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diff --git a/old/29718-8.txt b/old/29718-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7943379 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/29718-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20253 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Automobile Storage Battery, by O. A. Witte + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Automobile Storage Battery + Its Care And Repair + +Author: O. A. Witte + +Release Date: August 17, 2009 [EBook #29718] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY *** + + + + +Produced by George Davis, Mark Posey, Richard Allain, and +The Google Books Library Project (http://books.google.com/), +from which additional text and images were obtained + + + + + + +This Project Gutenberg edition of The Automobile Storage Battery--Its +Care And Repair, by O. A. Witte, was prepared by George Davis, based +upon the etext originally produced by Mark Posey, to whom we extend a +huge "Thank You"; thanks also to Richard Allain, who produced the scans +from which Posey worked, as well as to the Google Books Library Project +(http://books.google.com/), from which additional text and images were +obtained. + +======================================================================== + +THE AUTOMOBILE +STORAGE BATTERY +ITS CARE AND REPAIR + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +RADIO BATTERIES, FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES + +======================================================================== + +A practical book for the repairman. Gives in nontechnical language, +the theory, construction, operation, manufacture, maintenance, and +repair of the lead-acid battery used on the automobile. Describes at +length all subjects which help the repairman build up a successful +battery repair business. Also contains sections on radio and farm +lighting batteries. + +BY +O. A. WITTE +Chief Engineer, American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. + +======================================================================== + +Third Edition +Completely Revised and Enlarged +Fourth Impression +Published 1922 by + +THE AMERICAN BUREAU OF ENGINEERING, INC. CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. + +Copyright, 1918, 1919, 1920, and 1922, by +American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. +All Rights Reserved. + +======================================================================== + +Entered at Stationers' Hall, +London, England. + +First Impression April, 1918. +Second Impression December, 1919. +Third Impression October, 1920. +Fourth Impression September, 1922. + +======================================================================== + + +Preface +======= + +Many books have been written on Storage Batteries used in stationary +work, as in electric power stations. The storage battery, as used on +the modern gasoline car, however, is subjected to service which is +radically different from that of the battery in stationary work. It is +true that the chemical actions are the same in all lead-acid storage +batteries, but the design, construction, and operation of the starting +and lighting battery, the radio battery, and the farm lighting battery +are unique, and require a special description. + +Many books have been written on Storage Batteries used in stationary +work, as in electric power stations. The storage battery, as used on +the modern gasoline car, however, is subjected to service which is +radically different from that of the battery in stationary work. It is +true that the chemical actions are the same in all lead-acid storage +batteries, but the design, construction, and operation of the starting +and lighting battery, the radio battery, and the farm lighting battery +are unique, and require a special description. + +This book therefore refers only to the lead-acid type of starting and +lighting battery used on the modern gasoline Automobile, the batteries +used with Radio sets, and the batteries used with Farm Lighting +Plants. It is divided into two sections. The first section covers the +theory, design, operating conditions, and care of the battery. + +The second section will be especially valuable to the battery +repairman. All the instructions given have been in actual use for +years, and represent the accumulated experiences of the most +up-to-date battery repair shops in the United States. + +The first edition of this book met with a most pleasing reception from +both repairmen and battery manufacturers. It was written to fill the +need for a complete treatise on the Automobile Storage Battery for the +use of battery repairmen. The rapid sale of the book, and the letters +of appreciation from those who read it, proved that such a need +existed. + +The automobile battery business is a growing one, and one in which new +designs and processes are continually developed, and in preparing the +second and third editions, this has been kept in mind. Some of the +chapters have been entirely rewritten, and new chapters have been +added to bring the text up-to-date. Old methods have been discarded, +and new ones described. A section on Farm lighting Batteries has been +added, as the automobile battery man should familiarize himself with +such batteries, and be able to repair them. A section on Radio +batteries has also been added. + +Special thanks are due those who offered their cooperation in the +preparation and revision of the book. Mr. George M. Howard of the +Electric Storage Battery Co., and Mr. C. L. Merrill of the U. S. Light +& Heat Corporation very kindly gave many helpful suggestions. They +also prepared special articles which have been incorporated in the +book. Mr. Henry E. Peers consulted with the author and gave much +valuable assistance. Mr. Lawrence Pearson of the Philadelphia Battery +Co., Mr. F. S. Armstrong of the Vesta Accumulator Co., Messrs. P. L. +Rittenhouse, E. C. Hicks and W. C. Brooks of the Prest-O-Lite Co., Mr. +D. M. Simpson of the General Lead Batteries Co., Mr. R. D. Mowray and +Mr. C. R. Story of the Universal Battery Co., Mr. H. A. Harvey of the +U. S. Light and Heat Corporation, Mr. E. B. Welsh of the Westinghouse +Union Battery Co., Mr. S. E. Baldwin of the Willard Storage Battery +Co., Mr. H. H. Ketcham of the United Y. M. C. A. Schools, and Messrs. +Guttenberger and Steger of the American Eveready Works also rendered +much valuable assistance. + +The Chapter on Business Methods was prepared by Mr. G. W. Hafner. + +O. A. WITTE, +Chief Engineer, American Bureau of Engineering, Inc. +September, 1922 + + +======================================================================== + +Contents +-------- + +1. INTRODUCTORY + +Gasoline and electricity have made possible the modern automobile. +Steps in development of electrical system of automobile. Sources of +electricity on the automobile. + +2. BATTERIES IN GENERAL + +The Simple Battery, or Voltaic Cell. Chemical Actions which Cause a +Cell to Produce Electricity. Difference between Primary and Secondary, +or Storage Cells. A Storage Battery Does Not "Store" Electricity. +Parts Required to Make a Storage Battery. + +3. MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES + +Principal Parts of a "Starting and Lighting" Battery. Types of Plates +Used. Molding the Plate Grids. Trimming the Grids. Mixing Pastes. +Applying Pastes to the Plate Grids. Hardening the Paste. Forming the +Plates. Types of Separators. Manufacture of Separators. Manufacture of +Electrolyte. Composition and Manufacture of Jars. Types of Cell +Covers. Single and Double Covers. Covers Using Sealing Compound Around +the Cell Posts. Covers Using Lead Bushings Around the Cell Posts. The +Prest-O-Lite Peened Post Seal. Batteries Using Sealing Nuts Around +Cell Posts. Construction of Vent Tubes. Exide and U. S. L. Vent Tube +Design. Vent Plugs, or Caps. Manufacture of the Battery Case. +Assembling and Sealing the Battery. Terminal Connections. Preparing +the Completed Battery for "Wet" Shipment. Preparing the Completed +Battery for "Dry" Shipment. "Home-Made" Batteries. + +4. CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE BATTERY + +Chemical Changes in the Battery. Plante's Work on the Storage Battery. +Faure, or Pasted Plates. How Battery Produces Electricity. Chemical +Actions of Charge and Discharge. Relations Between Chemical Actions +and Electricity. + +5. WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING DISCHARGE + +What a "Discharge" Consists of. Voltage Changes During Discharge. Why +the Discharge Is Stopped When the Cell Voltage Has Dropped to 1.7 on +Continuous Discharge. Why a Battery May Safely be Discharged to a +Lower Voltage Than 1.7 Volts per Cell at High Rates of Discharge. Why +Battery Voltage, Measured on "Open Circuit" is of Little Value. +Changes in the Density of the Electrolyte. Why Specific Gravity +Readings of the Electrolyte Show the State of Charge of a Cell. +Conditions Which Make Specific Gravity Readings Unreliable. Why the +Specific Gravity of the Electrolyte Falls During Discharge. Why the +Discharge of a Battery Is Stopped When the Specific Gravity Has +Dropped to 1.150. Chemical Changes at the Negative Plates During +Discharge. Chemical Changes at the Positive Plates During Discharge. + +6. WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING CHARGE + +Voltage Changes During Charge. Voltage of a Fully Charged Cell. +Changes in the Density of the Electrolyte During Charge. Changes at +the Negative Plates During Charge. Changes at the Positive Plates +During Charge. + +7. CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES + +Definition of Capacity. Factors Upon Which the Capacity of a Battery +Depend. How the Area of the Plate Surfaces Affects the Capacity. How +the Quantity, Arrangement, and Porosity of the Active Materials Affect +the Capacity. How the Quantity and Strength of the Electrolyte Affect +the Capacity. Why Too Much Electrolyte Injures a Battery. Why the +Proportions of Acid and Water in the Electrolyte Must Be Correct if +Specific Gravity Readings Are to Be Reliable. + +8. INTERNAL RESISTANCE + +Effect of Internal Resistance. Resistance of Grids. Resistance of +Electrolyte. Resistance of Active Materials. + +9. CARE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR + +Care of Battery Box. How to Clean the Battery. How to Prevent +Corrosion. Correct Battery Cable Length. Inspection of Battery to +Determine Level of Electrolyte. How to Add Water to Replace +Evaporation. When Water Should Be Added. How Electrolyte Is Lost. +Danger from Adding Acid Instead of Water. Effect of Adding Too Much +Water. When Specific Gravity Readings Should Be Taken. What the +Various Specific Gravity Readings Indicate. Construction of a Syringe +Hydrometer. How to Take Specific Gravity Readings. Why Specific +Gravity Readings Should Not Be Taken Soon After Adding Water to +Replace Evaporation. Troubles Indicated by Specific Gravity Readings. +How to Make Sure That Sections of a Multiple-Section Battery Receive +the Same Charging Current. How Temperature Affects Specific Gravity +Readings. How to Make Temperature Corrections in Specific Gravity +Readings. Battery Operating Temperatures. Effect of Low and High +Temperatures. Troubles Indicated by High Temperatures. Damage Caused +by Allowing Electrolyte to Fall Below Tops of Plates. I-low to Prevent +Freezing. Care of Battery When Not in Use. "Dope" or "Patent" +Electrolyte, or Battery Solutions. + +10. STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES + +Normal and Injurious Sulphation.-- How Injurious Sulphate Forms. Why An +Idle Battery Becomes Sulphated. Why Sulphated Plates Must Be Charged +at a Low Rate. How Over discharge Causes Sulphation. How Starvation +Causes Sulphation. How Sulphate Results from Electrolyte Being Below +Tops of Plates. How Impurities Cause Sulphation. How Sulphation +Results from Adding Acid Instead of Water to Replace Evaporation. Why +Adding Acid Causes Specific Gravity Readings to Be Unreliable. How +Overheating Causes Sulphation. + +Buckling.-How Overdischarge Causes Buckling. How Continued Operation +with Battery in a Discharged Condition Causes Buckling. I-low Charging +at High Rates Causes Buckling, How Non-Uniform Distribution of Current +Over the Plates Causes Buckling. How Defective Grid Alloy Causes +Buckling. + +Shedding, or Loss of Active Material.-- Normal Shedding. How Excessive +Charging Rate, or Overcharging Causes Shedding. How Charging Sulphated +Plates at Too High a Rate Causes Shedding. How Charging Only a Portion +of the Plate Causes Shedding. How Freezing Causes Shedding. How +Overdischarge Causes Loose Active Material. How Buckling Causes Loose +Active Material. + +Impurities.-- Impurities Which Cause Only Self-Discharge. Impurities +Which Attack the Plates. How to Remove Impurities. Corroded Grids.-How +Impurities Cause Corroded Grids. How Sulphation Causes Corroded Grids. +How High Temperatures Cause Corroded Grids. How High Specific Gravity +Causes Corroded Grids. How Age Causes Corroded Grids. + +Negatives.-- How Age and Heat Cause Granulated Negatives. Heating of +Charged Negatives When Exposed to the Air. Negatives with Very Hard +Active Material. Bulged Negatives. Negatives with Soft, Mushy, Active +Material. Negatives with Rough Surfaces. Blistered Negatives. + +Positives.-- Frozen Positives. Rotten, Disintegrated Positives. Buckled +Positives. Positives Which Have Lost Considerable Active Material. +Positives with Soft Active Material. Positives with Hard, Shiny Active +Material. Plates Which Have Been Charged in the Wrong Direction. + +Separator Troubles.-- Separators Not Properly Expanded Before +Installation. Improperly Treated Separators. Rotten and Carbonized +Separators. Separators with Clogged Pores. Separators with Edges +Chiseled Off. + +Jar Troubles.-- Jars Damaged by Rough Handling. Jars Damaged by Battery +Being Loose. Jars Damaged by Weights Placed on Top of Battery. Jars +Damaged by Freezing of Electrolyte. Jars Damaged by Improperly Trimmed +Plate Groups. Improperly Made Jars. Jars Damaged by Explosions in Cell. + +Battery Case Troubles.-- Ends of Case Bulged Out. Rotted Case. + +Troubles with Connectors and Terminals.--Corroded and Loose Connectors +and Terminals. + +Electrolyte Troubles.-- Low Gravity. High Gravity. Low Level. High +Level. Specific Gravity Does Not Rise During Charge. "Milky" +Electrolyte. Foaming of Electrolyte. + +General Battery Troubles.-- Open Circuits. Battery Discharged. Dead +Cells. Battery Will Not Charge. Loss of Capacity. Loss of Charge in an +Idle Battery. + +11. SHOP EQUIPMENT + +List of Tools and Equipment Required by Repair Shop. Equipment Needed +for Opening Batteries. Equipment for Lead Burning. Equipment for +General Work on Cell Connectors and Terminals. Equipment for Work on +Cases. Tools and Equipment for General Work. Stock. Special Tools. +Charging Equipment. Wiring Diagrams for Charging Resistances and +Charging Circuits. Motor-Generator Sets. Suggestions on Care of +Motor-Generator Sets. Operating the Charging Circuits. Constant +Current Charging. Constant Potential Charging. The Tungar Rectifier. +Principle of Operation of Tungar Rectifier. The Two Ampere Tungar. The +One Battery Tungar. The Two. Battery Tungar. The Four Battery Tungar. +The Ten Battery Tangar. The Twenty Battery Tungar. Table of Tungar +Rectifiers. Installation and Operation of Tungar Rectifier. The +Mercury Are Rectifier. Mechanical Rectifiers. The Stahl Rectifier. +Other Charging Equipment. The Charging Bench. Illustrations and +Working Drawings of Charging Benches. Illustrations and Working +Drawings of Work Benches. Illustrations and Working Drawings of Sink +and Wash Tanks. Lead Burning Outfits. Equipment for Handling Sealing +Compound. Shelving and Racks. Working Drawings of Receiving Racks, +Racks for Repaired Batteries, Racks for New Batteries, Racks for +Rental Batteries, Racks for Batteries in Dry Storage, Racks for +Batteries in "Wet" Storage. Working Drawings of Stock Bins. Working +Drawings for Battery Steamer Bench. Description of Battery Steamer. +Plate Burning Rack. Battery Terminal Tongs. Lead Burning Collars. Post +Builders. Moulds for Casting Lead Parts. Link Combination Mould. Cell +Connector Mould. Production Type Strap Mould. Screw Mould. Battery +Turntable. Separator Cutter. Plate Press. Battery Carrier. Battery +Truck. Cadmium Test Set and How to Make the Test. Paraffine Dip Pot. +Wooden Boxes for Battery Parts. Acid Car boys. Drawing Acid from +Carboys. Shop Layouts. Floor Grating. Seven Architects' Drawings of +Shop Layouts. The Shop Floor. Shop Light. + +12. GENERAL SHOP INSTRUCTIONS + +Complete instructions for giving a bench charge. Instructions for +Burning Cell Connectors and Terminals. Burning Plates to Strap and +Posts. Post Building. Extending Plate Lugs. Moulding Lead Parts. +Handling and Mixing Acid. Putting New Batteries Into Service (Exide, +Vesta, Philadelphia, Willard, Westinghouse, Prest-O-Lite). Installing +Battery on Car. Wet and Dry Storage of Batteries. Age Codes (Exide, +Philadelphia, Prest-O-Lite, Titan, U.S.L., Vesta, Westinghouse, +Willard). Rental Batteries. Terminals for Rental Batteries. Marking +Chapter Page Rental Batteries. Keeping a Record of Rental Batteries. +General Rental Policy. Radio Batteries. Principles of Audion Bulb for +Radio. Vesta Radio Batteries. Westinghouse Radio Batteries. Willard +Radio Batteries. Universal Radio Batteries. Exide Radio Batteries. +Philadelphia Radio Batteries. U.S.L. Radio Batteries. Prest-O-Lite +Radio Batteries. "Dry" Storage Batteries. Discharge Tests. 15 Seconds +High Rate Discharge Test. 20 Minutes Starting Ability Discharge Test. +"Cycling" Discharge Tests. Discharge Apparatus. Packing Batteries for +Shipping. Safety Precautions for the Repairman. Testing the Electrical +System of a Car. Complete Rules and Instructions for Quickly Testing, +Starting and Lighting System to Protect Battery. Adjusting Generator +Outputs. How and When to Adjust Charging Rate. Re-insulating the +Battery. Testing and Filling Service. Service Records. Illustrations +of Repair Service Record Card. Rental Battery Stock Card. + +13. BUSINESS METHODS + +Purchasing Methods. Stock Records. The Use and Abuse of Credit. Proper +Bookkeeping Records. Daily Exhibit Record. Statistical and Comparative +Record. + +14. WHAT'S WRONG WITH THE BATTERY? + +"Service." Calling and Delivering Repaired Batteries. How to Diagnose +Batteries That Come In. Tests on Incoming Batteries. General +Inspection of Incoming Batteries. Operation Tests for Incoming +Batteries. Battery Trouble Charts. Causes of Low Gravity or Low +Voltage. Causes of Unequal Gravity Readings. Causes of High Gravity. +Causes of Low Electrolyte. How to Determine When Battery May Be Left +on Car. How to Determine When Battery Must Be Removed from Car. How to +Determine When It Is Unnecessary to Open a Battery. How to Determine +When Battery Must Be Opened. + +15. REBUILDING THE BATTERY + +How to Open a Battery.-- Cleaning Outside of Battery Before Opening. +Drilling and Removing Connectors and Terminals. Removing the Sealing +Compound by Steam, Hot Water, Hot Putty Knife, Lead Burning Flame, and +Gasoline Torch. Lifting Plates Out of Jars. Draining Plates. Removing +Covers. Scraping Sealing Compound from the Covers. Scraping Sealing +Compound from Inside of Jars. + +What Must Be Done with the Opened Battery?-- Making a Preliminary +Examination of Plates. When to Put in New Plates. When Old Plates May +Be Used Again. What to Do with the Separators. Find the Cause of Every +Trouble. Eliminating "Shorts." Preliminary Charge After Eliminating +Shorts. Washing and Pressing Negatives. Washing Positives. Burning on +New Plates. Testing Jars for Cracks and Holes. Removing Defective +Jars. Repairing the Case. + +Reassembling the Elements.-- Putting in Now Separators. Putting +Elements Into Jars. Filling Jars with Electrolyte. Putting Chapter +Page on the Covers. Sealing the Covers. Burning on the Connectors and +Terminals. Marking the Repaired Battery. Cleaning and Painting the +Case. Charging the Rebuilt Battery. Testing. + +16. SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS + +Exide Batteries.-- Types. Type Numbers. Methods of Holding Jars in +Case. Opening Exide Batteries. Work on Plates, Separators, Jars, and +Case. Putting Plates in Jars. Filling Jars with Electrolyte. Sealing +Covers. Putting Cells in Case. Burning on the Cell Connectors. +Charging After Repairing. Tables of Exide Batteries. + +U.S.L. Batteries.-- Old and New. U.S.L. Covers. Special Repair +Instructions. Tables of U.S.L. Batteries. + +Prest-O-Lite Batteries.-- Old and New Prest-O-Lite Cover Constructions. +The "Peened" Post Seal. Special Tools for Work on Prest-O-Lite +Batteries. The Peening Press. Removing Covers. Rebuilding Posts. +Locking, or "Peening" the Posts. Precautions in Post Locking +Operations. Tables of Prest-0-Lite Batteries. + +Philadelphia Diamond Grid Batteries.-- Old and New Types. The +Philadelphia "Rubber-Lockt" Cover Seal. Philadelphia Rubber Case +Batteries. The Philadelphia Separator. Special Repair Instructions. + +Eveready Batteries.-- Why the Eveready Batteries Are Called +"Non-Sulphating" Batteries. Description of Parts of Eveready Battery. +Special Repair Instructions. + +Vesta Batteries.-- Old and New Vesta Isolators. The Vesta Type "D" +Battery. The Vesta Type "DJ" Battery. Vesta Separators. The Vesta Post +Seal. Special Repair Instructions for Old and New Isolators and Post +Seal. + +Westinghouse Batteries.-- The Westinghouse Post Seal. Westinghouse +Plates. Types of Westinghouse Batteries. Type "A" Batteries. Type "B" +Batteries. Type "C" Batteries. Type "E" Batteries. Type "H" Batteries. +Type "J" Batteries. Type "0" Batteries. Type "F" Batteries. + +Willard Batteries.-- Double and Single Cover Batteries. Batteries with +Sealing Compound Post Seal. Batteries with Lead Inserts in Cover Post +Holes. Batteries with Rubber Casket Post Seal. Special Repair +Instructions for Work on the Different Types of Post Seal +Constructions. Willard Threaded Rubber Separators. + +Universal Batteries.-- Types. Construction Features. Putting New +Universal Batteries Into Service. + +Titan Batteries.-- The Titan Grid. The Titan Post Seal. + +17. FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES + +Comparison of Operating Conditions of Farm Lighting Batteries with +Automobile Batteries. Jars for Farm Lighting Batteries. Separators. +Electrolyte. Charging Equipment. Relation of the Automobile Battery +Man to the Farm Lighting Plant. Rules Governing the Selection of a +Farm Lighting Plant. Location and Wiring of Farm Lighting Plant. +Installation. Care of Plant in Service. Care of Battery. Charging Farm +Lighting Batteries. Rules Governing Discharging of Farm Lighting +Batteries. Troubles Found in Farm Lighting Batteries. Inspection and +Tests on Farm Lighting Batteries. Description of Prest-O-Lite Farm +Lighting Battery. Rebuilding Prest-O-Lite Farm Lighting Batteries. +Description of Exide Farm Lighting Batteries. The Delco-Light Battery. +Rebuilding and Repairing Exide Farm Lighting Batteries. Westinghouse +Farm Lighting Batteries. Willard Farm Lighting Batteries. + +DEFINITIONS + +Condensed Dictionary of Words and Terms Used in Battery Work. + +GENERAL INDEX + +A VISIT TO THE FACTORY + +Photographs showing factory processes. + +BUYERS' INDEX. (Omitted.) + +For the Convenience of Our Readers We Have Prepared a List of +Companies from Whom Battery Shop Equipment May Be Obtained. + +ADVERTISEMENTS (Omitted. Outdated; high bandwidth) + +======================================================================== + +Section I +--------- + +Working Principles, Manufacture, +Maintenance, Diseases, +and Remedies + +======================================================================== + +The Automobile Storage Battery + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 1. +INTRODUCTORY. + +Gasoline and electricity have made possible the modern automobile. +Each has its work to do in the operation of the car, and if either +fails to perform its duties, the car cannot move. The action of the +gasoline, and the mechanisms that control it are comparatively simple, +and easily understood, because gasoline is something definite which we +can see and feel, and which can be weighed, or measured in gallons. +Electricity, on the other hand, is invisible, cannot be poured into +cans or tanks, has no odor, and, therefore, nobody knows just what it +is. We can only study the effects of electricity, and the wires, +coils, and similar apparatus in which it is present. It is for this +reason that an air of mystery surrounds electrical things, especially +to the man who has not made a special study of the subject. + +Without electricity, there would be no gasoline engine, because +gasoline itself cannot cause the engine to operate. It is only when +the electrical spark explodes or "ignites" the mixture of gasoline and +air which has been drawn into the engine cylinders that the engine +develops power. Thus an electrical ignition system has always been an +essential part of every gasoline automobile. + +The first step in the use of electricity on the automobile, in +addition to the ignition system, consisted in the installation of an +electric lighting system to replace the inconvenient oil or gas lamps +which were satisfactory as far as the light they gave was concerned, +but which had the disadvantage of requiring the driver to leave his +seat, and light each lamp separately, often in a strong wind or rain +which consumed many matches, time, and frequently spoiled his temper +for the remainder of the evening. Electric lamps have none of these +disadvantages. They can be controlled from the driver's seat, can be +turned on or off by merely turning or pushing a switch-button, are not +affected by wind or rain, do not smoke up the lenses, and do not send +a stream of unpleasant odors back to the passengers. + +The apparatus used to supply the electricity for the lamps consisted +of a generator, or a "storage" battery, or both. The generator alone +had the disadvantage that the lamps could be used only while the +engine was running. The battery, on the other hand, furnished light at +all times, but had to be removed from the car frequently, and +"charged." With both the generator and battery, the lights could be +turned on whether the engine was running or not, and, furthermore, it +was no longer necessary to remove the battery to "charge," or put new +life into it. With a generator and storage battery, moreover, a +reliable source of electricity for ignition was provided, and so we +find dry batteries and magnetos being discarded in a great many +automobiles and "battery ignition" systems substituted. + +The development of electric lighting systems increased the popularity +of the automobile, but the motor car still had a great +drawback-cranking. Owing to the peculiar features of a gasoline +engine, it must first be put in motion by some external power before +it will begin to operate under its own power. This made it necessary +for the driver to "crank" the engine, or start it moving, by means of +a handle attached to the engine shaft. Cranking a large engine is +difficult, especially if it is cold, and often results in tired +muscles, and soiled clothes and tempers. It also made it impossible +for the average woman to drive a car because she did not have the +strength necessary to "crank" an engine. + +The next step in the perfection of the automobile was naturally the +development of an automatic device to crank the engine, and thus make +the driving of a car a pleasure rather than a task. We find, +therefore, that in 1912, "self-starters" began to be used. These were +not all electrical, some used tanks of compressed air, others +acetylene, and various mechanical devices, such as the spring +starters. The electrical starters, however, proved their superiority +immediately, and filled such a long felt want that all the various +makes of automobiles now have electric starters. The present day motor +car, therefore, uses gasoline for the engine only, but uses +electricity for ignition, starting, lighting, for the horn, cigar +lighters, hand warmers on the steering wheel, gasoline vaporizers, and +even for shifting speed changing gears, and for the brakes. + +On any car that uses an electric lighting and starting system, there +are two sources of electricity, the generator and the battery, These +must furnish the power for the starting, or "cranking" motor, the +ignition, the lights, the horn, and the other devices. The demands +made upon the generator are comparatively light and simple, and no +severe work is done by it. The battery, on the other hand is called +upon to give a much more severe service, that of furnishing the power +to crank the engine. It must also perform all the duties of the +generator when the engine is not running, since a generator must be in +motion in order to produce electricity. + +A generator is made of iron, copper, carbon, and insulation. These are +all solid substances which can easily be built in any size or shape, +and which undergo very little change as parts of the generator. The +battery is made mainly of lead, lead compounds, water and sulphuric +acid. Here we have liquids as well as solids, which produce +electricity by changes in their composition, resulting in complicated +chemical as well as electrical actions. + + [Fig. 1 The Battery] + +The battery is, because of its construction and performance, a much +abused, neglected piece of apparatus which is but partly understood, +even by many electrical experts, for to understand it thoroughly +requires a study of chemistry as well as of electricity. Knowledge of +the construction and action of a storage battery is not enough to make +anyone an expert battery man. He must also know how to regulate the +operating conditions so as to obtain the best service from the +battery, and he must be able to make complete repairs on any battery +no matter what its condition may be. + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 2. +BATTERIES IN GENERAL + +There are two ways of "generating" electricity on the car: 1. +Magnetically, 2. Chemically. The first method is that used in a +generator, in which wires are rotated in a "field" in which magnetic +forces act. The second method is that of the battery, and the one in +which we are now interested. + +If two unlike metals or conducting substances are placed in a liquid +which causes a greater chemical change in one of the substances than +in the other, an electrical pressure, or "electromotive" force is +caused to exist between the two metals or conducting substances. The +greater the difference in the chemical action on the substances, the +greater will be the electrical pressure, and if the substances are +connected together outside of the liquid by a wire or other conductor +of electricity, an electric current will flow through the path or +"circuit" consisting of the liquid, the two substances which are +immersed in the liquid, and the external wire or conductor. + +As the current flows through the combination of the liquid, and the +substances immersed in it, which is called a voltaic "cell," one or +both of the substances undergo chemical changes which continue until +one of the substances is entirely changed. These chemical changes +produce the electrical pressure which causes the current to flow, and +the flow will continue until one or both of the substances are changed +entirely. This change due to the chemical action may result in the +formation of gases, or of solid compounds. If gases are formed they +escape and are lost. If solids are formed, no material is actually +lost. + +Assuming that one of the conducting substances, or "electrodes," which +are immersed in the liquid has been acted upon by the liquid, or +"electrolyte," until no further chemical action can take place, our +voltaic cell will no longer be capable of causing a flow of +electricity. If none of the substances resulting from the original +chemical action have been lost as gases, it may be possible to reverse +the entire set of operations which have taken place. That is, suppose +we now send a current through the cell from an outside source of +electricity, in a direction opposite to that in which the current +produced by the chemical action between the electrodes and electrolyte +flowed. If this current now produces chemical actions between +electrodes and electrolyte which are the reverse of those which +occurred originally, so that finally we have the electrodes and +electrolyte brought back to their original composition and condition, +we have the cell just as it was before we used it for the production +of an electrical pressure. The cell can now again be used as a source +of electricity as long as the electrolyte acts upon the electrodes, or +until it is "discharged" and incapable of any further production of +electrical pressure. Sending a current through a discharged cell, so +as to reverse the chemical actions which brought about the discharged +conditions, is called "charging" the cell. + + [Fig. 2 A complete cell; Negative group; Positive group] + +Cells in which an electrical pressure is produced as soon as the +electrodes are immersed in the electrolyte are called it "primary" +Cells. In these cells it is often impossible, and always +unsatisfactory to reverse the chemical action as explained above. +Cells whose chemical actions are reversible are called "storage" or +"secondary" cells. In the "storage" cells used today, a current must +first be sent through the cell in order to cause the chemical changes +which result in putting the electrodes and electrolyte, in such a +condition that they will be capable of producing an electrical +pressure when the chemical changes caused by the current are complete. +The cell now possesses all the characteristics of a primary cell, and +may be used as a source of electricity until "discharged." It may then +be "charged" again, and so on, the chemical action in one case causing +a flow of current, and a reversed flow of current causing reversed +chemical actions. + +We see from the above that the "storage" battery does not "store" +electricity at all, but changes chemical into electrical energy when +"discharging," and changes electrical into chemical energy when +"charging," the two actions being entirely reversible. The idea of +"storing" electricity comes from the fact that if we send a current of +electricity through the cell for a certain length of time, we can at a +later time draw a current from the cell for almost the same length of +time. + + [Fig. 3 Complete Element] + + Fig. 3. A complete element, consisting of a positive and negative + group of plates and separators ready for placing in the hard rubber + jars. + + +Three things are therefore required in a storage cell, the liquid or +"electrolyte" and two unlike substances or electrodes, through which a +current of electricity can pass and which are acted upon by the +electrolyte with a chemical action that is greater for one substance +than the other. In the storage cell used on the automobile today for +starting and lighting, the electrodes are lead and peroxide of lead, +and the electrolyte is a mixture of sulphuric acid and water. The +peroxide of lead electrode is the one upon which the electrolyte has +the greater chemical effect, and it is called the positive or "+" +electrode, because when the battery is sending a. current through an +external circuit, the current flows from this electrode through the +external circuit, and back to the lead electrode, which is called the +negative, or electrode. + +When starting and lighting systems were adopted in 1912, storage +batteries had been used for many years in electric power stations. +These were, however, large and heavy, and many difficult problems of +design had to be solved in order to produce a battery capable of +performing the work of cranking the engine, and yet be portable, +light, and small enough to occupy only a very limited space on the +automobile. As a result of these conditions governing the design, the +starting and lighting battery of today is in reality "the giant that +lives in a box." The Electric Storage Battery Company estimates that +one of its types of batteries, which measures only 12-5/8 inches long, +7-3/8 wide, and 9-1/8 high, and weighs only 63-1/2 pounds, can deliver +enough energy to raise itself to a height of 6 miles straight up in +the air. It must be able to do its work quickly at all times, and in +all sorts of weather, with temperatures ranging from below 0° to 100° +Fahrenheit, or even higher. + +The starting and lighting battery has therefore been designed to +withstand severe operating conditions. Looking at such a battery on a +car we see a small wooden box in which are placed three or more +"cells," see Fig. 1. Each "cell" has a hard, black rubber top through +which two posts of lead project. Bars of lead connect the posts of one +cell to those of the next. To one of the posts of each end cell is +connected a cable which leads into the car, and through which the +current leaves or enters the battery. At the center of each cell is a +removable rubber plug covering an opening through which communication +is established with the inside of the cell for the purpose of pouring +in water, removing some of the electrolyte to determine the condition +of the battery, or to allow gases formed within the cell to escape. +Looking down through this opening we can see the things needed to form +a storage battery: the electrolyte, and the electrodes or "plates" as +they are called. If we should remove the lead bars connecting one cell +to another, and take off the black cover, we should find that the +posts which project out of the cells are attached to the plates which +are broad and flat, and separated by thin pieces of wood or rubber., +If we lift out the plates we find that they are connected alternately +to the two lead posts, and that the two outside ones have a gray +color. If we pull the plates out from each Other, we find that the +plates next to the two outside ones, and all other plates connected to +the same lead post as these have a chocolate-brown color. If we remove +the jar of the cell, we find that it is made of hard rubber. Pouring +out the electrolyte we find several ridges which hold the plates off +the bottom of the jar. The pockets formed by these ridges may contain +some soft, muddy substance. Thus we have exposed all the elements of a +cell, posts, plates, "separators," and electrolyte. The gray colored +plates are attached to the "negative" battery post, while the +chocolate-brown colored ones are connected to the "positive" battery +post. Examination will show that each of the plates consists of a +skeleton metallic framework which is filled with the brown or gray +substances. This construction is used to decrease the weight of the +battery. The gray filler material is pure lead in a condition called +"spongy lead." The chocolate-brown filler substance is peroxide of +lead. + +We have found nothing but two sets of plates--one of pure lead, the +other of peroxide of lead, and the electrolyte of sulphuric acid and +water. These produce the heavy current necessary to crank the engine. +How this is done, and what the chemical actions within the cell are, +are described in Chapter 4. + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 3. +MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES. +--------------------------------- + +To supply the great number of batteries needed for gasoline +automobiles, large companies have been formed. Each company has its +special and secret processes which it will not reveal to the public. +Only a few companies, however, supply batteries in any considerable +quantities, the great majority of cars being supplied with batteries +made by not more than five or six manufacturers. This greatly reduces +the number of possible different designs in general use today. + +The design and dimensions of batteries vary considerably, but the +general constructions are similar. The special processes of the +manufacturers are of no special interest to the repairman, and only a +general description will be given here. + +A starting and lighting battery consists of the following principal +parts: + +1. Plates +2. Separators +3. Electrolyte +4. Jars +5. Covers +6. Cell Connectors and Terminals +7. Case Plates + +Of the two general types of battery plates, Faure and Plante, the +Faure, or pasted type, is universally used on automobiles. In the +manufacture of pasted plates there are several steps which we shall +describe in the order in which they are carried out. + +Casting the Grid. The grid is the skeleton of the plate. It performs +the double function of supporting the mechanically weak active +material and of conducting the current. It is made of a lead antimony +alloy which is melted and poured into a mould. Pure lead is too soft +and too easily attacked by the electrolyte, and antimony is added to +give stiffness, and resistance to the action of the electrolyte in the +cell. The amount of antimony used varies in different makes but +probably averages 8 to 10%. + +The casting process requires considerable skill, the proper +composition of the metal and the temperature of both metal and moulds +being of great importance in securing perfect grids, which are free +from blowholes, and which have a uniform structure and composition. +Some manufacturers cast two grids simultaneously in each mould, the +two plates being joined to each other along the bottom edge. + +Trimming the Grids. When the castings have cooled, they are removed +from the moulds and passed to a press or trimming machine which trims +off the casting gate and the rough edges. The grids are given a rigid +inspection, those having shrunken or missing ribs or other defects +being rejected. The grids are now ready for pasting. + + [Fig 4. Grid, Trimmed, and Ready for Pasting] + +Fig. 4 shows a grid ready for pasting. The heavy lug at one upper +corner is the conducting lug, for carrying the current to the strap, +Fig. 5, into which the lugs are burned when the battery is assembled. +The straps are provided with posts, to which the intercell connectors +and terminal connectors are attached. The vertical ribs of the grids +extend through the plate, providing mechanical strength and +conductivity, while the small horizontal ribs are at the surface and +in staggered relation on opposite faces. Both the outside frames and +the vertical ribs are reinforced near the lug, where the greatest +amount of current must be carried. + +The rectangular arrangement of ribs, as shown in Fig. 4, is most +generally used, although, there are other arrangements such as the +Philadelphia "Diamond" grid in which the ribs form acute angles, +giving diamond shaped openings, as shown in Fig. 6. + +Pastes. There are many formulas for the pastes, which are later +converted into active material, and each is considered a trade secret +by the manufacturer using it. The basis of all, however, is oxide of +lead, either Red Lead (Pb30 4), Litharge (PbO), or a mixture of the +two, made into a paste with a liquid, such as dilute sulphuric acid. +The object of mixing the oxides with the liquid is to form a paste of +the proper consistency for application to the grids, and at the same +time introduce the proper amount of binding, or setting agent which +will give porosity, and which will bind together the active material, +especially in the positive plate. Red lead usually predominates in the +positive paste, and litharge in the negative, as this combination +requires the least energy in forming the oxides to active material. + + [Fig. 5 Plate Straps and Posts] + +The oxides of lead used in preparing the pastes which are applied to +the grids are powders, and in their dry condition could not be applied +to the grids, as they would fall out. Mixing them with a liquid to +make a paste gives them greater coherence and enables them to be +applied to the grids. Sulphuric acid puts the oxides in the desired +pasty condition, but has the disadvantage of causing a chemical action +to take place which changes a considerable portion of the oxides to +lead sulphate, the presence of which makes the paste stiff and +impossible to apply to the grids. When acid is used, it is therefore +necessary to work fast after the oxides are mixed with sulphuric acid +to form the paste. + +In addition to the lead oxides, the pastes may contain some binding +material such as ammonium or magnesium sulphate, which tends to bind +the particles of the active material together. The paste used for the +negatives may contain lamp black to give porosity. + +Applying the Paste. After the oxides are mixed to a paste they are +applied to the grids. This is done either by hand, or by machine In +the hand pasting process, the pastes are applied from each face of the +grid by means of a wooden paddle or trowel, and are smoothed off flush +with the surface of the ribs of the grid. This work is done quickly in +order that the pastes may not stiffen before they are applied. + +U. S. L. plates are pasted in a machine which applies the paste to the +grid, subjecting it at the same time to a pressure which forces it +thoroughly into the grid, and packs it in a dense mass. + +Drying the Paste. The freshly pasted plates are now allowed to dry in +the air, or are dried by blowing air over them. In any case, the +pastes set to a hard mass, in which condition the pastes adhere firmly +to the grids. The plates may then be handled without a loss of paste +from the grids. + + [Fig. 6 Philadelphia diamond grid] + +Forming. The next step is to change the paste of oxides into the +active materials which make a cell operative. This is called "forming" +and is really nothing but a prolonged charge, requiring several days. +In some factories the plates are mounted in tanks, positive and +negative plates alternating as in a cell. The positives are all +connected together in one group and the negatives in another, and +current passed through just as in charging a battery. In other +factories the positives and negatives are formed in separate tanks +against "dummy" electrodes. + +The passing of the current slowly changes the mixtures of lead oxide +and lead sulphate, forming brown peroxide of lead (PbO2), on the +positive plate and gray spongy metallic lead on the negative. The +formation by the current of lead peroxide and spongy lead on the +positive and negative plates respectively would take place if the +composition of the two pastes were identical. The difference in the +composition of the paste for positive and negative plates is for the +purpose of securing the properties of porosity and physical condition +best suited to each. + + [Fig. 7 Formed plate, ready to be burned to plate connecting + strap] + +When the forming process is complete, the plates are washed and dried, +and are then ready for use in the battery. If the grids of two plates +have been cast together, as is done by some manufacturers, these are +now cut apart, and the lugs cut to the proper height. The next step is +to roll, or press the negatives after they are removed from the +forming bath so as to bring the negative paste, which has become +roughened by gassing that occurred during the forming process, flush +with the surface of the ribs of the grid. A sufficient amount of +sulphate is left in the plates to bind together the active material. +Without this sulphate the positive paste would simply be a powder and +when dry would fall out of the grids like dry dust. Fig. 7 shows a +formed plate ready to be burned to the strap. + + +Separators + + +In batteries used both for starting and for lighting, separators made +of specially treated wood are largely used. See Fig. 8. The Willard +Company has adopted an insulator made of a rubber fabric pierced by +thousands of cotton threads, each thread being as long as the +separator is thick. The electrolyte is carried through these threads +from one side of the separator to the other by capillary action, the +great number of these threads insuring the rapid diffusion of +electrolyte which is necessary in batteries which are subjected to the +heavy discharge current required in starting. + +In batteries used for lighting or ignition, sheets of rubber in which +numerous holes have been drilled are also used, these holes permitting +diffusion to take place rapidly enough to perform the required service +satisfactorily, since the currents involved are much smaller than in +starting motor service. + + [Fig. 8] + +Fig 8. A Pile of Prepared Wooden Seperators Ready to be Put Between +the Positive and Negative Plates to Form the Complete Element. + + +For the wooden separators, porous wood, such as Port Orford cedar, +basswood, cypress, or cedar is used. Other woods such as redwood and +cherry are also used. The question is often asked "which wood makes +the best separators?" This is difficult to answer because the method +of treating the wood is just as important as is the kind of wood. The +wood for the separators is cut into strips of the correct thickness. +These strips are passed through a grooving machine which cuts the +grooves in one side, leaving the other side smooth. The strips are +next sawed to the correct size, and are then boiled in a warm alkaline +solution for about 24 hours to neutralize any organic acid, such as +acetic acid, which the wood naturally contains. Such acids would cause +unsatisfactory battery action and damage to the battery. + +The Vesta separator, or "impregnated mat," is treated in a bath of +Barium salts which form compounds with the wood and which are said to +make the separators strong and acid-resisting. + + [Fig. 9 Philco slotted retainer] + +Some batteries use a double separator, one of which is the wooden +separator, while the other consists of a thin sheet of hard rubber +containing many fine perforations. This rubber sheet is placed between +the positive plate and the wooden separator. A recent development in +the use of an auxiliary rubber separator is the Philco slotted +retainer which is placed between the separators and the positives in +Philadelphia Diamond Grid Batteries. Some Exide batteries also use +slotted rubber separators. The Philco slotted retainer consists of a +thin sheet of slotted hard rubber as shown in Fig. 9. The purpose of +the retainer is to hold the positive active material in place and +prevent the shedding which usually occurs. The slots in the retainer +are so numerous that they allow the free passage of electrolyte, but +each slot is made very narrow so as to hold the active material in the +plates. + + +Electrolyte + + +Little need be said here about the electrolyte, since a full +description is given elsewhere. See page 222. Acid is received by the +battery manufacturer in concentrated form. Its specific gravity is +then 1.835. The acid commonly used is made by the "contact" process, +in which sulphur dioxide is oxidized to sulphur trioxide, and then, +with the addition of water, changed to sulphuric acid. The +concentrated acid is diluted with distilled water to the proper +specific gravity. + + +Jars + + +The jars which contain the plates, separators, and electrolyte are +made of a tough, hard rubber compound. They are made either by the +moulding process, or by wrapping sheets of rubber compound around +metal mandrels. In either case the jar is subsequently vulcanized by +careful heating at the correct temperature. + +The battery manufacturers do not, as a rule, make their own jars, but +have them made by the rubber companies who give the jars a high +voltage test to detect any flaws, holes, or cracks which would +subsequently cause a leak. The jars as received at the battery maker's +factory are ready for use. + +Across the bottom of the jar are several stiff ribs which extend up +into the jar so as to provide a substantial support for the plates, +and at the same time form several pockets below the plates in which +the sediment resulting from shedding of active material from the +plates accumulates. + + +Covers + + +No part of a battery is of greater importance than the hard rubber +cell covers, from the viewpoint of the repairman as well as the +manufacturer. The repairman is concerned chiefly with the methods of +sealing the battery, and no part of his work requires greater skill +than the work on the covers. The manufacturers have developed special +constructions, their aims being to design the cover so as to +facilitate the escape of gas which accumulates in the upper part of a +cell during charge, to provide space for expansion of the electrolyte +as it becomes heated, to simplify inspection and filling with pure +water, to make leak proof joints between the cover and the jar and +between the cover and the lead posts which project through it, and to +simplify the work of making repairs. + +Single and Double Covers. Modern types of batteries have a single +piece cover, the edges of which are made so as to form a slot or +channel with the inside of the jar, into which is poured sealing +compound to form a leak proof joint. This construction is illustrated. +in Exide, Fig. 1.5; Vesta, Fig. 264; Philadelphia Diamond Grid, Fig. +256; U. S. L., Figs. 11 and 244; and Prest-0-Lite, Fig. 247, +batteries. Exide batteries are also made with a double flange cover, +in which the top of the jar fits between the two flanges. In single +covers, a comparatively small amount of sealing compound is used, and +repair work is greatly simplified. + +In the Eveready battery, Fig. 262, compound is poured over the entire +cover instead of around the edges. This method requires a considerable +amount of sealing compound. + +The use of double covers is not as common as it was some years ago. +This construction makes use of two flat pieces of hard rubber. In such +batteries a considerable amount of sealing compound is used. This +compound is poured on top of the lower cover to seal the battery, the +top cover serving to cover up the compound and brace the posts. Fig. +10 illustrates this construction. + + [Fig. 10 Cross-section of Gould double cover battery] + +Sealing Around the Posts. Much variety is shown in the methods used to +secure a leak proof joint between the posts and the cover. Several +methods are used. One of these uses the sealing compound to make a +tight joint. Another has lead bushings which are screwed up into the +cover or moulded in the cover, the bushings being burned together with +the post and cell connector. Another method has a threaded post, and +uses a lead alloy nut with a rubber washer to make a tight joint. +Still another method forces a lead collar down over the post, and +presses the cover down on a soft rubber gasket. + +Using Sealing Compound. Some of the batteries which use sealing +compound to make a tight joint between the cover and the post have a +hard rubber bushing shrunk over the post. This construction is used in +Gould batteries, as shown in Fig. 10, and in the old Willard double +cover batteries. The rubber bushing is grooved horizontally to +increase the length of the sealing surface. + + [Fig. 11 U.S.L. cover] + +Other batteries that use sealing compound around the posts have +grooves or "petticoats" cut directly in the post and have a well +around the post into which the sealing compound is poured. This is the +construction used in the old Philadelphia Diamond Grid battery, as +shown in Fig. 254. + +Using Lead Bushings. U. S. L. batteries have a flanged lead bushing +which is moulded directly