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diff --git a/29757.txt b/29757.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ca837bb --- /dev/null +++ b/29757.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2003 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Story of a Tinder-box, by Charles Meymott Tidy + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Story of a Tinder-box + +Author: Charles Meymott Tidy + +Release Date: August 22, 2009 [EBook #29757] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF A TINDER-BOX *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Ritu Aggarwal and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +book was produced from scanned images of public domain +material from the Google Print project.) + + + + + + + + + + THE STORY + OF + A TINDER-BOX. + + + [Illustration: THE STORY OF A TINDER-BOX] + + + _THE ROMANCE OF SCIENCE._ + + * * * * * + + THE STORY + OF + A TINDER-BOX. + + _A COURSE OF LECTURES_ + + _Delivered before a Juvenile Auditory at the London Institution + during the Christmas Holidays of 1888-89._ + + + BY THE LATE + CHARLES MEYMOTT TIDY, M.B., M.S., F.C.S. + FORMERLY BARRISTER-AT-LAW; + PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND OF FORENSIC MEDICINE AT THE LONDON HOSPITAL; + MEDICAL OFFICER OF HEALTH FOR ISLINGTON; VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE INSTITUTE + OF CHEMISTRY; ONE OF THE OFFICIAL ANALYSTS TO THE HOME OFFICE. + + + LONDON: + SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, + NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, W.C.; 43, QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, E.C. + BRIGHTON: 129, NORTH STREET. + NEW YORK: E. & J. B. YOUNG & CO. + 1897. + + + [PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE GENERAL LITERATURE COMMITTEE.] + + + +PREFACE. + + +These lectures were delivered with the assistance merely of a few notes, +the author in preparing them for the press adhering as nearly as +possible to the shorthand writer's manuscript. They must be read as +intentionally untechnical holiday lectures intended for juveniles. But +as the print cannot convey the experiments or the demonstrations, the +reader is begged to make the necessary allowance. + +The author desires to take this opportunity of expressing his thanks +to Messrs. Bryant and May; to Messrs. Woodhouse and Rawson, electrical +engineers; to Mr. Woolf, the lead-pencil manufacturer; and to Mr. +Gardiner, for numerous specimens with which the lectures were +illustrated. + + + + +THE STORY OF A TINDER-BOX + + + +LECTURE I. + + +MY YOUNG FRIENDS,--Some months ago the Directors of this Institution +honoured me with a request that I should deliver a course of Christmas +Juvenile Lectures. I must admit I did my best to shirk the task, feeling +that the duty would be better intrusted to one who had fewer demands +upon his time. It was under the genial influence of a bright summer's +afternoon, when one thought Christmas-tide such a long way off that it +might never come, that I consented to undertake this course of lectures. +No sooner had I done so than I was pressed to name a subject. Now it is +a very difficult thing to choose a subject, and especially a subject for +a course of juvenile lectures; and I will take you thus much into my +confidence by telling you that I selected the subject upon which I am to +speak to you, long before I had a notion what I could make of it, or +indeed whether I could make anything at all of it. I mention these +details to ask you and our elders who honour us--you and me--with their +company at these lectures, for some little indulgence, if at times the +story I have to tell proves somewhat commonplace, something you may have +heard before, a tale oft told. My sole desire is that these lectures +should be true _juvenile_ lectures. + +Well, you all know what this is? [_Holding up a box of matches._] It is +a box of matches. And you know, moreover, what it is used for, and how +to use it. I will take out one of the matches, rub it on the box, and +"strike a light." You say that experiment is commonplace enough. Be it +so. At any rate, I want you to recollect that phrase--"strike a light." +It will occur again in our course of lectures. But, you must know, there +was a time when people wanted fire, but had no matches wherewith to +procure it. How did they obtain fire? The necessity for, and therefore +the art of producing, fire is, I should suppose, as old as the world +itself. Although it may be true that our very earliest ancestors relied +for necessary food chiefly on an uncooked vegetable diet, nevertheless +it is certain that very early in the history of the world people +discovered that cooked meat (the venison that our souls love) was a +thing not altogether to be despised. Certainly by the time of Tubal +Cain, an early worker in metals, not only the methods of producing fire, +but also the uses to which fire could be applied, must have been well +understood. Imagine the astonishment of our ancestors when they first +saw fire! Possibly, the first sight of this wonderful "element" +vouchsafed to mortals was a burning mountain, or something of that kind. +One is scarcely astonished that there should have been in those early +times a number of people who were professed fire-worshippers. No wonder, +I say, that fire should have been regarded with intense reverence. It +constituted an essential part of early sacrificial worship. Some of my +young friends, too, may remember how in ancient Rome there was a special +order (called the order of the Vestal Virgins), whose duty it was to +preserve the sacred fire, which if once extinguished, it was thought +would bring ruin and destruction upon their city. + + [Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +How did our ancestors, think you, obtain fire in those early times? I +suggested a burning mountain as a source of fire. You remember, too, +perhaps reading about Prometheus, who stole fire from heaven, bringing +it to earth in a copper rod, which combined act of theft and scientific +experiment made the gods very angry, because they were afraid mortals +might learn as many wonderful things as they knew themselves. History +seems to show that the energetic rubbing together of dry sticks was one +of the earliest methods adopted by our ancestors for producing fire. I +find, for instance, described and pictured by an early author some such +plan as the following:--A thick piece of wood was placed upon the +ground. Into a hole bored in this piece of wood a cone of wood was +fitted. By placing a boy or man on the top of the cone, and whirling him +round, sufficient friction resulted where the two pieces of wood rubbed +one against the other to produce fire. Our artist has modernized the +picture to give you an idea of the operation (Fig. 1). Now instead of +repeating that experiment exactly, I will try to obtain fire by the +friction of wood with wood. I take this piece of boxwood, and having cut +it to a point, rub it briskly on another piece of wood (Fig. 2). If I +employ sufficient energy, I have no doubt I may make it hot enough to +fire tinder. Yes! I have done so, as you see. (I will at once apologize +for the smoke. Unfortunately we cannot generally have fire without +smoke.) Every boy knows that experiment in another form. A boy takes a +brass button, and after giving it a good rub on his desk, applies it to +the cheek of some inoffensive boy at his side, much to the astonishment +of his quiet neighbour. Well, I am going to see whether I can produce +fire with a brass button. I have mounted my button, as you see, for +certain reasons on a cork, and I will endeavour by rubbing the button on +a piece of pinewood to make it sufficiently hot to fire tinder. Already +I have done so. + + [Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +Talking about friction as a means of producing heat, I should like to +mention that at the last Paris Exhibition I saw water made to boil, and +coffee prepared from it, by the heat resulting from the friction of two +copper plates within the liquid. + +That then is the earliest history I can give you of the production of +fire, and at once from that history I come to the reign of the +tinder-box. The tinder-box constitutes one of the very earliest methods, +no doubt, of obtaining fire. I have searched for some history of the +tinder-box, and all I can say for certain is that it was in use long +before the age of printing. I have here several rare old tinder-boxes. I +intend showing you in the course of these lectures every detail of their +construction and use. I have no doubt this very old tinder-box that you +see here (Fig. 3 A) was once upon a time kept on the mantel-piece of the +kitchen well polished and bright, and I do not doubt but that it has lit +hundreds and thousands of fires, and, what is more, has very often been +spoken to very disrespectfully when the servant wanted to light the +fire, and her master was waiting for his breakfast. I will project a +picture of it on the screen, so that you may all see it. There it is. +It is a beautiful piece of apparatus. There is the tinder, the steel +(Fig. 3 _b_), the flint (_c_), and the matches (_d_) complete. + + [Illustration: Fig. 3.