it except vexation. Much of the time during +which the war lasted he sat in his temporary palace +at Nagoya in Hizen, waiting eagerly for news from +his armies. Instead of tidings of victories and +triumphs and rich conquests, he was obliged too +often to hear of the dissensions of his generals, the +starving and miseries of his soldiers, and the curses +and hatred of a ruined and unhappy country. All +that he had to show for his expenditure of men and +money were several <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">saké</span></span> tubs of pickled ears +and noses with which to form a mound in the temple of +Daibutsu, and the recollection of an investiture by +the emperor of China, which could only bring to +him pain and humiliation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The only beneficial results to Japan that can be +traced to all this was the introduction into different +provinces of some of the skilled artisans of Korea. +The prince of Satsuma, Shimazu Yoshihiro, in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1598, brought home with him when he returned +from the Korean war seventeen families of +Korean potters,<a id="noteref_187" name="noteref_187" href="#note_187"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">187</span></span></a> who were settled in his province. +They have lived there ever since, and in many ways +still retain the marks of their nationality. It is to +them that Satsuma <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">faïence</span></span> owes its exquisite beauty +and its world-wide reputation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/hideyoshi.png" width="201" height="314" alt="Illustration" title="Hideyoshi." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Hideyoshi.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When the Taikō realized that his recovery was +impossible he tried to arrange the affairs of the empire +in such a way as to secure a continuation of the +power in his son Hideyori, who was at that time +only five years old. For this purpose he appointed +a council consisting of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Maeda +Toshi-ie, Mōri Terumoto, Ukita Hide-ei and Uesugi +Kagekatsu, of which Ieyasu was the president and +chief. These were to constitute a regency during +his son's minority. He also appointed a board of +associates, who were called middle councillors, and +a board of military officers called +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">bugyo</span></span>. He called +all these councillors and military officers into his +presence before he died, and made them swear +allegiance to his successor Hideyori. There seems +to have been among them a suspicion of the fidelity +of Ieyasu, for the Taikō is represented as saying to +two of his friends: <span class="tei tei-q">“You need not be anxious +about Ieyasu. He will not rebel against my house.<a id="noteref_188" name="noteref_188" href="#note_188"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">188</span></span></a> +Cultivate friendship with him.”</span> Thus in his sixty-second +year died (September, 1598) the greatest +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +soldier, if not the greatest man, whom Japan has +produced. That he rose from obscurity solely by +his own talents, is a more conspicuous merit in +Japan than in most other countries. Family and +heredity have always counted for so much in this +land of the gods, that few instances have occurred +in which men of humble birth have risen to eminence. +That one such in spite of his low birth, in +spite of personal infirmities, in spite of the opposition +and envy of contemporaries, had risen to so +high a position in the empire, has been a source of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pride and encouragement to thousands of his countrymen. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Taikō was buried close to the Daibutsu +temple, which he himself had built to shelter the +colossal figure of Buddha, constructed in imitation +of the Daibutsu which Yoritomo had built at Kamakura. +The figure was to be one hundred and +sixty feet in height, and the workmen had it nearly +finished when a terrible earthquake in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1596 +shook down the building. In the following year the +temple was rebuilt, and the image was completed +up to the neck. The workmen were preparing to +cast the head, when a fire broke out in the scaffolding +and again destroyed the temple, and also the +image. It was one of the schemes of Ieyasu, so it +is said, to induce the young Hideyori to exhaust his +resources upon such expensive projects, and thus +render him incapable of resisting any serious movement +against himself. He therefore suggested to +the boy and his mother that this temple and image, +which Hideyoshi had begun, should not fail of erection. +They therefore resumed the construction, +and carried it on with great lavishness. It took +until <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1614 to complete the work, and when it +was about to be consecrated with imposing ceremonies, +Ieyasu, who by this time was supreme in the +empire, suddenly forbade the progress of the ceremony. +He affected to be offended by the inscription +which had been put on the bell,<a id="noteref_189" name="noteref_189" href="#note_189"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">189</span></span></a> but the real +reason was probably his desire to find some pretext +by which he could put a quarrel upon the adherents +of Hideyori. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> +<a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter X. The Founding Of The Tokugawa Shōgunate.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Among all the friends and retainers of Hideyoshi +the most prominent and able was Tokugawa Ieyasu. +He was six years younger than Hideyoshi, and +therefore in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1598, when the Taikō died, he was +fifty-six years old. He was born at the village of +Matsudaira in the province of Mikawa <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1542. +His family counted its descent from Minamoto +Yoshi-ie, who in the eleventh century had by his +military prowess in the wars against the Ainos +earned the heroic name of Hachiman-Tarō. Therefore +he was, as custom and tradition now for a long +time had required for those holding the office of +shōgun, a descendant from the Minamoto family.<a id="noteref_190" name="noteref_190" href="#note_190"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">190</span></span></a> +The name Tokugawa, which Ieyasu rendered famous, +was derived from a village in the province of +Shimotsuke, where his ancestors had lived. His first +experiences in war were under Nobunaga, side by +side with Hideyoshi. He proved himself not only a +capable soldier, prudent and painstaking, but also a +good administrator in times of peace. Hideyoshi +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +had such confidence in him, and so much doubt +about the wisdom of requiring the guardians to wait +until his son, a mere child five years old, had grown +up to years of responsibility, that he is represented +as having said to Ieyasu: <span class="tei tei-q">“I foresee that there will +be great wars after my decease; I know too that +there is no one but you who can keep the country +quiet. I therefore bequeath the whole country to +you, and trust you will expend all your strength in +governing it. My son Hideyori is still young. I +beg you will look after him. When he is grown up, +I leave it to you to decide whether he will be my +successor or not.”</span><a id="noteref_191" name="noteref_191" href="#note_191"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">191</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As soon as the Taikō was dead, and the attempt +was made to set in motion the machinery he had +designed for governing the country, troubles began +to manifest themselves. The princes whom he had +appointed as members of his governing boards, began +immediately to quarrel among themselves. On +Ieyasu devolved the duty of regulating the affairs of +the government. For this purpose he resided at +Fushimi, which is a suburb of Kyōto. His most +active opponent was Ishida Mitsunari, who had been +appointed one of the five <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">bugyō</span></span>, +or governors, under the Taikō's arrangement. They grew jealous of +Ieyasu, because, under the existing order of things, +the governors were of very minor importance. +Mitsunari had acquired his influence with the Taikō, +not through military achievements, but by intrigue +and flattery. He was cordially detested by such +disinterested friends as Katō Kiyomasa and others. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ground on which the opposition to Ieyasu was +based was that he was not faithfully performing his +duty, as he had promised to the dying Taikō, towards +his child and heir. It is not improbable that even +at this early day it was seen that Ieyasu proposed +to disregard the pretensions of the youthful son of +Hideyoshi, in the same way that he in his day had +disregarded the claims of the heir of Nobunaga. +The rough and warlike times, and the restless and +ambitious manners of the feudal lords of these +times, made it impossible to entrust the country to +the hands of a child. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Under this strained relation, the members of the +regency divided into two parties. Speaking broadly, +it was again a contest between the north and the +south of Japan. Ieyasu's association had been from +the beginning with the Kwantō, and now more than +ever his power was centred about Yedo. Mitsunari +on the contrary had leagued himself with the princes +of Chōsū and Satsuma, and with others of minor +importance, all more or less representative of the +southern half of the empire. The Christians chiefly +sided with Hideyori and his adherents. Mitsunari +himself was a Christian convert, and the Jesuit +fathers explain that his position and that of the +other Christian leaders were due to their conscientious +desire to fulfil their oath of fidelity to Hideyori. +That Ieyasu should have been derelict in such a +solemn duty was a sufficient cause for their opposition +to him. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Events now rushed rapidly to a culmination. One +of the most powerful of the princes allied against +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Ieyasu was Uesugi Kagekatsu, the lord of Echigo +and Aizu. He had retired to Aizu after having +solemnly made a covenant<a id="noteref_192" name="noteref_192" href="#note_192"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">192</span></span></a> with the others engaged +in the plot to take measures against Ieyasu. He +was summoned to Kyōto to pay his respects to the +emperor, but on some trivial excuse he declined to +come. Ieyasu now saw that nothing but war would +settle the disputes which had arisen. He repaired +to Yedo and to Shimotsuké, and made preparations +for the conflict which he saw impending. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the meantime the members of the league were +busy. Mitsunari sent an urgent circular to all the +feudal princes, charging Ieyasu with certain misdeeds +and crimes, the chief of which was that instead +of guarding the inheritance of the Taikō for his +son, he was with the blackest guilt endeavoring to +seize it for himself. A formidable army was gathered +at Ōsaka consisting of 128,000 men.<a id="noteref_193" name="noteref_193" href="#note_193"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">193</span></span></a> Made up +as it was from different provinces and officered by +its provincial leaders, it lacked that element of unity +and accord which is so essential to an army. The +first movement was against the castle of Fushimi, +which was the centre from which Ieyasu governed +the country. After a short siege it fell and then, it +is said, was accidentally burned to the ground. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The news of the attack upon Fushimi was brought +to Ieyasu in Shimotsuké, and a council of his friends +and retainers was held to determine what steps must +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +be taken to meet the emergency. It was urged that +the time had come when Ieyasu should meet his +enemies, and settle by battle the questions which +had risen between them. It was determined that +all the scattered troops should be gathered together, +and that they should march to Fushimi prepared to +encounter the enemy in battle at whatever point +they should meet them. The eldest son of Ieyasu, +Hideyasu, was put in charge of Yedo and entrusted +with the care of the surrounding provinces. This +was an important trust, because the powerful prince +Uesugi lay to the north of him and would seize the +first opportunity to attack him. To Fukushima was +given the command of the vanguard. The principal +army was divided into two parts, one of which was +to march along the Tōkaidō under the command of +Ieyasu himself, the other was placed under the +charge of Ieyasu's second son Hidetada, and was to +take the route along the Nakasendō. The whole +army consisted of 75,000 men, a number much +smaller than the army of the league, but which had +the advantage of being controlled by one mastering +and experienced commander. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The armies met at Sekigahara,<a id="noteref_194" name="noteref_194" href="#note_194"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">194</span></span></a> a little village on +the Nakasendō, October, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1600. One place on +the neighboring hill is still pointed out whence +Ieyasu witnessed the battle and issued his orders. +Both sides fought with determined bravery, and the +battle lasted the whole day. Cannon and other +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +firearms were to some extent made use of, but the +old-fashioned weapons, the sword and the spear, +were the terrible means by which the victory was +decided. For a long time the battle raged without +either party obtaining a decisive advantage. Notwithstanding +his inferiority in numbers Ieyasu was +completely victorious. The carnage was dreadful. +The number of the confederate army said to have +been killed was 40,000.<a id="noteref_195" name="noteref_195" href="#note_195"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">195</span></span></a> +This seems like an impossible +exaggeration, and the Japanese annalists are, +like those of other nations, given to heightened +statements. But that the loss of life on both sides +was very great there can be no doubt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two ghastly mounds called Kubi-zuka, or head +piles, are still shown where the heads of the decapitated +confederates were buried. This battle must +always stand with that at Dan-no-ura between the +Minamoto and Taira families, as one of the decisive +battles in the history of Japan. By it was settled +the fate of the country for two hundred and fifty +years. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was fortunate that the victor in this battle was +a man who knew how to secure the advantages to be +derived from a victory. It is said that at the close +of this battle when he saw success perching on his +banners, he repeated to those around him the old +Japanese proverb: <span class="tei tei-q">“After victory tighten the strings +of your helmet.”</span><a id="noteref_196" name="noteref_196" href="#note_196"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">196</span></span></a> The division of Hidetada joined +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +him after the battle, and he promptly followed up +his victory by seizing the castles on his way and taking +possession of Kyōto and Ōsaka. The feudal +princes who had stood aloof or opposed him nearly +all came forward and submitted themselves to his +authority. Uesugi and Satake in the north, who +had been among his most active opponents, at once +presented themselves to Hideyasu at Yedo and +made their submission. Mōri, the powerful lord of +the western provinces, who had been most active in +the confederation against him, sent congratulations +on his victory, but they were coldly received. Finally +he was pardoned, being however deprived of +six out of his eight provinces. He was suffered to +retain of all his rich inheritance only Suō and +Nagato. Several of the leaders were captured, +among whom were Mitsunari, Konishi, and Ōtani, +who being Christians deemed it unworthy their faith +to commit <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>. They were carried to Kyōto +where they were beheaded and their heads exposed +in the dry bed of the Kamo-gawa. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The work of reducing to order the island of +Kyūshū was entrusted to the veteran generals Katō +Kiyomasa and Kuroda Yoshitaka. The former +undertook the reduction of Hizen, and the latter +that of Bungo, Buzen, and Chikuzen. The house of +Shimazu, although it had taken sides against Ieyasu +in the great contest, duly made its submission and +was treated with great consideration. The whole of +the territory assigned to it by Hideyoshi after the +war of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1586 was restored to it, namely, the +whole of the provinces of Satsuma and Ōsumi, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +one half of the province of Hyūga. To Katō +Kiyomasa<a id="noteref_197" name="noteref_197" href="#note_197"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">197</span></span></a> was given the province of Higo, which +had, after the Korean war, been assigned to Konishi +in recognition of his services, but which was now +taken from his family because he had been one of +Ieyasu's active opponents. The Kuroda family received +as its inheritance a portion of the province of +Chikuzen with its capital at Fukuoka, which it held +until the abolition of feudal tenures in 1871. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ieyasu was a peaceful and moderate character, +and in the settlement of the disturbances which had +marked his advent to power, he is notable for having +pursued a course of great kindness and consideration. +With the exception of the cases already mentioned +there were no executions for political offences. It +was his desire and ambition to establish a system of +government which should be continuous and not +liable, like those of Nobunaga and Taikō Sama, +to be overturned at the death of him who had +founded it. By the gift of Taikō Sama he had +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +already in his possession a large part of the Kwantō. +And by the result of the war which had ended at +Sekigahara, he had come into possession of a great +number of other fiefs, with which he could reward +those who had been faithful to him. It was the difficult +and delicate part of his work to distribute +judiciously among his supporters and retainers the +confiscated estates. To realize how completely the +feudal system as reformed by Ieyasu was bound to +him and constituted to support and perpetuate his +family, it is only necessary to examine such a list of +the daimyōs<a id="noteref_198" name="noteref_198" href="#note_198"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">198</span></span></a> +as is given in Appert's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ancien +Japon</span></span>.<a id="noteref_199" name="noteref_199" href="#note_199"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">199</span></span></a> +Out of the two hundred and sixty-three daimyōs +there enumerated, one hundred and fifty-eight are +either vassals or branches of the Tokugawa family. +But while he thus carefully provided the supports +for his own family, he spared many of the old and +well-rooted houses, which had incorporated themselves +into the history of the country. He built his +structure on the old and tried foundation stones. +With far-sighted statesmanship he recognized that +every new form of government, to be permanent, +must be a development from that which precedes it, +and must include within itself whatever is lasting in +the nature of its forerunner. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The dual form of government had for many centuries +existed in Japan, and the customs and habits +of thinking, and the modes of administering justice +and of controlling the conduct of men had become +adapted to this system. It was therefore natural +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that Ieyasu should turn his attention to reforming +and perfecting such a form of government. A +scheme of this kind seemed best adapted to a country +in which there existed on the one hand an +emperor of divine origin, honored of all men, but +who by long neglect had become unfit to govern, +and in whom was lodged only the source of honor; +and on the other hand an executive department on +which devolved the practical duty of governing, +organizing, maintaining, and defending. Though he +was compelled to look back through centuries of +misrule, and through long periods of war and usurpation, +he could see straight to Yoritomo, the first +of the shōguns, and could trace from him a clear +descent in the Minamoto family. To this task, +therefore, he set himself: to maintain the empire in +all its heaven-descended purity and to create a line +of hereditary shōguns who should constitute its +executive department. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In pursuance of this plan, he sent his son Hidetada +to the emperor to make a full report of everything +that had been done in the settlement of the affairs +of the country. The emperor was graciously pleased +to approve his acts and to bestow upon him, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1603, the hereditary title of Sei-i-tai-shōgun. This +was the title borne by Yoritomo when he was the +real ruler of the country. Since that time there +had been a long line of shōguns, the last of whom +was Ashikaga Yoshiaki, whom Nobunaga deposed +in 1573, and who had died 1597. With this new +appointment began a line of Tokugawa shōguns +that ended only with the restoration in 1868. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ieyasu's most radical change in the system of +government consisted in the establishment of the +seat of his executive department at Yedo. Since +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 794 Kyōto had been the capital where successive +emperors had reigned, and where Nobunaga and +Hideyoshi exercised executive control. Kamakura +had been the seat of Yoritomo and his successors. +But Ieyasu saw advantages in establishing himself +in a new field, to which the traditions of idleness +and effeminacy had not attached themselves, and +where the associations of his own warlike career +would act as a stimulus to his contemporaries and +successors. He remained at Fushimi until necessary +repairs could be made to the Castle of Yedo<a id="noteref_200" name="noteref_200" href="#note_200"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">200</span></span></a> and +the roads between it and the capital put in order. +The place which henceforth was to be the principal +capital of the country first comes into notice, as we +have before mentioned, as a castle built by Ōta Dōkwan +in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1456. He had been placed here by the +authorities of Kamakura to watch the movements of +the restless princes of the north. Recognizing the +strength and convenience of the high grounds on +the border of Yedo bay, he built a castle which, +through many transformations and enlargements, +finally developed into the great feudal capital of the +Tokugawa shōguns. It was here that Ieyasu, after +the fall of Odawara, by the advice of Hideyoshi,<a id="noteref_201" name="noteref_201" href="#note_201"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">201</span></span></a> +established himself for the government of the provinces +of the Kwantō which had been given to him. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And it was without doubt this earlier experience +which led him to select Yedo as the centre of +his feudal government. The reputation which this +eastern region bore for roughness and want of culture, +as compared with the capital of the emperor at +Kyōto, seemed to him an advantage rather than an +objection. He could here build up a system of +government free from the faults and weaknesses +which had become inseparable from the old seats of +power. After the repairs and enlargements had +been completed he took up his residence there. +Besides this castle, Ieyasu had for his private residence, +especially after his retirement from the +shōgunate, an establishment at Sumpu, now called +Shizuoka. Here he was visited by English and +Dutch envoys in reference to the terms of allowing +trade, and here, after the manner of his country, he +maintained his hold upon the administration of +affairs, notwithstanding his formal retirement. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A continued source of disquietude and danger to +the empire, or at least to the plans of Ieyasu for a +dynasty of Tokugawa shōguns, lay in Hideyori, the +son and heir of Taikō Sama. He was born in 1592, +and was therefore at this time, 1614, in his twenty-third +year. As long as he lived he would be naturally +and inevitably the centre to which all the +disaffected elements of the country would gravitate. +The failure of Ieyasu to support the cause of his +old master's son would always prove a source of +weakness to him, especially in a country where +fidelity to parents and superiors was held in such +high esteem. He determined, therefore, to bring to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a conclusion these threatening troubles which had so +long been hanging over him. Accordingly, on the +ground that Hideyori was plotting with his enemies +against the peace of the state, he set out from +Sumpu, where he was then residing as retired +shōgun, with an army of seventy thousand men. +Hideyori and his mother had for a long time resided +at the castle of Ōsaka, and against this Ieyasu +directed his large army. It was bravely and skilfully +defended, and without the help of artillery, +which at this early day was rarely used in sieges, a +long time elapsed before any decided advantage was +gained. At last the defenders were tempted beyond +the protection of their fortifications, and a battle +was fought June 3, 1615. It is described by the +Jesuit fathers, two of whom witnessed it, as being +sanguinary beyond the example of the bloody +battles of the Japanese civil wars. It resulted in +the complete overthrow of Hideyori's adherents, +and the destruction of the castle by fire. Both +Hideyori and his mother were said to have perished +in the conflagration. Reports were current that +they had, however, escaped and taken refuge in +some friendly locality. But no trace of them was +ever found, and it was taken for granted that this +was the end of Hideyori and his party. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before ending this chapter, which is designed to +record the establishment of the Tokugawa shōguns, +reference should be made to the settlement of the +questions left in dispute by Taikō Sama respecting +Korea. There remained after the war, with all its +attendant atrocities and sufferings, a feeling of intense +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +bitterness towards the Japanese on the part +both of the Koreans and Chinese. The absence of +any sufficient cause for the invasion, and the avowed +purpose of Taikō Sama to extend his conquests to +China had awakened against him and his armies a +hatred which generations could not wipe out. Soon +after the recall of the Japanese troops which followed +the death of Taikō Sama, Ieyasu opened +negotiations with Korea through the daimyō of +Tsushima. He caused the government to be informed +that any friendly overtures on its part would +be received in a like spirit. The king of Korea +accordingly despatched an embassy with an autograph +letter, addressed to the <span class="tei tei-q">“King of Japan.”</span> A +translation of this letter will be found in Mr. Aston's +last paper<a id="noteref_202" name="noteref_202" href="#note_202"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">202</span></span></a> on Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea. +Among other things it says: <span class="tei tei-q">“The sovereign and +subjects of this country were profoundly grieved, +and felt that they could not live under the same +heaven with your country.... However your +country has now reformed the errors of the past +dynasty and practises the former friendly relations. +If this be so, is it not a blessing to the people of +both countries? We have therefore sent you the +present embassy in token of friendship. The enclosed +paper contains a list of some poor productions +of our country. Be pleased to understand +this.”</span> This letter was dated in the year 1607. A +friendly answer was returned to it, and from this +time it may be understood that the relations between +the two countries were placed on a satisfactory +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +basis. These steps were taken on the part of +Korea with the knowledge and approval of China, +which now claimed to hold a protectorate over the +peninsula of Korea. The same negotiations therefore +which resulted in peaceful relations with Korea +brought about a condition of amity with China +which was not disturbed until very recent times. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ruinous effects of this invasion, however, +were never overcome in Korea itself. Her cities +had been destroyed, her industries blotted out, and +her fertile fields rendered desolate. Once she had +been the fruitful tree from which Japan was glad to +gather her arts and civilization, but now she was +only a branchless trunk which the fires of war had +charred and left standing. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/crest.png" width="623" height="628" alt="Illustration" title="Tokugawa Crest." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Tokugawa Crest.</div></div> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> +<a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter XI. Christianity In The Seventeenth Century.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To the readers of the story of Japan the most +interesting episode is that of the introduction and +subsequent extirpation of Christianity. We have +therefore given an account of the first arrival of the +Jesuit missionaries with the sainted Xavier at their +head, and we have seen their labors crowned with a +very wide success. During the times of Nobunaga +and Hideyoshi the question had assumed something +of a political aspect. In several of the provinces of +Kyūshū the princes had become converts and had +freely used their influence, and sometimes their +authority, to extend Christianity among their subjects. +In Kyōto and Yamaguchi, in Ōsaka and +Sakai, as well as in Kyūshū, the Jesuit fathers had +founded flourishing churches and exerted a wide +influence. They had established colleges where the +candidates for the church could be educated and +trained. They had organized hospitals and asylums +at Nagasaki and elsewhere, where those needing aid +could be received and treated. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is true that the progress of the work had met +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with a severe setback in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1587, when Taikō +Sama issued an edict expelling all foreign religious +teachers from Japan. In pursuance of this edict +nine foreigners who had evaded expulsion were +burnt at Nagasaki. The reason for this decisive +action on the part of Taikō Sama is usually attributed +to the suspicion which had been awakened in +him by the loose and unguarded talk of a Portuguese +sea captain.<a id="noteref_203" name="noteref_203" href="#note_203"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">203</span></span></a> But other causes undoubtedly contributed +to produce in him this intolerant frame of +mind. Indeed, the idea of toleration as applied to +religious belief had not yet been admitted even in +Europe. At this very time Philip II., who had +united in his own person the kingdoms of Spain and +Portugal, was endeavoring to compel, by force of +arms, the Netherlands to accept his religious belief, +and was engaged throughout all his immense dominions +in the task of reducing men's minds to a hideous +uniformity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Even in several of the provinces of Japan where +the Jesuits had attained the ascendancy, the most +forcible measures had been taken by the Christian +princes to compel all their subjects to follow their +own example and adopt the Christian faith. Takeyama, +whom the Jesuit fathers designate as Justo +Ucondono, carried out in his territory at Akashi a +system of bitter persecution. He gave his subjects +the option of becoming Christians or leaving his +territory. Konishi Yukinaga, who received part of +the province of Higo as his fief after the Korean +war enforced with great persistency the acceptance +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the Christian faith, and robbed the Buddhist +priests of their temples and their lands. The princes +of Ōmura and Arima, and to a certain extent the +princes of Bungo, followed the advice of the Jesuit +fathers in using their authority to advance the cause +of Christianity. The fathers could scarcely complain +of having the system of intolerance practised upon +them, which, when circumstances were favorable, +they had advised to be applied to their opponents. +It was this impossibility of securing peace and harmony, +and the suspicion of the territorial ambition +of Spain and Portugal, which drove Taikō Sama to +the conclusion that the foreign religious teachers +and the faith which they had so successfully propagated, +were a source of imminent danger to his +country. To him it was purely a political question. +He had no deep religious impressions which had led +him to prefer the precepts of the old Japanese faith +to those of Christianity. These systems could not +apparently live together, and it seemed to him the +safest and most sensible way to extinguish the +weaker and most dangerous before it became too +strong. Hence he began that policy of repression +and expulsion which his successor reluctantly took up. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During the first years of Ieyasu's supremacy the +Christians were not disturbed. He was too much +occupied with the establishment of the new executive +department which he had planned. In 1606 +the Portuguese resident bishop, Father Louis Cerqueria, +was received by Ieyasu at Kyōto. The fathers +speak of this audience with great hopefulness, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +did not seem to be aware that the court which most +of the Christian princes were at that time paying to +Hideyori was likely to prejudice Ieyasu against +them. Again in 1607 Ieyasu, who was then at Kofu +in the province of Kai awaiting the completion of +his castle at Yedo, expressed a desire to see the +Provincial. Accordingly when he waited on Ieyasu +he was received very cordially. The Christian fathers +were much encouraged by these indications of the +favor of Ieyasu. But whatever they may have been, +they cannot be interpreted as showing any intention +on his part to promote their religious proselytism. +Even in the very midst of these assumed favors he +issued in 1606 what may be called a warning proclamation,<a id="noteref_204" name="noteref_204" href="#note_204"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">204</span></span></a> +announcing that he had learned with pain +that, contrary to Taikō Sama's edict, many had +embraced the Christian religion. He warned all +officers of his court to see that the edict was strictly +enforced. He declared that it was for the good of +the state that none should embrace the new doctrine; +and that such as had already done so must +change immediately. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This proclamation of Ieyasu did not, however, +prevent the Catholics at Nagasaki from celebrating +in a gorgeous manner the beatification<a id="noteref_205" name="noteref_205" href="#note_205"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">205</span></span></a> of Ignatius +Loyola, the founder and first General of the Society +of Jesus. The bishop officiated in pontifical robes, +and the members of the society, together with the +Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians, made a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +solemn procession through the city. This celebration +was in distinct contravention of the orders +which had been issued against such public displays. +It was made more emphatic by being also held on +the same day in the province of Arima, whose +daimyō was an ardent advocate of the Christian +doctrine. These open and determined infractions +of the directions of the government provoked Ieyasu +to take severe measures. He began by punishing +some of the native Christians connected with his +own court, who were charged with bribery and +intrigue in behalf of the daimyō of Arima. A +number of these accused Christians were banished +and their estates confiscated. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the meantime both the English and Dutch +had appeared on the scene, as will be more fully +detailed in the next chapter. Their object was +solely trade, and as the Portuguese monopoly +hitherto had been mainly secured by the Jesuit +fathers, it was natural for the new-comers to represent +the motive of these fathers in an unfavorable +and suspicious light. <span class="tei tei-q">“Indeed,”</span> as Hildreth<a id="noteref_206" name="noteref_206" href="#note_206"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">206</span></span></a> says, +<span class="tei tei-q">“they had only to confirm the truth of what the +Portuguese and Spanish said of each other to excite +in the minds of the Japanese rulers the gravest distrust +as to the designs of the priests of both nations.”</span><a id="noteref_207" name="noteref_207" href="#note_207"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">207</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Whether it is true as charged that the minds of the +Japanese rulers had been poisoned against the +Jesuit fathers by misrepresentation and falsehood, +it may be impossible to determine definitely; but +it is fair to infer that the cruel and intolerant policy +of the Spanish and Portuguese would be fully set +forth and the danger to the Japanese empire from +the machinations of the foreign religious teachers +held up in the worst light. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During the latter years of Ieyasu's life, after he +had settled the affairs of the empire and put the +shōgunate upon a permanent basis, we see growing +evidence of his prejudice against Christianity. That +he had such prejudice in a very pronounced form is +clear from his reference to the <span class="tei tei-q">“false and corrupt +school”</span> in chapter xxxi. of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy</span></span>. And he +had inherited from Taikō Sama the conviction that the +spread of this foreign faith was a menace to the peace +of the empire. The instructions<a id="noteref_208" name="noteref_208" href="#note_208"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">208</span></span></a> which were issued +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the members of the Society of Jesus, however, +forbade any father to meddle in secular affairs or to +interfere in any way with the political concerns of +the government in which they were laboring. That +there were occasional instances of the disregard of +this regulation by the enthusiastic members of the +order may be supposed, but it will be unjust and +unfounded to attribute to this society a settled +policy of interference in the affairs of the nations +where they were employed as missionaries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ieyasu, evidently having made up his mind that +for the safety of the empire Christianity must be +extirpated, in 1614 issued an edict<a id="noteref_209" name="noteref_209" href="#note_209"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">209</span></span></a> that the members +of all religious orders, whether European or +Japanese, should be sent out of the country; that +the churches which had been erected in various +localities should be pulled down, and that the native +adherents of the faith should be compelled to renounce +it. In part execution of this edict all the +members of the Society of Jesus, native and foreign, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were ordered to be sent to Nagasaki. Native +Christians were sent to Tsugaru, the northern extremity +of the Main island. Takeyama, who had +already been banished by Taikō Sama to the province +of Kaga, was ordered to leave the country. He +was sent in a Chinese ship to Manila, where he soon +after died. In order to repress any disturbance that +might arise from the execution of this edict, ten +thousand troops were sent to Kyūshū, where the +converts were much the most numerous, and where +the daimyōs in many cases either openly protected +or indirectly favored the new faith. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In accordance with this edict, as many as three +hundred persons are said to have been shipped from +Japan October 25, 1614. All the resident Jesuits +were included in this number, excepting eighteen +fathers and nine brothers, who concealed themselves +and thus escaped the search. Following this deportation +of converts the most persistent efforts +continued to be made to force the native Christians +to renounce their faith. The accounts given, both +by the foreign and by the Japanese writers, of the +persecutions which now broke upon the heads of the +Christians are beyond description horrible. A special +service was established by the government which +was called the Christian Enquiry,<a id="noteref_210" name="noteref_210" href="#note_210"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">210</span></span></a> the object of +which was to search out Christians in every quarter +and drive them to a renunciation of their faith. +Both the foreign priests who had remained in the +country in spite of the edict and the native converts +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were hunted down and punished with the most +appalling tortures. Rewards were offered for information +involving Christians of every position and +rank, even of parents against their children and of +children against their parents. At what time this +practice began it is difficult to say, but that rewards +were used at an early period is evident from the +re-issue of an edict in 1655, in which it is stated<a id="noteref_211" name="noteref_211" href="#note_211"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">211</span></span></a> +that formerly a reward of 200 pieces of silver was +paid for denouncing a father (<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">bateren</span></span>) +and 100 for denouncing a brother (<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">iruman</span></span>); +but from this time the rewards should be: for denouncing a father, +300 pieces; a brother, 200 pieces; and a catechist, +50 pieces. In 1711 this tariff was raised, for denouncing +a father to 500 pieces, a brother to 300 +pieces, and a catechist to 100 pieces; also for denouncing +a person who, having recanted, returned +to the faith, 300 pieces. These edicts against Christianity +were displayed on the edict-boards as late as +the year 1868. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The persecution began in its worst form about +1616. This was the year in which Ieyasu died, but +his son and successor carried out the terrible programme +with heartless thoroughness. It has never +been surpassed for cruelty and brutality on the part +of the persecutors, or for courage and constancy on +the part of those who suffered. The letters of the +Jesuit fathers are full of descriptions of the shocking +trials to which the Christians were subjected. The +tortures inflicted are almost beyond belief. Mr. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Gubbins, in the paper<a id="noteref_212" name="noteref_212" href="#note_212"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">212</span></span></a> to which reference has already +been made, says: <span class="tei tei-q">“We read of Christians being +executed in a barbarous manner in sight of each +other, of their being hurled from the tops of precipices, +of their being buried alive, of their being torn +asunder by oxen, of their being tied up in rice-bags, +which were heaped up together, and of the pile thus +formed being set on fire. Others were tortured +before death by the insertion of sharp spikes under +the nails of their hands and feet, while some poor +wretches by a refinement of horrid cruelty were shut +up in cages and there left to starve with food before +their eyes. Let it not be supposed that we have +drawn on the Jesuit accounts solely for this information. +An examination of the Japanese records will +show that the case is not overstated.”</span><a id="noteref_213" name="noteref_213" href="#note_213"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">213</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The region around Nagasaki was most fully impregnated +with the new doctrine, and it was here +that the persecution was by far the most severe. +This was now an imperial city, governed directly by +officers from the government of Yedo. The governor +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is called Kanwaytsdo by Warenius, relying on +Caron and Guysbert, but I have been unable to +identify him by his true Japanese name. Beginning +from 1616 there was a continuous succession of persecutions. +In 1622 one hundred and thirty men, +women, and children were put to death, among +whom were two Spanish priests, and Spinola an +Italian. The next year one hundred more were put +to death. The heroism of these martyrs awakened +the greatest enthusiasm among the Christians. In +the darkness of the night following the execution +many of them crept to the place where their friends +had been burnt and tenderly plucked some charred +fragments of their bodies, which they carried away +and cherished as precious relics. To prevent the +recurrence of such practices the officers directed +that the bodies of those burnt should be completely +consumed and the ashes thrown into the sea. Guysbert +in his account mentions that among those executed +at Hirado was a man who had been in the +employ of the Dutch factory and his wife. They +had two little boys whom the factor offered to take +and have brought up by the Dutch. But the parents +declined, saying that they preferred to have the boys +die with them. A plan was devised by which the +heads of households were required to certify that +none of their families were Christians, and that no +priests or converts were harbored by them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +All this terrible exercise of power and the constantly +recurring scenes of suffering were more than +the governor could endure, and so we find him at +last complaining that he could not sleep and that his +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +health was impaired. At his earnest petition he was +relieved and a new governor appointed in 1626. He +signalized his entrance upon his duties by condemning +thirteen Christians to be burnt, viz.: Bishop +Franciscus Parquerus, a Portuguese, seventy years +old; Balthazar de Tores, a Dominican, fifty-seven +years old, together with five Portuguese and five +Japanese laymen. When it came to the crisis the +five Portuguese renounced their faith and escaped +death. On the twelfth of July nine more were executed, +five by burning and four by beheading. On +the twenty-ninth of July a priest was caught and +executed who had concealed himself in a camp of +lepers, and who had hoped in that way to escape +detection. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The governor exerted himself to bring about recantations +on the part of those who had professed +themselves Christians. He promised special favors +to such as would renounce their faith, and in many +cases went far beyond promises to secure the result. +He set a day when all the apostates dressed in their +best clothes should present themselves at his office. +Fifteen hundred appeared on this occasion, and were +treated with the greatest kindness and consideration. +But the officers began to see that putting Christians +to death would not prevent others from embracing +the same doctrine. There grew up such an +enthusiasm among the faithful that they sought +rather than avoided the crown of martyrdom. As +Guysbert points out, the knowledge of the Christian +religion possessed by these converts must have been +exceedingly small; they knew the Lord's prayer +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ave Maria</span></span>, and a few other prayers of the +Church, but they had not the Scriptures to read, +and many of them could not have read them even +if they had been translated into their own language. +And yet these humble and ignorant people withstood +death, and tortures far worse than death, with +a heroism worthy of all praise. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the eighth of February, 1627, twelve persons +were captured in a hiding-place about a mile from +Nagasaki; they were first branded with a hot iron +on the forehead, and then on each cheek; then because +they would not recant they were burnt to +death. Subsequently forty more were captured, +among whom were a father and mother with their +three young children. The children were frightened +at the dreadful preparations, and would have recanted, +but their parents refused to permit them to +take advantage of the offers of clemency. After +the branding and beating, those who were not yet +driven to recant were sent off to the boiling springs +of Onsen in Arima. Here they were tortured by +having the boiling water of the springs poured upon +them, and by being compelled to breathe the suffocating +sulphurous air which these springs emitted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the fourteenth of the following May, nine +martyrs suffered all the torments which could be +contrived and finally were drowned. August seventeenth +five Christians were burnt and eighteen +otherwise put to death, of whom one was a Franciscan +monk and the rest were natives. October +twenty-sixth three Japanese magnates who had +joined Hideyori against Ieyasu were discovered to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +be Christians, and were shipped off to Macao. In +the following year, 1628, it is said that three hundred +and forty-eight persons were tortured for their +faith, including torture by the boiling springs, beating +with clubs, and burning. It had been reduced +to such a science that when they saw a subject +becoming weak and likely to die, they suspended +their torments until he revived. Whenever a priest +was captured in any household the whole family by +whom he had been concealed were put to death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another new governor was sent to Nagasaki on +the 27th of July, 1629. He came with the high +purpose of rooting out every vestige of Christianity. +He set about his work in the most systematic +manner. Nagasaki, it must be understood, is +laid out in streets which can be closed up by gates. +Each street had its head man, and every five houses +in each street were under the special charge of a +separate overseer. These overseers were responsible +as to what occurred and who were concealed in each +of the houses under his charge. The gates were +all closed at night and opened again in the morning. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The governor went through these streets house +by house, and examined every person in every +house. If the occupants were not Christians, or if +they renounced their Christianity, they were allowed +to go undisturbed; but if any one persisted +in the new doctrine he was sent off to be tortured +by hot water at the boiling springs. This torture +was now improved by requiring the victim to have +his back slit open and the boiling water poured +directly on the raw flesh. He used the most monstrous +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +means to force the people to renounce their +faith. He compelled naked women to go through +the streets on their hands and knees, and many +recanted rather than suffer such an ordeal. Other +cases are recorded too horrible to be related, +and which only the ingenuity of hell could have +devised. That any should have persisted after such +inhuman persecutions seems to be almost beyond +belief. Guysbert says that in 1626 Nagasaki had +forty thousand Christians, and in 1629 not one was +left who acknowledged himself a believer. The +governor was proud that he had virtually exterminated +Christianity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But the extermination had not yet been attained. +The severity of the measures adopted in Nagasaki +had indeed driven many into the surrounding provinces, +so that every place of shelter was full. They +awaited in terror the time when they too should be +summoned to torture and death. Usually they had +not long to wait, for the service of the Christian +Enquiry was active and diligent. New refinements +of cruelty were constantly invented and applied. +The last and one of the most effectual is denominated +by the foreign historians of these scenes the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Torment of the Fosse</span></span>. Mathia Tanner, S. J., in his +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the Martyrs of Japan</span></span>, published in Prague, +1675, gives minute accounts of many martyrdoms. +His descriptions are illustrated by sickening engravings +of the tortures inflicted. Among these he +gives one illustrating the suspension of a martyr in +a pit on the 16th of August, 1633. The victim is +swathed in a covering which confines all parts of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +body except one hand with which he can make +the signal of recantation. A post is planted by the +side of the pit, with an arm projecting out over it. +The martyr is then drawn up by a rope fastened to +the feet and run over the arm of the post. He is +then lowered into the pit to a depth of five or six +feet and there suffered to hang. The suffering was +excruciating. Blood exuded from the mouth and +nose, and the sense of pressure on the brain was +fearful. Yet with all this suffering the victim usually +lived eight or nine days. Few could endure this +torture, and it proved a most effectual method of +bringing about recantations. Guysbert says that +he had many friendly conversations with those +who had experienced the torture of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fosse</span></span>. +They solemnly assured him <span class="tei tei-q">“that neither the pain +caused by burning with fire, nor that caused by any +other kind of torture, deserves to be compared with +the agony produced in this way.”</span> Not being able +longer to endure the suffering, they had recanted +and been set free. Yet it is told as a miraculous +triumph of faith that a young girl was submitted to +this torture, and lived fifteen days without recanting +and at last died. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is surely not unnatural that human nature +should succumb to such torments. Even the well +seasoned nerves of the Jesuit fathers were not always +able to endure to the end. The enemies of +the Jesuits delight in narrating the apostasy of Father +Christopher Ferreyra, seventy years old, a Portuguese +missionary and the provincial of the order. +He was captured in Nagasaki, 1633, and was tortured +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by suspension in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fosse</span></span>. After five hours he gave +the signal of recantation and was released. He was +kept for some time in prison and compelled to give +information concerning the members of his order in +Japan. He was set at liberty and forced to marry, +assuming the Japanese dress and a Japanese name. +There was a report set on foot by the Jesuits that in +his old age when on his death-bed he recovered his +courage and declared himself a Christian, whereupon +he was immediately carried off by the Japanese +officers to the torture of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Fosse</span></span>, where he perished +a penitent martyr. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was at this time that the method of trial called +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">E-fumi</span></span>,<a id="noteref_214" name="noteref_214" href="#note_214"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">214</span></span></a> or trampling on the cross, was instituted. +At first pictures on paper were used, then slabs of +wood were substituted as more durable, and finally +in the year 1660 an engraver of Nagasaki, named +Yusa, cast bronze plates from the metal obtained by +despoiling the altars of the churches. These plates +were about five inches long and four inches wide +and one inch thick, and had on them a figure of +Christ on the cross. We take from the French edition +of Kæmpfer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span><a id="noteref_215" name="noteref_215" href="#note_215"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">215</span></span></a> an account of +what he calls <span class="tei tei-q">“this detestable solemnity.”</span> It was +conducted by an officer called the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kirishitan bugyō</span></span>, +or Christian inquisitor, and began on the second day +of the first month. In Nagasaki it was commenced +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +at two different places at once, and was carried on +from house to house until the whole city was finished. +The officers of each street were required to +be present. The metal plate on which was a figure +of the Saviour upon the cross was laid upon the +floor. Then the head of the house, his family, and +servants of both sexes, old and young, and any +lodgers that might be in the house, were called into +the room. The secretary of the inquisitor thereupon +made a list of the household and called upon +them one by one to set their feet on the plate. +Even young children not able to walk were carried +by their mothers and made to step on the images +with their feet. Then the head of the family put +his seal to the list as a certificate to be laid before +the governor that the inquisition had been performed +in his house. If any refused thus to trample on the +cross they were at once turned over to the proper +officers to be tortured as the cases required. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This same method of trial was used in the provinces +about Nagasaki, the governor lending to the +officers the plate which they might use. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Without following the entire series of events +which resulted in the extirpation of Christianity, it +will be sufficient to give a brief narrative of the +closing act in this fearful tragedy. It is just, however, +to explain that the Shimabara rebellion was +not due to the Christians alone, but that other causes +contributed to and perhaps originated it. In view, +however, of the cruel persecutions to which the +Christians were subjected, it is not surprising that +they should have been driven to engage in such a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +rebellion as that in Arima.<a id="noteref_216" name="noteref_216" href="#note_216"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">216</span></span></a> The wonder rather is +that they were not often and in many places impelled +to take up arms against the inhumanities of their +rulers. The explanation of this absence of resistance +will be found in the scattered condition of the +Christian communities. Nowhere, unless it might +be in Nagasaki, was the number of converts collected +in one place at all considerable. They were +everywhere overawed by the organized power of the +government, and the experience of those who joined +in this Arima insurrection did not encourage a repetition +of its horrors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The beginning of the revolt is traced to the misgovernment +of the daimyō of Arima. The original +daimyō had been transferred by the shōgun to +another province, and when he removed from Arima +he left nearly all his old retainers behind him. The +newly instituted daimyō, on the contrary, who came +to occupy the vacated province brought with him a +full complement of his own followers. To make +room for these new retainers the old ones were displaced +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +placed from their dwellings and holdings, and compelled +to become farmers or to take up any other +occupation which they could find. Like the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> +of other parts of Japan who had been unaccustomed +to any calling except that of arms, these displaced +retainers proved very unsuccessful farmers, and were +of course very much dissatisfied with the new course +of things. The daimyō was a cruel and inconsiderate +man, who made small account of the hardships and +complaints of the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> +farmers. The taxes were +made heavier than they could pay, and when they +failed to bring in the required amount of rice, he +ordered them to be dressed in straw rain-coats which +were tied around their neck and arms. Their hands +were fastened behind their backs, and in this helpless +condition the rain-coats were set on fire. Many +were fatally burned, and some to escape the burning +threw themselves into the water and were drowned. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This senseless cruelty awakened an intense feeling +of hatred against the daimyō. And when his son +who succeeded him was disposed to continue the +same tyrannical policy, the farmers rose in insurrection +against their lord. The peasants of the island +of Amakusa, which lies directly opposite to the province +of Arima, also joined in this rising, owing to +their discontent against the daimyō of Karatsu. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Christians, who had so long groaned under the +persecutions of their rulers, seized this opportunity +to rise, and joined the farmers. They declared that +the time had now come for them to avenge the +innocent blood of Christians and priests who had +perished throughout the empire. The rising of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Christians began at the village of Oyei in Amakusa, +October, 1637. The excitement was intense, and in +a few days it is said that eight thousand three hundred +men and one thousand women were assembled +at this village. They chose as their chief Shirō +Tokisada, the son of the head man of the village of +Hara, who proposed to march immediately upon +Nagasaki and open negotiations with foreign nations, +and if possible obtain from them the help of troops. +He was an enthusiast and without experience in war. +The leading spirit in the insurrection seems to have +been a <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">rônin</span></span><a id="noteref_217" name="noteref_217" href="#note_217"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">217</span></span></a> named Ashizuka, who recommended +that the insurgents should cross over to Shimabara. +But Shirō and his enthusiastic followers resolved to +attack the castle of Tomioka situated on the north-west +coast of Amakusa. They were, however, unable +to make any impression upon it, and were obliged +to withdraw. Ashizuka and a few followers succeeded +in breaking into the castle of Shimabara and +seizing the arms and ammunition and provisions +which were stored there. The government rice +stores were seized both on the mainland and on the +island of Amakusa. All the insurgents, including +men, women, and children, then gathered into a +deserted castle at Hara, which was capable of holding +40,000 to 50,000 persons. It was supposed to be +impregnable, and was put in order and provisioned +for a long siege. The number gathered here is +estimated by the Japanese writers at 40,200, but +this number without doubt is an exaggeration. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The local rulers finding themselves unable to cope +with the rebellion, and seeing its proportions swelling +every day, appealed to Yedo for help. The +shōgun at this time was Iemitsu, the son of the +preceding shōgun, and grandson of Ieyasu. He possessed +many of the good qualities of his grandfather, +and is looked upon, with the exception of Ieyasu, as +the greatest of the Tokugawa line. He had imbibed +all the prejudices of his predecessors against foreigners +and against the religion of the foreigners. +He feared that this rebellion was begun at their +instigation, and would be carried on with their encouragement +and help. He prepared therefore for a +sharp and desperate struggle, which he was determined +should be carried out to the bitter end. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Itakura Naizen was sent down as commander-in-chief, +and given full powers. Under his direction +the siege of the castle, in which the rebels were +gathered, was commenced on the 31st of December, +1637. The daimyōs of Kyūshū, on the demand +of the government, sent additional troops, +so that the besieging army amounted to 160,000 +men. Yet with all this force, urged on by an ambition +to end this rebellion, no serious effect had yet +been produced on the castle. The attacks which +had been made had produced no breach in its walls. +We have no information concerning the progress of +affairs among the inmates. It must be remembered +that a part of the rebels were +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> farmers, who +were inured to arms, and who knew perfectly that +neither consideration nor mercy would be shown +them or their families in case the castle were taken. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +The remainder of the besieged force were the Christian +insurgents, who had been driven to this rebellion +by their cruel persecution. Nothing could be worse +than what they had already endured, and they had +no expectation that if they were beaten in this contest +any pity would be shown to them. Despair +made the attitude of both divisions of the rebels +one of determined resistance, and their obstinacy +led the besiegers to put forth every effort. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/yacht1.png" width="700" height="457" alt="Illustration" title="Pleasure Yacht." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Pleasure Yacht.</div></div> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/yacht2.png" width="700" height="490" alt="Illustration" title="Pleasure Yacht." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Pleasure Yacht.</div></div> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/merchant.png" width="700" height="223" alt="Illustration" title="Merchant Vessel." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Merchant Vessel.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One step which they took in this matter led to +much discussion and to the widening of the breach +between the Dutch and the Portuguese. On the +11th of January, 1638, the besiegers applied to +the Dutch at Hirado for a supply of gunpowder, +which request was complied with, and at the same +time an apology was tendered that no larger quantity +could be sent. Again, on the 15th of February +a request for cannon to be used in the +siege was received, and the guns were sent. Mr. +Koeckebacker says: <span class="tei tei-q">“We gave the largest and most +uniform guns in our possession.”</span><a id="noteref_218" name="noteref_218" href="#note_218"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">218</span></span></a> Finally, on the +19th of February, Mr. Koeckebacker was asked to +send one of the Dutch ships<a id="noteref_219" name="noteref_219" href="#note_219"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">219</span></span></a> then at Hirado to +the assistance of the besiegers. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Ryp</span></span> was +accordingly sent, and Mr. Koeckebacker himself accompanied +her. The guns which had been first sent +were mounted as a land battery, and the guns of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Ryp</span></span> from her anchorage in the bay were trained +on the castle. It was a new experience for the Japanese +to see cannon used in the siege of a castle, but +the effect was much less than had been expected. +No practicable breach was made, and the final result +seemed as far off as ever. <span class="tei tei-q">“During the fifteen days +from the 24th of February to the 12th of March, +there were thrown into the camp of the enemy +four hundred and twenty-six cannon balls from the +twenty guns of the ship <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">de Ryp</span></span>.”</span><a id="noteref_220" name="noteref_220" href="#note_220"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">220</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the meantime the Japanese officers began to +feel that it was not a dignified proceeding to call +upon a foreign nation to help them to put down a +local rebellion. Even the insurgents had shot an +arrow into the imperial camp to which a letter was +attached, deriding them for calling for assistance +when there were so many courageous soldiers in +Japan. Whatever may have been the cause, the +Dutch received notice on the 12th of March that +their ship was no longer required, and accordingly +they returned to Hirado. The castle was taken by +assault on the 12th of April, 1638, after a siege +which had lasted one hundred and two days, and +about seven months from the breaking out of the +rebellion. By special orders from Yedo the insurgents +captured in the castle were to the last man, +woman, and child put to death.<a id="noteref_221" name="noteref_221" href="#note_221"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">221</span></span></a> The father of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Shirō, the young leader, was crucified, and Shirō +himself was decapitated, and his head exposed for +seven days on the great pier at Nagasaki. The +daimyō, whose misgovernment had brought on this +rebellion in Amakusa, was stripped of most of his +territories, and he was so intensely hated in what +remained to him that he committed <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>. +The daimyō of Arima, whose misconduct and neglect +had driven the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> farmers into their fatal +rising, was also permitted to take his own life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The help, which the Dutch rendered in this siege, +exposed them to much vituperation. Naturally, the +Jesuit historians have taken a very unfavorable view +of the Dutch share in this sad transaction. Dr. +Geerts in his defence of the Dutch argues: <span class="tei tei-q">“Koeckebacker +did no more than any one else of any nationality +would probably have done in the same difficult +position.... His endeavor was to preserve +from decline or destruction the interests intrusted to +him, and this was done at the smallest possible +price.... Moreover, the letters of Koeckebacker +clearly show that the Japanese government +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +did not ask the aid of the Dutch in the persecution +of Christians, as has often been asserted by foreign +authors, who have not taken the trouble to inform +themselves thoroughly on the subject, but they requested +the guns and the aid of the Dutch vessel for +the purpose of subduing rebellious subjects.... +There could be no valid reason for Koeckebacker to +refuse the pressing request for aid, and consequently +he agreed to give assistance, as every wise man +would have done in his place.... Koeckebacker +did not take part in the general massacre which followed +on the 11th of April, when the fortress of the +rebels was taken by the imperial troops, as he left +with his ship for Hirado on the 12th of March, leaving +the guns behind in Arima. Had it been in his +power to prevent such a general massacre after the +fortress had been taken, and the rebels were prisoners, +he would no doubt have done so.”</span><a id="noteref_222" name="noteref_222" href="#note_222"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">222</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This frightful termination to the rebellion, followed +as it was by severe and persistent measures +against Christians everywhere, was apparently the +death-blow to the church in the empire. No further +efforts were made, either by the daimyōs of provinces +or by the heads of the church, to make open headway +against the determined efforts of the government. +Whatever was done was in secret, and every +means was tried on the part of those who still clung +to the Christian belief, and especially of those who +were still daring enough to try to minister to them, +to conceal their locality and their identity.<a id="noteref_223" name="noteref_223" href="#note_223"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">223</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The history of Christianity in Japan from this +time downward was that of a scattered and dismembered +remnant struggling for existence. A long line +of edicts reaching to modern times was directed +against <span class="tei tei-q">“the corrupt sect,”</span> repeating again and +again the directions for its suppression. The +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kirishitan +bugyō</span></span>, or Christian inquisitor, had his office +in Yedo, and under him was a numerous and active +corps of assistants. Inouye Chikugo-no-Kami for a +long time held this position. A place is still pointed +out called <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Karishitan Zaka</span></span>, or Christian +Valley, where once stood the house in which were confined +a number of the foreign priests. Here may be seen +the grave of Father Chiara, who had under torture +abjured his faith, and remained a prisoner for forty +years, dying 1685.<a id="noteref_224" name="noteref_224" href="#note_224"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">224</span></span></a> Professor Dixon says that <span class="tei tei-q">“there +are two bamboo tubes inserted in sockets in front of +the tomb, which I have never found empty, but +always full of flowers in bloom. No one knows who +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +offer these flowers, but they must be descendants of +the Doshin Christians, or believers in Christianity, or +worshippers of Koshin.”</span> Here also was confined +Father Baptiste Sidotti, a Sicilian Jesuit who ventured +to enter Japan in 1707 with the purpose of resuming +the work of the Jesuits which the persecution +had interrupted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And yet with all this vigilance and severity on the +part of the government, what was the amazement of +the Christian world to learn that the old faith still +survived! In the villages around Nagasaki there +were discovered in 1865,<a id="noteref_225" name="noteref_225" href="#note_225"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">225</span></span></a> not only words and symbols +which had been preserved in the language, but +even communities where had been kept alive for +more than two centuries the worship bequeathed to +them by their ancestors. We shall have occasion +hereafter to refer to this interesting memento of the +Christianity of the seventeenth century. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> +<a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter XII. Feudalism In Japan.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ieyasu was not only a general of eminent abilities, +who had from his youth been accustomed to +the responsibility and management of great campaigns, +but he was a statesman who knew how to +secure the advantage to be obtained from victories +and conquests. After the decisive battle of Sekigahara, +when the control of the empire became fixed +in his hands, we hear little more of him as a general, +excepting in the battle at Ōsaka, when the fortunes +of Hideyori were finally and definitely settled. +The common conception of Ieyasu is not that of +a great commander like Hideyoshi, but rather of an +organizer and law-maker, who out of confused and +dismembered provinces and principalities of the empire +constructed a firm and abiding state.<a id="noteref_226" name="noteref_226" href="#note_226"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">226</span></span></a> After +his settlement of the dissensions at home, and his +admirable adjustment of the outstanding difficulties +with Korea and China, which we have already traced, +we shall find Ieyasu principally engaged in framing +a government which should be suited to the peculiar +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +wants and founded on the historical antecedents of +the country. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/ieyasu.png" width="183" height="252" alt="Illustration" title="Ieyasu." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Ieyasu.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There was one characteristic of Ieyasu which has +not received sufficient attention. Although not a +great scholar in any sense, even in the age in which +he lived, he was more familiar than most men of +affairs of his day with the Chinese classical writings, +and was in the more leisurely periods of his life a +noted patron of learned men. The Chinese classics +were said to have been brought to Japan at an early +period, even before the first introduction of Buddhism. +But the period was too early and the condition +of the country too rude to make the reading +and study of the philosophical and political writings +of Confucius and Mencius an essential part of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +education of the people. The culture which Buddhism +brought with it, accompanied with a knowledge +of the writing and reading of the Chinese letters, +was all that obtained any currency during the disturbed +and warlike ages of Japanese history. But +when peace was at last established by the supremacy +of Ieyasu, and the active Japanese intellect had +some other employment than fighting, then learning +took a great start. And as the only idea which +the Japanese possessed of learning was that which +prevailed in China and was imbedded in the Chinese +writings, they naturally turned to them for thought +and systematic training. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Fortunately Ieyasu was a man who appreciated +at its full value the effect of learning on the character +of his people. He caused the Confucian classics<a id="noteref_227" name="noteref_227" href="#note_227"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">227</span></span></a> +to be printed at a press which he patronized in +Fushimi, and this was said to be the first time these +works had ever been printed in Japan. He gathered +scholars about him at Fushimi, at Yedo, and after +his retirement at Shizuoka (Sumpu). He favored +education and encouraged the daimyōs to establish +schools where the children of their retainers could +be taught not only military accomplishments but +the elements of a good education. The Chinese +classics were made the essentials of such an education, +and the chief duty of a school was to teach the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pupils to read and write and understand the works +which their venerable and learned neighbor had +furnished them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 60%; text-align: center"><img src="images/mixing-ink.png" width="700" height="568" alt="Illustration" title="Mixing Ink For Writing." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Mixing Ink For Writing.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Unfortunately this movement in behalf of learning +was hampered by the impracticable nature of +the Chinese written language. Instead of a few +characters representing sounds, like European alphabets, +it consists of thousands of symbols, each representing +an idea. The pupil must therefore spend +years in learning to make, and know and read the +mere signs of language. And in the modern necessities +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of printing,<a id="noteref_228" name="noteref_228" href="#note_228"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">228</span></span></a> the compositor must handle not +less than 4,000 or 5,000 Chinese characters, besides +the Japanese <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kana</span></span> and other needful marks. The +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kana</span></span> here mentioned were the result of a +promising effort which was made to simplify the Chinese +written language by expressing it in symbols representing +sounds. Forty-seven <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kana</span></span> letters—by +repetition extended to fifty—each representing a syllable, +are used to express Japanese words. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"><img src="images/letters.png" width="700" height="505" alt="Illustration" title="Styles Of Letters: (Chinese Proverb: Hiroku koriwo aisuruwo jintoyu. To love universally is true humility.) 1. Kaisho (book letters). 2. Ditto. 3. Gyosho (script letters). 4. Ditto. 5. Hirasaua (Japanese script)." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Styles Of Letters: (Chinese Proverb: Hiroku koriwo aisuruwo jintoyu. To +love universally is true humility.) 1. Kaisho (book letters). 2. Ditto. 3. Gyosho +(script letters). 4. Ditto. 5. Hirasaua (Japanese script).</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"><img src="images/syllabary.png" width="700" height="522" alt="Illustration" title="Japanese Syllabary." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Japanese Syllabary.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The castle of Yedo was reconstructed and enlarged +after the battle of Sekigahara, while Ieyasu continued +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to reside at Fushimi. The Jesuit fathers, +who accompanied the Father Provincial on his visit +to Ieyasu, assert that 300,000 men were employed in +this work. Very much of the ground where the +present city of Tōkyō now stands, was then, according +to old maps, covered with water. In excavating +the moat which surrounds the castle, and the canals +connecting this moat with the Sumida-gawa, immense +quantities of earth were obtained, which were used +to fill up lagoons and to reclaim from the shallow +bay portions which have now become solid land. +This work of building the castle and fitting the city +for the residence of a great population, was carried +on by many of the successors of Ieyasu. The third +shōgun, Iemitsu, the grandson of Ieyasu, made great +improvements both to the castle and the city, so that +the population and position of Yedo in no long time +placed it as the chief city of the empire.<a id="noteref_229" name="noteref_229" href="#note_229"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">229</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The task to which Ieyasu devoted himself during +the years of his residence at Yedo was that of consolidating +and settling the feudal system of the +empire. The daimyōs had for centuries been so +accustomed to conduct themselves independently, +and to govern each his own province in his own way, +that they might be expected to resent any efforts +to restrict their action. Fortunately Ieyasu was a +mild and temperate man, who, while he could act +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with firmness, was most considerate of the feelings +and motives of others. After the decisive victory of +Sekigahara he readily and cordially made terms with +his enemies, and did not show himself rapacious in +exacting from them undue penalties for their hostility. +To the daimyō of Satsuma, as we have already +seen, he restored the entire territory which Taikō +Sama had given him. The daimyō of Chōshū was +allowed to keep two of the provinces out of the ten +which he had acquired by conquest, yet these two +made him still one of the richest and most powerful +princes in the empire. With others he dealt in the +same liberal spirit, so that out of the old proud +daimyōs whom he spared and permitted to continue +in their holdings, he created for himself a body of +fast friends. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But it must be remembered that the end Ieyasu +had in view was to establish a system which should +continue loyal to his successors, and to a line of +successors who should be of his own family. Hence +out of the confiscated territories, and out of those +which were in part vacated as a fine on the former +holders, and out of those which had become vacant +by natural causes, he carved many fiefs with which +he endowed members of his own family and those +retainers who were closely affiliated with him. He +had twelve children,<a id="noteref_230" name="noteref_230" href="#note_230"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">230</span></span></a> nine sons and three daughters. +The daughters were married to three daimyōs. The +oldest of his sons, Nobuyasu, had died at an early +age. His second son, Hideyasu, had been adopted +by Taikō Sama, and to him Ieyasu gave the province +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Echizen as his fief. The third son, Hidetada, +who shared with his father the command of the +forces at the battle Sekigahara, had married a +daughter of Taikō Sama, and succeeded his father +as shōgun. On his youngest three sons he bestowed +the rich provinces of Owari, Kii, and Mito, and constituted +the families to which they gave rise as the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Go-san-ké</span></span>, +or the three honorable families. In case +of a failure in the direct line, the heir to the shōgunate +was to be chosen from one of these families. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Without undertaking to give a detailed account of +the feudal system as modified and established by +Ieyasu, it will be sufficient to give the classes of +daimyōs as they continued to exist under the Tokugawa +shōgunate.<a id="noteref_231" name="noteref_231" href="#note_231"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">231</span></span></a> It must be understood that +feudalism existed in Japan before the time of +Ieyasu. It can be traced to the period when Yoritomo +obtained from the emperor permission to send +into each province a <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">shiugo</span></span> +who should be a military man, and should act as protector of the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kokushū</span></span> or +governor, who was always a civilian appointed by +the emperor. These military protectors were provided +with troops, for the pay of whom Yoritomo +got permission from the emperor to levy a tax. +Being active men, and having troops under their +command, they gradually absorbed the entire authority, +and probably in most cases displaced the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kokushū</span></span>, +who only represented the powerless government +at Kyōto. Under the disturbed times +which followed the fall of the house of Yoritomo +these <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">shiugo</span></span> +became the hereditary military governors +of the provinces, and usurped not only the +functions but the name of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kokushū</span></span>. They became +a class of feudal barons who, during the interval +when no central authority controlled them, governed +each one his own province on his own responsibility. +Even after the establishment of a central authority, +and continuously down to the abolition of feudalism, +the government of the people was in the hands of +the daimyō of each province. The assessment of +taxes, the construction of roads and bridges, the +maintenance of education, the punishment of crime, +the collection of debts, the enforcement of contracts, +and indeed the whole circle of what was denominated +law were in the hands of the local government. +In truth, in Japan as in other feudal countries there +was scarcely such a thing as law in existence. The +customs that prevailed, the common-sense decisions +of a magistrate, the final determinations of the daimyō, +were authoritative in every community. And +in all these each province was in a great degree a +law unto itself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The classes of daimyōs as arranged and established +by Ieyasu were not altered by his successors, although +the number included under each class was +liable to minor changes. Before Ieyasu's time there +were three classes of daimyōs, viz.: eighteen +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kokushū</span></span>, +who may be termed lords of provinces, thirty-two +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ryōshu</span></span> or lords of smaller districts, and two +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +hundred and twelve <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">jōshu</span></span> +or lords of castles, that is +two hundred and sixty-two in all. The distinction +between the first two was one of rank, but the third +differed from the others in the fact that the assessment +in each case was less than 100,000 +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kōku</span></span> of rice. The +number of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kokushū</span></span> daimiates was increased by +the addition of Kii and Owari, to which Ieyasu appointed +two of his sons as daimyōs. A third son he appointed +daimyō of Mito, which was already of the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kokushū</span></span> +rank. He vacated this place by compelling the previous +holder to accept in place of it another daimiate +of equivalent value. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ieyasu divided all daimyōs into two distinct +classes, the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">fudai</span></span> and the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">tozama</span></span>. The term +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">fudai</span></span> +was used to designate those who were considered +the vassals of the Tokugawa family. The <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">tozama</span></span> +daimyōs were those who were considered as equal to +the vassals of the Tokugawa family, but who were +not in fact vassals. Of the former there were +originally one hundred and seventy-seven, and of the +latter eighty-six.<a id="noteref_232" name="noteref_232" href="#note_232"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">232</span></span></a> +Twenty-one of the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">fudai</span></span> daimyōs +were relatives of the shōgun's family, of whom three, +as has been stated, were the <span class="tei tei-q">“honorable families.”</span> +All the others, numbering eighteen, bore the name +of Matsudaira, one of the family names of Ieyasu, +derived from a small village in the province of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Mikawa, where Ieyasu was born. This was allowed +to them as a special honor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We give here the classification of the daimyōs as +enumerated by M. Appert<a id="noteref_233" name="noteref_233" href="#note_233"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">233</span></span></a> in his list for the epoch +about 1850: +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">1. Go-san-ké (three honorable families)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">3</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">2. Fudai daimyōs (vassals of Tokugawa family)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">137</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">3. Tozama daimyōs (equal to vassals)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">99</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">4. Kamon (all the other branches of Tokugawa family)</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">18</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">5. Daimyōs, not classified</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Total</td><td class="tei tei-cell">263</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The five leading <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">tozama</span></span> daimyōs were Kaga, +Sendai, Aizu, Chōshū, and Satsuma, and although +they ranked after the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">go-san-ké</span></span>, they had some +superior advantages. They were classed as +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kyakubun</span></span>, +or guests, and whenever they paid a visit to the +capital of the shōgun, they were met by envoys and +conducted to their residences. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Besides these daimyōs of different classes, Ieyasu +established an inferior kind of feudal nobility, which +was termed <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hatamoto</span></span>. +This means literally <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">under +the flag</span></span>. They had small holdings assigned to them, +and their income varied very greatly. Mr. Gubbins, +in his paper, puts the number at about 2,000. It +was the custom to employ the members of this +minor class of aristocracy very largely in filling the +official positions in the shōgun's government. Indeed, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +it was held as a common maxim, that the +offices should be filled by poor men rather than by +rich.<a id="noteref_234" name="noteref_234" href="#note_234"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">234</span></span></a> +The <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">gokenin</span></span>, numbering about 5,000, were +still another class who were inferior to the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hatamoto</span></span>. +They had small incomes, and were mostly employed +in subordinate positions. Beneath these again stood +the ordinary fighting men, or common +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span>, who +were the retainers of the daimyōs and of the shōgun. +They were the descendants of the soldiers of the +time of Yoritomo, who appointed <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">shiugo</span></span> to +reside with a company of troops in each province, for the +purpose of keeping the peace. They had already +grown to claim a great superiority over the common +people, and Ieyasu encouraged them in this feeling +of superciliousness. The people were divided into +four classes, arranged in the following order: +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span>, farmers, artisans, and merchants. And +in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy</span></span> Ieyasu thus expresses himself<a id="noteref_235" name="noteref_235" href="#note_235"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">235</span></span></a>: <span class="tei tei-q">“The +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> are masters of the four classes. +Farmers, artisans, and merchants may not behave in a rude +manner towards <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> ... and a +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> is +not to be interfered with in cutting down a fellow +who has behaved to him in a manner other than is +expected.”</span> Again he says<a id="noteref_236" name="noteref_236" href="#note_236"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">236</span></span></a>: <span class="tei tei-q">“A girded sword is +the living soul of a <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span>.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The authority coming from so high and so revered +a source did not grow less during the centuries of +feudalism which followed. The <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> did not +fail to use all the privileges which were allowed them +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by Ieyasu's testamentary law. Especially in the +large cities where great numbers of them were gathered, +and where idleness led them into endless evil +practices, the arrogance and overbearing pride of the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> +made them an intolerable nuisance. Nevertheless +it must be allowed that nearly all that was +good, and high-minded, and scholarly in Japan was +to be found among the ranks of the feudal retainers. +It is to them that the credit must be given of +the great changes and improvements which have +been initiated since Japan was opened up to foreigners. +They were the students who went out into +the world to learn what western science had to teach +them. They have been pioneers in a return to a +central authority and to the experiment of a representative +government, and to the principles of +freedom and toleration to which the country is +committed. To them Japan owes its ancient as +well as its modern system of education. Its old +stores of literature, it is true, are not due to them, +but surely all its modern development in newspapers, +magazines, history, political science, and legal and +commercial codes, is to be traced to the adaptability +and energy of the old <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> class. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"><img src="images/sword-maker.png" width="700" height="557" alt="Illustration" title="Sword-Maker." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Sword-Maker.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> had the privilege of carrying two +swords; the principal one (<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">katana</span></span>) was about +four feet long, nearly straight, but slightly curved toward +the point, the blade thick and ground to a keen +though blunt edge. It was carried in a scabbard +thrust through the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">obi</span></span> +or belt on the left side, with the edge uppermost. +Besides the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">katana</span></span> +the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> +carried also a short sword about nine and a half +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +inches long, called <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">wakizashi</span></span>. The blade of the +sword was fastened to the hilt by a pin of wood +and could be readily detached. On the part of the +blade inserted in the hilt, the maker's name was always +inscribed, and it was a special matter of pride +when he was one of the famous sword-smiths of +Japan. The most noted makers were Munechika, +Masamune, Yoshimitsu, and Muramasa, who ranged +from the tenth down through the fourteenth century. +The quality of the Japanese sword has been +a matter of national pride, and the feats which have +been accomplished by it seem almost beyond belief. +To cleave at one blow three human bodies laid one +upon another; to cut through a pile of copper coins +without nicking the edge, were common tests which +were often tried.<a id="noteref_237" name="noteref_237" href="#note_237"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">237</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 80%; text-align: center"><img src="images/sword.png" width="327" height="533" alt="Illustration" title="Sword, Spears, And Matchlock." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Sword, Spears, And Matchlock.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was an essential part of the education of a +young <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> that he should be trained +thoroughly in martial exercises. The latter part of every school +day was given up to this kind of physical training. +He was taught to ride a horse, to shoot with the +bow, to handle the spear, and especially to be skilled +in the etiquette and use of the sword.<a id="noteref_238" name="noteref_238" href="#note_238"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">238</span></span></a> They went +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +through again and again the tragic details of the +commission of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>, and had it impressed +on their youthful imaginations with such force and +vividness, that when the time for its actual enactment +came they were able +to meet the bloody reality +without a tremor and with +perfect composure.<a id="noteref_239" name="noteref_239" href="#note_239"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">239</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The foundation of the relations +between the feudal +chiefs and their retainers lay +in the doctrine of Confucius. +The principles which he lays +down fitted in admirably to +the ideas which the historical +system of Japanese feudalism +had made familiar. +They inculcated absolute +submission of the son to +the father, of the wife to her +husband, and of the servant +to his master, and in these +respects Japanese feudalism +was a willing and zealous +disciple. On these lines Ieyasu constructed his plans +of government, and his successors enthusiastically +followed in his footsteps. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/daibutsu.png" width="387" height="534" alt="Illustration" title="Daibutsu At Kamakura." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Daibutsu At Kamakura.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In religious belief the nation by the time of Ieyasu +was largely Buddhistic. Through ten centuries and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a half the active propagation of this faith had been +going on, until now by far the greater number of the +population were Buddhists. In his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy</span></span> Ieyasu +expresses a desire to tolerate all religious sects except +the Christian. He says: <span class="tei tei-q">“High and low alike +may follow their own inclinations with respect to religious +tenets which have obtained down to the present +time, except as regards the false and corrupt +school (Christianity). Religious disputes have ever +proved the bane and misfortune of the empire, and +should determinedly be put a stop to.”</span><a id="noteref_240" name="noteref_240" href="#note_240"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">240</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While he was therefore tolerant towards all the +different sects of Buddhism and towards the old +Shintō faith of the country, he particularly patronized +the Jōdo sect to which his ancestors had been +attached, and to which he charges his posterity to +remain faithful.<a id="noteref_241" name="noteref_241" href="#note_241"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">241</span></span></a> +In the archives of the Buddhist +temple Zōjōji at Shiba in Tōkyō was preserved +an account written by the head priest of the time, +how Ieyasu, in 1590, visited the temple and took it +under his patronage, saying,<a id="noteref_242" name="noteref_242" href="#note_242"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">242</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“For a general to be +without an ancestral temple of his own is as though +he were forgetful of the fact that he must die.... +I have now come to beg of you to let me make this +my ancestral temple here.”</span> So that from the time +of Ieyasu the Jōdo was the authorized sect to which +the court of the shōguns was especially attached, +and to this is to be attributed the fact that its +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +temples and monasteries in Tōkyō have always been +of the most majestic and gorgeous character.<a id="noteref_243" name="noteref_243" href="#note_243"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">243</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ieyasu did not long hold the office of shōgun, +which the emperor had conferred upon him in 1603. +It is not easy to understand why a man, who was +only sixty-three years of age and who was still in +vigorous health, should wish to throw off the responsibilities +of office and retire to private life. We +must remember, however, that it was the custom of +his country, consecrated by the usage of the imperial +house and of the shōguns and regents who had +preceded him. Morever, though he surrendered to +his son the title of shōgun, he retained in his own +hands a large part of the power which he had hitherto +exercised. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It may be supposed that he was anxious to establish +the succession of the shōgunate unquestionably +in his own family. For this purpose he deemed it +wise to initiate a successor while he still had the influence +and the power to compel the acquiescence of +the feudal lords of the empire. Acting upon these +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +considerations Ieyasu, in 1605, retired in favor of his +third son Hidetada. He received from the emperor +the title of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">sei-i-tai-shōgun</span></span>, +which his father had held. +Ieyasu took up his residence at Sumpu<a id="noteref_244" name="noteref_244" href="#note_244"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">244</span></span></a> (now +Shizuoka), which was situated on Suruga bay, one +hundred and fourteen miles from the shōgun's capital. +Here he maintained a court and practically in +all important matters governed the country. He +was free, however, from the petty details of the administration, +and devoted himself as an amateur to a +literary life, to the collection and printing of books, +and to the encouragement and patronage of literary +men, in which he delighted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the meantime important events had been taking +place which had great influence on the history +of Japan. The contest between the Spanish on the +one hand, and the Dutch and English on the other, +was not confined to the Atlantic, but broke out in +the Pacific, where the Portuguese and Spaniards had +so long been predominant. A preliminary to the +opening of trade with the Dutch were the arrival of +William Adams and his extraordinary experiences +in Japan. As we learn from his own letters,<a id="noteref_245" name="noteref_245" href="#note_245"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">245</span></span></a> he was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +born near Rochester in England, 1574, and when +twelve years old was apprenticed to Nicholas Diggins +as a pilot. With him he served for twelve +years, then took service as pilot major of a fleet of +five sail, which was about to be despatched by the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Indish Companie”</span> to take part in the trade of the +East Indies. This fleet had a rough time, and with +fevers and scurvy and want of food a great part of +the crews of the five vessels died. They sailed by +the way of the straits of Magellan, then northward +past Chili, and westward across the broad Pacific. +Two of the ships turned back at the straits and +returned to Holland. A third vessel was captured +by the Spaniards, and the pinnace of a fourth was +seized by eight men, and run into some island on their +way, supposed to be one of the Sandwich Islands, and +there wrecked, and the eight men probably eaten. +The two vessels still remaining were the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hope</span></span> and +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Charity</span></span>. The former of these was never more +heard of. The sole remaining vessel was the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Charity</span></span>, +of which Jaques Maihore was the master, and William +Adams was the pilot. Sickness, especially the +scurvy, which was the frightful scourge on board the +vessels of that day, had reduced the crew, so that +only four were able to walk, of whom Adams was +one, and four more could creep on their knees. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In this condition they reached, on the eleventh +of April, 1600, the northeastern coast of the island +of Kyūshū, landing in the province of Bungo, whose +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +prince in earlier days had been the friend and patron +of the Portuguese Jesuits. They were kindly received, +the governor of the district furnishing a +guard to protect their property—too late however +for the preservation of much of it—and a house in +which the sick could be cared for. In a few days a +Portuguese Jesuit and other Portuguese arrived +from Nagasaki, through whom the Dutch could +communicate with the natives. The national and +religious animosity between the strangers and their +interpreters could not fail, however, to manifest +itself. The Portuguese tried to create the impression +that the refugees were pirates and unworthy of +protection and help. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In accordance with the usual custom, word was +immediately sent to Ieyasu (whom Adams calls the +emperor), who at this time was at the castle of +Ōsaka. He sent boats to Bungo, by which Adams +and one of the crew were conveyed to his castle. +Adams gives an interesting account of his reception, +of the questions asked concerning his country, and +its relations to the Spanish and Portuguese. He +took occasion to explain, that the object of the +Dutch in entering the East was purely that of trade, +that they had in their own country many commodities +which they would be glad to exchange for the +products of the eastern nations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After this interview Adams was kept thirty-nine +days in prison, expecting to suffer the punishment +of crucifixion, which he understood was the common +mode of disposing of such characters. He found +afterwards that the Portuguese had been using means +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to poison the mind of Ieyasu by representing them +as dangerous characters, and recommending that all +the refugees should be put to death as a warning to +others. But he tells us<a id="noteref_246" name="noteref_246" href="#note_246"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">246</span></span></a> that Ieyasu answered them, +that <span class="tei tei-q">“we as yet had done to him nor to none of his +lands any harm or dammage [and it was] against +Reason and Justice to put us to death. If our +countreys had warres the one with the other, that +was no cause that he should put us to death.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While Adams was thus kept in prison, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Charity</span></span> +had been brought to Sakai, near to Ōsaka. Finally +he was set at liberty, and suffered to revisit his ship, +where he found the captain and remnant of the +crew. The goods and clothing on board had been +stolen by the natives, which Ieyasu tried to recover +for them. But everything had been so scattered +that it was impossible to regain it, <span class="tei tei-q">“savinge 50,000 +Rs in reddy money was commanded to be geven +us”</span> [as compensation]. After this settlement they +were ordered to sail with their ship to the <span class="tei tei-q">“land of +Quanto and neere to the citie Eddo,”</span> whither +Ieyasu was about to proceed by land. Here they +had a mutiny among their men, which ended in the +entire disbanding of the crew, and the dividing up +among them the money which they had received for +their goods. Each man was left to shift for himself. +The captain got permission to sail in a Japanese +junk to Patan, where he hoped to meet Dutch +vessels. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Adams himself was kept about the shōgun's court, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and was made useful in various ways. His first +achievement was to build a vessel of about eighteen +tons burthen, which gained him great favor, in +which he made several short voyages. Then in 1609, +by command of the shōgun, he built another ship of +one hundred and twenty tons burthen, which also +was a successful venture. For it so happened that +the governor of Manila was on his way to Nova +Spania<a id="noteref_247" name="noteref_247" href="#note_247"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">247</span></span></a> +in a large ship of one thousand tons burthen, +and was wrecked on the east coast of Japan, in the +province of Shimosa. The governor and those of +his comrades who were saved from the shipwreck +were sent on to Acapulco in the ship which Adams +had just built. In the year following, the governor, +in recognition of their kindness to him, sent back to +the Japanese government a much larger vessel as a +present, the original being sent to and retained at +Manila. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Adams was a straightforward, honest fellow, and +commended himself to Ieyasu by usefulness not +only in such matters as building ships, but in furnishing +information concerning foreign affairs, which +at this time were pressing on the government. In +order to render him more content, Ieyasu gave him +a small holding at Hemi, near the present town of +Yokosuka, a few hours' sail from Yedo. He himself +speaks of this property as <span class="tei tei-q">“a living like unto a lordship +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in England, with eighty or ninety husbandmen, +that be as my slaves or servants.”</span><a id="noteref_248" name="noteref_248" href="#note_248"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">248</span></span></a> He probably +also had a residence in Yedo, for there is to this day +a street called <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">An-jin-chō</span></span>, +or Pilot Street, near Nihonbashi, +which is popularly believed to have been the +street in which Adams lived. He himself says that +he was known among the Japanese as <span class="tei tei-q">“An-gin +Sama,”</span> or Mr. Pilot. To console himself for the loss +of his wife and children left in England, he married +a Japanese wife, who, with several children, is mentioned +by Captain Cocks in the visit above referred +to. Notwithstanding his frequent endeavors to get +back to England, he was never able to return, but +after much important service both to the Dutch and +English, to which we shall refer below, he died May +6, 1620.<a id="noteref_249" name="noteref_249" href="#note_249"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">249</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first appearance of the Dutch after Adams' +shipwreck, as above described, was in 1609, when +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Red Lion</span></span> and the +yacht <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Griffon</span></span> arrived at Hirado. +They were well received by the daimyō, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a deputation was sent to Yedo to visit the shōgun. +Adams, in his second letter, speaks of their being +<span class="tei tei-q">“received in great friendship, making conditions +with the emperor (shōgun) yearly to send a ship or +two.”</span> They were given a letter addressed to the +<span class="tei tei-q">“King of Holland,”</span> with which they went back, +arriving home July, 1610. This letter, among other +things, promises, <span class="tei tei-q">“that they (your subjects), in all +places, countries, and islands under mine obedience, +may traffic and build homes serviceable and needful +for their trade and merchandises, where they may +trade without any hindrance at their pleasure, as +well in time to come as for the present, so that no +man shall do them any wrong. And I will maintain +and defend them as mine own subjects.”</span><a id="noteref_250" name="noteref_250" href="#note_250"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">250</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In accordance with this agreement the first vessel +to arrive was a small yacht in July, 1611. A deputation +from this vessel also went to visit the shōgun +and the retired shōgun. It so chanced that a Portuguese +party had preceded them by a few days. +These deputations met at the court of Ieyasu. By +the assistance of Adams, who was ready to do a +favor to his old friends, the Dutch were kindly welcomed +by the ex-shōgun's court, and in spite of the +hostility, or perhaps aided by the hostility, of the +Portuguese, they received from him a patent for +continued trade. As given in Kaempfer in translation +it is as follows: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“All Dutch ships that come into my empire of +Japan, whatever place or port they may put into, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +we do hereby expressly command all and every one +of our subjects not to molest the same in any way, +nor to be a hindrance to them; but, on the contrary, +to show them all manner of help, favor and assistance. +Every one shall beware to maintain the friendship, +in assurance of which we have been pleased to +give our imperial word to these people; and every +one shall take care that our commands and promises +be inviolably kept.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Dated (in Japanese equivalent to) August 30, +1611.”</span><a id="noteref_251" name="noteref_251" href="#note_251"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">251</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This was the authority on which the Dutch trade +in Japan began, and under which, with many changes +and vicissitudes, it continued to the time when the +country was opened by treaty to foreign nations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The effort made by English merchants to open a +trade with the Japanese was made only a little after +this time. Indeed, it is said that the report brought +back by the Dutch in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Red Lion</span></span> concerning +Adams' presence and influence in Japan, gave the +impulse which started an expedition under Captain +John Saris in January, 1611. Saris was an old +adventurer in the East, and therefore fitted to +encounter the varied experiences of his proposed +trip. He carried a letter from James I., then king +of England, to Ieyasu the retired shōgun. At Bantam +on his way he found that Adams' first letter,<a id="noteref_252" name="noteref_252" href="#note_252"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">252</span></span></a> +contained in the collection of his letters, and dated +October 22, 1611, had just been received by the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +English merchants. It encouraged Saris to push on +in his expedition. He arrived at Hirado, June, 1613, +where the daimyō welcomed him and immediately +sent off a special messenger to the shōgun's court to +summon Adams to their aid. He came at once, and +by his advice Captain Saris with a party set out to +pay his respects to the retired shōgun. He gives an +interesting account<a id="noteref_253" name="noteref_253" href="#note_253"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">253</span></span></a> +of this journey and visit, which +resulted in a charter of privileges<a id="noteref_254" name="noteref_254" href="#note_254"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">254</span></span></a> for the London +East India Company to trade in any port of the +empire. Having arranged to his great satisfaction +this important matter he returned to Hirado, where +he established a factory to serve as the basis for +future English trade. In this, however, he encountered +no little opposition from the Dutch traders, +who had a factory in the same place. For while +these enterprising nations, who had been allies in the +days of the Armada, could combine very readily in +opposition to the Spanish and Portuguese, it was +not easy for either of them to look on complacently +while the other secured for itself superior advantages +in the matter of trade. Captain Saris tried to come +to some agreement with his rivals, so that the prices +of commodities might be kept up, but he was compelled +to see the Dutch factory, in order to crowd +him out of the field, putting the goods which they +had for sale at prices which were ruinous to both. +Having established matters, however, on as satisfactory +a footing as he could arrange, and having left +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +his comrade, Captain Cocks, in charge of the English +factory, he sailed for home. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The subsequent events in the history of English +trade with Japan may as well be traced here. The +relations of the English and Dutch in the East grew +steadily more inimical. Perhaps this was due to the +increasing rivalry in trade and navigation which +prevailed between them at home. In 1617 the +London East India Company fitted out an expedition +of five large vessels. This fleet arrived in the +East in the summer of the following year. After +much hostile skirmishing in which the Dutch obtained +the permanent advantage, and the English +commander was about to retire, word was brought +to them from Europe that a peace had been arranged +between the two countries. The English and Dutch +vessels accordingly sailed to Japan, where they took +a hand at trade; because in those days ships always +were sent to the East prepared either to fight or +trade as the case required. But this amicable arrangement +did not last many years. The massacre +at the Spice Islands in 1623, for which Cromwell +afterward exacted an indemnity, ended all attempts +at co-operation in the East. Soon after this the +English company withdrew entirely from the Japanese +trade, having lost in the effort forty thousand +pounds. The Dutch were thus left without a rival, +and we shall see on what conditions and at what +sacrifices they continued to maintain their monopoly. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During the period of Ieyasu's retirement, which +lasted from 1605 until his death in 1616, he devoted +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +himself, as we have seen, to the consolidation of his +family dynasty and to such literary occupations as +his leisure allowed. He was a patron of the art derived +from Korea, which then was popular in Japan, +of printing with movable types.<a id="noteref_255" name="noteref_255" href="#note_255"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">255</span></span></a> This art fell into +disuse afterwards, but during Ieyasu's retirement in +Sumpu he interested himself in printing with blocks +as well as by the new method. When he died he +was engaged in seeing through the press an edition +of an important Chinese work. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +He left behind him a document, called the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy +of Ieyasu</span></span>, which to those desirous of studying the +character and motives of the founder of the Tokugawa +dynasty possesses a supreme interest. Some +doubt has been thrown by Japanese critics on the +authenticity of this composition. It has been asserted +that it was not the work of Ieyasu and therefore +not worthy of the reverence in which it has been +held. But whether the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy</span></span><a id="noteref_256" name="noteref_256" href="#note_256"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">256</span></span></a> was originally composed +by him or approved and sanctioned by him, +matters little for our purpose. It dates from the +time of the founding of the Tokugawa shōgunate, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and has been an unimpeachable authority during all +its history. One of the singular features in the disposition +of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy</span></span>, to which Professor Grigsby +directs attention, was the secrecy in which it was +kept. The original was preserved in Kyōto and +was never seen, while an authenticated copy was +kept at the shōgun's court in Yedo, and once a year +was open to the inspection of all above a certain +rank. To us it seems unaccountable that a body of +so-called laws, by which the conduct of men was to +be guided, should be kept secret from them. But +it must be remembered that in those days there +were no such things as laws in the sense we now +understand the term. There were magistrates who +heard causes and complaints, but their decisions +were based not on laws which had been enacted by +the government, but upon prevailing custom and +upon the innate sense of justice which was assumed +to be present in the mind of every man. Whatever +laws or rules therefore were in existence were not +for the information of the people, but for the guidance +of the magistrates. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy of Ieyasu</span></span> consists of one hundred +chapters, arranged without any attempt at logical +order. Each chapter treats of a single, separate +subject, and is usually of a very moderate length. +As Professor Grigsby has pointed out: <span class="tei tei-q">“Sixteen +chapters consist of moral maxims and reflections; +fifty-five are connected with politics and administrations; +twenty-two refer to legal matters, and in +seven Ieyasu relates episodes of his own personal +history.”</span> The moral maxims are quoted chiefly +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +from the works of the Chinese sages, Confucius and +Mencius. While the collection on the whole has a +military aspect, and plainly encourages and promotes +the well-being of a military class, yet we see +in it the mild and peaceful nature of Ieyasu. The +fifteenth chapter says: <span class="tei tei-q">“In my youth my sole aim +was to conquer and subjugate inimical provinces and +to take revenge on the enemies of my ancestors. +Yuyō teaches, however, that <span class="tei tei-q">‘to assist the people is +to give peace to the empire,’</span> and since I have come +to understand that the precept is founded on sound +principle, I have undeviatingly followed it. Let my +posterity hold fast this principle. Any one turning +his back upon it is no descendant of mine. The +people are the foundation of the empire.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +His estimate of the social relations is given in the +forty-sixth chapter, in which he says: <span class="tei tei-q">“The married +state is the great relation of mankind. One should +not live alone after sixteen years of age, but should +procure a mediator and perform the ceremony of +matrimonial alliance. The same kindred, however, +may not intermarry. A family of good descent +should be chosen to marry into; for when a line of +descendants is prolonged, the foreheads of ancestors +expand. All mankind recognize marriage as the first +law of nature.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The old custom of servants and retainers following +their masters to death, and committing suicide +in order to accompany them, is referred to in the +seventy-fifth chapter.<a id="noteref_257" name="noteref_257" href="#note_257"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">257</span></span></a> It is not improbable that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +some exhibition of this custom occasionally was +seen in the days of Ieyasu, for he very sternly condemns +it thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“Although it is undoubtedly an ancient +custom for a vassal to follow his lord to death, +there is not the slightest reason in the practice.... +These practices are strictly forbidden, more especially +to primary retainers, and also to secondary +retainers even to the lowest. He is the opposite of +a faithful servant who disregards this prohibition; +his posterity shall be impoverished by the confiscation +of his property, as a warning to those who disobey +the laws.”</span><a id="noteref_258" name="noteref_258" href="#note_258"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">258</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is not necessary to follow in detail the line of +Tokugawa shōguns. Few of them impressed themselves +in any marked manner on the history of their +country. Iemitsu, the third shōgun, who was a +grandson of Ieyasu, was a man of great ability, and +left many marks of his talents upon the empire. +Under his administration the capital made great +advances. He bound the daimyōs to his house by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +requiring them to maintain residences in Yedo under +the surveillance of the government. His mausoleum +is placed with that of his grandfather amid the +august glories of Nikkō. Tsunayoshi (1681-1709) +during his incumbency was more than usually interested +in the peaceful prosperity of his country, and +is gratefully remembered for his patronage of education +and letters. But on the whole they were content +to fill the office of shōgun in a perfunctory +manner, and to leave to subordinates the duty of +governing. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Japan reached the acme of her ancient greatness +during the Tokugawa dynasty. The arts which +have given her such a deservedly high rank attained +their greatest perfection. Keramics and lacquer, +which are her most exquisite arts, achieved a degree +of excellence to which we can now only look back +with hopeless admiration. Metal-work, as shown in +the manufacture of bronze and in the forging and +mounting of swords, was scarcely less notable. The +still higher art of painting, which came to Japan +from China, rose during the Tokugawa period to the +rank which it still holds in the estimation of the +artistic world. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The best evidence, however, of the civilization of +a people is found in their social condition. To learn +the true culture of a nation it is necessary to study +their education and literature, their laws and system +of government, and their morals and religion. In +some of these particulars it is still difficult to obtain +an adequate knowledge of Japan. But gradually +they are being revealed to us. The laws and legal +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +precedents<a id="noteref_259" name="noteref_259" href="#note_259"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">259</span></span></a> which prevailed during the Tokugawa +period have been unearthed from the archives of the +Department of Justice and are being published in +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic Society</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The medical and scientific advancement of Japan +in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries was not +co-ordinate with her progress in the arts. They +were hampered with the old Chinese notions about +a male principle and a female principle which were +conceived to prevail in nature, and with the five +elements to which the human organs were supposed +to correspond. Fortunately nature has ways of +healing diseases in spite of theories and drugs. To +this benign principle must be assigned the fact that +the human race has survived the surgery and medicaments +of mediæval Europe as well as mediæval +China and Japan. In one particular the medical +art of Japan seems to have been differently, perhaps +better, conducted than in Europe. It is narrated by +the Japanese annalists,<a id="noteref_260" name="noteref_260" href="#note_260"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">260</span></span></a> that if a physican made a +mistake in his prescription or in his directions for +taking the medicine he was punished by three years' +imprisonment and a heavy fine; and if there should +be any impurity in the medicine prescribed or any +mistake in the preparation, sixty lashes were inflicted +besides a heavy fine. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/oban.png" width="334" height="563" alt="Illustration" title="Oban. Gold Coin, 1727." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Oban. Gold Coin, 1727.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Three peculiar modes of medical practice deserve +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +notice. The first was acupuncture, which consisted +in inserting a thin needle through the skin into the +muscles beneath. A second was the cauterization +by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">moxa</span></span><a id="noteref_261" name="noteref_261" href="#note_261"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">261</span></span></a> +(Japanese <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">mogusa</span></span>). This was effected by +placing over the spot a small conical wad of the +fibrous blossoms of mugwort (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Artemisia vulgaris +latifolia</span></span>). The cone was kindled at the top and +slowly burned till it was consumed. A painful +blister was produced on the spot, which was believed +to have a wholesome effect in the case of +many complaints. A third mode of treatment is the +practice of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">massage</span></span> +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">amma</span></span>), which western nations +have borrowed, and which in Japan it has long been +the exclusive privilege of the blind to apply. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/cauterizing.png" width="616" height="462" alt="Illustration" title="Cauterizing With Moxa." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Cauterizing With Moxa.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Many of the improved notions of western medicine +were introduced by the Dutch, and this accounts for +the unprecedentedly rapid advance which this science +has made since the opening of the country. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> +<a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter XIII. Commodore Perry And What Followed.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most potent cause which led to the breaking +down of the Tokugawa Shōgunate, was the attitude +which the empire had assumed toward foreign +nations. There were other causes which co-operated +with this, but none which were capable of such far-reaching +and revolutionary effects. We have seen +that this attitude was due to the fears entertained +concerning the designs of the Portuguese and the +Spanish. These fears may have been unfounded, +but they were none the less real and operative. +Such fears may have been stimulated by the Dutch, +who had no reason to deal tenderly with the fanatical +enemies of the independence and religion of their +country. The spirit of trade with large profits was +at the bottom of the great enterprises which were +sent out from Europe to the East and West Indies +during the seventeenth century. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The rivalry between the Dutch and Portuguese resulted +in the banishment of the latter, and the establishment +of the Dutch at Nagasaki in 1640. They +occupied the little artificial island of Deshima, about +three acres in extent, where were erected their houses, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +their offices and stores, and where for more than two +hundred years their trade was conducted. And this, +together with a like limited arrangement with the +Chinese, was the sole foreign intercourse allowed +with Japan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is plain now that this seclusion was a great mistake. +It would have been of inestimable value to +this enterprising and progressive people, to have +kept in the race for improvement with the other +nations of the world. They would not at this late +day be compelled, under a dreadful strain of resources, +to provide themselves with the modern +appliances of civilization. Long since they would +have tried the experiments with which they are now +engaged, and would have found a way through the +intricacies of politics to a free and stable government. +To Ieyasu and his successors the way of safety +seemed to be, to shut themselves up and sternly +deny admittance to the outside world, while they +continued to work out their destiny in their own +way. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With whatever shortcomings the Dutch are to be +charged in their intercourse with Japan, the world +owes a great debt of gratitude to them for what they +accomplished. Whatever was known concerning +Japanese history and civilization down to the times +of Commodore Perry, came chiefly from the Dutch. +And not less than the debt of the rest of the world +is that of Japan herself. Although the influence of +the government was always exerted against the +admission of foreign ideas, not a few of the seeds of +western civilization were by them planted in a fertile +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +soil and bore abundant fruit. To Kaempfer +and Baron von Siebold particularly we must always +look for our knowledge of the Japan of the days of +its seclusion. Many efforts were made at successive +times to open intercourse by the representatives of +different nations. The Russians were the most persistent, +and their attempts did not cease until the +imprisonment of Captain Galowin in 1811. In comparatively +recent times numerous essays were made +resulting in disappointment. The American brig +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Morrison</span></span> in 1837, the British +surveying ship <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saramang</span></span> +in 1845, Captain Cooper in 1845, Commodore Biddle +in 1848, Admiral Cecille in 1848, Commander Glynn +in 1849, and Commander Matheson in the same year, +all made efforts to communicate with the government, +but were rebuffed. It is plain that affairs were +rapidly verging towards a point when the isolation of +Japan must be given up. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Several causes contributed to the creation of a +special interest in the United States of America, +concerning the opening of negotiations with Japan. +One of these was the magnitude to which the whale +fishery had attained, and the large financial investments<a id="noteref_262" name="noteref_262" href="#note_262"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">262</span></span></a> +held in this industry by American citizens. +A second cause was the opening of China to foreign +trade as a result of the opium war. But the most +active cause was the discovery of gold in California +in 1848, and the consequent development of that +state as a centre of trade. It was an early scheme +to run a line of steamers from San Francisco to the +newly opened ports of China. To Hongkong the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +distance is about 6,149 nautical miles, and if a steamer +is to traverse the whole distance without a break, +she must carry an enormous load of coal. The only +remedy lay in establishing a coaling station on the +Japanese islands, and this could only be effected +when Japan abandoned her policy of seclusion and +entered with a free heart into the comity of nations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The interest of the government and people of the +United States at last eventuated in the expedition +under Commodore Matthew C. Perry. He had for +a long time been convinced of the importance and +feasibility of such an undertaking, and when he was +summoned to take charge of it he made the most +thorough preparation for his task. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At his suggestion the government procured all +available books, maps, and charts, and he made himself +master of every conceivable detail. From manufacturing +establishments he secured models of railways, +telegraphic lines, and other interesting industrial +equipments. He realized the necessity of taking +with him such a naval force that its appearance in +Japanese waters would produce a profound impression +upon the government. And knowing that all +his predecessors, who had sought access by way of +Nagasaki, had been repelled, he resolved to avoid +it and its Portuguese and Dutch traditions and venture +boldly into the bay of Yedo. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As soon as it was known that a diplomatic expedition +was to be despatched to Japan under the command +of Commodore Perry he was deluged with +applications, both from England and America, to be +permitted to join it. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But Perry resolutely declined all these enterprising +offers. In his long career as a naval officer he had +seen the danger of admitting on board men-of-war +persons who were not under the authority of the +commander. From such dangers he meant to be +free. He therefore refused to take on board the +ships of his squadron any but regularly accredited +officers and men over whom he exercised legitimate +control. He even made it a rule that if any of the +officers kept diaries during the progress of the expedition, +they should be the property of the Navy +Department and could not be published without its +permission and authority. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Commodore Perry carried with him a friendly +letter from the President of the United States to the +Emperor of Japan,<a id="noteref_263" name="noteref_263" href="#note_263"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">263</span></span></a> +who is therein addressed as +<span class="tei tei-q">“Great and Good Friend.”</span> The letter pointed out +the contiguity of the two countries and the importance +of their friendship and commercial intercourse; +it announced that Commodore Perry had been sent +to give assurance of the friendly sentiment of the +President, and to arrange for privileges of trade, for +the care of shipwrecked sailors, and for the appointment +of a convenient port where coal and other +supplies might be obtained by the vessels of the +United States. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After some provoking delays and disappointments +the expedition sailed from Norfolk on the 24th of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +November, 1852,<a id="noteref_264" name="noteref_264" href="#note_264"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">264</span></span></a> proceeding by the way of the +cape of Good Hope to the China sea. There taking +on board Dr. S. Wells Williams as interpreter, and +visiting several ports in China, the Bonin islands, +and the Ryūkyū islands, they sailed to Japan. The +squadron, led by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Susquehanna</span></span> and followed by +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mississippi</span></span>, the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plymouth</span></span>, and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saratoga</span></span>, +entered Yedo bay, July 8, 1853.<a id="noteref_265" name="noteref_265" href="#note_265"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">265</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/perry.png" width="325" height="465" alt="Illustration" title="Commodore M. C. Perry." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Commodore M. C. Perry.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Japanese government had been warned of the +preparation and coming of this expedition by the +Dutch. Eager to maintain their position with the +government the King of the Netherlands addressed +to the Shōgun a letter in 1844 suggesting the relaxation +of the laws excluding foreign nations from +trade. But in the following year he received an +answer declining to make any changes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With all the warning, however, which the government +had received and the preparations which had +been made for the momentous occasion, the appearance +of the squadron at the entrance of Yedo bay +was an intense surprise. Two large steam frigates—the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Susquehanna</span></span> and the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mississippi</span></span>—and two +sloops-of-war—the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Plymouth</span></span> +and the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saratoga</span></span>,—although +much inferior to the squadron promised, +composed such an array as had never before made +its appearance in Yedo bay. As they plowed through +the peaceful waters, in full view of the white-capped +peak of Fuji-yama, every height and vantage ground +along the shore seemed alive with troops and with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +wondering and alarmed inhabitants. The vessels +came to anchor off the village of Uraga, which is not +far from the present site of the dockyards at Yokosuka. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The account<a id="noteref_266" name="noteref_266" href="#note_266"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">266</span></span></a> of the preliminary negotiations conducted +by Commodore Perry with the officers of the +government is interesting, as showing the efforts made +by them to send him to Nagasaki, and his absolute refusal +to go thither or conduct his business through +the Dutch or Chinese. When there seemed no other +way, consent was given to receive, through an officer +of adequate rank, the letter from the President of the +United States to the Emperor of Japan. When he +had formally delivered this letter, he took his departure +with an intimation that he would return at +a future day and receive the answer.<a id="noteref_267" name="noteref_267" href="#note_267"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">267</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There can be no doubt that the display of force +which Commodore Perry took care to make in all +his transactions with the Japanese officials at the +same time that he was careful to convey assurances +of his friendly purposes and objects, produced a +deep impression on the government with which he +had to deal. It is useless to deny that it was on +this display of force that Commodore Perry largely +relied for the success of his expedition. That he +was prepared to use force had it been necessary we +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +may feel sure.<a id="noteref_268" name="noteref_268" href="#note_268"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">268</span></span></a> But the instructions of his government +and his own sense of international justice +bound him to exhaust every peaceful resource before +resorting to measures of coercion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The government of the shōgun was greatly troubled +by this responsibility so suddenly laid upon it. They +knew not what would be the result of their refusal +to enter upon negotiations when Perry returned. +The seclusion in which they had kept themselves so +long had cut them off from a knowledge of the relations +in which the nations of the world stood to each +other. Notwithstanding Commodore Perry's protestations +of friendliness, they were afraid of his great +ships and their powerful armaments. Should they, +as they might easily do, make their way up the bay +till they were within gunshot of the capital, what +resistance could the government show, or how could +it prevent them from battering down the castle and +all the daimyōs' residences. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The sentiment of loyalty to the emperor and opposition +to the shōgun, which had been growing up +so insidiously and had now become really formidable, +was a source of the greatest perplexity to the Yedo +government. Should they proceed with their negotiations +and make a treaty with the Americans, this +anti-shōgun sentiment was ready to manifest itself +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +against them with terrible effect. If they refused to +negotiate, then they must be ready to meet the invaders +of their soil with their miserable obsolete +armor and with hearts that two hundred years of +peace had rendered more obsolete than their armor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first thing to be done was to consult the daimyōs +and learn to what extent they could rely on +their co-operation. The daimyō of Mito,<a id="noteref_269" name="noteref_269" href="#note_269"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">269</span></span></a> a descendant +of the famous Mitsukuni, seemed to have inherited +one at least of the opinions of his ancestor. +He advocated the observance of a greater reverence +for the emperor at Kyōto, and criticised the assumption +of imperial powers by the shōgun. At the +same time he was an ardent foreign-hater, and in +1841 had been placed in confinement because he had +melted down the bells of the Buddhist temples of +his domains, and cast cannon for their protection. +But now he was pardoned and appointed to take +measures for the defence of the country. On the +15th of July—the American squadron was still in +the bay, for it left on the 17th—the daimyō of Mito +sent in to the government a memorial<a id="noteref_270" name="noteref_270" href="#note_270"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">270</span></span></a> setting forth +his decisive views on the subject. He gave ten +reasons against a treaty and in favor of war. We +give them here in Mr. Nitobe's translation: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“1. The annals of our history speak of the exploits +of the great, who planted our banners on alien +soil; but never was the clash of foreign arms heard +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +within the precincts of our holy ground. Let not +our generation be the first to see the disgrace of a +barbarian army treading on the land where our +fathers rest.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“2. Notwithstanding the strict interdiction of +Christianity, there are those guilty of the heinous +crime of professing the doctrines of this evil sect. +If now America be once admitted into our favor, +the rise of this faith is a matter of certainty.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“3. What! Trade our gold, silver, copper, iron, +and sundry useful materials for wool, glass, and +similar trashy little articles! Even the limited barter +of the Dutch factory ought to have been stopped.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“4. Many a time recently have Russia and other +countries solicited trade with us; but they were refused. +If once America is permitted the privilege, +what excuse is there for not extending the same to +other nations?</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“5. The policy of the barbarians is first to enter +a country for trade, then to introduce their religion, +and afterward to stir up strife and contention. Be +guided by the experience of our forefathers two centuries +back; despise not the teachings of the Chinese +Opium War.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“6. The Dutch scholars say that our people should +cross the ocean, go to other countries and engage +in active trade. This is all very desirable, provided +they be as brave and strong as were their ancestors +in olden time; but at present the long-continued +peace has incapacitated them for any such activity.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“7. The necessity of caution against the ships +now lying in the harbor (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, Perry's squadron) has +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +brought the valiant <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> +to the capital from distant +quarters. Is it wise to disappoint them?</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“8. Not only the naval defence of Nagasaki but +all things relating to foreign affairs have been entrusted +to the two clans of Kuroda and Nabeshima. +To hold any conference with a foreign power outside +of the port of Nagasaki—as has been done this +time at Uraga—is to encroach upon their rights and +trust. These powerful families will not thankfully +accept an intrusion into their vested authority.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“9. The haughty demeanor of the barbarians now +at anchorage has provoked even the illiterate populace. +Should nothing be done to show that the +government shares the indignation of the people, +they will lose all fear and respect for it.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“10. Peace and prosperity of long duration have +enervated the spirit, rusted the armor, and blunted +the swords of our men. Dulled to ease, when shall +they be aroused? Is not the present the most auspicious +moment to quicken their sinews of war?”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The government sent to all the daimyōs copies of +the American letter to the shōgun, and asked for +their opinions concerning the course to be pursued. +Many answers were immediately received. They +almost unanimously declared against the opening +of the country. Some advocated the alternative +suggested in the letter itself, to open the +country temporarily and try the experiment for +three years, or five years, or ten years. In the +meantime the defences of the country and new +and improved arms and armaments could be perfected. +The government did indeed busy itself +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +during Perry's absence in hurrying forward defensive +preparations. The line of forts which still are visible +in the shallow water of the bay opposite Shinagawa, +the southern suburb of the capital, were hastily constructed. +Bells from monasteries and metal articles +of luxury were melted down and cast into cannon. +Lessons were given and became quickly fashionable +in the use of European small-arms and artillery. +The military class from the various clans flocked to +Yedo and Kyōto in large numbers, expecting to be +called upon to defend their country against the +impudent intrusion of the barbarians. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During this busy time of perplexity and preparation +the Shōgun Ieyoshi,—the twelfth of the +Tokugawa dynasty—died August 25, 1853. His son +Iesada succeeded him as the thirteenth shōgun. +The death of the reigning shōgun did not produce +any marked effect upon the policy of the government. +Long before this time the custom of abdication, +and the habits of luxury and effeminacy in +which the family of the shōgun was reared, had +dragged the house down to the usual impotent level. +The government was conducted by a system of +bureaucracy which relieved the titular shōguns from +all responsibility and allowed them to live in profitless +voluptuousness. So that one died and another +reigned in his stead without causing more than a +ripple upon the surface of current events. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Shortly after the departure of the American +squadron from Yedo bay, the Russian Admiral Pontiatine +appeared in the harbor of Nagasaki, and +made application for a national agreement to open +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +ports for trade, to adjust the boundary line between +the two nations across the island of Saghalien, and +to live in neighborly intimacy. English vessels +were also in Chinese waters watching the Russians, +and the war, usually called the Crimean war, actually +broke out in the spring of 1854. A visit from these +vessels might therefore be expected at any time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Commodore Perry during the interval between +his two visits to Japan sailed to the ports of China +where the Taiping rebellion was then in action. The +confusion and insecurity occasioned by this uprising +rendered the presence of the squadron most acceptable +to the American merchants. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the 13th of February, 1854, he made his appearance +a second time in Yedo bay with a fleet of +seven ships, viz., three steam frigates and four sloops-of-war. +Three additional vessels were to join, and +did join, the fleet in Yedo bay. So that when the +fleet was all mustered there were ten fully armed +vessels, comprising such an array as had never before +appeared in Japanese waters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After some haggling about the place where the +negotiations should be conducted, it was finally settled +that the place of meeting should be at Kanagawa, +near the village (now the city) of Yokohama. +Here after much deliberation and discussion, proposals +and amendments, banquets and presents, a +treaty was agreed upon. The signing and exchange +took place on the 31st of March, 1854. It was immediately +sent to Washington for ratification. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As this was the first formal treaty<a id="noteref_271" name="noteref_271" href="#note_271"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">271</span></span></a> made with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +any western country we give a synopsis of its provisions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. I. Peace and amity to exist between the +two countries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. II. The port of Shimoda to be opened immediately +and the port of Hakodate to be opened +in one year, and American ships to be supplied with +necessary provisions in them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. III. Shipwrecked persons of either nation to +be cared for, and expenses to be refunded. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. IV. Shipwrecked and other persons not to +be imprisoned but to be amenable to just laws. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. V. Americans at Shimoda and Hakodate +not to be subject to confinement; free to go about +within defined limits. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. VI. Further deliberation to be held between +the parties to settle concerning trade and +matters requiring to be arranged. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. VII. Trade in open ports to be subject to +such regulations as the Japanese government shall +establish. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. VIII. Wood, water, provisions, coal, etc., +to be procured only through appointed Japanese +officers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. IX. If at any future day privileges in addition +to those here enumerated are granted to any +other nation, the same to be allowed to Americans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. X. Ships of the United States not to resort +to other ports than Shimoda and Hakodate except +in stress of weather. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. XI. Consuls or agents of the United States +to reside at Shimoda. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Art. XII. The ratification of this treaty to be +exchanged within eighteen months. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As might have been expected, as soon as this +treaty with the United States had been signed there +was a rush of other nations to obtain similar terms. +Admiral Sir John Sterling, acting in behalf of the +government of Great Britain, negotiated a treaty +which was signed at Nagasaki on the 15th of October, +1854. Admiral Pontiatine negotiated a similar +treaty for Russia, which was signed at Shimoda on +the 7th of February, 1855. A treaty with the +Netherlands was signed on the 30th of January, +1856. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +None of these were in any general sense commercial +treaties, providing for trade and making regulations +by which it might be conducted. They were +rather preliminary conventions, making arrangements +for vessels to obtain necessary provisions, and stipulating +for the protection of those suffering shipwreck, +and for vessels driven under stress of weather to take +shelter in the harbors of Japan. They each provided +for admission to two ports: The American treaty to +Shimoda and Hakodate; the English treaty to +Nagasaki and Hakodate; the Russian treaty to +Shimoda and Hakodate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +All these treaties contained what is called <span class="tei tei-q">“the +most favored nation clause,”</span> so that where the +privileges granted to any one nation were in excess +of those granted previously to others, these privileges +were also without further negotiation extended to +the nations that had already made treaties. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These dealings with foreign nations produced the +most intense excitement throughout the empire. +The old sentiment of hostility to foreign intercourse +showed itself in unmistakable intensity. The song of +the Black Ship, by which term the vessels of foreign +nations were designated, was heard everywhere. Two +distinct parties came into existence called the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jo-i</span></span> +party, who wished to expel the barbarians; and the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kai-koku</span></span> party, who were in favor of opening the +country.<a id="noteref_272" name="noteref_272" href="#note_272"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">272</span></span></a> +The members of the latter party were +principally connected with the shōgun's government, +and had become impressed with the folly of trying +to resist the pressure of the outside world. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jo-i</span></span> +party was made up of the conservative elements in +the country, who clung to the old traditions of +Japan that had matured during the two centuries of +the Tokugawa rule. Besides these conservatives +there was also a party who nourished a traditional +dislike to the Tokugawa family, and was glad to see +it involved in difficulties which were sure to bring +down upon it the vengeance of the nation. These +were chiefly found among the southwestern daimiates +such as Satsuma, Chōshū, Hizen, and Tosa. The +daimyō of Mito<a id="noteref_273" name="noteref_273" href="#note_273"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">273</span></span></a> +although connected with the +shōgun's family was bitterly hostile to the policy of +holding any friendly relations with foreigners. He +was therefore regarded as the head of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jo-i</span></span> party, +and many of the disaffected <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> +rallied about him as their champion and leader. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name="Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was charged against the shōgun that in making +treaties with foreign nations he had transcended the +powers<a id="noteref_274" name="noteref_274" href="#note_274"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">274</span></span></a> that rightly belonged to him. He was not +the sovereign of Japan and never had been. He +was only the chief executive under the emperor, +and was not even next in rank to the emperor. It +was impossible, therefore, that treaties made by +the shōgun and not ratified by his sovereign +should be regarded by the Japanese as legitimate +and binding. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The question of the legality of the treaties which +the shōgun had made was an important one, and interested +not only the Japanese themselves but the +foreigners whose privileges under these treaties were +at stake. There is no doubt that Commodore Perry +as well as all the subsequent negotiators, believed +that in making treaties with the shōgun they were +dealing with a competent authority. The precedents +occurring in the history of Japan seemed all to bear +in this direction. The Portuguese and the Spanish +had dealt with the shōgun and never with the emperor. +The Dutch had received from Ieyasu the +privileges of trade and had ever since continued +under the shōgun's protection. Captain Saris in his +negotiations in 1614 received written assurances of +protection and privileges of trade from the shōgun. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was because the shōgun's power had become +weakened, and there had grown up an active sentiment +against him, that the question in reference to +his legitimate authority arose. <span class="tei tei-q">“Had the treaty”</span> +(with Perry) <span class="tei tei-q">“been concluded when the power of +Yedo was at its former height, it is probable that no +questions would have been asked.”</span><a id="noteref_275" name="noteref_275" href="#note_275"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">275</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to the terms of the treaty made with +the United States it was provided that a consul +should be appointed <span class="tei tei-q">“to reside at Shimoda at any +time after the expiration of eighteen months from +the signing the treaty.”</span> In execution of this provision +the United States government sent out +Townsend Harris, who arrived in August, 1856. +After some hesitation he was allowed to take up his +residence at Shimoda. He was a man of great +patience and tact, and gradually urged his way into +the confidence of the government. He became the +counsellor and educator of the officials in everything +pertaining to foreign affairs. He was received +December 7, 1857, by the shōgun with the ceremony +due to his new rank of plenipotentiary which he +had then received.<a id="noteref_276" name="noteref_276" href="#note_276"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">276</span></span></a> In a despatch, dated July 8, +1858, he tells of a severe illness which he had suffered; +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name="Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +how the shōgun sent two physicians to attend +him, and when a bulletin was sent to Yedo that his +case was hopeless, the physicians <span class="tei tei-q">“received peremptory +orders to cure me, and if I died they would +themselves be in peril.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The principal effort of Mr. Harris was the negotiation +of a commercial treaty which should make provision +for the maintenance of trade in specified ports +of Japan. The treaties already made by Japan with +foreign nations only provided for furnishing vessels +with needed supplies, and for the protection of vessels +driven by stress of weather and of persons shipwrecked +on the Japanese islands. It remained to +agree upon terms, which should be mutually advantageous, +for the regular opening of the ports for +trade and for the residence at these ports of the +merchants engaged in trade. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The excitement occasioned by the steps already +taken rendered the shōgun's government exceedingly +reluctant to proceed further in this direction. It +was only after much persuasion, and with a desire +to avoid appearing to yield to the appearance of +force<a id="noteref_277" name="noteref_277" href="#note_277"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">277</span></span></a> +with which the English were about to urge +the negotiation of a commercial treaty, that at last, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +on the 17th of June, 1857, a treaty <span class="tei tei-q">“for the purpose +of further regulating the intercourse of American +citizens within the empire of Japan”</span> was duly concluded. +The port of Nagasaki was to be opened in +addition to those already stipulated. American citizens +were to be permitted to reside at Shimoda and +Hakodate for the purpose of supplying the wants +of the vessels which visited there. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This does not seem to have been adequate, for +only about a year later a further treaty, revoking +that of June, 1857, was arranged. It was signed at +Yedo on the 29th of July, 1858. Equivalent treaties +were negotiated by other nations, and it is under the +terms of these that the intercourse between Japan +and the nations of Europe and America is still conducted. +They provided for the opening of the ports +of Ni-igata and Hyōgo, and for the closing of +Shimoda, which had been found unsuitable, and the +opening in its place of Kanagawa.<a id="noteref_278" name="noteref_278" href="#note_278"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">278</span></span></a> They fixed dates +for the opening of the cities of Yedo and Ōsaka, and +provided for the setting apart of suitable concessions +in each of them for residence and trade. They provided +that all cases of litigation in which foreigners +were defendants should be tried in the consular court +of the nation to which the defendant belonged, and all +cases in which Japanese citizens were defendants +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +should be tried in Japanese courts. They fixed the +limits within which foreigners at any of the treaty +ports could travel, but permitted the diplomatic +agent of any nation to travel without limitation. +They prohibited the importation of opium. Commercial +regulations were attached to the treaties and +made a part of them, which directed that a duty of +five <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">per centum</span></span> should be paid on all goods imported +into Japan for sale, except that on intoxicating +liquors a duty of thirty-five <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">per centum</span></span> should be +exacted. All articles of Japanese production exported +were to pay a duty of five <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">per centum</span></span>, except +gold and silver coin and copper in bars. These trade +regulations stipulated that five years after the opening +of Kanagawa the export and import duties should +be subject to revision at the desire of either party. +The treaties themselves provide that on and after +1872 either of the contracting parties may demand a +revision of the same upon giving one year's notice +of its desire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These stipulations in reference to a revision of the +treaties, and especially of the tariff of duties to be +paid on imported goods, have been a source of great +anxiety and concern to the Japanese government. +The small duty of five <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">per centum</span></span>, which it has been +permitted to collect on the goods imported, is scarcely +more than enough to maintain the machinery of +collection. And while the initiative is given to it to +ask for a revision of the treaties, it has never yet +been able to obtain the consent of the principal +nations concerned to any change in the original hard +terms. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another provision in the treaties which has been +the occasion of endless debate is that which requires +all foreigners to remain under the jurisdiction of the +consuls of their respective countries. It is claimed +on the part of the Japanese that this provision, +which was reasonable when the treaties were first +made, is no longer just or necessary. The laws have +been so far perfected, their judges and officers have +been so educated, and the machinery of their courts +have been so far conformed to European practice +that it is no longer reasonable that foreigners residing +in Japan should be under other than Japanese jurisdiction. +It is earnestly to be hoped that these +sources of irritation between Japan and the treaty +powers may speedily be removed, and that the +efforts of this progressive race to fall into line in +the march of civilization may be appreciated and +encouraged. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Any one who reads the diplomatic correspondence +covering this period will see how serious were the +troubles with which the country was called upon to +deal. He will realize also how almost impossible it +was for the diplomatic representatives of the western +powers to comprehend the difficulties of the situation +or know how to conduct the affairs of their legations +with justice and consideration. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A succession of murders and outrages occurred, +which awakened the fears of the foreign residents. +It is plain enough now that this state of things was +not so much due to the want of effort on the part of +the government to carry out its agreements with +foreign nations, as to the bitter and irreconcilable +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg 332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +party hatred which had sprung up in consequence of +these efforts. The feudal organization of the government, +by which the first allegiance was due to +the daimyō, rendered the condition of things more +demoralized. It was an old feudal custom, whenever +the retainers of a daimyō wished to avenge any +act without committing their lord, they withdrew +from his service and became <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ronins</span></span>. Most of +the outrages which occurred during the years intervening +between the formation of the treaties and the restoration +were committed by these masterless men. +Responsibility for them was disclaimed by the daimyōs, +and the government of Yedo was unable to extend +its control over these wandering swash-bucklers. +There was no course for the foreign ministers to +pursue but to hold the shōgun's government responsible +for the protection of foreigners and foreign +trade. This government, which was called the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">bakufu</span></span>,<a id="noteref_279" name="noteref_279" href="#note_279"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">279</span></span></a> +had made the treaties with the foreign +powers, as many claimed, without having adequate +authority, and had thus assumed to be supreme in +matters of foreign intercourse. It was natural +therefore that the representatives of the treaty +powers should look to the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">bakufu</span></span> for the +security of those who had come hither under the sanction of +these treaties. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was in consequence a bloody time through +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which the country was called to pass. The prime +minister and the head of the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">bakufu</span></span> party was +Ii Kamon-no-kami,<a id="noteref_280" name="noteref_280" href="#note_280"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">280</span></span></a> +the daimyō of Hikoné in the province +of Mino. On account of the youth of the +shōgun he was created regent. He was a man of +great resolution and unscrupulous in the measures +by which he attempted to carry out the policy to +which he was committed. By his enemies he was +called the <span class="tei tei-q">“swaggering prime minister +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">bakko genro</span></span>).”</span> +Assured that the foreign treaties could not be abrogated +without dangerous collisions with foreign +nations, he sought to crush the opposition which +assailed them. The daimyō of Mito, who had been +the head of the anti-foreign party at Yedo, he compelled +to resign and confined him to his private +palace in his province. Numerous other persons who +had busied themselves with interfering with his +schemes and in promoting opposition in Kyōto, he +also imprisoned. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Suddenly on the 23d of March, 1860, Ii Kamon-no-kami +was assassinated as he was being carried in +his <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">norimono</span></span> +from his <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">yashiki</span></span> outside the Sakurada +gate to the palace of the shōgun. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The assassins were eighteen <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ronins</span></span> of the +province of Mito, who wished to avenge the imprisonment of +their prince. They carried the head of the murdered +regent to the Mito castle, and after exhibiting it to +the gloating eyes of the prince, exposed it upon a +pike at the principal gate. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The death of the regent was an irreparable blow +to the government. There was no one who could +take his place and assume his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">rôle</span></span>. His loss must +be reckoned as one of the principal events which +marked the decadence of the shōgun's power. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc29" id="toc29"></a> +<a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter XIV. Revolutionary Preludes.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The outrages which now succeeded each other +with terrible frequency were not confined to the +native members of the opposing parties. Foreigners, +who were so essentially the cause of the political +disturbances in Japan, were particularly exposed to +attacks. On the 14th of January, 1861, Mr. Heusken, +the secretary and interpreter of the American +legation, when riding home at night from the Prussian +legation in Yedo, was attacked by armed +assassins and mortally wounded. The object of this +murder is supposed to have been the desire of one +of the ministers of foreign affairs to take revenge on +Mr. Heusken,<a id="noteref_281" name="noteref_281" href="#note_281"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">281</span></span></a> +for his activity in promoting foreign +intercourse. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The weakness and the fears of the government +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were shown by the warning, which they sent to the +foreign ministers to avoid attending the funeral of +Mr. Heusken, lest further outrages might be committed. +They did attend, however, and no disturbances +occurred. It only remains to mention that +Mr. Harris subsequently made an arrangement with +the government for the payment of an indemnity<a id="noteref_282" name="noteref_282" href="#note_282"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">282</span></span></a> +of $10,000 to the mother of Mr. Heusken, who was +then living at Amsterdam in Holland. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The next circumstance which awakened universal +attention was an attack made on the British legation, +on the night of the 5th of July, 1861. At this time +the British minister occupied as a legation the buildings +of the temple Tozenji, situated at Takanawa in +the city of Yedo. It was guarded by a company of +Japanese troops, to whom the government had entrusted +its protection. Mr. Alcock had just returned +by an overland journey from Nagasaki, and with a +number of other Englishmen was domiciled in the +legation. The attacking party consisted of fourteen +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ronins</span></span> belonging to the Mito clan, who had +banded themselves together to take vengeance on the <span class="tei tei-q">“accursed +foreigners.”</span> Several of the guards were +killed, and Mr. Oliphant,<a id="noteref_283" name="noteref_283" href="#note_283"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">283</span></span></a> the secretary of legation, +and Mr. Morrison, H. B. M's consul at Nagasaki, +were severely wounded. On one of the party who +was captured was found a paper,<a id="noteref_284" name="noteref_284" href="#note_284"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">284</span></span></a> which set forth +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the object of the attack and the names of the fourteen +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ronins</span></span> who had conspired for its +accomplishment. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +That the government regarded such outrages with +alarm is certain. They took the earliest opportunity +to express their distress that the legation under their +protection had thus been invaded. They assured +Mr. Alcock with the most pitiable sincerity that +<span class="tei tei-q">“they had no power of preventing such attacks upon +the legation, nor of providing against a renewal of +the same with a greater certainty of success.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“They +could not,”</span> they said, <span class="tei tei-q">“guarantee any of the representatives +against these attempts at assassination, to +which all foreigners in Japan were liable, whether in +their houses or in the public thoroughfares.”</span><a id="noteref_285" name="noteref_285" href="#note_285"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">285</span></span></a> They +pretended to punish, and yet were afraid openly to +punish the persons engaged in this attack.<a id="noteref_286" name="noteref_286" href="#note_286"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">286</span></span></a> They +promised to do what they could for the protection +of the foreign representatives; but their measures +necessarily consisted in making the legations a kind +of prison where the occupants were confined and +protected. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And yet, with all these assurances of danger, the +foreign representatives seem to have been singularly +ignorant of the real difficulties with which the government +had to deal. This was due, no doubt, to +the want of candor on the part of the Japanese officials +in not explaining frankly and fully to them the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +political complications which existed between the +governments of Yedo and Kyōto. They represented +a widespread discontent to have grown up since the +negotiation of the treaties, owing to the increased +price of provisions, the derangement of the currency, +and the danger of famine. In view of these pressing +difficulties they asked for the postponement of the +time fixed by the treaties for opening a port on the +western coast and Hyōgo on the Inland sea, and for +the establishment of definite concessions in the cities +of Yedo and Ōsaka. These modifications of the +treaties were finally accepted, and it was arranged +that the opening of the ports named above should +be postponed for a period of five years from the first +of January, 1863. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This postponement of the opening of the ports +was the chief reason for sending to foreign countries +their first embassy. This set out from Yokohama +in January, 1862, and visited the United States, then +England, and the other treaty powers. They were +everywhere received with the utmost kindness and +distinction. The immediate object of their mission +was, as we have seen, accomplished. The opening +of additional ports was deferred on condition that +in those already opened the obstacles which had +been put in the way of trade should be removed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But, besides the attainment of this end, the visit +of the embassy to foreign capitals and countries +produced a salutary influence both on the foreigners +whom they met and on the influential personages +of which it consisted. The former learned to their +surprise that they had a cultivated, intelligent, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +clever race to deal with, whose diplomatists,<a id="noteref_287" name="noteref_287" href="#note_287"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">287</span></span></a> although +inexperienced in European politics, were +not unqualified to enter the courts of western +capitals. But the revelation to the Japanese envoys +was still greater and more surprising. For the first +time they saw the terrible armaments of western +powers, and realized the futility of attempting to +make armed resistance to their measures. But they +encountered on every hand not hatred and aversion, +but the warmest interest and kindness,<a id="noteref_288" name="noteref_288" href="#note_288"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">288</span></span></a> and a desire +to render them every courtesy. Instead of barbarians, +as they had been taught to regard all +foreigners, they found everywhere warm-hearted and +intelligent friends who were anxious to see their +country treated with justice and consideration. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the 26th of June, 1862, a year after the first, +a second attack was made upon the British legation. +Lieutenant-Colonel Neale was at this time <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">chargé +d'affaires</span></span>, and had just removed from Yokohama +and resumed the occupancy of the temple of Tozenji. +The government took the precaution to +establish guards, who daily and nightly made their +rounds to protect the buildings. Besides this there +was a guard detailed from the British fleet to render +the legation more secure. The officials persisted +in claiming that only one person, Itō Gumpei, was +engaged in the attack, and that it was a matter of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +private revenge for an insult which one of the English +guards had put upon him. Two of these guards +were killed in the attack, and Itō Gumpei the assassin +escaped to his own house, where he was permitted +to commit <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>. There was probably no +plot on the part of those whose duty it was to protect +the legation. But the uncertainty which hung +over the affair, and the repetition of the violence of +the preceding year led Colonel Neale to abandon +his residence at Yedo and return to Yokohama. An +indemnity of £10,000 was demanded and finally +paid for the families of the two members of the +guard who had been murdered. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the meantime the relations between the courts +at Kyōto and Yedo had become more and more +strained. The efforts at reconciliation, such as the +marriage between the young shōgun and the sister +of the emperor in 1861, produced no permanent effect. +The disease was too deep-seated and serious +to be affected by such palliations. Shimazu Saburō, +the uncle<a id="noteref_289" name="noteref_289" href="#note_289"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">289</span></span></a> and guardian of the young daimyō of +Satsuma, came in 1862 to Kyōto with the avowed +purpose of advising the emperor in this emergency. +He was accompanied by a formidable body of +Satsuma troops, and on these he relied to have his +advice followed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On his way thither he had been joined by a body +of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ronins</span></span> +who were contemplating the accomplishment +of some enterprise which should be notable in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the expulsion of foreigners. They imagined that +the powerful head of the Satsuma clan would be a +suitable leader for such an enterprise. They approached +him therefore and humbly petitioned to +be received under his standard. Not quite satisfied +to have such a band of reckless ruffians under his +command, he, however, scarcely dared to refuse +their petition. He therefore permitted them to +join his escort and march with him to Kyōto. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The emperor's court, although bitterly hostile to +the liberal policy which prevailed at Yedo, were +alarmed by the desperate allies which Shimazu was +bringing with him. He presented their memorial to +the emperor, and favored their wishes to use all the +force of the country to dislodge the hated foreigner +from its soil. Other powerful daimyōs were collected +at the same time at the imperial capital, and +its peaceful suburbs resounded with the clank of +warlike preparations. The most notable of these +was the daimyō of Chōshū, who at this time was +joined with the Satsuma chief in the measures +against the shōgun's government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Shimazu continued his journey to Yedo in the +summer of 1862, where he endeavored to impress on +the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">bakufu</span></span> the necessity of taking measures to +pacify the country. It is safe to say that his suggestions +were coldly received, and he was made to +feel that he was in an enemy's camp. It is said that +the shōgun refused to receive him personally, but +referred him, for any business which he had to present, +to the council. It is certain, therefore, when +he left Yedo in September, 1862, with his train and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id="Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +escort, he was in no amiable frame of mind. And it +was in this condition of irritation that he became +the chief actor in an event which was the saddest +of all the collisions between the Japanese and the +foreigners. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Satsuma train left Yedo on the morning of +the 14th of September by way of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tōkaidō</span></span>, which +runs through Kawasaki and skirts the village of +Kanagawa. It consisted of a semi-military procession +of guards on foot and on horseback, of +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">norimonos</span></span>, +in which the prince and his high military and +civil attendants were carried, of led-horses for them +to ride when they desired, and of a long straggling +continuation of pack-horses and men carrying the +luggage of the train. It was said to contain not less +than eight hundred <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> in attendance on +their master. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The etiquette of the road for such trains was well +settled in feudal Japan. The right of way was +always accorded to the daimyō, and all unmilitary +persons or parties were required to stand at the side +of the road while the train was passing, to dismount +if on horseback, and to bow to the daimyō's +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">norimono</span></span> +as it was carried past. It may be supposed that the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> in attendance upon the incensed Shimazu +were in no humor to have these rules trifled with, +and especially would not deal very tenderly with +any foreigners who might fall in their way. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the afternoon of the day on which the Satsuma +train left Yedo, a small riding party left Yokohama +for the village of Kawasaki, on a visit to the temple +at that place. It consisted of one lady and three +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +gentlemen, one of whom was Mr. Charles L. Richardson, +who had for many years been a merchant at +Shanghai, but who was visiting Japan previous to +his return to England. A few miles north of the +village of Kanagawa they encountered the head of +the train, and for some distance passed successive +parts of it. They were either ignorant of the etiquette +which required them to withdraw during the +passage of such a cavalcade, or underrated the danger +of disregarding it. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Presently they came upon the troop which had +special charge of the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">norimono</span></span> in which the prince +was carried. It was surrounded by a formidable +body of retainers, armed with swords and spears. +The reckless riders paid little heed to their scowling +looks, and rode carelessly on, sometimes even threading +their way through the interstices of the straggling +train. When they were nearly opposite to +the prince's <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">norimono</span></span>, which they were about +to pass without dismounting or saluting, they were so +alarmed by the evidences of danger that one of the +gentlemen called out to Mr. Richardson who was +riding ahead, <span class="tei tei-q">“Don't go on, we can turn into a side +road.”</span> The other also exclaimed, <span class="tei tei-q">“For God's sake +let us have no row.”</span> Richardson, who was foolhardy +and ignorant of those with whom he had to deal, +answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let me alone, I have lived fourteen +years in China and know how to manage these people.”</span> +Suddenly a soldier from the centre of the procession +rushed upon them with a heavy two-handed sword +and struck Richardson a fatal blow on his side under +the left arm. Both the other gentlemen were also +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +severely wounded, and the lady had her bonnet +knocked off by a blow aimed at her, but escaped unhurt. +They all started at full speed towards home, +riding over the Japanese guards who undertook to +interfere. All except Richardson reached Kanagawa +without further hurt; he after riding a few rods fell +from his horse and died from the effect of his +terrible wound.<a id="noteref_290" name="noteref_290" href="#note_290"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">290</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The excitement in the town was intense. There +was a proposition to organize immediately a force +and pursue after the train, in order to capture the +murderer and the Satsuma chief. It was with no +small effort and with the almost unanimous sentiment +of the foreign community against him, that +Colonel Neale, the British <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">chargé d'affaires</span></span>, +restrained them from an act which would have brought +quick vengeance upon the town and involved Great +Britain in a war with Japan. A demand was made +upon the government for the capture and punishment +of the assassin of Mr. Richardson, and for the +payment of an indemnity of £100,000, by the +shōgun's government and an additional sum by +the daimyō of Satsuma. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Neither the surrender of the assassin nor the payment +of this indemnity was willingly undertaken by +Satsuma. It ended therefore in Admiral Kuper +being despatched with a squadron of seven vessels to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Kagoshima in order to enforce on the recalcitrant +daimyō the terms agreed upon with the government +at Yedo. He arrived on the 11th of August, 1863, +and was received with frowning batteries and a +terrible typhoon of wind and rain. Negotiation +failed to effect a settlement and the naval force was +called upon to play its part. Three valuable new +steamers, which the daimyō had recently purchased, +were captured and burned. The batteries which +lined the shore were dismantled by the guns of the +ships. The city of Kagoshima, said to have had at +this time a population of 180,000 and to have been +one of the most prosperous towns in Japan, was +almost completely destroyed by fire. After this +drastic lesson the money demanded was paid, but +the murderer of Richardson was not and probably +could not be surrendered, and never has been publicly +known. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most important result which followed this +severe experience was its moral effect on the Satsuma +leaders. They had become convinced that western +skill and western equipments of war were not to be +encountered by the antiquated methods of Japan. +To contend with the foreigner on anything like +equal terms it would be necessary to acquire his +culture and dexterity, and avail themselves of his +ships and armaments. It was not long after this +therefore, that the first company of Japanese students<a id="noteref_291" name="noteref_291" href="#note_291"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">291</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were sent to London under the late Count Terashima +by the daimyō of Satsuma, and the purchase of +cannon and ships of war was authorized. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the meantime another collision still more serious +had occurred with the treaty powers. The daimyō +of Chōshū had, as we have seen, taken sides with the +court of Kyōto against the more liberal policy of the +shōgun's government. He had placed men-of-war +as guards and had erected batteries within his territory +on the shores of the Shimonoseki straits through +which ships usually passed on their way to and from +the western ports. It is claimed, and is not improbable, +that he was encouraged by the Kyōto +statesmen to attack foreign ships on their way +through these narrow straits, in order to embroil the +Yedo government with the treaty powers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Accordingly on the 25th of June, 1863 the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pembroke</span></span>, +a small American merchant steamer on her +way from Yokohama to Nagasaki was fired upon by +two men-of-war belonging to the daimyō of Chōshū. +She was not hit or hurt and escaped through the +Bungo channel without injury. Shortly afterwards, +on the 8th of July, the French gunboat <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kienchang</span></span> +while at anchor in the straits, was also fired +upon and severely injured. And lastly the Dutch +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page347">[pg 347]</span><a name="Pg347" id="Pg347" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +ship-of-war <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Medusa</span></span>, in spite of a warning from the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kienchang</span></span>, undertook to pass the straits and was +fired upon by the ships and batteries of the daimyō +of Chōshū, to which she responded with decisive +effect. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +News of these hostile acts was brought immediately +to Yokohama. The U. S. Steamship <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wyoming</span></span> +was lying there, and was at once despatched to +avenge the insult to the American flag. She arrived +at Shimonoseki on July 16th, and in a conflict with +ships and batteries sunk a brig and exploded the +boiler of a steamer. On the 20th inst. the French +frigate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Semiramis</span></span> +and the gunboat <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tancrede</span></span> under +the command of Admiral Juares arrived to exact +vengeance for the attack on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kienchang</span></span>. One of +the batteries was silenced, and a force of two hundred +and fifty men were landed who destroyed what +remained. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These acts of signal vengeance were followed by +negotiations for damages. The shōgun's government +disavowed the actions of their rebellious +subordinate; but this did not free them from +responsibility for the injuries which he had inflicted. +The American minister secured the payment of +twelve thousand dollars for alleged losses by the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pembroke</span></span>, although as we have seen the vessel got +off without any damage. Negotiations in regard to +freeing the Inland sea from obstructions dragged +along for almost a year. The <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">bakufu</span></span> promised to +take measures to reduce to a peaceful attitude the +daimyō of Chōshū whose territories bordered on the +narrow straits of Shimonoseki. But the growing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg 348]</span><a name="Pg348" id="Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +political disturbances of the nation and the impoverishment +of the shōgun's treasury made it impossible +to carry out its pacific designs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Finally an expedition was organized by the treaty +powers to visit Shimonoseki, in order to destroy +whatever might be in existence there. It consisted +of nine British<a id="noteref_292" name="noteref_292" href="#note_292"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">292</span></span></a> ships-of-war, four Dutch, three +French, and one steamer, chartered for the occasion +to represent the United States.<a id="noteref_293" name="noteref_293" href="#note_293"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">293</span></span></a> It sailed from +Yokohama on the 28th and 29th of August, 1864. +The attack was made from the 5th to the 8th of +September. The daimyō, finding it useless to contend +against such overwhelming odds, gave in his +absolute submission. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After the return of the expedition the representatives +of the allied powers held a conference with the +Japanese ministers of foreign affairs with reference +to the final settlement of this unfortunate business. +A convention<a id="noteref_294" name="noteref_294" href="#note_294"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">294</span></span></a> was entered into between the interested +parties, dated the 22d of October, 1864, by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page349">[pg 349]</span><a name="Pg349" id="Pg349" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which an indemnity of three million dollars was to +be paid by Japan to the four powers for damages +and for expenses entailed by the operations against +the daimyō of Chōshū. This sum was to be paid in +instalments of half a million dollars each. The +four powers agreed among themselves as to the division +of this indemnity: That France, the Netherlands, +and the United States, in consideration of the +actual attacks made on their shipping, were to receive +each one hundred and forty thousand dollars, +and that the remaining sum should be divided +equally between the four powers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It has always been felt that the exaction of this +large indemnity was a harsh if not an unwarrantable +proceeding. The government of Yedo had disavowed +and apologized for the conduct of the rebellious +daimyō, and promised, if time were allowed, to +reduce him to subjection. Of the powers which +were allied in the expedition, Great Britain had +suffered no damage, and the United States had already +received an indemnity for the injuries and +expenses of the vessel fired upon. To insist, therefore, +upon the government not only paying for the +damage inflicted, but for the expense of an unnecessarily +large and costly expedition to suppress the +rebellious subordinate, which was sent contrary to +the express protest of the responsible government, +seems too much like that overbearing diplomacy +with which western nations have conducted their +intercourse in the East.<a id="noteref_295" name="noteref_295" href="#note_295"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">295</span></span></a> +The promised sum, however, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg 350]</span><a name="Pg350" id="Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was at last, after much financial distress, all +paid, and the painful episode was ended. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One undesigned benefit resulted from the Shimonoseki +expedition. Just as the bombardment of +Kagoshima had taught the daimyō of Satsuma the +folly of resisting western armaments, so now the +daimyō of Chōshū had learned by an expensive experience +the same bitter lesson. For the future +these two powerful clans might therefore be counted +on, not only to oppose the moribund government of +Yedo, but to withstand the folly of trying to expel +the foreigners who by treaty with an unauthorized +agent had been admitted into the country. The +Chōshū leaders had also taken advantage of their +experiences in this conflict with foreigners to put +their troops on a better basis as regards arms and +organization. For the first time the privilege of the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> +to do all the fighting, was disregarded, and +a division<a id="noteref_296" name="noteref_296" href="#note_296"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">296</span></span></a> of troops was formed from the common +people, which was armed with foreign muskets and +drilled in the western tactics. They went by the +name of <span class="tei tei-q">“irregular troops”</span> +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kiheitai</span></span>), and played +no small part in rendering nugatory the efforts of +the shōgun to <span class="tei tei-q">“chastise”</span> the daimyō of Chōshū in +1865 and 1866. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another noteworthy military event deserves mention +here. Colonel Neale had applied to his government +for a military guard to protect British interests +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg 351]</span><a name="Pg351" id="Pg351" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +at Yokohama. Two companies of the 20th regiment +were sent from Hongkong, and with the consent of +the Japanese government took up their residence in +1864 at barracks in the foreign settlement. They +were afterwards joined by a French contingent, +and for many years they were a familiar sight, +and gave a sense of security to the nervous +residents. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While these serious collisions were taking place +between Japan and the foreign powers, there was an +increasing and irreconcilable animosity developed +between the Kyōto and Yedo governments. The +ostensible reason, which was put forward on all occasions, +was the difference of opinion upon the question +of the foreign treaties and foreign intercourse. +The Yedo government had by the force of circumstances +become practically familiar with the views of +the representatives of foreign nations, and had been +convinced that the task of expelling foreigners and +returning again to the ancient policy of seclusion +was far beyond the power of Japan. On the contrary, +the court of the emperor was a hot-bed +of anti-foreign sentiment in which all the ancient +prejudices of the empire naturally flourished, and +where the feudal princes who were jealous of the +shōgun found a ready element in which to foment +difficulties. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two important games were in progress. Yedo +was the field on which one of these was to be decided, +and the players were the representatives of +the treaty powers on the one side, and the shōgun's +government on the other. Victory had already been +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page352">[pg 352]</span><a name="Pg352" id="Pg352" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +virtually declared in favor of an open country and +foreign intercourse. The other game was being +played at Kyōto between the shōgun's friends and +his enemies. The stake was a momentous one, +namely, to determine whether the present dual +government was to continue and who was hereafter +to wield the destinies of the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The government of the shōgun had long been +convinced that it was necessary to make the best +of the presence of foreigners in the country +and that it was vain to make further exertions for +their expulsion. But a vast number of the feudal +retainers of the daimyōs were still bitterly hostile, +and took frequent occasion to commit outrages, for +which the government was held responsible. Besides +the cases which have been already mentioned, +a new legation which the British government had +built in Gotenyama, a site which the Japanese government +had set apart in Yedo for foreign legations, +was burned to the ground in 1863. In the same +year the temple buildings in Yedo which the +United States had leased for a legation were burned. +Twice the shōgun's castle in Yedo had been destroyed +by fire. A murderous attack was made +upon British subjects in Nagasaki; Lieutenant de +Cannes of the French troops was assassinated in +1864; and in the same year Major Baldwin and +Lieutenant Bird, two British officers, were murdered +at Kamakura. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These repeated outrages seriously disturbed the +Yedo government, and led to several attempts to +curtail the privileges which by the treaties were +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page353">[pg 353]</span><a name="Pg353" id="Pg353" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +secured to foreigners. The last proposition of the +kind which was made was one conveyed to the +French government by an embassy sent out in 1864. +They presented a request to have the port of Kanagawa +closed up and trade to be confined to Hakodate +and Nagasaki. They received no encouragement, +however, and returned with their eyes <span class="tei tei-q">“opened by +the high state of material and moral prosperity +which surrounded them,”</span> and reported the complete +failure of their attempts at persuasion. <span class="tei tei-q">“The +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">bakufu</span></span> reprimanded them for having disgraced +their functions, and, reducing their incomes, forced +them to retire into private life.”</span><a id="noteref_297" name="noteref_297" href="#note_297"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">297</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is necessary now to trace the course of events +at Kyōto. According to the theory of the government +of Japan the emperor was the supreme and +unlimited ruler and the shōgun was his executive. +The maintenance of the emperor and his court was +a function of the shōgun, and hence it was almost +always possible for him to compel the emperor to +pursue any policy which he might desire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the time now under review Kōmei, the father +of the present emperor, occupied the imperial throne. +He had succeeded to this dignity in 1847 at the age +of eighteen, and he died in 1866 at the age of thirty-seven. +The shōgun was Iemochi, who in 1858 had +been chosen from the family of Kii, because of the +failure of an heir in the regular line. At the time +of his election he was a boy of twelve years of age, +and was placed under the guardianship of the prime +minister Ii Kamon-no-kami. After the assassination +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page354">[pg 354]</span><a name="Pg354" id="Pg354" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the prime minister in 1861, Hitotsubashi +Gyōbukyō, a son of the daimyō of Mito, was appointed +guardian, and served in this capacity until +the shōgun's death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Around the court of the emperor were gathered +many discordant elements. The party of the shōgun +was always represented, and the daimyō of +Aizu, its ardent friend and champion, had the honorable +distinction of guarding the imperial palace. By +invitation many other daimyōs were at Kyōto with +retinues of officers and attendants, and with guards +of troops. The southern and western daimyōs were +present in imposing numbers, and although they did +not always agree among themselves, they were in +harmony in the general purpose to discredit the +government at Yedo and to promote the imperial +authority. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The expulsion of foreigners was the common subject +of discussion and agitation. Although again +and again it had been assured that it was impossible +to dislodge the treaty powers from their position in +the country, the court still continued to direct its +efforts to this object. For the first time in two hundred +and thirty years,<a id="noteref_298" name="noteref_298" href="#note_298"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">298</span></span></a> +when Iemitsu went up to the +imperial court, the Shōgun Iemochi visited Kyōto in +1863 in order to consult about the affairs of the +country. In accordance with the precedent set by +Iemitsu, the shōgun distributed on this occasion +rich presents to the emperor and the officers of his +court. He also scattered among the townspeople +his largesses, until <span class="tei tei-q">“the whole populace, moistened in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page355">[pg 355]</span><a name="Pg355" id="Pg355" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the bath of his mercy and goodness, were greatly +pleased and gratified.”</span><a id="noteref_299" name="noteref_299" href="#note_299"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">299</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Conferences<a id="noteref_300" name="noteref_300" href="#note_300"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">300</span></span></a> were held between the daimyōs who +were present in Kyōto and the officials of the court, +and in spite of the objections and remonstrances of +the Yedo official, an imperial edict was issued and +entrusted to the shōgun for execution, to expel from +the country the hated foreigners. This edict was +notified to the representatives of the treaty powers +by the Yedo officials. They seemed, however, to +regard their duty fully done when this notice was +given. No serious steps were ever taken to carry +out these expulsive measures, unless the obstruction +of navigation of the Shimonoseki straits by the daimyō +of Chōshū be regarded of this character. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 1863 a plot was alleged to have been formed by +the Chōshū men to seize the emperor and carry him +off to their own territory. The object aimed at by +this plot was of course to get the court out of the +hands of the shōgun's friends, and surround it by +influences favorable to the plans of the southern +daimyōs. The court, however, became alarmed by +the reports in circulation, and steps were taken to +forbid the Chōshū troops, who guarded Sakaimachi +gate, access to the grounds of the imperial palace. +Offended by this action they retired to their own +territory. Seven of the most prominent court +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page356">[pg 356]</span><a name="Pg356" id="Pg356" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +nobles (<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kuges</span></span>)<a id="noteref_301" name="noteref_301" href="#note_301"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">301</span></span></a> +who sympathized with Chōshū in his +aims and purposes accompanied them, and were +thereupon deprived of their rank and revenue. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The departure of the Chōshū clansmen and the +triumph of the shōgun's party seemed to have put +an end to the anti-foreign policy. The emperor and +his court had been forced to the conclusion that the +effort to expel the treaty powers was far beyond the +powers of Japan, even if it were united and its exertions +directed from one centre. From this time +may be estimated to begin a new phase in the contest +which was to end in the restoration of the original +form of government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The territory of Chōshū had become the rendezvous +for all the disaffected elements of the empire. +The daimyō was looked upon as the patriotic +leader of the country, and <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ronins</span></span> from all +parts hastened to enroll themselves under his banner. In +the summer of 1864 the Chōshū forces, to the +number of several thousand, composed not only of +the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> +of the province, but also of the disaffected +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ronins</span></span> who had gathered there, and of the +<span class="tei tei-q">“irregular troops,”</span> <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kiheitai</span></span>, +which had been organized, +started to re-enter Kyōto in order to regain the +position they had previously occupied. The contest +which followed has been described with lurid distinctness +by native annalists. They were encountered +by Hitotsubashi in command of the troops of +Aizu, Echizen, Hikoné, and other loyal clans. After +a battle which lasted several days, and which raged +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page357">[pg 357]</span><a name="Pg357" id="Pg357" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +chiefly about the imperial palace, the Chōshū troops +were completely defeated and forced to retire. It +gives us an idea of the terrible earnestness of these +Japanese warriors to read how a little remnant of +the Chōshū troops took refuge on Tennōzan; and +when they heard their pursuers approaching, how +seventeen of them committed +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span><a id="noteref_302" name="noteref_302" href="#note_302"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">302</span></span></a>; and lest +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page358">[pg 358]</span><a name="Pg358" id="Pg358" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +their heads should be recognized and their names +disgraced, how they had thrown themselves into the +flames of a temple which they had set on fire. +Three of the company who had performed the +friendly act of decapitation for their comrades had +escaped by mountain roads and made their way +back to Chōshū. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/takeyoshi.png" width="207" height="320" alt="Illustration" title="Kido Takeyoshi." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Kido Takeyoshi.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The usual concomitant of fighting in a town had +followed, and a great part of Kyōto had been destroyed +by fire.<a id="noteref_303" name="noteref_303" href="#note_303"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">303</span></span></a> The Satsuma troops had taken an +important part in this repulse of Chōshū. They had +intervened at a very critical moment, and had captured +a considerable number of Chōshū prisoners. +But they had treated them with great consideration, +and subsequently had even sent them home with +presents, so that the Chōshū men felt they really +had friends instead of enemies in the warlike southern +clan. It is in this battle we catch the first +glimpse of the Chōshū leader, Kido Takeyoshi, then +known as Katsura Kogorō.<a id="noteref_304" name="noteref_304" href="#note_304"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">304</span></span></a> He must have been +about thirty-four years of age, and already gave +promise of the talents which made him one of the +most conspicuous and influential statesmen of the +restoration. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 1865 Sir Harry Parkes arrived in Japan as the +envoy plenipotentiary of the British government. +He had resided in China from boyhood, and had +been especially conspicuous in the war between +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page359">[pg 359]</span><a name="Pg359" id="Pg359" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +China and Great Britain in 1860. His career in +Japan continued until 1883, when he was promoted +to the court of Peking. He had the good fortune to +be the representative of his country during the most +momentous years of modern Japanese history, and +in many of the most important events he exerted an +influence which was decisive. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/tomomi.png" width="208" height="306" alt="Illustration" title="Udaijin Iwakura Tomomi." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Udaijin Iwakura Tomomi.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The troubles in Chōshū were finally brought to a +close. The efforts of the shōgun, although conducted +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg 360]</span><a name="Pg360" id="Pg360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +at great expense, were unavailing. Satsuma, +when summoned to render aid in crushing the rebellious +prince, declined to join in the campaign. +Through the efforts of Saigō Kichinoske,<a id="noteref_305" name="noteref_305" href="#note_305"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">305</span></span></a> a treaty of +amity was effected between the two clans. The kind +treatment of the Chōshū prisoners in the attack on +Kyōto was remembered, and the help and alliance +of the powerful Kyūshū clan were eagerly accepted. +Peace was negotiated between the shōgun and the +rebels. Thus the Chōshū episode was ended, with +no credit to the shōgun's party, but with a distinct +gain to the cause of the imperial restoration.<a id="noteref_306" name="noteref_306" href="#note_306"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">306</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It had long been recognized that the treaties +which had been made by the foreign powers would +possess a greatly increased influence on the Japanese +people if they could have the sanction of the emperor. +The shōgun Iemochi had been summoned to +Kyōto by the emperor to consult upon the concerns +of the nation, and was occupying his castle at Ōsaka. +The representatives of the foreign powers thereupon +concluded that it would be a timely movement to +proceed with their naval armaments to Hyōgo, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page361">[pg 361]</span><a name="Pg361" id="Pg361" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +wait upon the shōgun at Ōsaka, with the purpose of +urging him to obtain the imperial approval of the +treaties. This was accordingly done, and an impressive +display of the allied fleets was made at the +town, which has since been opened to foreign +trade. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The shōgun was both young and irresolute, and +personally had neither weight nor influence. But +his guardian, Hitotsubashi, was a man of mature +years and judgment. He recognized the importance +of obtaining the approval of the emperor to the +foreign treaties, and of thus ending the long and +ruinous agitation which prevailed in the country. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A memorial<a id="noteref_307" name="noteref_307" href="#note_307"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">307</span></span></a> +was presented to the emperor in the +name of the shōgun, setting forth the embarrassment +under which the administration of the country had +been conducted on account of the supposed opposition +of the emperor to the treaties, and begging him +to relieve them by signifying his sanction; and assuring +him that if this is not given, the foreign +representatives who are at Hyōgo will proceed to +the capital and demand it at his hands. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It ended in the sanction of the treaties being +signified October 23, 1865, by the following laconic +decree<a id="noteref_308" name="noteref_308" href="#note_308"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">308</span></span></a> addressed to the shōgun: <span class="tei tei-q">“The imperial +consent is given to the treaties, and you will therefore +undertake the necessary arrangements therewith.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During this critical time the Shōgun Iemochi died +September 19, 1866, at his castle in Ōsaka at the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg 362]</span><a name="Pg362" id="Pg362" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +age of eighteen. He had been chosen in 1858, in +the absence of a regular heir, by the determined +influence of Ii Kamon-no-kami, who was then all-powerful +at Yedo. He was too young to have any +predominating influence upon affairs. Until the +assassination of the prime minister Ii Kamon-no-kami +in 1861 the boy shōgun had been under his +guardianship. Since then that duty had been devolved +upon Hitotsubashi, a son of the diamyō of +Mito, who had been himself strongly pressed for the +office of shōgun, but who was alleged to be too +mature and resolute a character for the prime +minister's purposes. As guardian, Hitotsubashi had +taken an active part in the effort to obtain the sanction +of the treaties, and the final success of this +important step must in a great measure be attributed +to him. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After the death of Iemochi without direct heirs, +the office of shōgun was offered to Hitotsubashi as +a representative of Mito, one of the <span class="tei tei-q">“honorable +families”</span> from whom a shōgun was to be chosen in +case of a failure of direct heirs. It is said that he +accepted the office with great reluctance, knowing +the troubles which would surely await him who assumed +it. He assented only on the command of +the emperor and the assurance of support from +many of the diamyōs. He has thus the distinction +of becoming the last of the long line of Tokugawa +shōguns, under the name of Tokugawa Yoshinobu.<a id="noteref_309" name="noteref_309" href="#note_309"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">309</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A few months after the death of Iemochi, on the +3d of February, 1867, Emperor Kōmei also died +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name="Pg363" id="Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +from an attack of small-pox. He is said to have +been strongly prejudiced against foreigners and +foreign intercourse, and it was claimed at the time +of his death, that when he sanctioned the foreign +treaties the divine nature left him to fall a prey to +the ravages of ordinary disease. His son Mutsuhito, +then in his fifteenth year, succeeded him and is now +the reigning emperor, the one hundred and twenty-first +of his line. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/emperor.png" width="204" height="311" alt="Illustration" title="The Reigning Emperor." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">The Reigning Emperor.</div></div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg 364]</span><a name="Pg364" id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was thought that the death of an emperor of +strong prejudices and of a mature age would +naturally favor a more complete control by the +new shōgun. It was not to be anticipated that an +emperor, still only a youth, would pursue the same +policy as his father, and undertake to assume a +real and active part in the government of his +country. But the shōgun and his friends underrated +the influences which were gathered at Kyōto, +and which now went far beyond an anti-foreign sentiment +and were chiefly concerned with schemes for +restoring the imperial power and unifying the form +of government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The daimyō of Tosa, who was a man of liberal +sentiments and of great penetration, addressed a +letter to the shōgun in October, 1867, in which he +frankly says: <span class="tei tei-q">“The cause [of our trouble] lies in the +fact that the administration proceeds from two centres, +causing the empire's eyes and ears to be turned +in two different directions. The march of events +has brought about a revolution, and the old system +can no longer be persevered in. You should restore +the governing power into the hands of the sovereign +and so lay a foundation on which Japan may take +its stand as the equal of other countries.”</span><a id="noteref_310" name="noteref_310" href="#note_310"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">310</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/imperial-crests.png" width="362" height="700" alt="Illustration" title="Imperial Crests." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Imperial Crests.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The shōgun being deeply impressed with the wisdom +of this advice drew up a document addressed +to his vassals, asking their opinion of the advisability +of his resignation. Among other things he says: +<span class="tei tei-q">“It appears to me that the laws cannot be maintained +in face of the daily extension of our foreign +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name="Pg365" id="Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +relations, unless the government be conducted by +one head, and I propose therefore to surrender the +whole governing power into the hands of the imperial +court. This is the best I can do for the +interests of the empire.”</span><a id="noteref_311" name="noteref_311" href="#note_311"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">311</span></span></a> According to this +announced +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg 366]</span><a name="Pg366" id="Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +resolution, on the 19th of November, 1867, +the shōgun resigned into the hands of the emperor +his authority. This surrender was accepted, and thus +a dynasty which had lasted from 1603 came to an +end. That this surrender might be declined and the +power still continue to be held by the Tokugawa, +was perhaps the hope and wish of the last shōgun. +But it was not to be. The powerful clans who for +years had labored for the destruction of the Tokugawa +primacy were ready to undertake the responsibility +of a new government. And although the +change was not to be effected without a struggle, +yet from this point may be counted to begin the +new period of the restoration. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page367">[pg 367]</span><a name="Pg367" id="Pg367" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc31" id="toc31"></a> +<a name="pdf32" id="pdf32"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter XV. The Restored Empire.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The resignation of the shōgun was accepted by +the emperor, on the understanding that a conference +of the daimyōs was to be called and its opinion +taken in reference to the subsequent conduct of +affairs. In the meantime the ex-shōgun, under the +command of the emperor, was to continue the administration, +particularly of those interests which +concerned the foreign powers. But the allied western +daimyōs feared the effect of leaving the administration +in the hands of their enemies. The possession +of the person of the emperor was always reckoned +an important advantage. Especially was this +the case when the emperor was only a boy, whose +influence in the affairs of the government could +have little weight. They resolved, therefore, to +take measures which would definitely ensure the +termination of the shōgun's power, and secure for +themselves the result for which they had been so +long laboring. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On January 3, 1868, by a so-called order of the +emperor,<a id="noteref_312" name="noteref_312" href="#note_312"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">312</span></span></a> +but really by the agreement of the allied +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page368">[pg 368]</span><a name="Pg368" id="Pg368" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +daimyōs, the troops of the Aizu clan, who were in +charge of the palace gates, were dismissed from their +duty, and their place assumed by troops of the clans +of Satsuma, Tosa, Aki, Owari, and Echizen. The +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kugés</span></span> +who surrounded the court and who were favorable +to the Tokugawa party were discharged and +forbidden to enter its precincts. The vacant places +were filled by adherents of the new order of things. +The offices of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kwambaku</span></span> +and <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">shōgun</span></span> were by imperial +edict abolished. A provisional plan of administration +was adopted and persons of adequate rank +appointed to conduct the several departments. <span class="tei tei-q">“A +decree was issued announcing that the government +of the country was henceforth solely in the hands +of the imperial court.”</span><a id="noteref_313" name="noteref_313" href="#note_313"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">313</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One of the first acts of the new government was +to recall the daimyō of Chōshū, who had been expelled +from Kyōto, in 1863, and to invite back the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kugés</span></span> +who had been exiled and deprived of their +revenues and honors. The sentence of confiscation +which had been pronounced upon them was abrogated +and they were restored to their former privileges. +One of them, Sanjo Saneyoshi, as prime +minister spent the remainder of his life in reviving +the ancient and original form of government. The +Chōshū troops who had been driven out of the capital +in 1863, were recalled and given a share with the +loyal clans in guarding the palace of the emperor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This powerful clan,<a id="noteref_314" name="noteref_314" href="#note_314"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">314</span></span></a> which had suffered such a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page369">[pg 369]</span><a name="Pg369" id="Pg369" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +varied experience, was destined to take and maintain +a leading position in the future development of +the restored empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Aizu and other clans which had been devoted +friends of the Tokugawa shōguns were especially +outraged by this conciliatory spirit shown to the +Chōshū troops. They claimed that this clan by +resisting the imperial commands had merited the +opprobrious title of rebels (<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">chōtoki</span></span>), +and were no longer fit for the association of loyal clans. But the +Chōshū daimyō had been restored to the favor of his +emperor, and moreover was allied with the clans +whose power was paramount at Kyōto, so that the +disapprobation of the Tokugawa adherents had little +terror for him. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the suggestion of his friends the shōgun retired +to his castle at Ōsaka, and the troops attached +to his cause also retreated and gathered under his +standard. The situation of affairs was for a time +uncertain. The shōgun had resigned, and his resignation +had been accepted, but he had been asked +by the emperor to continue his administration. Subsequently, +under the pressure of the allied clans, the +emperor had abolished the shōgunate and entrusted +the administration to a provisional government. +This last action the friends of the ex-shōgun resented +as the doings of revolutionists. It is believed +that he himself was averse to further conflict. Any +step which he might take in the vindication of his +rights must involve war with the allied clans, and he +was not a man of war. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While these critical events were taking place, the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page370">[pg 370]</span><a name="Pg370" id="Pg370" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +representatives of foreign powers came down from +Yedo to Hyōgo with an impressive array of men-of-war. +By invitation of the ex-shōgun they visited +him at Ōsaka. In reply to the representatives he +made an address,<a id="noteref_315" name="noteref_315" href="#note_315"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">315</span></span></a> +complaining of the arbitrary conduct +of those who now had possession of the imperial +person, and notifying them that he was willing +and able to protect their rights under the treaties, +and asking them to await the action of a conference +to be summoned. In consequence of the conflict +which was now imminent, the representatives of the +treaty powers issued a notice to their citizens that +neutrality must be maintained under all circumstances, +and arms and ammunition must not be sold +to either party. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first armed conflict between the two parties +took place during the closing days of January, 1868. +Two of the allied daimyōs, Owari and Echizen, were +sent to Ōsaka to confer with the ex-shōgun, in the +hope that some terms might be agreed upon, by +which further difficulty could be avoided. They were +both Tokugawa daimyōs, Owari belonging to one of +the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">go-sanké</span></span> +families, and Echizen being a descendant +of Ieyasu's son. They offered to the ex-shōgun +an honorable appointment, and if he would come to +Kyōto they assured him a ready audience before the +emperor. He promised to obey the emperor's command +and visit the capital. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After the envoys had gone his friends raised suspicions +in his mind concerning his personal safety. +The daimyōs of Aizu and Kuwana offered to accompany +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page371">[pg 371]</span><a name="Pg371" id="Pg371" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +him in case he determined to go. They organized, +therefore, a force of about 10,000 men with +which they proposed to escort him. He must have +known that a formidable military escort like this +would precipitate a conflict. However, he set out. +The news of the preparations of the ex-shōgun was +brought to Kyōto, and aroused a determination to +resist his invasion of the capital. He had been +invited to the palace by the emperor, but he was to +come as a peaceful visitor. If he had determined to +come with a guard composed of the enemies of the +empire he must be resisted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Troops of the Satsuma and Chōshū clans were, +therefore, posted to intercept the march of the ex-shōgun's +escort. It is believed that they numbered +about 1,500<a id="noteref_316" name="noteref_316" href="#note_316"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">316</span></span></a> +men. The fighting took place on the +roads leading from Ōsaka to Kyōto, and lasted +during the 28th, 29th, and 30th of January. It +ended in the complete defeat of the rebel army, +although it so far outnumbered its adversaries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ex-shōgun being thus disappointed in his +plan to enter the capital with a commanding force +retired to his castle at Ōsaka, from which he proceeded +on a steam corvette to Yedo.<a id="noteref_317" name="noteref_317" href="#note_317"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">317</span></span></a> +The castle at +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page372">[pg 372]</span><a name="Pg372" id="Pg372" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Ōsaka was burnt, and the defeated troops made +their way by land to the same rendezvous. The +antipathy existing between the Satsuma clan and +the Tokugawa adherents showed itself in a very pronounced +manner in Yedo. The Satsuma <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">yashiki</span></span>, +which was occupied by troops of that clan and by +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ronins</span></span> +favorable to them was surrounded by Tokugawa +troops and burnt. Collisions between the +two parties were of constant occurrence, which continued +until the arrival of the imperial troops restored +order. In Hyōgo too, which with Ōsaka was opened +to foreign trade on the first of January, 1868, there +were difficulties between the foreigners and anti-foreign +element in the population. But these +troubles rapidly disappeared, because the new government +took pains at once to make it plain that the +treaties with foreign powers were to be kept, and +outrages committed against those who were in +the country under these treaties were not to be +tolerated. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On February 8, 1868, the emperor sent to the +foreign representatives a request that they communicate +to their governments the fact that hereafter the +administration of both internal and external affairs +would be conducted by him, and that officers would +be appointed to conduct the business which may +arise under the foreign treaties. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In token of the sincerity of this communication +an invitation was conveyed to the representatives of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page373">[pg 373]</span><a name="Pg373" id="Pg373" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the powers then at Hyōgo to present themselves +before the emperor on March 23d. The significance +of this event can scarcely now be conceived. Never +before in the history of the empire had its divine +head deigned to admit to his presence the despised +foreigner, or put himself on an equality with the +sovereign of the foreigner. The event created in the +ancient capital the utmost excitement. The French +and Dutch ministers had each in turn been conducted +to the palace and had been received in +audience. No serious incident had occurred. But +during the progress of Sir Harry Parkes,<a id="noteref_318" name="noteref_318" href="#note_318"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">318</span></span></a> the British +representative, from his lodgings to the palace, two +fanatical <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> +rushed upon his escort, and before +they could be overpowered wounded nine of them. +One of the would-be assassins was killed and the +other was captured after being desperately wounded. +The party returned at once to the lodgings of the +envoy who fortunately was uninjured. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The court, by whose invitation the ministers had +undertaken to present themselves before the emperor, +was overwhelmed with mortification. High +officers at once waited upon Sir Harry and tendered +their sympathy and profound regret. After making +every reparation in their power, arrangements were +made to hold the audience on the day following that +originally appointed. It was held accordingly without +further incident. Warned by this alarming +occurrence, the government issued an edict, that as +the treaties had now been sanctioned by the emperor, +the protection of foreigners was henceforth +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page374">[pg 374]</span><a name="Pg374" id="Pg374" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +his particular care; that if therefore any +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> +were to be guilty of an outrage against them, he +should be degraded from his rank, and denied the +honorable privilege of committing +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>; he +should suffer the punishment of a common criminal +and have his head exposed in token of dishonor. +Miyeda Shigeru, the surviving culprit, was thus +punished. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The scene of the brief contest was now shifted to +the east. The ex-shōgun seemed to vacillate between +a complete surrender of his power and a provisional +retention of it until the will of the nation +could be taken by a conference of the daimyōs. On +the arrival of the imperial forces in Yedo the final +terms of his future treatment were announced to the +ex-shōgun: That he retire to Mito, and there live in +seclusion; that the castle in Yedo be evacuated; +and that the vessels and armaments now in the possession +of the ex-shōgun be surrendered. These +terms were accepted, and he took up his residence +in his ancestral province of Mito. Subsequently he +was permitted to remove to the castle of Sumpu at +Shizuoka. With him the dynasty of Tokugawa +shōguns vanishes from history. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +His adherents, however, still continued to resist +the imperial forces. For months the Aizu troops +hovered about Yedo, and at last came to blows with +the imperial troops at the grounds of the Uyeno +temple on July 4, 1868. It was a hard-fought battle, +and was at last decided by an Armstrong gun in the +hands of the Hizen troops. The fine old temple was +destroyed, and the rebel forces withdrew to the north. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page375">[pg 375]</span><a name="Pg375" id="Pg375" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Further complications arose—fighting at Utsunomiya, +etc.,—but at last they were ended by the surrender +of the castle of Wakamatsu, where the daimyō +of Aizu had made a stand. With generous fortitude +he took the blame upon himself and submitted to +the clemency of his sovereign. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is only necessary now in order to bring to a +close the account of this short military contest, to +refer to the movements of the fleet lying at Shinagawa. +It will be remembered that by the terms +accepted by the ex-shōgun these vessels were to be +surrendered to the imperial forces. There were +seven of them, mounting in all eighty-three guns. +They were under the command of Enomoto Izumi-no-kami, +who had learned in Holland the science of +naval war. He did not approve of his master surrendering +these muniments of war. On the morning +of the day when the vessels were to be delivered +over to the imperial commander, they had disappeared +from their anchorage. In the night +Enomoto had got up steam, crept out through Yedo +bay, and sailed northward to more friendly climes. +The imperial fleet followed, and after some manœuvring +at Sendai proceeded to Hakodate. Here the +warlike operations between the rebels and the +imperial troops lasted till July, 1869. Finally, the +leaders, Enomoto and Matsudaira Tarō, seeing that +it was hopeless to contend longer against a constantly +increasing enemy, offered to commit <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>, +in order that their followers might be saved by a +surrender. Their unselfish purpose was not, however, +permitted. Then it was determined that the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page376">[pg 376]</span><a name="Pg376" id="Pg376" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +two leaders should give themselves up to the besiegers, +to save the rest. This was done. The prisoners +were sent to Yedo, and their gallant conduct and +heroic devotion to the cause of their prince were so +keenly appreciated that they were all pardoned. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While these events were transpiring in the east +and north, the work of establishing a system of administration +was proceeded with at Kyōto. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A constitution was drawn up, detailing the various +departments of the government, and the duties of +the officers in each. These departments were: +1. Of supreme administration; 2. of the Shintō +religion; 3. of home affairs; 4. of foreign affairs; +5. of war; 6. of finance; 7. of judicial affairs; 8. of +legislative affairs. This scheme underwent several +changes, and for a long time was regarded as only +tentative. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ablest men in the movements which were +now in progress were afraid of the traditions of +indulgence and effeminacy which attached to the +court at Kyōto. In order to restore the government +to a true and self-respecting basis, it seemed necessary +to cut loose from the centuries of seclusion in +which the emperor had remained, and enter upon +the work of governing the empire as a serious and +solemn task. It was in this spirit that Ōkubo +Toshimichi of Satsuma, one of the ablest of the +statesmen of the new era, made in 1868 a novel and +startling proposition. It was in a memorial<a id="noteref_319" name="noteref_319" href="#note_319"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">319</span></span></a> addressed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page377">[pg 377]</span><a name="Pg377" id="Pg377" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by him to the emperor. He proposed that +the emperor should abandon the traditions which +had grown up respecting his person and his court, +and rule his empire with personal supervision. To +do this successfully, he recommended that the capital +be transferred from the place of its degrading superstitions +to a new home. He suggested that Ōsaka +be the place selected. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If the emperor's court had been under the same +influences as had governed it in past years, such a +proposition would have been received with horror. +Perhaps even the bold proposer would have been +deemed fit for the ceremony of +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>. But the +men who surrounded the emperor belonged to a +different school, and the emperor himself, although +he was still an inexperienced youth, had already begun +to breathe the freer air of a new life. The proposition +was welcomed, and led to the great change +which followed. After discussion and consideration +it was determined that the emperor should make his +residence not in Ōsaka, which would have been a +great and impressive change, but in Yedo, where for +two hundred and fifty years the family of Ieyasu +had wielded the destinies of the empire. By this +change more than any other was emphasized the +fact that hereafter the executive as well as the ultimate +power was to be found in the same imperial +hands. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Acting on these principles the emperor followed +his victorious army and, November 26, 1869, arrived +at Yedo and took up his residence in the castle. +Reports were made to him of the complete settlement +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page378">[pg 378]</span><a name="Pg378" id="Pg378" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of all difficulties in the north and the establishment +of peace. In token of his arrival the name of +Yedo had been changed to Tōkyō<a id="noteref_320" name="noteref_320" href="#note_320"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">320</span></span></a> (eastern capital), +by which name it has since been known. As a compensation +to the disappointed and disheartened citizens +of Kyōto, their city received the corresponding +designation of Saikyō (western capital). The year-period, +which from January, 1865, had borne the +name of Keiō, had been changed to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Meiji</span></span><a id="noteref_321" name="noteref_321" href="#note_321"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">321</span></span></a> (Enlightened +Peace), and was fixed to begin from +January, 1868. Heretofore the year-periods had +been changed whenever it seemed desirable to mark +a fortunate epoch. But by the edict establishing the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Meiji</span></span> year-period, it was settled that hereafter an +emperor was to make but one change in the year-period +during his reign. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The emperor returned to the western capital during +the spring of 1869 for a brief visit. The usual +etiquette of mourning for his father required his +presence at the imperial tomb. He also availed himself +of this visit to wed the present empress, who was +a princess of the house of Ichijō,<a id="noteref_322" name="noteref_322" href="#note_322"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">322</span></span></a> one of the ancient +families descended from the Fujiwara. He came +back again in April, but there was so much opposition +on the part of the inhabitants of the ancient +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page379">[pg 379]</span><a name="Pg379" id="Pg379" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +capital to the complete loss of their emperor, that it +was deemed most prudent for the newly married +empress to remain behind. She did not set out for +Tōkyō to join her husband until the November following, +where she arrived without incident. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A surprising reminiscence of the Christianity which +was supposed to have been extinguished in the seventeenth +century came to light in 1865. Several Christian +communities in the neighborhood of Nagasaki<a id="noteref_323" name="noteref_323" href="#note_323"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">323</span></span></a> +were discovered, who had preserved their faith for +more than two hundred years. Without priests, +without teachers, almost without any printed instruction, +they had kept alive by tradition through +successive generations a knowledge of the religion +which their ancestors had professed. These communities +had no doubt maintained a discreet quiet as +to the tenets of their belief. They had a traditional +fear of the persecution to which their fathers had +been subjected and sought by silence to remain undisturbed. +It was the rejoicing at their discovery +which directed the attention of the government to +the fire which had been so long smouldering. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A new edict of the imperial government, displayed +upon the public edict-boards in 1868, first called the +notice of the foreign representatives to the measures +which were being taken.<a id="noteref_324" name="noteref_324" href="#note_324"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">324</span></span></a> It was as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“The +evil sect called Christian is strictly prohibited. Suspicious +persons should be reported to the proper +officers, and rewards will be given.”</span> Nearly all the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page380">[pg 380]</span><a name="Pg380" id="Pg380" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +ministers of foreign powers remonstrated against +this proclamation, as throwing discredit on the religions +of their countries. The Japanese officials +defended the punishment of Christians by alleging +the national prejudice against them, which had come +from the preceding centuries. They argued that the +question was one of purely domestic concern, of +which foreign nations could have no adequate +knowledge, and in which they had no right to +interfere. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Christians chiefly lived in Urakami, a village +near Nagasaki. They were said to number about +four thousand. Orders were sent by the government +from Tōkyō in June, 1868, that all the families +who would not recant should be deported and +put in the charge of daimyōs in different provinces. +Only a small part of the Christians were thus exiled. +The government probably dealt with greater leniency +because they found the treaty powers so deeply interested. +Subsequently the measures taken against +the native Christians were withdrawn. In March, +1872, those who had been dispersed among the +daimyōs were granted permission to return to their +homes, and persecution for religious belief was ended +forever. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On April 17, 1869, before his court and an assembly +of daimyōs, the emperor took what has been called +the charter oath<a id="noteref_325" name="noteref_325" href="#note_325"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">325</span></span></a> in five articles, in substance, as +follows: +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. A deliberative assembly shall be formed, and all +measures decided by public opinion. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page381">[pg 381]</span><a name="Pg381" id="Pg381" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. The principles of social and political economics +should be diligently studied by both the superior +and inferior classes of our people. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. Every one in the community shall be assisted +to persevere in carrying out his will for all good +purposes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +4. All the absurd usages of former times should +be disregarded, and the impartiality and justice displayed +in the workings of nature be adopted as the +basis of action. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +5. Wisdom and ability should be sought after in +all quarters of the world for the purpose of firmly +establishing the foundations of the empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The promise in the first article to establish a deliberative +assembly was watched with the greatest +solicitude. And when during the same year the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kogisho</span></span><a id="noteref_326" name="noteref_326" href="#note_326"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">326</span></span></a> (parliament) was called together, great hopes +were entertained of its usefulness. It was composed +of persons representing each of the daimiates, who +were chosen for the position by the daimyōs. It was +a quiet peaceful debating society,<a id="noteref_327" name="noteref_327" href="#note_327"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">327</span></span></a> whose function +was to give advice to the imperial government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +That it was a thoroughly conservative body is +apparent from the result of its discussion upon +several of the traditional customs of Japan. On the +proposition to recommend the abolition of the privilege +of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span> the vote stood: Ayes 3, noes 200, +and not voting 6. On the proposition to abolish +the wearing of swords, which was introduced and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page382">[pg 382]</span><a name="Pg382" id="Pg382" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +advocated by Mori Arinori, the final vote was +unanimously against it in a house of 213.<a id="noteref_328" name="noteref_328" href="#note_328"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">328</span></span></a> After a +short and uneventful career the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kogisho</span></span> was dissolved +in the autumn of the same year in which it was +summoned. It had been a step, but not a very +important step, in the direction of parliamentary +government. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We must now give an account of the most remarkable +event in the modern history of Japan. +We refer to the termination of feudalism by the +voluntary surrender of their feudal rights on the +part of the daimyōs. This action was a logical consequence +of the restoration of the executive power +into the hands of the emperor. It was felt by the +statesmen of this period that in order to secure a +government which could grapple successfully with +the many questions which would press upon it, +there must be a centralization of the powers which +were now distributed among the powerful daimyōs +of the empire. To bring this about by force was +impossible. To discover among the princes a willingness +to give up their hereditary privileges and +come down to the position of a powerless aristocracy +was something for which we have hitherto looked +in vain. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/arinori.png" width="210" height="319" alt="Illustration" title="Mori Arinori." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Mori Arinori.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Doubtless the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">fainéant</span></span> condition of nearly all the +daimyōs at this time made the accomplishment of +this event more easy. With only a few exceptions, +the hereditary princes of the provinces had come to +be merely the formal chiefs of their daimiates. The +real power was in the hands of the energetic and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page383">[pg 383]</span><a name="Pg383" id="Pg383" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +capable <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span>, who were employed to manage +the affairs. They saw that any scheme for transferring +the political authority of the daimyōs to the central +government would render more important their services. +They would become not merely the formal +administrative functionaries, but the real officers to +whom responsible duties and trusts would be confided. +Some of this class of subordinates had already +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page384">[pg 384]</span><a name="Pg384" id="Pg384" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in the new imperial government tasted the savoriness +of this kind of service, and they were ready to carry +out a plan which seemed to have patriotism and +practicability in its favor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most notable circumstance in this series of +events was the presentation to the emperor of an +elaborate memorial signed by the daimyōs of Chōshū, +Satsuma, Tosa, Hizen, Kaga, and others, offering +him the lists of their possessions and men. This +memorial<a id="noteref_329" name="noteref_329" href="#note_329"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">329</span></span></a> appeared in the official gazette March 5, +1869. Its preparation is attributed to Kido Takayoshi, +and bears supreme evidence to his learning +and statesmanship. With lofty eloquence the memorial +exclaims: <span class="tei tei-q">“The place where we live is the +emperor's land, and the food which we eat is grown +by the emperor's men. How can we make it our +own? We now reverently offer up the lists of our +possessions and men, with the prayer that the emperor +will take good measures for rewarding those to +whom reward is due and taking from those to whom +punishment is due. Let the imperial orders be +issued for altering and remodelling the territories of +the various classes.... This is now the most +urgent duty of the emperor, as it is that of his +servants and children.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The example thus set by the most powerful and +influential daimyōs was followed rapidly by others. +Two hundred and forty-one<a id="noteref_330" name="noteref_330" href="#note_330"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">330</span></span></a> of the daimyōs united +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page385">[pg 385]</span><a name="Pg385" id="Pg385" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in asking the emperor to take back their hereditary +territories. And in the end only a small number +remained who had not so petitioned. Prince Azuki +in his memorial says: <span class="tei tei-q">“1. Let them restore the +territories which they have received from the emperor +and return to a constitutional and undivided +country. 2. Let them abandon their titles and +under the name of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kwazoku</span></span> (persons of honor) +receive such properties as may serve for their wants. +3. Let the officers of the clans abandoning that +title, call themselves officers of the emperor, receiving +property equal to that which they have hitherto +held.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In response to these memorials a decree<a id="noteref_331" name="noteref_331" href="#note_331"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">331</span></span></a> was +issued by the emperor August 7, 1869, announcing +the abolition of the daimiates, and the restoration of +their revenues to the imperial treasury. It was also +decreed that the ranks of court nobles +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kugés</span></span>) and of +daimyōs be abolished and the single rank of +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kwazoku</span></span> +be substituted. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus at one stroke the whole institution of feudalism +which had flourished from the time of Yoritomo +was cut away. The government made provision +for the administration by creating prefectures +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ken</span></span>) +to take the place of daimiates. This was done in +1871. At first the daimyōs were appointed governors +of the prefectures. But it was soon found that +these hereditary princes were as a class utterly unfit +for the chief executive offices of their old provinces. +Hence, one by one other competent persons were +appointed to vacancies, until it came to be understood +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page386">[pg 386]</span><a name="Pg386" id="Pg386" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that competence and fitness were to be the +requisite qualifications for such appointments. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The financial questions involved in the suppression +of the feudal system were serious and difficult. +When the daimyōs surrendered their fiefs, they did +so with the understanding that they themselves +should <span class="tei tei-q">“receive such properties as may serve their +wants,”</span><a id="noteref_332" name="noteref_332" href="#note_332"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">332</span></span></a> and that the emperor should take <span class="tei tei-q">“measures +for rewarding those to whom reward is due.”</span><a id="noteref_333" name="noteref_333" href="#note_333"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">333</span></span></a> +It was decided that each ex-daimyō, and each of the +suzerains that were dependent on him, should receive +one tenth of the amount of their income from their +fiefs. The ex-daimyōs received this amount free of +any claims upon them for the support of the non-productive +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span>, who formed the standing armies +of each clan. The central government assumed all +the payments to the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> +for services of whatever +kind. This heavy charge of the government +was met by borrowing $165,000,000,<a id="noteref_334" name="noteref_334" href="#note_334"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">334</span></span></a> which was +added to the national debt. With this sum they +undertook to capitalize the pensions, which was +finally accomplished by a compulsory enactment. +Each claimant received from the government interest-bearing +bonds for the amount of his income reckoned +at from five to fourteen years' purchase according +to its sum. Thus to the great relief of the country +the matter of pensions was disposed of. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To many of the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> this summary settlement +had unfortunate results. The lump sums which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page387">[pg 387]</span><a name="Pg387" id="Pg387" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +they received were often soon consumed, and they +were left penniless and helpless. The traditions +under which they had been trained led them to look +down upon labor and trade with disdain, and rendered +them unfit to enter successfully on the careers +of modern life. In many cases worry and disappointment, +and in others poverty and want, have +been the sequels which have closely followed the +poor and obsolete <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Several minor but noteworthy steps in reform +were taken. The ancient disqualifications of the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">eta</span></span> and +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">heimin</span></span> were removed in 1871, and these +pariahs placed on the same legal footing as the rest +of the population. The first railway in Japan was +opened between Yokohama and Tōkyō in 1872. +The European calendar, so far as it regarded the +beginning of the year and the beginning of the +months, was adopted in 1873. The year was still +counted from Jimmu Tennō, 1873 of the Christian +era corresponding to 2533 of the Japanese era, and +also by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Meiji</span></span> year-period, the commencement of +which was from 1868. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Several international events deserve notice here. +A number of Ryūkyū islanders (vassals of Japan) +had been shipwrecked on Formosa and some killed +by the semi-savage inhabitants. To punish this +cruelty, and to insure a more humane treatment in +the future, the Japanese government sent an expedition +under General Saigō Tsugumichi. They made +short work of the inhuman tribes and enforced upon +them the lesson of civility. China, who claimed a +sovereignty over this island, acknowledged the service +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page388">[pg 388]</span><a name="Pg388" id="Pg388" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Japan had rendered, and agreed to pay an indemnity +for the expenses of the expedition. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The long-pending dispute between Russia and +Japan concerning the boundary in Saghalien was +settled in 1875 by a treaty<a id="noteref_335" name="noteref_335" href="#note_335"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">335</span></span></a> which exchanged the +Japanese claims in Saghalien for the Kurile islands +(Chishima). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An unexpected attack by the Koreans upon a Japanese +steamer asking coal and provisions awakened +an intense excitement in Japan. An expedition +after the pattern of Commodore Perry's, under the +command of General Kuroda Kiyotaka, was despatched +in January, 1876, to come to an understanding +with the Koreans. The negotiations were +entirely successful, and a treaty<a id="noteref_336" name="noteref_336" href="#note_336"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">336</span></span></a> of amity and commerce +was concluded, and thus another of the +secluded kingdoms of the East had been brought +into the comity of nations. Then outbreaks of this +kind in Saga, in Higo, in Akizuki, and in Chōshū +occurred, but they were all put down without difficulty +or delay. The promptness with which the +government dealt with these factions boded no good +to the reactionary movements that were ready to +break out in other places. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although the Satsuma clan had taken the most +prominent part in the destruction of the shōgunate +and in the restoration of an imperial government, +there was in it a greater amount of conservatism and +opposition to modern innovations than was to be +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page389">[pg 389]</span><a name="Pg389" id="Pg389" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +found elsewhere. Indeed, the clan had split into +two distinct parties, the one aiding in all the reforms +and changes which the government was attempting +to carry out, the other holding resolutely to the old +feudal traditions which they saw endangered by the +present attitude of the emperor's counsellors. The +latter party had for its leaders Shimazu Saburō and +Saigō Takamori, both of whom had played conspicuous +parts in the recent history of their country. +The government had tried to conciliate these two +influential men and to secure their co-operation in +the administration. But both had retired from +Tōkyō, and declined longer to share the responsibility +of a course which they could not approve. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Saigō, who was the idol of the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span>, after +his retirement established near Kagoshima a military +school, where the young men of that class were +drilled in the duties of the army. Branch schools +on the same model were also carried on in several +other places in the province. In all it was said that +not less than 20,000 young +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> were receiving a +training in these dangerous schools. They were +filled with the most violent antipathy to the government +and were with difficulty restrained, even by +their leaders, from outbreaks in sympathy with the +uprisings which elsewhere were taking place. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The government was naturally solicitous concerning +these collections of inflammable material. A +collision with the students over the removal of some +stores of arms and ammunition, revealed their readiness +to break into rebellion. It is not improbable +that designing conspirators took advantage of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page390">[pg 390]</span><a name="Pg390" id="Pg390" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +open and chivalric character of Saigō to push him +into the initiation of hostilities. Admiral Kawamura, +himself a Satsuma man and a connection of Saigō, was +sent down to hold an interview with him and if possible +to make a peaceful settlement. But the interview +was declined. The rebellious elements were +at once gathered together, and Saigō, at the head +of a force of 14,000 men, started about the middle of +February, 1877, on his march up the west coast +of Kyūshū, on his way to Tōkyō. The conspirators +estimated that a force of 30,000 troops could be +counted on to take part in the expedition. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first impediment in their march was the castle +of Kumamoto,<a id="noteref_337" name="noteref_337" href="#note_337"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">337</span></span></a> where the government had a garrison +of 2,000 to 3,000 men under General Tani. Saigō +determined to reduce it before making further progress. +He spent several weeks in this vain attempt. +This was a precious delay for the government, which +it spent in organizing and sending forward troops +for opposing the advance of the rebels. All available +forces were collected and put in motion to the +seat of war. Prince Arisugawa-no-miya was appointed +commander-in-chief and established his headquarters +at Fukuoka. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The equipment of troops at the seat of government +was under the supervision of General Saigō +Tsugumichi, a younger brother of the rebel leader. +Loyal as he was to his emperor, it was a painful +task for him to organize war against his brother. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page391">[pg 391]</span><a name="Pg391" id="Pg391" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +With native delicacy he left to others the duty of +fighting on the field, and confined himself to the less +conspicuous part of gathering and sending troops as +they were needed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The rebels had besieged Kumamoto and had already +reduced it to great straits. But the imperial +forces came in time to its relief. There was desperate +fighting, but at last the besiegers were compelled +to withdraw. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +They retreated toward the east coast with the +apparent purpose of seeking a way to the north by +Hyūga and Bungo. Promptly they were followed +and confined to a defensive attitude. The most +desperate battles were fought in this part of the +campaign. Though disappointed and outnumbered, +the rebels fought with consummate bravery. They +were almost in the shadow of the mountains where +their celestial ancestor was fabled to have descended +upon the Japanese islands.<a id="noteref_338" name="noteref_338" href="#note_338"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">338</span></span></a> Their last stand was at +Nobeoka in the northeast corner of Hyūga. Their +leaders realized that to continue the contest would +only cause unnecessary and hopeless slaughter. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Under these circumstances Saigō saw that to end +the fighting and save his followers he must leave +them. Accordingly with about two hundred of +those who were personally devoted to him, he broke +through the imperial line and escaped to Kagoshima. +The army, finding they were forsaken, surrendered, +August 19, 1877. Saigō, with his little band, entrenched +himself on the summit of the hill Shiroyama +overlooking Kagoshima. Here he was surrounded +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page392">[pg 392]</span><a name="Pg392" id="Pg392" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by the imperial forces and bombarded night and +day. The veteran leader was at last wounded in the +thigh, and seeing that all hope of escape was gone, +he requested one of his lieutenants to perform for +him the friendly office of severing his head from his +body. After the capture of the stronghold, the +bodies of Saigō and his comrades were discovered. +Admiral Kawamura himself with tender hands +washed the bloody head of his dead friend, and saw +that the bodies of all were decently buried. Thus, +on September 24, 1877, the last and most serious of +the attempts which have been made to disturb the +empire in its new career came to an end. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There was, however, one mournful sequel to this +rebellion. Ōkubo Toshimichi, a statesman and +patriot of the purest type, had from the beginning +resisted the reactionary movements of his clan. At +the time of the rebellion he was minister of Home +Affairs and put forth all his exertions to suppress it. +A baseless slander that he had sent to Satsuma hired +assassins to take Saigō's life, had been used by the +reckless conspirators to force the rebel leader to an +outbreak. This was believed by many of the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span>, +not only in Satsuma but in other provinces. On +May 14, 1878, Tōkyō was startled by the news that +Ōkubo, while driving through a secluded spot in +the old castle grounds, on his way to the emperor's +palace, had been murdered. The assassins were from +the province of Kaga, and gave as the reason for +their crime their desire to avenge the death of Saigō. +Japan could ill afford to spare at this time her most +clear-headed statesman and her noblest and most +unflinching patriot. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page393">[pg 393]</span><a name="Pg393" id="Pg393" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/okubo.png" width="202" height="309" alt="Illustration" title="Okubo Toshimichi." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Okubo Toshimichi.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What followed these important events must be +told in a summary manner. There was a powerful +and growing party in the empire, who looked forward +to a modification of the absolute form of +government to which they had returned in 1868. +This party was particularly aggressive in the province +of Tosa. They recalled to themselves and +others the solemn pledge which the emperor had +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page394">[pg 394]</span><a name="Pg394" id="Pg394" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +given to his people in his charter oath,<a id="noteref_339" name="noteref_339" href="#note_339"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">339</span></span></a> when he +announced that <span class="tei tei-q">“a deliberative assembly shall be +formed, and all measures decided by public opinion.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The ruling minds in the government feared that +the people were too inexperienced and too unaccustomed +to deciding and acting for themselves to be +entrusted with the grave duty of constitutional government. +As a preparation for so important a step +local assemblies were authorized and established in +1878. Matters referring to the government of each +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">fu</span></span> and +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">ken</span></span> were to be discussed, and to a certain +extent decided in these assemblies. It was believed +that the experience gained in such bodies would go +far towards preparing men for service in an imperial +legislative body. The expectations founded on these +local assemblies were realized and in a fair degree +they continued to fulfil their purpose. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In further pursuance of the plan of constitutional +government, the emperor, on February 11, 1889, at +his palace, promulgated a constitution<a id="noteref_340" name="noteref_340" href="#note_340"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">340</span></span></a> for his people. +In the presence of his cabinet and court he +took a solemn oath to govern under its limitations +and powers. This constitution contains seven chapters +consisting of one hundred and eleven articles: +Chapter I. The Emperor; II. Rights and Duties of +Subjects; III. The Imperial Diet; IV. The Ministers +of State and Privy Council; V. The Judicature; +VI. Finance; VII. Supplementary Rules. +The emperor also announced that the imperial diet +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page396">[pg 396]</span><a name="Pg396" id="Pg396" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +would be convoked in the twenty-third year of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Meiji</span></span> (1890), and that the constitution would go +into effect at the date of its assembling. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/ito.png" width="327" height="430" alt="Illustration" title="Ito Hirobumi." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Ito Hirobumi.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It would seem that no great advance can be +secured in Japan without the sacrifice of a valuable +life. As Ii Kamon-no-kami was murdered in +1860, and as Ōkubo fell by the assassin's hand at the +close of the Satsuma rebellion, so now on the very +day when the emperor was to promulgate this liberal +constitution, Viscount Mori Arinori fell a victim to +the fanatical hatred of one who looked with distrust +upon the progress which his country was making. +No one could look, or did look, on this progress with +more interest than Mori. He had so long and so +earnestly advocated a liberal and tolerant policy in +the councils of his country, and had been a leader in +all that was high and noble, that we cannot regard, +except with profound regret, his untimely death. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page397">[pg 397]</span><a name="Pg397" id="Pg397" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc33" id="toc33"></a> +<a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a> +<a name="Appendix_I" id="Appendix_I" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Appendix I. List Of Emperors.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(The list here printed is the official list issued by the government, +and has been revised by Mr. Tateno, the Japanese Minister at +Washington.) +</p> + +<a name="Pg398" id="Pg398" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg399" id="Pg399" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg400" id="Pg400" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg401" id="Pg401" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="4"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Name.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Date of Access.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Date of Death.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">Age at Death.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">1. Jimmu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">660 B.C.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">585 B.C.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">127</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">2. Suizei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">581</td><td class="tei tei-cell">549</td><td class="tei tei-cell">84</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">3. Annei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">548</td><td class="tei tei-cell">511</td><td class="tei tei-cell">57</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">4. Itoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">510</td><td class="tei tei-cell">477</td><td class="tei tei-cell">77</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">5. Kōshō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">475</td><td class="tei tei-cell">393</td><td class="tei tei-cell">114</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">6. Kōan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">392</td><td class="tei tei-cell">291</td><td class="tei tei-cell">137</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">7. Kōrei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">290</td><td class="tei tei-cell">215</td><td class="tei tei-cell">128</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">8. Kōgen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">214</td><td class="tei tei-cell">158</td><td class="tei tei-cell">116</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">9. Kaikwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">157</td><td class="tei tei-cell">98</td><td class="tei tei-cell">111</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">10. Sūjin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">97</td><td class="tei tei-cell">30 A.D.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">119</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">11. Suinin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">29 A.D.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">70</td><td class="tei tei-cell">141</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">12. Keikō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">71</td><td class="tei tei-cell">130</td><td class="tei tei-cell">143</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">13. Seimu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">131</td><td class="tei tei-cell">190</td><td class="tei tei-cell">108</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">14. Chūai</td><td class="tei tei-cell">192</td><td class="tei tei-cell">200</td><td class="tei tei-cell">52</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jingō (Empress Regent)<a id="noteref_341" name="noteref_341" href="#note_341"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">341</span></span></a></td><td class="tei tei-cell">201</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">269</td><td class="tei tei-cell">100</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">15. Ōjin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">270</td><td class="tei tei-cell">310</td><td class="tei tei-cell">110</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">16. Nintoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">313</td><td class="tei tei-cell">399</td><td class="tei tei-cell">110</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">17. Richū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">400</td><td class="tei tei-cell">405</td><td class="tei tei-cell">67</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">18. Hanzei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">406</td><td class="tei tei-cell">411</td><td class="tei tei-cell">60</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">19. Inkyō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">412</td><td class="tei tei-cell">453</td><td class="tei tei-cell">80</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">20. Ankō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">454</td><td class="tei tei-cell">456</td><td class="tei tei-cell">56</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">21. Yūriyaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">457</td><td class="tei tei-cell">479</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">——</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">22. Seinei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">480</td><td class="tei tei-cell">484</td><td class="tei tei-cell">41</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">23. Kenzō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">485</td><td class="tei tei-cell">487</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">——</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">24. Ninken</td><td class="tei tei-cell">488</td><td class="tei tei-cell">498</td><td class="tei tei-cell">50</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">25. Muretsu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">499</td><td class="tei tei-cell">506</td><td class="tei tei-cell">18</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">26. Keitai</td><td class="tei tei-cell">507</td><td class="tei tei-cell">531</td><td class="tei tei-cell">82</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">27. Ankan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">534</td><td class="tei tei-cell">535</td><td class="tei tei-cell">70</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">28. Senkwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">536</td><td class="tei tei-cell">539</td><td class="tei tei-cell">73</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">29. Kimmei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">540</td><td class="tei tei-cell">571</td><td class="tei tei-cell">63</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">30. Bidatsu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">572</td><td class="tei tei-cell">585</td><td class="tei tei-cell">48</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">31. Yōmei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">586</td><td class="tei tei-cell">587</td><td class="tei tei-cell">69</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">32. Sujun</td><td class="tei tei-cell">588</td><td class="tei tei-cell">592</td><td class="tei tei-cell">73</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">33. Suiko (Empress)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">593</td><td class="tei tei-cell">628</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">75</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">34. Jomei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">629</td><td class="tei tei-cell">641</td><td class="tei tei-cell">49</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">35. Kōkyoku (Empress)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">642</td><td class="tei tei-cell">——</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">——</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">36. Kōtoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">645</td><td class="tei tei-cell">654</td><td class="tei tei-cell">59</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">37. Saimei (re-accession of +Kōkyoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">655</td><td class="tei tei-cell">661</td><td class="tei tei-cell">68</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">38. Tenji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">668</td><td class="tei tei-cell">671</td><td class="tei tei-cell">58</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">39. Kōbun</td><td class="tei tei-cell">672</td><td class="tei tei-cell">672</td><td class="tei tei-cell">25</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">40. Temmu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">673</td><td class="tei tei-cell">686</td><td class="tei tei-cell">65</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">41. Jitō (Empress)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">690</td><td class="tei tei-cell">702</td><td class="tei tei-cell">58</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">42. Mommu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">697</td><td class="tei tei-cell">707</td><td class="tei tei-cell">25</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">43. Gemmyō (Empress)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">708</td><td class="tei tei-cell">721</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">61</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">44. Genshō (Empress)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">715</td><td class="tei tei-cell">748</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">69</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">45. Shōmu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">724</td><td class="tei tei-cell">756</td><td class="tei tei-cell">56</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">46. Kōken (Empress)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">749</td><td class="tei tei-cell">——</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">——</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">47. Junnin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">759</td><td class="tei tei-cell">765</td><td class="tei tei-cell">33</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">48. Kōken (re-enthroned)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">765</td><td class="tei tei-cell">770</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">53</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">49. Kōnin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">770</td><td class="tei tei-cell">781</td><td class="tei tei-cell">73</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">50. Kwammu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">782</td><td class="tei tei-cell">806</td><td class="tei tei-cell">70</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">51. Heijō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">806</td><td class="tei tei-cell">824</td><td class="tei tei-cell">51</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">52. Saga</td><td class="tei tei-cell">810</td><td class="tei tei-cell">842</td><td class="tei tei-cell">57</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">53. Ninna</td><td class="tei tei-cell">824</td><td class="tei tei-cell">840</td><td class="tei tei-cell">55</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">54. Nimmyō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">834</td><td class="tei tei-cell">850</td><td class="tei tei-cell">41</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">55. Montoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">851</td><td class="tei tei-cell">858</td><td class="tei tei-cell">32</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">56. Seiwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">859</td><td class="tei tei-cell">880</td><td class="tei tei-cell">31</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">57. Yōzei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">877</td><td class="tei tei-cell">949</td><td class="tei tei-cell">82</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">58. Kōko</td><td class="tei tei-cell">885</td><td class="tei tei-cell">887</td><td class="tei tei-cell">58</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">59. Uda</td><td class="tei tei-cell">888</td><td class="tei tei-cell">931</td><td class="tei tei-cell">65</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">60. Daigo</td><td class="tei tei-cell">898</td><td class="tei tei-cell">930</td><td class="tei tei-cell">46</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">61. Shujaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">931</td><td class="tei tei-cell">952</td><td class="tei tei-cell">30</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">62. Muragami</td><td class="tei tei-cell">947</td><td class="tei tei-cell">967</td><td class="tei tei-cell">42</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">63. Reizei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">968</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1011</td><td class="tei tei-cell">62</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">64. Enyū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">970</td><td class="tei tei-cell">991</td><td class="tei tei-cell">33</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">65. Kwazan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">985</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1008</td><td class="tei tei-cell">41</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">66. Ichiyō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">987</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1011</td><td class="tei tei-cell">32</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">67. Sanjō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1012</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1017</td><td class="tei tei-cell">42</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">68. Go-Ichijō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1017</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1028</td><td class="tei tei-cell">29</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">69. Go-Shujaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1037</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1045</td><td class="tei tei-cell">37</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">70. Go-Reizei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1047</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1068</td><td class="tei tei-cell">44</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">71. Go-Sanjō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1069</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1073</td><td class="tei tei-cell">40</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">72. Shirakawa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1073</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1129</td><td class="tei tei-cell">77</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">73. Horikawa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1087</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1107</td><td class="tei tei-cell">29</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">74. Toba</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1108</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1156</td><td class="tei tei-cell">54</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">75. Shutoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1124</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1164</td><td class="tei tei-cell">46</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">76. Konoye</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1142</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1155</td><td class="tei tei-cell">17</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">77. Go-Shirakawa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1156</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1192</td><td class="tei tei-cell">66</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">78. Nijō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1159</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1165</td><td class="tei tei-cell">23</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">79. Rokujō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1166</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1176</td><td class="tei tei-cell">13</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">80. Takakura</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1169</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1181</td><td class="tei tei-cell">21</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">81. Antoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1181</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1185</td><td class="tei tei-cell">15</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">82. Go-Toba</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1186</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1239</td><td class="tei tei-cell">60</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">83. Tsuchi-mikado</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1199</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1231</td><td class="tei tei-cell">37</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">84. Juntoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1211</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1242</td><td class="tei tei-cell">46</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">85. Chūkyō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1222</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1234</td><td class="tei tei-cell">17</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">86. Go-Horikawa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1221</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1234</td><td class="tei tei-cell">23</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">87. Yojō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1232</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1242</td><td class="tei tei-cell">12</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">88. Go-Saga</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1242</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1272</td><td class="tei tei-cell">53</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">89. Go Fukakusa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1246</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1304</td><td class="tei tei-cell">62</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">90. Kameyama</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1259</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1305</td><td class="tei tei-cell">57</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">91. Go-Uda</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1274</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1324</td><td class="tei tei-cell">58</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">92. Fushimi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1288</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1317</td><td class="tei tei-cell">53</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">93. Go-Fushimi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1298</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1336</td><td class="tei tei-cell">49</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">94. Go-Nijyō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1301</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1308</td><td class="tei tei-cell">24</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">95. Hanazono</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1308</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1348</td><td class="tei tei-cell">52</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">96. Go-Daigo</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1318</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1339</td><td class="tei tei-cell">52</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">97. Go-Murakami</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1339</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1368</td><td class="tei tei-cell">41</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">98. Go-Kameyama</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1373</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1424</td><td class="tei tei-cell">78</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">99. Go-Komatsu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1382</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1433</td><td class="tei tei-cell">57</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">100. Shōkō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1414</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1428</td><td class="tei tei-cell">28</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">101. Go-Hanazono</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1429</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1470</td><td class="tei tei-cell">52</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">102. Go-Tsuchi-mikado</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1465</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1500</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">59</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">103. Go-Kashiwabara</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1521</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1526</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">63</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">104. Go-Nara</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1536</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1557</td><td class="tei tei-cell">62</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">105. Ōgimachi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1560</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1593</td><td class="tei tei-cell">77</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">106. Go-Yojō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1586</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1617</td><td class="tei tei-cell">47</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">107. Go-Mizuo</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1611</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1680</td><td class="tei tei-cell">85</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">108. Myōshō (Empress)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1630</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1696</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">74</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">109. Go-Kōmyō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1643</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1654</td><td class="tei tei-cell">22</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">110. Go-Nishio</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1656</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1685</td><td class="tei tei-cell">49</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">111. Reigen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1663</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1732</td><td class="tei tei-cell">79</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">112. Higashiyama</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1687</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1709</td><td class="tei tei-cell">35</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">113. Naka-mikado</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1710</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1737</td><td class="tei tei-cell">37</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">114. Sakuramachi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1720</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1750</td><td class="tei tei-cell">31</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">115. Momozono</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1747</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1762</td><td class="tei tei-cell">22</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">116. Go-Sakuramachi (Empress)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1763</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1813</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">74</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">117. Go-Momozono</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1771</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1779</td><td class="tei tei-cell">22</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">118. Kōkaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1780</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1840</td><td class="tei tei-cell">70</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">119. Jinkō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1817</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1846</td><td class="tei tei-cell">47</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">120. Kōmei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1847</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1867</td><td class="tei tei-cell">37</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">121. Mutsuhito (reigning emperor)</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1868</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"></td></tr></tbody></table> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page402">[pg 402]</span><a name="Pg402" id="Pg402" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc35" id="toc35"></a> +<a name="pdf36" id="pdf36"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Appendix II. List Of Year Periods.</span><a id="noteref_342" name="noteref_342" href="#note_342"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">342</span></span></a></h1> + +<a name="Pg403" id="Pg403" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg404" id="Pg404" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg405" id="Pg405" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg406" id="Pg406" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg407" id="Pg407" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg408" id="Pg408" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><a name="Pg409" id="Pg409" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Name.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Japanese Era.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Christian Era.