into the cover, as shown in Fig. 11. In +assembling the battery, the cover is placed over the post, and the +cell connector is burned to both post and bushing. + + [Fig. 12 Lead bushing screwed into cover] + +In older type U. S. L. batteries a bushing was screwed up through the +cover, and then burned to the post and cell connector. + +An old type Prest-O-Lite battery used a lead bushing which screwed up +through the cover similarly to the U. S. L. batteries. Fig. 12 +illustrates this construction. The SJWN and SJRN Willard Batteries +used a lead insert. See page 424. + +The modern Vesta batteries use a soft rubber gasket under the cover, +and force a lead collar over the post, which pushes the cover down on +the gasket. The lead collar and post "freeze" together and make an +acid proof joint. See page 413. The Westinghouse battery uses a three +part seal consisting of a lead washer which is placed around the post, +a U shaped, soft gum washer which is placed between the post and +cover, and a tapered lead sleeve, which presses the washer against the +post and the cover. See page 417. + + [Fig. 13 Cross section of old type Willard battery] + +The Prest-O-Lite Peened Post Seal. All Prest-O-Lite batteries +designated as types WHN, RHN, BHN and JFN, have a single moulded cover +which is locked directly on to the posts. This is done by forcing a +solid ring of lead from a portion of the post down into a chamfer in +the top of the cover. This construction is illustrated in Fig. 247. + +Batteries Using Sealing Nuts. The Exide batteries have threaded posts. +A rubber gasket is placed under the cover on a shoulder on the post. +The nut is then turned down on the post to force the cover on the +gasket. This construction is illustrated in Fig. 239. The Titan +battery uses a somewhat similar seal, as shown in Fig. 293. + +Some of the older Willard batteries have a chamfer or groove in the +under, side of the cover. The posts have a ring of lead in the base +which fits up into the groove in the cover to make a tight joint. +This is illustrated in Fig. 13. The later Willard constructions, using +a rubber gasket seal and a lead cover insert, are illustrated in Figs. +278 and 287. + +Filling Tube or Vent Tube Construction. Quite a number of designs have +been developed in the construction of the filling or vent tube. In +double covers, the tube is sometimes a separate part which is screwed +into the lower cover. In other batteries using double covers, the tube +is an integral part of the cover, as shown in Fig. 10. In all single +covers, the tube is moulded integral with the cover. + + [Fig. 14a Vent hold in U.S.L. battery] + +Several devices have been developed to make it impossible to overfill +batteries. This has been done by the U. S. L. and Exide companies on +older types of batteries, their constructions being described as +follows: + +In old U. S. L. batteries, a small auxiliary vent tube is drilled, as +shown in Fig. 14. When filling to replace evaporation, this vent tube +prevents overfilling. + + [Fig. 14b Filling U.S.L. battery] + +A finger is placed over the auxiliary vent tube shown in Fig. 14. The +water is then poured in through the filling or vent tube. When the +water reaches the bottom of the tube, the air imprisoned in the +expansion chamber can no longer escape. Consequently the water can +rise no higher in this chamber, but simply fills up the tube. Water is +added till it reaches the top of the tube. The finger is then removed +from the vent tube. This allows the air to escape from the expansion +chamber. The water will therefore fall in the filling or vent tube, +and rise slightly in the expansion chamber. The construction makes it +impossible to overfill the battery, provided that the finger is held +on the vent hole as directed. + + [Fig. 14c Filling U.S.L. battery (old types)] + +Figure 15 shows the Non-Flooding Vent and Filling Plug used in the +older type Exide battery, and in the present type LXRV. The new Exide +cover, which does not use the non-flooding feature, is also shown. The +old construction is described as follows: + + [Fig. 15a Sectional view of cover in older type Exide battery. + Top view of cover and filling plug, plug removed] + + [Fig. 15b Old and new Exide covers] + +From the illustrations of the vent and filling plug, it will be seen +that they provide both a vented stopper (vents F, G, H), and an +automatic device for the preventing of overfilling and flooding. The +amount of water that can be put into the cell is limited to the exact +amount needed to replace that lost by evaporation. This is +accomplished by means of the hard rubber valve (A) within the cell +cover and with which the top of the vent plug (E) engages, as shown in +the illustrations. The action of removing the plug (E) turns this +valve (A), closing the air passage (BB), and forming an air tight +chamber (C) in the top of the cell. When water is poured in, it cannot +rise in this air space (C) so as to completely fill the cell. As soon +as the proper level is reached, the water rises in the filling tube +(D) and gives a positive indication that sufficient water has been +added. Should, however, the filling be continued, the excess will be +pure water only, not acid. On replacing the plug (E), valve (A) is +automatically turned, opening the air passages (BB), leaving the air +chamber (C) available for the expansion of the solution, which occurs +when the battery is working. + +Generally the filling or vent tube is so made that its lower end +indicates the correct level of electrolyte above the plates, In adding +water, the level of the electrolyte is brought up to the bottom of the +filling tube. By looking down into the tube, it can be seen when the +electrolyte reaches the bottom of the tube. + +Vent Plugs, or Caps. Vent plugs, or caps, close up the filling or vent +tubes in the covers. They are made of hard rubber, and either screw +into or over the tubes, or are tightened by a full or partial turn, as +is done in Exide batteries. In the caps are small holes which are so +arranged that gases generated within the battery may escape, but acid +spray cannot pass through these holes. It is of the utmost importance +that the holes in the vent caps be kept open to allow the gases to +escape. + + +Case + + +The wooden case in which the cells are placed is usually made of kiln +dried white oak or hard maple. The wood is inspected carefully, and +all pieces are rejected that are weather-checked, or contain +worm-holes or knots. The wood is sawed into various thicknesses, and +then cut to the proper lengths and widths. The wood is passed through +other machines that cut in the dovetails, put the tongue on the bottom +for the joints, stamp on the part number, drill the holes for the +screws or bolts holding the handles, cut the grooves for the sealing +compound, etc. The several pieces are then assembled and glued +together. The finishing touches are then put on, these consisting of +cutting the cases to the proper heights, sandpapering the boxes, etc. +The cases are then inspected and are ready to be painted. + +A more recent development in case construction is a one-piece hard +rubber case, in which the jars and case are made in one piece, the +cell compartments being formed by rubber partitions which form an +integral part of the case. This construction is used in several makes +of Radio "A" batteries, and to some extent in starting batteries. + + [Fig. 16 Exide battery case] + +Asphaltum paint is generally used for wooden cases, the bottoms and +tops being given three, coats, and the sides, two. The number of coats +of paint varies, of course, in the different factories. The handles +are then put on by machinery, and the case, Fig. 16, is complete, and +ready for assembling. + + +Assembling and Sealing + + +The first step in assembling a battery is to burn the positive and +negative plates to their respective straps, Fig. 5, forming the +positive and negative "groups", Fig. 2. This is done by arranging a +set of plates and a strap in a suitable rack which holds them securely +in proper position, and then melting together the top of the plate +lugs and the portion of the strap into which they fit with a hot flame. + +A positive and a negative group are now slipped together and the +separators inserted. The grooved side of the wood separator is placed +toward the positive plate and when perforated rubber sheets are used +these go between the positive and the wood separator. The positive and +negative "groups" assembled with the separators constitute the +"element," Fig. 3. + +Before the elements are placed in the jars they are carefully +inspected to make sure that no separator has been left out. For this +purpose the "Exide" elements are subjected to an electrical test which +rings a bell if a separator is missing, this having been found more +infallible than trusting to a man's eyes. + +In some batteries, such as the Exide, Vesta, and Prest-O-Lite +batteries, the cover is placed on the element and made fast before the +elements are placed in the jars. In other batteries, such as the U. S. +L. and Philadelphia batteries, the covers are put on after the +elements are placed in the jars. + +After the element is in the jar and the cover in position, sealing +compound is applied hot so as to make a leak proof joint between jar +and cover. + + [Fig. 17 Inter-cell connector] + +The completed cells are now assembled in the case and the cell +connectors, Fig. 17, burned to the strap posts. After filling with +electrolyte the battery is ready to receive its "initial charge," +which may require from one day to a week. A low charging rate is used, +since the plates are generally in a sulphated condition when +assembled. The specific gravity is brought up to about 1.280 during +this charge. Some makers now give the battery a short high rate +discharge test (see page 266), to disclose any defects, and just +before sending them out give a final charge. The batteries are often +"cycled" after being assembled, this consisting in discharging and +recharging the batteries several times to put the active material in +the best working condition. If the batteries are to be shipped "wet," +they are ready for shipping after the final charge and inspection. +Batteries which are shipped "dry" need to have more work done upon +them. + + +Preparing Batteries for Dry Shipment + + +There are three general methods of "dry" shipment. The first method +consists of sending cases, plates, covers, separators, etc., +separately, and assembling them in the service stations. Sometimes +these parts are all placed together, as in a finished battery, but +without the separators, the covers not being sealed, or the connectors +and terminals welded to the posts. This is a sort of "knock-down" +condition. The plates used are first fully charged and dried. + +The second method consists of assembling a battery complete with +plates, separators, and electrolyte, charging the battery, pouring out +the electrolyte, rinsing with distilled water, pouring out the water +and screwing the vent plugs down tight. The vent holes in these plugs +are sealed to exclude air. The moisture left in the battery when the +rinsing water was poured out cannot evaporate, and the separators are +thus kept in a moistened condition. + +The third method is the Willard "Bone Dry" method, and consists of +assembling the battery complete with dry threaded rubber separators +and dry plates, but without electrolyte. The holes in the vent plugs +are not sealed, since there is no moisture in the battery. Batteries +using wooden separators cannot be shipped "bone-dry," since wooden +separators must be kept moist. + + +Terminal Connections + + +When the battery is on the car it is necessary to have some form of +detachable connection to the car circuit and this is accomplished by +means of "terminal connectors," Fig. 18, of which there are many types. + + [Fig. 18 Battery terminal] + +Many types of terminals are in two parts, one being permanently +attached to the car circuit and the other mounted permanently on the +battery by welding it to the terminal post, the two parts being +detachably joined by means of a bolted connection. + +In another type of terminal, the cable is soldered directly to the +terminal which is lead burned to the cell post. In this construction +there is very much less chance of corrosion taking place, and it is +therefore a good design. + + +HOMEMADE BATTERIES + + +The wisest thing for the battery shop owner to do is to get a contract +as official service station for one of the well known makes of +batteries. The manufacturers of this battery will stand behind the +service station, giving it the benefits of its engineering, +production, and advertising departments, and boost the service +station's business, helping to make it a success. + +Within the past year or so, however, some battery repairmen have +conceived the idea that they do not need the backing of a well +organized factory, and have decided to build up their own batteries. +Some of them merely assemble batteries from parts bought from one or +more manufacturers. If all the parts are made by the same company, +they will fit together, and may make a serviceable battery. Often, +however, parts made by several manufacturers are assembled in the same +battery. Here is where trouble is apt to develop, because it is more +than likely that jars may not fit well in the case; plates may not +completely fill the jars, allowing too much acid space, with the +results that specific gravity readings will not be reliable, and the +plates may be overworked; plate posts may not fit the cover holes, and +so on. If such a "fabricated" battery goes dead because of defective +material, there is no factory back of the repairman to stand the loss. + +If the repairman wishes to assemble batteries, he should be very +careful to buy the parts from a reliable manufacturer, and he should +be especially careful in buying separators, as improperly treated +separators often develop acetic acid, which dissolves the lead of the +plates very quickly and ruins the battery. Batteries made in this way +are good for rental batteries, or "loaners." These batteries are +assembled and charged just as are batteries which have been in dry +storage, see page 241. + +If the repairman who "fabricates" batteries takes chances, the man who +attempts to actually make his own battery plates is certainly risking +his business and reputation. There are several companies which sell +moulds for making plate grids. One even sells cans of lead oxides to +enable the repairman to make his own plate paste. Even more foolhardy +than the man who wishes to mould plate grids is the man who wishes to +mix the lead oxides himself. Many letters asking for paste formulas +have been received by the author. Such formulas can never be given, +for the author does not have them. Paste making is a far more +difficult process than many men realize. The lead oxides which are +used must be tested and analyzed carefully in a chemical laboratory +and the paste formulas varied according to the results of these tests. +The oxides must be carefully weighed, carefully handled, and carefully +analyzed. The battery service station does not have the equipment +necessary to do these things, and no repairman should ever attempt to +make plate paste, as trouble is bound to follow such attempts. A car +owner may buy a worthless battery once, but the next time he will go +to some other service station and buy a good battery. + +No doubt many repairmen are as skillful and competent as the workers +in battery factories, but the equipment required to make grids and +paste is much too elaborate and expensive for the service station, and +without such equipment it is impossible to make a good battery. + +The only battery parts which may safely be made in the service station +are plate straps and posts, intercell connectors, and cell terminals. +Moulds for making such parts are on the market, and it is really worth +while to invest in a set. The posts made in such moulds are of the +plain tapered type, and posts which have special sealing and locking +devices, such as the Exide, Philadelphia, and Titan cannot be made in +them. + + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 4. +CHEMICAL CHANGES. +----------------- + +Before explaining what happens within one storage cell, let us look +into the early history of the storage battery, and see what a modest +beginning the modern heavy duty battery had. Between 1850 and 1860 a +man named Plante began his work on the storage battery. His original +cell consisted of two plates of metallic lead immersed in dilute +sulphuric acid. The acid formed a thin layer of lead sulphate on each +plate which soon stopped further action on the lead. If a current was +passed through the cell, the lead sulphate on the "anode" or lead +plate at which the current entered the cell was changed into peroxide +of lead, while the sulphate on the other lead plate or "cathode" was +changed into pure lead in a spongy form. This cell was allowed to +stand for several days and was then "discharged," lead sulphate being +again formed on each plate. Each time this cell was charged, more +"spongy" lead and peroxide of lead were formed. These are called the +"active" materials, because it is by the chemical action between them +and the sulphuric acid that the electricity is produced. Evidently, +the more active materials the plates contained, the longer the +chemical action between the acid and active materials could take +place, and hence the greater the "capacity," or amount of electricity +furnished by the cell. The process of charging and discharging the +battery so as to increase the amount of active material, is called +"forming" the plates. + + [Fig. 19 Illustration of chemical action in a storage cell + during charge] + +Plante's method of forming plates was very slow, tedious, and +expensive. If the spongy lead, and peroxide of lead could be made +quickly from materials which could be spread over the plates, much +time and expense could be saved. It was Faure who first suggested such +a plan, and gave us the "pasted" plate of today, which consists of a +skeleton framework of lead, with the sponge lead and peroxide of lead +filling the spaces between the "ribs" of the framework. Such plates +are known as "pasted" plates, and are much lighter and more +satisfactory, for automobile work than the heavy solid lead plates of +Plante's. Chapter 3 describes more fully the processes of +manufacturing and pasting the plates. + +We know now what constitutes a storage battery, and what the parts are +that "generate" the electricity. How is the electricity produced? +Theoretically, if we take a battery which has been entirely +discharged, so that it is no longer able to cause a flow of current, +and examine and test the electrolyte and the materials on the plates, +we shall find that the electrolyte is pure water, and both sets of +plates composed of white lead sulphate. On the other hand, if we make +a similar test and examination of the plates and electrolyte of a +battery through which a current has been sent from some outside +source, such as a generator, until the current can no longer cause +chemical reactions between the plates and electrolyte, we will find +that the electrolyte is now composed of water and Sulphuric acid, the +acid comprising about 30%, and the water 70% of the electrolyte. The +negative set of plates will be composed of pure lead in a spongy form, +while the positive will consist of peroxide of lead. + +The foregoing description gives the final products of the chemical +changes that take place in the storage battery. To understand the +changes themselves requires a more detailed investigation. The +substances to be considered in the chemical actions are sulphuric +acid, water, pure lead, lead sulphate, and lead peroxide. With the +exception of pure lead, each of these substances is a chemical +compound, or composed of several elements. Thus sulphuric acid is made +up of two parts of hydrogen, which is a gas; one part of sulphur, a +solid, and four parts of oxygen, which is also a gas; these combine to +form the acid, which is liquid, and which is for convenience written +as H2SO 4, H2 representing two parts of hydrogen, S one part of +sulphur, and 04, four parts oxygen. Similarly, water a liquid, is made +up of two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen, represented by the +symbol H2O. Lead is not a compound, but an element whose chemical +symbol is Pb, taken from the Latin name for lead. Lead sulphate is a +solid, and consists of one part of lead, a solid substance, one part +of sulphur, another solid substance, and four parts of oxygen, a gas. +It is represented chemically by Pb SO4. Lead peroxide is also a solid, +and is made up of one part of lead, and two parts of oxygen. In the +chemical changes that take place, the compounds just described are to +a certain extent split up into the substances of which they are +composed. We thus have lead (Pb), hydrogen (H), oxygen (0), and +sulphur (S), four elementary substances, two of which are solids, and +two gases. The sulphur does not separate itself entirely from the +substances with which it forms the compounds H2SO4 and Pb SO4. These +compounds are split into H2 and SO4 and Pb and SO4 respectively. That +is, the sulphur always remains combined with four parts of oxygen. + +Let us now consider a single storage cell made up of electrolyte, one +positive plate, and one negative plate. When this cell is fully +charged, or in a condition to produce a current of electricity, the +positive plate is made up of peroxide of lead (PbO2), the negative +plate of pure lead (Pb), and the electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid +(H 2SO4). This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 19. The chemical +changes that take place when the cell is discharging and the final +result of the changes are as follows: + +(a). At the Positive Plate: Lead peroxide and sulphuric acid produce +lead sulphate, water, and oxygen, or: + + [Image] Formula (a). PbO2 + H2SO4 = PbSO4 + H20 + 0 + +(b). At the Negative Plate: Lead and sulphuric acid produce lead +sulphate and Hydrogen, or: + + [Image] Formula (b). Pb + H2SO4 = PbSO4 + H2 + + [Fig. 20 Chemical Reaction in a Storage Cell during Discharge] + +The oxygen of equation (a) and the hydrogen of equation (b) combine to +form water, as may be shown by adding these two equations, giving one +equation for the entire discharge action: + + [Image] Formula (c). PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 = 2PbSO4 + 2H2O + +In this equation we start with the active materials and electrolyte in +their original condition, and finish with the lead sulphate and water, +which are the final products of a discharge. Examining this equation, +we see that the sulphuric acid of the electrolyte is used up in +forming lead sulphate on both positive and negative plates, and is +therefore removed from the electrolyte. This gives us the easily +remembered rule for remembering discharge actions, which, though open +to question from a strictly scientific viewpoint, is nevertheless +convenient: + +During discharge the acid goes into the plates. + +The chemical changes described in (a), (b), and (c) are not +instantaneous. That is, the lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid of +the fully charged cell are not changed into lead sulphate and water as +soon as a current begins to pass through the cell. This action is a +gradual one, small portions of these substances being changed at a +time. The greater the current that flows through the cell, the faster +will the changes occur. Theoretically, the changes will continue to +take place as long as any lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid +remain. The faster these are changed into lead sulphate and water, the +shorter will be the time that the storage cell can furnish a current, +or the sooner it will be discharged. + +Taking the cell in its discharged condition, let us now connect the +cell to a generator and send current through the cell from the +positive to the negative plates. This is called "charging" the cell. +The lead sulphate and water will now gradually be changed back into +lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid. The lead sulphate which is on +the negative plate is changed to pure lead; the lead sulphate on the +positive plate is changed to lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid will be +added to the water. The changes at the positive plate may be +represented as follows: + +Lead sulphate and water produce sulphuric acid, hydrogen and lead +peroxide, or: + + [Image] Formula (d). PbSO4 + 2H2O = PbO2 + H2SO4 + H2 + +The changes at the negative plate may be expressed as follows: Lead +sulphate and water produced sulphuric acid, oxygen, and lead, or: + + [Image] Formula (e). PbSO4 + H2o = Pb + H2SO4 + O + +The hydrogen (H2) produced at the positive plate, and the oxygen (0) +produced at the negative plate unite to form water, as may be shown by +the equation: + + [Image] Formula (f). 2PbSO4 + 2H2O = PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 + +Equation (f) starts with lead sulphate and water, which, as shown in +equation (c), are produced when a battery is discharged. It will be +observed that we start with lead sulphate and water. Discharged plates +may therefore be charged in water. In fact, badly discharged negatives +may be charged better in water than in electrolyte. The electrolyte is +poured out of the battery and distilled water poured in. The acid +remaining on the separators and plates is sufficient to make the water +conduct the charging current. + +In equation (f), the sulphate on the plates combines with water to +form sulphuric acid. This gives us the rule: + +During charge, acid is driven out of the plates. + +This rule is a convenient one, but, of course, is not a strictly +correct statement. + +The changes produced by sending a current through the cell are also +gradual, and will take place faster as the current is made greater. +When all the lead sulphate has been used up by the chemical changes +caused by the current, no further charging can take place. If we +continue to send a current through the cell after it is fully charged, +the water will continue to be split up into hydrogen and oxygen. +Since, however, there is no more lead sulphate left with which the +hydrogen and oxygen can combine to form lead, lead peroxide, and +sulphuric acid, the hydrogen and oxygen rise to the surface of the +electrolyte and escape from the cell. This is known as "gassing", and +is an indication that the cell is fully charged. + + +Relations Between Chemical Actions and Electricity. + + +We know now that chemical actions in the battery produce electricity +and that, on the other hand, an electric current, sent through the +battery from an outside source, such as a generator, produces chemical +changes in the battery. How are chemical changes and electricity +related? The various chemical elements which we have in a battery are +supposed to carry small charges of electricity, which, however, +ordinarily neutralize one another. When a cell is discharging, +however, the electrolyte, water, and active materials are separated +into parts carrying negative and positive charges, and these "charges" +cause what we call an electric current to flow in the apparatus +attached to the battery. + +Similarly, when a battery is charged, the charging current produces +electrical "charges" which cause the substances in the battery to +unite, due to the attraction of position and negative charges for one +another. This is a brief, rough statement of the relations between +chemical reactions and electricity in a battery. A more thorough study +of the subject would be out of place in this book. It is sufficient +for the repairman to remember that the substances in a battery carry +charges of electricity which become available as an electric current +when a battery discharges, and that a charging current causes electric +charges to form, thereby "charging" the battery. + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 5. +WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING DISCHARGE. +---------------------------------- + +Considered chemically, the discharge of a storage battery consists of +the changing of the spongy lead and lead peroxide into lead sulphate, +and the abstraction of the acid from the electrolyte. Considered +electrically, the changes are more complex, and require further +investigation. The voltage, internal resistance, rate of discharge, +capacity, and other features must be considered, and the effects of +changes in one upon the others must be studied. This proceeding is +simplified considerably if we consider each point separately. The +abstraction of the acid from the electrolyte gives us a method of +determining the condition of charge or discharge in the battery, and +must also be studied. + + [Fig. 21 Graph: voltage changes at end and after charge] + +Voltage Changes During Discharge. At the end of a charge, and before +opening the charging circuit, the voltage of each cell is about 2.5 to +2.7 volts. As soon as the charging circuit is opened, the cell voltage +drops rapidly to about 2.1 volts, within three or four minutes. This +is due to the formation of a thin layer of lead sulphate on the +surface of the negative plate and between the lead peroxide and the +metal of the positive plate. Fig. 21 shows how the voltage changes +during the last eight minutes of charge, and how it drops rapidly as +soon as the charging circuit is opened. The final value of the voltage +after the charging circuit is opened is about 2.15-2.18 volts. This is +more fully explained in Chapter 6. If a current is drawn from the +battery at the instant the charge is stopped, this drop is more rapid. +At the beginning of the discharge the voltage has already had a rapid +drop from the final voltage on charge, due to the formation of +sulphate as explained above. When a current is being drawn from the +battery, the sudden drop is due to the internal resistance of the +cell, the formation of more sulphate, and the abstracting of the acid +from the electrolyte which fills the pores of the plate. The density +of this acid is high just before the discharge is begun. It is diluted +rapidly at first, but a balanced condition is reached between the +density of the acid in the plates and in the main body of the +electrolyte, the acid supply in the plates being maintained at a +lowered density by fresh acid flowing into them from the main body of +electrolyte. After the initial drop, the voltage decreases more +slowly, the rate of decrease depending on the amount of current drawn +from the battery. The entire process is shown in Fig. 22. + + [Fig. 22 Graph: voltage changes during discharge] + +Lead sulphate is being formed on the surfaces, and in the body of the +plates. This sulphate has a higher resistance than the lead or lead +peroxide, and the internal resistance of the cell rises, and +contributes to the drop in voltage. As this sulphate forms in the body +of the plates, the acid is used up. At first this acid is easily +replaced from the main body of the electrolyte by diffusion. The acid +in the main body of the electrolyte is at first comparatively strong, +or concentrated, causing a fresh supply of acid to flow into the +plates as fast as it is used up in the plates. This results in the +acid in the electrolyte growing weaker, and this, in turn, leads to a +constant decrease in the rate at which the fresh acid flows, or +diffuses into the plates. Furthermore, the sulphate, which is more +bulky than the lead or lead peroxide fills the pores in the plate, +making it more and more difficult for acid to reach the interior of +the plate. This increases the rate at which the voltage drops. + +The sulphate has another effect. It forms a cover over the active +material which has not been acted upon, and makes it practically +useless, since the acid is almost unable to penetrate the coating of +sulphate. We thus have quantities of active material which are +entirely enclosed in sulphate, thereby cutting down the amount of +energy which can be taken from the battery. Thus the formation of +sulphate throughout each plate and the abstraction of acid from the +electrolyte cause the voltage to drop at a constantly increasing rate. + +Theoretically, the discharge may be continued until the voltage drops +to zero, but practically, the discharge should be stopped when the +voltage of each cell has dropped to 1.7 (on low discharge rates). If +the discharge is carried on beyond this point much of the spongy lead +and lead peroxide have either been changed into lead sulphate, or have +been covered up by the sulphate so effectively that they are almost +useless. Plates in this condition require a very long charge in order +to remove all the sulphate. + +The limiting value of 1.7 volts per cell applies to a continuous +discharge at a moderate rate. At a very high current flowing for only +a very short time, it is not only safe, but advisable to allow a +battery to discharge to a lower voltage, the increased drop being due +to the rapid dilution of the acid in the plates. + +The cell voltage will rise somewhat every time the discharge is +stopped. This is due to the diffusion of the acid from the main body +of electrolyte into the plates, resulting in an increased +concentration in the plates. If the discharge has been continuous, +especially if at a high rate, this rise in voltage will bring the cell +up to its normal voltage very quickly on account of the more rapid +diffusion of acid which will then take place. + +The voltage does not depend upon the area of the plate surface but +upon the nature of the active materials and the electrolyte. Hence, +although the plates of a cell are gradually being covered with +sulphate, the voltage, measured when no current is flowing, will fall +slowly and not in proportion to the amount of energy taken out of the +cell. It is not until the plates are pretty thoroughly covered with +sulphate, thus making it difficult for the acid to reach the active +material, that the voltage begins to drop rapidly. This is shown +clearly in Fig. 22, which shows that the cell voltage has dropped only +a very small amount when the cell is 50% discharged. With current +flowing through the cell, however, the increased internal resistance +causes a marked drop in the voltage. Open circuit voltage is not +useful, therefore to determine how much energy has been taken from the +battery. + +Acid Density. The electrolyte of a lead storage battery is a mixture of +chemically pure sulphuric acid, and chemically pure water, the acid +forming about 30 per cent of the volume of electrolyte when the +battery is fully charged. The pure acid has a "specific gravity" of +1.835, that is, it is 1.835 times as heavy as an equal volume of +water. The mixture of acid and water has a specific gravity of about +1.300. As the cell discharges, acid is abstracted from the +electrolyte, and the weight of the latter must therefore grow less, +since there will be less acid in it. The change in the weight, or +specific gravity of the electrolyte is the best means of determining +the state of discharge of a cell, provided that the cell has been used +properly. In order that the value of the specific gravity may be used +as an indication of the amount of energy in a battery, the history of +the battery must be known. Suppose, for instance, that in refilling +the battery to replace the water lost by the natural evaporation which +occurs in the use of a battery, acid, or a mixture of acid and water +has been used. This will result in the specific gravity being too +high, and the amount of energy in the battery will be less than that +indicated by the specific gravity. Again, if pure water is used to +replace electrolyte which has been spilled, the specific gravity will +be lower than it should be. In a battery which has been discharged to +such an extent that much of the active material has been covered by a +layer of tough sulphate, or if a considerable amount of sulphate and +active material has been loosened from the plates and has dropped to +the bottom of the cells, it will be impossible to bring the specific +gravity of the electrolyte up to 1.300, even though a long charge is +given. There must, therefore, be a reasonable degree of certainty +that a battery has been properly handled if the specific gravity +readings are to be taken as a true indication of the condition of a +battery. Where a battery does not give satisfactory service even +though the specific gravity readings are satisfactory, the latter are +not reliable as indicating the amount of charge in the battery. + +As long as a discharge current is flowing from the battery, the acid +within the plates is used up and becomes very much diluted. Diffusion +between the surrounding electrolyte and the acid in the plates keeps +up the supply needed in the plates in order to, carry on the chemical +changes. When the discharge is first begun, the diffusion of acid into +the plates takes place rapidly because there is little sulphate +clogging the pores in the active material, and because there is a +greater difference between the concentration of acid in the +electrolyte and in the plates than will exist as the discharge +progresses. As the sulphate begins to form and fill up the pores of +the plates, and as more and more acid is abstracted from the +electrolyte, diffusion takes place more slowly. + +If a battery is allowed to stand idle for a short time after a partial +discharge, the specific gravity of the electrolyte will decrease +because some, of the acid in the electrolyte will gradually flow into +the pores of the plates to replace the acid used up while the battery +was discharging. Theoretically the discharge can be continued until +all the acid has been used up, and the electrolyte is composed of pure +water. Experience has shown, however, that the discharge of the +battery should not be continued after the specific gravity of the +electrolyte has fallen to 1.150. As far as the electrolyte is +concerned, the discharge may be carried farther with safety. The +plates determine the point at which the discharge should be stopped. +When the specific gravity has dropped from 1.300 to 1.150, so much +sulphate has been formed that it fills the pores in the active +material on the plates. Fig. 23 shows the change in the density of the +acid during discharge. + + [Fig. 23: Variation of Capacity with Specific Gravity] + +Changes at the Negative Plate. Chemically, the action at the negative +plate consists only of the formation of lead sulphate from the spongy +lead. The lead sulphate is only slightly soluble in the electrolyte +and is precipitated as soon as it is formed, leaving hydrogen ions, +which then go to the lead peroxide plate to form water with oxygen +ions released at the peroxide plate. The sulphate forms more quickly +on the surface of the plate than in the inner portions because there +is a constant supply of acid available at the surface, whereas the +formation of sulphate in the interior of the plate requires that acid +diffuse into the pores of the active materials to replace that already +used up in the formation of sulphate. In the negative plate, however, +the sulphate tends to form more uniformly throughout the mass of the +lead, because the spongy lead is more porous than the lead peroxide, +and because the acid is not diluted by the formation of water as in +the positive plate. + +Changes at the Positive Plate. In a fully charged positive plate we +have lead peroxide as the active material. This is composed of lead +and oxygen. From this fact it is plainly evident that during discharge +there is a greater chemical activity at this plate than at the +negative plate, since we must find something to combine with the +oxygen in order that the lead may form lead sulphate with the acid. +In an ideal cell, therefore, the material which undergoes the greater +change should be more porous than the material which does not involve +as great a chemical reaction. In reality, however, the peroxide is not +as porous as the spongy lead, and does not hold together as well. + +The final products of the discharge of a positive plate are lead +sulphate and water. The lead peroxide must first be reduced to lead, +which then combines with the sulphate from the acid to form lead +sulphate, while the oxygen from the peroxide combines with the +hydrogen of the acid to form water. There is, therefore, a greater +activity at this plate than at the lead plate, and the formation of +the water dilutes the acid in and around the plate so that the +tendency is for the chemical actions to be retarded. + +The sulphate which forms on discharge causes the active material to +bulge out because it occupies more space than the peroxide. This +causes the lead peroxide at the surface to begin falling, to the +bottom of the jar in fine dust-like particles, since the peroxide here +holds together very poorly. + + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 6. +WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING CHARGE. +------------------------------- + +Voltage. Starting with a battery which has been discharged until its +voltage has decreased to 1.7 per cell, we pass a current through it +and cause the voltage to rise steadily. Fig. 24 shows the changes in +voltage during charge. Ordinarily the voltage begins to rise +immediately and uniformly. If, however, the battery has been left in a +discharged condition for some time, or has been "over discharged," the +voltage rises very rapidly for a fraction of the first minute of +charge and then drops rapidly to the normal value and thereafter +begins to rise steadily to the end of the charge. This rise at the +beginning of the charge is due to the fact that the density of the +acid in the pores of the plates rises rapidly at first, the acid thus +formed being prevented from diffusing into the surrounding electrolyte +by the coating of sulphate. As soon as this sulphate is broken +through, diffusion takes place and the voltage drops. + + [Fig. 24 Graph: voltage changes during charge] + +As shown in Fig. 24, the voltage remains almost constant between the +points M and N. At N the voltage begins to rise because the charging +chemical reactions are taking place farther and farther in the inside +parts of the plate, and the concentrated acid formed by the chemical +actions in the plates is diffusing into the main electrolyte. This +increases the battery voltage and requires a higher charging voltage. + +At the point marked 0, the voltage begins to rise very rapidly. This +is due to the fact that the amount of lead sulphate in the plates is +decreasing very rapidly, allowing the battery voltage to rise and thus +increasing the charging voltage. Bubbles of gas are now rising through +the electrolyte. + +At P, the last portions of lead sulphate are removed, acid is no +longer being formed, and hydrogen and oxygen gas are formed rapidly. +The gas forces the last of the concentrated acid out of the plates and +in fact, equalizes the acid concentration throughout the whole cell. +Thus no further changes can take place, and the voltage becomes +constant at R at a voltage of 2.5 to 2.7. + +Density of Electrolyte. Discharge should be stopped when the density +of the electrolyte, as measured with a hydrometer, is 1.150. When we +pass a charging current through the battery, acid is produced by the +chemical actions which take place in the plates. This gradually +diffuses with the main electrolyte and causes the hydrometer to show a +higher density than before. This increase in density continues +steadily until the battery begins to "gas" freely. + +The progress of the charge is generally determined by the density of +the electrolyte. For this purpose in automobile batteries, a +hydrometer is placed in a glass syringe having a short length of +rubber tubing at one end, and a large rubber bulb at the other. The +rubber tube is inserted in the cell and enough electrolyte drawn up +into the syringe to float the hydrometer so as to be able to obtain a +reading. This subject will be treated more fully in a later chapter. + +Changes at Negative Plate. The charging current changes lead sulphate +into spongy lead, and acid is formed. The acid is mixed with the +diluted electrolyte outside of the plates. As the charging proceeds +the active material shrinks or contracts, and the weight of the plate +actually decreases on account of the difference between the weight and +volume of the lead sulphate and spongy lead. If the cell has had only +a normal discharge and the charge is begun soon after the discharge +ended, the charge will proceed quickly and without an excessive rise +in temperature. If, however, the cell has been discharged too far, or +has been in a discharged condition for some time, the lead sulphate +will not be in a finely divided state as it should be, but will be +hard and tough and will have formed an insulating coating over the +active material, causing the charging voltage to be high, and the +charge will proceed slowly. When most of the lead sulphate has been +reduced to spongy lead, the charging current will be greater than is +needed to carry on the chemical actions, and will simply decompose the +water into hydrogen and oxygen, and the cell "gasses." Spongy lead is +rather tough and coherent, it, and the bubbles of gas which form in +the pores of the negative plate near the end of the charge force their +way to the surface without dislodging any of the active material. + +Changes at the Positive Plate. When a cell has been discharged, a +portion of the lead peroxide has been changed to lead sulphate, which +has lodged in the pores of the active material and on its surface. +During charge, the lead combines with oxygen from the water to form +lead peroxide, and acid is formed. This acid diffuses into the +electrolyte as fast as the amount of sulphate will permit. If the +discharge has been carried so far that a considerable amount of +sulphate has formed in the pores and on the surface of the plate, the +action proceeds very slowly, and unless a moderate charging current is +used, gassing begins before the charge is complete, simply because the +sulphate cannot absorb the current. The gas bubbles which originate in +the interior of the plate force their way to the surface, and in so +doing cause numerous fine particles of active material to break off +and fall to the bottom of the jar. This happens because the lead +peroxide is a granular, non-coherent substance, with the particles +held together very loosely, and the gas breaks off a considerable +amount of active material. + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 7. +CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES. +------------------------------ + +The capacity of a storage battery is the product of the current drawn +from a battery, multiplied by the number of hours this current flows. +The unit in which capacity is measured is the ampere-hour. +Theoretically, a battery has a capacity of 40 ampere hours if it +furnishes ten amperes for four hours, and if it is unable, at the end +of that time, to furnish any more current. If we drew only five +amperes from this battery, it should be able to furnish this current +for eight hours. Thus, theoretically, the capacity of a battery should +be the same, no matter what current is taken from it. That is, the +current in amperes, multiplied by the number of hours the battery, +furnished this current should be constant. + +In practice, however, we do not discharge a battery to a lower voltage +than 1.7 per cell, except when the rate of discharge is high, such as +is the case when using the starting motor, on account of the +increasing amount of sulphate and the difficulty with which this is +subsequently removed and changed into lead and lead peroxide. The +capacity of a storage battery is therefore measured by the number of +ampere hours it can furnish before its voltage drops below 1.7 per +cell. This definition assumes that the discharge is a continuous one, +that we start with a fully charged battery and discharge it +continuously until its voltage drops to 1.7 per cell. + +The factors upon which the capacity of storage batteries depend may be +grouped in two main classifications: + + 1. Design and Construction of Battery + 2. Conditions of Operation + +Design and Construction. + +Each classification may be subdivided. Under the Design and +Construction we have: + + (a) Area of plate surface. + (b) Quantity, arrangement, and porosity of active materials. + (c) Quantity and strength of electrolyte. + (d) Circulation of electrolyte. + +These sub-classifications require further explanation. Taking them in +order: + +(a) Area of Plate Surface. It is evident that the chemical and +electrical activity of a battery are greatest at the surface of the +plates since the acid and active material are in intimate contact +here, and a supply of fresh acid is more readily available to replace +that which is depleted as the battery is discharged. This is +especially true with high rates of discharge, such as are caused in +starting automobile engines. Therefore, the capacity of a battery will +be greater if the surface area of its plates is increased. With large +plate areas a greater amount of acid and active materials is +available, and an increase in capacity results. + +(b) Quantity, Arrangement, and Porosity of Active Materials. Since the +lead and lead peroxide are changed to lead sulphate on discharge, it +is evident that the greater the amount of these materials, the longer +can the discharge continue, and hence the greater the capacity. + +The arrangement of the active materials is also important, since the +acid and active materials must be in contact in order to produce +electricity. Consequently the capacity will be greater in a battery, +all of whose active materials are in contact with the acid, than in +one in which the acid reaches only a portion of the active materials. +It is also important that all parts of the plates carry the same +amount of current, in order that the active materials may be used +evenly. As a result of these considerations, we find that the active +materials are supported on grids of lead, that the plates are made +thin, and that they have large surface areas. For heavy discharge +currents, such as starting motor currents, it is essential that there +be large surface areas. Thick plates with smaller surface areas are +more suitable for low discharge rates. + +Since the inner portions of the active materials must have a plentiful +and an easily renewable supply of acid, the active materials must be +porous in order that diffusion may be easy and rapid. + +(c) Quantity and Strength of Electrolyte. It is important that there +be enough electrolyte in order that the acid may not become exhausted +while there is still considerable active material left. An +insufficient supply of electrolyte makes it impossible to obtain the +full capacity from a battery. On the other hand, too much electrolyte, +due either to filling the battery too full, or to having the plates in +a jar that holds too much electrolyte, results in an increase in +capacity up to the limit of the plate capacity. There is a danger +present, however, because with an excess of electrolyte the plates +will be discharged before the specific gravity of the electrolyte +falls to 1.150. This results in over discharge of the battery with its +attendant troubles as will be described more fully in a later chapter. + +It is a universal custom to consider a battery discharged when the +specific gravity of the electrolyte has dropped to 1.150, and that it +is fully charged when the specific gravity of the electrolyte has +risen to 1.280-1.300. This is true in temperate climates. In tropical +countries, which may for this purpose be defined as those countries in +which the temperature never falls below the freezing point, the +gravity of a fully charged cell is 1.200 to 1.230. The condition of +the plates is, however, the true indicator of charged or discharged +condition. With the correct amount of electrolyte, its specific +gravity is 1.150 when the plates have been discharged as far as it is +considered safe, and is 1.280-1.300 when the plates are fully charged. +When electrolyte is therefore poured into a battery, it is essential +that it contains the proper proportion of acid and water in order that +its specific gravity readings be a true indicator of the condition of +the plates as to charge or discharge, and hence show accurately how +much energy remains in the cell at any time. + +A question which may be considered at this point is why in automobile, +work a specific gravity of 1.280-1.300 is adopted for the electrolyte +of a fully charged cell. There are several reasons. The voltage of a +battery increases as the specific gravity goes up. Hence, with a +higher density, a higher voltage can be obtained. If the density were +increased beyond this point, the acid would attack the lead grids and +the separators, and considerable corrosion would result. Another +danger of high density is that of sulphation, as explained in a later +chapter. Another factor which enters is the resistance of the +electrolyte. It is desirable that this be as low as possible. If we +should make resistance measurements on various mixtures of acid and +water, we should find that with a small percentage of acid, the +resistance is high. As the amount of acid is increased, the resistance +will grow less up to a certain point. Beyond this point, the +resistance will increase again as more acid is added to the mixture. +The resistance is lowest when the acid forms 30% of the electrolyte. +Thus, if the electrolyte is made too strong, the plates and also the +separators will be attacked by the acid, and the resistance of the +electrolyte will also increase. The voltage increases as the +proportion of acid is increased, but the other factors limit the +concentration. If the electrolyte is diluted, its resistance rises, +and the amount of acid is insufficient to give much capacity. The +density of 1.280-1.300 is therefore a compromise between the various +factors mentioned above. + +(d) Circulation of Electrolyte. This refers to the passing of +electrolyte from one plate to another, and depends upon the ease with +which the acid can pass through the pores of the separators. A porous +separator allows more energy to be drawn from the battery than a +nonporous one. + + +Operating Conditions. + + +Considering now the operating conditions, we find several items to be +taken into account. The most important are: + + (e) Rate of discharge. + (f) Temperature. + +(e) Rate of Discharge. As mentioned above, the ampere hour rating of a +battery is based upon a continuous discharge, starting with a specific +gravity of 1.280-1.300, and finishing with 1.150. The end of the +discharge is also considered to be reached when the voltage per cell +has dropped to 1.7. With moderate rates of discharge the acid is +abstracted slowly enough to permit the acid from outside the plates to +diffuse into the pores of the plates and keep up the supply needed for +the chemical actions. With increased rates of discharge the supply of +acid is used up so rapidly that the diffusion is not fast enough to +hold up the voltage. This fact is shown clearly by tests