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 4.] + +It was with this instrument, long before the invention of matches, that +our grandfathers obtained light. I want to show you how the trick was +managed. First of all it was necessary to have good tinder. To obtain +this, they took a piece of linen and simply charred or burnt it, as you +see I am doing now (Fig. 4). (Cambric, I am told, makes the best tinder +for match-lighting, and the ladies, in the kindness of their hearts, +formerly made a point of saving their old cambric handkerchiefs for +this purpose.) The servants prepared the tinder over-night, for reasons +I shall explain to you directly. Having made the tinder, they shut it +down in the box with the lid (Fig. 3 A) to prevent contact with air. You +see I have the tinder now safely secured in my tinder-box. Here is a +piece of common flint, and here is the steel. Here too are the matches, +and I am fortunate in having some of the old matches made many years +ago, prepared as you see with a little sulphur upon their tips. Well, +having got all these etceteras, box, tinder, flint and steel, we set to +work in this way:--Taking the steel in one hand, and the flint in the +other, I must give the steel a blow, or rather a succession of blows +with the flint (Fig. 3 B). Notice what beautiful sparks I obtain! I want +one of these sparks, if I can persuade it to do so, to fall on my +tinder. There! it has done so, and my tinder has caught fire. I blow my +fired tinder a little to make it burn better, and now I apply a sulphur +match to the red-hot tinder. See, I have succeeded in getting my match +in flame. I will now set light to one of these old-fashioned candles--a +rushlight--with which our ancestors were satisfied before the days of +gas and electric lighting. This was their light, and this was the way +they lighted it. No wonder (perhaps you say) that they went to bed +early. + +I should like to draw your attention to one other form of tinder-box, +because I do not suppose you have ever seen these kind of things before. +I have here two specimens of the pistol form of tinder-box (Fig. 5). +Here is the flint, the tinder being contained in this little box. It is +the same sort of tinder as we made just now. The tinder was fired with +flint and steel in the same way as the old-fashioned flint pistols fired +the gunpowder. And you see this pistol tinder-box is so constructed as +to serve as a candlestick as well as a tinder-box. I have fired, as you +perceive, my charred linen with this curious tinder-box, and thus I get +my sulphur match alight once more! + + [Illustration: Fig. 5.] + +It was in the year 1669 that Brandt, an alchemist and a merchant--a very +distinguished scientific man--discovered the remarkable substance I have +here, which we call phosphorus. Brandt was an alchemist. I do not know +whether you know what an alchemist is. An alchemist was an old-fashioned +chemist. These alchemists had three prominent ideas before them. The +first thing they sought for was to discover a something--a powder they +thought it ought to be--that would change the commoner or baser metals +(such as iron) into gold. The second idea was to discover "a universal +solvent," that is, a liquid which would dissolve everything, and they +hoped out of this liquid to be able to crystallize gems. And then, +having obtained gold and gems, the third thing they desired was "a vital +elixir" to prolong their lives indefinitely to enjoy the gold and gems +they had manufactured. These were the modest aims of alchemy. Well +now--although you may say such notions sound very foolish--let me tell +you that great practical discoveries had their origin in the very +out-of-the-way researches of the alchemists. Depend upon this, that an +object of lofty pursuit, though that object be one of practically +impossible attainment, is not unworthy the ambition of the scientific +man. Though we cannot scale the summit of the volcanic cone, we may +notwithstanding reach a point where we can examine the lava its fires +have melted. We may do a great deal even in our attempt to grasp the +impossible. It was so with Brandt. He was searching for a something that +would change the baser metals into gold, and, in the search, he +discovered phosphorus. The chief thing that struck Brandt about +phosphorus was its property of shining in the dark without having +previously been exposed to light. A great many substances were known to +science even at that time that shone in the dark _after_ they had been +exposed to light. But it was not until Brandt, in the year 1669, +discovered phosphorus that a substance luminous in the dark, without +having been previously exposed to light, had been observed. I should +like, in passing, to show you how beautifully these phosphorescent +powders shine after having been exposed to a powerful light. See how +magnificently brilliant they are! These, or something like them, were +known before the time of Brandt. + +Shortly after phosphorus had been discovered, people came to the +conclusion that it might be employed for the purpose of procuring +artificial light. But I want you to note, that although phosphorus was +discovered in 1669 (and the general properties of phosphorus seem to +have been studied and were well understood within five years of its +discovery), it was not until the year 1833 that phosphorus matches +became a commercial success, so that until the year 1833, our old friend +the tinder-box held its ground. I will try and give you as nearly as I +can a complete list of the various attempts made with the purpose of +procuring fire between the years 1669 and 1833. + +The first invention was what were called "phosphoric tapers." From the +accounts given (although it is not easy to understand the description), +phosphoric tapers seem to have been sulphur matches with a little piece +of phosphorus enclosed in glass fixed on the top of the match, the idea +being that you had only to break the glass and expose the phosphorus to +air for it to catch fire immediately and ignite the sulphur. If this was +the notion (although I am not sure), it is not easy to understand how +the phosphoric tapers were worked. The second invention for the purpose +of utilizing phosphorus for getting fire was by scraping with a match a +little phosphorus from a bottle coated with a phosphorus composition, +and firing it by friction. The fact is, phosphorus may be easily ignited +by slight friction. If I wrap a small piece of phosphorus in paper, as I +am doing now, and rub the paper on the table, you see I readily fire my +phosphorus. + + [Illustration: Fig. 6.] + +After this, "Homberg's Pyrophorus," consisting of a roasted mixture of +alum and flour, was suggested as a means of obtaining fire. Then comes +the "Electrophorus," an electrical instrument suggested by Volta, which +was thought at the time a grand invention for the purpose of getting +light (Fig. 6 A). The nuisance about this instrument was that it proved +somewhat capricious in its action, and altogether declined to work in +damp foggy weather. I do not know whether I shall be successful in +lighting a gas-jet with the electrophorus, but I will try. I excite this +plate of resin with a cat-skin (Fig. 6 B), then put this brass plate +upon the resin plate and touch the brass (Fig. 6 C); then take the brass +plate off the resin plate by the insulating handle and draw a spark from +it, which I hope will light the gas. There, I have done it! (Fig. 6 D.) + + [Illustration: Fig. 7.] + +Well, next after the electrophorus comes the "fire syringe" (Fig. 7). +The necessary heat in this case is produced by the compression of air. +You see in this syringe stopped at one end, I have a certain quantity +of air. My piston-rod (C) fits very closely into the syringe (B), so +that the air cannot escape. If I push the piston down I compress the air +particles, for they can't get out;--I make them in fact occupy less +bulk. In the act of compressing the air I produce heat, and the heat, as +you see, fires my tinder. + +It was in or about the year 1807 that "chemical matches" were introduced +to the public for the first time. These chemical matches were simply +sulphur matches tipped with a mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar. +These matches were fired by dipping them in a bottle containing asbestos +moistened with sulphuric acid. Here is one of these "chemical matches," +and here the bottle of asbestos and sulphuric acid. I dip the match into +the bottle and, as you see, it catches fire. + + [Illustration: Fig. 8.] + +In the year 1820, Dobereiner, a very learned man, discovered a method of +getting fire by permitting a jet of hydrogen to play upon +finely-divided platinum. The platinum, owing to a property it possesses +in a high degree (which property however is not special to platinum), +has the power of coercing the union of the hydrogen and oxygen. Here is +one of Dobereiner's original lamps (Fig. 8). I am going to show you the +experiment, however, on a somewhat larger scale than this lamp permits. +Here I have a quantity of fine platinum-wire, made up in the form of a +rosette. I place this over the coal-gas as it issues from the +gas-burner, and, as you see, the platinum begins to glow, until at last +it becomes sufficiently hot to fire the gas (Fig. 9). + + [Illustration: Fig. 9.] + +In the year 1826 what were called "lucifers" were invented, and I show +you here some of the original "lucifers." They are simply sulphur +matches tipped with a mixture of chlorate of potash and sulphide of +antimony, and were ignited by drawing them briskly through a little +piece of folded glass-paper. + +In the year 1828, "Prometheans" were invented. I have here two of the +original "Prometheans." They consist (as you see) of a small quantity of +chlorate of potash and sugar