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Taikwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1305</td><td class="tei tei-cell">645</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hakuchi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1310</td><td class="tei tei-cell">650</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Saimei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1315</td><td class="tei tei-cell">655</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1322</td><td class="tei tei-cell">662</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Sujaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1332</td><td class="tei tei-cell">672</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hakuhō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1333</td><td class="tei tei-cell">673</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Suchō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1346</td><td class="tei tei-cell">686</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jitō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1347</td><td class="tei tei-cell">687</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Momm</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1357</td><td class="tei tei-cell">697</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Daihō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1361</td><td class="tei tei-cell">701</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Keiun</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1364</td><td class="tei tei-cell">704</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Wadō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1368</td><td class="tei tei-cell">708</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Reiki</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1375</td><td class="tei tei-cell">715</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Yōrō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1377</td><td class="tei tei-cell">717</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jinki</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1384</td><td class="tei tei-cell">724</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tembiō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1389</td><td class="tei tei-cell">729</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tembiō shōhō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1409</td><td class="tei tei-cell">749</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tembiō hōji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1417</td><td class="tei tei-cell">757</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tembiō jingo</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1425</td><td class="tei tei-cell">765</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jingo keiun</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1427</td><td class="tei tei-cell">767</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hōki</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1430</td><td class="tei tei-cell">770</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1441</td><td class="tei tei-cell">781</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Enriaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1442</td><td class="tei tei-cell">782</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Daidō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1466</td><td class="tei tei-cell">806</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōnin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1470</td><td class="tei tei-cell">810</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenchō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1484</td><td class="tei tei-cell">824</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jōwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1494</td><td class="tei tei-cell">834</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kajō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1508</td><td class="tei tei-cell">848</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ninju</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1511</td><td class="tei tei-cell">851</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Saikō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1514</td><td class="tei tei-cell">854</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1517</td><td class="tei tei-cell">857</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jōgwan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1519</td><td class="tei tei-cell">859</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Gwangiō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1537</td><td class="tei tei-cell">877</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ninna</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1545</td><td class="tei tei-cell">885</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwampei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1549</td><td class="tei tei-cell">889</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōtai</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1558</td><td class="tei tei-cell">898</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Engi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1561</td><td class="tei tei-cell">901</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Enchō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1583</td><td class="tei tei-cell">923</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jōhei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1591</td><td class="tei tei-cell">931</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tengiō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1598</td><td class="tei tei-cell">938</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenriaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1607</td><td class="tei tei-cell">947</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tentoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1617</td><td class="tei tei-cell">957</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ōwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1621</td><td class="tei tei-cell">961</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōhō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1624</td><td class="tei tei-cell">964</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Anna</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1628</td><td class="tei tei-cell">968</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenroku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1630</td><td class="tei tei-cell">970</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ten-en</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1633</td><td class="tei tei-cell">973</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jōgen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1636</td><td class="tei tei-cell">976</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tengen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1638</td><td class="tei tei-cell">978</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eikwan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1643</td><td class="tei tei-cell">983</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwanna</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1645</td><td class="tei tei-cell">985</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ei-en</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1647</td><td class="tei tei-cell">987</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eiso</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1649</td><td class="tei tei-cell">989</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōriaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1650</td><td class="tei tei-cell">990</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chōtoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1655</td><td class="tei tei-cell">995</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chōhō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1659</td><td class="tei tei-cell">999</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwankō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1664</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1004</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chōwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1672</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1012</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwannin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1677</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1017</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ji-an</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1681</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1021</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Manju</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1684</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1024</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chōgen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1688</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1028</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chōriaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1697</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1037</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chōkiū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1700</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1040</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwantoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1704</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1044</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eijō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1706</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1046</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tengi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1713</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1053</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōhei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1718</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1058</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jiriaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1725</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1065</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Enkiū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1729</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1069</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jōhō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1734</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1074</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jōriaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1737</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1077</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eihō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1741</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1081</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ōtoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1744</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1084</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwanji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1747</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1087</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kahō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1754</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1094</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eichō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1756</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1096</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jōtoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1757</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1097</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kowa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1759</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1099</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chōji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1764</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1104</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kajō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1766</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1106</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tennin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1768</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1108</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1770</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1110</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eikiū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1773</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1113</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Genei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1778</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1118</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hō-an</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1780</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1120</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1784</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1124</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Daiji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1786</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1126</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenjō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1791</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1131</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chōjō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1792</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1132</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hō-en</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1795</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1135</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eiji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1801</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1141</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1802</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1142</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenyō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1804</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1144</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kiū-an</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1805</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1145</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Nimbiō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1811</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1151</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kiūju</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1814</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1154</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hōgen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1816</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1156</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Heiji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1819</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1159</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eiriaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1820</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1160</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ōhō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1821</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1161</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chōkwan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1823</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1163</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eiman</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1825</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1165</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ninan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1826</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1166</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ka-ō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1829</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1169</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jō-an</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1831</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1171</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Angen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1835</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1175</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jishō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1837</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1177</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Yōwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1841</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1181</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ju-ei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1842</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1182</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Genriaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1844</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1184</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1845</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1185</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kenkiū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1850</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1190</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1859</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1199</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kennin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1861</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1201</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Genkiū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1864</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1204</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kenei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1866</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1206</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jōgen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1867</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1207</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kenriaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1871</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1211</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kempō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1873</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1213</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jōkiū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1879</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1219</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jō-ō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1882</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1222</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Gennin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1884</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1224</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Karoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1885</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1225</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Antei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1887</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1227</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwangi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1889</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1229</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jō-ei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1892</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1232</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tempuku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1893</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1233</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunriaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1894</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1234</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Katei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1895</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1235</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Riakunin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1898</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1238</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">En-ō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1899</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1239</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ninji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1900</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1240</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwangen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1903</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1243</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hōji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1907</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1247</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kenchō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1909</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1249</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōgen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1916</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1256</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōka</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1917</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1257</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōgen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1919</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1259</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1920</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1260</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōchō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1921</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1261</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1924</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1264</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kenji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1935</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1275</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1938</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1278</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shō-ō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1948</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1288</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Einin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1953</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1293</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1959</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1299</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kengen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1962</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1302</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kagen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1963</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1303</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tokuji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1966</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1306</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Enkiō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1968</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1308</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ōchō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1971</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1311</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1972</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1312</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bumpō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1977</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1317</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Gen-ō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1979</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1319</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Genkō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1981</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1321</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōchū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1984</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1324</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kariaku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1986</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1326</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Gentoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1989</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1329</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōkiō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1992</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1331</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kemmu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1994</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1334</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Engen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1996</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1336</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōkoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1999</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1339</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōhei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2006</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1346</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kentoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2030</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1370</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunchū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2032</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1372</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenju</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2035</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1375</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2041</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1381</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Genchū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2044</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1384</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Meitoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2050</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1390</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ō-ei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2054</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1394</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōchō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2088</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1428</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eikiō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2089</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1429</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kakitsu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2101</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1441</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2104</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1444</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hōtoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2109</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1449</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōtoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2112</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1452</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōshō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2115</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1455</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chōroku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2117</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1457</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwanshō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2120</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1460</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunshō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2126</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1466</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ōnin</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2127</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1467</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bummei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2129</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1469</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chōkō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2147</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1487</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Entoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2149</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1489</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Mei-ō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2152</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1492</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunki</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2161</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1501</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eishō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2164</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1504</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Dai-ei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2181</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1521</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōroku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2188</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1528</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tembun</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2192</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1532</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2215</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1555</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Eiroku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2218</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1558</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Genki</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2230</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1570</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenshō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2233</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1573</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunroku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2252</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1592</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Keichō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2256</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1596</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Genna</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2275</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1615</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwanei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2284</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1624</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōhō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2304</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1644</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kei-an</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2308</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1648</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jō-ō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2312</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1652</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Meireki</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2315</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1655</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Manji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2318</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1658</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwambun</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2321</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1661</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Empō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2333</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1673</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tenna</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2341</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1681</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Jōkiō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2344</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1684</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Genroku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2348</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1688</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hō-ei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2364</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1704</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Shōtoku</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2371</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1711</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kiōhō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2376</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1716</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Gembun</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2396</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1736</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwampō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2401</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1741</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Enkiō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2404</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1744</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwanen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2408</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1748</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hōreki</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2411</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1751</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Meiwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2424</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1764</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Anei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2432</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1772</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Temmei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2441</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1781</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kwansei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2449</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1789</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kiōwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2461</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1801</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunkwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2464</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1804</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunsei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2478</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1818</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Tempō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2490</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1830</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kōkwa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2504</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1844</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ka-ei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2508</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1848</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ansei</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2514</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1854</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Manen</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2520</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1860</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bunkiū</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2521</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1861</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Genji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2524</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1864</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kei-ō</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2525</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1865</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Meiji</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2528</td><td class="tei tei-cell">1868</td></tr></tbody></table> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page410">[pg 410]</span><a name="Pg410" id="Pg410" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc37" id="toc37"></a> +<a name="pdf38" id="pdf38"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Appendix III. List Of Shōguns.</span><a id="noteref_343" name="noteref_343" href="#note_343"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">343</span></span></a></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">I.—The Dynasty of Minamoto. 1186-1219.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. Minamoto Yoritomo, 1186-1199, died; received his +appointment as shōgun in 1192. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Note.</span></span>—In this as in the later cases, the dates will be +cited which correspond to the attainment of power and its +general recognition, but which do not, in many cases, +correspond to the grant of the title, which frequently was +much later. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. Minamoto Yori-iye, 1199-1203, son of the preceding, +first deposed by his grandfather, Hōjō Tokimasa, and +banished to Izu, there was murdered in 1204. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. Minamoto Sanetomo, 1203-1219, eleven years old, +brother of the preceding, murdered by his nephew Kokio, +the son of Yori-iye. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Time of the Shadow Shōguns. 1220-1338.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The shōguns of this period, taken partly from the +Fujiwara family, partly from the princes of the imperial +house, were mostly children, and in every instance the +weak agents of the Hōjō family, whose chiefs, as regents +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">shiken</span></span>), +had the power in their hands, although the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page411">[pg 411]</span><a name="Pg411" id="Pg411" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +nominal bearers of the same were likewise principally +only children. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +4. Fujiwara Yoritsune, 1220-1243, nine years old, +dethroned by Hōjō Tsunetoki, died 1256. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +5. Fujiwara Yoritsugu, 1244-1251, son of the preceding, +seven years old, deposed by H. Tokeyori, died +1256. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +6. Munetaka Shino, 1252-1265, eleven, according to +others thirteen, years old, deposed by H. Tokimune, died +1274. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +7. Koreyasu Shino, 1266-1289, son of the preceding, +three years old, deposed by H. Sadatoki, died 1325 +(1326?). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +8. Hisa-akira Shino, or, as he was called, Kumei Shino, +1289-1307, sixteen years old, deposed by H. Sadatoki, +died 1328. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +9. Morikuni Shino, 1308-1333, son of the preceding, +seven years old, dethroned by Nitsuda Yoshisada, died +in the same year. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +10. Moriyoshi Shino, 1333-1334, son of the reigning +Emperor Go-Daigo, dethroned by Taka-uji, murdered, +in 1335, by Minamoto Nao-yoshi. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +11. Nari-Yoshi Shino, 1334-1338, dethroned and murdered +by Taka-uji. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">II.—The Regents of the Hōjō Family.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hōjō Tokimasa, died 1215, did not have the title of +regent (<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">shiken</span></span>). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hōjō Yoshitoki, 1205-1224, from 1205 regent +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">shiken</span></span>), +murdered. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hōjō Yasutoki, 1225-1242, died. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hōjō Tsunetoki, 1243-1246, grandson of the preceding, +retired in favor of his younger brother, Tokiyori, and +died thirty-three years old. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page412">[pg 412]</span><a name="Pg412" id="Pg412" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hōjō Tokiyori, 1246-1256, retired in favor of his son, +Tokimune, and died 1263, thirty-seven years old. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hōjō Tokimune, 1257-1284, seven years old, under +the guardianship of H. Nagatoki and H. Masamura, died. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hōjō Sadatoki, 1284-1300, adopted son of the preceding, +retired in favor of Morotoki, the grandson of Tokiyori, +but continued to exercise a potent influence over +the regency, died 1311. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hōjō Morotoki, 1300-1311, died. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hōjō Takatoki, 1312-1326, the son of Sadatoki, nine +years old, under the guardianship of Hirotoki and Mune-nobu, +retired in favor of his younger brother, Yasuye, +who likewise soon withdrew. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Until the fall of the Hōjō family Takatoki really conducted +the regency, although others held the title. After +the taking of Kamakura by Nitta Yoshisada in 1333, he +killed himself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">III.—The Dynasty of Ashikaga. 1334-1573.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +12. Ashikaga Taka-uji, 1334-1358, died fifty-three +years old. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +13. Ashikaga Yoshimori, 1359-1367, retired in favor +of his son Yoshimitsu, died 1408, fifty-one years old. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +14. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, 1368-1393, retired in favor +of his son, Yoshimochi, at the age of thirty-seven years, +died 1409. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +15. Ashikaga Yoshimochi, 1394-1422, retired in favor +of his son, Yoshikatsu. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +16. Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, 1423-1425, died nineteen +years old. Ashikaga Yoshimochi, 1425-1428, the fifteenth +shōgun, took the power again, and died forty-three years +old. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +17. Ashikaga Yoshinobu, 1428-1441, murdered by Akamatsu +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page413">[pg 413]</span><a name="Pg413" id="Pg413" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Mitsusuke, forty-eight years old. From 1429 +called Yoshinori. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +18. Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, 1441-1443, son of the preceding, +eight years old, died. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +19. Ashikaga Yoshinari, called Yoshimasa, 1443-1473, +brother of the preceding, eight years old, retired, and +died in 1490. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +20. Ashikaga Yoshinao, 1473-1489, died twenty-five +years old; from 1488, called Yoshihiro. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +21. Ashikaga Yoshimura, 1490-1493, nephew of Yoshimasa, +twenty-five years old, taken prisoner and dethroned +by Hosokawa Motomoto. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +22. Ashikaga Yoshimitsi, 1493-1508, had to flee, died +1511; from 1449 called Yoshitaku, and from 1502 +Yoshisumi; Yoshitada, 1508-1521, is Yoshimura, who +from the year 1501 bore the name, and since that time +was the shōgun of the enemy at war with Yoshisumi, +had to flee, was deposed, and died, 1523. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +23. Ashikaga Yoshinaru, 1521-1546, son of Yoshisumi, +retired in favor of his son, Yoshifushi, died 1550, forty +years old. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +24. Ashikaga Yoshifushi, 1547-1565, eleven years old, +killed himself in his palace, having been confined there +by the rebels. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +25. Ashikaga Yoshigi-ei or Yoshinaga, 1568 died, important +as opposition shōgun. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +26. Ashikaga Yoshi-aki, 1568-1573, deposed by Nobunaga, +died 1597. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">IV.—The Time of the Usurpation. 1573-1603.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +27. Taira-no-Nobunaga, 1573-1582, killed himself, +having been forced to do so by Akechi Mitsuhide. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Akechi Mitsuhide, who usurped the title of shōgun, +ruled only twelve days, and fell conquered by Hideyoshi +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page414">[pg 414]</span><a name="Pg414" id="Pg414" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +28. Samboshi, 1582-1586, grandson of Nobunaga. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +29. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 1586-1598, was never shōgun, +but kwambaku; (on his retirement called Taikō-sama). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +30. Hidetsugu, 1591-1595, nephew of the preceding, +killed himself, was also kwambaku. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +31. Hideyori, 1600-1615, son of Hideyoshi, killed himself, +conquered by Ieyasu. According to other accounts, +he escaped and fled to Satsuma; was Naifu (Minister of +the Interior) from 1603. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">V.—The Dynasty of the Tokugawa. 1603-1868.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +32. Ieyasu, 1603-1605, died 1616; 1603 appointed +shōgun (posthumous title Gongensama). The shōguns of +this dynasty frequently retired, as soon as their successors +grew up, but in spite of this fact they continued to +lead the regency. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +33. Hidetada, 1605-1623, died 1632, son of the preceding. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +34. Iemitsu, 1623-1651, died 1652, son of the preceding. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +35. Ietsuna, 1651-1680, died, son of the preceding. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +36. Tsunayoshi, 1681-1709, son of Iemitsu, killed by +his wife. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +37. Ienobu, 1709-1712, grandson of Iemitsu, died. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +38. Ietsugu (Ietsubo according to Klaproth), 1713-1715, +died, son of the preceding. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +39. Yoshimune, 1716-1745, retired, died 1751, formerly +fifth Prince of Kii. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +40. Ieshige, 1745-1760 (according to others 1761 or +1762), son of the preceding, died. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +41. Ieharu, 1760-1786, son of the preceding, died. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +42. Ienari, 1787-1836, died 1841, son of the preceding. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +43. Ieyoshi, 1837-1852, son of the preceding. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page415">[pg 415]</span><a name="Pg415" id="Pg415" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +44. Iesada, 1853-1857, son of the preceding. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +45. Iemochi, 1858-1866, died, formerly thirteenth +Prince of Kii. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +46. Yoshihisa (Yoshinobu according to Adams, vol. ii. +p. 37), 1867-1868, son of the Prince of Mito, Nari-akira, +adopted by the Prince of Hitotsubashi, retired at the fall +of shōgunate in 1867. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page416">[pg 416]</span><a name="Pg416" id="Pg416" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc39" id="toc39"></a> +<a name="pdf40" id="pdf40"></a> +<a name="Appendix_IV" id="Appendix_IV" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Appendix IV. Laws Of Shōtoku Taishi.</span><a id="noteref_344" name="noteref_344" href="#note_344"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">344</span></span></a></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +[From <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dai Nihonshi</span></span>, vol. xii., folio 28 to 31.] +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I.—Harmony shall be esteemed and obedience shall +be held in regard. Because dissensions prevail, therefore +men are often unfaithful to their prince and disobedient +to their fathers. Let adjoining districts be left in peace, +thus harmony between superior and inferior shall be cultivated +and co-operation in matters of state shall be promoted, +and thus the right reason of all things may be +reached and the right thing accomplished. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +II.—Let bountiful honor be always paid to the three +precious elements of Buddhism, that is, to its priests, its +ritual, and its founder. It is the highest religion in the +universe, and all people in all generations must pay becoming +reverence to its doctrines. Do not harshly censure +men's wickedness but teach them faithfully until they +yield obedience. Unless men rely upon Buddhism there +is no way to convert them from the wrong to the right. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +III.—To the commands of the Emperor men must be +duly obedient. The prince must be looked upon as the +heaven and his subjects as the earth. The earth contains +all things and the heaven stretches over it. The +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page417">[pg 417]</span><a name="Pg417" id="Pg417" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +four seasons pass orderly along and the spirit of the +universe is harmonious. If the earth were to cover the +heaven the effect would be distraction. Hence the prince +must command and the subject obey; superiors must +act and inferiors yield. Men ought therefore to pay due +heed to the orders of the Emperor; if not they will +bring ruin on themselves. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +IV.—Politeness must be the chief rule of conduct for +all officers and their colleagues in the court. The first +principle governing subjects must be politeness. When +superiors are not polite then inferiors will not keep in +the right; when inferiors are not polite their conduct +degenerates into crime. When both prince and subjects +are polite, then social order is never disturbed and +the state is kept in a condition of tranquillity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +V.—Covetousness and rapacity must be expelled from +the hearts of officers, and they must adjudicate with just +discrimination in all suits that come before them. Even +in a single day there are thousands of such suits, and in +the course of years how great must be the accumulation! +If the suit is won through bribery, then the poor man +can obtain no justice but only the rich. The poor man +will have no sure place of dependence, and subjects will +be driven to abandon their duty. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +VI.—To punish vice and to encourage virtue is the +rule in good ancient law. The virtuous man must therefore +be promoted, and the vicious man must be surely +punished. The man who is untruthful is a powerful instrument +to endanger the state and a keen weapon to +destroy the nation. The flatterer loves to tell the faults +of the inferior to the superior, and also to disclose the +errors of the superior to the inferior. Such men are alike +unfaithful to the prince and unfriendly to fellow citizens, +and in the end fail not to stir up social disorder. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page418">[pg 418]</span><a name="Pg418" id="Pg418" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +VII.—The duty of men in the government must be +assigned according to their capacity. When intelligent +men take service the applause of the people follows, but +when bad men are in office calamities ensue. If wise +officers are put on duty the matters of state are well +managed, and the community is free from danger and +prosperity prevails. Therefore in ancient times the wise +king never selected the office for the man, but always +selected the man to suit the office. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +VIII.—Too often officers and their colleagues come +early to their offices and retire soon; so that the public +work accomplished in a single day is small. It is incumbent +on them to devote sufficient time to their tasks; if +not, then the work of the government cannot be done. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +IX.—Everything must be faithfully done, because +fidelity is the origin of justice. The distinction between +good and bad, between success and failure, depends on +fidelity. When both prince and subjects are faithful +then there are no duties which cannot be accomplished, +but when both are unfaithful nothing can be done. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +X.—Give up all thoughts of indignation and be not +angered with others on account of a disagreement of +opinion. Each one may have a different point of view +and may therefore come to a different conclusion. If +the one side be right then the other must be wrong, or +the cases may be just reversed. It would be unjust to +set down one man as surely wise and another as positively +stupid; because men cannot attain perfection in their +characters. It is impossible to decide either side to be +perfectly right or perfectly wrong. While you are angry +with another who has a different view from you, you cannot +be sure lest you be in the wrong. Therefore though +you may think yourself in the right, it is safer to follow +the opinions of the many. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page419">[pg 419]</span><a name="Pg419" id="Pg419" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +XI.—Let merit and demerit be carefully considered, +and let rewards and punishments be meted out accordingly. +In times past this has often failed to be justly +done. It is incumbent on all who are entrusted with the +direction of public affairs and on all officers of the government +to look carefully after the distribution of +rewards and punishments. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +XII.—Governors of provinces and their deputies must +be careful not to impose too heavy duties on their subjects. +One state never has more than one prince, and in +like manner the subjects cannot have more than one +master. The prince is the head of all his dominions and +of all his subjects. The officers of government are also +the subjects of the prince; and there is no reason why +they should dare to lay undue burdens upon others who +are subjects of the same prince. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +XIII.—Each officer of the government has his appointed +duty. Sometimes officers complain of the stagnation +of business, which, however, is caused by their +own absence from their appointed duties. They must +not make a pretence of the performance of their duties, +and by their neglect interrupt public affairs. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +XIV.—Subjects and officers must not be jealous +of each other. If one person is envious of another, +the second is sure to be envious of the first. Thus +the evils of jealousy never end. If men shall envy +each other on account of their talent and wisdom, no +single wise man would ever be obtained for government +service through a thousand years. What a noble method +of governing a state would that be which expelled from +its service all wise men! +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +XV.—To sacrifice private interests for the public good +is the duty of the subject. When men are selfish there +must be ill-will; when ill-will comes, then with it must +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page420">[pg 420]</span><a name="Pg420" id="Pg420" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +come iniquity, which will disturb the public welfare. Ill-will +is sure to bring about the breaking of wholesome +rules and the violation of the laws of the state. It is +for this reason that the harmony between superior and +inferior spoken of in the first article is so important. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +XVI.—To select a convenient season in which to employ +men for public work is the rule of good ancient +law. Winter is a time of leisure; but during the season +between spring and autumn, in which they are employed +on their farms and in feeding silk-worms, it is not expedient +to take men from their work, or interfere with +them in their efforts to supply food and clothing. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +XVII.—Important matters should only be settled after +due conference with many men. Trifling matters may be +decided without conference, because they are not so material +in their effects; but weighty matters, on account of +their far-reaching consequences, must be discussed with +many councillors. It is thus that the right way shall be +found and pursued. +</p> + +</div> +</div> +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc41" id="toc41"></a> + <a name="pdf42" id="pdf42"></a> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href="#noteref_1">1.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The +Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian</span></span>; translated by Colonel +Henry Yule, C.B. Second edition, London, 1875, vol. ii., p. 235.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href="#noteref_2">2.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These islands belonged to Russia until 1875, +when by a treaty they were ceded to Japan in exchange for the rights of possession +which she held in the island of Saghalien.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href="#noteref_3">3.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. M. Satow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of +the Asiatic Society</span></span>, vol. i., p. 30.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href="#noteref_4">4.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This word is not a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">proper name</span></em> +but a descriptive designation, +and must be understood in this way when used by Dr. Griffis in his +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mikado's Empire</span></span> and by Dr. Rein in his two works on Japan. In +the successive issues of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Résumé Statistique</span></span>, published by the +Statistical Bureau, the term Nippon is used to designate the principal +island. This name has the advantage of having been used extensively +in foreign books, but its restricted use is contrary to the custom +of Japan. After much consideration we have determined to +designate the principal island by the term <span class="tei tei-q">“Main island,”</span> which is +the translation of the word <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hondo</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href="#noteref_5">5.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +Satow and Hawes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. 108.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href="#noteref_6">6.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Chamberlain's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things +Japanese</span></span>, second edition, p. 122.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href="#noteref_7">7.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">One of the most notable of these is that which occurred in 1596 +when Hideyoshi was at Fushimi. In 1854 a series of shocks followed +by tidal waves occurred on the east coast of the Main island. +The town of Shimoda, which had been opened as a port for foreign +trade was almost destroyed, and the Russian frigate <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Diana</span></span> which +was lying there was so injured that she had to be abandoned. In +1855 a severe earthquake occurred at Yedo, which was accompanied +by a great fire. About 16,000 dwelling-houses and other buildings +are said to have been destroyed, and a large number of lives were +lost. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, +vol. vi., p. 249.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href="#noteref_8">8.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rein's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. 44. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things Japanese</span></span> +second edition, p. 122, Japan is credited with no less than fifty-one +active volcanoes.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href="#noteref_9">9.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The word +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">gawa</span></span> (river) +takes the form <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kawa</span></span> when euphony so +requires.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href="#noteref_10">10.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Rein was the first clearly to apprehend and state the +influence of the northeast monsoon on the climate of Japan. See Rein's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. 104.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href="#noteref_11">11.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Camellia +trees are frequently found from twenty to twenty-five +feet high.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href="#noteref_12">12.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Chamberlain, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. +xi., p. 162.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href="#noteref_13">13.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These details of the population, area, +etc., are taken from the government publication, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Résumé Statistique de l'Empire du Japon</span></span>, 1892.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href="#noteref_14">14.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the population of the imperial cities is included +that of the suburban districts politically attached to them.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href="#noteref_15">15.