made to +determine the time required to discharge a 100 Amp. Hr., 6 volt +battery to 4.5 volts. With a discharge rate of 25 amperes, it required +160 minutes. With a discharge rate of 75 amperes, it required 34 +minutes. From this we see that making the discharge rate three times +as great caused the battery to be discharged in one fifth the time. +These discharges were continuous, however, and if the battery were +allowed to rest, the voltage would soon rise sufficiently, to burn the +lamps for a number of hours. + +The conditions of operation in automobile work are usually considered +severe. In starting the engine, a heavy current is drawn from the +battery for a few seconds. The generator starts charging the battery +immediately afterward, and the starting energy is soon replaced. As +long as the engine runs, there is no load on the battery, as the +generator will furnish the current for the lamps, and also send a +charge into the battery. If the lamps are not used, the entire +generator output is utilized to charge the battery, unless some +current is furnished to the ignition system. Overcharge is quite +possible. + +When the engine is not running, the lamps are the only load on the +battery, and there is no charging current. Various drivers have +various driving conditions. Some use their starters frequently, and +make only short runs. Their batteries run down. Other men use the +starter very seldom, and take long tours. Their batteries will be +overcharged. The best thing that can be done is to set the generator +for an output that will keep the battery charged under average +conditions. + +From the results of actual tests, it may be said that modem lead-acid +batteries are not injured in any way by the high discharge rate used +when a starting motor cranks the engine. It is the rapidity with which +fresh acid takes the place of that used in the pores of the active +materials that affects the capacity of a battery at high rates, and +not only limitation in the plates themselves. Low rates of discharge +should, in fact, be avoided more than the high rates. Battery capacity +is affected by discharge rates, only when the discharge is continuous, +and the reduction in capacity caused by the high rates of continuous +discharge does not occur if the discharge is an intermittent one, such +as is actually the case in automobile work. The tendency now is to +design batteries to give their rated capacity in very short discharge +periods. If conditions should demand it, these batteries would be sold +to give their rated capacity while operating intermittently at a rate +which would completely discharge them in three or four minutes. The +only change necessary for such high rates of discharge is to provide +extra heavy terminals to carry the heavy current. + +The present standard method of rating starting and lighting batteries, +as recommended by the Society of Automotive Engineers, is as follows: + +"Batteries for combined lighting and starting service shall have two +ratings. The first shall indicate the lighting ability, and shall be +the capacity in ampere hours of the battery when discharged +continuously at the 5 hour rate to a final voltage of not less than +1.7 per cell, the temperature of the battery beginning such discharge +being 80°F. The second rating shall indicate the starting ability and +shall be the capacity in ampere-hours when the battery is discharged +continuously at the 20-minute rate to a final voltage of not less than +1.5 per cell, the temperature of the battery beginning such discharge +being 80°F." + +The discharge rate required under the average starting conditions is +higher than that specified above, and would cause the required drop in +voltage in about fifteen minutes. In winter, when an engine is cold +and stiff, the work required from the battery is even more severe, the +discharge rate being equivalent in amperes to probably four or five +times the ampere-rating of the battery. On account of the rapid +recovery of a battery after a discharge at a very high rate, it seems +advisable to allow a battery to discharge to a voltage of 1.0 per cell +when cranking an engine which is extremely cold and stiff. + +(f) Temperature. Chemical reactions take place much more readily at +high temperatures than at low. Furthermore, the active materials are +more porous, the electrolyte lighter, and the internal resistance less +at higher temperatures. Opposed to this is the fact that at high +temperatures, the acid attacks the grids and active materials, and +lead sulphate is formed, even though no current is taken from the +battery. Other injurious effects are the destructive actions of hot +acid on the wooden separators used in most starting and lighting +batteries. Greater expansion of active material will also occur, and +this expansion is not, in general, uniform over the surface of the +plates. This results in unequal strains and the plates are bent out of +shape, or "buckled." The expansion of the active material will also +cause much of it to fall from the plates, and we then have "shedding." + + [Fig. 25 Graph: Theoretical temperature changes during charge + and discharge] + +When sulphuric acid is poured into water, a marked temperature rise +takes place. When a battery is charged, acid is formed, and when this +mixes with the diluted electrolyte, a temperature rise occurs. In +discharging, acid is taken from the electrolyte, and the temperature +has a tendency to drop. On charging, therefore, there is danger of +overheating, while on discharge, excessive temperatures are not +likely. Fig. 25 shows the theoretical temperature changes on charge +and discharge. The decrease in temperature given-in the curve is not +actually obtained in practice, because the tendency of the temperature +to decrease is balanced by the heat caused by the current passing +through the battery. + + +Age of Battery. + + +Another factor which should be considered in connection with capacity +is the age of the battery. New batteries often do not give their rated +capacity when received from the manufacturer. This is due to the +methods of making the plates. The "paste" plates, such as are used in +automobiles, are made by applying oxides of lead, mixed with a liquid, +which generally is dilute sulphuric acid, to the grids. These oxides +must be subjected to a charging current in order to produce the spongy +lead and lead peroxide. After the charge, they must be discharged, and +then again charged. This is necessary because not all of the oxides +are changed to active material on one charge, and repeated charges and +discharges are required to produce the maximum amount of active +materials. Some manufacturers do not charge and discharge a battery a +sufficient number of times before sending it out, and after a battery +is put into use, its capacity will increase for some time, because +more active material is produced during each charge. + +Another factor which increases the capacity of a battery after it is +put into use is the tendency of the positive active material to become +more porous after the battery is put through the cycles of charge and +discharge. This results in an increase in capacity for a considerable +time after the battery is put into use. + +When, a battery has been in use for some time, a considerable portion +of the active material will have fallen from the positive plates, and, +a decrease in capacity will result. Such a battery will charge faster +than a new one because the amount of sulphate which has formed when +the battery is discharged is less than in a newer battery. Hence, the +time required to reduce this sulphate will be less, and the battery +will "come up" faster on charge, although the specific gravity of the +electrolyte may not rise to 1.280. + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 8. +INTERNAL RESISTANCE. +-------------------- + +The resistance offered by a storage battery to the flow of a current +through it results in a loss of voltage, and in heating. Its value +should be as low as possible, and, in fact, it is almost negligible +even I in small batteries, seldom rising above 0.05 ohm. On charge, it +causes the charging voltage to be higher and on discharge causes a +loss of voltage. Fig. 26 shows the variation in resistance. + + [Fig. 26 Graph: Changes in internal resistance during charge + and discharge] + +The resistance as measured between the terminals of a cell is made up +of several factors as follows: + +1. Grids. This includes the resistance of the terminals, connecting +links, and the framework upon which the active materials are pasted. +This is but a small part of the total resistance, and does not +undergo any considerable change during charge and discharge. It +increases slightly as the temperature of the grids rises. + +2. Electrolyte. This refers to the electrolyte between the plates, and +varies with the amount of acid and with temperature. As mentioned in +the preceding chapter, a mixture of acid and water in which the acid +composes thirty per cent of the electrolyte has the minimum +resistance. Diluting or increasing the concentration of the +electrolyte will both cause an increase in resistance from the minimum +I value. The explanation probably lies in the degree to which the acid +is split up into "ions" of hydrogen (H), and sulphate (SO4). These +"ions" carry the current through t he electrolyte. Starting with a +certain amount of acid, let us see how the ionization progresses. With +very concentrated acid, ionization does not take place, and hence, +there are no ions to carry current. As we mix the acid with water, +ionization occurs. The more water used, the more ions, and hence, the +less the resistance, because the number of ions available to carry the +current increases. The ionization in creases to a certain maximum +degree, beyond which no more ions are formed. It is probable that an +electrolyte containing thirty per cent of acid is at its maximum +degree of ionization and hence its lowest resistance. If more water is +now added, no more ions are formed. Furthermore, the number of ions +per unit volume of electrolyte will now decrease on account of the +increased amount of water. There Will therefore be fewer ions per unit +volume to carry the current, and the resistance of the electrolyte +increases. + +With an electrolyte of a given concentration, an increase of +temperature will cause a decrease in resistance. A decrease in +temperature will, of course, cause an increase in resistance. It is +true, in general, that the resistance of the electrolyte is about half +of the total resistance of the cell. The losses due to this resistance +generally form only one per cent of the total losses, and area +practically negligible factor. + +3. Active Material. This includes the resistance of the active +materials and the electrolyte in the pores of the active materials. +This varies considerably during charge and discharge. It has been +found that the resistance of the peroxide plate changes much more than +that of the lead plate. The change in resistance of the positive plate +is especially marked near the end of a discharge. The composition of +the active material, and the contact between it and the grid affect +the resistance considerably. + +During charge, the current is sent into the cell from an external +source. The girds therefore carry most of the current. The active +material which first reacts with the acid is that near the surface of +the plate, and the acid formed by the charging current mixes readily +with the main body of electrolyte. Gradually, the charging action +takes place in the inner portions of the plate, and concentrated acid +is formed in the pores of the plate. As the sulphate is removed, +however, the acid has little difficulty in mixing with the main body +of electrolyte. The change in resistance on the charge is therefore +not considerable. + +During discharge, the chemical action also begins at the surface of +the plates and gradually moves inward. In this case, however, sulphate +is formed on the surface first, and it becomes increasingly difficult +for the fresh acid from the electrolyte to diffuse into the plates so +as to replace the acid which has been greatly diluted there by the +discharge actions. There is therefore an increase in resistance +because of the dilution of the acid at the point of activity. Unless a +cell is discharged too far, however, the increase in resistance is +small. + +If a battery is allowed to stand idle for a long time it gradually +discharges itself, as explained in Chapter 10. This is due to the +formation of a tough coating of crystallized lead sulphate, which is +practically an insulator. These crystals gradually cover and enclose +the active material. The percentage change is not high, and generally +amounts to a few per cent only. The chief damage caused by the +excessive sulphation is therefore not an increase in resistance, but +consists chiefly of making a poor contact between active material and +grid, and of removing much of the active material from action by +covering it. + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 9. +CARE OF THE BATTERY ON THE CAR. +------------------------------- + +The manufacturers of Starting and Lighting Equipment have designed +their generators, cutouts, and current controlling devices so as to +relieve the car owner of as much work as possible in taking care of +batteries. The generators on most cars are automatically connected to +the battery at the proper time, and also disconnected from it as the +engine slows down. The amount of current which the generator delivers +to the battery is automatically prevented from exceeding a certain +maximum value. Under the average conditions of driving, a battery is +kept in a good condition. It is impossible, however, to eliminate +entirely the need of attention on the part of the car owner, and +battery repairman. + +The storage battery requires but little attention, and this is the +very reason why many batteries are neglected. Motorists often have the +impression that because their work in caring for a battery is quite +simple, no harm will result if they give the battery no attention +whatever. If the battery fails to turn over the engine when the +starting switch is closed, then instruction books are studied. +Thereafter more attention is paid to the battery. The rules to be +observed in taking care of the battery which is in service on the car +are not difficult to observe. It is while on the car that a battery is +damaged, and the damage may be prevented by intelligent consideration +of the battery's housing and living conditions, just as these +conditions are made as good as possible for human beings. + +1. Keep the Interior of the Battery Box Clean and Dry. On many cars +the battery is contained in an iron box, or under the seat or +floorboards. This box must be kept dry, and frequent inspection is +necessary to accomplish this. Moisture condenses easily in a metal +box, and if not removed will cause the box to become rusty. Pieces of +rust may fall on top of the battery and cause corrosion and leakage of +current between terminals. + +Occasionally, wash the inside of the box with a rag dipped in ammonia, +or a solution of baking soda, and then wipe it dry. A good plan is to +paint the inside of the box with asphaltum paint. This will prevent +rusting, and at the same time will prevent the iron from being +attacked by electrolyte which may be spilled, or may leak from the +battery. + +Some batteries are suspended from the car frame under the floor boards +or seat. The iron parts near such batteries should be kept dry and +free from rust. If the battery has a roof of sheet iron placed above +it, this roof should also be kept clean, dry and coated with asphaltum +paint. + + [Fig. 27 "Do not drop tools on top of battery"] + +2. Put Nothing But the Battery in the Battery Box. If the battery is +contained in an iron box, do not put rags, tools, or anything else of +a similar nature in the battery box. Do not lay pliers across the top +of the battery, as shown in Fig. 27. Such things belong elsewhere. The +battery should have a free air space all around it, Fig. 28. Objects +made of metal will short-circuit the battery and lead to a repair bill. + +3. Keep the battery clean and dry. The top of the battery should be +kept free of dirt, dust, and moisture. Dirt may find its way into the +cells and damage the battery. A dirty looking battery is an unsightly +object, and cleanliness should be maintained for the sake of the +appearance of the battery if for no other reason. + +Moisture on top of the battery causes a leakage of current between the +terminals of the cells and tends to discharge the battery. Wipe off +all moisture and occasionally go over the tops of the cell connectors, +and terminals with a rag wet with ammonia or a solution of baking +soda. This will neutralize any acid which may be present in the +moisture. + +The terminals should be dried and covered with vaseline. This protects +them from being attacked by acid which may be spilled on top of the +battery. If a deposit of a grayish or greenish substance is found on +the battery terminals, handles or cell connectors, the excess should +be scraped off and the parts should then be washed with a hot solution +of baking soda (bicarbonate of soda) until all traces of the substance +have been removed. In scraping off the deposit, care should be taken +not to scrape off any lead from terminals or connectors. After washing +the parts, dry them and cover them with vaseline. The grayish or +greenish substance found on the terminals, connectors, or handles is +the result of "corrosion," or, in other words, the result of the +action of the sulphuric acid in the electrolyte upon some metallic +substance. + + [Fig. 28 Battery installed with air space on all sides] + +The acid which causes the corrosion may be spilled on the battery +when hydrometer readings are taken. It may also be the result of +filling the cells too full, with subsequent expansion and overflowing +as the temperature of the electrolyte increases during charge. Loose +vent caps may allow electrolyte to be thrown out of the cell by the +motion of the car on the road. A poorly sealed battery allows +electrolyte to be thrown out through the cracks left between the +sealing compound and the jars or posts. The leaks may be caused by the +battery cables not having sufficient slack, and pulling on the +terminals. + +The cap which fits over the vent tube at the center of the top of each +cell is pierced by one or more holes through which gases formed within +the cell may escape. These holes must be kept open; otherwise the +pressure of the gases may blow off the top of the cell. If these holes +are found to be clogged with dirt they should be cleaned out +thoroughly. + +The wooden battery case should also be kept clean and dry. If the +battery is suspended from the frame of the car, dirt and mud from the +road will gradually cover the case, and this mud should be scraped off +frequently. Occasionally wash the case with a rag wet with ammonia, or +hot baking soda solution. Keep the case, especially along the top +edges, coated with asphaltum or some other acid proof paint. + + [Fig. 29 Battery held in place by "hold-down" bolts] + +4. The battery must be held down firmly. If the battery is contained +in an iron box mounted on the running-board, or in a compartment in +the body of the car having a door at the side of the running-board, it +is usually fastened in place by long bolts which hook on the handles +or the battery case. These bolts, which are known as "hold-downs," +generally pass through the running board or compartment, Fig. 29, and +are generally fastened in place by nuts. These nuts should be turned +up so that the battery is held down tight. + +Other methods are also used to hold the battery in place, but whatever +the method, it is vital to the battery that it be held down firmly so +that the jolting of the car cannot cause it to move. The battery has +rubber jars which are brittle, and which are easily broken. Even if a +battery is held down firmly, it is jolted about to a considerable +extent, and with a loosely fastened battery, the jars are bound to be +cracked and broken. + +5. The cables connected to the battery must have sufficient slack so +that they will not pull on the battery terminals, as this will result +in leaks, and possibly a broken cover. + +The terminals on a battery should be in such a position that the +cables may be connected to them easily, and without bending and +twisting them. These cables are heavy and stiff, and once they are +bent or twisted they are put under a strain, and exert a great force +to straighten themselves. This action causes the cables to pull on the +terminals, which become loosened, and cause a leak, or break the cover. + + [Fig. 30 Measure height of electrolyte in battery] + +6. Inspect the Battery twice every month in Winter, and once a week in +Summer, to make sure that the Electrolyte covers the plates. To do +this, remove the vent caps and look down through the vent tube. If a +light is necessary to determine the level of the electrolyte, use an +electric lamp. Never bring an open flame, such as a match or candle +near the vent tubes of a battery. Explosive gases are formed when a +battery "gasses," and the flame may ignite them, with painful injury +to the face and eyes of the observer as a result. Such an explosion +may also ruin the battery. + +During the normal course of operation of the battery, water from the +electrolyte will evaporate. The acid never evaporates. The surface of +the electrolyte should be not less than one-half inch above the tops +of the plate. A convenient method of measuring the height of the +electrolyte is shown in Fig. 30. Insert one end of a short piece of a +glass tube, having an opening not less than one-eighth inch diameter, +through the filling hole, and allow it to rest on the upper edge of +the plates. Then place your finger over the upper end, and withdraw +the tube. A column of liquid will remain in the lower end of the tube, +as shown in the figure, and the height of this column is the same as +the height of the electrolyte above the top of the plates in the cell. +If this is less than one-half inch, add enough distilled water to +bring the electrolyte up to the proper level. Fig. 31 shows the +correct height of electrolyte in an Exide cell. + +Never add well water, spring water, water from a stream, or ordinary +faucet water. These contain impurities which will damage the battery, +if used. It is essential that distilled water be used for this +purpose, and it must be handled carefully so as to keep impurities of +any kind out of the water. Never use a metal can for handling water or +electrolyte for a battery, but always use a glass or porcelain vessel. +The water should be stored in glass bottles, and poured into a +porcelain or glass pitcher when it is to be used. + + [Fig. 31 Correct height of electrolyte in Exide cell] + +A convenient method of adding the water to the battery is to draw some +up in a hydrometer syringe and add the necessary amount to the cell by +inserting the rubber tube which is at the lower end into the vent hole +and then squeezing the bulb until the required amount has been put +into the cell. + +In the summer time it makes no difference when water is added. In the +winter time, if the air temperature is below freezing (32° F), start +the engine before adding water, and keep it running for about one hour +after the battery begins to "gas." A good time to add the water is +just before starting on a trip, as the engine will then usually be run +long enough to charge the battery, and cause the water to mix +thoroughly with the electrolyte. Otherwise, the water, being lighter +than the electrolyte, will remain at the top and freeze. Be sure to +wipe off water from the battery top after filling. If battery has been +wet for sometime, wipe it with a rag dampened with ammonia or baking +soda solution to neutralize the acid. + +Never add acid to a battery while the battery is on the car. By "acid" +is meant a mixture of sulphuric acid and water. The concentrated acid, +is of course, never used. The level of the electrolyte falls because +of the evaporation of the water which is mixed with the acid in the +electrolyte. The acid does not evaporate. It is therefore evident that +acid should not be added to a cell to replace the water which has +evaporated. Some men believe that a battery may be charged by adding +acid. This is not true, however, because a battery can be charged only +by passing a current through the battery from an outside source. On +the car the generator charges the battery. + +It is true that acid is lost, but this is not due to evaporation, but +to the loss of some of the electrolyte from the cell, the lost +electrolyte, of course, carrying some acid with it. Electrolyte is +lost when a cell gasses; electrolyte may be spilled; a cracked jar +will allow electrolyte to leak out; if too much water is added, the +expansion of the electrolyte when the battery is charging may cause it +to run over and be lost, or the jolting of the car may cause some of +it to be spilled; if a battery is allowed to become badly sulphated, +some of the sulphate is never reduced, or drops to the bottom of the +cell, and the acid lost in the formation of the sulphate is not +regained. + +If acid or electrolyte is added instead of water, when no acid is +needed, the electrolyte will become too strong, and sulphated plates +will be the result. If a battery under average driving conditions +never becomes fully charged, it should be removed from the car and +charged from an outside source as explained later. If, after the +specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising, it is not of the +correct value, some of the electrolyte should be drawn off and +stronger electrolyte added in its place. This should be done only in +the repair shop or charging station. + +Care must be taken not to add too much water to a cell, Fig. 32. This +will subsequently cause the electrolyte to overflow and run over the +top of the battery, due to the expansion of the electrolyte as the +charging current raises its temperature. The electrolyte which +overflows is, of course, lost, taking with it acid which will later be +replaced by water as evaporation takes place. The electrolyte will +then be too weak. The electrolyte which overflows will rot the wooden +battery case, and also tend to cause corrosion at the terminals. + +If it is necessary to add water very frequently, the battery is +operating at too high a temperature, or else there is a cracked jar. +The high temperature may be due to the battery being charged at too +high a rate, or to the battery being placed near some hot part of the +engine or exhaust pipe. The car manufacturer generally is careful not +to place the battery too near any such hot part. The charging rate may +be measured by connecting an ammeter in series with the battery and +increasing the engine speed until the maximum current is obtained. For +a six volt battery this should rarely exceed 14 amperes. If the +charging, current does not reach a maximum value and then remain +constant, or decrease, but continues to rise as the speed of the +engine, is increased, the regulating device is out of order. An +excessive charging rate will cause continuous gassing if it is much +above normal, and the temperature of the electrolyte will be above +100° F. In this way an excessive charging current may be detected. + + [Fig. 32 Cell with level of electrolyte too high] + +In hot countries or states, the atmosphere may have such a high +temperature that evaporation will be more rapid than in temperate +climates, and this may necessitate more frequent addition of water. + +If one cell requires a more frequent addition of water than the +others, it is probable that the jar of that cell is cracked. Such a +cell will also show a low specific gravity, since electrolyte leaks +out and is replaced by water. A battery which has a leaky jar will +also have a case which is rotted at the bottom and sides. A battery +with a leaky jar must, of course, be removed from the car for repairs. + + +"Dope" Electrolytes + + +From time to time within the past two years, various solutions which +are supposed to give a rundown battery a complete charge within five +or ten minutes have been offered to the public. The men selling such +"dope" sometimes give a demonstration which at first sight seems to +prove their claims. This demonstration consists of holding the +starting switch down (with the ignition off) until the battery can no +longer turn over the engine. They then pour the electrolyte out of +the battery, fill it with their "dope," crank the engine by hand, run +it for five minutes, and then get gravity readings of 1.280 or over. +The battery will also crank the engine. Such a charge is merely a +drug-store charge, and the "dope" is generally composed mainly of high +gravity acid, which seemingly puts life into a battery, but in reality +causes great damage, and shortens the life of a battery. The starting +motor test means nothing. The same demonstration could be given with +any battery. The high current drawn by the motor does not discharge +the battery, but merely dilutes the electrolyte which is in the plates +to such an extent that the voltage drops to a point at which the +battery can no longer turn over the starting motor. If any battery +were given a five minutes charge after such a test, the diluted +electrolyte in the plates would be replaced by fresh acid from the +electrolyte and the battery would then easily crank the engine again. +The five minutes of running the engine does not put much charge into +the battery but gives time for the electrolyte to diffuse into the +plates. + +Chemical analysis of a number of dope electrolytes has shown that they +consist mainly of high gravity acid, and that this acid is not even +chemically pure, but contains impurities which would ruin a battery +even if the gravity were not too high. The results of some of the +analyses are as follows: + +No. 1. 1.260 specific gravity sulphuric acid, 25 parts iron, 13.5 +parts chlorine, 12.5, per cent sodium sulphate, 1 per cent nitric acid. + +No. 2. 1.335 specific gravity sulphuric acid, large amounts of organic +matter, part of which consisted of acids which attack lead. + +No. 3. 1.340 specific gravity sulphuric acid, 15.5 per cent sodium +sulphate. + +No. 4. 1.290 specific gravity sulphuric acid, 1.5 per cent sodium +sulphate. + +No. 5. 1.300 specific gravity sulphuric acid. + +If such "dope" electrolytes are added to a discharged battery, the +subsequent charging of the battery will add more acid to the +electrolyte, the specific gravity of which will then rise much higher +than it should, and the plates and separators are soon ruined. + +Do not put faith in any "magic" solution which is supposed to work +wonders. There is only one way to charge a battery, and that is to +send a current through it, and there is only one electrolyte to use, +and that is the standard mixture of distilled water and chemically +pure sulphuric acid. + +7. The specific gravity of the electrolyte should be measured every +two weeks and a permanent record of the readings made for future +reference. + +The specific gravity of the electrolyte is the ratio of its weight to +the weight of an equal volume of water. Acid is heavier than water, +and hence the heavier the electrolyte, the more acid it, contains, and +the more nearly it is fully charged. In automobile batteries, a +specific gravity of 1.300-1.280 indicates a fully charged battery. +Generally, a gravity of 1.280 is taken to indicate a fully, charged +cell, and in this book this will be done. Complete readings are as +follows: + +1.300-1.280--Fully charged. + +1.280-1.200--More than half charged. + +1.200-1.150--Less than half charged. + +1.150 and less--Completely discharged. + + [Fig. 33 and Fig. 34: battery hydrometers] + +For determining the specific gravity, a hydrometer is used. This +consists of a small sealed glass tube with an air bulb and a quantity +of shot at one end, and a graduated scale on the upper end. This scale +is marked from 1.100 to 1.300, with various intermediate markings as +shown in Fig. 33. If this hydrometer is placed in a liquid, it will +sink to a certain depth. In so doing, it will displace a certain +volume of the electrolyte, and when it comes to rest, the volume +displaced will just be equal to the weight of the hydrometer. It will +therefore sink farther in a light liquid than in a heavy one, since it +will require a greater volume of the light liquid to equal the weight +of the hydrometer. The top mark on the hydrometer scale is therefore +1.100 and the bottom one 1.300. Some hydrometers are not marked with +figures that indicate the specific gravity, but are marked with the +words "Charged," "Half Charged," "Discharged," or "Full," "Half Full," +"Empty," in place of the figures. + +The tube must be held in a vertical position, Fig. 35, and the stem of +the hydrometer must be vertical. The reading will be the number on the +stem at the surface of the electrolyte in the tube, Fig. 36. Thus if +the hydrometer sinks in the electrolyte until the electrolyte comes up +to the 1.150 mark on the stem, the specific gravity is 1.150. + + [Fig. 35 Using hydrometer for reading specific gravity] + +For convenience in automobile work, the hydrometer is enclosed in a +large tube of glass or other transparent, acid proof material, having +a short length of rubber tubing at its lower end, and a large rubber +bulb at the upper end. The combination is called a hydrometer-syringe, +or simply hydrometer. See Figure 34. In measuring the specific gravity +of the electrolyte, the vent cap is removed, the bulb is squeezed (so +as to expel the air from it), and the rubber tubing inserted in the +hole from which the cap was removed. The pressure on the bulb is now +released, and electrolyte is drawn up into the glass tube. The rubber +tubing on the hydrometer should not be withdrawn from the cell. When a +sufficient amount of electrolyte has entered the tube, the hydrometer +will float. In taking a reading, there should be no pressure on the +bulb, and the hydrometer should be floating freely and not touching +the walls of the tube. The tube must not be so full of electrolyte +that the upper end of the hydrometer strikes any part of the bulb. + +The tube must be held in a vertical position, Fig. 35, and the stem of +the hydrometer must be vertical. The reading will be the number on the +stem at the surface of the electrolyte in the tube, Fig. 36. Thus if +the hydrometer sinks in the electrolyte until the electrolyte comes up +to the 1.150 mark on the stem, the specific gravity is 1.150. + +If the battery is located in such a position that it is impossible to +hold the hydrometer straight up, the rubber tube may be Pinched shut +with the fingers, after a sufficient quantity of electrolyte has been +drawn from the cell and the hydrometer then removed and held in a +vertical position. + +Specific gravity readings should never be taken soon after distilled +water has been added to the battery. The water and electrolyte do not +mix immediately, and such readings will give misleading results. The +battery should be charged several hours before the readings are taken. +It is a good plan to take a specific gravity reading before adding any +water, since accurate results can also be obtained in this way. + + [Fig. 36 Hydrometer reading showing cell charged, half-charged, + and discharged] + +Having taken a reading, the bulb is squeezed so as to return the +electrolyte to the cell. + +Care should be taken not to spill the electrolyte from the hydrometer +syringe when testing the gravity. Such moisture on top of the cells +tends to cause a short circuit between the terminals and to discharge +the battery. + +In making tests with the hydrometer, the electrolyte should always be +returned to the same cell from which it was drawn. + +Failure to do this will finally result in an increased proportion of +acid in one cell and a deficiency of acid in others. + +The specific gravity of all cells of a battery should rise and fall +together, as the cells are usually connected in series so that the +same current passes through each cell both on charge and discharge. + +If one cell of a battery shows a specific gravity which is decidedly +lower than that of the other cells in series with it, and if this +difference gradually increases, the cell showing the lower gravity has +internal trouble. This probably consists of a short circuit, and the +battery should be opened for inspection. If the electrolyte in this +cell falls faster than that of the other cells, a leaky jar is +indicated. The various cells should have specific gravities within +fifteen points of each other, such as 1.260 and 1.275. + +If the entire battery shows a specific gravity below 1.200, it is not +receiving enough charge to replace the energy used in starting the +engine and supplying current to the lights, or else there is trouble +in the battery. Use starter and lights sparingly until the specific +gravity comes up to 1.280-1.300. If the specific gravity is less than +1.150 remove the battery from the car and charge it on the charging +bench, as explained later. The troubles which cause low gravity are +given on pages 321 and 322. + +It is often difficult to determine what charging current should be +delivered by the generator. Some generators operate at a constant +voltage slightly higher than that of the fully charged battery, and +the charging current will change, being higher for a discharged +battery than for one that is almost or fully charged. Other generators +deliver a constant current which is the same regardless of the +battery's condition. + +In the constant voltage type of generator, the charging current +automatically adjusts itself to the condition of the battery. In the +constant current type, the generator current remains constant, and the +voltage changes somewhat to keep the current constant. Individual +cases often require that another current value be used. In this case, +the output of the generator must be changed. With most generators, a +current regulating device is used which may be adjusted so as to give +a fairly wide range of current, the exact value chosen being the +result of a study of driving conditions and of several trials. The +charging current should never be made so high that the temperature of +the electrolyte in the battery remains above 90° F. A special +thermometer is very useful in determining the temperature. See Fig. +37. The thermometer bulb is immersed in the electrolyte above the +plates through the filler hole in the tops of the cells. + +Batteries used on some of the older cars are divided into two or more +sections which are connected in parallel while the engine is running, +and in such cases the cables leading to the different sections should +all be of exactly the same length, and the contacts in the switch +which connect these sections in parallel should all be clean and +tight. If cables of unequal length are used, or if some of the switch +contacts are loose and dirty, the sections will not receive equal +charging currents, because the resistances of the charging circuits +will not be equal. The section having the greatest resistance in its +circuit will receive the least amount of charge, and will show lower +specific gravity readings than for other sections. In a multiple +section battery, there is therefore a tendency for the various +sections to receive unequal charges, and for one or more sections to +run down continually. An ammeter should be attached with the engine +running and the battery charging, first to one section and then to +each of the others in turn. The ammeter should be inserted and removed +from the circuit while the engine remains running and all conditions +must be exactly the same; otherwise the comparative results will not +give reliable indications. It would be better still to use two +ammeters at the same time, one on each section of the battery. In case +the amperage of charge should differ by more than 10% between any two +sections, the section receiving the low charge rate should be examined +for proper height of electrolyte, for the condition of its terminals +and its connections at the starting switch, as described. Should a +section have suffered considerably from such lack of charge, its +voltage will probably have been lowered. With all connections made +tight and clean and with the liquid at the proper height in each cell, +this section may automatically receive a higher charge until it is +brought back to normal. This high charge results from the +comparatively low voltage of the section affected. + +In case the car is equipped with such a battery, each section must +carry its proper fraction of the load and with lamps turned on or +other electrical devices in operation the flow from the several +sections must be the same for each one. An examination should be made +to see that no additional lamps, such as trouble lamps or body lamps, +have been attached on one side of the battery, also that the horn and +other accessories are so connected that they draw from all sections at +once. + +Some starting systems have in the past not been designed carefully in +this respect, one section of the battery having longer cables attached +to it than the others. In such systems it is impossible for these +sections to receive as much charging current as others, even though +all connections and switches are in good condition. In other systems, +all the cells of the battery are in series, and therefore must receive +the same charging current, but have lighting wires attached to it at +intermediate points, thus dividing the battery into sections for the +lighting circuits. If the currents taken by these circuits are not +equal, the battery section supplying the heavier current will run down +faster than others. Fortunately, multiple section batteries are not +being used to any great extent at present, and troubles due to this +cause are disappearing. + +The temperature of the electrolyte affects the specific gravity, since +heat causes the electrolyte to expand. If we take any battery or cell +and heat it, the electrolyte will expand and its specific gravity will +decrease, although the actual amount of acid is the same. The change +in specific gravity amounts to one point, approximately, for every +three degrees Fahrenheit. If the electrolyte has a gravity of 1.250 at +70°F, and the temperature is raised to 73°F, the specific gravity of +the battery will be 1.249. If the temperature is decreased to 67°F, +the specific gravity will be 1.251. Since the change of temperature +does not change the actual amount of acid in the electrolyte, the +gravity readings as obtained with the hydrometer syringe should be +corrected one point for every three degrees change in temperature. +Thus 70°F is considered the normal temperature, and one point is added +to the electrolyte reading for every three degrees above 70°F. +Similarly, one point is subtracted for every three degrees below 70°F. +For convenience of the hydrometer user, a special thermometer has been +developed by battery makers. This is shown in Fig. 37. It has a +special scale mounted beside the regular scale. This scale shows the +corrections which must be made when the temperature is not 70°F. +Opposite the 70° point on the thermometer is a "0" point on the +special scale. This indicates that no correction is to be made. +Opposite the 67° point on the regular scale is a -1, indicating that 1 +must be subtracted from the hydrometer reading to find what the +specific gravity would be if the temperature were 70°F. Opposite the +73° point on the regular scale is a +1, indicating that 1 point must +be added to reading on the hydrometer, in order to reduce the reading +of specific gravity to a temperature of 70°F. + + [Fig. 37 Special thermometer] + +8. Storage batteries are strongly affected by changes in temperature. +Both extremely high and very low temperatures are to be avoided. At +low temperatures the electrolyte grows denser, the porosity of plates +and separators decreases, circulation and diffusion of electrolyte are +made difficult, chemical actions between plates and acid take place +very slowly, and the whole battery becomes sluggish, and acts as if it +were numbed with cold. The voltage and capacity of the battery are +lowered. + +As the battery temperature increases, the density of the electrolyte +decreases, the plates and separators become more porous, the internal +resistance decreases, circulation and diffusion of electrolyte take +place much more quickly, the chemical actions between plates and +electrolyte proceed more rapidly, and the battery voltage and capacity +increase. A battery therefore works better at high temperatures. + +Excessive temperatures, say over 110° F, are, however, more harmful +than low temperatures. Evaporation of the water takes place very +rapidly, the separators are attacked by the hot acid and are ruined, +the active materials and plates expand to such an extent that the +active materials break away from the grids and the grids warp and +buckle. The active materials themselves are burned and made +practically useless. The hot acid also attacks the grids and the +sponge lead and forms dense layers of sulphate. Such temperatures are +therefore extremely dangerous. + +A battery that persistently runs hot, requiring frequent addition of +water, is either receiving too much charging current, or has internal +trouble. The remedy for excessive charge is to decrease the output of +the generator, or to burn the lamps during the day time. Motorists who +make long touring trips in which considerable day driving is done, +with little use of the starter, experience the most trouble from high +temperature. The remedy is either to decrease the charging rate or +burn the lamps, even in the day time. + +Internal short-circuits cause excessive temperature rise, both on +charge and discharge. Such short circuits usually result from buckled +plates which break through the separators, or from an excessive amount +of sediment. This sediment consists of active material or lead +sulphate which has dropped from the positive plate and fallen to the +bottom of the battery jar. All battery jars are provided with ridges +which keep the plates raised an inch or more from the bottom of the +jar, and which form pockets into which the materials drop. See Fig. +10. If these pockets become filled, and the sediment reaches the +bottom of the plates, internal short circuits result which cause the +battery to run down and cause excessive temperatures. + +If the electrolyte is allowed to fall below the tops of the plates, +the parts of the plates above the acid become dry, and when the +battery is charged grow hot. The parts still covered by the acid also +become hot because all the charging current is carried by these parts, +and the plate surface is less than before. The water will also become +hot and boil away. A battery which is thus "charged while dry" +deteriorates rapidly, its life being very short. + +If a battery is placed in a hot place on the car, this heat in +addition to that caused by charging will soften the plates and jars, +and shorten their life considerably. + +In the winter, it is especially important not to allow the battery to +become discharged, as there is danger of the electrolyte freezing. A +fully charged battery will not freeze except at an extremely low +temperature. The water expands as it freezes, loosening the active +materials, and cracking the grids. As soon as a charging current thaws +the battery, the active material is loosened, and drops to the bottom +of the jars, with the result that the whole battery may disintegrate. +Jars may also be cracked by the expansion of the water when a battery +freezes. + +To avoid freezing, a battery should therefore be kept charged, The +temperatures at which electrolyte of various specific gravities +freezes are as follows: + +Specific Gravity Freezing Pt. Specific Gravity Freezing Pt. +---------------- ------------ ---------------- ------------ +1.000 32 deg. F 1.200 -16 deg. F +1.050 26 deg. F 1.250 -58 deg. F +1.100 18 deg. F 1.280 -92 deg. F +1.150 5 deg. F 1.300 -96 deg. F + +9. Care of Storage Battery When Not in Service. A storage battery may +be out of service for a considerable period at certain times of the +year, for example, when the automobile is put away during the winter +months, and during this time it should not be allowed to stand without +attention. When the battery is to be out of service for only three or +four weeks, it should be kept well filled with distilled water and +given as complete a charge as possible the last few days, the car is +in service by using the lamps and starting motor very sparingly. The +specific gravity of the electrolyte in each cell should be tested, and +it should be somewhere between 1.280 and 1.300. All connections to the +battery should be removed, as any slight discharge current will in +time completely discharge it, and the possibilities of such an +occurrence are to be avoided. If the battery is to be put out of +service for several months, it should be given a complete charge by +operating the generator on the car or by connecting it to an outside +charging circuit. During the out-of-service period, water should be +added to the cells every six or eight weeks and the battery given what +is called a freshening charge; that is, the engine should be run until +the cells have been gassing for perhaps one hour, and the battery may +then be allowed to stand for another similar period without further +attention. Water should be added and the battery fully charged before +it is put back into service. It is desirable to have the temperature +of the room where the battery is stored fairly constant and as near 70 +degrees Fahrenheit as possible. + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 10. +STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES. +------------------------- + +The Storage Battery is a most faithful servant, and if given even a +fighting chance, will respond instantly to the demands made upon it. +Given reasonable care and consideration, it performs its duties +faithfully for many months. When such care is lacking, however, it is +soon discovered that the battery is subject to a number of diseases, +most of which are "preventable," and all of which, if they do not kill +the battery, at least, greatly impair its efficiency. + +In discussing these diseases, we may consider the various parts of +which a battery is composed, and describe the troubles to which they +are subject. Every battery used on an automobile is composed of: + + 1. Plates + 2. Separators + 3. Jars in which Plates, Separators, and Electrolyte are placed + 4. Wooden case + 5. Cell Connectors, and Terminals + 6. Electrolyte + +Most battery diseases are contagious, and if one part fails, some of +the other parts are Affected. These diseases may best be considered in +the order in which the parts are given in the foregoing list. + + +PLATE TROUBLES + + +Plates are the "vitals" of a battery, and their troubles affect the +life of the battery more seriously than those of the other parts. It +is often difficult to diagnose their troubles, and the following +descriptions are given to aid in the diagnosis. + +Sulphation + +1. Over discharge. Some battery men say that a battery is suflphated +whenever anything is wrong with it. Sulphation is the formation of +lead sulphate on the plates. As a battery of the lead acid type +discharges, lead sulphate must form. There can be no discharge of such +a battery without the formation of lead sulphate, which is the natural +product of the chemical reactions by virtue of which current may be +drawn from the battery. This sulphate gradually replaces the lead +peroxide of the positive plate, and the spongy lead of the negative +plate. When a battery has been discharged until the voltage per cell +has fallen to the voltage limits, considerable portions of the lead +peroxide and spongy lead remain on the plates. The sulphate which is +then present is in a finely divided, porous condition, and can readily +be changed back to lead peroxide and spongy lead by charging the +battery. + +If the discharge is continued after the voltage has fallen to the +voltage limits, an excessive amount of sulphate forms. It fills up the +pores in the active materials, and covers up much of the active +material which remains, so that it is difficult to change the sulphate +back to active material. Moreover, the expansion of active material +which takes place as the sulphate forms is then so great that it +causes the active material to break off from the plate and drop to the +bottom of the jar. + +2. Allowing a Battery to Stand Idle. When lead sulphate is first +formed, it is in a finely divided, porous condition, and the +electrolyte soaks through it readily. If a battery which has been +discharged is allowed to stand idle without being charged, the lead +sulphate crystals grow by the combination of the crystals to form +larger crystals. The sulphate, instead of having a very large surface +area, upon which the electrolyte may act in changing the sulphate to +active material, as it does when it is first formed, now presents only +a very small surface to the electrolyte, and it is therefore only with +great difficulty that the large crystals of sulphate are changed to +active material. The sulphate is a poor conductor, and furthermore, it +covers up much of the remaining active material so that the +electrolyte cannot reach it. + +A charged battery will also become sulphated if allowed to stand idle, +because it gradually becomes discharged, even though no wires of any +kind are attached to the battery terminals. How this takes place is +explained later. The discharge and formation of sulphate continue +until the battery is completely discharged. The sulphate then +gradually forms larger crystals as explained in the preceding +paragraph, until all of the active material is either changed to +sulphate, or is covered over by the sulphate so that the electrolyte +cannot reach it. The sulphate thus forms a high resistance coating +which hinders the passage of charging current through the battery and +causes heating on charge. It is for this reason that sulphated plates +should be charged at a low rate. The chemical actions which are +necessary to change the sulphate to active material can take place but +very slowly, and thus only a small current can be absorbed. Forcing a +large current through a sulphated battery causes heating since the +sulphate does not form uniformly throughout the plate, and the parts +which are the least sulphated will carry the charging current, causing +them to become heated. The heating damages the plates and separators, +and causes buckling, as explained later. + +If batteries which have been discharged to the voltage limits are +allowed to stand idle without being charged, they will, of course, +continue to discharge themselves just as fully charged batteries do +when allowed to stand idle. + +3. Starvation. If a battery is charged and discharged intermittently, +and the discharge is greater than the charge, the battery will never +be fully charged, and lead sulphate will always be present. Gradually +this sulphate forms the large tough crystals that