rolled up tightly in a piece of paper. +Inside the paper roll is placed a small and sealed glass bubble +containing sulphuric acid. When it was wanted to light a "Promethean" +you had only to break the bulb of sulphuric acid, the action of which +set fire to the mixture of chlorate of potash and sugar, which ignited +the paper roll. + +In the year 1830 "matches" with sulphur tips were introduced as a means +of obtaining fire. They were fired, so far as I can make out, by dipping +them into a bottle containing a little phosphorus, which then had to be +ignited by friction. + +So far as I know, I have now given you very shortly the history of +obtaining fire between the years 1669 and 1830. You see how brisk +ingenuity had been during this long period, and yet nothing ousted our +old friend the tinder-box. The tinder-box seems, as it were, to speak to +us with a feeling of pride and say, "Yes, all you have been talking +about were the clever ideas of clever men, but I lived through them all; +my flint and my steel were easily procured, my ingredients were not +dangerous, and I was fairly certain in my action." + +In the year 1833 the reign of the tinder-box came to an end. It had had +a very long innings--many, many hundred years; but in 1833 its reign was +finished. It was in this year the discovery was announced, that bone +could be made to yield large quantities of phosphorus at a cheap rate. +Originally the price of phosphorus was sufficient to prevent its +every-day use. Hanckwitz thus advertises it--"For the information of the +curious, he is the only one in London who makes inflammable phosphorus +that can be preserved in water. All varieties unadulterated. Sells +wholesale and retail. Wholesale, 50s. per oz.; retail, L3 sterling per +oz. Every description of good drugs. My portrait will be distributed +amongst my customers as a keepsake." + + [Illustration: Fig. 10.] + +Let me give you a brief account of the method of preparing lucifer +matches, and to illustrate this part of my story, I am indebted to +Messrs. Bryant and May for specimens. Pieces of wood are cut into +blocks of the size you see here (Fig. 10 A). These blocks are then cut +into little pieces, or splints, of about one-eighth of an inch square +(Fig. 10 b). By the bye, abroad they usually make their match splints +round by forcing them through a circular plate, pierced with small round +holes. I do not know why we in England make our matches square, except +for the reason that Englishmen are fond of doing things on the square. +The next part of the process is to coat the splints with paraffin or +melted sulphur. The necessity for this coating of sulphur or paraffin +you will understand by an experiment. If I take some pieces of +phosphorus and place them upon a sheet of cartridge paper, and then set +fire to the pieces of phosphorus, curiously enough, the ignited +phosphorus will not set fire to the paper. I have taken five little +pieces of phosphorus (as you see), so as to give the paper every chance +of catching fire (Fig. 11). Now that is exactly what would happen if +paraffin (or some similarly combustible body) was not placed on the end +of the splint; my phosphorus would burn when I rubbed it on the box, but +it would not set fire to the match. It is essential, therefore, as you +see, in the first instance, to put something on the match that the +ignited phosphorus will easily fire, and which will ignite the wood. I +will say no more about this now, as I shall have to draw your attention +to the subject in another lecture. The end of the splints are generally +scorched by contact with a hot plate before they are dipped in the +paraffin, after which the phosphorus composition is applied to the +match. This composition is simply a mixture of phosphorus, glue, and +chlorate of potash. The composition is spread upon a warm plate, and the +matches dipped on the plate, so that a small quantity of the phosphorus +mixture may adhere to the tip of the match. Every match passes through +about seventeen people's hands before it is finished. I told you that in +England we generally use chlorate of potash in the preparation of the +phosphorus composition, whilst abroad nitrate of potash is usually +employed. You know that when we strike a light with an English match a +slight snap results, which is due to the chlorate of potash in the +match. In the case of nitrate of potash no such snapping noise occurs. +Some people are wicked enough to call them "thieves' matches." Just let +me show you (in passing) how a mixture of chlorate of potash and sulphur +explodes when I strike it. + + [Illustration: Fig. 11.] + +Now, then, comes a very remarkable story to which I desire to draw your +attention. There were many disadvantages in the use of this yellow +phosphorus. First of all, it is a poisonous substance; and what is more, +the vapour of the phosphorus was liable to affect the workpeople engaged +in the manufacture of lucifer matches with a bad disease of the jaw, and +which was practically, I am afraid, incurable. A very great chemist, +Schroetter, discovered that phosphorus existed under another form, some +of which I have here. This, which is of a red colour, was found to be +exactly the same chemical substance as the yellow phosphorus, but +possessing in many respects different properties. For instance, you see +I keep this yellow phosphorus under water; I don't keep the red +phosphorus in water. Amongst other peculiarities it was found that red +phosphorus was not a poison, whilst the yellow phosphorus was, as I told +you, very poisonous indeed. About two to three grains of yellow +phosphorus is sufficient to poison an adult. I have known several cases +of children poisoned by sucking the ends of phosphorus matches. So you +see it was not unimportant for the workpeople, as well as for the public +generally, that something should be discovered equally effective to take +the place of this poisonous yellow phosphorus. + + [Illustration: Fig. 12.] + +I should like to show you what very different properties these two kinds +of phosphorus possess. For instance, if I take a small piece of the +yellow phosphorus and pour upon it a little of this liquid--bi-sulphide +of carbon--and in another bottle treat the red phosphorus in a similar +way, we shall find the yellow phosphorus is soluble in the liquid, +whilst the red is not. I will pour these solutions on blotting-paper, +when you will find that the solution of the yellow phosphorus will +before long catch fire spontaneously (Fig. 12 A), whilst the solution +(although it is not a solution, for the red phosphorus is not soluble in +the bi-sulphide of carbon) of the red phosphorus will not fire (Fig. 12 +B). Again, if I add a little iodine to the yellow phosphorus, you see +it immediately catches fire (Fig. 13 a); but the same result does not +follow with the red phosphorus (Fig. 13 b). I will show you an +experiment, however, to prove, notwithstanding these different +properties, that this red and yellow material are the same elementary +body. I will take a little piece of the yellow phosphorus, and after +igniting it introduce it into a jar containing oxygen, and I will make +a similar experiment with the red phosphorus. You will notice that the +red phosphorus does not catch fire quite so readily as the yellow. +However, exactly the same result takes place when they burn--you get the +same white smoke with each, and they combust equally brilliantly. The +red and yellow varieties are the same body--that is what I want to show +you--with different properties. + + [Illustration: Fig. 13.] + +Then comes the next improvement in the manufacture of matches, which is +putting the phosphorus on the box and not on the match. This is why the +use of red phosphorus, was introduced into this country by Messrs. +Bryant and May. I have no doubt that many a good drawing-room paper has +been spared by the use of matches that light only on the box. + +I cannot help thinking that the old tinder-box, which I have placed on +the table in a prominent position before you to-night, feels a certain +pleasure in listening to our story. Envious perhaps a little of its +successor, it nevertheless fully recognizes that its own reign had been +a thousand times longer than that of the lucifer match. If we could only +hear that tinder-box talk, I think we should find it saying something of +this kind to the lucifer match--"I gave way to you, because my time was +over; but mind, your turn will come next, and you will then have to give +way to something else, as once upon a time I had to give way to you." +And that is the end of the first chapter of my story of a tinder-box. + + + +LECTURE II. + + +We were engaged in our last lecture in considering the various methods +that have been adopted from early times for obtaining fire, and we left +off at the invention of the lucifer match. I ventured to hint at the +conclusion of my last lecture, that the tinder-box had something to say +to the lucifer match, by way of suggestion, that just as the lucifer +match had ousted it, so it was not impossible that something some day +might oust the lucifer match. Electricians have unlimited confidence (I +can assure you) in the unlimited applications of electricity:--they +believe in their science. Now one of the effects of electricity is to +cause a considerable rise of temperature in certain substances through +which the electrical current is passed. Here is a piece of platinum +wire, for example, and if I pass an electrical current through it, you +see how the wire glows (Fig. 14). If we were to pass more current +through it, which I can easily do, we should be able to make the +platinum wire white hot, in which condition it would give out a +considerable amount of light. There is the secret of those beautiful +incandescent glow lamps that you so often see now-a-days (Fig. 15). +Instead of a platinum wire, a fine thread of carbon is brought to a very +high temperature by the passage through it of the electrical current, +in which condition it gives out light. All that you have to do to light +up is to connect your lamp with the battery. The reign of the match, as +you see, so far as incandescent electric lamps are concerned, is a thing +of the past. We need no match to fire it. Here are various forms of +these beautiful little lamps. This is, as you see, a little rosette for +the coat. Notice how I can turn the minute incandescent lamp, placed in +the centre of the rose, off or on at my pleasure. If I disconnect it +with the battery, which is in my pocket, the lamp goes out; if I connect +it with my battery the lamp shines brilliantly. This all comes by +"switching it on" or "switching it off," as we commonly express the act +of connecting or disconnecting the lamp with the source of electricity. + + [Illustration: Fig. 14.