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Résumé Statistique</span></span> +(Government publication), 1892, p. 11.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href="#noteref_16">16.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +supplement to vol. x., p. 213.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href="#noteref_17">17.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Batchelor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. x., p. 211.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href="#noteref_18">18.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Batchelor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic +Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. x., p. 216.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href="#noteref_19">19.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss Bird's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Unbeaten Tracks in Japan</span></span>, vol. ii., p. 96.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href="#noteref_20">20.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Professor E. S. Morse, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memoirs of the University of Tokio</span></span>, +vol. i., part i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href="#noteref_21">21.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Henry von Siebold, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on Japanese Archæology</span></span>, p. 14.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href="#noteref_22">22.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“But +I must tell you one thing still concerning that island (Japan) +(and 'tis the same with the other Indian Islands), that if the natives +take prisoner an enemy who cannot pay a ransom, he who hath the +prisoner summons all his friends and relations, and they put the prisoner +to death, and then they cook him and eat him, and they say there +is no meat in the world so good!”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of Ser Marco +Polo</span></span>, London, 1875, vol. ii., p. 245.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href="#noteref_23">23.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Professor Milne, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions +of the Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, vol. viii., p. 82.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href="#noteref_24">24.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rev. John +Batchelor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions +of the Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, vol. x., p. 209.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href="#noteref_25">25.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hildreth's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, etc., p. 337.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href="#noteref_26">26.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mittheilungen +der Deutschen Gesellschaft</span></span>, etc., as reviewed in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Chrisanthemum</span></span>, May, 1883.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href="#noteref_27">27.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rein's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, +p. 383.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href="#noteref_28">28.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“We know that for +all points of detail and for keeping a correct +account of time, tradition is worthless.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The +History of Rome</span></span>, by +Rev. Thomas Arnold, D.D., 1864, p. 10.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href="#noteref_29">29.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For easy +access to this valuable Japanese work we are indebted to +the translation by Basil Hall Chamberlain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic +Society of Japan</span></span>, vol. x., Supplement.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href="#noteref_30">30.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Chamberlain's translation of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Records of Ancient +Matters</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, vol. +x., Supplement.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href="#noteref_31">31.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Satow, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ancient Japanese Rituals,”</span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic +Society of Japan</span></span>, vols. vii. and ix.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href="#noteref_32">32.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Satow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Westminster Review</span></span>, +July, 1878.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href="#noteref_33">33.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<a href="#Appendix_I" class="tei tei-ref">Appendix I</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href="#noteref_34">34.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bramsen, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japanese Chronological Tables</span></span>, p. +30.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href="#noteref_35">35.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I remember +presenting this point to a Japanese scholar in this +way, and he answered me that he thought this great age of the Japanese +emperors no more wonderful or unreasonable than the ages of +the patriarchs in the Bible.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href="#noteref_36">36.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“I +wished to give these legends at once with the best effect, and +at the same time with a perpetual mark, not to be mistaken by the +most careless reader,—they are legends and not +history.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The +History of Rome</span></span> by Thomas Arnold, D.D., 1864, Preface, p. vii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href="#noteref_37">37.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the translation of these names, and for the principal events +of these myths, we rely upon Mr. Chamberlain's translation of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>, and his admirable notes and introduction. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, vol. x., +Supplement.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href="#noteref_38">38.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is supposed to +have been one of the small islands off the +coast of Awaji in the Inland sea.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href="#noteref_39">39.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An island +about fifty miles long in the Inland sea.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href="#noteref_40">40.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This probably means +that the sword was ten breadths of the hand +in length.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href="#noteref_41">41.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Japanese name of this +most venerated goddess is Amaterasu-ō-mi-kami.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href="#noteref_42">42.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There seemed to +have been an old superstition about flaying +from the tail toward the head.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href="#noteref_43">43.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is one of the +ancient names of the Main island of Japan.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href="#noteref_44">44.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The name of this prince of which the translation is here given is +usually shortened to Ninigi-no-Mikoto.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href="#noteref_45">45.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Nakatomi-no-Muraji is also among these, who was the +ancestor of the Fujiwara family that from the reign of the Emperor Tenji +attained great political distinction.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href="#noteref_46">46.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Rein in 1875 was +shown an old sword on the top of this mountain which is +claimed to have been carried on this occasion.—Rein's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. 214, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href="#noteref_47">47.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This canonical name +was given to him in the reign of the +Emperor Kwammu, who commanded Mifune-no-Mikoto to select +suitable canonical names for all past emperors, and these have since +been used.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href="#noteref_48">48.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Milne's paper on <span class="tei tei-q">“Pit-Dwellers +of Yezo and Kurile Islands,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic Society +of Japan</span></span>, vol. x., p. 187.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href="#noteref_49">49.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A large number of +songs are handed down in the traditions of this +period. They are in the most ancient form of the language and are +not easy to translate. We give as a specimen Jimmu's song from +Chamberlain's translation of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. x., Supplement, p. 142. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Into the great cave of Ōsaka people have +entered in abundance and are there. +Though people have entered in abundance +and are there, the children of the augustly +powerful warriors will smite and finish them +with their mallet-headed swords, their +stone-mallet swords: the children of the +augustly powerful warriors, with their +mallet-headed swords, their stone-mallet +swords, would now do well to +smite. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href="#noteref_50">50.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For example, the organization +of a parliament took place in 1890, +which in the Japanese reckoning would be 2550 from Jimmu's setting +up his capital in Yamato.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href="#noteref_51">51.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref">32</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href="#noteref_52">52.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See list of emperors, <a href="#Appendix_I" class="tei tei-ref">Appendix +I</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href="#noteref_53">53.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Satow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic Society +of Japan</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 113.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href="#noteref_54">54.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">We follow in these figures the +chronology which has been authorized +by the government. <a href="#Appendix_I" class="tei tei-ref">Appendix I</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href="#noteref_55">55.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. M. Satow, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Ancient Sepulchral Mounds in Kaudzuke,”</span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, vol. +viii., pp. 11, 330.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href="#noteref_56">56.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Chamberlain's translation of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>,—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic +Society of Japan</span></span>, vol. x., Supplement, p. 208.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href="#noteref_57">57.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The roads or circuits here spoken of refer +to the roads constructed by the government along contiguous provinces and used for the +passage of troops and other government purposes. These circuits +have continued in use down to the present time.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href="#noteref_58">58.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Yamato-hime or +Yamato-princess had been appointed high priestess of the temples in Isé, and in that +capacity had charge of the imperial +regalia which were deposited there. She is a very celebrated +person in Japanese legendary story and is said to have lived several +hundred years. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +See Chamberlain's translation of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>, p. 183, note 7; +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. x., Supplement.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href="#noteref_59">59.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref">45</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href="#noteref_60">60.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Satow's paper on the use +of the fire drill in Japan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions +of Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, vol. vii., p. 223.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href="#noteref_61">61.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is +one of the favorite subjects of Japanese art to represent the +Princess Oto-Tachibana sitting upon a pile of mats and the boat with +her husband sailing off in the quieted waters.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href="#noteref_62">62.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The name by which these +savage tribes were designated was +Yemishi; the name however is written in Chinese characters which +signify Prawn-Barbarians; in allusion to their heavy beards which +gave them the appearance of prawns. See p. <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref">22</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href="#noteref_63">63.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Chamberlain's translation of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span>,—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. x., Supplement, p. 218.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href="#noteref_64">64.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He is chiefly +notable to foreigners because he is said to have +lived through the reigns of three emperors and to have reached the +age of three hundred years.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href="#noteref_65">65.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">She is not included in +the government list of emperors, and is +given in Appendix I. as empress-regent.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href="#noteref_66">66.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kokushian</span></span>, compiled under the +Department of Education. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ad Locum</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href="#noteref_67">67.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<a href="#Appendix_I" class="tei tei-ref">Appendix I</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href="#noteref_68">68.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the +Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, vol. x., Supplement.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href="#noteref_69">69.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. M. Satow, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, +vol. ii., p. 135.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href="#noteref_70">70.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. M. Satow, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, +vol. vi., p. 435.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href="#noteref_71">71.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Satow, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ancient +Japanese Rituals,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. vii., p. 423.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href="#noteref_72">72.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">E. M. Satow, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic +Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. vii., p. 109.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href="#noteref_73">73.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ditto, p. 119.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href="#noteref_74">74.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cotton is said to have been brought to Japan from India in the +reign of the Emperor Kwammu, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 800. T. B. Poate, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, vol. iv., +p. 146.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href="#noteref_75">75.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of the Asiatic Society of +Japan</span></span>, vol. x., Supplement, +pp. 39 and 40.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href="#noteref_76">76.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Henry von Siebold, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japanese Archæology</span></span>, +Yokohama, 1879, p. 16. The diagram in the text is from this work on Archæology, +and shows the variety of jewels in use in prehistoric times.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href="#noteref_77">77.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the so called cave dwellings see p. +<a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref">68</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href="#noteref_78">78.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. v., p. 110.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href="#noteref_79">79.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. +<a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref">32</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href="#noteref_80">80.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span> +it is said that the king of Kudara sent with Wani +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Confucian Analects</span></span> in ten volumes and +the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Thousand Character +Essay</span></span> in one volume. It conflicts seriously with the chronology of +this period to learn, as both Mr. Satow and Mr. Chamberlain have +pointed out, that the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Thousand Character Essay</span></span> was not written +until two centuries after the date assigned to the advent of Wani.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href="#noteref_81">81.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki's</span></span> statement is that the elder brother was banished to +Iyo.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href="#noteref_82">82.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The name, <span class="tei tei-q">“Island +of the Dragon-Fly”</span> had already been given +to the Main island by Jimmu Tenno.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href="#noteref_83">83.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In these early days a +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">muro</span></span> or excavation of the earth, roofed with +timber, was often used as a residence. See p. <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref">68</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href="#noteref_84">84.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In this story the +princes are represented as boys, but as they fled +on the murder of their father by the Emperor Yūriyaku before his +accession, this must have been at least twenty-eight years before; so +that they could not have been less than forty years of age. +</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href="#noteref_85">85.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">After the triumph of Buddhism a temple +called Tennoji was erected near this place in honor of this image, which was miraculously +rescued from the sea and is still preserved at this temple.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href="#noteref_86">86.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the laws which he +compiled and published as found in the +12th volume of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dai Nihon Shi</span></span>, +<a href="#Appendix_IV" class="tei tei-ref">Appendix IV</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href="#noteref_87">87.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This must mean that improved methods of silk culture were +introduced, for we have seen that this art was already known to +the Japanese.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href="#noteref_88">88.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bramsen's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japanese +Chronological Tables</span></span>, Tokio, 1880, p. 18.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href="#noteref_89">89.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The author is indebted to the valuable paper read +before the Asiatic Society of Japan by Willis Norton Whitney, M.D., for much +of the information concerning medicine in Japan.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. xii., part iv., p. 329.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href="#noteref_90">90.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For an enumeration of these boards and the +officers and duties of each, see Walter Dickson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. +72.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href="#noteref_91">91.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a note by Mr. Satow +in Adams' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, London, +vol. i., p. 24.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href="#noteref_92">92.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic +Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. iii., part i.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href="#noteref_93">93.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic +Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. x., Supplement.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href="#noteref_94">94.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kojiki</span></span> +has been translated into English by Professor B. H. +Chamberlain, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. x., +Supplement.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href="#noteref_95">95.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Mori Arinori's +introduction to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Education in Japan</span></span>, New +York, 1873, p. 17.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href="#noteref_96">96.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a paper on +<span class="tei tei-q">“Abdication and Adoption,”</span> by Mr. Shigeno +An-Eki, translated by Mr. Walter Dening, in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. xv., p. 72.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href="#noteref_97">97.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His +predecessor died <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 661, and there was an +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">interregnum</span></em> during which Tenji was regent till +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 668, when he was made +emperor.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href="#noteref_98">98.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>, +note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href="#noteref_99">99.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quoted in Henry von Siebold's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japanese Archæology</span></span>, Yokohama +1879, p. 8.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100" href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref">58</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101" href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Satow and Hawes' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook of Japan</span></span>, London, 1884.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102" href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For ten years +preceding 794 the capital was a wanderer.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103" href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">See the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions of +the Asiatic Society of Japan</span></span>, vol. viii., +p. 88. The inscription is in part as follows: +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Castle of Taga,<br /> +Distant from the capital, Ri 1500<br /> +Distant from the frontier of Yezo, Ri 120<br /> +Distant from Hitachi, Ri 412<br /> +Distant from Shimotsuke, Ri 274<br /> +Distant from Makkatsu, Ri 3000. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104" href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Education in Japan</span></span>, New York, 1873, +p. 17.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105" href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. +<a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106" href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These instances are taken from the paper on +abdication and adoption, by Shigeno An-eki, as translated by Mr. Walter Dening, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. xv., p. 74.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107" href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Chamberlain's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things +Japanese</span></span>, under the article on abdication. +Yokohama, 1892.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108" href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +p. <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref">66</a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109" href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">At the time that +Dickson collected his statistics of the families +of the court, two of the Sugawara family were teachers of the young +emperor. Six families of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kuges</span></span> +count their descent from the Sugawara. Dickson's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, London, 1869, p. 59.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110" href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See chapter on <span class="tei tei-q">“Education in the Early Ages,”</span> +by Otsuki Sinji, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japanese Education</span></span>, New York, 1876, +p. 64.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111" href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">While I write these +lines there is hanging before me a <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kakemono</span></span> +representing Sugawara Michizané, which it has been proposed to hang +in every public school under the care of the Department of Education, +as an emblem of the true scholarly temperament.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112" href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. +<a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref">132</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113" href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Satow and Hawes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. +383.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114" href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He was born in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1146 and therefore was twelve years older +than Yoshitsuné.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115" href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Doves are not eaten by the Minamoto to this day, owing, +it is said, to this miraculous interposition in behalf of Yoritomo.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116" href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">About <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +1618 Hakoné was created a barrier to separate the +eastern from the central provinces. Persons were not allowed to go +through this barrier without a passport.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117" href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1286, +more than a century after his death, a monument +was erected to Kiyomori in Hyōgo which still exists. Satow and +Hawes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. 338.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118" href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The title +of shōgun is said to have been created by the Emperor +Sujin, who divided the empire into four military divisions, each +commanded by a shōgun or general. When Yoshinaka assumed +control in Kyōto at the time of his victory he was appointed +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">sei-i-shōgun</span></span> +(barbarian compelling general). Subsequently Yoritomo +secured the supreme military authority and having resigned the civil +offices held by him he was appointed by imperial edict +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">sei-i-tai-shōgun</span></span> +or great barbarian compelling general. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +See G. Appert's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ancien Japon</span></span>, vol. iii., p. 84; also Satow's note +to Adams' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. i., p. 42. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119" href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Adams, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of +Japan</span></span>, vol. i., p. 37, gives a quaint +quotation from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nihon-Gwaishi</span></span> as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“The crimes of the +Heishi against the imperial family were atoned for by their services, +and heaven therefore would not cut off their posterity. And this +probably was right.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120" href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Satow and Hawes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. +57.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121" href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">There are almost as many legends current concerning +Benkei as his master. Their first encounter was upon the Gojō bridge in Kyōto, +where Benkei prowled for the purpose of robbing passengers. Yoshitsuné, +then only a youth of sixteen years, displayed so much agility +and swordsmanship that the veteran robber yielded to him, and ever +after followed him as his faithful body servant. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japanese Fairy +World</span></span>, by W. E. Griffis, contains the legend of Benkei stealing a +huge bell five feet high from the monastery at Miidera, and carrying +it on his shoulders to Hiyēsan (see p. 93). When Yoshitsuné was +compelled to flee from the vengeance of his brother, he came with +Benkei, both disguised as begging priests, to a guarded barrier. +The custodians refused them passage, but Benkei, who was cunning +as well as strong, pulled out from his bosom a roll of blank paper +and pretended to read a commission from the abbot of Hōkōji, in +Kyōto, authorizing the two travellers to collect funds throughout the +country for casting a great bell for their temple. The custodians +were deeply impressed with this holy message and allowed the +travellers to pass without further question.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122" href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There +are many legends, existing among the Ainos, of Yoshitsuné +having lived among them and taught them improved arts of hunting +and fishing. There is a wooden image of him at the village of Upper +Piratori, which is saluted (not worshipped) in token of honor to his +memory. Rev. John Batchelor, who has lived as a missionary among +the Ainos many years, is of the opinion that this reverence is largely +due to a desire on the part of the Ainos to conciliate their Japanese +masters. It has seemed not unreasonable to suppose that the traditions +concerning Yoshitsuné among the Ainos have been carried from +the Main island by the retreating tribes, and that Yoshitsuné never +lived with them in Yezo, but was only familiar with them in the wild +regions of Mutsu and Dewa. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +See paper by Rev. J. Batchelor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. xvi., part 1, p. 20.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123" href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ōye-no-Hiromoto was a powerful adherent +of Yoritomo, and was a member of his administrative council. He was the ancestor of +the Mōri family, who afterward became famous as the daimyōs of +Chōshū.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124" href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">We owe to Kaempfer, perhaps, the erroneous notion +which has been repeated by subsequent writers that there was both an ecclesiastical +and a temporal emperor. This was never true. There has +been only one emperor, who, in the Japanese theory, was the direct +descendant of divine ancestors and who has always been the supreme +authority. From the time of Yoritomo, however, the administration +was in the hand of an hereditary shōgun who always received the +commission of the emperor for the performance of his duties. See +Kaempfer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de l'Empire du Japon</span></span>, vol. +i., p. 182.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125" href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Japanese term is +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Shikken</span></span>, +which is usually translated <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">regent</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126" href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A +travelling palanquin.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127" href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Travels of Marco Polo</span></span>, +second edition, London, 1875, vol. +ii., p. 240.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128" href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the year +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1890 two pictures were brought to light which +represent the events of this memorable battle. They are believed to +have been painted about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1294 by Naganori and Nagatoki, +painters of the Tosa school. They have been in the family of one of +the captains in the Japanese army of that day, and while the figures +of the men and horses are not well drawn the pictures in other respects +have great historical value. Alongside of the scenes represented, +legends are written in explanation. It is said that these +valuable historical pictures are likely to come into the Household +Department and thus be more carefully preserved than they are likely +to be in a private house.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan Weekly Mail</span></span>, +1890, p. 581.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129" href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For +a description of this locality, which is justly famed in Japanese +annals, see Satow and Hawes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. 56.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130" href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Chamberlain's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, 1891, p. 337.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131" href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quite an +animated and interesting controversy took place a few +years ago with reference to this suicide of Kusunoki. Popular +opinion strongly justifies the act and rewards with its highest approval +the memory of the patriot. But Mr. Fukuzawa, one of the most +radical of the public men of to-day and an active and trenchant +writer, condemned the act as indefensible and cowardly.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132" href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Griffis says +that when he resided in Fukui in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1871—more +than five hundred years after the event,—he saw the grave of the +heroic Nitta almost daily strewed with flowers.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The +Mikado's Empire</span></span>, 1876, p. 190.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133" href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Satow and Hawes' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. 356.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134" href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is an evidence of the feeling which still exists towards +the Ashikaga shōguns that in 1863 these figures were taken from the +Tō-ji-in and beheaded and the heads pilloried in the dry bed of +the Kamogawa, at the spot where it is customary to expose the heads +of the worst criminals. Several of the men who were guilty of this +outrage were captured and were put into the hands of various +daimyōs by whom they were kept as prisoners.—Satow and Hawes' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. 357.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135" href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the full account of +tea ceremonies in Chamberlain's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things +Japanese</span></span>, 1892, p. 404.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136" href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The official list of +emperors will be found in Appendix I. The +names of the northern which are not included in this list are as +follows: +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Date of Accession.</span></span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Kōmiō, 1996 years from Jimmu, 1336 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span><br /> +Shukō, 2009 years from Jimmu, 1349 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span><br /> +Go-Kōgen, 2012 years from Jimmu, 1352 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span><br /> +Go-Enyū, 2032 years from Jimmu, 1372 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span><br /> +Go-Komatsu, 2043 years from Jimmu, 1383 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137" href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. xiii., p. 139.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138" href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is +said that in this disastrous time the poverty of the country +was so great that when, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1500, Go-Tsuchimikado died at +his palace in Kyōto, the corpse was kept for forty days because the means +for the usual funeral expenses could not be had. M. von Brandt as +quoted in Rein's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. 261.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139" href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. W. A. Woolley, +in a paper read before the Asiatic Society of +Japan, gives an account derived from Japanese sources as follows: +<span class="tei tei-q">“Amongst those who landed on this occasion was one of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Literati</span></span> of China, who acted as interpreter between the +foreigners and the chief of the island Hyōbu-no-jō Tokitada. [Since both the Chinese +and Japanese used the same ideographic characters, they could understand +each other's writing but not speech.] In reply to questions the +interpreter is represented as having described his friends the foreigners +as being ignorant of etiquette and characters, of the use of wine +cups and chop sticks, and as being, in fact, little better than the +beasts of the field. The chief of the foreigners taught Tokitada the +use of firearms, and upon leaving presented him with three guns +and ammunition, which were forwarded to Shimazu Yoshihisa, and +through him to the shōgun.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic +Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. ix., p. 128.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140" href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adventures +of Mendez Pinto</span></span>, done into English by Henry +Cogan, London, 1891, pp. 259 etc.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141" href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hildreth's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, +etc., 1855, p. 27, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142" href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adventures +of Mendez Pinto</span></span>, p. 281.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143" href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the name +by which Pinto calls this city (see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adventures of +Mendez Pinto</span></span>, London, 1891, p. 265); the real name, however, at +this time was Fumai, and is now Ōita.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144" href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The author himself +saw in Japan in 1874 the native hunters using +an old-fashioned matchlock, in which the powder was fired by a slow +burning match, which was brought down to the powder by a trigger. +This kind of firearm, which was in use in Europe in the fifteenth +century, was taken to Japan by the Portuguese, and continued to be +used there until the re-organization of the army introduced the modern +form of gun.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145" href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the accounts +given by the biographers of Xavier, it is said that +there were two companions of Anjiro who in the subsequent baptism +received the names of John and Anthony.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146" href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This was +the name of the seminary in Goa where Anjiro had +been educated.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147" href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Coleridge's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life +and Letters of St. Francis Xavier</span></span>, London, +1872, p. 237.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148" href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bouhour's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Xavier</span></span>, p. 274.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149" href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of St. Francis Xavier</span></span> by Bartholi and Maffei the +following circumstance is given: <span class="tei tei-q">“It seems that a rat had invaded +the sanctuary and gnawed the ornaments of the altar. The sacristan +appealed to the saint thus: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Father Francis! people say that you +passed from this life in the vicinity of China; that you were a saint, +that your body still remains entire and incorrupt at Goa. Now here +am I your sacristan; and I ask is it consistent with your honor that a +rat should have the audacity to gnaw the ornaments of your altar? I +demand his death at your hand.’</span> On opening the door of the sanctuary +the next morning the sacristan found the culprit quite dead.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150" href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Woolley, <span class="tei tei-q">“Historical +Notes on Nagasaki”</span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. ix., p. 129.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151" href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For these facts concerning Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, and the +condition of the country during their times, the author is largely +indebted to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, by Walter Dening, +Tokio, 1890.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152" href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The word <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">daimyō</span></span> means +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">great name</span></span>, and was used in reference +to the ownership of land; <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">shomyō</span></span> means +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">small name</span></span>, and was at first +employed to indicate the small land-owner. But the word never +obtained currency, the small land-owner always preferring to call +himself a daimyō. See Chamberlain's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things Japanese</span></span>, +p. 84.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153" href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The element +of comedy shows itself from the beginning in +Hideyoshi's character when he adopted the calabash, in which he had +carried water, as his symbol of victory. He added a new one for +each victory, and at last adopted a bunch of calabashes for his coat-of-arms. +Afterwards he had this constructed of gold, which was +carried as the emblem of his triumphant career.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154" href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dening's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Hideyoshi</span></span>, p. 207.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155" href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Chamberlain's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things Japanese</span></span> the estimate is given that at +this most prosperous time the number of Japanese professing Christianity +was not less than six hundred thousand, p. 297.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156" href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the +letter which the ambassador from the Prince of Bungo +presented on this occasion. Hildredth's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, +etc., p. 89.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157" href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the First Part +(1873) of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mittheilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft +für Natur und Völkerkunde Ostasiens</span></span>, p. 15, the times of +Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, etc., are termed <span class="tei tei-q">“die zeit der usurpatoren,”</span> +the time of the usurpers. But Nobunaga and Hideyoshi were no +more usurpers than the Tokugawas, who succeeded them by force of +arms.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158" href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Satow +with rare literary insight has identified this Kuroda +with the Condera Combiendono of the Jesuit fathers. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. vii., p. 151.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159" href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Shiga's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Nations</span></span>, Tōkyō, 1888, p. +128.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160" href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dening's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, p. 274.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161" href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dening's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, p. 278.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162" href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +p. <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref">189</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163" href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His +original name was Nakamura Hyoshi, the family taking its +name from the village where he was born. Then at his induction to +manhood <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1553 his name was changed to Tokichi Takayoshi. At +another turn in his career he became Kinoshita Tokichi Takayoshi. +In the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1562 he received permission to use the name +Hideyoshi instead of Tokichi, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1575 his name was again +changed to Hashiba, which the Jesuit fathers wrote Faxiba.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164" href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Satow +and Hawes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. 341.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165" href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The facts +here related concerning this most interesting episode in +the life of Hideyoshi are chiefly taken from a paper furnished by Mr. +J. H. Gubbins to the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. viii., p. 92.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166" href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Emperor Ōgimachi +retired from the throne <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1586, and +was succeeded by Go-Yojō, then sixteen years old. It shows of how +small account the emperors had become, that this change in the head +of the nation is scarcely mentioned in the histories of the time.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167" href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The spies and +guides employed by Hideyoshi were priests of the +Shin sect of Buddhists, who after the fall of Kagoshima were discovered +and crucified. A decree was also issued that every inhabitant of +Satsuma who was connected with this sect must renounce his creed. +To this day there exists among the people of Satsuma a general hostility +to the Buddhists which can be traced to this trying episode. +See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. viii., +p. 143.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168" href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref">178</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169" href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. +<a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref">186</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170" href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dening's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, pp. 148, 344.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171" href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">When +Father Valignani came to Japan in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1577 it is said +that he brought as one of his presents a beautiful Arabian horse. It +is not improbable that some of the improved breeds, now seen in +the southern provinces, owe their origin to these valuable horses +sent over as presents.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172" href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Chamberlain's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things Japanese</span></span>, 1892, p. 298, note. According +to Charlevoix this indiscreet speech was made by a Spanish +captain. See Gubbin's paper, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. +vi., part ii., p. 16.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173" href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the +text of this edict see Dickson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. 172.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174" href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Satow and Hawes' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, 2d ed., p. 72.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_175" name="note_175" href="#noteref_175">175.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dening's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, p. 405.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_176" name="note_176" href="#noteref_176">176.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Adams' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. i., p. 66.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_177" name="note_177" href="#noteref_177">177.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dening's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, p. +263.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_178" name="note_178" href="#noteref_178">178.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">We are +indebted to Mr. W. G. Aston for a full and clear account +of Hideyoshi's invasion of Korea, which he had derived not only +from Japanese books and documents, but from Korean sources +which, until his researches, were inaccessible. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. vi., p. 227; ix., pp. 87, 213.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_179" name="note_179" href="#noteref_179">179.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The peculiarly +Eastern form of expression is noticeable in announcing +these presents: <span class="tei tei-q">“You will find enclosed a list of some of +the poor productions of our country, which we beg you will refrain +from laughing at immoderately.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_180" name="note_180" href="#noteref_180">180.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">He became one +of the most famous heroes of Japan, and is worshipped +under the name of Seishōkō, at a shrine connected with the +temple of Hommonji at Ikegami. Satow and Hawes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, +p. 30.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_181" name="note_181" href="#noteref_181">181.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Mr. Satow's +identification of this name. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. vii., p. 151.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_182" name="note_182" href="#noteref_182">182.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Mr. Aston's paper, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. ix., p. 90.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_183" name="note_183" href="#noteref_183">183.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A Japanese scholar +could read such a document in the ideographic +Chinese characters without translation; but Taikō Sama was not a +scholar and therefore was not aware of the purport of the document +until it was translated to him.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_184" name="note_184" href="#noteref_184">184.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Mr. Aston's +description of this humiliating scene as given in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. ix., +p. 217; also Dening's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of +Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, p. 360.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_185" name="note_185" href="#noteref_185">185.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Satow and Hawes' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. 369.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_186" name="note_186" href="#noteref_186">186.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dening's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, p. 380.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_187" name="note_187" href="#noteref_187">187.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Mr. Satow's paper entitled +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Korean Potters in Satsuma,”</span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. vi., p. 193; also as referred +to in Mr. Satow's paper, Mr. Ninagawa's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notice Historique et +Descriptive sur les Arts et Industries Japonais</span></span>, part v., Tōkyō, +1877.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_188" name="note_188" href="#noteref_188">188.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“In point +of fact, however, making Ongoschio (Ieyasu) regent was +placing a goat in charge of a kitchen garden.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Warenius</span></span>, +p. 20.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_189" name="note_189" href="#noteref_189">189.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Satow and Hawes' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. 368.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_190" name="note_190" href="#noteref_190">190.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the +pedigree of Ieyasu as given in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mittheilungen der Deutschen +Gesellschaft</span></span>, etc., Heft i., p. 19.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_191" name="note_191" href="#noteref_191">191.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dening's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, p. 377.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_192" name="note_192" href="#noteref_192">192.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This covenant +is said to have been signed with blood in accordance +with a custom still occasionally prevalent, in which a drop of +blood is drawn from the middle finger and sealed by pressing it with +the thumb nail. Rein's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. 297, +note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_193" name="note_193" href="#noteref_193">193.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dening's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, p. 397.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_194" name="note_194" href="#noteref_194">194.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This place +receives its name from a barrier that was erected in +the ninth century to control the travel towards the capital. Its meaning +is, <span class="tei tei-q">“Plain of the Barrier.”</span> See Chamberlain's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, +p. 268.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_195" name="note_195" href="#noteref_195">195.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dening's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, p. 399.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_196" name="note_196" href="#noteref_196">196.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This proverb +is quoted as having been used by Hideyoshi when +remonstrating with Nobunaga about following up his victory over +Imagawa Yoshimoto. See Dening's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Toyotomi Hideyoshi</span></span>, +p. 156.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_197" name="note_197" href="#noteref_197">197.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kiyomasa was a bitter enemy of the Christians, owing no doubt +to the rivalry and antagonism which had sprung up with Konishi, who +was a Christian, in the Korean war. He is termed Toronosqui by +the Jesuit fathers from a personal name Toronosuke which he bore in +his youth, and he is characterized as +<span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">vir ter execrandus</span></span>,”</span> on account +of his persecution of the Christians in his province. Perhaps on account +of this fierce opposition he was greatly admired by the Buddhists, +and is worshipped under the name of Seishōkō by the Nichiren +sect at a shrine in the temple of Hommonji at Ikegami. Another +monument to his memory is the Castle of Kumamoto, which he built +and which still stands as one of the best existing specimens of the +feudal castles of Japan. As an evidence of its substantial character, +in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1877, under the command of General Tani, it withstood +the siege of the Satsuma rebels and gave the government time to bring +troops to crush the rebellion.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_198" name="note_198" href="#noteref_198">198.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The plural of this word is here and elsewhere used in its +English form, although no such plural is found in Japanese.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_199" name="note_199" href="#noteref_199">199.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ancien Japon</span></span>, +par G. Appert, Tōkyō, 1888, vol. ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_200" name="note_200" href="#noteref_200">200.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A full +account of the Castle of Yedo will be found in a paper by +Mr. J. R. H. McClatchie in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. +vi., part 1, p. 119.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_201" name="note_201" href="#noteref_201">201.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +p. <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref">207</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_202" name="note_202" href="#noteref_202">202.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. xi., p. 124.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_203" name="note_203" href="#noteref_203">203.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. +<a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref">204</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_204" name="note_204" href="#noteref_204">204.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +Dickson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. 227.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_205" name="note_205" href="#noteref_205">205.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His beatification +was decreed by the pope in 1609, and his canonization +in 1622.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_206" name="note_206" href="#noteref_206">206.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hildreth's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, etc., p. 176.