cover the active +material and remove it from action. This action continues until all +parts of the plate are covered with the crystalline sulphate and we +have the same condition that results when a battery is allowed to +stand idle without any charge. + +4. Allowing Electrolyte to Fall Below Tops of Plates. If the +electrolyte is allowed to fall below the tops of the plates, so that +the active materials are exposed to the air, the parts thus exposed +will gradually become sulphated. The spongy lead of the negative +plate, being in a very finely divided state, offers a very large +surface to the oxygen of the air, and is rapidly oxidized, the +chemical action causing the active material to become hot. The +charging current, in passing through the parts of the plates not +covered by the electrolyte also heats the active materials. The +electrolyte which occasionally splashes over the exposed parts of the +plates and which rises in the pores of the separators, is heated also, +and since hot acid attacks the active materials readily, sulphation +takes place quickly. The parts above the electrolyte, of course, +cannot be charged and sulphate continues to form. Soon the whole +exposed parts are sulphated as shown in Fig. 209. + +As the level of the electrolyte drops, the electrolyte becomes +stronger, because it is only the water which evaporates, the acid +remaining and becoming more and more concentrated. The remaining +electrolyte and the parts of the plates covered by it become heated by +the current, because there is a smaller plate area to carry the +current, and because the resistance of the electrolyte increases as it +grows more concentrated. Since hot acid attacks the active materials, +sulphation also takes place in the parts of the plates still covered +by the electrolyte. + +The separators in a battery having the electrolyte below the tops of +the plates suffer also, as will be explained later. See page 346. + +5. Impurities. These are explained later. See page 76. + +6. Adding Acid Instead of Water. The sulphuric acid in the electrolyte +is a heavy, oily liquid that does not evaporate. It is only the water +in the electrolyte which evaporates. Therefore, when the level of the +electrolyte falls, only water should be added to bring the electrolyte +to the correct height. There are, however, many car owners who still +believe that a battery may be charged by adding acid when the level of +the electrolyte falls. Batteries in which this is done then contain +too much acid. This leads to two troubles. The first is that the +readings taken with a hydrometer will then be misleading. A specific +gravity of 1.150 is always taken to indicate that a battery is +discharged, and a specific gravity of 1.280 that a battery is charged. +These two values of specific gravity indicate a discharged and charged +condition of the battery ONLY WHEN THE PROPORTION OF ACID IN THE +ELECTROLYTE IS CORRECT. It is the condition of the plates, and not the +specific gravity of the electrolyte which determines when a battery is +either charged or discharged. With the correct proportion of acid in +the electrolyte, the specific gravity of the electrolyte is 1.150 when +the plates are discharged and 1.280 when the plates are charged, and +that is why specific gravity readings are generally used as an +indication of the condition of the battery. + +If there is too much acid in the electrolyte, the plates will be in a +discharged condition before the specific gravity of the electrolyte +drops to 1.150, and will not be in a charged condition until after the +specific gravity has risen beyond the usual value. As a result of +these facts a battery may be over-discharged, and never fully charged, +this resulting in the formation of sulphate. + +The second trouble caused by adding acid to the electrolyte is that +the acid will then be too concentrated and attacks both plates and +separators. This will cause the plates to become sulphated, and the +separators rotted. + +7. Overheating. This was explained in Chapter 9. See page 66. + + +Buckling + + +Buckling is the bending or twisting of plates due to unequal expansion +of the different parts of the plate, Figs. 207 and 208. It is natural +and unavoidable for plates to expand. As a battery discharges, lead +sulphate forms. This sulphate occupies more space than the lead +peroxide and spongy lead, and the active materials expand. Heat +expands both active materials and grids. As long as all parts of a +plate expand equally, no buckling will occur. Unequal expansion, +however, causes buckling. + +1. Over discharge. If discharge is carried too far, the expansion of +the active material on account of the formation of lead sulphate will +bend the grids out of shape, and may even break them. + +2. Continued Operation with Battery in a Discharged Condition. When a +considerable amount of lead sulphate has, formed, and current is still +drawn from the battery, those portions of the plate which have the +least amount of sulphate will carry most of the current, and will +therefore become heated and expand. The parts covered with sulphate +will not expand, and the result is that the parts that do expand will +twist the plate out of shape. A normal rate of discharge may be +sufficient to cause buckling in a sulphated plate. + +3. Charging at High Rates. If the charging rate is excessive, the +temperature will rise so high that excessive expansion will take +place. This is usually unequal in the different parts of the plate, +and buckling results. With a battery that has been over discharged, +the charging current will be carried by those parts of the plates +which are the least sulphated. These parts will therefore expand while +others will not, and buckling results. + +4. Non-Uniform Distribution of Current Over the Plates. Buckling may +occur in a battery which has not been over-discharged, if the current +carried by the various parts of the plate is not uniform on account of +faulty design, or careless application of the paste. This is a fault +of the manufacturers, and not the operating conditions. + +5. Defective Grid Alloy. If the metals of which the grids are composed +are not uniformly mixed throughout the plate, areas of pure lead may +be left here and there, with air holes at various points. The +electrolyte enters the air holes, attacks the lead and converts the +grid partly into active material. This causes expansion and consequent +distortion and buckling. + +Buckling will not necessarily cause trouble, and batteries with +buckled plates may operate satisfactorily for a long time. If, +however, the expansion and twisting has caused much of the active +material to break away from the grid, or has loosened the active +material from the grids, much of the battery capacity is lost. Another +danger is that the lower edges of a plate may press against the +separator with sufficient force to cut through it, touch the next +plate, and cause a short-circuit. + + +Shedding, or Loss of Active Material + + +The result of shedding, provided no other troubles occur, is simply to +reduce the capacity of the plates. The positives, of course, suffer +more from shedding than the negatives do, shedding being one of the +chief weaknesses of the positives. There is no remedy for this +condition. When the shedding has taken place to such an extent that +the capacity of the battery has fallen very low, new plates should be +installed. After a time, the sediment space in the bottom of the jar +becomes filled with sediment, which touches the plates. This +short-circuits the cell, of course, and new plates must be installed, +and the jars washed out thoroughly. + +1. Normal Shedding. It is natural and unavoidable for the positives to +shed. Lead Peroxide is a powder-like substance, the particles of which +do not hold together. A small amount of sulphate will cement the +particles together to a considerable extent. At the surface of the +plate, however, this sulphate is soon changed to active material, and +the peroxide loses its coherence. Particles of peroxide drop from the +plates and fall, into the space in the bottom of the jar provided for +this purpose. + +Bubbles of gas which occur at the end of a charge blow some of the +peroxide particles from the plate. The electrolyte moving about as the +battery is jolted by the motion of the car washes particles of +peroxide from the positive plates. Any slight motion between positive +plates and separators rubs some peroxide from the plates. It is +therefore entirely natural for shedding to occur, especially at the +positives. The spongy lead of the negatives is much more elastic than +the peroxide, and hence very little shedding occurs at the negative +plates. The shedding at the positives explains why the grooved side of +the separator is always placed against the positive plate. The +grooves, being vertical, allow the peroxide to fall to the bottom of +the jar, where it accumulates as sediment, or "mud." + +2. Excessive Charging Rate, or Overcharging. If a battery is charged +at too high a rate, only part of the current is used to produce the +chemical actions by which the battery is charged. The balance of the +current decomposes the water of the electrolyte into hydrogen and +oxygen, causing gassing. As the bubbles of gas force their way out of +the plates, they blow off particles of the active material. + +When a battery is overcharged, the long continued gassing has the same +effect as described in the preceding paragraph. + +3. Charging Sulphated Plates at too High a Rate. In sulphated plates, +the chemical actions which take place as a battery is charged can +proceed but very slowly, because the sulphate, besides being a poor +conductor, has formed larger crystals which present only a small +surface for the electrolyte to act upon, and has also covered up much +of the remaining active material. Since the chemical actions take +place slowly, the charging current must be kept at a low value. If too +heavy a charging current is used, the battery will be overheated, and +some of the current will simply cause gassing as explained in No. 2 +above. The gas bubbles will break off pieces of the sulphate, which +then fall to the bottom of the jars as "mud." + +4. Charging Only a Part of the Plate. If the electrolyte falls below +the tops of the plates, and the usual charging current is sent into +the battery, the current will be too great for the plate area through +which it passes, and hence gassing and shedding will result as already +explained. + +The same condition exists in a battery in which one or more plates +have been broken from the strap, either because of mechanical +vibration or because of impurities such as acetic acid in improperly +treated separators. The remaining plates are called upon to do more +work, and carry the entire charging current. Gassing and shedding will +result. + +5. Freezing. If a battery is given any care whatever, there is little +danger of freezing. The electrolyte of a fully charged battery with a +specific gravity of 1.280 freezes at about 92° below zero. With a +specific gravity of 1.150, the electrolyte freezes at about 5° above +zero. A frozen battery therefore indicates gross neglect. + +As the electrolyte freezes, the water of the electrolyte expands. +Since there is electrolyte in all the inner parts of the plate, the +expansion as the water in the paste freezes forces the pastes out of +the grids. The expansion also cracks the rubber jars, and sometimes +bulges out the ends of the battery case. + + +Loose Active Material + + +This refers to a condition in which the active materials are no longer +in contact with the grid. Corrosion, or sulphation, of the grids +themselves is generally present at the same time, since the chemical +actions are shifted from the active material to the grids themselves. + +1. Over discharge. As a battery discharges, the lead sulphate which +forms causes an expansion of the active material. If a battery is +repeatedly over-discharged, this results in the positives shedding. In +the negatives, the spongy lead is puffed out, resulting in the +condition known as "bulged negatives" as illustrated in Fig 122. + +2. Buckling. As a plate grid is bent out of shape, the active +material, especially the peroxide, breaks loose from the grid, since +the peroxide cannot bend as much as the grids. This occurs in the +negatives also, though not to such an extent as in the positives. + +If the plates are buckled to such an extent that the element will not +go back into the jar, the positives should be discarded. If the +positives are buckled, the negatives will be also, but not to the +extent that the positives are. + +In the case of the positives, there is no remedy, and the plates +should be discarded. The negatives, however, may be fully charged, and +then straightened, and the active material forced back flush with the +grids by pressings, as described in Chapter 15. + + +Impurities + + +Impurities may be divided into two general classes. The first class +includes those which do not attack the separators or grids, but merely +cause internal self-discharge. The second class includes those which +attack the grids or separators. + +1. Impurities Which Merely Cause Self-discharge. This includes metals +other than lead. If these metals are in solution in the electrolyte, +they deposit on the negative plate, during charge, in their ordinary +metallic state, and form small cells with the spongy lead. These small +cells discharge as soon as the charging circuit is opened, and some of +the lead is changed to lead sulphate. This, of course, causes a loss +in capacity. Free hydrogen is given off by this local discharge, and +so much of it is at times given off that the hydrogen bubbles give the +electrolyte a milky appearance. + +Silver, gold, and platinum are the most active in forming small local +cells. These metals form local cells which have comparatively high +voltages, and which take away a considerable portion of the energy of +a cell. Platinum is especially active, and a small amount of platinum +will prevent a negative plate from taking a charge. Gradually, +however, the spongy lead covers up the foreign metal and prevents it +from forming local cells. + +Iron also forms local cells which rob the cell of a considerable +portion of its capacity. This may be brought into the cell by impure +acid or water. Iron remains in solution in the electrolyte, and is not +precipitated as metallic iron. The iron in solution travels from the +positive to the negative plate, and back again, causing a local +discharge at each plate. It is, moreover, very difficult to remove the +iron, except by pouring out all of the electrolyte. Manganese acts the +same as the iron. + +2. Impurities Which Attack the Plates. In general, this class includes +acids other than sulphuric acid, compounds formed from such acids, or +substances which will readily form acids by chemical action in the +cell. Nitric acid, hydrochloric or muriatic acid, and acetic acid +belong in this class of impurities. Organic matter in a state of +decomposition attacks the lead grids readily. + +Impurities in the second class dissolve the lead grids, and the plate +disintegrates and falls to pieces, since its backbone is destroyed. +When a battery which contains these impurities is opened, it will be +found that the plates crumble and fall apart at the slightest touch. +See Fig. 210. + +Separators which have not been treated properly introduce acetic acid +into a cell. The acetic acid attacks and rots the lead, especially the +lugs projecting above the electrolyte, and the plate connecting +straps. The plates will generally be found broken from the connecting +strap, with the plate lugs broken and crumbled. + +As for remedies, there is not much to be done. Impurities in the first +class merely decrease the capacity of the battery. If the battery is +fully charged, and the negatives then washed thoroughly, some of the +impurities may be removed. Impurities of the second class have +generally damaged the plates beyond repairs by the time their presence +is suspected. + +The best thing to do is to keep impurities out of the battery. This +means that only distilled water, which is known to be absolutely free +from impurities should be used. + +Impurities which exist in the separators or acid cannot be detected +readily, but in repairing a battery, separators furnished by one of +the reliable battery makers should be used. Pure acid should also be +used. This means that only chemically pure, or "C. P." acid, also +known as battery acid should be used. In handling the acid in the +shop, it should always be kept in its glass bottle, and should be +poured only into a glass, porcelain, earthenware, lead, or rubber +vessel. Never use a vessel made of any other material. + + +Corroded Grids + + +When the grids of a plate are attacked chemically, they become thin +and weak, and may be spoken of as being corroded. + +1. Impurities. Those impurities which attack the lead grids, such as +acids other than sulphuric acid, compounds formed from these acids, or +substances which will readily form acids dissolve some of the lead +which composes the grids. The grids gradually become weakened. The +decrease in the amount of metal in the grids increases the internal +resistance of the cell and give a tendency for temperatures to be +higher in the cell. The contact between grids and active material is +in time made poor. If the action of the impurities continues for any +length of time, the plate becomes very weak, and breaks at the +slightest touch. + +2. High Temperatures. Anything that raises the temperature of the +electrolyte, such as too high a charging rate, causes the acid to +attack the grids and form a layer of sulphate on them. The sulphate is +changed to active material on charge, and the grids are thereby +weakened. + +3. Age. Grids gradually become weak and brittle as a battery remains +in service. The acid in the electrolyte, even though the electrolyte +has the correct gravity and temperature, has some effect upon the +grids, and in time this weakens them. During the life of a battery it +is at times subjected to high temperatures, impurities, sulphation, +etc., the combined effects of which result in a gradual weakening of +the grids. + + +Granulated Negatives + + +1. Age. The spongy lead of the negative plate gradually assumes a +"grainy" or "granulated" appearance. The lead then seems to be made up +of small grains, like grains of sand, instead of being a smooth paste. +This action is a natural one, and is due to the gradual increase in +the size of the particles of the lead. The plate loses its porosity, +the particles cementing together and closing the pores in the lead. +The increase in the size of the particles of the spongy lead decreases +the amount of surface exposed to the action of the electrolyte, and +the plate loses capacity. Such plates should be thrown away, as +charging and discharging will not bring the paste back to its original +state. + +2. Heat will also cause the paste to become granulated, and its +surface to become rough or even blistered. + + +Heating of Negatives Exposed to the Air + + +When charged negatives are exposed to the air, there is a decided +increase in their temperature. Spongy lead is in an extremely finely +divided state, the particles of lead being very minute, and forming a +very porous mass. When the plate is exposed to the air, rapid +oxidation takes place because the oxygen of the air has a very large +surface to act upon. The oxidation causes the lead to become heated. +The heating, of course, raises the temperature of the electrolyte, and +the hot acid attacks both grids and lead. + +Fully charged negatives should therefore be watched carefully when +removed from a battery. When they become heated and begin to steam, +they should be dipped in water until they have cooled. They may then +be removed from the water, but should be dipped whenever they begin to +steam. After they no longer heat, they may be left exposed to the air. + +This method of dipping the negatives to prevent overheating has always +been followed. However, the Electric Storage Battery Company, which +makes the Exide batteries, does not take any steps to prevent the +heating of the negatives when exposed to the air, stating that their +plates are not injured by the heating which takes place. + + +Negatives With Very Hard Active Material + + +This is the characteristic condition of badly sulphated negatives. The +active material may be as hard as a stone. The best method of treating +such negatives is to charge them in distilled water. See Chapter 15. + + +Bulged Negatives + + +This is a characteristic of a repeatedly over-discharged negative. The +lead sulphate which forms as a battery discharges is bulkier than the +spongy lead, and the lead expands and bulges out between the ribs of +the grid. + + +Negative With Soft, Mushy Active Material + + +1. High Gravity. Gravity above 1.300 causes the acid to act upon the +spongy lead and soften it. + +2. Heat will soften the spongy lead also. The softened spongy lead is +loosened and falls from the grids, as shown in Fig. 211. Little can be +done for such negatives. + + +Negatives With Roughened Surface + + +This is caused by slight overheating, and is not a serious condition. + + +Frozen Positives + + +A battery which is allowed to stand in a cold place while completely +discharged will freeze. The water in the electrolyte expands as it +freezes, cracking the rubber jars and bulging out the end of the +wooden case. As the electrolyte which fills the pores of the positive +plates freezes and expands, it breaks the active material loose from +the grids. When the battery thaws, the active material does not go +back into the grids. When such a battery is opened, and the groups +separated, the positive active material sticks to the separators in +large pieces, Fig. 112, and that remaining in the grids falls out very +easily. The active material has a pinkish color and is badly shrunken. + + +Rotted, Disintegrated Positives + + +1. Impurities. This has already been discussed. See page 76. + +2. Overheating. The hot electrolyte dissolves the lead of the grids +and that which is dissolved is never converted back to lead. Continued +overheating wears out the grids, and the active material also, and the +plate falls to pieces at the slightest pressure. + +3. Age. Positives gradually disintegrate due to the prolonged action +of the electrolyte on the grids, an occasional overheating, occasional +use of impure water, etc. + +Positives which are rotted and disintegrated are, of course, hopeless, +and must be junked. + + +Buckled Positives + + +As previously described, buckling is caused by unequal expansion. If +the buckling is only slight, the plates may be used as they are. If +the plates are badly buckled, the active material will be found to be +loose, and the plates cannot be straightened. Such positives should be +discarded. + + +Positives That Have Lost Considerable Active Material + + +This is the result of continued shedding, the causes of which have +already been given. If the shedding is only slight, and the plate is +good otherwise, it may be used again. If such active material has been +lost, the plates must be discarded. + + +Positives With Soft Active Material + + +Continued operation at high temperatures, will soften the peroxide, +and make the plates unfit for further use. Old positives are soft, +clue to the natural deterioration of the paste with age. + + +Positives With Hard, Shiny Active Material + + +This condition is found in batteries that have been charged with the +acid below the tops of the plates. The part of the plate above the +acid is continually being heated by the charging current. It becomes +hard and shiny, and has cracks running through it. The peroxide +becomes orange or brick colored, and the grid deteriorates. The part +of the plate below the electrolyte suffers also, as explained more +fully on page 71. Such plates should be discarded if any considerable +portion of the plates is affected. Plates in which 1/2 to 1 inch of +the upper parts are affected may be used again if otherwise in good +condition. + + +Plates Which Have Been Charged in Wrong Direction + + +Such plates have been partly reversed, so that there is lead peroxide +and spongy lead on both positive and negative plates, and such plates +are generally worthless. If the active materials have not become +loosened from the grids, and the grids have not been disintegrated and +broken, the plates may sometimes be reversed by a long charge at a low +rate in the right direction. If this does not restore the plates, +discard them. + + +SEPARATOR TROUBLES + + +Separators form the weakest part of a battery, but at the same time +perform a very important duty. New separators should therefore be +installed whenever a battery is opened for repairs. Repairs should +never be attempted on separators. + +1. Not Properly Expanded Before Installation. Separators in stock must +be kept moist. This not only prevents them from becoming dry and +brittle, but keeps them fully expanded. If separators which have been +kept dry in stock are installed in a battery, they do their expanding +inside the battery. This causes them to project beyond the edges of +the plates. The crowding to which they are subjected causes them to +crack. Cracked separators permit "treeing" between plates, with a +consequent short circuit. + +2. Not Properly Treated. Separators which have not been given the +proper chemical treatment are likely to develop Acetic acid after they +are in the battery. Acetic acid dissolves the lead grids, the plate +lugs, and the plate connecting straps rapidly. If the plate lugs are +found broken, and crumble easily, acetic acid is very likely present, +especially if an odor like that of vinegar is noticeable. Improperly +treated separators will cause a battery to show low voltage at high +rates of discharge, particularly in cold weather, and will also cause +the negatives to give poor cadmium readings, which may lead the +repairman to conclude that the negatives are defective. The +separators of batteries which have been shipped completely assembled +without electrolyte and with moistened plates and separators will +sometimes have the same effect. + +3. Cracked. Separators should be carefully "candled"--placed in front +of a light and looked through. Cracks, resinous streaks, etc., mean +that the separator should not be used, as it will breed trouble. + +4. Rotted and Carbonized. This may be the result of old age, +overheating, or high gravity electrolyte. + +5. Pores Clogged. Impurities, dirt from impure water, and lead +sulphate fill the pores of a separator and prevent the proper +circulation of the electrolyte. The active material of frozen +positives also fills up the pores of a separator. + +6. Edges Chiseled Off. A buckling plate will cut through the lower +edge of a separator and short circuit the cell. Holes will be cut +through any part of a separator by a buckling plate, or a negative +with bulged active material. + + +JAR TROUBLES + + +Battery jars are made of hard rubber, and are easily broken. They are +not acted upon by the electrolyte, or any of the impurities which may +be found in the jar. Their troubles are all mechanical, and consist of +being cracked, or having small holes through the walls. Jars are +softened by high temperatures, but this does no particular harm unless +they are actually burned by an open flame or red hot metal. The causes +of jar troubles are as follows: + +1. Rough Handling. By far the most common cause of jar breakage is +rough handling by careless or inexperienced persons. If one end of a +battery rests on the floor, and the other is allowed to drop several +inches, broken jars will probably result from the severe impact of the +heavy lead plates. Storage batteries should be handled as if made of +glass. When installed on a car, the springs protect the battery from +shock to a considerable extent, but rough roads or exceptionally +severe jolts may break jars. + +2. Battery Not Properly Fastened. In this case a battery is bumped +around inside the battery compartment, and damage is very likely to +result. + +3. Any Weight Placed on Top of the Battery is transmitted from the +links to the plates, and by them to the bottom of the jars. Batteries +should always be stored in racks, and not one on top of another. The +practice of putting any weight whatever on top of a battery should be +promptly discouraged. + +4. Freezing. This condition has already been explained. It causes a +great many broken jars every winter. + +5. Groups Not Properly Trimmed. The outside negative plates in a cell +come just inside the jar, and the strap ends must be carefully trimmed +off flush with the plates, to prevent them from breaking the top of +the jars. Jars have slightly rounded corners, and are somewhat +narrower at the extreme ends than nearer the center. A group may +therefore go into a jar quite readily when moved toward the other end +of the jar to that into which the post strap must go when in proper +position for the cover. When the group is forced back into its proper +position the strap may break the jar. It is a good plan not only to +trim the ends of the negative straps perfectly flush, but to round the +strap corners where they go into the jar corners. + +6. Defective Jars. (a) A jar not properly vulcanized may come apart at +the scam. (b) A small impurity in the rubber may dissolve in the acid +and leave a minute pinhole. All jars are carefully tested at the +factory and the likelihood of trouble from defective jars is extremely +small. + +7. Explosion in Cell. (a) Hydrogen and oxygen gases evolved during +charging make a very explosive mixture. An open flame brought near a +battery on charge or freshly charged, will probably produce an +explosion resulting in broken jars and jar covers. (b) An open circuit +produced inside a cell on charge in the manner described on page 86 +under the heading "Open Circuits," will cause a spark at the instant +the circuit is broken, with the same result as bringing a flame near +the battery. (c) The small holes in the vents must be kept free for +the escape of the gases. These holes are usually sealed in batteries +shipped with moistened plates and separators, to keep air out of the +cells. The seals must be removed when the battery is prepared for +service. If the vents remain plugged, the pressure of the gases formed +during charge will finally burst the covers of jars. + + +BATTERY CASE TROUBLE + + +1. Ends Bulged Out. This may be due to a battery having been frozen or +to hold-downs being screwed down too tight, or some similar cause. +Whether the case can be repaired depends on the extent of the bulging. +This can best be determined by the repairman. + +2. Rotted. If the case is rotted around the top, it is evidence that: +(a) Too much water was added, with subsequent overflowing when +electrolyte warmed up during charge. (b) The tops were poorly sealed, +resulting in leaks between the covers and the jars. (c) Battery has +not been fastened down properly, and acid has been thrown out of the +jars by the jolting of the car on the road. (d) The vent plugs have +not been turned down tightly. (e) Electrolyte has been spilled in +measuring specific gravity. + +If the case is rotted around the lower part it indicates that the jars +are cracked or contain holes. Instructions for making repairs on +battery cases are given on page 360. + + +TROUBLE WITH CONNECTORS AND TERMINALS + + +1. Corroded. This is a very common trouble, and one which should be +guarded against very carefully. Corrosion is indicated by the presence +of a grayish or greenish substance on the battery terminals, +especially the positive. It is due to several causes: + +(a) Too much water added to cells. The electrolyte expands on charge +and flows out on the top of the battery. + +(b) Battery not fastened firmly. The jolting caused by the motion of +the car on the road will cause electrolyte to be thrown out of the +vent caps. + +(c) Battery poorly sealed. The electrolyte will be thrown out on the +cover by the motion of the car through the leaks which result from +poor sealing. + +(d) Vent caps loose. This also allows electrolyte to be thrown out on +the battery top. + +(e) Electrolyte spilled on top of battery in measuring specific +gravity. + +(f) Battery cables damaged, or loose. The cables attached to the +battery terminals are connected to lugs which are heavily coated with +lead. The cables are insulated with rubber, upon which sulphuric acid +has no effect. Care should be taken that the lead coating is not worn +off, and that the rubber insulation is not broken or cut so as to +allow electrolyte, which is spilled on the battery top as explained in +(a), (b), (c), (d) and (e), to reach the bare copper conductors of the +cable. The terminal parts are always so made that when the connections +are kept tight no acid can come into contact with anything but lead +and rubber, neither of which is attacked by sulphuric acid. + +(g) Attaching wires directly to battery terminals. There should be no +exposed metal except lead at the battery terminals. No wires of any +other metal should be attached to the battery terminals. Such wires +should be connected to the rubber covered cables which are attached to +battery, and the connections should be made far enough away from the +battery to prevent electrolyte from coming in contact with the wire. +Car manufacturers generally observe this rule, but the car owner may, +through ignorance, attach copper wires directly to the battery +terminals. The positive terminal is especially subject to corrosion, +and should be watched carefully. To avoid corrosion it is necessary +simply to keep the top of the battery dry, keep the terminal +connections tight, and coat the terminals with vaseline. The rule +about connecting wires directly to the battery terminals must of +course be observed also. + +2. Loose. Loose terminal connections cause a loss of energy due to +their resistance, and all such connections must be well made. If the +inter-cell connectors are loose, it is due to a poor job of lead +burning. This is also true of burned on terminals, and in either case, +the connections should be drilled off, cleaned and re-burned. + +Terminals sometimes become so badly corroded that it is impossible to +disconnect the cables front the battery. Stitch terminals should be +drilled off and soaked in boiling soda water. + + +ELECTROLYTE TROUBLES + +(1) Low Gravity. See page 321. + +(2) High Gravity. See page 323. + +(3) Low Level. See page 323. + +(4) High Level. This condition is due to the addition of too much +water. It leads to corrosion as already explained. It also causes a +loss of acid. The Electrolyte which overflows is lost, this of course, +causing a loss of acid. The condition of Low Gravity then arises, as +described on page 321. + +(5) Specific gravity will not rise during charge. See page 204. + +(6) Milky Electrolyte: + +(a) Lead Sulphate in Battery Acid. It sometimes happens that sulphuric +acid contains some lead sulphate in solution. This sulphate is +precipitated when water is added to the acid in mixing electrolyte, +and gives the electrolyte a milky appearance. This sulphate settles if +the electrolyte is allowed to stand. + +(b) Gassing. The most common cause of the milky appearance, however, +is the presence of minute gas bubbles in large quantities. These may +be the result of local action caused by the presence of metallic +impurities in the battery. The local action will stop when the battery +is put on charge, but will begin as soon as the battery is taken off +charge. The impurities are gradually covered by lead or lead sulphate, +and the local action is thus stopped. + +Excessive gassing in a cell which contains no impurities may also +cause the electrolyte to have a milky appearance. The gas bubbles are +very numerous and make the electrolyte look milky white. + +(c) Impurities in the electrolyte will also give it a milky appearance. + + +GENERAL TROUBLES + + +Open Circuits + + +1. Poor Burning of Connectors to Posts. Unless a good burned +connection is made between each connector and post, the joint may melt +under high discharge rates, or it may offer so much resistance to the +passage of current that the starting motor cannot operate. Sometimes +the post is not burned to the connector at all, although the latter is +well finished off on top. Under such conditions the battery may +operate for a time, due to frictional contact between the post and +connector, but the parts may become oxidized or sulphated, or +vibration may break the connection, preventing the flow of current. +Frequently, however, the circuit is not completely open, and the poor +connection acts simply as a high resistance. Under such a condition +the constant current generator automatically increases its voltage, +and forces charging current through the battery, although the latter, +having only a low fixed voltage, cannot force out the heavy current +required for starting the engine. + +2. Terminals Broken Off. Inexperienced workmen frequently pound on the +terminals to loosen the cable lugs, or pry on them sufficiently to +break off the battery terminals. If the terminals and lugs are kept +properly greased, they will come apart easily. A pair of terminal +tongs is a very convenient tool. These exert a pressure between the +terminal and the head of the terminal screw, which is first unscrewed +a few turns. + +3. Acid on Soldered Joints. Amateurs sometimes attempt to make +connections by the use of a soldering iron and solder. Solder is +readily dissolved by acid, not only spoiling the joint, but +endangering the plates if any gets into the cells. Solder must never +be used on a battery except for sweating the cables into the cable +lugs, and the joint even here must be well protected by rubber tape. + +4. Defective Posts. Posts withdrawn from the post mould before they +are cool enough may develop cracks. Bubbles sometimes occur in the +posts. Either trouble may reduce the current carrying capacity or +mechanical strength of the post and result in a broken or burned-out +spot. + +5. Plates Improperly Burned. As previously explained, this is not +likely to cause immediate trouble, but by imposing extra work on the +balance of the plates, causes them to wear out quickly. + + +Battery Discharged + + +1. Due to excessive use of starting motor and lamps. + +2. Failure of generator. + +3. Defective switches, which by being grounded, or failing to open +allow battery to discharge. + +4. Defective cutout, allowing battery to discharge into generator. + +5. Addition of accessories, or use of too large lamps. + +6. Defective wiring, causing grounds or short-circuits. + +7. Insufficient charging rate. + +8. Battery allowed to remain idle. + + +Dead Cells + + +1. Worn out Separators. The duties of separators are to prevent the +plates from touching each other, and to prevent "treeing," or growth +of active material from the negative to the positive plates. If they +fail to perform these duties, the battery will become short-circuited +internally. The separator troubles described on page 81 eventually +lead to short-circuited cells. + +2. Foreign Material. If a piece of lead falls between plates so as to +later punch a hole through a separator, a short circuit will result. +Great care should be taken in burning plates on the straps to prevent +lead from running down between plates, as this lead will cause a short +circuit by punching through the separator. + +3. Accumulation of Sediment. The active material which drops from the +plates accumulates in the "mud" space in the bottom of the jar. If +this rises until it touches the bottom of the plates, a short-circuit +results. Usually it is advisable to renew the positives in a battery +which has become short-circuited by sediment, since the sediment comes +largely from the positives, and if they have lost enough active +material to completely fill the sediment space, they are no longer fit +for use. + +4. Badly sulphated plates and separators, impurities which attack the +plates. + + +Loss of Capacity + + +A battery loses capacity due to a number of causes. Some of them have +already been considered. + +1. Impurities in the Electrolyte. These have already been discussed. + +2. Sulphation. This also has been described. + +3. Loose Active Material, as already described. The active materials +which are not in contact with the grids cannot do their work. + +4. Incorrect Proportions of Acid and Water in the Electrolyte. In +order that all the active material in the plates may be utilized, +there must be enough acid in the electrolyte, and also enough water. +If there is not enough acid, the battery will lack capacity. If there +is too much acid, the acid when the battery is fully charged will be +strong enough to attack and seriously damage the plates and +separators. Insufficient amount of acid may be due to replacing, with +water, electrolyte which has been spilled or which has leaked out. Too +much acid results from an incorrect proportion of acid and water in +the electrolyte, or from adding acid instead of water to bring the +electrolyte above the plate tops, and causes sulphation, corroded +plates, and carbonized separators. + +The remedy for incorrect proportions of acid and water in the +electrolyte is to give the battery a full charge and adjust the +gravity by drawing off some of the electrolyte and replacing it with +water, or 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte, as the case may require. + +5. Separators Clogged. The pores of the separators may become filled +with sulphate or impurities, and thus prevent the proper circulation +of the electrolyte. New separators must be put in. + +6. Shedding. The capacity of a battery naturally decreases as the +active material falls from the plates, since the amount of active +material which can take part in the chemical actions that enable us to +draw current from the battery decreases. + +7. Low Level of Electrolyte. Aside from the loss of capacity which +results from the sulphation caused by low electrolyte, there is a loss +of capacity caused by the decrease in the useful plate area when the +electrolyte is below the tops of the plates. Only that part of the +plate surface which is below the electrolyte does any work, and the +area of this part gradually decreases as the electrolyte falls. + +8. Reversal of Plates. If one cell of a battery has an internal short +circuit, or some other defect which causes it to lose its charge, the +cell will be discharged before the others which are in series with it, +and when this cell is completely discharged, the other cells will send +a current through it in a discharge direction, and the negative plates +will have a coating of lead peroxide formed on them, and will assume +the characteristics of positive plates. The positives will be reversed +also. + +This reversal may also be the result of charging a battery in the +wrong direction, on account of reversed charging connections. The +remedy for reversed plates, provided they have not become +disintegrated, is to give them a long charge in the right direction at +a low rate. + +9. Effect of Age. A battery gradually loses capacity due to its age. +This effect is independent of the loss of capacity due to the other +causes. In the negatives, the size of the grain increases its size, +giving the plates a granulated appearance. Stitch plates are called +"granulated" negatives. The spongy lead cements together and loses +porosity. + + +Loss of Charge in An Idle Battery + + +It has been found that if a charged battery is allowed to stand idle, +and is not charged, and no current is drawn from it, the battery will +gradually become completely discharged and must be given an occasional +"freshening" charge. + +Now, as we have learned, when a battery discharges lead sulphate forms +on each plate, and acid is taken from the electrolyte as the sulphate +forms. In our idle battery, therefore, such actions must be taking +place. The only difference in this case is that the sulphate forms +without any current passing through the battery. + +At the lead peroxide plate we have lead peroxide paste, lead grid, and +sulphuric acid. These are all the element-, needed to produce a +storage battery, and as the lead peroxide and the lead are touching +each other, each lead peroxide plate really forms a short circuited +cell. Why does this plate not discharge itself completely? A certain. +amount of discharge does take place, and results in a layer of lead +sulphate forming between the lead peroxide and the grid. The sulphate, +having high resistance then protects the lead grid and prevents any +further action. This discharge action therefore does not continue, but +causes a loss of a certain part of the charge. + +At the negative plate, we have pure spongy lead, and the grid. This +grid is not composed entirely of lead, but contains a percentage of +antimony, a metal which makes the grid harder and stronger. There is +but very little difference of potential between the spongy lead and +the grid. A small amount of lead sulphate does form, however, on the +surface of the negative plate. This is due to the action between the +spongy lead and the electrolyte. + +Some of the lead combines with the acid to form lead sulphate, but +after a small amount has been formed the action is stopped because a +balanced chemical condition is soon obtained. + +Thus only a small amount of lead sulphate is formed at each plate, and +the cell thereby loses only a small part of its charge. In a perfectly +constructed battery the discharge would then stop. The only further +action which would take place would be the slow evaporation of the +water of the electrolyte. The loss of charge which actually occurs in +an idle charged battery is greater than that due to the formation of +the small amounts of sulphate on the plates, and the evaporation of +the water from the electrolyte. + +Does an idle cell discharge itself by decomposing its electrolyte? We +have a difference of potential of about two volts between the lead and +lead peroxide plate. Why is the electrolyte not decomposed by this +difference? At first it might seem that the water and acid should be +separated into its parts, and hydrogen liberated at the negative +plate. As a matter of fact, very little hydrogen gas is set free in an +idle charged cell because to do so would require a voltage of about +2.5. At two volts, so little gas is formed that the loss of charge due +to it may be neglected entirely. + +The greatest loss of charge in an idle battery results from conditions +arising from the processes of manufacture, internal troubles, and +leakage between terminals. The grids of a cell are an alloy of lead +and antimony. These are mixed while in a molten condition, and are +then allowed to cool. If the cooling is not done properly, or if a +poor grade of antimony is used, the resulting grid is not a uniform +mixture of antimony and lead. There will be areas of pure lead, with +an air hole here and there. The lack of uniformity in the grid +material results in a local discharge in the grid. This causes some +loss of charge. + +If the active material completely fills the spaces between the grids, +the acid formed as the cell is charged may not be able to diffuse into +the main body of the electrolyte, but forms a small pocket of acid in +the plate. This acid will cause a discharge between paste and grid and +a coating of lead sulphate forms on the arid, resulting in a certain +loss of charge. + +In general any metallic impurity in a cell will cause a loss at the +lead plate. When a cell is charged, the current causes the metals to +deposit on the lead plate. Local cells are formed by the metallic +impurity, the lead plate, and the acid, and these tiny cells will +discharge completely, causing a loss of charge. This has already been +described on page 76. + +Another cause of loss of charge in an idle cell is leakage of current +between the terminals on the outside of the battery. During charge, +the bubbles of gas which escape from the electrolyte carry with them +minute quantities of acid which may deposit on the top of the battery +and gradually form a thin conducting layer of electrolyte through +which a current will flow from the positive to the negative terminals. +This danger may be avoided by carefully wiping any moisture from the +battery. Condensation of moisture from the air, on the top or sides +and bottom of a battery will cause the same condition. This will be +especially noticeable if a battery is kept in a damp place. + +The tendency for crystals of lead to "tree" over from the negative to +the positive plates is well known. An idle battery is one in which +this action tends to take place. Treeing will occur through the pores +of the separators and as there is no flow of electrolyte in or out of +the plates, the lead "trees" are not disturbed in their growth. A +freshening charge causes this flow to take place, and break up the +"trees" which would otherwise gradually short circuit the cells. + + +======================================================================== + +Section II + +------------------------------------------------------------------------ + +Shop Equipment +Shop Methods + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 11. +CARE OF THE BATTERY ON THE CAR. +------------------------------- + +Any man who goes into the battery repair business will gradually learn +by experience what equipment he finds necessary for his work. Some men +will be able to do good work with comparatively little equipment, +while others will require a somewhat elaborate layout. + + [Fig 38.] + + Fig. 38. Typical Work Room Showing Bench About 34 Inches High, Lead + Burning Outfit, Hot Plates for Melting Sealing Compound and Hand + Drill-Press for Drilling off Inter-Cell Connectors. + + +There are some things, however, which are necessary, and the following +lists are given to help the repairman select his equipment. The man +with limited capital will be unable to buy a complete equipment at the +start, but he should add to his equipment as fast as his earnings will +permit. The repairman may be able to "get-by" with crude equipment +when his business is very small, but to make his business grow he must +absolutely have good equipment. + +The following list gives the various articles in the order of their +importance. The first seven are absolutely necessary, even for the +poorest beginner. The others are also essential, but may be bought as +soon, as the money begins to come in. Some of the tools must also be +bought before opening doors for business, such as the putty knife, +screwdrivers, pliers, and so on. Each article, which requires +explanation, is described in detail, beginning on page 100. + + +Equipment Which is Absolutely Necessary + + +1. Charging Outfit, such as a motor-generator set, rectifier, or +charging resistance where direct current is available. + +2. Charging Bench and Accessories. With the charging bench must go the +following: + + 1. A syringe-hydrometer for measuring specific gravity of + electrolyte, for drawing off electrolyte and for adding water to + cells. + 2. A special battery thermometer for measuring temperature of + electrolyte. + 3. A voltmeter to measure cell, battery, and cadmium voltages. + 4. An ammeter to measure charging current. + 5. A glass bottle for distilled water. Also one for electrolyte. + 6. A number of eighteen inch lengths of No. 12 flexible wire fitted + with lead coated test clips, for connecting batteries in series + while on charge. + +3. Work bench with vise. + +4. Sink or wash tank and water supply. + +5. Lead-burning outfit. (This should properly be called a lead welding +outfit, since it is used to melt lead parts so that they will be +welded together.) + +6. For handling sealing compound, the following are necessary. + + 1. Stove. + 2. Pot in which compound is melted. + 3. An iron ladle for dipping up the melted compound. + 4. One or two old coffee pots for pouring compound. + +7. Shelving or racks for batteries waiting to be repaired, batteries +which have been repaired, rental batteries, new batteries, battery +boxes, battery jars, battery plates, etc. + +8. Bins for battery parts, such as covers, inter-cell connectors, +plate straps, terminals, handles, vent plugs, hold down bolts, +separator hold-downs, and so on. + + +Equipment Needed In Opening Batteries + + +9. A battery steamer for softening sealing-compound and making covers +limp, for softening compound around defective jars which are to be +removed, for softening jars which are to be set in a battery box, and +so on. + +10. Putty knife to remove softened scaling compound. + +11. One ratchet brace with set of wood bits or square shank drills of +the following sizes: 3/8, 5/8, 3/4, 13/16, and 7/8 inch, for drilling +off terminals and inter-cell connectors. A power drill press, or a +portable electric drill will save time and labor in drilling off the +terminals and connectors. + +12. Center punch for marking terminals and connectors before drilling. + +13. Ten inch screwdriver for prying off connectors and terminals which +have been drilled. The screwdriver may, of course, be used on various +other kinds of work also. + +14. A ten-inch length of 3/4 inch angle iron to protect upper edge of +case when prying off the connectors and terminals which have been +drilled. + +15. Two pairs of standard combination pliers for lifting elements out +of jars. A pair of six or eight inch gas pliers will also do for this +work. + +16. Machinist hammer. This is, of course, also used for other purposes. + +17. Terminal tongs for removing taper lugs from terminals. + +18. Pair of long, fiat nosed pliers for pulling out separators and +jars. + +19. Open-end wrench for use in removing taper lugs from terminals. + + +Equipment for Lead Burning (Welding) + + +In addition to the lead burning-outfit, the following tools are needed: + +20. A plate burning rack for setting up plates which are to be burned +to a plate strap. + +21. A plumber's or tinner's triangular scraper for cleaning surfaces +which are to be welded together. A pocketknife will do in a pinch. + +22. Steel wire brush for cleaning surfaces which are to be welded +together. This may also be used for general cleaning of lead parts. + +23. Coarse files, vixen, round, and flat, for filing lead parts. + +24. Set of burning, collars to be used in burning inter-cell +connectors to posts. + +25. Moulds for casting sticks of burning lead. A pot for melting lead +is needed with the mould, and mould compound is also needed. + +26. Set of post builders-moulds used for building up posts which have +been drilled short in removing terminals and intercell connectors. + +27. Pair of blue or smoked glasses to be worn when using lead burning +outfit. + + +Equipment for General Work on Cell Connectors and Terminals + + +28. Set of moulds for casting inter-cell connectors, terminals, +terminal screws, taper lugs, plate straps and posts, etc. + +29. Set of reamers to ream holes in terminals and connectors. + +30. Set of hollow reamers for reducing posts. + + +Equipment for Work on Cases + + +31. Cans of asphaltum paint for painting cases. May also be used for +acid-proofing work benches, floor, shelves, charging bench, and so on. + +32. Paint brushes, one wide and several narrow. + +33. Battery turntable. + +34. Several wood chisels of different