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 15.] + +Here is another apparatus to which I desire to call your attention. If I +take a battery such as I have here--a small galvanic battery of some ten +cells--you will see a very little spark when I make and break contact of +the two poles. This is what is called an electrical torch, in which I +utilize this small spark as a gas-lighter (Fig. 16). This instrument +contains at its lower part a source of electricity, and if I connect the +two wires that run through this long tube with the apparatus which +generates the current, which I do by pressing on this button, you see a +little spark is at once produced which readily sets fire to my gas-lamp. +We have in this electrical torch a substitute--partial substitute, I +ought to say--for the lucifer match. I think you will admit that it was +with some show of reason I suggested that after all it is possible the +lucifer match may not have quite so long an innings as the tinder-box. +But there is another curious thing to note in these days of great +scientific progress, viz. that there are signs of the old tinder-box +coming to the front again. Men, I have often noticed, find it a very +difficult thing to light their pipes with a match on the top of an +omnibus on a windy day, and inventors are always trying to find out +something that will enable them to do so without the trouble and +difficulty of striking a match, and keeping the flame a-going long +enough to light their cigars. And so we have various forms of +pipe-lighting apparatus, of which here is one--which is nothing more +than a tinder-box with its flint and steel (Fig. 17). You set to work +somewhat in this way: placing the tinder (_a_) on the flint (_b_), you +strike the flint with the steel (_c_), and--there, I have done it!--my +tinder is fired by the spark. So you see there are signs, not only of +the lucifer match being ousted by the applications of electricity, but +of the old tinder-box coming amongst us once again in a new form. + + [Illustration: Fig. 16.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 17.] + +I am now going to ask you to travel with me step by step through the +operation of getting fire out of the tinder-box. The first thing I have +to do is to prepare my tinder, and I told you, if you remember, that the +way we made tinder was by charring pieces of linen (see Fig. 4). I told +you last time what a dear old friend told me, who from practical +experience is far more familiar with tinder-boxes and their working than +I am, that no material was better for making tinder than an old cambric +handkerchief. However, as I have no cambric handkerchief to operate +upon, I must use a piece of common linen rag. I want you to see +precisely what takes place. I set fire to my linen (which, by the bye, I +have taken care to wash carefully so that there should be no dirt nor +starch left in it), and while it is burning shut it down in my +tinder-box. That is my tinder. Let us now call this charred linen by its +proper name--my tinder is carbon in a state of somewhat fine +subdivision. Carbon is an elementary body. An element--I do not say this +is a very good definition, but it is sufficiently good for my +purpose--an element is a thing from which nothing can be obtained but +the element itself. Iron is an element. You cannot get anything out of +iron but iron; you cannot decompose iron. Carbon is an element; you can +get nothing out of carbon but carbon. You can combine it with other +things, but if you have only carbon you can get nothing out of the +carbon but carbon. But this carbon is found to exist in very different +states or conditions. For instance, it is found in the form of the +diamond. (Fig. 18 _a_). Diamonds consist of nothing more nor less than +this simple elementary body--carbon. It is a very different form of +carbon, no doubt you think, to tinder. Just let me tell you, to use a +very hard word, that we call the diamond an "allotropic" form of carbon. +Allotropic means an element with another _form_ to it--the diamond is +simply an allotropic form of carbon. Now the diamond is a very hard +substance indeed. You know perfectly well that when the glass-cutter +wants to cut glass he employs a diamond for the purpose, and the reason +why glass can be cut with a diamond is because the diamond is harder +than the glass. I dare say you have often seen the names of people +scratched on the windows of railway-carriages, with the object I suppose +that it may be known to all future occupants of these carriages that +persons of a certain name wore diamond rings. Well, in addition to the +diamond there is another form of carbon, which is called black-lead. +Black-lead--or, as we term it, graphite--of which I have several +specimens here--is simply carbon--an allotrope of carbon--the same +elementary substance, notwithstanding, as the diamond. This black-lead +(understand black-lead, as it is called, contains no metallic lead) is +used largely for making lead-pencils. The manufacture of lead-pencils, +by the bye, is a very interesting subject. Formerly they cut little +pieces of black-lead out of lumps of the natural black-lead such as you +see there; but now-a-days they powder the black-lead, and then compress +the very fine powder into a block. There is a block of graphite or black +lead, for instance, prepared by simple pressure (Fig. 18 _b_). The great +pressure to which the powder is subjected brings these fine particles +very close together, when they cohere, and form a substantial block. I +will show you an experiment to illustrate what I mean. Here are two +pieces of common metallic lead. No ordinary pressure would make these +two pieces stick together; but if I push them together very +energetically--boys would call it giving them "a shove" together--that +is to say, employing considerable pressure to bring them into close +contact--I have no doubt that I can make these two pieces of lead stick +together--in other words, make them cohere. To cohere is not to adhere. +Cohesion is the union of similar particles--like to like; adhesion is +the union of dissimilar particles. Now that is exactly what is done in +the preparation of the black-lead for lead-pencils. The black-lead +powder is submitted to great pressure, and then all these fine particles +cohere into one solid lump. The pencil maker now cuts these blocks with +a saw into very thin pieces (Fig. 19 _b_). The next thing is to prepare +the wood to receive the black-lead strips. To do this they take a piece +of flat cedar wood and cut a number of grooves in it, placing one of +these little strips of black-lead into each of the grooves (Fig. 19 _a_, +which represents one of the grooves). Then having glued on the cover +(Fig. 19 _c_), they cut it into strips, and plane each little strip into +a round lead-pencil (Fig. 19 _d_). But what you have there as black-lead +in the pencil (for this is what I more particularly wish you to +remember) is simply carbon, being just the same chemical substance as +the diamond. To a chemist diamond and black-lead have the same +composition, being indeed the same substance. As to their money value, +of course there is some difference; still, so far as chemical +composition is concerned, diamonds and black-lead are both absolutely +true varieties of the element carbon. + + [Illustration: Fig. 18.