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_207" name="note_207" href="#noteref_207">207.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +Jesuit historians relate with malicious satisfaction how one +of the Spanish friars, in a dispute with one of Adams' shipwrecked +company, to sustain the authority of the church appealed to the +miraculous power which its priests still possessed. And when the +Hollander challenged an exhibition of such power, the missionary +undertook to walk on the surface of the sea. A day was appointed. +The Spaniard prepared himself by confession, prayer, and fasting. +A great crowd of the Japanese assembled to see the miracle, and the +friar, after a confident exhortation to the multitude, stepped, crucifix +in hand, into the water. But he was soon floundering over his head, +and was only saved from drowning by some boats sent to his +assistance.—Hildreth's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, etc., p. 140. +</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_208" name="note_208" href="#noteref_208">208.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-q">“This +will seem to you less strange, if you consider how the +Apostle St. Paul commands us to obey even secular superiors and +gentiles as Christ himself, from whom all well-ordered authority is +derived: for thus he writes to the Ephesians (vii. 5): <span class="tei tei-q">‘be obedient to +them that are your temporal lords according to the flesh, with fear +and trembling in the simplicity of your heart, as to Christ; not +seeming to the eye, as it were pleasing men, but as the servants of +Christ doing the will of God from the heart, with a good will seeming +as to the Lord and not to men.’</span> ”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The above is an extract from an Epistle of St. Ignatius, the 26th +of March, 1553, which is still regarded as authoritative and is read +every month to each of the houses. It was supplied to me by Dr. +Carl Meyer and verified by Rev. D. H. Buel, S. J. of St. Francis +Xavier's College, New York City. Dr. Meyer has also pointed out +that the Second General Congregation, 1565, severely forbids any +Jesuit to act as confessor or theologian to a prince longer than one or +two years, and gives the minutest instructions to prevent a priest +from interfering in any way with political and secular affairs in such +a position. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_209" name="note_209" href="#noteref_209">209.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This edict of +Ieyasu is given by Mr. Satow in his contributions +to the debate on Mr. Gubbins' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Review of the Introduction of +Christianity into China and Japan</span></span>. Fifteen rules to guide the Buddhist +priests in guaranteeing the orthodoxy of their parishioners are also +given.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. vi., part i., p. 46.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_210" name="note_210" href="#noteref_210">210.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Gubbins' paper, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. vi., part +i., p. 35.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_211" name="note_211" href="#noteref_211">211.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Mr. Satow's +contributions to the debate on Mr. Gubbins' +paper, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. vi., part i., p. 51.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_212" name="note_212" href="#noteref_212">212.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. vi., part 1, p. 35.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_213" name="note_213" href="#noteref_213">213.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See chapter xi. +of a <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description of the Kingdom of Japan and +Siam</span></span>, by Bernhard Warenius, M.D., Cambridge, Printing-House of +John Hayes, Printer to the University, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1673. +The volume is in Latin, which, as well as a translation of the same in manuscript, +has been furnished to me by Mr. Benjamin Smith Lyman, of Philadelphia. +Warenius was a Lutheran, and need not be suspected of +being prejudiced in favor of the Jesuits. See also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the +Martyrs of Japan</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prague</span></span>, 1675, by Mathia Tanner, +containing many engravings of the horrible scenes, such as burnings, crucifixions, and +suspensions in the pit, etc.; also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire des Vingt-six Martyrs du +Japon, Crucifié à Nagasaqui le 5 Février, 1597</span></span>, par D. Bouix, +Paris, 1862.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_214" name="note_214" href="#noteref_214">214.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Woolley's +<span class="tei tei-q">“Historical Notes on Nagasaki,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. ix., part 2, p. 134; also Mr. Satow's contributions +to the discussion of Mr. Gubbins' paper, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. vi., part 2, p. 52. Specimens of the metal plates are in the +Uyeno Museum of Tōkyō.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_215" name="note_215" href="#noteref_215">215.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Kæmpfer's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire de l'Empire de Japon</span></span>, +tome i., p. 287.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_216" name="note_216" href="#noteref_216">216.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the narrative +which we give of this insurrection we have relied +chiefly upon the accounts of Mr. Gubbins in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Review of the +Introduction of Christianity,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic +Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. vi., +part 1, p. 36; of Mr. Woolley in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Historical Notes on Nagasaki,”</span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">do.</span></span>, vol. ix., part 2, p. 140; and on +Dr. Geerts' paper on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Arima +Rebellion and the Conduct of Koeckebacker,”</span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">do.</span></span>, vol. xi., p. 51. Mr. +Gubbins and Mr. Woolley had access to Japanese authorities, and we +have in their papers been enabled to see this bloody episode for the +first time from a Japanese standpoint. Dr. Geerts has rendered +an invaluable service in giving us translations of letters written by +Koeckebacker, the head of the Dutch factory during the events, +which show us how this insurrection was regarded by the Dutch East +India Company.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_217" name="note_217" href="#noteref_217">217.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">rônin</span></span> was +a retainer who had given up the service of his feudal +master, and for the time being was his own master.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_218" name="note_218" href="#noteref_218">218.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dr. +Geerts' paper, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. xi., p. +75.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_219" name="note_219" href="#noteref_219">219.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The ships +in use at this time among the Japanese were far less +seaworthy than those of European nations. The accompanying +figures given by Charlevoix, although probably somewhat fanciful, +show the impractical character of the vessels of that time.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_220" name="note_220" href="#noteref_220">220.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dr. +Geerts' paper, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. xi., +p. 111.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_221" name="note_221" href="#noteref_221">221.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mr. Koeckebacker +says: <span class="tei tei-q">“The rebels counted in all, young and +old, as it was said, about forty thousand. They were all killed except +one of the four principal leaders, being an artist who formerly used +to gain his livelihood by making idols. This man was kept alive and +sent to Yedo.”</span>—Dr. Geerts' paper, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. +xi., part 1, p. 107. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is a tradition that a number of the prisoners who were +captured at this castle were hurled down from the rocks of the island +now called Papenberg in Nagasaki harbor. But Dr. Geerts ridicules +this notion and says: <span class="tei tei-q">“A little local knowledge would show it to be +impossible to throw people from the rocks on Papenberg into the sea, +as the rocks are by no means steep bluffs, but possess an inclined +shape and a shore. A little knowledge of the Dutch language would +further show that the name Papenberg means <span class="tei tei-q">‘mountain of the priest,’</span> +in allusion to the shape of a Roman Catholic priest's cap or +bonnet.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic +Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. xi., part 1, p. 115.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_222" name="note_222" href="#noteref_222">222.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +Dr. Geerts' paper, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. xi., +part 1, pp. 110 and 111.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_223" name="note_223" href="#noteref_223">223.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A Japanese +writer thus sums up the result of the effort to introduce +Christianity into his country: <span class="tei tei-q">“After nearly a hundred years of +Christianity and foreign intercourse, the only apparent results of this +contact with another religion and civilization were the adoption of +gunpowder and firearms as weapons, the use of tobacco and the habit +of smoking, the making of sponge-cake, the naturalization into the +language of a few foreign words, and the introduction of new and +strange forms of disease.”</span>—Shigetaka Shiga's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Nations</span></span>, +Tōkyō, 1888. The words introduced into the language from the +Portuguese, except several derived from Christianity, are as follows: +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">tabako</span></span>, tobacco; +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">pan</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">pāo</span></span>), +bread; <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kasutera</span></span> (from Castilla), sponge-cake; +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">tanto</span></span>, much; +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kappa</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">capa</span></span>), +a waterproof; <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kappu</span></span> +(<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">copa</span></span>), a cup or wine glass; +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">birōdo</span></span> +(<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">vellendo</span></span>), velvet; +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">biidoro</span></span> +(<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">vidro</span></span>), glass.—Rein's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. 312.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_224" name="note_224" href="#noteref_224">224.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Mr. Satow's +contributions to the discussion of Mr. Gubbins' paper, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. vi., part 1, p. 61; also Satow +and Hawes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. 22; also Griffis' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mikado's Empire</span></span>, p. 262; +and Professor Dixon's paper on the Christian Valley, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. xvi., p. 207.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_225" name="note_225" href="#noteref_225">225.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Chamberlain's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things Japanese</span></span>, 1892, p. 300.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_226" name="note_226" href="#noteref_226">226.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy of Ieyasu</span></span>, cap. xv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_227" name="note_227" href="#noteref_227">227.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Confucian</span></span> classics consist of the Four Books, viz.: +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Great Learning</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Doctrine of the +Mean</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Confucian Analects</span></span>, and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Sayings of Mencius</span></span>; and the Five Canons, +viz.: <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of Changes</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of +Poetry</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Book of History</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Canon of +Rites</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Spring and Autumn</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annals +of the State of Lu</span></span>, by Confucius). +Chamberlain's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things Japanese</span></span>, 1892, p. 92.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_228" name="note_228" href="#noteref_228">228.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An accurate and amusing account of the printing of a modern +newspaper in Japan is given in Mr. Henry Norman's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Real Japan</span></span>, p, +43 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_229" name="note_229" href="#noteref_229">229.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For a +history of the city of Yedo, and reference to the disasters +to which it has been subject from fires, earthquakes, and pestilences, +see Satow and Hawes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. 6. See also <span class="tei tei-q">“The Castle of +Yedo,”</span> by T. R. H. McClatchie, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. vi., part 1, and <span class="tei tei-q">“The Feudal Mansions of Yedo,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic +Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. vii., part 3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_230" name="note_230" href="#noteref_230">230.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Dickson's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. 294.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_231" name="note_231" href="#noteref_231">231.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Those who desire a fuller explanation of this complicated and +difficult matter are referred to Dr. Yoshida's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Staatsverfassung und +Lehnwesen von Japan</span></span>, Hague, 1890, and to the paper on <span class="tei tei-q">“The Feudal +System in Japan,”</span> by J. H. Gubbins, Esq., <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. xv., part 2; also to the introduction by Professor Wigmore, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">do.</span></span>, vol. xx., Supplement, p. 25.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_232" name="note_232" href="#noteref_232">232.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy of Ieyasu</span></span> +will be found the following statement: +<span class="tei tei-q">“The <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">fudai</span></span> are those +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> who followed me and proffered me +their fealty before the overthrow of the castle of Ōsaka in the province +of Sesshū. The <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">tozama</span></span> are those +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> who returned and submitted +to me after its downfall, of whom there were eighty-six.”</span>—See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy of Ieyasu</span></span>, cap. vii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_233" name="note_233" href="#noteref_233">233.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ancien Japon</span></span>, +vol. ii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_234" name="note_234" href="#noteref_234">234.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dickson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. 303.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_235" name="note_235" href="#noteref_235">235.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy of Ieyasu</span></span>, cap. xiv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_236" name="note_236" href="#noteref_236">236.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy of Ieyasu</span></span>, cap. xxxvii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_237" name="note_237" href="#noteref_237">237.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the general +history of the sword, see Mitford's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tales of Old +Japan</span></span>, vol. i., p. 70; T. R. H. McClatchie's, The sword of Japan, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. vi., p. 55; +Chamberlain's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things Japanese</span></span>, 1892, p. 396. +For the mode of manufacture, see Rein's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Industries of Japan</span></span>, p. 430; and especially for the artistic +decoration of swords, see Satow and Hawes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hand-book</span></span>, p. +114.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_238" name="note_238" href="#noteref_238">238.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I have been told by a young +Satsuma <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span> that when he was a +boy it was a test of skill with the sword, to set a chop-stick (which +was about six inches long) on its end and before it could fall over to +draw a sword from its scabbard and cut it in two.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_239" name="note_239" href="#noteref_239">239.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For an account of +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span> see the <span class="tei tei-q">“Story of the Forty-Seven +Ronins”</span> in Mitford's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tales of Old Japan</span></span>, vol. i., p. 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_240" name="note_240" href="#noteref_240">240.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy of Ieyasu</span></span>, cap. xxxi.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_241" name="note_241" href="#noteref_241">241.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy of Ieyasu</span></span>, cap. xxviii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_242" name="note_242" href="#noteref_242">242.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">T. R. H. McClatchie, +<span class="tei tei-q">“The Castle of Yedo,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society +Transactions</span></span>, vol. vi., part 1, p. 131.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_243" name="note_243" href="#noteref_243">243.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As +illustrative of Buddhism at its greatest splendor we give here the +figures of the great bronze image of Buddha at Kamakura, and of the +great bell at the temple of Daibutsu in Kyōto. +[Transcriber's Note: This bell is shown as the Frontispiece to the book.] +The former was +erected about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1252 after plans initiated by Yoritomo +before his death. The statue in its sitting posture is nearly fifty feet in height. +It is constructed of separate plates of bronze brazed together. Formerly +it was enclosed in a temple, but this was twice destroyed by +tidal waves, and since its last destruction in 1494 it has not been rebuilt. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The bell given in the illustration is that at the temple of Daibutsu, +the inscription on which is said to have offended Ieyasu. It is nearly +fourteen feet in height and nine feet in diameter. Its weight is more +than sixty-three tons.—See Satow and Hawes' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></span>, p. +368.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_244" name="note_244" href="#noteref_244">244.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the +account given by Don Rodrigo de Vivero, the late governor +of Manila, of a visit made in 1608 by him in behalf of Spanish trade, +Yedo is described as a city of seven hundred thousand inhabitants, and +Sumpu, which he calls Suruga, where the emperor (as he denominates +Ieyasu) lived, is estimated to contain from five to six hundred thousand +inhabitants. He was so pleased with the country through which +he travelled that he declares, <span class="tei tei-q">“if he could have prevailed upon himself +to renounce his God and his king he should have preferred that +country to his own.”</span>—See Hildreth's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, etc., pp. 145, 147.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_245" name="note_245" href="#noteref_245">245.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These +letters were written from Japan between 1611 and 1617. +They were printed in part in Purchas' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pilgrimes</span></span>, and are included +in the publications of the Hackluyt Society. From the latter source +they were printed in pamphlet form by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan Gazette</span></span> at +Yokohama, 1879. It is from this last source these references are taken.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_246" name="note_246" href="#noteref_246">246.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">First letter +of Adams in pamphlet edition. Yokohama, 1878, +p. 8.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_247" name="note_247" href="#noteref_247">247.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This name, Nova +Spania or New Spain, was first given to the +peninsula of Yucatan, and was afterward extended to the territory of +Mexico conquered by Cortez. Finally it was given to all the Spanish +provinces extending on the Pacific coast from Panama to Van Couver's +island. Acapulco was the principal harbor on the Pacific coast.—See +Prescott's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conquest of Mexico</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_248" name="note_248" href="#noteref_248">248.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Captain Cocks +in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Diary,”</span> contained in Purchas' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pilgrimes</span></span>, +part 1, book iv., gives an account of a visit he made to Yedo in 1616, +on the business of the English trade, at which time he visited Adams' +seat, which he calls <span class="tei tei-q">“Phebe,”</span> doubtless mistaking the sound of the +real name <span class="tei tei-q">“Meni.”</span>—See Chamberlain's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things Japanese</span></span>, 1892, +p. 15.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_249" name="note_249" href="#noteref_249">249.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">His place of burial was identified in 1872 by Mr. James Walter +of Yokohama on a beautiful hill near Yokosuka, where both he and +his Japanese wife lie buried. His will, which was deposited in the +archives of the East India Company in London, divided his estate +equally between his Japanese and English families. His Japanese +landed estate was probably inherited by his Japanese son. His +personal estate is stated at about five hundred pounds sterling.—See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Letters of William Adams</span></span>, p. 39.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_250" name="note_250" href="#noteref_250">250.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hildreth's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, etc., p. 142, quoted from Purchas, vol. i., p. +406.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_251" name="note_251" href="#noteref_251">251.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hildreth's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, etc., p. +157.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_252" name="note_252" href="#noteref_252">252.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Letters of William Adams</span></span>, No. 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_253" name="note_253" href="#noteref_253">253.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Purchas' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pilgrimes</span></span>, part 1, book iv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_254" name="note_254" href="#noteref_254">254.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These privileges are +given in full by Hildreth, p. 169, taken +from Purchas.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_255" name="note_255" href="#noteref_255">255.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Satow has +collected many facts concerning the history of +printing in Japan, and among others has shown that printing with +movable type in Korea was used as early as 1317, that is one hundred +and twenty-six years before the date of the first printed book in +Europe.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. x., p. 63.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_256" name="note_256" href="#noteref_256">256.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A translation +of this document was made by Mr. J. F. Lowder +and published in Yokohama in 1874. We are indebted to W. E. +Grigsby, Esq., formerly professor of law in the University of Tōkyō, +for a valuable paper on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Legacy of Ieyasu</span></span> in which a +careful analysis is given and a comparison of its details is made with the provisions +for the regulation of early communities elsewhere.—See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic +Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. iii., part 2, p. 131.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_257" name="note_257" href="#noteref_257">257.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ieyasu may have +had in mind a shocking example of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">junshi</span></span> +(dying with the master) which occurred in his own family. Tadayoshi, +his fifth son, to whom had been assigned an estate in Owari, died +young, and five of his retainers, in order to follow their master, committed +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span> in accordance with the old feudal +custom. This is believed to have been almost the last instance of the kind, and must +have touched Ieyasu very closely.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mikado's Empire</span></span>, by W. E. +Griffis, D.D., p. 272.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_258" name="note_258" href="#noteref_258">258.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Notwithstanding this +positive prohibition left by Ieyasu, occasionally +the strength of the old feudal habit was too great for the more +merciful spirit. It is said when the third shōgun of the Tokugawa +family (Iemitsu) died, two of the daimyōs, Hotta of Sakura and +Abe of Bingo, committed <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>. +Hotta's sword, still stained with blood, is retained in the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kura</span></span> of the daimiate at +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tōkyō</span></span>, and on +the anniversary of the event is shown to the +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">samurai</span></span>, who appear on +the occasion in full dress.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_259" name="note_259" href="#noteref_259">259.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. xx., Supplement, in which +Prof. J. H. Wigmore has undertaken to publish the material discovered +by him, with a valuable introduction on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Administrative +and Commercial Institutions of Old Japan.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_260" name="note_260" href="#noteref_260">260.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Whitney's +<span class="tei tei-q">“Notes on Medical Progress in Japan,”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic +Society Transactions</span></span>, vol. xii., part 4, p. 276.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_261" name="note_261" href="#noteref_261">261.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a description +of this process in Kaempfer's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, +and also in Whitney's <span class="tei tei-q">“Medical Progress,”</span> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiatic Society Transactions</span></span>, +vol. xii., part 4, p. 289.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_262" name="note_262" href="#noteref_262">262.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +Griffis' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Matthew Calbraith Perry</span></span>, p. 296.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_263" name="note_263" href="#noteref_263">263.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The term emperor +was employed in this letter in accordance +with the usage of the Jesuit Fathers, the Dutch writers, and William +Adams, all of whom designated the shōgun as emperor, although this +term could be properly applied only to the Tennō at Kyōto.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_264" name="note_264" href="#noteref_264">264.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Official Narrative of the Japan +Expedition</span></span>, vol. i., p. 80.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_265" name="note_265" href="#noteref_265">265.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Official +Narrative of the Japan Expedition</span></span>, vol. i., p. 231.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_266" name="note_266" href="#noteref_266">266.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Official Narrative of the Japan Expedition</span></span>, vol i., p. 233 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">et seq</span></span>; also Griffis' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of M. C. Perry</span></span>, p. 314 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">et seq</span></span>; also Bayard +Taylor's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">India, China, and Japan</span></span>, 1855, p. 411 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">et seq</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_267" name="note_267" href="#noteref_267">267.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I have +received from Mr. F. S. Conover, who was a member of +the Japan expedition as lieutenant of the navy, many interesting +details of experiences in Yedo which I have incorporated in my +account.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_268" name="note_268" href="#noteref_268">268.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The question of +landing by force was left to be decided by the +development of succeeding events; it was of course the very last +measure to be resorted to, and the last that was to be desired; but +in order to be prepared for the worst, the Commodore caused the +ships constantly to be kept in perfect readiness, and the crews to be +drilled as thoroughly as they are in the time of active +war.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan Expedition</span></span>, vol. i., +p. 235.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_269" name="note_269" href="#noteref_269">269.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kinsé Shiriaku</span></span>, a history of Japan from 1853 to 1869, +translated by E. M. Satow, Yokohama, 1876.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_270" name="note_270" href="#noteref_270">270.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Nitobe's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Intercourse between the United States and Japan</span></span>, +p. 39.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_271" name="note_271" href="#noteref_271">271.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treaties and Conventions between Japan and Other Powers</span></span>, +p. 735.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_272" name="note_272" href="#noteref_272">272.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Constitutional +Development of Japan</span></span>, by Toyokichi +Iyenaga, Ph.D., Johns Hopkins Press, 1891, p. 12.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_273" name="note_273" href="#noteref_273">273.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref">279</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_274" name="note_274" href="#noteref_274">274.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See selections from a pamphlet by a German resident at Yokohama +given in Mossman's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">New Japan</span></span>, pp. 142, 143, and quoted in +Nitobe's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Intercourse between the United States and Japan</span></span>. <span class="tei tei-q">“The +reason the Tycoon breaks his promise is because he cannot keep it, +and the reason he cannot keep it, is because he had no right to +give it.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_275" name="note_275" href="#noteref_275">275.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Nitobe's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Intercourse between the United States and Japan</span></span>, +p. 59.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_276" name="note_276" href="#noteref_276">276.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Prince Hotta was +at this time president of the Council of State +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Gorōjiu</span></span>) and had charge of this first +audience. I have seen in the possession of his descendant, the present occupant of the +beautiful family <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">yashiki</span></span> in Tōkyō, the +original of the memorandum showing +the arrangement of the rooms through which Mr. Harris was to pass, +and the position where he was to stand during the delivery of his +congratulatory remarks.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_277" name="note_277" href="#noteref_277">277.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In a despatch to the Secretary of State, dated November 25, +1856, Mr. Harris explains the condition of the negotiations in reference +to a commercial treaty. He narrates his interview at Hongkong +with Sir John Bowring, who told him that he was empowered to +negotiate a commercial treaty. Mr. Harris shrewdly observes: <span class="tei tei-q">“I +shall call their (the Japanese government's) attention to the fact that +by making a treaty with me they would save the point of honor that +must arise from their apparently yielding to the force that backs the +plenipotentiary and not to the justice of their demands.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_278" name="note_278" href="#noteref_278">278.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Although +Kanagawa was made an open port for trade by these +treaties, the adjoining village of Yokohama was found practically +better suited for the purpose. The very proximity of Kanagawa to the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tōkaidō</span></span>, which led foreigners to prefer +it when the treaties were made, +proved to be an objection in the disordered times that followed. On +this account Yokohama rapidly rose to the importance which it still +holds.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_279" name="note_279" href="#noteref_279">279.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +word means Curtain Government, in reference to the curtain +with which the camp of a general was surrounded. The term is +equivalent to Military Government, and is used to designate the +shōgun's as distinguished from the emperor's court.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_280" name="note_280" href="#noteref_280">280.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Life of Ii Naosuke</span></span>, by Shimada Saburo, Tōkyō, 1888; +also the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Constitutional Development of Japan</span></span>, by Toyokichi +Iyenaga, Ph.D., Johns Hopkins University, 1891, p. 15.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_281" name="note_281" href="#noteref_281">281.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Heusken who had gone to Japan with Mr. Townsend Harris +in 1858 was a Hollander by birth. The Dutch language at that time +was almost the only medium through which communication could be +had with the Japanese. A native interpreter turned the sentiment +into Dutch, and then a person who understood both Dutch and English +translated it into the latter tongue. This circuitous system of interpretation +was, however, soon remedied by native scholars learning +English, and by English and American scholars learning Japanese.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_282" name="note_282" href="#noteref_282">282.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">American Diplomatic Correspondence</span></span>, +November 27, 1861.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_283" name="note_283" href="#noteref_283">283.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A full +account of this affair may be found in Alcock's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Capital of +the Tycoon</span></span>, and in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of Laurence +Oliphant</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_284" name="note_284" href="#noteref_284">284.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A translation +of this paper cited from the correspondence presented +to Parliament is given in Adams' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. i., +p. 138.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_285" name="note_285" href="#noteref_285">285.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Adams' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. i., p. 139.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_286" name="note_286" href="#noteref_286">286.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Mr. Satow's +translation of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kinsé Shiriaku</span></span> (p. 18) it is said +that the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">bakufu</span></span> ordered the house of +Mito to arrest the men who had +broken into the English temple residence, but they made their escape +into Ōshiu and Dewa.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_287" name="note_287" href="#noteref_287">287.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the +account of the negotiations of this embassy with Earl +Russell in Adams' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. i., p. 177 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_288" name="note_288" href="#noteref_288">288.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">One of +the officials naïvely told the American minister when +speaking of the reception of the embassy in the United States: +<span class="tei tei-q">“We did not believe you when you told us of the friendly feeling of +your country for us; but we now see that all you said was true.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_289" name="note_289" href="#noteref_289">289.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The daimyō was really his own son who had been adopted by his +brother, the former daimyō, and who on the death of his brother had +succeeded him as daimyō. Shimazu Saburō was therefore legally +the uncle of his own son.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_290" name="note_290" href="#noteref_290">290.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. J. C. Hepburn, a resident in Kanagawa at this +time, attended to the wounded men at the U. S. Consulate. In a letter to me after +reading the above account, he says that, <span class="tei tei-q">“it was the common report +at the time that Richardson did ride into Satsuma's train and that he +(Satsuma) said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Kill him.’</span> It was the general belief that Richardson +brought the whole catastrophe on himself.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_291" name="note_291" href="#noteref_291">291.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In +addition to Terashima there were in the company Mori Arinori, +Yoshida Kiyonari, Hatakeyama Yoshinari, and others. They became +deeply imbued with the spirit of western institutions and with the +principles of constitutional liberty and toleration. Their influence +upon the new career of their country was marked and salutary. +Through the agency of Mr. Laurence Oliphant a part of them became +misled with the delusions of Thomas Lake Harris, and with him removed +to Brocton on the shores of Lake Erie, U. S. where they resided +for a time as members of the Brotherhood of the New Life. They had +as associates in this singular community Lady Oliphant and her distinguished +son, and like them were called upon to perform the ordinary +menial employments connected with the community.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_292" name="note_292" href="#noteref_292">292.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It should be stated here that a despatch to the +British envoy from Earl Russell arrived just after the sailing of the expedition in which +he says: <span class="tei tei-q">“That Her Majesty's government positively enjoin you +not to undertake any military operation whatever in the interior of +Japan; and they would indeed regret the adoption of any measures +of hostility against the Japanese government or princes, even though +limited to naval operations, unless absolutely required by self-defence.”</span> +Had this order arrived in time, it is probable that the expedition +would not have sailed.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Correspondence Respecting Affairs in +Japan</span></span>, 1875, No. 1, p. 45.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_293" name="note_293" href="#noteref_293">293.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It will +be remembered that the United States at this time had +occasion to use all her ships-of-war at home in the civil war that was +raging.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_294" name="note_294" href="#noteref_294">294.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treaties +and Conventions between the Empire of Japan and +Other Powers</span></span>, p. 318.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_295" name="note_295" href="#noteref_295">295.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The only +additional circumstance that deserves mention in this +connection is that in response to a widely expressed public sentiment +the Congress of the United States in 1883 refunded to Japan +$785,000.87, her share in this indemnity.—See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treaties and Conventions +between the Empire of Japan and Other Powers</span></span>, p. 320.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_296" name="note_296" href="#noteref_296">296.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See translation of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kinsé Shiriaku</span></span>, Yokohama, 1876, p. +59.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_297" name="note_297" href="#noteref_297">297.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +translation of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kinsé Shiriaku</span></span>, Yokohama, p. 50.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_298" name="note_298" href="#noteref_298">298.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See translation +of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kinsé Shiraku</span></span>, Yokohama, p. 24.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_299" name="note_299" href="#noteref_299">299.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See citation +in Adams' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. i., p. 260.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_300" name="note_300" href="#noteref_300">300.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Toyokichi Iyenaga, +Ph.D., in his pamphlet on the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Constitutional +Development of Japan</span></span>, p. 17, traces the evolution of the present +parliamentary institutions to the conferences which were held at this +and subsequent times.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_301" name="note_301" href="#noteref_301">301.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Among +these was Sanjō Saneyoshi, who afterwards for many +years was the prime minister of the restored government.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_302" name="note_302" href="#noteref_302">302.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Adams' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. i., p. 431.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_303" name="note_303" href="#noteref_303">303.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The annalist from whom Adams quotes gives the number of +houses burned as 27,000. Adams' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, +vol. i., p. 434.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_304" name="note_304" href="#noteref_304">304.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the Genji Yumé Monogatari and Satow's +note in Adams' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. i., +p. 407.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_305" name="note_305" href="#noteref_305">305.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This +distinguished soldier is better known under the name of +Saigō Takamori. He was originally an ardent anti-foreign partisan, +and through this sentiment became an advocate of a restoration of +the emperor. His services in this revolutionary movement were rewarded +by a pension granted and accepted by the emperor's express +command.—See Mounsey's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Satsuma Rebellion</span></span>, London, +p. 22.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_306" name="note_306" href="#noteref_306">306.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In this +reconciliation of the Satsuma and Chōshū clans the court +noble, Iwakura Tomomi, took a prominent part, and after the restoration +was complete he became one of the principal officers in the +new government, holding the office of <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">Udaijin</span></span> +until his death. He is best known to foreigners as the head of an embassy which visited +western countries in 1872-3.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_307" name="note_307" href="#noteref_307">307.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See this memorial as given in Adams' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. ii., p. 24.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_308" name="note_308" href="#noteref_308">308.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Adams' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, +vol. ii., p. 24.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_309" name="note_309" href="#noteref_309">309.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Adams' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. ii., p. 37.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_310" name="note_310" href="#noteref_310">310.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Translation of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kinsé Shiriaku</span></span>, Yokohama, p. 30.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_311" name="note_311" href="#noteref_311">311.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Translation of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kinsé Shiraku</span></span>, Yokohama, p. 80.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_312" name="note_312" href="#noteref_312">312.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See translation of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kinsé Shiriaku</span></span>, Yokohama, p. 82.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_313" name="note_313" href="#noteref_313">313.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See translation of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kinsé Shiriaku</span></span>, Yokohama, p. 82.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_314" name="note_314" href="#noteref_314">314.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">With that talent for +nicknaming which the Japanese exhibit, the +leading party in the new government was called +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sat-chō-to</span></span>; derived +from the first syllables of the clans, Satsuma, Chōshū, and +Tosa.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_315" name="note_315" href="#noteref_315">315.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Adams' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. ii., p. 84.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_316" name="note_316" href="#noteref_316">316.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The numbers here +given, of 10,000 troops in the rebel army and +1,500 in the imperial army, are much less than those claimed by the +Japanese authorities, but Mr. Satow who had means of ascertaining +the truth gives the numbers as stated in the text. See Adams' +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Japan</span></span>, vol. ii., p. 99, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_317" name="note_317" href="#noteref_317">317.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An incident +connected with this return illustrates both the times +and customs of the country. Hori Kura-no-kami, a prominent retainer +of the ex-shōgun, besought his master to commit +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span> as the only +way in which his own honor and the dignity of the Tokugawa clan +could be preserved. He offered to join him in this tragic ceremony, +but the ex-shōgun declined to end his life in this way. Thereupon +the devoted retainer retired and in the presence of his own friends +himself committed <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">hara-kiri</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_318" name="note_318" href="#noteref_318">318.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">American +Diplomatic Correspondence</span></span>, April 3, 1868.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_319" name="note_319" href="#noteref_319">319.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">An English +translation of this memorial will be found in Black's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">New Japan</span></span>, vol. ii., p. 84. It shows what prejudices the +statesmen of that day had to overcome. See also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">American Diplomatic +Correspondence</span></span>, 1868, p. 727.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_320" name="note_320" href="#noteref_320">320.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kinsé Shiriaku</span></span>, Yokohama, p. 116.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_321" name="note_321" href="#noteref_321">321.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Kinsé Shiriaku</span></span>, Yokohama, p. 125. Also <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">American +Diplomatic Correspondence</span></span>, March 14, 1871.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_322" name="note_322" href="#noteref_322">322.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This house +was one of the five regent families +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">go-sekké</span></span>) all of +the Fujiwara clan, from whom the <span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">kwambaku</span></span>, +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">daijō-daijin</span></span>, or +<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">sesshō</span></span>, the highest officers under +the emperor, were always filled and from which the emperors selected their +wives.—Dickson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japan</span></span>, p. 52.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_323" name="note_323" href="#noteref_323">323.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Chamberlain's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Things Japanese</span></span>, 1892, p. 300.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_324" name="note_324" href="#noteref_324">324.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Adams' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of +Japan</span></span>, vol. ii., p. 126. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">American Diplomatic +Correspondence</span></span>, May 30, 1868.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_325" name="note_325" href="#noteref_325">325.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Iyenaga's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Constitutional Development of Japan</span></span>, p. +33.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_326" name="note_326" href="#noteref_326">326.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the +despatch of Sir Harry Parkes, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British State Papers</span></span>, +Japan, 1870.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_327" name="note_327" href="#noteref_327">327.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Iyenaga's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Constitutional Development of Japan</span></span>, p. 35.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_328" name="note_328" href="#noteref_328">328.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British State Papers</span></span>, 1870, Japan.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_329" name="note_329" href="#noteref_329">329.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A translation of +this memorial will be found in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British State +Papers</span></span>, 1870, Japan; also cited in Adams' <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History +of Japan</span></span>, vol. ii., p. 181.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_330" name="note_330" href="#noteref_330">330.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See an +analysis of the daimyōs who joined in this memorial in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British State Papers</span></span>, 1870, Japan.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_331" name="note_331" href="#noteref_331">331.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">British State Papers</span></span>, 1870, Japan.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_332" name="note_332" href="#noteref_332">332.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Prince Azuki's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memorial</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_333" name="note_333" href="#noteref_333">333.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Kido's Original +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memorial</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_334" name="note_334" href="#noteref_334">334.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Mounsey's +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Satsuma Rebellion</span></span>, pp. 247, 248.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_335" name="note_335" href="#noteref_335">335.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treaties +and Conventions between Japan and Other Powers</span></span>, +Tōkyō, 1864, p. 646.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_336" name="note_336" href="#noteref_336">336.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Treaties +and Conventions between Japan and Other Powers</span></span>, +Tōkyō, 1884, p. 171.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_337" name="note_337" href="#noteref_337">337.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This castle +was built by Katō Kiyomasa after his return from the +Korean war. It still stands, being one of the most notable castles of +Japan.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_338" name="note_338" href="#noteref_338">338.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See p. +<a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref">47</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_339" name="note_339" href="#noteref_339">339.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +p. <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref">380</a>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_340" name="note_340" href="#noteref_340">340.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This able +document was prepared by Count Itō Hirobumi. An +official translation was published at Yokohama in 1889.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_341" name="note_341" href="#noteref_341">341.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the +official list Jingō is not reckoned, and the time of her reign +is counted with that of her son and successor.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_342" name="note_342" href="#noteref_342">342.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Japanese Chronological Tables</span></span>, by William Bramsen, 1880. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The system of counting from year-periods +(<span lang="ja" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="ja"><span style="font-style: italic">nengō</span></span>) was introduced +from China. These periods of Japanese history do not correspond +to the reigns of the emperors. A new one was chosen whenever it +was deemed necessary to commemorate an auspicious or ward off a +malign event. By a notification issued in 1872 it was announced +that hereafter the year-period should be changed but once during the +reign of an emperor. The current period, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Meiji</span></span> (Enlightened Peace), +will therefore continue during the reign of the present emperor. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The numbers in the second column of this table indicate the years +as counted from the founding of the empire by Jimmu Tennō. +According to the official chronology this occurred <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> +660.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_343" name="note_343" href="#noteref_343">343.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Translated from +the chronology of the shōguns in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mittheilungen +der deutschen Gesellschaft fur Natur und Volkerkunde Ostasiens</span></span>, +Heft 3, 1873.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_344" name="note_344" href="#noteref_344">344.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The translation +of these laws of Shōtoku Taishi was furnished +by Mr. Tsuji Shinji, late vice-minister of state for education, and by +Mr. Matsumoto Kumpei.</dd></dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPAN*** +</pre><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader43" id="rightpageheader43"></a><a name="pgtoc44" id="pgtoc44"></a><a name="pdf45" id="pdf45"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr><th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">August 25, 2009 </th></tr><tr><td class="tei tei-item"><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-respStmt"> + <span class="tei tei-name"> + Produced by Steven Gibbs, Brian James, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + </span> + </span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader46" id="rightpageheader46"></a><a name="pgtoc47" id="pgtoc47"></a><a name="pdf48" id="pdf48"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A Word from Project Gutenberg</span></h1><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This file should be named + 29798-h.html or + 29798-h.zip.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and all associated files of various formats will be found + in: + + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/9/7/9/29798/" class="block tei tei-xref" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span><span style="font-size: 90%">/dirs/2/9/7/9/29798/</span></a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old + editions will be renamed.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Creating the works from public domain print editions means that + no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the + Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United + States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. + Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this + license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works + to protect the Project Gutenberg™ concept and trademark. 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