sizes. + +35. Small wood-plane for smoothing up top edges of case. + +36. Large glazed earthenware jars of washing or baking soda solution +for soaking cases to neutralize acid. + + +Tools and Equipment for General Work + + +37. One pair of large end cutting nippers for cutting connectors, +posts, plate lugs, and so on. + +38. One pair of 8 inch side cutting pliers. + +39. One pair of 8 inch diagonal cutting pliers. + +40. Several screwdrivers. + +41. Adjustable hacksaw frame with set of coarse blades. + +42. Gasoline torch. + +42. Soldering iron, solder and flux. + +44. Separator cutter. + +45. Plate press for pressing bulged, spongy lead of negative plates +flush with surface of grids. + +46. Battery carrier. + +47. Battery truck. + +48. Lead lined box for storing separators. A large glazed earthenware +jar may be used for this purpose, and is much cheaper, although it +will not hold as many separators, on account of its round shape, as +the lead lined box. + +49. Several old stew pans for boiling acid soaked terminals, +connectors, covers, etc., in a solution of washing soda. + +50. Set of metal lettering stamps, for stamping POS and NEG on battery +terminals, repairman's initials, date battery was repaired, and nature +of repairs, on inter-cell connectors. + +51. Cadmium test set. + +52. High rate discharge testers. + +53. Pair of rubber gloves to protect hands when handling acid. + +54. Rubber apron to protect clothing from acid. + +55. Pair of rubber sleeve protectors. + +56. Rubbers to protect shoes, or pair of low rubber boots. + +57. Tags for tagging repair and rental batteries, batteries in +storage, etc. + +58. Pot of paraffine which may be heated, and paper tags dipped after +date has been written on tag in pencil. A 60-watt lamp hung in the can +may be used for heating the compound. In this way the tag is protected +from the action of acid, and the writing on the tag cannot be rubbed +off or made illegible. + +59. A number of wooden boxes, about 12 inches long, 8 inches wide, and +4 inches deep, in which are placed terminals, inter-cell connectors, +covers, vent plugs, etc., of batteries being repaired. + +60. Several large glazed earthenware jars are convenient for waste +acid, old separators, and general junk, which would otherwise litter +up the shop. + + +Stock + + +61. A supply of spare parts, such as cases, jars, covers, plate +straps, inter-cell connectors, plates, vent plugs, etc., should be +kept. + +62. A supply of sealing compound is necessary. + +63. A carboy of pure acid, and carboys of 1.400 electrolyte ready for +use should be on hand. A 16 oz. and a 32 or 64 oz. graduate are very +useful in measuring out acid and water. + +64. A ten gallon bottle of distilled water is necessary for use in +making up electrolyte, for addition to cell electrolyte to bring +electrolyte up to proper level, and so on. If you wish to distill +water yourself, buy a water still. + +65. A supply of pure vaseline is necessary for coating terminals to +prevent corrosion. + + +Special Tools + + +Owing to special constructions used oil sonic of the standard makes of +batteries, special tools are required, and such tools should be +obtained if work is done oil these batteries. Some of these tools are +as follows: + +66. Special wrenches for turning sealing nuts on Exide batteries. + +67. Two hollow reamers (post-freeing tools) for cutting lead seal +around posts of Prest-O-Lite batteries. There are two sizes, large and +small, see page 389. + +68. Style "B" peening press for sealing posts of Prest-O-Lite +batteries to covers, see page 390. + +69. Pressure tongs for forcing lead collar oil posts of Vesta +batteries, see page 415. + +70. Special wrench for tightening sealing nut oil Titan batteries. + +71. Special reamer for cutting sealing ring oil Universal batteries. + +The list of special tools is not intended to be complete, and the +repairman will probably find other special tools necessary from time +to time. In any case, it is best to buy from the battery manufacturer +such special tools as are necessary for the batteries that come in for +repairs. It is sometimes possible to get along without the special +tools, but time and labor will be saved by using them. + + +DESCRIPTIONS OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT NAMED IN FOREGOING LIST + + +Charging Equipment + + +A battery is charged by sending a direct current through it, this +"charging" current entering the battery at, the positive terminal and +passing out at the negative terminal. To send this current through the +battery, a voltage of about 7.5 volts is applied to each battery. + +Two things are therefore necessary in charging a battery: + +1. We must have a source of direct current. +2. The voltage impressed across each battery must be, about 2.5 per + cell. The charging voltage across each six volt battery must + therefore be 7.5, and for each twelve volt battery the charging + voltage must be about 15 volts. + +With the battery on the car, there are two general methods of +charging, i. e., constant potential (voltage) and constant current. +Generators having a constant voltage regulator have a constant voltage +of about 7.5, the charging current depending upon the condition of the +battery. A discharged battery thus receives a high charging current, +this current gradually decreasing, or "tapering" as the battery +becomes more fully charged. This system has the desirable +characteristic that a discharged battery receives a heavy charging +current, and a fully charged battery receives a small charging +current. The time of charging is thereby decreased. + +With a constant-current charging system, the generator current output +is maintained at a certain value, regardless of the state of charge of +the battery. The disadvantage of this system is that a fully charged +battery is charged at as high a rate and in most cases at a higher +rate than a discharged battery. + +In the shop, either the constant-potential, or the constant-current +system of charging may be used. Up to the present time, the constant +current system has been used in the majority of shops. The equipment +for constant current charging uses a lamp bank or rheostat to regulate +the charging current where direct current is available, and a +rectifier or motor-generator set where only alternating current is +available. Recently, the Hobart Brothers Company of Troy, Ohio, has +put on the market a constant potential motor-generator set which gives +the same desirable "tapering" charge as does the constant voltage +generator on the car. This set will be described later. + +Where a 110-volt direct current supply is available, fifteen 6-volt +batteries may be connected in series across the line without the use +of any rheostat or lamp bank, only an ammeter being required in the +circuit to indicate the charging current. The charging rate may be +varied by cutting out some of the batteries, or connecting more +batteries in the circuit. This method is feasible only where many +batteries are charged, since not less than fifteen 6-volt batteries +may be charged at one time. + + +Constant Current Charging + + +Using Lamp Banks, or Rheostats + + +Figures 39 and 40 show the wiring for a "bank" of twenty 100-watt +lamps for battery charging from a 110 volt line. Figure 39 shows the +wiring to be used when the positive side of the line is grounded, +while Figure 40 shows the wiring to be used when the negative side of +the line is grounded. In either case, the "live" wire connects to the +lamp bank. The purpose of this is to eliminate the possibility of a +short-circuit if any part of the charging line beyond the lamp bank is +accidentally grounded. + + [Fig. 39 Lamp bank for charging from a 110 volts, D.C. Line + (positive grounded)] + [Fig. 40 Lamp bank for charging from a 110 volts, D.C. Line + (negative grounded)] + + [Fig. 41 Rheostat for charging from a 110 volts, D.C. Line + (positive grounded)] + [Fig. 42 Rheostat for charging from a 110 volts, D.C. Line + (negative grounded)] + +Figures 41 and 42 show the wiring of two charging rheostats which may +be used instead of the lamp banks shown in Figures 39 and 40. In these +two rheostats the live wire is connected to the rheostat resistances +in order to prevent short-circuits by grounding any part of the +circuit beyond the rheostats. These rheostats may be bought ready for +use, and should not be "homemade." The wiring as shown in Figures 41 +and 42 is probably not the same as will be found on a rheostat which +may be bought, but when installing a rheostat, the wiring should be +examined to make sure that the "live" wire is connected to the +rheostat resistance and does not connect directly to the charging +circuit. If necessary, change the wiring to agree with Figures 41 and +42. + +Figures 43 and 44 show the wiring of the charging circuits. In Figure +43 each battery has a double pole, double throw knife switch. This is +probably the better layout, since any battery may be connected in the +circuit by throwing down the knife switch, and any battery may be cut +out by throwing the switch up. With this wiring layout, any number of +batteries from one to ten may be cut-in by means of the switches. +Thus, to charge five batteries, switches 1 to 5 are thrown down, and +switches 5 to 10 are thrown up, thereby short-circuiting them. + + [Fig. 43 Wiring for a charging circuit, using a DPDT switch for + each battery; and Fig. 44 Wiring for a charging circuit, using + jumpers to connect batteries in series] + +Figure 44 shows a ten-battery charging circuit on which the batteries +are connected in series by means of jumpers fitted with lead coated +test clips, as shown. This layout is not as convenient as that shown +in Figure 43, but is less expensive. + + +Using Motor-Generator Sets + + [Fig. 45 Ten battery motor-generator charging set] + +Where no direct current supply is available, a motor-generator or a +rectifier must be installed. The motor-generator is more expensive +than a rectifier, but is preferred by some service stations because it +is extremely flexible as to voltage and current, is easily operated, +is free from complications, and has no delicate parts to cause trouble. + +Motor-Generator sets are made by a number of manufacturers. +Accompanying these sets are complete instructions for installation and +operation, and we will not attempt to duplicate such instructions in +this book. Rules to assist in selecting the equipment will, however, +be given. + +Except in very large service stations, a 40 volt generator is +preferable. It requires approximately 2.5 volts per cell to overcome +the voltage of a battery in order to charge it, and hence the 40 volt +generator has a voltage sufficient to charge 15 cells in series on one +charging line. Five 6 volt batteries may therefore be charged at one +time on each line. With a charging rate of 10 amperes, each charging +line will require 10 times 40, or 400 watts. The size of the generator +will depend on the number of charging lines desired. With 10 amperes +charging current per line, the capacity of the generator required will +be equal to 400 watts multiplied by the number of charging lines. One +charging line will need a 400 watt outfit. For two charging lines 800 +watts are required. Each charging line is generally provided with a +separate rheostat so that its charging rate may be adjusted to any +desired value. This is an important feature, as it is wrong to charge +all batteries at the same rate, and with separate rheostats the +current on each line may be adjusted to the correct value for the +batteries connected to that line. Any number of batteries up to the +maximum may be charged on each line. + + [Fig. 46 Thirty-two battery motor-generator charging set] + +In choosing a charging outfit, it is important not to get one which is +too large, as the outfit will operate at a loss when running under a +minimum load. It is equally important not to get one which is too +small, as it will not be able to take care of the batteries fast +enough, and there will be a "waiting list" of batteries which cannot +be charged until others are taken off charge. This will prevent the +giving of good service. Buy an outfit that will care for your needs in +the future, and also operate economically at the present time. Most +men going into the battery business make the mistake of +underestimating their needs, and getting equipment which must soon be +discarded because of lack of capacity. + +The manufacturers each make a number of sizes, and the one which will +best fill the requirements should be chosen. In selecting an outfit +the manufacturer's distributor or dealer should be consulted in +deciding what size outfit to obtain. The particular outfit will depend +on the voltage and frequency of the alternating current power +circuits, the maximum charging current desired (10 amperes per line is +ample), and the greatest number of batteries to be charged at one time. + +For the beginner, a 500 watt ten battery outfit, as shown in Fig. 45, +is suitable. For the medium sized garage that specializes in battery +charging, or for the small battery service station, a one kilowatt +outfit is most satisfactory. Two charging panels are generally +furnished with this outfit, and two charging lines may thus be used. +This is an important feature, as one line may be used in starting a +charge at 10 amperes, and the other for charging the batteries, that +have begun to gas, at a reduced rate. Fig. 46 shows a 2 K. W. +four-circuit, 32 battery motor-generator set. Each circuit is provided +with a separate rheostat and ammeter. The two terminals near the top +of each rheostat are connected to one charging circuit. The two +terminals near the lower end of each rheostat are connected to the +generator. + +The 2 kilowatt set is suitable for a city garage, or a battery service +station in a medium sized town. A beginner should not purchase this +large set, unless the set can be operated at at least one-fourth +capacity continuously. As a service station grows, a 5 kilowatt set +may be needed. The 1, 2 and 5 kilowatt sets should not be used on +anything but city power lines. Single phase, or lighting lines are not +satisfactory for handling these sets. + + +A few suggestions on Motor-Generator Sets + + +1. Installation. Set the motor-generator on as firm a foundation as +possible. A good plan is to bolt it to a heavy bench, in which +position it is easily inspected and adjusted, and is also less likely +to be hit by acid spray, water, etc. + +Set the motor-generator at some distance from the batteries so that +acid spray and fumes will not reach it. Sulphuric acid will attack any +metal and if you are not careful, your motor-generator may be damaged +seriously. The best plan is to have the motor generator set outside of +the charging room, so as to have a wall or partition between the +motor-generator and the batteries. The charging panels may be placed +as near the batteries as necessary for convenience, but should not be +mounted above the batteries. Figure 47 shows a convenient layout of +motor-generator, charging panels, and charging benches. Note that the +junipers used in connecting the batteries together are run through the +upper holes of the wire porcelain insulating cleats, the lower hole of +each insulator supporting the wire from the charging panel which runs +to the end of the bench. + + [Fig. 47] + + Fig. 47. Convenient Arrangement of Motor-Generator, Charging Panels, + and Charging Benches + + +Instructions for the wiring connections to the power lines generally +come with each outfit, and they should be followed carefully. Fuses in +both the motor and generator circuits are especially important, as +they protect the machines from damage due to overloads, grounds, or +short-circuits. The generator must be driven in the proper direction +or the generator will not build up. The rotation of a three-phase +motor may be reversed by reversing, and Charging Benches any two of +the cables. To reverse a two-phase motor, reverse the cables of either +phase. Before putting a motor-generator set into operation, be sure to +check all connections to make sure that everything checks with the +instructions furnished by the manufacturer. + + +Operating the Charging Circuits + + +A generator operates most efficiently when delivering its rated +output. Therefore, keep the generator as fully loaded as possible at +all times. When you do not have enough batteries to run the generator +at full load, run each charging circuit at full load, and use as few +circuits as possible. This will reduce your power bill, since there is +a loss of power in the rheostat of each charging circuit, this loss +being the greatest when only one battery is on the circuit, and a +minimum when the circuit is fully loaded. + +With several charging circuits, it is also possible to put batteries +which are in the same condition on one circuit and adjust the charging +rate to the most suitable value. Thus, badly sulphated batteries, +which must be charged at a low rate, may be put on the same circuit, +while batteries which have had only a normal discharge may be put oil +another circuit and charged at a higher rate. As each battery becomes +almost fully charged, it may be removed from the circuit and put on +another circuit and the charge completed at the finishing rate. This +is a good practice, since some batteries will begin to gas sooner than +others, and if the charging rate is not reduced, the batteries which +have begun to gas will have active material blown out by the continued +gassing. A careful study of such points will lead to a considerable +saving in power costs. + + +Care of Motor-Generator Set + + +A. Machine will not build up or generate. This may be due to: + + 1. Machine rotating in wrong direction. + 2. Brushes not making good contact. Clean commutator with fine + sandpaper. + 3. Wrong connections of field rheostat-check connections with + diagram. + 4. Open circuit in field rheostat. See if machine will build up + with field rheostat cut out. + +B. Excessive heating of the commutator. This may be due to: + + 1. Overload--Check your load and compare it with nameplate + reading. Add the total amperes on all the panels and see that it + does not exceed the ampere reading on the nameplate. + 2. Wrong setting of the brush rocker arm. This causes sparking, + which soon will cause excessive heating. + 3. Rough commutator. This will cause the brushes to chatter, be + noisy and spark. Caused many times by allowing copper to accumulate + on the bottom of the brushes. + 4. Insufficient pressure on brushes, resulting in sparking. This + may be due to brushes wearing down to the point where the brush + lead screw rests on the brush holder. + 5. Dirt and grease accumulating between the brush and brush holder + causing brush to stick; brush must always move freely in the holder. + 6. Brush holder may have come loose, causing it to slip back, + relieving brush press-Lire. + 7. Brush spring may have become loosened, releasing the tension. + 8. Watch commutator carefully and keep it in the best of condition. + There will not be excessive heating without sparking. Excessive + sparking may raise the temperature so high as to cause throwing of + solder. You can avoid all this by taking proper care of the + commutator. + +C. Ammeters on Panels Read Reverse: This is caused by improperly +connecting up batteries, which has reversed the polarity of the +generator. This generally does no harm, since in most cases the +batteries will automatically reverse the polarity of the generator. +Generally the condition may be remedied by stopping the machine, +reversing the batteries and starting the machine again. If this is +unsuccessful raise the brushes on the machine. Connect five or six +batteries in series in the correct way to one panel, while the machine +is not in operation. Turn on the panel switch. When the machine is +started, it will then build up in the right direction. If it does not +do so, repeat the above, using a larger number of batteries. + +D. Machine Refuses to Start. If there is a humming noise when you try +to start the motor, and the outfit does not start, one of the fuses +needs replacing. The outfit will hum only on two or three phase +current. Never leave the power turned on with any of the fuses out. + + +Constant-Potential Charging + + +In the Constant-Potential system of battery charging, the charging +voltage is adjusted to about 7.5, and is held constant throughout the +charge. With this system a discharged battery receives a heavy current +when it is put on charge. This current gradually decreases as the +battery charges, due to the increasing battery voltage, which opposes, +or "bucks" the charging voltage, and reduces the voltage which is +effective in sending current through the batteries. Such a charge is +called "tapering" charge because the charging current gradually +decreases, or "tapers" off. + +The principle of a "tapering" charge is, of course, that a discharged +battery may safely be charged at a higher rate than one which is only +partly discharged, because there is more lead sulphate in the +discharged battery which the action of the current changes back to +active material. As the battery charges, the amount of lead sulphate +decreases and since there is less sulphate for the current to act +upon, the charging rate should be reduced gradually. If this is not +done, excessive gassing will occur, resulting in active material being +blown from the grids. + +A battery which has been badly sulphated, is of course, in a +discharged condition, but is not, of course, able to absorb a heavy +charging rate, and in handling such batteries on a constant potential +system, care must be taken that the charging rate is low. Another +precaution to be observed in all constant potential charging is to +watch the temperature of batteries while they are drawing a heavy +charging current. A battery which gasses soon after it is put oil +charge, and while still in a discharged condition, should be taken off +the line, or the charging line voltage reduced. With constant +potential charging, as with constant current charging, the two things +to watch are temperature and gassing. Any charging rate which does not +cause an excessive temperature or early gassing is safe, and +conversely any charging rate which causes an excessive battery +temperature, or causes gassing while the battery is still less than +three-fourths charged, is too high. + + [Fig. 48] + + Fig. 48. Hobart Bros. Co. 3 K. W. Constant Potential Motor-Generator + Charging Set + + +The Constant-Potential Charging Set manufactured by the Hobart Bros. +Co., consists of a 3 K.W. generator rated at 7.5 volts, and 400 +amperes. This generator is direct connected to a 5 H.P. motor, both +machines being mounted oil the same base plate. Figure 48 shows this +outfit. Note that for the charging line there are three bus-bars to +which the batteries are connected. Twelve volt batteries are connected +across the two outside bus-bars, while six volt batteries are +connected between the center bus-bar and one of the outer ones. + + +The Tungar Rectifier + + [Fig. 49 Tungar rectifier bulb] + +All rectifiers using oil are operated on the principle that current +can pass through them in one direction only, due to the great +resistance offered to the flow of current in the opposite direction. +It is, of course, not necessary to use mercury vapor for the arc. Some +rectifiers operate on another principle. Examples of such rectifiers +are the Tungar made by the General Electric Co., and the Reetigon, +made by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co. The Tungar +Rectifier is used extensively and will therefore be described in +detail. + +The essential parts of a Tungar Rectifier are: A bulb, transformer, +reactance, and the enclosing case and equipment. + +The bulb is the most important of these parts, since it does the +rectifying. It is a sort of check valve that permits current to flow +through the charging circuit in one direction only. In appearance the +bulb, see Figure 49, resembles somewhat an ordinary incandescent bulb. +In the bulb is a short tungsten filament wound in the form of a tight +spiral, and supported between two lead-in wires. Close to the filament +is a graphite disk which serves as one of the electrodes. Figure 50 +shows the operating principle of the Tungar. "B" is the bulb, +containing the filament "F" and the graphite electrode "A." To serve +as a rectifier the bulb filament "F" must be heated, this being done +by the transformer "T." The battery is connected as shown, the +positive terminal directly to one side of the alternating current +supply, and the negative terminal to the graphite electrode "A." + +To understand the action which takes place, assume an instant when +line wire C is positive. The current then flows through the battery, +through the rheostat and to the graphite electrode. The current then +flows through the are to the filament and to the negative side of the +line, as indicated by the arrows. + +During the next half cycle when line wire D is positive, and C is +negative, current tends to flow through the bulb from the filament to +the graphite, but as the resistance offered to the flow of current in +this direction is very high, no current will flow through the bulb and +consequently none through the battery. + + + [Fig. 50 Illustration of Tungar "half-wave" rectifier] + [Fig. 51 Illustration of Tungar "full-wave" rectifier] + +The rectifier shown in Figure 50 is a "half-wave" rectifier. That is, +only one-half of each alternating current wave passes through it to +the battery. If two bulbs are used, as shown ill Figure 51, each half +of the alternating current wave is used in charging the battery. To +trace the current through this rectifier assume an instant when line +wire C is positive. Current will then flow to the graphite electrode +of tube A, through the secondary winding of the transformer S to the +center tap, through the rheostat, to the positive battery terminal, +through the battery to the center of the primary transformer winding +P, and through part of the primary winding to D. When D is positive, +current will flow through tube B from the graphite electrode to the +filament, to the center of transformer winding S, through the rheostat +and battery to the center of transformer winding P, and through part +of this winding to line wire C. In the actual rectifiers the rheostat +shown in Figures 50 and 51 are not used, regulation being obtained +entirely by means of other windings. + +From the foregoing description it will be seen that if the alternating +current supply should fail, the batteries cannot discharge into the +line, because in order to do so, they would have to heat up the +filament and send current through the bulb from the filament to the +graphite electrode. This the batteries cannot do, because the +connections are such that the battery cannot send a current through +the complete filament circuit and because, even if the batteries could +heat the filament they could not send a current from the filament to +the graphite, since current cannot flow in this direction. + +As soon as the alternating line is made alive again, the batteries +will automatically start charging again. For these reasons night +charging with the Tungar is entirely feasible, and no attendant is +required to watch the batteries during the night. The Tungar Rectifier +is made in the following sizes: + +A. Two Ampere Rectifier + + Catalogue No. 195529 + + [Fig. 52. The Two Ampere Tungar Rectifier] + + [Fig. 53 Internal wiring of the two ampere tungar rectifier] + +This is the smallest Tungar made. Figure 52 shows the complete +rectifier. Figure 53 shows the internal wiring. This Tungar will +charge a 6 volt battery at two amperes, a 12 volt battery at one +ampere and eight cells at 0.75 ampere. It is suitable for charging a +lighting battery, or for a quick charge of a motorcycle or ignition +battery. It will also give a fairly good charge over night to a +starting battery. Another use for this rectifier is to connect it to a +run-down starting battery to prevent it from freezing over night. Of +course, a battery should not be allowed to run down during cold +weather, but if by chance a battery does run down, this Tungar will +prevent it from freezing during the night. + +The two ampere Tungar is, of course, more suitable for the car owner +than for a garage or service station. It is also very suitable for +charging one Radio "A" battery. The two ampere Tungar is normally made +for operation on a sixty cycle circuit, at 115 volts. It may also be +obtained for operation on 25-30, 40-50, and 125-133 cycles alternating +supply line. See table on Page 130. + +B. The One Battery Rectifier + + Catalogue No. 219865 + + [Fig. 54. The One Battery Tungar Rectifier] + +This Tungar will charge a 6 volt battery at five amperes, or a 12 volt +battery at three amperes. Figure 54 shows this Tungar, with part of +the casing cut away to show the internal parts. + +To take care of variations in the voltage of the alternating current +supply from 100 to 130, a set of connections is provided which are +numbered 105, 115, and 125. For most supply voltages, the 115 volt tap +is used, for lower voltage the 105 volt tap is used, and for higher +voltage the 125 volt tap is used. This Tungar is designed for 60 cycle +circuits, but on special order it may be obtained for operation on +other frequencies. + +This Tungar is most suitable for a car owner, is satisfactory for +charging a radio "A" battery, and a six volt starting and lighting +battery at one time. + + +C. The Two Battery Rectifier + + Catalogue No. 195530 + + + [Fig. 55. The Two Battery Tungar Rectifier] + +This Tungar is shown in Figure 55, with part of the casing cut away to +show the internal parts. It was formerly sold to the car owner, but +the one battery Tungar is now recommended for the use of the car +owner. The two-battery Tungar is therefore recommended for the very +small service station, or for department stores for taking care of one +or two batteries. The four battery Tungar, which is the next one +described, is recommended in preference to the two-battery outfit +where there is the slightest possibility of having more than two +batteries to charge at one time. + +The two-battery rectifier will charge two 6-volt batteries, or one +12-volt battery at six amperes, or one 18-volt battery at three +amperes. It has a double-pole fuse block mounted on the auto +transformer core, which has one fuse plug only. Figure 55 shows the +fuse plug in the position for charging a 6-volt battery. When it is +desired to charge a 12-volt battery or an 18-volt battery, the fuse is +removed from the first receptacle and is screwed into the second +receptacle. + + [Fig. 56. The Four Battery Tungar Rectifier Complete] + +The two-battery rectifier is designed to operate on a 115-volt, +60-cycle line, but oil special order may be obtained for operation on +25-30, 40-50, and 125-133 cycle lines. + + +D. The Four Battery Tungar + + Catalogue No. 193191 + +This Tungar is shown complete in Figure 56. In Figure 57 the top has +been raised to show the internal parts. Figure 58 gives the internal +wiring connections for a four battery Tungar designed for operation on +a 115 volt line. + +The four battery Tungar will charge from one to four 6 volt batteries +at 5 amperes or less. It is designed especially for garages having +very few batteries to charge. These garages generally charge their +boarders batteries rather than send them to a service station, and +seldom have more than four batteries to charge at one time. The four +battery Tungar is also suitable for the use of car dealers who wish to +keep the batteries on their cars in good shape, and is convenient for +preparing for service batteries as they come from the car manufacturer. + + [Fig. 57. The Four Battery Tungar Rectifier, with Top Raised to Show + Internal Parts.] + +The four battery Tungar is designed for operation on a 60-cycle line +at 115 or 230 volts. On special order this Tungar may be obtained for +operation on other frequencies. + + +E. The Ten Battery Rectifier + + Catalogue No. 179492 + +This is the Tungar which is most popular in the service stations, +since it meets the charging requirements of the average shop better +than the smaller Tungars. It will charge from one to ten 6 volt +batteries, or the equivalent at six amperes or less. Where more than +ten batteries are generally to be charged at one time, two or more of +the ten battery Tungars should be used. Large service stations use as +many as ten of these Tungars. + + [Fig. 58 Internal wiring of the four battery tungar rectifier] + +The efficiency of the ten battery Tungar at full load is approximately +75 per cent, which compares favorably with that of a mercury-are +rectifier, or motor-generator of the same size. This makes the ten +battery Tungar a very desirable piece of apparatus for the service +station. + + [Fig. 59 Complete 10-battery Tungar rectifier] + +Figure 59 shows the complete ten battery Tungar, Figure 60 gives a +side view without the door to show the internal parts. + + [Fig. 60 Side view, cross-section of 10-battery Tungar + rectifier] + +Figure 61 shows the internal connections for use on a 115-volt A.C. +line and Figure 62 the internal connections for use on a 230-volt +line. This Tungar is made for a 60-cycle circuit, 25-30, 40-50, and +125-133 cycle circuits. + + [Fig. 61 Internal wiring for the 10 battery Tungar rectifier + for operation on a 115 volts A.C. line] + + [Fig. 62 Internal wiring for the 10 battery Tungar rectifier + for operation on a 230 volts A.C. line] + +F. The Twenty Battery Tungar + + Catalogue No. 221514 + +This Tungar will charge ten 6-volt batteries at 12 amperes, or twenty +6-volt batteries at six amperes. Figure 63 shows the complete +rectifier, and Figure 64 shows the rectifier with the side door open +to show the internal parts. This rectifier will do the work of two of +the ten battery Tungars. It is designed for operation on 60 cycles, +230-volts. On special order it may be obtained for operation on 115 +volts and also for other frequencies. + +The twenty battery Tungar uses two bulbs, each of which is the same as +that used in the ten battery Tungar, and has two charging circuits, +having an ammeter and regulating switch for each circuit. One snap +switch connects both circuits to the supply circuit. The two charging +circuits are regulated independently. For example, one circuit may be +regulated to three amperes while the other circuit is delivering six +amperes. It is also possible, by a system of connections to charge the +equivalent of three circuits. For instance, five batteries could be +charged at six amperes, five batteries at four amperes, and five +batteries at ten amperes. Other corresponding combinations are +possible also. + + +General Instructions and Information on Tungars + + +Life of Tungar Bulbs. The life of the Tungar Bulb is rated at 600 to +800 hours, but actually a bulb will give service for 1,200 to 3,000 +hours if the user is careful not to overload the bulb by operating it +at more than the rated current. + + [Fig. 63 The 20 battery Tungar rectifier] + + [Fig. 64 Internal view of the 20 battery Tungar rectifier] + +Instructions. Complete instructions are furnished with each Tungar +outfit, the following being those for the ten battery Tungar. + + +Installation + + +A Tungar should be installed in a clean, dry place in order to keep +the apparatus free from dirt and moisture. To avoid acid fumes, do not +place the Tungar directly over the batteries. These precautions will +prevent corrosion of the metal parts and liability of poor contacts. + +Fasten the Tungar to a wall by four screws, if the wall is of wood, or +by four expansion bolts if it is made of brick or concrete. + +Though the electrical connections of the outfit are very simple, it is +advisable (when installing the apparatus) to employ an experienced +wireman familiar with local requirements regarding wiring. + + +Line Connections + + +The two wires extending from the top of the Tungar should be connected +to the alternating current supply of the same voltage and frequency, +as stamped on the name plate attached to the front panel. These +connections should be not less than No. 12 B. & S. gauge wire and +should be firmly soldered to the copper lugs. + +External fuses are recommended for the alternating-current circuit, as +follows: + +With 115-volt line use 15-ampere capacity fuses. + +With 230-volt line use 10 ampere capacity fuses. + +One of the bulbs (Cat. No. 189049) should now be firmly screwed into +its socket. Squeeze the spring clip attached to the beaded cable and +slip this clip over the wire protruding from the top of the bulb. Do +not bend the wire. + + +Battery Connections + + +In making battery connections have the snap-switch in the "Off" +position. + +The two wires extending from the bottom of the Tungar should be +connected to the batteries. The wire on the left, facing the front +panel, is marked + (positive) and the other wire - (negative). The +positive wire should be connected to the positive terminal of the +battery and the negative wire to the negative terminal. + +The two flexible battery cables are sometimes connected directly to +the two wires projecting from the bottom of the Tungar. These cables +should be securely cleated to the wall about six inches below the +outfit. This arrangement will relieve the strain on the Tungar wires +when cables are changed to different batteries. + +When two or more batteries are to be charged, they should be connected +in series. The positive wire of the Tungar should be connected to the +positive terminal of battery No. 1, the negative terminal of this +battery of the positive terminal of battery No. 2, the negative +terminal of battery No. 2 to the positive terminal of battery No. 3, +and so on, according to the number of batteries in circuit. Finally +the negative terminal of the last battery should be connected to the +negative wire from the Tungar. + +Reverse connections on one battery is likely to damage the plates; and +reverse connections oil all the batteries will blow one or more fuses. + + +Operation + + +A Tungar is operated by means of a snap-switch in the upper left-hand +corner and a regulating switch in the center. Before starting the +apparatus, the regulating switch should be in the "low" position. + +The Tungar is now ready to operate. Turn the snap-switch to the right +to the "On" position, and the bulb will light. Then turn the +regulating switch slowly to the right, and, as soon as the batteries +commence to charge, the needle on the ammeter will indicate the +charging current. This current may be adjusted to whatever value is +desired within the limits of the Tungar. The normal charging rate is +six amperes, but a current of as high as seven amperes may be obtained +without greatly reducing the life of the bulb. Higher charging rates +reduce its life to a considerable extent. Lower rates than normal (six +amperes) will increase the life of the bulb. + +Turn the snap-switch to the "Off" position when the charging of one +battery or of all the batteries is completed; or when it is desired to +add more batteries to the line. + +The Tungar should be operated only by the snap-switch and not by any +other external switch in either line or battery circuits. + +When the snap-switch is turned, the batteries will be disconnected +from the supply line, and then they may be handled without danger of +shock. + +Immediately after turning the snap-switch, move the regulating handle +back to the "Low" position. This prevents any damage to the bulb from +the dial switch being in an improper position for the number of +batteries next charged. + + +Troubles + + +If on turning on the alternating-current switch the bulb does not glow: + +1. See whether the alternating-current supply is on. +2. Examine the supply line fuses. If these are blown, or are + defective, replace them with 15 ampere fuses for a 115-volt line or + with 10-ampere fuses for a 220-volt line. +3. Make sure that the bulb is screwed well into the socket. +4. Examine the contacts inside the socket. If they are tarnished or + dirty, clean them with sandpaper. +5. Try a new bulb, Cat. No. 189049. The old bulb may be defective. + +If the bulb lights but no current shows on the ammeter: + +1. Examine the connections to the batteries, and also the + connections between them. Most troubles are caused by imperfect + battery connections. +2. Examine the fuses inside the case. If these are blown or are + defective, replace them with 15 ampere fuses, Cat. No. 6335. +3. See that the clip is on the wire of the bulb. +4. The bulb may have a slow leak and not rectify. Try a new bulb, + Cat. No. 189049. +5. Have the switch arm make good contact on the regulating switch. + +If the current on the ammeter is high and cannot be reduced: + +1. The ammeter pointer may be sticking; tap it lightly with the + hand. The ammeter will not indicate the current correctly if the + pointer is not on the zero line when the Tungar is not operating. + The pointer may be easily reset by turning slightly the screw on + the lower part of the instrument. +2. Be sure that the batteries are not connected with reversed + polarity. +3. The alternating-current supply may be abnormally high. If only + one three-cell battery is being charged, and the + alternating-current supply is slightly high, then the current on + the ammeter may be high. The simplest remedy is to connect in + another battery or a small amount of resistance. + +A spare bulb should always be kept on hand and should be tested for at +least one complete charge before being placed in reserve. All Tungar +bulbs are made as nearly perfect as possible, but occasionally one is +damaged in shipment. It may look perfect and yet not operate. For this +reason all bulbs should be tried out on receipt. If any bulb is found +defective, the tag which accompanies it should be filled out, and bulb +and tag should be returned to your dealer or to the nearest office of +the General Electric Company, transportation prepaid. + + +Tungar Rectifiers + +(The following columns omitted from the table below: Catalog Numbers, +Dimensions, Net Weight, and Shipping Weight.) + +Name + No. 6V Bats No. 12V Bats. DC Amps DC Volts AC Volts Freq. +------------- ------------- ------- -------- -------- ----- + +2 Amp. Tungar + 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 60 + +2 Amp. Tungar + 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 60 + +2 Amp. Tungar + 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 40-50 + +2 Amp. Tungar + 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 25-30 + +2 Amp. Tungar + 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 125-133 + +1 Battery Tungar + 1 (5 amps.) 1 (3 amps.) 1-5 7.5-15 115 60 + +2 Battery Tungar + 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 60 + +2 Battery Tungar + 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 40-50 + +2 Battery Tungar + 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 25-30 + +2 Battery Tungar + 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 125-130 + +4 Battery Tungar + 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 60 + +4 Battery Tungar + 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 40-50 + +4 Battery Tungar + 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 25-30 + +4 Battery Tungar + 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 125-133 + +4 Battery Tungar + 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 230 60 + +4 Battery Tungar + 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 230 40-50 + +10 Battery Tungar + 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 60 + +10 Battery Tungar + 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 40-50 + +10 Battery Tungar + 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 25-30 + +10 Battery Tungar + 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 125-133 + +10 Battery Tungar + 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 230 60 + +10 Battery Tungar + 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 230 40-50 + +20 Battery Tungar + 10 (12A.)/ + 20 (6A.) 10 (6A.) 1-12 7.5-75 230 60 + +20 Battery Tungar + 10 (12A.)/ + 20 (6A.) 10 (6A.) 1-12 7.5-75 230 40-50 + +20 Battery Tungar + 10 (12A.)/ + 20 (6A.) 10 (6A.) 1-12 7.5-75 230 25-30 + +Bulb (all +4 Amp. Tung.) + --- --- --- --- --- --- + +Bulb (all 10 and +12 Amp. Tung.) + --- --- --- --- --- --- + +Bulb (all 2 +Amp. Tung.) + --- --- --- --- --- --- + +Bulb (all 1-2 +Bat. Tung.) + --- --- --- --- --- --- + + +Mercury Arc Rectifier + + +The operation of the mercury are rectifier depends upon the fact that +a tube containing mercury vapor under a low pressure and provided with +two electrodes, one of mercury and the other of some other conductor, +offers a very high resistance to a current tending to pass through the +tube from the mercury electrode to the other electrode, but offers a +very low resistance to a current tending to pass through the tube in +the opposite direction. Current passes from the metallic electrode to +the mercury electrode through an are of mercury vapor which is +established in the tube by tilting it so the mercury bridges the gap +between the mercury and an auxiliary electrode just for an instant. + +The absence of moving parts to got out of order is an advantage +possessed by this rectifier over the motor-generator. The charging +current from the rectifier cannot, however, be reduced to as low a +value as with the motor-generator, and this is a disadvantage. This +rectifier is therefore more suitable for larger shops, especially +where electric truck and pleasure cars are charged. + + +Mechanical Rectifiers + + +Mechanical rectifiers have a vibrating armature which opens and closes +the charging circuit. The circuit is closed during one half of each +alternating current cycle, and open during the next half cycle. The +circuit is thus closed as long as the alternating current is flowing +in the proper direction to charge the battery, and is open as long as +the alternating current is flowing in the reverse direction. These +rectifiers therefore charge the battery during half the time the +battery is on charge, this also being the case in some of the are +rectifiers. + +The desired action is secured by a combination of a permanent magnet +and an electromagnet which is connected to the alternating current +supply. During half of the alternating current cycle, the alternating +current flowing through the winding of the electromagnet magnetizes +the electromagnet so that it strengthens the magnetism of the +permanent magnet, thus causing the vibrator arm to be drawn against +the magnet. The vibrator arm carries a contact which touches a +stationary contact point when the arm is drawn against the magnet, +thus closing the charging circuit. + +During the next half of the alternating current cycle, or wave, the +current through the electromagnet coil is reversed, and the magnetism +of the electromagnet then weakens the magnetism of the permanent +magnet, and the vibrator arm is drawn away from the magnet and the +charging circuit is thus opened. During the next half of the +alternating current cycle the vibrator arm is again drawn against the +magnet, and so on, the contact points being closed and opened during +half of each alternating current cycle. + +Mechanical rectifiers are operated from the secondary windings of +transformers which reduce the voltage of the alternating current line +to the voltage desired for charging. Each rectifier unit may have its +own complete transformer, or one large transformer may operate a +number of rectifier units by having its secondary, or low tension +winding divided into a number of sections, each of which operates one +rectifier. + +The advantages of the mechanical rectifier are its simplicity, +cheapness and portability. This rectifier also has the advantage of +opening the charging circuit when the alternating current supply +fails, and starting again automatically when the line is made alive +again. Any desired number of independent units, each having its own +charging line, may be used. The charging current generally has a +maximum value of 6 amperes. Each rectifier unit is generally designed +to charge only one or two six volt batteries at one time. + + +Stahl Rectifier + + +This is a unique rectifier, in which the alternating current is +rectified by being sent through a commutator which is rotated by a +small alternating current motor, similar to the way the alternating +current generated in the armature of a direct current generator is +rectified in the commutator of the machine. The Stahl rectifier +supplies the alternating current from a transformer instead of +generating it as is done in a direct current generator. Brushes which +bear on the commutator lead to the charging circuit. + +The Stahl rectifier is suitable for the larger service stations. It +gives an interrupted direct current. It is simple in construction and +operation, and is free of delicate parts. + + +Other Charging Equipment + + +If there is no electric lighting in the shop, it will be necessary to +install a generator and a gas, gasoline, or steam engine, or a +waterwheel to drive it. A 10 battery belt driven generator may be used +in such a shop, and may also, of course, be used with a separate +motor. The generator should, of course, be a direct current machine. +The size of the generator will depend upon the average number of +batteries to be charged, and the amount of money available. Any of the +large electrical manufacturers or supply houses will give any +information necessary for the selection of the type and size of the +outfit required. + +If an old automobile engine, and radiator, gas tank, etc., are on +hand, they can be suitably mounted so as to drive the generator. + + +CHARGING BENCH + + [Fig. 65. Charging Bench with D.P.D.T. Switch for Each Battery] + +Figures 47 and 65 show charging benches in operation. Note that they +are made of heavy stock, which is of course necessary on account of +the weight of the batteries. The top of the charging bench should be +low, to eliminate as much lifting of batteries as possible. Figure 66 +is a working drawing of the bench illustrated in Figure 65. Note the +elevated shelf extending down the center. This is convenient for +holding water bottle, acid pitcher, hydrometer. Note also the strip +"D" on this shelf, with the voltmeter hung from an iron bracket. With +this arrangement the meter may be moved to any battery for voltage, +cadmium, and high rate discharge readings. It also has the advantage +of keeping the volt meter in a convenient and safe place, where it is +not liable to have acid spilled on it, or to be damaged by rough +handling. In building the bench shown in Figure 66, give each part a +coat of asphaltum paint before assembling. After assembling the bench +give it two more coats of asphaltum paint. + + [Fig. 66 Working drawing of charging bench shown in Fig. 65] + +Figures 67, 68, 69 and 70 show the working plans for other charging +benches or tables. The repairman should choose the one which he +considers most suitable for his shop. In wiring these benches, the +elevated shelf shown in Figure 66 may be added and the double pole, +double throw switches used. Instead of these switches, the jumpers +shown on the benches illustrated in Figure 47 may be used. If this is +done, the elevated shelf should also be installed, as it is a great +convenience for the hydrometer, voltmeter, and so on, as already +described. + +As for the hydrometer, thermometer, etc., which were listed on page 96 +as essential accessories of a charging bench, the Exide vehicle type +hydrometer is a most excellent one for general use. This hydrometer +has a round bulb and a straight barrel which has projections on the +float to keep the hydrometer in an upright position when taking +gravity readings. The special thermometer is shown in Figure 37. A +good voltmeter is shown in Figure 121. This voltmeter has a 2.5 and a +25 volt scale, which makes it convenient for battery work. It also +gives readings of a .2 and 2.0 to the left of the zero, and special +scale markings to facilitate the making of Cadmium tests as described +on page 174. As for the ammeter, if a motor-generator set, Tungar +Rectifier or a charging-rheostat is used, the ammeter is always +furnished with the set. If a lamp bank is used, a switchboard type +meter reading to about 25 amperes is suitable. With the constant +potential system of charging, the ammeters are furnished with the +motor-generator set. They read up to 300 amperes. + +The bottles for the distilled water and electrolyte are not of special +design and may be obtained in local stores, There are several special +water bottles sold by jobbers, and they are convenient, but not +necessary. Figure 133 shows a very handy arrangement for a water or +acid bottle. + + [Fig. 67 Working drawing of eight foot charging bench] + + [Fig. 68 Working drawing of a ten foot charging bench] + + [Fig. 69 Working drawing of a twelve foot charging bench] + + [Fig. 70 Working drawing of a twelve foot charging bench (without + drain rack)] + + [Fig. 71 Working drawing of a two man work bench to be placed + against a wall] + + [Fig. 72 Working drawing of a double, four man work bench, with two + tool drawers for each man] + +WORK BENCH + + +A work bench is more of a standard article than the charging bench, +and there should be no trouble in building one. Figure 38 illustrates +a good bench in actual use. A vise is, of course, necessary, and the +bench should be of solid construction, and should be given several +coats of asphaltum paint. + + [Fig. 73 Working drawing of a two man, double work bench] + +Figure 71 shows a single work bench which may be placed against a +wall. Figures 72 and 73 show double work benches. Note that each bench +has the elevated shelf, which should not, under any consideration be +omitted, as it is absolutely necessary for good work. The tool drawers +are also very convenient. + +It is best to have a separate "tear down" bench where batteries are +opened, as such a bench will be a wet, sloppy place and would not be +suitable for anything else. It should be placed near the sink or wash +tank, as shown in the shop layouts illustrated in Figures 136 to 142. + + +SINK OR WASH TANK + + [Fig. 74] + + Fig. 74. Sink with Faucet, and Extra Swinging Arm Pipe for + Washing Out Jars. Four Inch Paint Brush for Washing Battery + Cases + +An ordinary sink may be used, as shown in Figure 74. This figure also +shows a convenient arrangement for washing out jars. This consists of +a three-fourths inch pipe having a perforated cap screwed over its +upper end. Near the-floor is a valve which is normally held closed by +a spring, and which has attached to it a foot operated lever. In +washing sediment out of jars, the case is inverted over the pipe, and +the water turned on by means of the foot lever. A number of fine, +sharp jets of water are thrown up into the jar, thereby washing out +the sediment thoroughly. + +If an ordinary sink is used, a settling tank should be placed under +it, as shown in Figure 75. Otherwise, the drain pipe may become +stopped up with sediment washed out of the jars. Pipe B is removable, +which is convenient in cleaning out the tank. When the tank is to be +cleaned, lift pipe B up very carefully and let the water drain out +slowly. Then scoop out the