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 19.] + +Well now, I come to another form of carbon, called charcoal (Fig. 18 +_c_). You all know what charcoal is. There is a lump of wood charcoal. +It is, as you see, very soft,--so soft indeed is it that one can cut it +easily with a knife. Graphite is not porous, but this charcoal is very +porous. But mind, whether it be diamond, or black-lead, or this porous +charcoal, each and all have the same chemical composition; they are what +we call the elementary undecomposable substance carbon. The tinder I +made a little while ago (Fig. 4), and which I have securely shut down in +my tinder-box, is carbon. It is not a diamond. It is not black-lead, but +all the same it is _carbon_--that form of porous carbon which we +generally call charcoal. Now I hope you understand the meaning of that +learned word _allotropic_. Diamond, black-lead, and tinder are +allotropic forms of carbon, just as I explained to you in my last +lecture, that the elementary body phosphorus was also known to exist in +two forms, the red and the yellow variety, each having very different +properties. + + [Illustration: Fig. 20.] + +Now it has been noticed when substances are in a very finely-divided +state that they often possess greater chemical activity than they have +in lump. Let me try and illustrate what I mean. Here I have a metal +called antimony, which is easily acted upon by chlorine. I will place +this lump of antimony in a jar of chlorine, and so far as you can see +very little action takes place between the metal and the chlorine. There +is an action taking place, but it is rather slow (Fig. 20 A). Now I will +introduce into the chlorine some of the same metal which I have finely +powdered. See! it catches fire immediately (Fig. 20 B). What I want you +to understand is, that although I have in both these cases precisely the +same chlorine and the same metal, nevertheless, that whilst the action +of the chlorine on the _lump_ of antimony was not very apparent, in the +case of the _powdered_ antimony the action was very energetic. Again, +there is a lump of lead (Fig. 21 _a_). You would be very much astonished +if the lead pipe that conveys the water through your houses caught fire +spontaneously; but let me tell you that, if your lead water-pipes were +reduced to a sufficiently fine powder, they would catch fire when +exposed to the air. I have some finely-powdered lead in this tube (Fig. +21 _b_), which you will notice catches fire directly it is exposed to +the atmosphere (Fig. 21 _c_). There it is! Only powder the lead +sufficiently fine,--that is to say, bring it into a state of minute +subdivision,--and it fires by contact with the oxygen of the air. And +now apply this. We have in our diamond the element carbon, but +diamond-carbon is a hard substance, and not in a finely-divided state. +We have in this tinder the same substance as the diamond, but +tinder-carbon is finely divided, and it is because it is in a +finely-divided condition that the carbon in our tinder-box catches fire +so readily. I hope I have made that part of my subject quite clear to +you. I should wish you to note that this very finely-divided carbon has +rather an inclination to attract moisture. That is the reason why our +tinder is so disposed to get damp, as I told you; and, as damp tinder is +very difficult to light, this explains the meaning of those +disrespectful words that I suggested our tinder-box had often had +addressed to it in the course of its active life of service. + + [Illustration: Fig. 21.] + +But to proceed. What do I want now? I want a spark to fire my tinder. A +spark is enough. Do you remember the motto of the Royal Humane Society? +Some of my young friends can no doubt translate it, "Lateat scintilla +forsan"--perchance a spark may lie hid. If a person rescued from +drowning has but a spark of life remaining, try and get the spark to +burst into activity. That is what the motto of that excellent society +means. How am I to get this spark from the flint and steel to set fire +to my tinder? I take the steel in one hand, as you see, and I set to +work to strike it as vehemently as I can with the flint which I hold in +the other (Fig. 3 A B). Spark follows spark. See how brilliant they are! +But I want one spark at least to fall on my tinder. There, I have +succeeded, and it has set fire to my tinder. One spark was enough. The +spark was obtained by the collision of the steel and flint. The sparks +produced by this striking of flint against steel were formerly the only +safe light the coal-miner had to light him in his dark dreary work of +procuring coal. Here is the flint and steel lamp which originally +belonged to Sir Humphry Davy (Fig. 22). The miners could not use candles +in coal-mines because that would have been dangerous, and they were +driven to employ an apparatus consisting of an iron wheel revolving +against a piece of flint for the purpose of getting as much light as the +sparks would yield. This instrument has been very kindly lent to me by +Professor Dewar. I will project a picture of the apparatus on the +screen, so that those at a distance may be better able to see the +construction of the instrument. + + [Illustration: Fig. 22.] + +And now follow me carefully. I take the steel and the flint, and +striking them together I get sparks. I want you to ask yourselves, Where +do the sparks come from? Each spark is due to a minute piece of _iron_ +being knocked off the steel by the blow of flint with steel. Note the +precise character of the spark. Let me sprinkle some iron filings into +this large gas flame. You will notice that the sparks of burning iron +filings are very similar in appearance to the spark I produce by the +collision of my flint and steel. + + [Illustration: Fig. 23.] + +But now I want to carry you somewhat further in our story. It would not +do for me simply to knock off a small piece of iron; I want when I knock +it off that it should be red-hot. Stay for a moment and think of +this--iron particles knocked off--iron particles made red-hot. All +mechanical force generates heat.[A] You remember, in my last lecture, I +rubbed together some pieces of wood, and they became sufficiently hot to +fire phosphorus. On a cold day you rub your hands together to warm them, +and the cabmen buffet themselves. It is the same story--mechanical force +generating heat! The bather knows perfectly well that a rough sea is +warmer than a smooth sea. Why?--because the mechanical dash of the waves +has been converted into heat. Let me remind you of the familiar phrase, +"striking a light," when I rub the match on the match-box. "Forgive me +urging such simple facts by such simple illustrations and such simple +experiments. The facts I am endeavouring to bring before you are +illustrations of principles that determine the polity of the whole +material universe." Friction produces heat. Here is a little toy +(cracker) that you may have seen before (Fig. 23). It is scientific in +its way. A small quantity of fulminating material is placed between two +pieces of card on which a few fragments of sand have been sprinkled +(Fig. 23 _a_). The two ends of the paper (_b b_) are pulled asunder. The +friction produces heat, the heat fires the fulminate, and off it goes +with a crack. And now put this question to yourselves, What produced the +friction? Force. What is more, the amount of heat produced is the exact +measure of the amount of force used. Heat is a form of force. I must +urge you to realize precisely this energy of force. When you sharpen a +knife you put oil upon the hone. Why?--When the carpenter saws a piece +of wood he greases the saw. Why?--When you travel by train you see the +railway-porter running up and down the platform with a box of yellow +grease with which he greases the wheels. Why?--The answer to these +questions is not far to seek--it is because you want your knife +sharpened; it is because you want the saw to cut; it is because you want +the train to travel. The carpenter finds sawing hard work, and he does +not want the force of the muscles of his arm--his labour, in short--to +be converted into heat, and so he greases the saw, knowing that the more +completely he prevents friction, the more wood he will cut. It is the +force of steam that makes the engine travel. Steam costs money. The +engine-driver does not want that steam-force to be converted into heat, +because every degree of heat produced means diminished speed of his +train; and so the porter greases the wheels. But as you approach the +station the train must be stopped. The steam is turned off, and the +guard puts on what he calls "the brake." What is the brake? It is a +piece of wood so constructed and placed that it can be made to press +upon the wheel. Considerable friction results between the wheel and the +brake;--heat is produced;--the train gradually comes to a stop. Why? We +have now the conversion of that force into heat which a minute ago was +being used for the purpose of keeping the train a-going. Given a certain +force you can have heat _or_ motion; but you cannot have heat _and_ +motion with the same force in the same amount as if you had them singly. +In every-day life, you cannot have your pudding and eat it. + + [A] I need scarcely say, that whatever is of any value in the + following remarks is derived from that charming book of Professor + Tyndall's, _Heat a Mode of Motion_. + +Heat then is generated by mechanical force; it is a mode of motion. +There was an old theory that heat was material. There was heat, for +instance, you were told, in this nail. Suppose I hammer it, it will get +hot, and at the same time I shall reduce by hammering the bulk of the +iron nail. A pint pot will not hold so much as a quart pot. The nail +(you were told) cannot hold so much heat when it occupies a less bulk as +it did when it occupied a larger bulk. Therefore if I reduce the bulk of +the nail I squeeze out some of the heat. That was the old theory. One +single experiment knocked it on the head. It was certain, that in water +there is a great deal more entrapped heat--"latent heat" it was +called--than there is in ice. If you take two pieces of ice and rub them +together, you will find the ice melts--the solid ice changes (that is to +say) into liquid water. Where did the heat come from to melt the ice? +You could not get the heat _from_ the ice, because it was not there, +there being admittedly