sediment, rinse the tank with water, and +replace pipe B. In some places junk men will buy the sediment, or +"mud," as it is called. + + [Fig. 75 Settling tank to be used with sink shown in Fig. 74] + +Figures 76 and 77 give the working drawings for more elaborate wash +tanks. The water supply shown in Figure 74 may be used here, and the +drain pipe arrangement shown in Figure 75 may be used if desired. + + [Fig. 76 Working drawing of a wash tank] + + [Fig. 77 Working drawing of a wash tank] + + +LEAD BURNING (WELDING) OUTFIT + + +In joining the connectors and terminals to the positive and negative +posts, and in joining plate straps to form a "group," the parts are +joined or welded together, melting the surfaces to be joined, and then +melting in lead from sticks called "burning lead." The process of +joining these parts in this manner is known as "lead burning." +Directions for "lead burning" are given on page 210. + +There are various devices by means of which the lead is melted during +the "lead burning" process. The most satisfactory of these use a hot, +pointed flame. Where such a flame is not obtainable, a hot carbon rod +is used. + +The methods are given in the following list in the order of their +efficiency: + +1. Oxygen and Acetylene Under Pressure in Separate Tanks. The gases +are sent through a mixing valve to the burning tip. These gases give +the hottest flame. + +2. Oxygen and Hydrogen Under Pressure in Separate Tanks, Fig. 78. The +flame is a very hot one and is very nearly as satisfactory as the +oxygen and acetylene. + + [Fig. 78] + + Fig. 78. Hydrogen-Oxygen Lead Burning Outfit. A and B are Regulating + Valves. C is the Safety Flash Back Tank. D is the Mixing Valve. E is + the Burning Tip. + + +3. Oxygen and Illuminating Gas. This is a very satisfactory method, +and one that has become very popular. In this method it is absolutely +necessary to have a flash back tank (Fig. 79) in the gas line to +prevent the oxygen from backing up into the gas line and making a +highly explosive mixture which will cause a violent explosion that may +wreck the entire shop. + + [Fig. 79 Flash-back tank for lead burning outfit] + +To make such a trap, any strong walled vessel may be used, as shown in +Figure 79. A six to eight inch length of four inch pipe with caps +screwed over the ends will make a good trap. One of the caps should +have a 1/2 inch hole drilled and tapped with a pipe thread at the +center. This cap should also have two holes drilled and tapped to take +a 1/4 inch pipe, these holes being near the inner wall of the large +pipe, and diametrically opposite one another. + +Into one of these holes screw a short length of 1/4 inch pipe so Fig. +79. Flash-Back Tank for Lead Burning Outfit that it comes flush with +the inner face of the cap. This pipe should lead to the burning outfit. + +Into the other small hole screw a length of 1/4 inch pipe so that its +lower end comes within 1/2 inch of the bottom of the trap. This pipe +is to be connected to the illuminating gas supply. + +To use the trap, fill within one inch of top with water, and screw a +1/2 inch plug into the center hole. All connections should be airtight. + +4. Acetylene and Compressed Air. The acetylene is bought in tanks, and +the air compressed by a pump. + +5. Hydrogen and Compressed Air. This is the method that was very +popular several years ago, but is not used to any extent at present +because of the development of the first three methods. A special torch +and low pressure air supply give a very satisfactory flame. + +6. Wood Alcohol Torch. A hand torch with a double jet burner gives a +very clean, nonoxidizing flame. The flame is not as sharp as the +oxygen flame, and the torch is not easily handled without the use of +burning collars and moulds. The torch has the advantage of being +small, light and portable. A joint may be burned without removing the +battery from the car. + +7. Gasoline Torch. A double jet gasoline torch may be used, provided +collars or moulds are used to prevent the lead from running off. The +torch gives a broad flame which heats the parts very slowly, and the +work cannot be controlled as easily as in the preceding methods. + + [Fig. 80 Carbon lead burning outfit] + +8. Carbon Arc. This is a very simple method, and requires only a spare +6 volt battery, a 1/4 inch carbon rod, carbon holder, cable, and clamp +for attaching to battery. This outfit is shown in Fig. 80. It may be +bought from the American Bureau of Engineering, Inc., Chicago, Ill. +This outfit is intended to be used only when gas is not available, and +not where considerable burning is to be done. + +In using this outfit, one terminal of an extra 6 volt battery is +connected by a piece of cable with the connectors to be burned. The +contact between cable and connector should be clean and tight. The +cable which is attached to the carbon rod is then connected to the +other terminal of the extra battery, if the battery is not fully +charged, or to the connector on the next cell if the battery is fully +charged. The number of cells used should be such that the carbon is +heated to at least a bright cherry red color when it is touching the +joint which is to be burned together. + +Sharpen the carbon to a pencil point, and adjust its position so that +it projects from the holder about one inch. Occasionally plunge the +holder and hot carbon in a pail of water to prevent carbon from +overheating. After a short time, a scale will form on the surface of +the carbon, and this should be scraped off with a knife or file. + +In burning in a connector, first melt the lead of the post and +connector before adding the burning lead. Keep the carbon point moving +over all parts to be joined, in order to insure a perfectly welded +joint. + +9. Illuminating Gas and Compressed Air. This is the slowest method of +any. Pump equipment is required, and this method should not be used +unless none of the other methods is available. + +The selection of the burning apparatus will depend upon individual +conditions as well as prices, and the apparatus selected should be one +as near the beginning of the foregoing list as possible. Directions +for the manipulation of the apparatus are given by the manufacturers. + +The most convenient arrangement for the lead burning outfit is to run +pipes from one end of the work bench to the other, just below the +center shelf. Then set the gas tanks at one end of the bench and +connect them to the pipes. At convenient intervals have outlets for +attaching the hoses leading to the torch. + + +EQUIPMENT FOR HANDLING SEALING COMPOUND + + +(a) Stove. Where city gas is available, a two or three burner gas +stove or hot-plate should be used. Where there is no gas supply, the +most satisfactory is perhaps an oil stove. It is now possible to get +an odorless oil stove which gives a hot smokeless flame which is very +satisfactory. In the winter, if a coal stove is used to heat the shop, +the stove may also be used for heating the sealing compound, but it +will be more difficult to keep the temperature low enough to prevent +burning the compound. + +(b) Pot or Kettle. An iron kettle is suitable for use in heating +compound. Special kettles, some of which are non-metallic, are on the +market, and may be obtained from the jobbers. + +(c) An iron ladle should be obtained for dipping up compound, and for +pouring compound when sealing a battery. Figure 81 shows a convenient +form of ladle which has a pouring hole in the bottom. A taper pin, +which is raised by the extra handle allows a very fine stream of +compound to be poured. + +The exact size of the ladle is not important, but one which is too +heavy to be held in one hand should not be used. + +(d) Several old coffee pots are convenient, and save much time in +sealing batteries. + +Sealing compound is a combination of heavy residues produced by the +fractional distillation of petroleum. It is not all alike-that +accepted for factory use and distribution to Service Stations must +usually conform to rigid specifications laid down by the testing +laboratories governing exact degrees of brittleness, elongation, +strength and melting point. For these qualities it is dependent upon +certain volatile oils which may be driven off from the compound if the +temperature of the molten mass is raised above the comparatively low +points where some of these oils begin to volatilize off as gaseous +vapor or smoke. + +Compound from which certain of these valuable constituent oils have +been driven off or "burned out" through overheating is recognized +through too great BRITTLENESS and SHRINKAGE on cooling, causing +"CRACKED COMPOUND" with all of its attending difficulties. + + [Fig. 81 Pouring ladle] + +Do not put too much cold compound in the kettle to begin with. It is +not advisable to carry much more molten compound in the kettle at any +time than can easily be dipped out-cold compound may be added during +the day as needed. When there is considerable cold compound in the +kettle, and the heating flame is applied, the lower bottom part of +the mass next to the surface of the iron is brought to a melting point +first-heat must be conveyed from this already hot part of the compound +upward throughout the whole mass-so that before the top part of it is +brought to a molten condition the lower inside layers are very hot +indeed. If there is too much in the kettle these lower layers are +necessarily raised in temperature beyond the point where they lose +some of their volatile oils-they are "burned" before the whole mass of +compound can be brought to a molten state. + +Do not use too large a heating flame under the kettle for the same +reasons. A flame turned on "full blast" will certainly "burn" the +bottom layers before the succeeding layers above are brought to the +fusion point. USE A SLOW FLAME and TAKE TIME IN MELTING UP THE +COMPOUND. It PAYS in the resulting jobs. + +The more compound is heated, the thinner it becomes--it should never be +allowed to become so hot that it flows too freely--it should never +exceed the viscosity of medium molasses. It should flow freely enough +to run in all narrow spaces but NOT freely enough to flow THROUGH them +before it cools. + +Stir the kettle frequently during the day. It is advisable about once +a week to work as much compound out of the kettle as possible, empty +that still remaining, clean the kettle out, and start with fresh +compound. + +NEVER USE OLD COMPOUND OVER AGAIN--that is, do not throw compound +that has been dug out of used batteries into the kettle with the new +compound. The old compound is no doubt acid soaked, and this acid will +work through the whole molten mass, making a satisfactory job a very +doubtful matter indeed. + +Cold weather hardens sealing compound, of course, and renders it +somewhat brittle and liable to crack. This tendency could be overcome +by using a softer compound, but, on the other hand, compound so soft +that it would have no tendency to crack in cold weather would be so +soft in warm weather that it would fail to hold the assembly with the +necessary firmness and security. It is far better policy to run the +risk of developing a few cracks in the winter than a loose assembly in +summer. Surface cracks developed in cold weather may be easily +remedied by stripping off the compound around the crack with a heated +tool, flashing with the torch and quickly re-sealing according to the +above directions. + +It is not practical to work any oil agent, such as paraffin or castor +oil, into the compound in an effort to soften it for use in cold +weather. + + +SHELVING AND RACKS + + +The essential things about shelving in a battery shop are, that it +must be covered with acid-proof paint, and must be made of heavy +lumber if it is to carry complete batteries. Figure 82 shows the heavy +shelving required in a stock-room, while Figure 83 shows the lighter +shelving which may be used for parts, such as jars, cases, extra +plates, and so on. + + [Fig. 82] + + Fig. 82. Typical Stockroom, Showing Heavy Shelving Necessary for + Storing Batteries. + +Figures 84 and 85 show two receiving racks for batteries which come in +for repairs. In many shops batteries are set on the floor while +waiting for repairs. If there is plenty of floor space, this practice +is not objectionable. In any case, however, it improves the looks of +the shop, and makes a better impression on the customer to have racks +to receive such batteries. Note that the shelves are arranged so as to +permit acid to drain off. Batteries often come in with wet, leaky +cases, and this shelf construction is suitable for such batteries. + +The racks shown in Figures 86 and 87 are for repaired batteries, new +batteries, rental batteries, batteries in dry storage, and for any +batteries which do not have wet leaky cases. + +Figures 88 and 89 show racks suitable for new batteries which have +been shipped filled with electrolyte, batteries in "wet" or "live" +storage, rental batteries, and so on. Note that these racks are +provided with charging circuits so that the batteries may be given a +low charge without removing them from the racks. Note also that the +shelves are spaced two feet apart so as to be able to take hydrometer +readings, voltage readings, add water, and so on, without removing the +batteries from the racks. + + +BINS + + +Figure 90 gives the dimensions for equipment bins suitable for covers, +terminals, inter-cell connectors, jars, cases, and various other +parts. These bins can be made with any desired number of sections, and +additional sections built as they are needed. + + [Fig. 83] + + Fig. 83. Corner of Workshop, Showing Lead Burning Outfit, Workbench + and Vises. + + + [Fig. 84 Working drawing of a 6-foot receiving rack] + + [Fig. 85 Working drawing of a 12-foot receiving rack] + + [Fig. 86 Working drawing of an 8-foot rack for repaired batteries, + new batteries, rental batteries, batteries in dry storage, etc.] + + [Fig. 87 Working drawing of a 16-foot rack for repaired batteries, + new batteries, rental batteries, batteries in dry storage, etc.] + + + + [Fig. 88 Working drawing of a 16-foot rack suitable for new batteries + (shipped filled and fully charged), batteries in "wet" storage, + rental batteries, etc.] + + [Fig. 88b End view of rack in Fig. 88] + + [Fig. 89 Working drawing of a 12-foot rack suitable for new batteries + (shipped filled and fully charged), batteries in "wet" storage, + rental batteries, etc.] + + [Fig. 89b End view of rack in Fig. 89] + + [Fig. 90 Working drawing of bins suitable for battery parts] + + +BATTERY STEAMER + + +Steaming is the most satisfactory method of softening sealing +compound, making covers and jars limp and pliable. An open flame +should never be used for this work, as the temperature of the flame is +too high and there is danger of burning jars and covers and making +them worthless. With steam, it is impossible to damage sealing +compound or rubber parts. + +A soft flame from a lead burning torch is used to dry out the channels +in the covers before sealing, and is run over the compound quickly to +make the compound flow evenly and unite with the jars and covers. But +in such work the flame is used for only a few seconds and is not +applied long enough to do any damage. + +With a steaming outfit, it is also possible to distill water for use +in mixing electrolyte and replacing evaporation in the cells. The only +additional equipment needed is a condenser to condense the steam into +water. + + [Fig. 91] + + Fig. 91. Battery Steamer, with Steam Hose for Each Cell + + [Fig. 92 Condenser for use with battery steamer] + +Figure 91 shows a steaming outfit mounted on a wall, and shows the +rubber tube connections between the several parts. The boiler is set +on the stove, water being supplied from the water supply tank which is +hung above the boiler to obtain gravity feed. The water supply tank is +open at the top, and is filled every morning with faucet water. This +tank is suitable for any shop, even though a city water supply is +available. A water pipe from the city lines may be run to a point +immediately above the tank and a faucet or valve attached. Where there +is no city water supply, the tank may, of course, be filled with a +pail or pitcher. + +The boiler is equipped with a float operated valve which maintains a +one to one and one-half inch depth of water. As the water boils away, +the float lowers slightly and allows water to enter the boiler. In +this way, the water is maintained at the proper level at all times. A +manifold is fitted to the boiler and has six openings to which lengths +of rubber tubing are attached. These tubes are inserted in the vent +holes of the battery which is to be steamed. Any number of the steam +outlets may be opened by drawing out the manifold plunger valve to the +proper point. When distilling water, a tube is attached to one of the +steam outlets as shown, and connected to the condenser as shown. A +bottle is placed under the distilled water outlet to collect the +distilled water. + +Cooling water enters the condenser through the tubing shown attached +to the condenser at the lower right-hand edge. The other end of this +tube is attached to the water faucet, or other cooling water supply. +The cooling water outlet is shown at the lower left hand edge of the +condenser. The cooling water inlet and outlet are shown in Figure 92. + +If there is no city water supply, a ten or twenty gallon tank may be +mounted above the condenser and attached by means of a rubber tube to +the cooling water inlet shown at the lower right hand edge of the +condenser in Figure 92. A similar tank is placed under the cooling +water outlet. The upper tank is then filled with water. When the water +has run out of the upper tank through the condenser and into the lower +tank, it is poured back into the upper tank. In this way a steady +supply of cooling water is obtained. + + [Fig. 93 Steaming box in which entire battery is set] + +Another type of steamer uses a steaming box, Figure 93. The battery is +placed in the box and steam is sent in through the cover. The boiler +has only one steam outlet, and this is connected to the box by means +of a hose. + + [Fig. 94 Special bench for battery steamer] + +If desired, a special bench may be made for the steaming outfit, as +shown in Figure 94. + +The other tools needed for opening batteries, as given in the list on +page 97 are standard articles, and may be obtained at any hardware +store, except the terminal tongs, which should be purchased from a +battery supply house. + + [Fig. 95 Battery terminal tongs] + +Figure 95 illustrates the use of terminal tongs. Battery terminals +usually stick so tight that they must be forced out with pliers or +other tools. Here is shown a pair of tongs that makes easy work of the +job. One end has a fork and the other is shaped to come between the +fork. It is placed on the battery terminal, as shown, and when the +handles are brought together the terminal attached to the battery lead +is forced out without marring any of the parts. + + +EQUIPMENT FOR LEAD BURNING (WELDING) + + +Plate Burning Rack + + +The plates which compose a "group" are joined to the plate connecting +strap to which the post is attached. The plates are "burned" to the +strap, and this must be done in such a manner that the plates are +absolutely parallel, that the distance between plates is correct, and +that the top surface of the strap is at right angles to the surface of +the plates. These conditions are necessary in order that the positive +and negative groups may mesh properly, that the complete element, +consisting of the plates and separators may fit in the jar properly, +and that the cell covers may fit over the posts easily. + + [Fig. 96] + + Fig. 96. Universal Plate Burning Rack. Will Hold Three Groups of + Plates at One Time. Designed for Standard and Special Plates + + +In order to secure these conditions, plates that are to be burned to +the strap are set in a "burning rack," shown in Figs. 96 and 97, which +consists mainly of a base upon which the plate rest, and a slotted bar +into which the lugs on the plates fit. The distance between successive +slots is equal to the correct distance between the plates of the +group. An improved form of burning rack has a wooden base which has +slots along the side. The plates are set into these slots and are thus +held in the correct position at both top and bottom. + + [Fig. 97 Plate burning rack for standard 1/8 inch, and thin plates] + +Fig. 97 shows a rack for use with 1/8 inch and 7-64 inch plates. Fig. +96 shows a "Universal" rack which may be used with both the 1/8 and +7-64 inch plates, and also many special plates. + +The guide-bar, or "comb," E, has slots along two sides, the base +having corresponding slots, as shown. To accommodate different sized +plates, the comb may be raised or lowered, and the uprights may be +moved back and forth in two slots, one of which is shown at F. In +using this rack, the plates are set in position, with their lower +edges in the slots of the base, and their lugs in the slots in the +comb. The plates are in this way held at opposite corners, and are +absolutely straight and parallel. + +Special fittings are provided to simplify the work of burning. A bar, +D, fits along the edge of the comb, and holds the lugs of the plates +firmly in the slots. This bar is movable to any part of the comb, +being held by two spring clips, C. Two bars, A and B, which are +adjustable, make a form around the plate lugs which will prevent the +hot lead from running off while burning in the plates. + +Instructions for burning on plates are given on page 217. + +The triangular scraper, steel wire brush, coarse files and smoked or +blue glasses are all standard articles and may be obtained from any +supply house. The burning collars are made of iron, and are set over +the end of inter-cell connectors when burning these to the posts, see +Figure 98. Experienced repairmen generally do not use them, but those +who have trouble with the whole end of the connector melting and the +lead running off should use collars to hold in the lead. + + [Fig. 98 Burning collars] + +The Burning Lead Mould + + +In every shop there is an accumulation of scrap lead from post +drillings, old connecting straps, old plate straps, etc. These should +be kept in a special box provided for that purpose, and when a +sufficient amount has accumulated, the lead should be melted and run +off into moulds for making burning-lead. + +The Burning Lead Mould is designed to be used for this purpose. As +shown in Fig. 99, the mould consists of a sheet iron form which has +been pressed into six troughs or grooves into which the melted lead is +poured. This sheet iron form is conveniently mounted on a block of +wood which has a handle at one end, making it possible to hold the +mould while hot without danger of being burned. A sheet of asbestos +separates the iron form from the wood, thus protecting the wood from +the heat of the melted lead. A hole is drilled in the end of the +handle to permit the mould being hung on a nail when not in use. The +grooves in the iron form will produce bars of burning lead 15 inches +long, 5-16 inch thick, 3/8 inch wide at the top, and 1/4 inch wide at +the bottom. + + [Fig. 99] + + Fig. 99. Burning-Lead Moulds, and Burning Sticks Cast in Them + + +The advantage of this type of Burning Lead Mould over a cast iron +mould is obvious. The form, being made of sheet iron, heats up very +quickly, and absorbs only a very small amount of heat from the melted +lead. The cast-iron mould, on the other hand, takes so much heat from +the melted lead that the latter cools very quickly, and is hard to +handle. + +An iron pot that will hold at least ten pounds of molten lead should +be used in melting up lead scraps for burning sticks. + +When the metal has become soft enough to stir with a clean pine stick +skim off the dross. Continue heating metal until slightly yellow on +top. + +With a paddle or ladle drop in a cleaning compound of equal parts of +powdered rosin, borax and flower of sulphur. Use a teaspoonful for a +ten-pound melting and make sure the compound is perfectly dry. + +Stir a little and if metal is at proper heat there will be a flare, +flash or a little burning. A sort of tinfoil popcorn effect will be +noticed floating on top of the metal. Stir until this melts down. Have +your ladle hot and skim off soft particles. Dust the mould with mould +compound, a powder which makes the lead fill the entire grooves, and +not become cool before it does. + +When everything is ready, fill the ladle and pour the lead into one of +the grooves. Hold the ladle above one end of the groove while pouring, +and do not move it along the groove. Fill the other grooves in a +similar manner. + +Post Builders. These are moulds which are set over the stumps of posts +which have been drilled short in removing the inter-cell connectors. +Lead is then melted in with a burning flame to build the post up to +the proper height. Figure 100 shows a set of post-builders, and Figure +101 illustrates their use. + + [Fig. 100 Set of post builders] + + [Fig. 101 Illustrating use of post builders] + + +EQUIPMENT FOR GENERAL WORK ON CONNECTORS AND TERMINALS + + +Moulds for Casting Inter-Cell Connectors, Terminals, Terminal +Screws, Taper Lugs, Plate Straps, Etc. + +Figure 102 shows a plate strap mould with which three straps and posts +may be cast in one minute. It has a sliding movable tooth rack for +casting an odd or even number of teeth on the strap. + + [Fig. 102 Plate strap mould] + +Figure 103 shows a Link Combination Mould which casts five inter-cell +connectors for use on standard 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 plate batteries, +four end connectors (two Dodge tapers, and standard tapers, negative +and positive), one end connector with 3/8 inch cable used on 12 volt +Maxwell battery and on all other cars a wire cable, and one small wire +to connect with end post on batteries requiring direct connection. It +also casts two post support rings to fit standard size rubber covers +and to fit posts cast with plate strap mould, and two washers which +are often needed when installing needed when installing new or rental +batteries. + + [Fig. 103 and Fig. 104: Link combination mould, and castings made + in it] + +Figure 104 shows the parts which may be made with this mould. + + [Fig. 105 Cell connector mould] + + [Fig. 106 Production type strap mould] + +Figure 105 shows a cell connector mould which casts practically all +the cell connectors used on standard 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 plate +batteries. This mould is similar to the Link Combination Mould shown +in Figure 103. + + [Fig. 107 Indexing device for strap mould] + + [Fig. 108 Castings made in strap mould] + +Figure 106 shows a production type strap mould which is designed to be +used by large battery shops. Forty-two styles of straps are, cast by +this mould. This mould has an indexing device as shown in Figure 107, +which is adjusted by means of a screw for moulding the straps for any +number of plates from seven to nineteen. Figure 109 shows some of the +castings which are made with this mould. + + [Fig. 109 Terminal mould and castings made in it] + +Figure 109 shows a Terminal Mould which casts five reversible end +terminal connectors, a cable connector, such as is used on the +Maxwell battery, and two washers often needed in making a tight +connection. + + [Fig. 110 Screw mould] + +Figure 110 shows a Screw Mould which casts standard square lead leads +on four screws in one operation, two 5/8 inch and two 3/8 inch. This +mould has a screw adjustment in the base which makes each cavity +adaptable to any length screw. + + +EQUIPMENT FOR WORK ON CASES + + +The acid proof asphaltum paint, paint brushes, wood chisels, wood +plane, and earthenware jars are all standard articles. + + [Fig. 111 Battery turntable] + +Figure 111 shows a battery turntable which is very convenient when +painting cases, lead burning, etc. + + +TOOLS FOR GENERAL WORK + + +Most of the articles in this list require no explanation. Some of +them, however, are of special construction. + +Separator Cutter. Some battery supply houses sell special separator +cutters, but a large size photograph trimmer is entirely satisfactory. + + [Fig. 112] + + Fig. 112. Plate Press for Pressing Swollen, + Bulged Negatives (After Plates Have Been Fully + Charged) + + [Fig. 113] + + Fig. 113. Inserting Plate Press Boards Between + Negatives Preparatory to Pressing + + +Plate Press. Figure 112 shows a special plate press in which the +plates are pressed between wooden jaws. No iron can come into contact +with the plates. This is a very important feature, since iron in +solution causes a battery to lose its charge very quickly. This press +is made of heavy hardwood timbers, and may be set on a bench or +mounted on the wall. A set of lead coated troughs carry away the acid +which is squeezed from the plates. + + [Fig. 114 Showing how negatives should be placed in the plate + press] + +This press is designed for pressing negative plates, the active +material of which has become bulged or swollen. A plate in this +condition has a low capacity and cannot give good service. Swollen +negatives often make it impossible to replace the plates in a jar. +When negatives are found to be bulged or swollen, the battery must be +fully charged, and the negatives then pressed. To do this, plate press +boards, which are of acid proof material, and of the proper thickness +are inserted between the negatives, as shown in Figure 113, and the +plates are then set in the press is shown in Figure 114. + + [Fig. 115 Negative group before and after pressing] + +Figure 115 shows a group before and after pressing. Note that pressing +has forced the active material back into the grid where it must be if +the plates are to give good service. Never send out a battery with +swollen or bulged negatives. + +Slightly buckled negatives may also be straightened out in the Plate +Press. Positives do not swell or bulge as they discharge, but shed the +active material. They are therefore not pressed Positives buckle, of +course, but should never be pressed to straighten them. The lead +peroxide of the positive plates is not elastic like the spongy the +negatives, and if positives are pressed to straighten them the paste +will crack and break from the grid. Slightly buckled positives may be +used, but if they are so badly buckled that it is impossible to +reassemble the element or put the element back into the jars, they +should be discarded. + + [Fig. 116 Battery carrier] + + [Fig. 117 Battery truck] + +Battery Carrier. Figure 116 shows a very convenient battery carrier, +having a wooden handle with two swinging steel hooks for attaching to +the battery to be carried. With this type of carrier no strain is put +on the handle, as is the case if a strap is used. + +Battery Truck. When a battery must be moved any considerable distance, +a truck, such as that shown in Figure 117 should be used. This truck +may easily be made in the shop, or may be made at a reasonable cost in +a carpenter shop. The rollers should be four inches or more in +diameter and should preferably be of the ball-bearing type. Rubber +tires on the rollers are a great advantage, since the rubber protects +the rollers from acid and also eliminates the very disagreeable noise +which iron wheels make, especially in going over a concrete floor or +sidewalk. The repairman need not make his truck exactly like that +shown in Figure 117, which is merely shown to give a general idea of +how such a truck should be constructed. + +The truck shown in Figure 117 was made from a heavy wooden box. With +this construction lifting batteries is largely eliminated, which is +most desirable, since a battery is not the lightest thing in the +world. The battery is carried in a horizontal position and the truck +is small enough to be wheeled between cars in the shop. + + [Fig. 118 Another battery truck] + +Another form of battery truck is shown in Figure 118, although this, +is not as good as that shown in Figure 117. + + +CADMIUM TEST SET AND HOW TO MAKE THE TEST + + +As the cell voltage falls while the battery is on discharge, the +voltage of the positive plates, and also the voltage of the negative +plates falls. When the battery is charged again the voltages of both +positive and negative plates rise. If a battery gives its rated +ampere-hour capacity on discharge, we do not care particularly how the +voltages of the individual positive and negative groups change. If, +however, the battery fails to give its rated capacity, the fault may +be due to defective positives or defective negatives. + +If the voltage of a battery fails to come up when the battery is put +on charge, the trouble may be due to either the positives or +negatives. Positives and negatives may not charge at the same rate, +and one group may become fully charged before the other group. This +may be the case in a cell which has had a new positive group put in +with the old negatives. Cadmium tests made while the battery is on +charge will tell how fully the individual groups are charged. + +Since the voltages of the positives and negatives both fall as a +battery is discharged, and rise as the battery is charged, if we +measure the voltages of the positives and negatives separately, we can +tell how far each group is charged or discharged. If the voltage of +each cell of a battery drops to 1.7 before the battery has given its +rated capacity, we can tell which set of plates has become discharged +by measuring the voltages of positives and negatives separately. If +the voltage of the positives show that they are discharged, then the +Positives are not up to capacity. Similarly, negatives are not up to +capacity if their voltage indicates that they are discharged before +the battery has given its rated capacity. + +Cadmium readings alone do not give any indication of the capacity of a +battery, and the repairman must be careful in drawing conclusions from +Cadmium tests. + +In general it is not always safe to depend upon Cadmium tests on a +battery which has not been opened, unless the battery is almost new. +Plates having very little active material, due to shedding, or due to +the active material being loosened from the grid, will often give good +Cadmium readings, and yet a battery with such plates will have very +little capacity. Such a condition would be disclosed by an actual +examination of the plates, or by a capacity discharge test. + + +How Cadmium Tests Are Made + + +To measure the voltages of the positives and negatives separately, +Cadmium is used. The Cadmium is dipped in the electrolyte, and a +voltage reading is taken between the Cadmium and the plates which are +to be tested. Thus, if we wish to test the negatives, we take a +voltage reading between the Cadmium and the negatives, as shown in +Fig. 119. Similarly, if we wish to test the positives, we take a +voltage reading between the Cadmium and the positives, as shown in +Fig 120. + + [Fig. 119 Making cadmium test on negative plates] + + [Fig. 120 Making cadmium test on positive plates] + +In dipping the Cadmium into the electrolyte, we make two cells out of +the battery cell. One of these consists of the Cadmium and the +positives, while the other consists of the Cadmium and the negatives. +If the battery is charged, the Cadmium forms the negative element in +the Cadmium-Positives cell, and is the positive element in the +Cadmium-Negatives cell. The voltage of the Cadmium does not change, +and variations in the voltage readings obtained in making Cadmium +tests are due to changes in the state of charge of the negative and +positive plates which are being tested. + +What Cadmium Is: Cadmium is a metal, just like iron, copper, or lead. +It is one of the chemical elements; that is, it is a separate and +distinct substance. It is not made by mixing two or more substances, +as for instance, solder is made by mixing tin and lead, but is +obtained by separating the cadmium from the compounds in which it is +found in nature, just as iron is obtained by treatment of iron ore in +the steel mill. + + +When Cadmium Readings Should Be Made + + +1. When the battery voltage drops to 1.7 per cell on discharge before +the battery has delivered its rated ampere-hour capacity, at the +5-hour rate when a discharge test is made. + +2. When a battery on charge will not "come up," that is, if its +voltage will not come up to 2.5-2.7 per cell on charge, and its +specific gravity will not come up to 1.280-1.300. + +3. Whenever you charge a battery, at the end of the charge, when the +voltage and specific gravity no longer rise, make Cadmium tests to be +sure that both positives and negatives are fully charged. + +4. When you put in a new group, charge the battery fully and make +Cadmium tests to be sure that both the new and old groups are fully +charged. + +5. When a 20-minute high rate discharge test is made. See page 267. + +That Cadmium Readings should be taken only while a battery is in +action; that is, while it is on discharge, or while it is on charge. + +Cadmium Readings taken on a battery which is on open circuit are not +reliable. + +When you are not using the Cadmium, it should be put in a vessel of +water and kept there. Never let the Cadmium become dry, as it will +then give unreliable readings. + + +Open Circuit Voltage Readings Worthless + + +Voltage readings of a battery taken while the battery is on open +circuit; that is, when no current is passing through the battery, are +not reliable. The voltage of a normal, fully charged cell on open +circuit is slightly over 2 volts. If this cell is given a full normal +discharge, so that the specific gravity of its electrolyte drops to +1.150, and is allowed to stand for several hours after the end of the +discharge, the open circuit voltage will still be 2 volts. Open +circuit voltage readings are therefore of little or no value, except +when a cell is "dead," as a dead cell will give an open circuit +voltage very much less than 2, and it may even give no voltage at all. + + +What the Cadmium Test Set Consists of + + +The Cadmium Tester consists of a voltmeter, Fig. 121, and two pointed +brass prods which are fastened in wooden handles, as shown in Fig. +122. A length of flexible wire having a terminal at one end is +soldered to each prod for attachment to the voltmeter. Fastened at +right angles to one of the brass prods is a rod of pure cadmium. + + [Fig. 121 Special cadmium test voltmeter, & Fig. 122 Cadmium + test leads] + +Cadmium tests may be made with any accurate voltmeter which gives +readings up to 2.5 volts in divisions of .05 volt. + +The instructions given below apply especially to the special AMBU +voltmeter but these instructions may also be used in making cadmium +tests with any voltmeter that will give the correct reading. + + +The AMBU Cadmium Voltmeter + + +Fig. 121 is a view of the special AMBU Voltmeter, which is designed to +be used specially in making Cadmium tests. Fig. 122 shows the Cadmium +leads. The four red lines marked "Neg. Charged," "Neg. Discharged," +"Pos. Charged," and "Pos. Discharged," indicate the readings that +should be obtained. Thus, in testing the positives of a battery on +charge, the pointer will move to the line which is marked "Pos. +Charged," if the positive plates are fully charged. In testing the +negatives, the pointer will move to the line marked "Neg. Charged," +which is to the left of the "0" line, if the negatives are fully +charged, and so on. Figs. 123, 124, 125 and 126 show the pointer +in the four positions on the scale which it takes when testing fully +charged or discharged plates. In each figure the pointer is over one +of the red lines on the scale. These figures also show the readings, +in volts, obtained in making the cadmium tests on fully charged or +completely discharged plates. + + [Fig. 123 Voltmeter showing reading obtained when testing charged + negative; & Fig. 124 Showing reading obtained when testing + charged positives] + + [Fig. 125 Voltmeter showing reading obtained when testing discharged + negatives; and Fig. 126 Showing reading obtained when testing + discharged positives] + +If Pointer Is Not Over the "0" Line: It sometimes happens, in shipping +the instrument, and also in the use of it, that the pointer does not +stand over the "0" line, but is a short distance away. Should you find +this to be the case, take a small screwdriver and turn the screw which +projects through the case, and which is marked "Correct Zero," so as +to bring the pointer exactly over the "0" line on the scale while the +meter has no wires connected to its binding posts. + +Connections of Cadmium Leads: In making Cadmium Tests, connect the +prod which has the cadmium fastened to it to the negative voltmeter +binding post. Connect the plain brass prod to the positive voltmeter +binding post. The connections to the AMBU Cadmium Voltmeter are shown +in Fig. 127. + + +Testing a Battery on Discharge + + +The battery should be discharging continuously, at a constant, fixed +rate, see page 265. + + [Fig. 127 AMBU Cadmium Voltmeter] + +Generally, on a starting ability test (see page 267), the positive +Cadmium readings will start at about 2.05 volts for a hard or very new +set of positives, and at 2.12 volts or even higher for a set of soft +or somewhat developed positives, and will drop during the test, ending +at 1.95 volts or less. The negative Cadmium readings will start at +0.23 volt or higher, up to 0.30, and will rise gradually, more +suddenly toward the end if the plates are old, ending anywhere above +0.35 and up to 0.6 to 0.7 for poor negatives. + +Short Circuited Cells: In cases of short circuited cells, the voltage +of the cell will be almost down to zero. The Cadmium readings would +therefore be nearly zero also for both positives and negatives. Such a +battery should be opened for inspection and repairs. + + +Testing a Battery on Charge + + +The Battery should be charging at the finishing rate. (This i's +usually stamped on the battery box.) Dip the cadmium in the +electrolyte as before, and test the negatives by holding the plain +prod on the negative post of the cell. See Fig. 119. Test the +positives in a similar manner. See Fig. 120. The cell voltage should +also be measured. If the positives are fully charged, the positive +cadmium reading will be such that the pointer will move to the red +line marked "Pos. Charged." See Fig. 125. If you are using an ordinary +voltmeter, the meter will give a reading of from 2.35 to 2.42 volts. +The negatives are then tested in a similar manner. The +negative-cadmium reading on an ordinary voltmeter will be from .175 to +.2 to the left of the "0" line; that is, the reading is a reversed +one. If you are using the special ABM voltmeter, the pointer will move +to the red line marked "Neg. Charged." See Fig. 123. The cell voltage +should be the sum of the positive-cadmium and the negative cadmium +readings. + +If the voltage of each cell will not come up to 2.5 to 2.7 volts on +charge, or if the specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 or over, +make the cadmium tests to determine whether both sets of plates, or +one of them, give readings indicating that they are fully charged. If +the positives will not give a reading of at least 2.35 volts, or if +the negatives will not give a reversed reading of at least 0.1 volt, +these plates lack capacity. + +In case of a battery on charge, if the negatives do not give a minus +Cadmium reading, they may be lacking in capacity, but, on the other +hand, a minus negative Cadmium reading does not prove that the +negatives are up to hill capacity. A starting ability discharge test +(page 267) is the only means of telling whether a battery is up to +capacity. + +Improperly treated separators will cause poor negative-Cadmium +readings to be obtained. The charging rate should be high enough to +give cell voltages of 2.5-2.7 when testing negatives. Otherwise it may +not be possible to get satisfactory negative-Cadmium reading. +Separators which have been allowed to become partly dry at any time +will also make it difficult to obtain satisfactory negative-Cadmium +readings. + + +HIGH RATE DISCHARGE TESTERS + +(See page 265 for directions for making tests.) + +Figure 128 shows a high rate discharge cell tester. It consists of a +handle carrying two heavy prongs which are bridged by a length of +heavy nichrome wire. When the ends of the prongs are pressed down on +the terminals of a cell, a current of 150 to 200 amperes is drawn from +the cell. A voltage reading of the cell, taken while this discharge +current is flowing is a means of determining the condition of the +cell, since the heavy discharge current duplicates the heavy current +drawn by the starting motor. Each prong carries a binding post, a low +reading voltmeter being connected to these posts while the test is +made. This form of discharge tester is riot suitable for making +starting ability discharge tests, which are described on page 267. + +Other forms of high rate discharge testers are made, but for the shop +the type shown in Figure 128 is most convenient, since it is light and +portable and has no moving parts, and because the test is made very +quickly without making any connections to the battery. Furthermore, +each cell is tested separately and thus six or twelve volt batteries +may be tested without making any change in the tester. + +For making starting ability discharge tests at high rates, a carbon +plate or similar rheostat is most suitable, and such rheostats are on +the market. + + [Fig. 128 High rate discharge tester] + + [Fig. 129 Paraffine dip pot] + + +PARAFFINE DIP POT + + +Paper tags are not acid proof, and if acid is spilled on tags tied to +batteries which are being repaired, the writing on the tags is often +obliterated so that it is practically impossible to identify the +batteries. An excellent plan to overcome this trouble is to dip the +tags in hot paraffine after they have been properly filled out. The +writing on the tags can be read easily and since paraffine is acid +proof, any acid which may be spilled on the paraffine coated tags will +not damage the tags in any way. + +Figure 129 shows a paraffine dip pot. A small earthenware jar is best +for this purpose. Melt the paraffine slowly on a stove, pour it into +the pot, and partly immerse a 60-watt carbon lamp in the paraffine as +shown. The lamp will give enough heat to keep the paraffine melted, +without causing it to smoke to any extent. After filling out a Battery +Card, dip it into the Paraffine, and hold the card above the pot to +let the excess paraffine run off. Let the paraffine dry before +attaching the tag to the battery, otherwise the paraffine may be +scratched off. + + +WOODEN BOXES FOR BATTERY PARTS + + + [Fig. 130] + + Fig. 130. Boxes for Holding Parts of Batteries Being Prepared + + +Figure 130 shows a number of wooden boxes, about 12 inches long, 8 +inches wide, and 4 inches deep. These boxes are very useful for +holding the terminals inter-cell connectors, covers, plugs, etc., of +batteries which are dismantled for repairs. Write the name of the +owner with chalk on the end of the box, and rub the name off after the +battery has been put together again. The boxes shown in Figure 130 had +been used for plug tobacco, and served the purpose very well. The +larger box shown in Figure 130 may be used for collecting old +terminals, inter-cell connectors, lead drillings, etc. + + +EARTHENWARE JARS + + +The twenty gallon size is very convenient for waste acid, old +separators, and any junk parts which are wet with acid. The jars are +acid proof and will help keep the shop floor dry and anything which +will help in this is most desirable. + + +ACID CARBOYS + + +Acid is shipped in large glass bottles around each of which a wooden +box is built to prevent breakage, the combination being called a +"carboy." Since the acid is heavy, some means of drawing it out of the +bottle is necessary. One method is illustrated in Figure 131, wooden +rockers being screwed to the box in which the bottle is placed. + + [Fig. 131 A simple method of drawing acid from a carboy] + +A very good addition to the rockers shown in Figure 131 is the inner +tube shown in Figure 132. In this illustration the rockers are not +shown, but should be used. The combination of the rockers with the +inner tube gives a very convenient method of pouring acid from a +carboy, since the heavy bottle need not be lifted, and since it helps +keep the floor and the top of the box dry. + + [Fig. 132 Use of inner tube to protect box when pouring acid] + +The rubber tube shown in Figure 132 is a piece of 4 inch inner tube +which is slit down one side to make it lie flat. Near one end is cut a +hole large enough to fit tightly over the neck of the acid bottle. +Slip this rubber over the neck of the bottle and allow the long end to +hang a few inches over the side of the carboy bottle or box. This is +for pouring acid from a carboy when it is too full to allow the +contents to be removed without spilling. This device will allow the +contents of the carboy to be poured into a crock or other receptacle +placed on the floor without spilling, and also prevents dirt that may +be laying on top of the carboy from falling into the crock. + + [Fig. 133 Siphon for drawing acid from carboy] + +Figure 133 shows a siphon method for drawing acid from a bottle, +although this method is more suitable for distilled water than for +acid. "A" is the bottle, "B" a rubber stopper, "C" and "D" are 3/8 +inch glass or hard rubber tubes, "E" is a length of rubber tubing +having a pinch clamp at its lower end. To use this device, the stopper +and tubes are inserted in the bottle, and air blown or pumped in at +"C," while the pinch clamp is open, until acid or water begins to run +out of the lower end of tubing "E." The pinch clamp is then released. +Whenever acid or water is to be drawn from the bottle the pinch clamp +is squeezed so as to release the pressure on the tube. The water or +acid will flow down the tube automatically as long as the pinch clamp +is held open. The clamp may be made of flat or round spring brass or +bronze. This is bent round at (a). At (c) an opening is made, through +which the part (b) is bent. The clamp is operated by pressing at (d) +and (e). The rubber tubing is passed through the opening between (b) +and (c). + +This method is a very good one for the small bottle of distilled water +placed on the charging bench to bring the electrolyte up to the proper +height. The lower end of tube (e) is held over the vent hole of the +cell. The pinch clamp is then squeezed and water will flow. Releasing +the clamp stops the flow of water instantly. If tube (e) is made long +enough, the water bottle may be set on the elevated shelf extending +down the center of the charging bench. + + [Fig. 134 Foot pump for drawing acid from carboy] + +Figure 134 shows another arrangement, using a tire pump. D and E are +3/8 inch hard rubber tubes. D is open at both ends and has a "T" +branch to which the pump tubing is attached. To operate, a finger is +held over the upper end of D, and air is pumped into the acid bottle, +forcing the acid into the vessel F. To stop the flow of acid, the +finger is removed from D. This stops the flow instantly. This method +is the most satisfactory one when fairly large quantities of acid or +water are to be drawn off. + + +SHOP LAYOUTS + + +The degree of success which the battery repairman attains depends to a +considerable extent upon the workshop in which the batteries are +handled. It is, of course, desirable to be able to build your shop, +and thus be able to have everything arranged as you wish. If you must +work in a rented shop, select a place which has plenty of light and +ventilation. The ventilation is especially important on account of the +acid fumes from the batteries. A shop which receives most of its light +from the north is the best, as the light is then more uniform during +the day, and the direct rays of the sun are avoided. Fig. 38 shows a +light, well ventilated workroom. + +The floor should be in good condition, since acid rots the wood and if +the floor is already in a poor condition, the acid will soon eat +through it. A tile floor, as described below, is best. A wooden floor +should be thoroughly scrubbed, using water to which baking soda has +been added. Then give the floor a coat of asphaltum paint, which +should be applied hot so as to flow into all cracks in the wood. When +the first coat is dry, several more coats should be given. Whenever +you make a solution of soda for any purpose, do not throw it away when +you are through with it. Instead, pour it on the floor where the acid +is most likely to be spilled. This will neutralize the acid and +prevent it from rotting the wood. + +If you can afford to build a shop, make it of brick, with a floor of +vitrified brick, or of tile which is not less than two inches thick, +and is preferably eight inches square. The seams should not be less +than one-eighth inch wide, and not wider than one fourth. They should +be grouted with asphaltum, melted as hot and as thin as possible (not +less than 350° F.). This should be poured in the seams. The brick or +tile should be heated near the seams before pouring in the asphaltum. +When all the seams have been filled, heat them again. After the second +heating, the asphaltum may shrink, and it may be necessary to pour in +more asphaltum. + +If possible, the floor should slope evenly from one end of the room to +the other. A lead drainage trough and pipe at the lower end of the +shop will carry off the acid and electrolyte. + +It is a good plan to give all work benches and storage racks and +shelves at least two coatings of asphaltum paint. This will prevent +rotting by the acid. + +The floor of a battery repair shop is, at best, a wet, sloppy affair, +and if a lead drainage trough is too expensive, there should be a +drain in the center of the floor if the shop is small, and several if +the shop is a large one. The floor should slope toward the drains, and +the drain-pipes should be made of glazed tile. + +To keep the feet as dry as possible, rubbers, or even low rubber boots +should be worn. Sulphuric acid ruins leather shoes, although leather +shoes can be protected to a certain extent by dipping them in hot +paraffine. + + [Fig. 135 Wooden grating on shop floor to give dry walking + surface for the repairman] + +A good plan is to lay a wooden grating over the floor as shown in +Figure 135. Water and acid will run down between the wooden strips, +leaving the walking surface fairly dry. If such a grating is made, it +should be built in sections which may be lifted easily to be washed, +and to permit washing the floor. Keep both the grating and the floor +beneath covered with asphaltum paint to prevent rotting by acid. Once +a week, or oftener, if necessary, sweep up all loose dirt and then +turn the hose on the floor and grating to wash off as much acid as +possible. When the wood has dried, a good thing to do is to pour on +the floor and grating several pails of water in which washing soda or +ammonia has been dissolved. + +Watch your floor. It will pay-in better work by yourself and by the +men working for you. Have large earthenware jars set wherever +necessary in which lead drillings, old plates, old connectors, old +separators, etc., may be thrown. Do not let junk cases, jars, +separators, etc., accumulate. Throw them away immediately and keep +your