more latent heat in the water than in the ice. +The explanation is certain--the heat was the result of the friction. And +now let me go to my hammer and nail. I wish to see whether I can make +this nail hot by hammering. It is quite cold at the present time. I hope +to make the nail hot enough by hammering it to fire that piece of +phosphorus (Fig. 24). One or two sharp blows with the hammer suffice, +and as you see the thing is done--_I_ have fired the phosphorus. But +follow the precise details of the experiment. It was _I_ who gave motion +to the hammer. _I_ brought that hammer on to that nail. Where did the +motion go to that I gave the hammer? It went into the nail, and it is +that very motion that made the nail hot, and it was that heat which +lighted the phosphorus. It was _I_ who fired the phosphorus: do not be +mistaken, _I_ fired the phosphorus. It was my arm that gave motion to +the hammer. It was my force that was communicated to the hammer. It was +_I_ who made the hammer give the motion to the nail. It was _I_ myself +that fired the phosphorus. + + [Illustration: Fig. 24.] + +I want you then to realize this great fact, that when I hold the steel +and strike it with the flint, and get sparks, I first of all knock off a +minute fragment of iron by the blow that I impart to it, whilst the +force I use in striking the blow actually renders the little piece of +detached iron red-hot. What a wonderful thought this is! Look at the +sun, the great centre of heat! It looks as if it were a blazing ball of +fire in the heavens. Where does the heat of the sun come from? It seems +bold to suggest that the heat is produced by the impact of meteorites on +the sun. Just as I, for instance, take a hammer and heat the nail by the +dash of the hammer on it, so the dash of these meteorites on the sun are +supposed to produce the heat so essential to our life and comfort. + + [Illustration: Fig. 25.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 26.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 27.] + +Let us take another step forward in the story of our tinder-box. Having +produced a red-hot spark and set fire to my tinder, I want you to see +what I do next. I set to work to blow upon my lighted tinder. You +remember, by the bye, that Latin motto of our school-books--_al[)e]re +flammam_, nourish the flame. When I blow on the tinder my object is to +nourish the flame. Here is a pair of common kitchen bellows (Fig. 25); +when the fire is low the cook blows the fire to make it burn up. What is +the object of this blowing operation? It is to supply a larger quantity +of atmospheric oxygen to the almost lifeless fire than it would +otherwise obtain. Oxygen is the spark's nourishment and life, and the +more it gets the better it thrives. Oxygen is an extremely active agent +in nourishing flame. If, for instance, I take a little piece of carbon +and merely set fire to one small corner of it, and then introduce it +into this jar of oxygen, see how brilliantly it burns; you notice how +rapidly the carbon is becoming consumed (Fig. 26). In the tinder-box I +blow on the tinder to supply a larger amount of oxygen to my spark. A +thing to burn under ordinary conditions must have oxygen, and the more +oxygen it gets the better it burns. It does not follow that the supply +of oxygen to a burning body must necessarily come directly from the air. +Here, for instance, I have a squib. I will fire it and put it under +water (Fig. 27). You see it goes on burning whether it is in the water +or out of it, because one of the materials of which the squib is +composed supplies the oxygen. The oxygen is actually locked up inside +the squib. When then I blow upon my tinder, my object is to supply more +oxygen to it than it would get under ordinary conditions. And, as you +see, the more I blow, within certain limits, the more the spark +spreads, until now the whole of my tinder has become red-hot. But my +time is gone, and we must leave the rest of our story for the next +lecture. + + + +LECTURE III. + + +Recall for a few minutes the facts I brought before you in my last +lecture. The first point we discussed was the preparation of the tinder. +I explained to you that tinder was nothing more than carbon in a +finely-divided state. The second point was, that I had to strike the +steel with the flint in such manner that a minute particle of the iron +should be detached; the force used in knocking it off being sufficient +to make the small particle of iron red-hot. This spark falling upon the +tinder set fire to it. The next stage of the operation was to blow upon +the tinder, in order, as I said, to nourish the flame; in other words, +to promote combustion by an increased supply of oxygen, just as we use +an ordinary pair of bellows for the purpose of fanning a fire which has +nearly gone out into a blaze. + +And now comes the next point in my story of a tinder-box. Having ignited +the tinder I want to set fire to the match. Now I have here some of the +old tinder-box matches, and you will see that they are simply wooden +splints with a little sulphur at the end. Why (you say) use sulphur? For +this reason--the wood is not combustible enough to be fired by the +red-hot tinder. We put therefore upon the wood a substance which is more +combustible than the wood. This sulphur--which most people call +brimstone--has been known from very early times. In the middle ages it +was regarded as the "principle of fire." It is referred to by Moses and +Homer and Pliny. A very distinguished chemist, Geber, describes it as +one of "the principles of nature." Having fired my tinder, as you see, +and blown upon it, I place my sulphur match in contact with the red-hot +tinder. And now I want you to notice that the sulphur match does not +catch fire immediately. It wants, in fact, a little time, and as you see +a little coaxing. Now I have got it alight. But note, it is the sulphur +that at the present moment is burning. The burning sulphur is now +beginning to set fire to the wood. The whole match is well alight now! +But it was the sulphur that caught fire first, and it was the sulphur +that set fire to the wood. A little time was occupied, we said, in +making the sulphur catch fire. Ask yourselves this question--Why was it +that the sulphur took a little time to catch fire? This was the +reason--because before the sulphur could catch fire it was necessary to +change the _solid_ sulphur (the condition in which it was upon the match +end) into _gaseous_ sulphur. The solid sulphur could not catch fire. +Therefore the heat of my tinder during the interval that I was coaxing +the match (as I called it) was being exerted in converting my solid into +gaseous sulphur. When the solid sulphur had had sufficient heat applied +to it to vapourize it, the sulphur gas immediately caught fire. Now +understand, that in order to convert a solid into a liquid, or a liquid +into a gas, heat is always a necessity. I must have heat to produce a +gas out of a solid or a liquid. I will endeavour to make this clear to +you by an experiment. I have here, as you see, a wooden stool, and I am +about to pour a little water on this stool. I place a glass beaker on +the stool, the liquid water only intervening between the stool and the +bottom of the glass. You see the glass is perfectly loose, and easily +lifted off the stool notwithstanding the layer of water. I will now pour +into the beaker a little of a very volatile liquid--_i. e._ a liquid +that is easily converted into a gas--(bisulphide of carbon). I wish +somewhat rapidly to effect the change of this liquid bisulphide of +carbon into gaseous bisulphide of carbon, and in order to accomplish +this object I must have heat. So I take this tube which, as you see, is +connected with a pair of bellows, and simply blow on my bisulphide of +carbon. This effects the change of the liquid into a gas with great +rapidity. Just as I converted my solid sulphur into a gas by the heat of +the tinder, so here I am converting this liquid bisulphide of carbon +into a gas by the wind from my bellows. But my liquid bisulphide of +carbon must get heat somewhere or another in order that the change of +the liquid into a gas, that I desire should take place, may be effected; +and so, seeing that the water that I have placed between the glass and +the stool is the most convenient place from which the liquid can derive +the necessary heat, it says, "I will take the heat out of the water." It +does so, but in removing the heat from the water it changes the liquid +water into solid ice. And see, already the beaker is frozen to the +stool, so that I can actually lift up the stool by the beaker (Fig. 28). +Understand then why my sulphur match wanted some time and some coaxing +before it caught fire, viz. to change this solid sulphur into gaseous +sulphur. + + [Illustration: Fig. 28.] + +But let us go a step further: why must the solid sulphur be converted +into a gas? We want a flame, and whenever we have flame it is absolutely +necessary that we should have a gas to burn. You cannot have flame +without you have gas. Let me endeavour to illustrate what I mean. I pour +into this flask a small quantity of ether, a liquid easily converted +into a gas. If I apply a lighted taper to the mouth of the flask, no +gas, or practically none, being evolved at the moment, nothing happens. +But I will heat the ether so as to convert it into a gas. And now that I +have evolved a large quantity of ether gas, when I apply a lighted +taper to the mouth of the flask I get a large flame (Fig. 29). There it +is! The more gas I evolve (that is, the more actively I apply the heat) +the larger is the flame. You see it is a very large flame now. If I take +the spirit lamp away, the production of gas grows less and less, until +my flame almost dies out; but you see if I again apply my heat and set +more gas free, I revive my flame. I want you to grasp this very +important fact, upon which I cannot enlarge further now, that given +flame, I must have a gas to burn, and therefore heat as a power is +needed before I can obtain flame. + + [Illustration: Fig. 29.] + +Well, you ask me, is that true of all flame? Where is the gas, you say, +in that candle flame? Think for a moment of the science involved in +lighting a candle. What am I doing when I apply a lighted match to this +candle? The first thing I do is to melt the tallow, the melted tallow +being drawn up by the capillarity of the wick. The next thing I do is to +convert the liquid tallow into a gas. This done, I set fire to the gas. +I don't suppose you ever thought so much was involved in lighting a +candle. My candle is nothing more than a portable gas-works, similar in +principle to the gas-works from which the gas that I am burning here is +supplied. Whether it is a lamp, or a gas-burner, or a candle, they are +all in a true sense gas-works, and they all pre-suppose the application +of heat to some material or another for the purpose of forming a gas +which will burn. + + [Illustration: Fig. 30.] + +Before I pass on, I want to refer to the beautiful burner that I have +here. It is the burner used by the Whitechapel stall-keepers on a +Saturday night (Fig. 30). (Fig. _a_ is an enlarged drawing of the +burner.) Just let me explain the science of the Whitechapel burner. +First of all you will see the man with a funnel filling this top portion +with naphtha (_c_). Here is a stop-cock, by turning which he lets a +little naphtha run down the tube through a very minute orifice into this +small cup at the bottom of the burner (_a_). This cup he heats in a +friend's lamp, thereby converting the liquid naphtha, which runs into +the cup, into a gas. So soon as the gas is formed--in other words, so +soon as the naphtha has been sufficiently heated--the naphtha gas +catches fire, the heat being then sufficient to maintain that little cup +hot enough to keep up a regular supply of naphtha gas. When the lamp +does not burn very well, you will often see the man poking it with a +pin. The carbon given off from the naphtha is very disposed to choke up +the little hole through which the naphtha runs into the cup, and the +costermonger pushes a pin into the little hole to allow the free passage +of the naphtha. That, then, is the mechanism of this beautiful lamp of +the Whitechapel traders, known as Halliday's lamp. + +Now I go to another point: having obtained the gas, I must set fire to +it. It is important to note that the temperature required to set fire +to different gases varies with the gas. For instance, I will set free in +this bottle a small quantity of gas, which fires at a very low +temperature. It is the vapour of carbon disulphide. See, I merely place +a hot rod into the bottle, and the gas fires at once. If I put a hot rod +into this bottle of coal gas, no such effect results, since coal gas +requires a very much higher temperature to ignite it than bisulphide of +carbon gas. I want almost--not quite--actual flame to fire coal gas. But +here is another gas, about which I may have to say something directly, +called marsh gas (the gas of coal-mines). This requires a much higher +temperature than even coal gas to fire it. I want you to understand that +although all gases require heat to fire them, different gases ignite at +very different temperatures. Bisulphide of carbon gas, _e. g._, ignites +at a very low temperature, whilst marsh gas requires a very high +temperature indeed for its ignition. You will see directly that this is +a very important fact. Sulphur gas ignites fortunately at a fairly low +temperature, and that is why sulphur is so useful an addition to the +wood splint by which to get fire out of the tinder-box. + + [Illustration: Fig. 31.] + +And here I wish to make a slight digression in my story. I will show you +an experiment preparatory to bringing before you the fact I am anxious +now to make clear. I have before me a tube, one half of which is brass +and the other half wood. I have covered the tube, as you see, with a +tightly-fitting piece of white paper. The whole tube, wood and brass, +has been treated in exactly the same manner. Now I will set fire to some +spirit in the trough I have here, and expose the entire tube to the +action of the flame. Notice this very curious result, viz. that the +paper covering the brass portion of the tube does not catch fire, +whereas the paper covering the wood is rapidly consumed (Fig. 31). You +see the exact line that divides wood from brass by the burning of the +paper. Well, why is that? Now all of you know that some things conduct +heat (_i. e._ carry away heat) better than other substances. For +instance, if you were to put a copper rod and a glass rod into the fire, +allowing a part of each to project, the copper rod that projects out of +the fire would soon become so very hot that you dare not touch it, owing +to the copper conducting the heat from the fire, whereas you would be +able to take hold of the projecting end of the glass rod long after the +end of the glass exposed to the fire had melted. The fact is, the copper +carries heat well, and the glass carries heat badly. Now with the +teaching of that experiment before you, you will understand, I hope, the +exact object of one or two experiments I am about to show you. Here is a +piece of coarse wire gauze--I am about to place it over the flame of +this Argand burner. You will notice that it lowers the flame for a +moment, but almost immediately the flame dashes through the gauze (Fig. +32 A). Here is another piece of gauze, not quite so coarse as the last. +I place this over the flame, and for a moment the flame cannot get +through it. There, you see it is through now, but it did not pass with +the same readiness that it did in the case of the other piece of gauze, +which was coarser. Now, when I take a piece of fine gauze, the flame +does not pass through at all until the gauze is nearly red-hot. There +is plenty of gas passing all the time. If I take a still finer gauze, I +shall find that the flame won't pass even when it is almost red-hot +(Fig. 32 B). Plenty of gas is passing through, remember, all the time, +but the flame does not pass through. Now why is it that the flame is +unable to pass? The reason is this--because the metal gauze has so +cooled the flame that the heat on one side is not sufficient to set fire +to the gas on the other side. I must have, you see, a certain +temperature to fire my gas. When therefore I experiment with a very fine +piece of gauze, where I have a good deal of metal and a large conducting +surface, there is no possibility of the flame passing. In fact, I have +so cooled the flame by the metal gauze that it is no longer hot enough +to set fire to the gas on the opposite side. I will give you one or two +more illustrations of the same fact. Suppose I put upon this gauze a +piece of camphor (camphor being a substance that gives off a heavy +combustible vapour when heated), and then heat it, you see the camphor +gas burning on the under side of the gauze, but the camphor gas on the +upper side is not fired (Fig. 33). Plenty of camphor gas is being given +off, but the flame of the burning camphor on the under side is not high +enough to set fire to the camphor gas on the upper side, owing to the +conducting power of the metal between the flame and the upper gas. +There is one other experiment I should like to show you. Upon this +piece of metal gauze I have piled up a small heap of gunpowder. I will +place a spirit-lamp underneath the gunpowder, as you see I am now doing, +and I don't suppose the gunpowder will catch fire. I see the sulphur of +the gunpowder at the present moment volatilizing, but the flame, cooled +by the action of the metal, is not hot enough to set fire to the +gunpowder. + + [Illustration: Fig. 32.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 33.] + +I showed you the steel and flint lamp--if I may call it a lamp--used by +coal-miners at the time of Davy (Fig. 22). Davy set to work to invent a +more satisfactory lamp than that, and the result of his experiments was +the beautiful miner's lamp which I have here (Fig. 34). I regard this +lamp with considerable affection, because I have been down many a +coal-mine with it. This is the coal-miner's safety-lamp. The +old-fashioned form of it that I have here has been much improved, but it +illustrates the principle as well as, if not better than, more elaborate +varieties. It is simply an oil flame covered with a gauze shade, exactly +like that gauze with which I have been experimenting. I will allow a jet +of coal gas to play upon this lamp, but the gas, as you see, does not +catch fire. You will notice the oil flame in the lamp elongates in a +curious manner. The flame of the lamp cooled by the gauze is not hot +enough to set fire to the coal gas, but the appearance of the flame +warns the miner, and tells him when there is danger. And that is the +explanation of the beautiful miner's safety-lamp invented by Sir Humphry +Davy. + + [Illustration: Fig. 34.] + +Now let me once more put this fact clearly before you, that whether it +is the gas flame or our farthing rushlight, whether it is our lamp or +our lucifer match, if we have a flame we must have a gas to burn, and +having a gas, we must heat it to, and maintain it at, a certain +temperature. We have now reached a point where our tinder-box has +presented us with flame. A flame is indeed the consummated work of the +tinder-box. + + [Illustration: Fig. 35.