shop clean. A clean shop pleases Your customers, --and satisfied +customers mean success. + +On the following pages a number of shop layouts are given for both +large and small shops. The beginner, of course, may not be able to +rent even a small shop, but he may rent part of an established repair +shop, and later rent an entire shop. A man working in a corner of an +established service must arrange his equipment according to the space +available. Later on, when he branches out for himself, he should plan +his shop to got the best working arrangement. Figure 136 shows a +suggested layout for a small shop. Such a layout may have to be +altered because of the size and shape of the shop, and the location of +the windows. + + [Fig. 136 Floorplan: layout for a small shop] + +As soon as growth of business permits, a shop should have a drive-in, +so that the customer may bring his car off the street. Without a +drive-in all testing to determine what work is necessary will have to +be done at the curb, which is too public for many car owners. A +drive-in is also convenient if a customer leaves his car while his +battery is being repaired. To a certain extent, the advantages of a +drive-in may be secured by having a vacant lot next to the shop, with +a covering of cinders. As soon as possible, however, a shop which is +large enough to have a drive-in should be rented or built. + +Figure 137 shows a 24 x 60 shop with space for three cars. The shop +equipment is explained in the table. + +Figure 138 shows a 40 x 75 shop with room for six cars and a drive-in +and drive-out. This facilitates the handling of the cars. + +Figure 139 shows a 30 x 100 shop in a long and somewhat narrow +building. It also has a drive-in and drive-out. + +Another arrangement for the same sized shop as shown in the preceding +illustration is shown in Figure 140. Here the drive-out is at the side +and this layout is, therefore, suitable for a building located on a +corner, or next to an alley. + +Figure 141 shows a larger shop, which may be used after the business +has grown considerably. + +Figure 142 shows a layout suitable for the largest station. + +Somewhere between Figures 136 and 142 is a layout for any service +station. The thing to do is to select the one most suitable for the +size of the business, and to fit local conditions, If a special +building is put up, local conditions are not so important. + +If a shop is rented, it may not be possible to follow any of the +layouts shown in Figs. 136 to 142. However, the layout which is best +adapted for the actual shop should be selected as a guide, and the +equipment shown obtained. This should then be arranged as nearly like +the pattern layout as the shop arrangement will permit. + + +Concerning Light + + +Light is essential to good work, so you must have plenty of good light +and at the right place. For a light that is needed from one end of a +bench to the other, to look into each individual battery, or to take +the reading of each individual battery, there is nothing better than a +60 Watt tungsten lamp under a good metal shade, dark on outside and +white on inside. + +A unique way to hang a light and have it movable from one end of the +bench to the other, is to stretch a wire from one end of the bench to +the other. Steel or copper about 10 or 12 B & S gauge may be used. +Stretch it about four or five feet above top of bench directly above +where the light is most needed. If You have a double charging bench, +stretch the wire directly above middle of bench. Before fastening wire +to support, slip an old fashioned porcelain knob (or an ordinary +thread spool) on the wire. The drop cord is to be tied to this knob or +spool at whatever height you wish the light to hang (a few inches +lower than your head is the right height). + +Put the ceiling rosette above center of bench; cut your drop cord long +enough so that you can slide the light from one end of bench to the +other after being attached to rosette. Put vaseline on the wire so the +fumes of gas will not corrode it. This will also make the spool slide +easily. This gives you a movable, flexible light, with which you will +reach any battery on bench for inspection. The work bench light can be +rigged up the same way and a 75 or 100 Watt nitrogen lamp used. + + [Fig. 137 Shop layout] + + [Fig. 138 Shop layout] + +Fig. 137 and 138: A-Receiving Rack. B-Portable Electric Drill, or Hand +Drill. C-Wash Tank, D-Tear Down Bench. E-Hot Water Pan. F-Waiting Rack +(5 Shelves). G-Repair Bench (6 ft. by 2 ft. 3 in.). H-Charging Table +(3 Circuits). I-Electrolyte(10 Gal. Crocks). J-Separator Rack. +K-Generator. L-Switchboard. M-Stock Bins, N-New Batteries, O-Live +storage. P-Sealing Compound. R-Ready Rack (5-Shelves). S-Dry Storage. +(S is not in Fig. 137.) + + [Fig. 139, 140 & 141 Various shop layouts] + +Fig. 139, 140 and 141: A-Receiving Rack. B-Power Drill. C-Wash Tank. +D-Tear Down Bench. E-Hot Water Pan. F-Waiting Rack (6 Shelves). +G-Repair Bench. H-Charging Table (3 Circuits). I-Electrolyte (10 Gal. +Crocks). J-Separator Rack. K-Generator. L-Switchboard. M-Stock Bins. +N-New Batteries. O-Live storage. P-Sealing Compound. R-Ready Rack +(5-Shelves). S-Dry Storage. T-Torn Down Parts. (O and T in 141, not in +139 and 140.) + + [Fig. 142 Shop layout] + +Fig. 142: A-Receiving Rack. B-Power Drill. C-Wash Tank. D-Tear Down +Bench. E-Hot Water Pan. F-Waiting Rack (6 Shelves). G-Repair Bench. +H-Charging Table. I-Electrolyte (10 Gal. Crocks). J-Separator Rack. +K-Generator. L-Switchboard. M-Stock Bins. N-New Batteries. O-Live +storage. P-Sealing Compound. R-Ready Rack. S-Dry Storage. T-Torn Down +Parts. + + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 12. +GENERAL SHOP INSTRUCTIONS. +-------------------------- + + +CHARGING BATTERIES. + + +The equipment for charging batteries, instructions for building and +wiring charging benches have already been given. What we shall now +discuss is the actual charging. The charge a battery receives on the +charging bench is called a "bench charge." + +Battery charging in the service station may be divided into two +general classes: + +1. Charging batteries which have run down, but which are otherwise in +good condition, and which do not require repairs. + +2. Charging batteries during or after the repair process. + +The second class of charging is really a part of the repair process +and will-be described in the chapter on "Rebuilding the Battery." +Charging a battery always consists of sending a direct current through +it, the current entering the battery at the positive terminal and +leaving it at the negative terminal, the charging current, of course, +passing through the battery in the opposite direction to the current +which the battery produces when discharging. When a battery discharges +chemical changes take place by means of which electrical energy is +produced. When a battery is on charge, the charging current causes +chemical changes which are the reverse of those which take place on +discharge and which put the active materials and electrolyte in such a +condition that the battery serves as a source of electricity when +replaced in the car. + +Batteries are charged not only in a repair shop but also in garages +which board automobiles, and in car dealers' shops. No matter where a +battery is charged, however, the same steps must be taken and the same +precautions observed. + +When a Bench Charge is Necessary: + +(a) When a battery runs down on account of the generator on the car +not having a sufficient output, or on account of considerable night +driving being done, or on account of frequent use of the starting +motor, or on account of neglect on the part of the car owner. + +(b) Batteries used on cars or trucks without a generator, or batteries +used for Radio work should, of course, be given a bench charge at +regular intervals. + +(c) When the specific gravity readings of all cells are below 1.200, +and these readings are within 50 points of each other. + +Should the gravity reading of any cell be 50 points lower or higher +than that of the other cells, it is best to make a 15-seconds high +rate discharge test (see page 266) to determine whether the cell is +defective or whether electrolyte has been lost due to flooding caused +by over-filling and has been replaced by water or higher gravity +electrolyte. If any defect shows up during the high rate test, the +battery should be opened for inspection. If no defect shows up, put +the battery on charge. + +(d) When the lamps burn dimly while the engine is running. + +(e) When the lamps become very dim when the starting switch is closed. + +If a battery is tested by turning on the lights and then closing the +starting switch, make sure that there is no short-circuit or ground in +the starting motor circuits. Such trouble will cause a very heavy +current to be drawn from the battery, resulting in a drop in the +voltage of the battery. + +(f) When the voltage of the battery has fallen below 1.7 volts per +cell, measured while all the lights are turned on. + +(g) When the owner has neglected to add water to the cells regularly, +and the electrolyte has fallen below the tops of the plates. + +(h) When a battery has been doped by the addition of electrolyte or +acid instead of water, or when one of the "dope" electrolytes which +are advertised to make old, worn out batteries charge up in a +ridiculously short time and show as much life and power as a new +battery. Use nothing but a mixture of distilled water and sulphuric +acid for electrolyte. The "dope" solutions are not only worthless, but +they damage a battery considerably and shorten its life. Such a +"doped" battery may give high gravity *readings and yet the lamps will +become very dim when the starting motor cranks the car, the voltage +per cell will be low when the lights are burning, or low voltage +readings (1.50 per cell) will be obtained if a high rate discharge +test is made. + +Every battery which comes in for any reason whatsoever, or any battery +which is given a bench charge whenever necessary should also be +examined for other defects, such as poorly burned on connectors and +terminals, rotted case, handles pulled off, sealing compound cracked, +or a poor sealing job between the covers and jars, or covers and +posts. A slight leakage of electrolyte through cracks or imperfect +joints between the covers and jars or covers and posts is very often +present without causing any considerable trouble. If any of the other +troubles are found, however, the battery needs repairing. + +Arrangement of Batteries on Charging Bench. If a battery comes in +covered with dirt, set it on the wash rack or in the sink and clean it +thoroughly before putting it on charge. In setting the batteries on +the charging bench, place all of them so that the positive terminal is +toward the right as you face the bench. The positive terminal may be +found to be painted red, or may be stamped "+", "P", or "POS". If the +markings on one of the terminals has been scratched or worn off, +examine the other terminal. The negative terminal may be found to be +painted black, or be stamped "-", "N" or "NEG". + +If neither terminal is marked, the polarity may be determined with a +voltmeter, or by a cadmium test. To make the voltmeter test, hold the +meter wires on the battery terminals, or the terminals of either end +cell. When the voltmeter pointer moves to the right of the "0" line on +the scale, the wire attached to the "+" terminal of the meter is +touching the positive battery terminal, and the wire attached to the +"-" terminal of the meter is touching the negative battery terminal. +If this test is made with a meter having the "0" line at the center of +the scale, be sure that you know whether the pointer should move to +the left or right of the "0" line when the wire attached to the "+" +meter terminal is touching the positive battery terminal. + +Another method of determining which is the positive terminal of the +battery is to use the cadmium test. When a reading of about two volts +is obtained, the prod held on one of the cell terminals is touching +the positive terminal. When a reading of almost zero is obtained, that +is, when the needle of the meter just barely moves from the "0" line, +or when it does not move at all, the prod held on one of the cell +terminals is touching the negative terminal. This test, made while the +battery is on open-circuit, is not a regular cadmium test, but is made +merely to determine the polarity of the battery. + +The polarity of the charging line will always be known if the bench is +wired permanently. The positive charging wire should always be to the +right. If a separate switch is used for each battery (Figures 43 and +65), the wire attached to the right side of the switch is positive. If +the batteries are connected together by means of jumpers (Figures 44 +and 47), the positive charging wire should be at the right hand end of +the bench as seen when facing the bench. If a constant-potential +charging circuit is used as shown in Figure 48, the positive bus-bar +should be at the top and the neutral in the center, and the negative +at the bottom. + +If the polarity of the charging line wires is not known, it may be +determined by a voltmeter, in the same way as the batter-, polarity is +determined. If this is done, care should be taken to use a meter +having a range sufficient to measure the line voltage. If no such +voltmeter is available, a simple test is to fill a tumbler with weak +electrolyte or salt water and insert two wires attached to the line. +The ends of these wires should, of course, be bare for an inch or +more. Hold these wires about an inch apart, with the line alive. +Numerous fine bubbles of gas will collect around the negative wire. + +With the polarities of all the batteries known, arrange them so that +all the positive terminals are at the right. Then connect them to the +individual switches (see Figure 43), or connect them together with +jumpers (see Figure 44), being sure to connect the negative of one +battery to the positive of the next. Connect the positive charging +line wire to the positive terminal of the first battery, and the +negative line wire to the negative terminal of the last battery. See +page 105. + +With all connections made, and before starting to charge, go over all +the batteries again very carefully. You cannot be too careful in +checking the connections, for if one or more batteries are connected +reversed, they will be charged in the wrong direction, and will most +likely be severely damaged. + +As a final check on the connections of the batteries on the line, +measure the total voltage of these batteries and see if the reading is +equal to two times the total number of cells on the line. + +Now inspect the electrolyte in each cell. If it is low, add distilled +water to bring the electrolyte one-half inch above the plates. Do not +wait until a battery is charged before adding water. Do it now. Do not +add so much water that the electrolyte comes above the lower end of +the vent tube. This will cause flooding. + +Charging, Rate. If you connect batteries of various sizes together on +one circuit, charge at the rate which is normal for the smallest +battery. If the rate used is the normal one for the larger batteries, +the smaller batteries will be overheated and "boiled" to death, or +they may gas so violently as to blow a considerable portion of the +active material from the plates. + +It is quite possible to charge 6 and 12 volt batteries in series. The +important point is not to have the total number of cells too high. For +instance, if the 10 battery Tungar is used, ten 6-volt batteries (30 +cells), or any combination which gives 30 cells or less may be used. +For instance, five 12-volt batteries (30 cells), or six 6-volt +batteries (18 cells) and two 12-volt batteries (12 cells), or any +other combination totaling 30 cells may be used. The same holds true +for motor-generators. + +The charging rate is generally determined by the size of the charging +outfit. The ten battery Tungar should never have its output raised +above 6 amperes. A charging rate of 6 amperes is suitable for all but +the very smallest batteries. In any case, whether you are certain just +what charging rate to use, or not, there are two things which will +guide you, temperature and gassing. + +1. Temperature. Have a battery thermometer (Figure 37) on hand, and +measure the temperature of the electrolyte of each cell on the line. +If you note that some particular cell is running hotter than the +others, keep the thermometer in that cell and watch the temperature. +Do not let the temperature rise above 110 degrees Fahrenheit, except +for a very short time. Should the highest of the temperature of the +cells rise above 110 degrees, reduce the charging rate. + +2. Gassing. Near the end of a charge and when the specific gravity has +stopped rising, or is rising very slowly, bubbles of gas will rise +from the electrolyte, this being due to the charging current +decomposing the water of the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen. If +this gassing is too violent, a considerable amount of active material +will be blown from the plates. Therefore, when this gassing begins, +the charging rate should be reduced, unless the entire charging has +been done at a low rate, say about five amperes. + +If gassing begins in any cell soon after the charge is started, or +before the specific gravity has reached its highest point, reduce the +charging rate to eliminate the gassing. + +If one battery or one cell shows a high temperature and the others do +not, or begins gassing long before the others do, remove that battery +from the charging line for further investigation and replace it with +another so as not to slow up the charge of the other batteries which +are acting normally. + +As long as excessive temperatures and too-early gassing are avoided, +practically any charging rate may be used, especially at the start. +With a constant potential charging set, as shown in Figure 48, the +charge may start at as high a rate as 50 amperes. If this system of +charging is used, the temperature must be watched very carefully and +gassing must be looked for. With the usual series method of charging, +a charge may, in an emergency, be started at 20 amperes or more. As a +general rule do not use a higher rate than 10 amperes. A five ampere +rate is even better, but more time will be required for the charge. + +Time Required for a Charge. The time required is not determined by the +clock, but by the battery. Continue the charge until each cell is +gassing freely (not violently) and for five hours after the specific +gravity has stopped rising. The average condition of batteries brought +in for charge permits them to be fully charged in about 48 hours, the +time being determined as stated above. Some batteries may charge fully +in less time, and some may require from four days to a week, depending +entirely upon the condition of the batteries. Do not give any promise +as to when a recharge battery will be ready. No one can tell how long +it will take to charge. + +Specific Gravity at the End of the Charge. The specific gravity of the +electrolyte in a fully charged cell should be from 1.280 to 1.300. If +it varies more than 10 points above or below these values, adjust it +by drawing off some of the electrolyte with a hydrometer and adding +water to lower the gravity, or 1.400 acid to raise the gravity. After +adjusting the gravity charge for one hour more. + +Battery Voltage at End of Charge. The voltage of a fully charged cell +is from 2.5 to 2.7 when the temperature of the electrolyte is 80 +degrees Fahrenheit; 2.4 to 2.6 when the temperature of the electrolyte +is 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and 2.35 to 2.55 volts when the temperature +of the electrolyte is 120 degrees Fahrenheit, and this voltage, +together with hydrometer readings of 1.280-1.300 indicate that the +battery is fully charged. + +Just before putting a battery which has been charged into service, +give it a 15 seconds high rate discharge test, see page 266. + +Painting. Before returning a battery to the owner wipe it perfectly +clean and dry. Then wipe the covers, terminals, connectors and handles +with a rag wet with ammonia. Next give the case a light coat of black +paint which may be made by mixing lamp black and shellac. This paint +dries in about five minutes and gives a good gloss. The customer may +not believe that you are returning the battery which he brought in but +he will most certainly be pleased with your service and will feel that +if you take such pains with the outside of his battery you will +certainly treat the inside with the same care when repairs are +necessary. The light coat of paint costs very little for one battery, +but may bring you many dollars worth of work. + +Level of Electrolyte. During charge the electrolyte will expand, and +will generally flow out on the covers. This need not be wiped off +until the end of the charge. When the electrolyte has cooled after the +battery is taken off charge, it must be about 1/2 inch above the +plates. While the electrolyte is still warm it will stand higher than +this, but it should not be lowered by drawing off some of it, as this +will probably cause it to be below the tops of the plates and +separators when it cools. + + +TROUBLES + + +If all goes well, the charging process will take place as described in +the preceding paragraphs. It frequently happens, however, that all +does not go well, and troubles arise. Such troubles generally consist +of the following: + +Specific gravity will not rise to 1.280. This may be due to the plates +not taking a full charge, or to water having been used to replace +electrolyte which has been spilled. To determine which of these +conditions exist, make cadmium test (see page 174) on the positives +and negatives, also measure the voltage of each cell. If these tests +indicate that the plates are fully charged (cell voltage 2.5 to 2.7, +Positive-Cadmium 2.4 volts, Negative-Cadmium minus 0.15 to 0.20 +volts), you will know that there is not enough acid in the +electrolyte. The thing to do then is to dump out the old electrolyte, +refill with 1.300 electrolyte and continue the charge until the +specific gravity becomes constant. Some adjustment may then have to be +made by drawing off some of the electrolyte with a hydrometer and +adding water to lower the gravity, or 1.400 acid to bring it up. +Remember that specific gravity readings tell you nothing about the +plates, unless it is known that the electrolyte contains the correct +proportions of water and acid. The cadmium test is the test which +tells you directly whether or not the plates are charged and in +charging a battery the aim is to charge the plates, and not merely to +bring the specific gravity to 1.280. + +If the specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 and cadmium tests show +that the plates will not take a full charge, then the battery is, of +course, defective in some way. If the battery is an old one, the +negatives are probably somewhat granulated, the positives have +probably lost much of their active material, resulting in a +considerable amount of sediment in the jars, and the separators are +worn out, carbonized, or clogged with sediment. Such a battery should +not be expected to give as good service as a new one, and the best +thing to do if the tests show the battery to be more than half +charged, is to put it back on the car, taking care to explain to the +owner why his battery will not "come up" and telling him that he will +soon need a new battery. Remember that improperly treated separators, +or defective separators will cause poor Negative-Cadmium readings to +be obtained. + +If a fairly new battery will not take a full charge, as indicated by +hydrometer readings and cadmium tests, some trouble has developed due +to neglect, abuse, or defect in manufacture. If all cells of a fairly +new battery fail to take a full charge within 48 hours, the battery +has probably been abused by failing to add water regularly, or by +allowing battery to remain in an undercharged condition. Such a +battery should be kept on the line for several days more, and if it +then still will not take a full charge the owner should be told what +the condition of the battery is, and advised to have it opened for +inspection. + +If one cell of a battery fails to take a charge, but the other cells +charge satisfactorily, and cadmium tests show that the plates of this +cell are not taking a charge, the cell should be opened for +inspection. If one cell of a battery charges slowly, cut the other +cells out of the line, and charge the low cell in series with the +other batteries on the charging line. + +If all cells of a battery, whether new or old, will not take even half +a charge, as indicated by hydrometer readings (1.200), the battery +should be opened for inspection. + +If the gravity of a battery on charge begins to rise long before the +voltage rises, and if the gravity rises above 1.300, there is too +great a proportion of acid in the electrolyte. The remedy is to dump +out the electrolyte, refill with pure water and continue the charge at +a lower rate than before, until the specific gravity stops rising. +Then charge for ten hours longer, dump out the water (which has now +become electrolyte by the acid formed by the charging current), refill +with about 1.350 electrolyte and continue the charge, balancing the +gravity if necessary at the end of the charge. + +If a battery becomes very hot while on charge at a rate which is not +normally too high for the battery, it indicates that the battery is +badly sulphated, or has a partial short-circuit. Gassing generally +goes with the high temperature. + +If you can detect a vinegar-like odor rising from the vent holes, you +may be absolutely sure that the separators used in that battery have +developed acetic acid due to not having received the proper treatment +necessary to prepare them for use in the battery. The electrolyte +should be dumped from such a battery immediately and the battery +should be filled and rinsed with water several times. Then the battery +should be opened without loss of time, to see whether, by removing the +separators and washing the plates thoroughly, the plates may be saved. +If the acetic acid has been present for any length of time, however, +the plates will have been ruined beyond repair, the lead parts being +dissolved by the acid. + +If the electrolyte of a battery on charge has a white, milky look, +there may be impurities which cause numerous minute bubbles to form, +such bubbles giving the electrolyte its milky appearance. The milky +appearance may be due to the use of "hard" water in refilling, this +water containing lime. + +The electrolyte as seen with the acid of an electric lamp or +flashlight should be perfectly clear and colorless. Any scum, +particles of dirt, any color whatsoever shows that the electrolyte is +impure. This calls for dumping out the electrolyte, filling and +rinsing with pure water, refilling with new electrolyte and putting +the battery back on the charging line. Of course, this may not cause +the battery to charge satisfactorily, which may be due to the troubles +already described. + +Should it ever happen that it is impossible to send a current through +a charging circuit go over all the connections to make sure that you +have good contact at each battery terminal, and that there are no +loose inter-cell connectors. If all connections to the batteries are +good, and there are no loose inter-cell connectors, cut out one +battery at a time until you start the current flowing, when you cut +out some particular battery. This battery should then be opened +without further tests, as it is without a doubt in a bad condition. + +The conditions which may exist when a battery will not charge, as +shown especially by cadmium tests, are as follows: + +(a) The battery may have been allowed to remain in a discharged +condition, or the owner may have neglected to add water, with the +result that the electrolyte did not cover the plates. In either case a +considerable amount of crystallized sulphate will have formed in the +plates. Plates in such a condition will require a charge of about a +week at a low rate and will then have to be discharged and recharged +again. Several such cycles of charge and discharge may be necessary. +It may even be impossible to charge such a battery, no matter how many +cycles of charge and discharge are given. If the owner admits that his +battery has been neglected and allowed to stand idle for a +considerable time, get his permission to open the battery. + +(b) The battery may have been overheated by an excessive charging +rate, or by putting it on a car in a sulphated condition. The normal +charging rate of the generator on the car will over heat a sulphated +battery. Overheated plates buckle their lower edges cut through the +separators, causing a short-circuit between plates. + +(c) The pockets in the bottoms of the jars may have become filled with +sediment, and the sediment may be short-circuiting the plates. + +(d) Impurities may have attacked the plates and changed the active +materials to other substances which do not form a battery. Such plates +may be so badly damaged that they are brittle and crumbled. Acetic +acid from improperly treated separators will dissolve lead very +quickly, and may even cause an open circuit in the cell. + +(e) The conditions described in (a), (b), and (c) will permit a +charging current to pass through the battery, but the plates will not +become charged. It is possible, of course, but not probable, that a +condition may exist in which all the plates of one or both groups of a +cell may be broken from the connecting straps, or inter-cell +connectors may be making no contact with the posts. In such a case, it +would be impossible to send a charging current through the battery. +Acetic acid from improperly treated separators, and organic matter +introduced by the use of impure water in refilling will attack the +lead of the plates, especially at the upper surface of the +electrolyte, and may dissolve all the plate lugs from the connecting +straps and cause an open-circuit. + +(f) The separators may be soggy and somewhat charred and blackened, or +they may be clogged up with sulphate, and the battery may need new +separators. + +(g) The spongy lead may be bulged, or the positives may be buckled. +The active material is then not making good contact with the grids, +and the charging current cannot get at all the sulphate and change it +to active material. The remedy in such a case is to press the +negatives so as to force the active material back into the grids, and +to put in new positives if they are considerably buckled. + +(h) One of the numerous "dope" electrolytes which are offered to the +trustful car owner may have been put in the battery. Such "dopes" +might cause very severe damage to the plates. Tell your customers to +avoid using such "dope." + +The conditions which may exist when the plates of a battery take a +charge, as indicated by cadmium tests, but the gravity will not come +up to 1.280 are as follows: + +(a) There may be considerable sediment in the jars but not enough to +short circuit the plates. If the battery has at some time been in a +sulphated condition and has been charged At too high a rate, the +gassing that resulted will have caused chips of the sulphate to drop +to the bottom of the jars. When this sulphate was formed, some of the +acid was taken from the electrolyte, and if the sulphate drops from +the plates, this amount of acid cannot be recovered no matter how long +the charge is continued. If the owner tells you that his battery has +stood idle for several months at some time, this is a condition which +may exist. The remedy is to wash and press the negatives, wash the +positives, put in new separators, pour out the old electrolyte and +wash out the jars, fill with 1.400 acid, and charge the battery. + +(b) Impurities may have used up some of the acid which cannot be +recovered by charging. If the plates are not much damaged the remedy +is the same as for (a). Damaged plates may require renewal. + +(c) Electrolyte may have been spilled accidentally and replaced by +water. + +(d) Too much water may have been added, with the result that the +expansion of the electrolyte due to a rise in temperature on charge +caused it to overflow. This, of course, resulted in a loss of some of +the acid. + +The causes given in (c) and (d) may have resulted in the top of the +battery case being acid-eaten or rotted. The remedy in these two +instances is to draw off some of the electrolyte, add some 1.400 acid +and continue the charge. If plates and separators look good and there +is but little sediment, this is the thing to do. + +If Battery will not hold a Charge. If a battery charges properly but +loses its charge in a week or less, as indicated by specific gravity +readings, the following troubles may exist: + +(a) Impurities in the cells, due to the use of impure water in the +electrolyte, or in the separators. Some impurities (see page 76) do +not attack the plates, but merely cause self-discharge. The remedy is +to dump out the old electrolyte, rinse the jars with pure water, fill +with new electrolyte of the same gravity as the old and recharge. If +this does not remove impurities, the battery should be opened, the +plates washed, jars cleaned out, new separators put in, and battery +reassembled and charged. + +(b) There may be a slow short-circuit, due to defective separators or +excessive amount of sediment. If preliminary treatment in (a) does not +cause battery to hold charge, the opening of battery and subsequent +treatment will remove the cause of the slow short-circuit. + + +Suggestions + + +1. Make sure every battery is properly tagged before going on line. + +2. Determine as quickly as possible from day to day, those batteries +that will not charge. Call owner and get permission to open up any +such battery and do whatever is necessary to put it in good shape. + +3. As soon as a battery charges to 1.280-1.300, the voltage is 2.5-2.7 +per cell and the cadmium readings are 2.4 or more for the positives +and -0.15 to -0.20 for the negatives and the gravity voltage and +cadmium readings do not change for five hours, remove it from the line +as finished and replace it with another if possible. Go over your line +at least three times a day and make gravity, temperature, and cadmium +tests. + +4. Make a notation, with chalk, of the gravity of each cell each +morning. Do not trust to memory. + +5. Remove from the line as soon as possible any battery that has a +leaky cell and neutralize with soda the acid that has leaked out. + +6. Batteries that are sloppers, with rotten cases, and without handles +are sick and need a doctor. Go after the owner and get permission to +repair. + +7. Keep the bench orderly and clean. + +8. Remember that if you have a line only partly full and have other +batteries waiting to be charged you are losing money by not keeping a +full line. + +9. Leave the Vent Plugs in When Charging. The atmosphere in many +service stations, where the ventilation is poor, is so filled with +acid fumes that customers object to doing business there. + +The owners of these places may not notice these conditions, being used +to it, or rather glory in being able to breathe such air without +coughing or choking, but it certainly does not invite a customer to +linger and spend his money. + +The remedy for such a condition is to leave the vent plugs in place on +the batteries that are charging so that the acid spray in the gas from +the battery condenses out as it strikes these plugs and drips back +into the cells, while the gas passes out through the small openings in +the plug. + +The plugs need only be screwed into the openings by one turn, or only +set on top of the vent openings to accomplish the result. + +This takes no additional time and more than repays for itself in the +saving of rusted tools and improved conditions in the battery room and +surroundings. In charging old Exide batteries, be sure to replace the +vent plugs and turn them to open the air passages which permit the +escape of gases which form under the covers. If you wish to keep these +air passages open without replacing the plugs, which may be done for +convenience, give the valve (see page 21) a quarter turn with a +screwdriver or some other tool. + +10. If the electrolyte from a battery rises until it floods over the +top of the jar, it shows that too much water was added when the +battery was put on charge, the water rising to the bottom of the vent +tube, thereby preventing gases formed (except those directly below the +vent hole) from escaping. This gas collects under the covers, and its +pressure forces the electrolyte up into the vent hole and over the top +of the battery. In charging old U.S.L. batteries it is especially +necessary to keep the air vent (see page 20) open to prevent flooding, +since the lower end of the vent tube is normally a little below the +surface of the electrolyte. + +Remember, do not have the electrolyte come up to the lower end of the +vent tube. + +NOTE: To obtain satisfactory negative cadmium readings, the charging +rate should be high enough to give a cell voltage of 2.5-2.7. + +Improperly treated separators, or separators which have been allowed +to become partly dry at any time will make it impossible to obtain +satisfactory negative cadmium readings. + + +LEAD BURNING (WELDING) + + +Lead cannot be "burned" in the sense that it bursts into flame as a +piece of paper does when a match is applied to it. If sufficient heat +is applied, the lead will oxidize and feather away into a yellow +looking dust, but it does not burn. The experienced battery man knows +that by "lead burning" is meant the heating of lead to its melting +point, so that two lead surfaces will weld together. This is a welding +and not a "burning" process, and much confusion would be avoided if +the term "lead welding" were used in place of the term "lead burning." + +The purpose of welding lead surfaces together is to obtain a joint +which offers very little resistance to the flow of current, it being +absolutely necessary to have as low a resistance as possible in the +starting circuit. Welding also makes joints which are strong +mechanically and which cannot corrode or become loose as bolted +connections do. Some earlier types of starting and lighting batteries +had inter-cell connectors which were bolted to the posts, but these +are no longer used. + +The different kinds of lead-burning outfits are listed on page 143 The +oxygen-acetylene and the oxygen-hydrogen flames give extremely high +temperatures and enable you to work fast. Where city gas is available, +the oxygen illuminating gas combination will give a very good flame +which is softer than the oxygen acetylene, oxygen-hydrogen outfits. +Acetylene and compressed air is another good combination. + +There are two general classes of lead-welding: + +(a) Welding connecting bars, called "cell" connectors, top connectors, +or simply "connectors," to the posts which project up through the cell +covers, and welding terminals to the end posts of a battery. + +(b) Welding plates to "straps" to form groups. The straps, of course, +have joined to them the posts which project through the cell covers +and by means of which cells are connected together, and connections +made to the electrical system of the car. + +In addition to the above, there are other processes in which a burning +(welding) flame is used: + +(c) Post-building, or building posts, which have been drilled or cut +short, up to their original size. + +(d) Extending plate lug. If the lug which connects a plate to the +plate strap is too short, due to being broken, or cut too short, the +lug may be extended by melting lead into a suitable iron form placed +around the lug. + +(e) Making temporary charging connections between cells by lightly +welding lead strips to the posts so as to connect the cells together. + +(f) A lead-burning (welding) flame is also used to dry out the channel +in cell covers before pouring in the sealing compound, in re-melting +sealing compound which has already been poured, so as to assure a +perfect joint between the compound cover and jar, and to give the +compound a smooth glossy finish. These processes are not welding +processes and will not be described here. + + +General Lead Burning Instructions + + +Flame. With all the lead burning outfits, it is possible to adjust the +pressures of the gases so as to get extremely hot, medium, and soft +flames. With the oxygen-acetylene, or oxygen-hydrogen flame, each gas +should have a pressure of about two pounds. With the +oxygen-illuminating gas flame, the oxygen should have a pressure of 8 +to 10 pounds. The city gas then does not need to have its pressure +increased by means of a pump, the normal pressure (6 to 8 ounces) +being satisfactory. + +Various makes of lead-burning outfits are on the market, and the +repairman should choose the one which he likes best; since they all +give good results. All such outfits have means of regulating the +pressures of the gases used. With some the gases are run close to the +burning tip before being mixed, and have an adjusting screw where the +gases mix. Others have a Y shaped mixing valve at some distance from +the burning tip, as shown in Figure 78. Still others have separate +regulating valves for each gas line. + +With these adjustments for varying the gas pressure, extremely hot, +hissing flames, or soft flames may be obtained. For the different +welding jobs, the following flames are suitable: + +1. A sharp, hissing flame, having a very high temperature is the one +most suitable for the first stage in welding terminals and connectors +to the posts. + +2. A medium flame with less of a hiss is suitable for welding plates +to strips and lengthening plate lugs. + +3. A soft flame which is just beginning to hiss is best for the +finishing of the weld between the posts and terminals or connectors. +This sort of a flame is also used for finishing a sealing job, drying +out the cover channels before sealing, and so on. + +In adjusting the burning flame, 4 the oxygen is turned off entirely, a +smoky yellow flame is obtained. Such a flame gives but little heat. As +the oxygen is gradually turned on the flame becomes less smoky and +begins to assume a blue tinge. It will also be noticed that a sort of +a greenish cone forms in the center portion of the flame, with the +base of the cone at the torch and the tip pointed away from the torch. +At first this inner-cone is long and of almost the same color as the +outer portion of the flame. As the oxygen pressure is increased, this +center cone becomes shorter and of a more vivid color, and its tip +begins to whip about. When the flame is at its highest temperature it +will produce a hissing sound and the inner cone will be short and +bright. With a softer flame, which has a temperature suitable for +welding plates to a strap, the inner cone will be longer and less +vivid, and the hissing will be greatly diminished. + +The temperature of the different parts of the flame varies +considerably, the hottest part being just beyond the end of the inner +cone. Experience with the particular welding outfit used will soon +show how far the tip of the torch should be held from the lead to be +melted. + +Cleanliness. Lead surfaces which are to be welded together must be +absolutely free from dirt. Lead and dirt will not mix, and the dirt +will float on top of the lead. Therefore, before trying to do any lead +welding, clean the surfaces which are to be joined. The upper ends of +plate lugs may be cleaned with a flat file, knife., or wire brush. The +posts and inter-cell connectors should be cleaned with a knife, steel +wire brush, or triangular scraper. Do not clean the surfaces and then +wait a long time before doing the lead burning. The lead may begin to +oxidize if this is done and make it difficult to do a good job. + +The surfaces which are to be welded together should also be dry. If +there is a small hole in the top of a post which is to be welded to a +connector or terminal, and this hole contains acid, a shower of hot +lead may be thrown up by the acid, with possible injury to the +operator. + +Do not try to save time by attempting to weld dirty or wet lead +surfaces, because time cannot be saved by doing so, and you run the +risk of being injured if hot lead is thrown into your face. Remove +absolutely every speck of dirt--you will soon learn that it is the +only way to do a good job. + +Safety Precautions. Remove the vent plugs and blow down through the +vent holes to remove any gases which may have collected above the +surface of the electrolyte. An explosion may result if this is not +done. To protect the rubber covers, you may cover the whole top of the +battery except the part at which the welding is to be done, with a +large piece of burlap or a towel which has been soaked in water. The +parts covered by the cloth must be dried thoroughly if any welding on +them. Instead of using a wet cloth, a strip of asbestos may be laid +over the vent holes, or a small square of asbestos may be laid over +each vent hole. + + +Burning on the Cell Connectors and Terminals + +Have the posts perfectly clean and free from acid. Clean the tops, +bottoms and sides of the connectors with a wire brush, Figure 143. +Finish the top surfaces with a coarse file, Figure 144. With a pocket +knife clean the inside surfaces of the connector holes. Place the +connectors and terminals in their proper positions on the posts, and +with a short length of a two by two, two by one, or two by four wood +pound them snugly in position, Figure 145. Be sure that the connectors +are perfectly level and that the connectors are in the correct +position as required on the car on which the battery is to be used. +The top of the post should not come flush with the top of the +connector. Note, from Figure 146, that the connector has a double +taper, and that the lower tapered surface is not welded to the post. +If the post has been built up too high it should be cut down with a +pair of end cutting nippers so that the entire length of the upper +taper in the connector is in plain sight when the connector is put in +position on the post. This is shown in Figure 146. With the connectors +in place, and before welding them to the posts, measure the voltage of +the whole battery to be sure that the cells are properly connected, as +shown by the voltage reading being equal to two times the number of +cells. If one cell has been reversed, as shown by a lower voltage +reading now is the time to correct the mistake. + + [Fig. 143 Brushing connector before burning in] + + [Fig. 144 Rasping connector before burning in] + +The connectors and terminals are now ready to be welded to the posts. +Before bringing any flame near the battery be sure that you have blown +out any gas which may have collected under the covers. Then cover the +vents with asbestos or a wet cloth as already described. You will +need strips of burning lead, such as those made in the burning lead +mould described on page 164. + +Use a hot, hissing flame for the first stage. With the flame properly +adjusted, hold it straight above the post, and do not run it across +the top of the battery. Now bring the flame straight down over the +center of the post, holding it so that the end of the inner cone of +the flame is a short distance above the post. When the center of the +post begins to melt, move the flame outward with a circular motion to +gradually melt the whole top of the post, and to melt the inner +surface of the hole in the connector. Then bring the lower end of your +burning lead strip close to and over the center of the hole, and melt +in the lead, being sure to keep the top of the post and the inner +surface of the hole in the connector melted so that the lead you are +melting in will flow together and unite. Melt in lead until it comes +up flush with the upper surface of the connector. Then remove the +flame. This completes the first stage of the welding process. Now +repeat the above operation for each post and terminal. + + [Fig. 145 Leveling top connectors before burning in] + +It is essential that the top of the post and the inner surface of the +hole in the connector be kept melted as long as you are running in +lead from the strip of burning lead. This is necessary to have all +parts fuse together thoroughly. If you allow the top of the post, or +the inner surface of the hole in the connector to chill slightly while +you are feeding in the lead, the parts will not fuse, and the result +will be a poor Joint, which will heat up and possibly reduce the +current obtained from the battery when the starting switch is closed. +This reduction may prevent the starting motor from developing +sufficient torque to crank the engine. + +When the joint cools, the lead will shrink slightly over the center of +the posts. To finish the welding, this lead is to be built up flush or +slightly higher than the connector. Brush the tops of the post and +connector thoroughly with a wire brush to remove any dirt which may +have been floating in the lead. (Dirt always floats on top of the +lead.) Soften the burning flame so that it is just barely beginning to +hiss. Bring the flame down over the center of the post. When this +begins to melt, move the flame outward with a circular motion until +the whole top of post and connector begins to melt and fuse. If +necessary run in some lead from the burning lead strip. When the post +and connector are fused, clear to the outer edge of the connector, +raise the flame straight up from the work. + + [Fig. 146 Connector in position on post for for welding to post. + Surfaces A-B are not welded together] + +You will save time by doing the first stage of the burning on all +posts first, and then finish all of them. This is quicker than trying +to complete both stages of burning on each post before going to the +next post. The object in the finishing stage is to melt a thin layer +of the top of post and connector, not melting deep enough to have the +outer edge of the connector melt and allow the lead to run off. All +this must be done carefully and dexterously to do a first-class job, +and you must keep the flame moving around over the top and not hold it +in any one place for ally length of time, so as not to melt too deep, +or to melt the outer edge and allow the lead to run off and spoil the +job. Sometimes the whole mass becomes too hot and the top cannot be +made smooth with the flame. If this occurs wait until the connector +cools, soften the flame, and try again. Figure 147 shows the welding +completed. + + [Fig. 147 Connectors "burned" to posts] + + +Burning Plates to Strap and Post + + +First clean all the surfaces which are to be welded together. Take +your time in doing this because you cannot weld dirty surfaces +together. + +Plates which compose a group are welded to a "strap" to which a post +is attached, as shown in Figure 5. The straps shown in Figure 5 are +new ones, as made in the factory. Plate lugs are set in the notches in +the straps and each one burned in separately. In using old straps from +a defective group, it is best to cut the strap close to the post, thus +separating all the plates from the post in one operation, as was done +with the post shown in Figure 96. If only one or two plates are to be +burned on, they are broken or cut off and slots cut in the strap to +receive the lugs of the new plates, as shown in Figures 148 and 149. + + [Fig. 148 Sawing slot in plate strap] + +Set the plates in a plate burning rack, as shown in Figure 96, placing +the adjustable form around the lugs and strap as shown in this figure. +Be sure to set the post straight, so that the covers will fit. A good +thing is to try a cover over the post to see that the post is set up +properly. The post must, of course, be perpendicular to the tops of +the plates. If the slotted plate strap shown in Figure 5 is used, or +if one or two plates have been cut off, melt the top of the lug of one +of the plates which are to be burned oil, and the surfaces of the +strap to which the plate is to be welded. Melt in lead from a +burning-lead strip to bring the metal up flush with the surface of the +strap. Proceed with each plate which is to be burned on. + +If all the plates have been sawed from the strap, leaving the post +with a short section of the strap attached, as shown in Figure 96, +melt the edge of the strap, and the top of one or two of the end plate +lugs and run in lead from the burning strip to make a good joint. +Proceed in this way until all the lugs are joined to the strap and +then run the flame over the top of the entire strap to make a smooth +uniform weld. Be sure to have the lower edge of the strap fuse with +the plate lugs and then run in lead to build the strap up to the +proper thickness. Raise the flame occasionally to see that all parts +are fusing thoroughly and to prevent too rapid heating. + + [Fig. 149 Slotting saw, a group with two plates cut off, and + slots in strap for new plates] + +When enough lead has been run in to build the strap tip to the correct +thickness and the plate lugs are thoroughly fused with the strap, +raise the flame straight up from the work. Allow the lead to "set" and +then remove the adjustable form and lift the group from the burning +rack. Turn the group up-side-down and examine the bottom of the strap +for lead which ran down the lugs during the welding process. Cut off +any such lead with a saw, as it may cause a short-circuit when the +plates are meshed with the other group. + + +Post Building + + +In drilling down through the inter-cell connectors to separate them +from the posts in opening a battery, the posts may be drilled too +short. In reassembling the battery it is then necessary to build the +posts up to their original height. This is done with the aid of +post-builders, shown in Figure 100. + +Clean the stub of the post thoroughly and also clean the inside of the +post builder. Then set the post builder carefully over the stub post, +so that the upper surface of the post builder is parallel to the upper +surface of the plate strap. The built up post will then be +perpendicular to the surface of the strap, which is necessary, in +order to have the covers and connectors fit properly. + +With the post builder set properly adjust the burning torch to get a +sharp, hissing flame. Bring the flame straight down on the center of +the post stub. When the center of the post stub begins to melt, move +the flame outward with a circular motion until the whole top of the +stub begins to melt. Then run in lead from a burning lead strip, +Figure 101, at the same time keeping the flame moving around on the +top of the post to insure a good weld. In this way build up the post +until the lead comes up to the top of the post builder. Then lift the +flame straight up from the post. Allow the lead to set, and then +remove the post builder, grasping it with a pair of gas or combination +pliers and turn the post builder around to loosen it. + + +Extending Plate Lugs + + +It sometimes happens that a good plate is broken from a strap, thus +shortening the lug. Before the plate may be used again, the lug must +be extended to its original length. To do this, clean the surfaces of +the lug carefully, lay the plate on a sheet of asbestos, and