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 36.] + +Just let me say a few words about the grand result--the consummated work +of the tinder-box. A flame is a very remarkable thing. It looks solid, +but it is not solid. You will find that the inside of a flame consists +of unburnt gas--gas, that is to say, not in a state of combustion at +all. The only spot where true combustion takes place is the outer +covering of the flame. I will try to show you some experiments +illustrating this. I will take a large flame for this purpose. Here is a +piece of glass tube which I have covered with ordinary white paper. +Holding the covered glass tube in our large flame for a minute or two, +you observe I get two rings of charred paper, corresponding to the outer +envelope of the flame, whilst that portion of the paper between the +black rings has not even been scorched, showing you that it is only the +outer part of the flame that is burning (Fig. 35). The heat of the flame +is at that part where, as I said before, the combustible gases come +into contact--into collision with the atmosphere. So completely is this +true, that if I take a tube, such as I have here, I can easily convey +the unburnt gas in the centre of the flame away from the flame, and set +fire to it, as you see, at the end of the glass tube a long distance +from the flame (Fig. 36). I will place in the centre of my flame some +phosphorus which is at the present moment in a state of active burning, +and observe how instantly the combustion of the phosphorus ceases so +soon as it gets into the centre of the flame. The crucible which +contains it is cooled down immediately, and presents an entirely +different appearance within the flame to what it did outside the flame. +It is a curious way, perhaps you think, to stop a substance burning by +putting it into a flame. Indeed I can put a heap of gunpowder inside a +flame so that the outer envelope of burning gas does not ignite it (Fig. +37). There you see a heap of gunpowder in the centre of our large flame. +The flame is so completely hollow that even it cannot explode the +powder. + + [Illustration: Fig. 37.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 38.] + +I want you, if you will, to go a step further The heat of the flame is +due, as I explained in my last lecture, to the clashing of molecules. +But what is the light of my candle and gas due to? The light is due to +the solid matter in the flame, brought to a state of white heat or +incandescence by the heat of the flame. The heat is due to the clashing +of the particles, the light is due to the heated solid matter in the +flame. Let me see if I can show you that. I am setting free in this +bottle some hydrogen, which I am about to ignite at the end of this +piece of glass tube (Fig. 38 A). I shall be a little cautious, because +there is danger if my hydrogen gets mixed with air. There is my hydrogen +burning; but see, it gives little or no light. But this candle flame +gives light. Why? The light of the candle is due to the intensely heated +solid matter in the flame; the absence of light in the hydrogen flame +depends on the absence of solid matter. Let me hold clean white plates +over both these flames. See the quantity of black solid matter that I am +able to collect from this candle flame (Fig. 38 B). But my hydrogen +yields me no soot or solid matter whatsoever (Fig. 38 A). The plate +remains perfectly clean, and only a little moisture collects upon it. +The light that candle gives depends upon the solid matter in the flame +becoming intensely heated. If what I say be true, it follows that if I +take a flame which gives no light, like this hydrogen flame (Fig. 39 A), +and give it solid particles, I ought to change the non-luminous flame +into a luminous one. Let us see whether this be so or not. I have here a +glass tube containing a little cotton wadding (Fig. 39 B _a_), and I am +about to pour on the wadding a little ether, and to make the hydrogen +gas pass through the cotton wadding soaked with ether before I fire it. +And now if what I have said is correct, the hydrogen flame to which I +have imparted a large quantity of solid matter ought to produce a good +light, and so it does! See, I have converted the flame which gave no +light (Fig. 39 A) into a flame which gives an excellent light merely by +incorporating solid matter with the flame (Fig. 39 B). What is more, the +amount of light that a flame gives depends upon the amount or rather the +number of solid particles that it contains. The more solid particles +there are in the flame, the greater is the light. Let me give you an +illustration of this. Here is an interesting little piece of apparatus +given to my predecessor in the chair of chemistry at the London Hospital +by the Augustus Harris of that day. It is one of the torches formerly +used by the pantomime fairies as they descended from the realms of the +carpenters. I have an alcohol flame at the top of the torch which gives +me very little light. Here, you see, is an arrangement by which I can +shake a quantity of solid matter (lycopodium) into the non-luminous +alcohol flame. You will observe what a magnificently luminous flame I +produce (Fig. 40). + + [Illustration: Fig. 39.] + + [Illustration: Fig. 40.] + +I have told you that the light of a flame is due to solid matter in the +flame;[B] further, that the amount of light is due to the amount of +solid matter. And now I want to show you that the kind of light is due +to the kind of solid matter in the flame. Here are some pieces of cotton +wadding, which I am about to saturate with alcoholic solutions of +different kinds of solid matter. For instance, I have in one bottle an +alcoholic solution of a lithium salt, in another of a barium, in a third +of a strontium, and so on. I will set fire to all these solutions, and +you see how vastly different the colours are, the colour of the flames +being dependent on the various forms of solid matter that I have +introduced into them. + + [B] I have not forgotten Frankland's experiments on this subject, + but the lectures did not admit of dealing with exceptional cases. + +Thus I have shown you that the heat of our flame is due to the clashing +of the two gases, and the light of the flame to the solid matter in the +flame, and the kind of light to the kind of solid matter. + +Well, there is another point to which I desire to refer. Light is the +paint which colours bodies. You know that ordinary white light is made +up of a series of beautiful colours (the spectrum), which I show you +here. If I take all these spectrum or rainbow colours which are painted +on this glass I can, as you see, recompose them into white light by +rotating the disc with sufficient rapidity that they may get mixed +together on the little screen at the back of your eye. White light then +is a mixture of a number of colours. + +Just ask yourselves this question. Why is this piece of ribbon white? +The white light falls upon it. White light is made up of all those +colours you saw just now upon the screen. The light is reflected from +this ribbon exactly as it fell upon the ribbon. The whole of those +colours come off together, and that ribbon is white because the whole of +the colours of the spectrum are reflected at the same moment. Why is +that ribbon green? The white light falls upon the ribbon--the violet, +the indigo, the red, the blue, the orange, and the yellow, are absorbed +by the dye of the ribbon, and you do not see them. The ribbon, as it +were, drinks in all these colours, but it cannot drink in the green. And +reflecting the green of the spectrum, you see that ribbon green because +the ribbon is incapable of absorbing the green of the white light. Why +is this ribbon red? For the same reason. It can absorb the green which +the previous piece of ribbon could not absorb, but it cannot absorb the +red. The fact is, colour is not an inherent property of a body. If you +ask me why that ribbon is green, and why this ribbon is red, the real +answer is, that the red ribbon has absorbed every colour except the red, +and the green ribbon every colour except the green, not because they are +of themselves red and green but because they have the power of +reflecting those colours from their surfaces. + +This then is the consummated work of our tinder-box. Our tinder-box set +fire to the match, and the match set fire to the candle, whilst the heat +and the light of the candle are the finished work of the candle that the +tinder-box lighted. + +The clock warns me that I must bring to an end my story of a tinder-box. +To be sure, the tinder-box is a thing of the past, but I hope its story +has not been altogether without teaching. Let me assure you that the +failure, if failure there be, is not the fault of the story, but of the +story-teller. If some day, my young friends, you desire to be great +philosophers--and such desire is a high and holy ambition--be content in +the first instance to listen to the familiar stories told you by the +commonest of common things. There is nothing, depend upon it, too +little to learn from. 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