place an +iron form having a slot of the correct width, length, and thickness, +as shown in Figure 150. Use a medium hissing flame, and melt the upper +edge of the lug, and then run in lead from the lead burning strip to +fill the slot in the iron form. The plate may then be used again. + + [Fig. 150 Extending lug on plate] + + +Making Temporary Charging Connections + + +After a battery has been opened it is often desired to charge a +battery without burning on the intercell connectors. Temporary +connections may be made between cells by placing a short length of a +burning lead strip from post to post and applying a flame for an +instant to spot-weld the strip to the top of the post. + + +MOULDING LEAD PARTS + + +In using special moulds for casting inter-cell connectors, plate +straps with posts, terminals, etc., follow the special instructions +furnished by the manufacturers as to the manipulation of the special +moulds made by them. + +Aside from the special instructions for the use of moulds, there are +general rules for the melting of lead and handling it after it is +melted, which must be observed if good castings are to be made. + +Raw Materials. In every battery repair shop a supply of old terminals, +cell connectors, posts, and straps, will gradually accumulate. These +should not be thrown away or sold as junk, but should be kept in a box +or jar provided for that purpose. Old plates should not be saved, +since the amount of lead in the grid is small and it is often covered +with sulphate. The lugs connecting the plates to the straps may, +however, be used. Before using the scrap lead as much dirt as possible +should be brushed off, and all moisture must be dried off thoroughly. +Scrap lead contains some antimony, which is metal used to give +stiffness to the parts. Using miscellaneous scrap sometimes gives +castings which do not contain the proper percentage of antimony. If +there is too much antimony present, cracked castings will be the +result. To remedy this condition, bars of pure lead should be +purchased from some lead manufacturing company. Adding pure lead will +reduce the percentage of antimony. Bars of pure antimony should also +be kept oil hand in case the castings are too soft. + +Lead Melting Pots are standard articles which may be purchased from +jobbers. A pot having a 25 pound capacity is suitable for small shops +and for larger shops a 125-pound size is best. Before melting any lead +in such pots, have them thoroughly free from dirt, grease, or +moisture, not merely in order to get clean castings, but also to avoid +melted lead being thrown out of the pot on account of the presence of +moisture. Severe burns may be the result of carelessness in this +respect. + +In starting with an empty melting pot, turn oil the heat before +putting in any lead, and let the pot become thoroughly heated in order +to drive off any moisture. With the pot thoroughly hot, drop in the +lead, which must also be dry. When the metal has become soft enough to +stir with a clean pine stick, skim off the dirt and dross which +collects on top and continue heating the lead until it is slightly +yellow oil top. Dirt and lead do not mix, and the dirt rises to the +top of the metal where it may readily be skimmed off. + +With a paddle or ladle, drop in a cleaning compound of equal parts of +powdered rosin, borax, and flower of sulphur. Use a teaspoonful of +this compound for each ten pounds of metal, and be sure that the +compound is absolutely dry. Stir the metal a little, and if it is at +the proper temperature, there will be a flare, flash, or a little +burning. A sort of tinfoil popcorn effect will be noticed oil top of +the lead. Stir until this melts down. + +Have the ladle with which you dip up the melted lead quite dry. When +dipping up some of the lead, skim back the dark skin which forms oil +top of the lead and dip up the clean bright lead for pouring. + +In throwing additional lead into a pot which is partly filled with +melted lead, be sure that the lead which is thrown in the pot is dry, +or else hot lead may be spattered in your face. + +Have the moulds clean and dry. The parts with which the lead comes +into contact should be dusted with a mould compound which fills in the +rough spots in the metal so that the flow of lead will not be +obstructed, and the lead will fill the mould quickly. Dip tip enough +lead to fill the part of the mould you use. When you once start +pouring do not, under any circumstance, stop pouring until the lead +has completely filled the mould. Lead cools very quickly after it is +poured into the mould, and if you stop pouring even for all instant, +you will have a worthless casting. + +In a shop having an ordinary room temperature, it is generally +unnecessary to heat the moulds before making up a number of castings. +If it is found, however, that the first castings are defective due to +the cold mould chilling the lead, the mould should be heated with a +soft flame. After a few castings have been made, the mould will become +hot enough so that there will be no danger of the castings becoming +chilled. + +When the castings have cooled sufficiently to be removed, strike the +mould a few blows with a wooden mallet or a rawhide hammer to loosen, +the castings before opening the mould. The castings may then be +removed with a screwdriver. + +Cracked castings indicate that the mould was opened before the +castings had cooled sufficiently, or that there is too much antimony +in the castings. The remedy is to let the castings cool for a longer +time, or to add pure lead to the melting pot. + + +HANDLING AND MIXING ACID + + +The electrolyte used in the battery is made by mixing chemically pure +concentrated Sulphuric Acid with chemically pure water. The +concentrated acid, or "full strength" acid cannot be used, not only +because it would destroy the plates, but also because water is needed +for the chemical actions which take place as a cell charges and +discharges. The water therefore serves, not only to dilute the acid, +but also to make possible the chemical reactions of charge and +discharge. + +The full strength acid has a specific gravity of 1.835, and is mixed +with the water to obtain the lower specific gravity which is necessary +in the battery. The simplest scheme is to use only 1.400 specific +gravity acid. This acid is used in adjusting the specific gravity of a +battery on charge in case the specific gravity fails to rise to a high +enough value. It is also used in filling batteries that have been +repaired. + +Acid is received from the manufacturer in ten gallon glass bottles +enclosed in wooden boxes, these being called "carboys." Distilled +water comes in similar bottles. When distilled in the shop, the water +should be collected in bottles also, although smaller ones may be used. + +Neither the acid nor the water should ever be placed in any vessels +but those made of lead, glass, porcelain, rubber, or glazed +earthenware. Lead cups, tanks, and funnels may be used in handling +electrolyte, but the electrolyte must not be put in containers made of +any metal except lead. Lead is rather expensive for making such +containers, and the glass bottles, porcelain, rubber, or glazed +earthenware may be used. + +In mixing acid with water, pour the water in the bottle, pitcher or +jar, and then add the acid to the water very slowly. Do not pour the +acid in quickly, as the mixture will become very hot, and may throw +spray in your face and eyes and cause severe burns. Never add the +water to the acid, as this might cause an explosion and burn your face +and eyes seriously. Stir the mixture thoroughly with a wooden paddle +while adding the acid. A graduate, such as is used in photography, is +very useful in measuring out the quantities of acid and water. The +graduate may be obtained in any size up to 64 ounces, or two quarts. +In using the graduate for measuring both acid and water, be sure to +use the following table giving the parts of water by volume. Although +the graduate is marked in ounces, it is for ounces of water only. If, +for instance, the graduate were filled to the 8 ounce mark with acid, +there would be more than eight ounces of acid in the graduate because +the acid is heavier than the water. But if the proportions of acid and +water are taken by volume, the graduate may be used. + +A convenient method in making up electrolyte, is to have a 16 ounce +graduate for the acid, and a 32 or 64 ounce graduate for the water. In +the larger graduate pour the water up to the correct mark. In the 16 +ounce graduate, pour 1.400 acid up to the 10 ounce mark. Then add the +acid directly to the water in the graduate, or else pour the water +into a bottle or pitcher, and add the acid to that. For instance, if +we have a 32 ounce graduate, and wish to make up some 1.280 acid, we +fill this graduate with water up to the 5-1/2 ounce mark. We then fill +the 16 ounce graduate with 1.400 acid up to the 10 ounce mark. Then we +slowly pour the 1.400 acid into the graduate containing the water, +giving us 1.280 acid. In a similar manner other specific gravities are +obtained, using the same amount of 1.400 acid in each case, but +varying the amount of water according to the figures given in the last +column of the next to the last table. + +The following table shows the number of parts of distilled water to +one part of 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte to prepare electrolyte +of various specific gravities. The specific gravity of the mixture +must be taken when the temperature of the mixture is 70° F. If its +temperature varies more than 5 degrees above or below 70°F, make the +corrections described on page 65 to find what the specific gravity +would be if the temperature were 70° F. + + +BY WEIGHT + + +For 1.300 specific gravity use 5 ounces of distilled water for each +pound of 1.400 electrolyte. + +For 1.280 specific gravity use 6-1/2 ounces of distilled water for +each pound of 1.400 electrolyte. + +For 1.275 specific gravity use 6-3/4 ounces distilled water for each +pound of 1.400 electrolyte. + +For 1.260 specific gravity use 7-1/2 ounces distilled water for each +pound of 1.400 electrolyte. + + +BY VOLUME + + +For 1.300 specific gravity use 3-1/2 pints distilled water for each +gallon of 1.400 electrolyte. + +For 1.280 specific gravity use 4-1/2 pints distilled water for each +gallon of 1.400 electrolyte. + +For 1.275 specific gravity use 5 pints distilled water for each gallon +of 1.400 electrolyte. + +For 1.260 specific gravity use 5-1/4 pints distilled water for each +gallon of 1.400 electrolyte. + +In case you wish to use other measuring units than those given in the +above table, this table may be written as follows, giving the number +of parts distilled water to 10 parts of 1.400 specific gravity +electrolyte: + +Specific Gravity Desired Parts by Weight Parts by Volume +---------------- ----------------------- --------------- +1.300 3 4-1/4 +1.280 4 5-1/4 +1.275 4-1/6 6 +1.260 4-7/10 6-1/2 + +The next table gives the number of parts of distilled water to 10 +parts of concentrated sulphuric acid (which has a specific gravity of +1.835) to prepare electrolyte of various specific gravities: + +Specific Gravity Desired Parts by Weight Parts by Volume +------------------------ --------------- --------------- +1.400 8-1/2 15-8/10 +1.300 13-1/2 15-8/10 +1.300 13-1/2 25 +1.280 15 27 +1.270 16 28 +1.260 17 30 + + +PUTTING NEW BATTERIES INTO SERVICE + + +New batteries are received (a) fully charged and ready for service, +(b) fully assembled with moistened plates and separators, but without +electrolyte, (c) in a "knockdown" condition, with dry plates and +without separators, (d) fully assembled with "bone dry" plates and +rubber separators, and without electrolyte. + +Those received fully charged should be put on a car as soon as +possible. Otherwise they will grow old on the shelf. Every month on +the shelf is a month less of life. If the battery cannot be sold, put +it into dry-storage. Batteries received in condition (b) should not be +kept in stock for more than six months. Batteries received with dry +plates and without separators or with rubber separators may be stored +indefinitely without deteriorating. + + +Batteries Shipped Fully Charged, or "Wet." All Makes. + + +Unpack the battery, keeping the packing case right side up to avoid +spilling electrolyte. + +Brush off all excelsior and dirt, and examine the battery carefully to +see if it has been damaged during shipment. If any damage has been +done, claim should be made against the express or railroad company. + +1. Remove the vent caps from the cells and determine the height of the +electrolyte. It should stand from three-eighths to one-half inch above +the tops of the plates. The level may be determined with a glass tube, +as shown in Fig. 30. If the electrolyte is below the tops of the +plates, it has either been spilled, or else there is a leaky jar. If +all cells have a low level of electrolyte, it is probable that the +electrolyte has been spilled. + +2. Next measure the specific gravity of the electrolyte of each cell +with the hydrometer, and then add water to bring the electrolyte up to +the correct level, if this is necessary. Should the temperature of the +air be below freezing, charge the battery for an hour if water is +added no matter what the specific gravity readings are. This will +cause the water to mix thoroughly with the electrolyte. If the battery +were not charged after water is added, the water, being lighter than +the electrolyte, would remain on top and freeze. For this one hour +charge, use the "starting" rate, as stamped on the nameplate. + +3. If the specific gravity of the electrolyte reads below 1.250, +charge the battery until the specific gravity reads between 1.280 and +1.300. For this charge use the normal bench charging rates. + +4. After this charge place the battery on a clean, dry spot for +twenty-four hours as an extra test for a leaky jar. If there is any +dampness under the battery, or on the lower part of the battery case, +a leaky jar is indicated. An inspection of the level of the +electrolyte, which even though no dampness shows, will show the leaky +jar. + +5. Just before putting the battery on the car, make the high rate +discharge test on it. See page 266. + + +BATTERIES SHIPPED "DRY" + + +Exide Batteries + + +Storing. 1. Keep the battery in a dry, clean place, and keep the room +temperature above 32 degrees, and below 110 degrees Fahrenheit. + +2. Put the battery into service before the expiration of the time +limit given on the tag attached to the battery. The process of putting +the battery into service will require about five days. + +3. If the battery has been allowed to stand beyond the time limit, +open up one of the cells just before beginning the process necessary +to put the battery into service. If the separators are found to be +cracked, split, or warped, throw away all the separators from all the +cells and put in new ones. If the separators are in good condition, +reassemble the cell and put the battery into service. + +Putting Battery into Service. 1. Fill the cells with electrolyte of +the correct specific gravity. To do this, remove the vent plugs and +pour in the electrolyte until it rises to the bottom of the vent +tubes. The correct specific gravities of the electrolyte to be used +are as follows: + +(a) For Types DX, XC, XE, XX and XXV, use 1.360 electrolyte. In +tropical countries use 1.260 electrolyte. + +(b) For Types LX, LXR, LXRE, LXRV, use 1.340 electrolyte. In tropical +countries use 1.260 electrolyte. + +(c) For Types MHA and PHC, use 1.320 electrolyte. In tropical +countries use 1.260 electrolyte. + +(d) For Types KXD and KZ, use 1.300 electrolyte. In tropical countries +use 1.240 electrolyte. + +2. After filling with the electrolyte, allow the battery to stand ten +to fifteen hours before starting the initial charge. This gives the +electrolyte time to cool. + +3. No sooner than ten to fifteen hours after filling the battery with +electrolyte, add water to bring the electrolyte up to the bottom of +the vent tubes, if the level has fallen. Replace the vent caps and +turn them to the right. + +Start charging at the rates shown in the following table. Continue +charging at this rate for at least 96 hours (4 days). + + +Table of Initial and Repair Charging Rates + + +Type and Size of Cell Charging Rate, Amperes Minimum Ampere Hours +--------------------- ---------------------- -------------------- +KZ-3 1/2 50 +LX-5, LXR-5, LXRE-5 1-1/2 145 +KXD-5 2 190 +XC-9, XX-9 2-1/2 240 +DX-11, KXD-7, LXR-9, +LXRE-9, XC-11, XE-11 3 290 +DX-13, KXD-9, LXR-11, +XC-13, XE-13, XX-13 4 385 +LXR-13, LXRE-13, XC-15, +XE-15, XX-15 4-1/2 430 +KXD-11, XC-17, XE-17 5 480 +LXRV-15, LXR-15, LXRE-15 5-1/2 525 +LX-17, LXR-17, LXRE-17, +XC-19, XE-19, XXV-19 6 575 +MHA-11, PHC-13 6 575 +XC-21, XE-21 6-1/2 625 +XC-23 7 675 +XC-25 7-1/2 720 + +4. Occasionally measure the temperature of the electrolyte. Do not +allow the temperature to rise above 110° Fahrenheit (120° Fahrenheit +in tropical countries). Should the temperature reach 110°, stop the +charge long enough to allow the temperature to drop below 100°. + +5. At the end of the charge, the specific gravity of the electrolyte +should be between 1.280 and 1.300 (1.210 and 1.230 in tropical +countries). If it is not between these limits adjust it by drawing off +some of the electrolyte with the hydrometer and replacing with water +if the specific gravity is too high, or with electrolyte of the same +specific gravity used in filling the battery, if the specific gravity +is too low. + +6. Wipe off the top and sides of the battery case with a rag dampened +with ammonia to neutralize any electrolyte which may have been spilled. + +7. Just before putting the battery into service, give it a high rate +discharge test. See page 266. + + +Vesta Batteries + + +1. Remove vent caps from each cell and fill with electrolyte of 1.300 +specific gravity. This electrolyte should not have a temperature +greater than 75° Fahrenheit when added to the cells. + +2. After the addition of this acid, the battery will begin to heat and +it should be left standing from 12 to 24 hours or until it has cooled +off. + +3. Battery should then be put on charge at the finish charging rate +stamped on the name plate. Continue charging at this rate for +approximately 48 to 72 hours or until the gravity and voltage readings +of each cell stop rising. + +4. Care should be taken to see that the temperature of battery does +not rise above 110° Fahrenheit. If this occurs., the charging rate +should be cut down. + +5. The acid in each cell will undoubtedly have to be equalized. + +6. At the finish of this developing charge the gravity should read +1.280 in each cell. If below this, equalize by putting in 1.400 +specific gravity acid, or if the contrary is the case and the acid is +above 1.280 add sufficient distilled water until the gravity reads +1.280. + +7. After the acid has been equalized and it has stopped rising in +density the voltage of each cell while still on charge at the +finishing rate should read at least 2.5 volts per cell or better. + +8. The battery is then ready for service. Just before putting battery +into service, make a high rate discharge test on it. See page 266. + + +Philadelphia Diamond Grid Batteries + + +1. Remove the vent plugs and immediately fill the cells With +electrolyte until the level is even with the bottom of the vent tube +in the cover. Do not fill with electrolyte whose temperature is above +90° Fahrenheit. The specific gravity of the electrolyte to be used in +starting batteries varies with the number of plates in each cell, the +correct values being as follows: + + +Charging Rates + + +Fill batteries listed in Table No. 1 with 1.270 sp. gr. acid. + + +TABLE--No. 1 + + +No. of LL-LLR +Plates & LH LM, LMR LT, LTR LS, LSR LG LT LSF +------ ------ ------- ------- ------- --- --- --- +9 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 +11 2.5 3.0 2.5 3.5 4.0 +13 3.0 3.5 3.0 4.0 2.5 +15 3.5 4.0 3.5 4.5 5.5 +17 4.0 5.0 4.0 5.5 6.0 +19 4.5 5.5 4.5 6.0 + +Special Battery: 136 USA ... 6. 0 amps. + + +TABLE NO.2 + + +Fill batteries listed in Table No. 2 with 1.250 sp. gr. acid. + +No. LL-LLR LM LT LS S +of Plates & LLH LMR LTR LSR SH ST LSF +--------- ------ --- --- --- --- --- --- +5 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.5 +7 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 +9 4.0 +11 5.0 + +Special Batteries: 330 AA .... 1.0 amps. +524 STD-H2 ................... 1.0 amps. +7 6 SPN ...................... 1.5 amps. + + +The number of plates per cell is; indicated in the first numeral of +the type name. For instance, 712 LLA-1 is a 7 plate LL. For all +lighting batteries, types S and ST. use 1.210 electrolyte. + +2. Allow the battery to stand for one or two hours. + +3. Remove the seal from the top of the vent caps, and open by blowing +through the cap. + +4. Insert vent plugs in the vent tubes. + +5. Put the battery on charge at the rate given in the table on page +228. To determine the rate to use, see type name given on the battery +nameplate and find correct rate in the table. Keep the battery +charging at this rate throughout the charge. + +6. Continue the charge until the battery voltage and the specific +gravity of the electrolyte stop rising, as shown by readings taken +every four hours. From three and one-half to four days of continuous +charging will be required to fully charge the battery. + +7. Watch the temperature of the electrolyte, and do not allow it to +rise above 110° Fahrenheit. If the temperature rises to 110° F., stop +the charge and allow battery to cool. Extend the time of charging by +the length of time required for the battery to cool. + +8. After the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising, adjust +the electrolyte to a specific gravity of 1.280 at a temperature of 70° +Fahrenheit. If the temperature is not 70°, make temperature +corrections as described on page 65. + +9. The battery is now ready to be installed on the car. Just before +installing the battery, make a high rate discharge test on it. + + +Willard Bone-Dry Batteries + + +A Willard Threaded Rubber insulated battery is shipped and carried in +stock "bone-dry." It is filled with electrolyte and charged for the +first time when being made ready for delivery. + +Threaded Rubber Insulated Batteries received bone-dry must be prepared +for service, as follows: + +1. Mix electrolyte to a density of 1.275. + +2. Remove the vent plugs and fill to the top of the vent hole with +1.275 electrolyte. Be sure that the electrolyte is thoroughly mixed by +stirring and that its temperature is not above 90 degrees Fahrenheit. + +3. A portion of the solution will be absorbed by the plates and +insulation because they have been standing dry without any liquid in +the cells. The volume is thus decreased, necessitating the addition of +electrolyte after first filling. + +Wait five minutes and then again fill to the top of the vent hole with +1.275 electrolyte. + +4. The battery must now stand at least twelve hours and not more than +twenty-four hours before charging. After it has been filled an +increase in temperature of the battery solution will take place. This +is caused by the action of the acid in the solution penetrating the +plates mid reacting with the active material, but does no injury. +Since the acid in the solution joins the active material in the plates +the density of the solution becomes proportionately lower. This is to +be expected and should cause no concern. + +In order that the entire plate volume of active material may be in +chemical action during charge, the battery should stand before being +placed on charge--until the solution has bad time to penetrate the +entire thickness of the plates. This requires at least twelve hours, +but not more than twenty-four hours. + +5. Just before charging the battery, again fill with 1.275 electrolyte +to 3/8 inch over the top of the separators. After this, do not add +anything but distilled water to the battery solution. + +6. The battery should then be put on charge at the finish rate until +the gravity stops rising. At the end of this period the specific +gravity should be between 1.280 and 1.300. It may take from 36 to 72 +hours before this density is reached. + +Care should be taken not to prolong the charging unduly, for that may +cause active material to fall out of the grids, thus injuring the +plates beyond repair. + +7. Because of the evaporation of water in the solution during the +charging process, it is necessary to add distilled water from time to +time in order to keep the solution above the tops of the separators. + +The temperature of the battery while on charge should never exceed 110 +degrees Fahrenheit. If the temperature rises above this point the +charging must be discontinued for a time or the rate decreased. + +If at any time during the initial charging the density rises above +1.300 some of the solution should immediately be drawn off with a +syringe and distilled water added. This must be done as often as is +necessary to keep the density below 1.300. + +If the specific gravity does not change after two successive readings +and does not then read within the limits of 1.280 to 1.300 it should +be adjusted to read correctly. If the reading is less than 1.280 it +should be adjusted by drawing off as much solution as can be taken out +with a syringe and electrolyte of 1.400 specific gravity added. The +battery must then be placed on charge for at least four hours and +another reading taken. If it is again found to be less than 1.280 this +operation should be repeated as many times as necessary to bring the +density up to 1.280. + +9. The height of solution when taking the battery off charge should be +5/8 of an inch above the top of the separators. After the battery has +been off charge long enough to permit the solution to cool to normal +temperature, draw off the excess to a final height of 3/8 inch above +separators. Replace the vent plugs and battery is ready for service. + + +Unfilled Willard Wood Insulated Batteries + + +Unfilled, wood-insulated batteries have not had an initial charge and +require a treatment similar to batteries with threaded rubber +insulation. When shipment is made in this manner, such batteries +should be placed in service before the date indicated on the tag +attached to the battery. + +To prepare such a battery for service: + +1. Remove the vent plugs and fill each cell with 1.335 specific +gravity electrolyte (one part of concentrated sulphuric acid by volume +to two parts of distilled water by volume) to 3/8 inch above the tops +of the separators. + +2. Wait 5 minutes and then fill each cell again with 1.335 specific +gravity electrolyte to 3/8 inch above the tops of the separators. + +3. The battery must then stand from 10 to 15 hours before placing on +charge. + +4. After standing for this length of time, fill each cell again, if +necessary, with 1.335 specific gravity electrolyte to bring the level +of the electrolyte 3/8 inch above the tops of the separators before +charging. + +5. Place the battery on charge at the finish rate marked on the name +plate until the gravity and cell voltage stop rising. This charging +will require at least 48 hours. + +6. If, after a charge of 48 hours or longer the specific gravity does +not rise for two consecutive hours, the gravity should be between +1.280 and 1.300. If it is not between these limits, the specific +gravity should be adjusted to these values at the end of the charge. + +7. If, during the charge, the temperature exceeds 110 degrees +Fahrenheit, the charge rate should be reduced so as to keep the +temperature below 110 degrees Fahrenheit and the time of charging +lengthened proportionately. + + +Preparing Westinghouse Batteries for Service + + +(These batteries are prepared for shipment in what is known as export +condition.) + +1. Remove vent plugs and discard soft rubber caps. + +2. Fill all cells with 1.300 specific gravity sulphuric acid until top +of connecting straps, as seen through vent holes are completely +covered. Temperature of filling acid should never be above 90 degrees +Fahrenheit. + +Note: The aim is to fill the cells with acid of such a Specific +gravity that the electrolyte, at the end of charge, will need very +little adjusting to bring it to the proper specific gravity. + +1.300 specific gravity acid has been found to be approximately correct +for this purpose. However, if after several batteries have been +prepared for service using 1.300 specific gravity acid, considerable +adjusting at the end of charge is necessary, it is permissible to use +a slightly different specific gravity of filling acid, but the use of +acid above 1.325 specific gravity or below 1,250 specific gravity is +not recommended. + +3. Allow batteries to stand after filling for from two to three hours +before putting on charge. + +4. Put on charge at finish charge rate shown on name plate of battery. + +Note: If temperature of electrolyte in battery reaches 100 degrees +Fahrenheit (determined by inserting special thermometer through vent +hole in cover), the charging rate should be immediately reduced, as +continued charging at a temperature above 100 degrees Fahrenheit is +injurious to both separators and plates. + +5. Continue charging until all cells are gassing freely and individual +cell voltage and specific gravity of electrolyte have shown no +decided rise for a period of five hours. + +Note: The length of time required to completely charge a new battery +depends largely upon the time the battery has been in stock, varying +from twelve to twenty-four hours for a comparatively fresh battery to +four or five days for a battery six months or more old. + +6. Keep level of electrolyte above tops of separators at all times, +while charging by adding distilled water to replace that lost by +evaporation. + +7. After battery is completely charged the specific gravity of +electrolyte in all cells should be adjusted to 1.285 at 70 degrees +Fahrenheit, and the level of electrolyte adjusted so that after +battery is taken off charge the height of electrolyte stands 1/8 inch +above tops of connecting straps. + +Note: Corrections for temperature if temperature of electrolyte is +above or below 70 degrees Fahrenheit the correction is one point of +gravity for each three degrees of temperature. See page 65. + +If specific gravity of electrolyte is above 1.285, a portion of the +electrolyte should be removed and replaced with distilled water. + +If the specific gravity is below 1.285, a portion of electrolyte +should be removed and replaced with 1.400 specific gravity sulphuric +acid. Acid of higher gravity than 1.400 should never be put in +batteries. + +Batteries should always be charged for several hours after adjusting +gravity to insure proper mixing of the electrolyte and to see that the +correct specific gravity of 1.285 has been obtained. + +8. After first seven sections have been followed examine vent plugs to +see that gas passage is Dot obstructed and screw back in place. +Battery is now ready for service. + + +The Prest-O-Lite Assembled Green Seal Battery + + +This type of battery is made up of the same sort of plates as the old +partly assembled green seal battery. The elements are, however, +completely assembled will wood separators and sealed in the jars and +box in the same manner as a wet battery to be put into immediate +service; the cell connectors are burned in place. + +How to Store It. A room of ordinary humidity, one in which the air is +never dryer for any reason than the average, should be used to store +these batteries. They should be shielded from direct sunlight. + +Examine the vents-they should be securely inserted and remain so +during the entire storage period. + +If these precautions are observed, this type battery may be stored for +at least a year. + +To Prepare Battery for Use. 1. Prepare sufficient pure electrolyte of +1.300 specific gravity. If during the mixing considerable heat is +evolved, allow electrolyte to cool down to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. +Never pour electrolyte, that is warmer than 90 degrees Fahrenheit, +into cells. + +2. Remove the vents and lay them aside until the final charging +operation has been completed. + +Within 15 minutes from the time the vents are removed fill all cells +to the bottom of vent openings with the electrolyte prepared, as +stated above. + +3. Allow the electrolyte to remain in the cells, not less than one +hour. At the end of this time, should the electrolyte level fall below +the tops of the separators, add enough electrolyte to bring level at +least one-half inch above separators. If the temperature in the cells +does not rise above 100 degrees Fahrenheit, proceed immediately +(before two hours have elapsed) with the initial charging operation. +If the temperature remains above 100 degrees Fahrenheit, allow the +battery to stand until the electrolyte cools down to 100 degrees +Fahrenheit. Then proceed immediately with the charge. It is important +that the acid does not stand in the cells for more than two hours, +unless it is necessary to allow the acid to cool. + +4. Initial Charging Operation. Place the battery on charge at the +ampere rate given in the following table. The total initial charge +must be for fifty-two hours, but at no time permit the electrolyte +temperature to rise above 115 degrees Fahrenheit. If the temperature +should reach 115 degrees Fahrenheit, take the battery off the line and +allow the electrolyte to cool, but be sure that the total of fifty-two +hours actual charging at the ampere rate specified is completed. + + +Initial Charge---52 Hours + + +Plates Type of +per Cell Plate + AHS WHN RHN SHC BHN JFN GM CLN KPN +-------- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- +3 1.5 +5 2 2 2.5 3 +7 3 3 3.5 4 3 5 +9 4 4 5 5 7 +11 5 5 6 7 7.5 5 9 +13 6 6 7 8 9 6 10.5 10.5 +15 7 7 9 9.5 10.5 7 12 +17 10 12 9 +19 9 9 11 12 9 + +The nominal battery voltage and the number of plates per cell is +indicated by the Prest-O-Lite type designations, i. e.: 613 RHN +denotes 6 volts, 13 plates per cell or 127 SHC denotes 12 volts, 7 +plates per cell. + +5. The electrolyte density at the end of fifty-two hours charge should +be near 1.290 specific gravity. A variation between 1.285 and 1.300 is +permissible. If, after fifty hours of the initial charge, the +electrolyte density of any of the cells is outside these limits, +adjustment should be begun while still charging. For those cells in +which the density is higher than 1.300 specific gravity replace some +of the electrolyte with distilled water. In those cells where the +density is lighter than 1.285 specific gravity replace some of the +electrolyte with previously prepared electrolyte of 1.400 specific +gravity. Wait until the cells have charged one hour before taking +readings to determine the effect of adjustment, which, if not +accomplished, should be attempted again as before. Practice Will +enable the attendant to estimate the amount of electrolyte necessary +to replace in order to accomplish the proper density desired-at the +end of initial charge. + +6. Following the completion of the fifty-two hour charge, if there is +time to do so, it is good practice to put the battery through a +development cycle, i. e., to discharge it at about the four-hour rate +and then put it on the charging line again at the normal rate until a +condition of full charge is again reached. The objects gained by this +discharge are: + +(a) Further development of the plates. + +(b) Adjustment or stabilization of the electrolyte. + +(c) Checking the assembly by noting the failure of any cell or cells +to act uniformly and satisfactorily during discharge. + +The four-hour discharge rate is, of course, like the normal rate of +Initial Charge, dependent upon the size and number of plates per cell +in any particular battery; the number of cells determines the voltage +only and has nothing to do with the battery's charge or discharging +rating. These four-hour discharge rates are as follows: + +Plates +per Cell Type of Plate + AHS WHN RHN SHC BHN JFN GM CLN KPN +-------- --- --- --- --- --- --- -- --- --- +3 3 +5 5 5 5.5 6.5 +7 7.5 7.5 8 10 7.5 13.5 +9 10 10 11 13 18 +11 12.5 12.5 14 16 19 12.5 22.5 +13 15 15 16.5 19.5 22.5 15 27 27 +15 17.5 17.5 19 23 26 17.5 31.5 +17 22 26 +19 22.5 22.5 25 29 22.5 + +Immediately at the end of the four-hour discharge, put the battery on +the line and charge it at the normal rate prescribed in the Initial +Charge rate table until a state of complete charge, as noted by cell +voltage and gravity is reached. This charging time should be about +sixteen hours. + +Any adjustments of electrolyte found necessary at the end of this +charging period in the same manner prescribed in paragraph No. 5, for +such adjustments made just before the completion of the initial +fifty-two hour charge. + +(TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: No item number 7. in original publication.) + +8. At the end of the fifty-two hour charge, or, if the Development +discharge has been given, at the end of the Development Cycle Charge, +replace the vent plugs, wash all exterior surfaces with clean water +and dry quickly. The battery is then ready for service. + + +INSTALLING A BATTERY ON A CAR + + +A battery must be installed carefully on the car if it is to have any +chance to give good service. Careless installation of a battery which +is in good working order will invariably lead to trouble in a very +short time. On the other hand, a properly installed battery is, nine +times out of ten, a good working and long lived battery. + +After you have removed the old battery, scrape all rust and corrosion +from the inside of the battery box or compartment in which the battery +is placed. This can best be done with a putty knife and wire brush. If +you find that electrolyte has been spilled in the box, pour a +saturated solution of baking soda on the parts affected so as to +neutralize the acid. Then wipe the inside of the box dry and paint it +with a good acid proof paint. + +Next take out the hold down bolts. Clean them with a wire brush, and +oil the threads on the bolt and in the nut to make them work easily. +It is very important that this oiling be done, as the oil protects the +bolts from corrosion, and to remove the nuts from a corroded bolt is +an extremely difficult and aggravating piece of work, often resulting +in the bolts being broken. Should such bolts become loose while the +car is in use, it is hard to tighten them. + +Wooden strips found in the battery box should be thoroughly cleaned +and scraped, and then painted with acid proof paint. When you lower +the battery into its box, lower it all the way gently. Do not lower it +within an inch or so of the bottom of the case and then drop it. This +will result in broken jars and plate lugs. Turn the hold downs tight, +but not so tight as to break the sealing compound at the ends of the +battery, thereby causing electrolyte to leak out, and battery to +become a "slopper". + +Cables and connectors should be scraped bright with a knife and +brushed thoroughly with the wire brush to remove all corrosion. Old +tape which has become acid soaked should be removed and the cable or +wire underneath cleaned. Before applying new tape, take a small round +bristle brush and paint Vaseline liberally over the exposed cable +immediately back of the taper terminal. Then cover the Vaseline with +tape, which Should be run well back from the terminal. The Vaseline +prevents the corrosion of the cable and the tape holds the Vaseline in +place. After the tape has been applied, paint it with acid proof +paint. Cover the terminals of the battery with Vaseline. Cables must +have enough slack to prevent strains from being put on the battery +terminals. + +By following these directions, you will not only have a properly +installed battery, which will have a good chance to give good service, +but will have a neat looking job which is most pleasing to the eye of +the car owner. + +Remove all dirt from the battery and cable terminals and thoroughly +clean the surfaces which are to connect together, but do not scrape +off the lead coating. Apply a heavy coating of pure Vaseline to these +surfaces and tighten the connection perfectly, squeezing out the +Vaseline. Then give the whole connection a heavy coating of Vaseline. +This is very important in order to prevent connection trouble. + +If battery is installed in an enclosing box, be sure that none of the +ventilating holes are clogged. + + +STORING BATTERIES + + +When a battery is not in active use on a car it should be put into +storage. Storage is necessary: + +1. When a car is to stand idle for a considerable period, such as is +the case when it is held for future delivery. + +2. When a car is laid up for the winter. + +3. When batteries are kept in stock. + +Batteries may be stored "wet," i.e., completely assembled and filled +with electrolyte, or "dry," i.e., in a dry disassembled condition, +without electrolyte. In deciding whether a battery should be stored +"wet" or "dry," two things are to be considered, i.e. the length of +time the battery is to be in storage, and the condition of the +battery. If a battery is to be out of commission for a year or more, +it should be put into "dry" storage. If it is to be in storage for +less than one year, it may be put into "wet" storage if it is in a +good condition. If the condition of the battery is such that it will +need to be dismantled soon for repairs, it should be put into "dry" +storage, even though it is to be out of service for less than one year. + +Batteries in "dry" storage require no attention while they are in +storage, but they must be dismantled before being put into storage and +reassembled when put back into service. + +When a battery is brought in to be stored, note its general condition +carefully. + +(a) Its General Appearance-condition of case, handles, terminals, +sealing compound, and so on. + +(b) Height and specific gravity of the electrolyte in each cell. + +(c) Age of Battery. Question owner as to length of time he has had +battery. Read date marks on battery if there are any, or determine age +by the age code. See page 243. If a battery is less than a year old, +is in good condition, and is to be stored for less than one year, it +may be put into "wet" storage. If it is more than a year old, put it +into dry storage, unless it is in first class shape and is to be +stored for only several months. + +After making your general observations, clean the battery, add +distilled water to bring the electrolyte up to the proper level, put +the battery on charge and keep it on the line until it is fully +charged. Watch for any abnormal condition during the charge, such as +excessive temperature rise, failure of voltage to come up, failure of +specific gravity to come up, and gassing before gravity becomes +constant. + +If no abnormal conditions develop during the charge, put the battery +on discharge at a rate which will cause the voltage to drop to 1.7 +volts per cell in about four hours. Measure the cell voltages at +regular intervals during the discharge test. If the voltage of any +cell drops much more rapidly than that of the other cells, that cell +is defective in some way, and should be opened for inspection. If the +voltage of all cells drops to 1.7 in three hours or less, the battery +should be put into dry storage. + +After completing the discharge test, recharge it fully, no matter +whether it is to be put into wet or dry storage. + +If no trouble developed during the charge or discharge, the battery +may be put into "wet" storage. If trouble did develop, the battery +should be put into "dry" storage. + +If dry storage is found to be necessary the owner should be informed +that the condition of his battery would cause it to deteriorate in wet +storage and necessitate much more expensive repairs when put into use +again than will be necessary in the thorough overhauling and +rejuvenation of dry storage. He should be advised that dry storage +involves dismantling, drying out elements and reassembling with the +needed repairs and new separators in the Spring. Be sure that the +customer understands this. If it is evident that repairs or new parts, +involving costs additional to storage charges, will be necessary, tell +him so. Do not leave room for a complaint about costs in the Spring. + +To avoid any misunderstanding, it is highly advisable to have the +customer put his signature on a STORAGE AGREEMENT which states fully +the terms under which the battery is accepted for storage. The storage +cost may be figured on a monthly basis, or a price for the entire +storage period may be agreed upon. The monthly rate should be the same +as the regular price for a single battery recharge. If a flat rate is +paid for the entire storage period, $2.00 to $3.00 is a fair price. + + +"Wet" Storage + + +1. Store the batteries on a bench or shelf in a convenient location +and large enough to allow a little air space around each battery. + +2. Place each battery upon wooden strips in order to keep the bottom +of the battery clear of the bench or shelf. + +3. Apply Vaseline freely to the battery terminals, and to exposed +copper wires in the battery cables if the cables are burned directly +to the battery terminals. If the cables are not burned on, remove them +from the battery. + +4. If convenient, install the necessary wiring, switches, etc., so +that batteries may be connected up and charged where they stand. +Otherwise the batteries must be charged occasionally oil the charging +bench. + + [Fig. 151 Batteries connected for trickle charge] + +5. Batteries in wet storage may be charged by the Exide "Trickle" +charge method, or may be given a bench charge at regular intervals. + +6. Bench Charge Method.--Once every month, add distilled water to +replace evaporation. Then give battery a bench charge. See page 198. +Before putting battery into service repeat this process and just +before putting the battery into service, make the high rate discharge +test on it. See page 266. + +7. Trickle Charge Method.--This consists of charging the batteries in +storage continuously at a very low rate, which is so low that no +gassing occurs, and still gives enough charge to maintain the +batteries in good condition. In many cases the "Trickle" Charge method +will be found more convenient than the bench charge method, and it has +the advantage of keeping the batteries in condition for putting into +service on short notice. It should, however, be used only where direct +current lighting circuits are available. + +In the "Trickle" method, the batteries are first given a complete +bench charge, and are then connected in series across a charging +circuit with one or several incandescent lamps in series with the +batteries to limit the current. In Fig. 151, an example of connections +for a "Trickle" charge is given. The charging current for different +sized batteries varies from 0.05 to 0.15 ampere. The following table +gives the lamps required to give the desired current on 110 volt +circuit. + +In each case, the lamps are connected in series with the batteries. +The "2-25 watt, (lamps), in parallel" listed in the table are to be +connected in parallel with each other and then in series with the +batteries. The same is true of the "3-25 watt (lamps), in series" +listed in the table. + + +Series on 115 Volt Line + +Amp. Hours No. of Cells No. 115 Volt +Capacity Amperes in Series Lamps Required +5 Amp. Rate Approximate on Line 115 Volt +----------- ----------- ------------ -------------- +50 or less 0.05 3 5-15 watt, in series +50 or less 0.05 30 2-15 watt, in series +50 or less 0.05 45 1-15 watt, in series +50-100 0.10 3 3-25 watt, in series +50-100 0.10 3 1-25 watt, in series +50-100 0.10 45 2-25 watt, in parallel +100 or over 0.15 3 2-25 watt, in series +100 or over 0.15 30 1-25 watt, in series +100 or over 0.15 45 3-25 watt, in parallel + +Every two months interrupt the trickle charge long enough to add water +to bring the electrolyte up to the proper level. When this has been +done, continue the trickle charge. + +Before putting the batteries into service, see that the electrolyte is +up to the correct level, and that the specific gravity of the +electrolyte is 1.280-1.300. If necessary, give a short charge on the +charging bench to bring the specific gravity up to the correct value. + + +Dry Storage + + +1. Give the battery a complete charge. Pour out the electrolyte, and +separate the groups. If the negatives have bulged active material, +press them in the plate press. In batteries such as the Prest-OLite in +which it is difficult to remove the plates from the cover, the groups +need not be separated unless the negatives have badly bulged active +material. It may not be necessary to separate the groups even then, +provided that the positives are not buckled to any noticeable extent. +If only a very slight amount of buckling exists, the entire element +may be pressed by putting thin boards between the plates in place of +the separators. + +2. Immerse the negatives in distilled water for ten to twelve hours. +If positives and negatives cannot be separated, wash each complete +element in a gentle stream of water. + +3. Remove plates from water and allow them to drain thoroughly and +dry. The negatives will heat up when exposed to the air, and when they +do so they should be immersed in the water again to cool them. Repeat +this as long as they tend to heat up. Then allow them to dry +thoroughly. + +4. Throw away the old separators. Rubber separators may be saved if in +good condition. Clean the covers and terminals., wash out the jars, +and turn the case up side down to drain out the water. Examine the box +carefully. It is advisable to wash with a solution of baking soda, +rinsing the water in order to neutralize as far as possible the action +of acid remaining on the box. If this is not done, the acid may start +decomposition of the box while in storage, in which case the owner of +the battery may insist on its renewal before acceptance at the end of +the storage period. + +5. When, the plates are perfectly dry, nest the positives and +negatives together, using dry cardboard instead of separators, and +replace them in the jars in their proper positions. + +6. Replace the covers and vent plugs, but, of course, do not use any +sealing compound on them. + +7. Tie the terminals and top connectors to the handle on the case with +a wire. + +8. Tag the battery with the owner's name and address, using the tag on +which you made the sketch of the arrangement of the terminals and top +connections. + +9. Store the battery in a dry place, free from dust, until called for. + +10. When the battery is to be put into service again, put in new +separators, put the elements in the jars, seal the covers, and burn on +the top connectors and terminals (if these are of the burned-on type). +Fill the cells with electrolyte of about 1.310 specific gravity and +allow the battery to stand for ten to twelve hours in order to cool. +Then put the battery on charge at one-half the normal charging rate +and charge until the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising +and remains stationary for five hours. The total time required for +this development charge will be about four days. Watch the temperature +of the electrolyte carefully, and if it should rise to 110° +Fahrenheit, stop the charge until it cools. + +11. The specific gravity will fall during the first part of the +charge, due to the new separators; at the end of the charge, the +specific gravity should be 1.280-1.300. If it is not within these +limits, adjust it by withdrawing some electrolyte with the hydrometer +and adding water if the gravity is high, or 1.400 electrolyte if the +gravity is low. + +12. Clean the case thoroughly and give it a coat of asphaltum paint. + +13. Just before putting the battery into service, give it a high rate +discharge test. See page 266. + + +DETERMINING AGE OF BATTERY + + +Battery manufacturers use codes to indicate the age of their +batteries. These codes consist of letters, figures, or combinations of +letters and figures, which are stamped on the inter-cell connectors or +on the nameplate. The codes may also be burned on the case. + +The codes of the leading makes of batteries follow. In addition to +determining the age of a battery by means of the code, the owner +should be questioned as to the time the battery was installed on his +car. If the battery is the original one which came with the car, the +dealer's or car manufacturer's records will help determine the +battery's age. If a new battery has been installed to replace the one +that came with the car, the battery distributor's records will help +determine the age of the battery. + +Familiarity with the different makes and types of battery will also +help in determining a battery's age. Manufacturers make improvements +in the construction of their batteries from time to time, and by +keeping up-to-date on battery constructions, it is often possible to +approximate the age of a battery by such changes. + +If a battery was kept "dry" while in stock, its age should be figured +from the time it was prepared for service and placed on the car, since +batteries in dry storage do not deteriorate. Some batteries are +shipped from the factory "wet," i.e., filled with electrolyte and +fully charged and the age of such batteries should be figured from the +time they were shipped from the factory, because deterioration begins +as soon as a battery is filled with electrolyte. When batteries are +"dry" no chemical action can take place, and the battery does not +deteriorate, while in a "wet" battery, chemical action takes place +which gradually causes a battery to deteriorate. + + +Exide Age Code. + + +Since October, 1917, the date of shipment of Exide batteries from the +factory, or from Exide Deposts has been stamped on the top of the +first inter-cell connector from the negative end of the batter instead +of on the nameplate figures are used to indicate the dates, as +follows: + + [Image: Exide and Philadelphia battery age code charts] + +All Philadelphia batteries shipped prior to April 1, 1920 and all +batteries shipped from depot stock after this date carry double letter +branding. The first battery is the factory date and the second letter +in this code indicates latest month during which the guarantee may +begin. + +Batteries sold direct from Philadelphia to all classes of customers +after April 1, 1920, carry the single letter branding code, indicating +month of manufacture. + +The letters used in the double letter age code are selected from the +table given above, and the second letter is the important one, since +it gives the latest date from which adjustment can be made. If a +Philadelphia battery with a double letter age code comes in, +therefore, the foregoing table should be consulted in determining the +age of the battery. + +If a Philadelphia battery with a single letter age code comes in, the +following table should be consulted in determining the age of the +battery: + + [Image: Single Letter Philadelphia Batteries Age Code Chart] + + +Prest-O-Lite Age Code. + + +All Prest-O-Lite batteries carry a date letter stamped on the +cell-connectors. This letter indicates the month and year in which the +battery was manufactured. The letter is preceeded by a number which +represents the factory at which the battery was built. + + +Prest-O-Lite Factory Marks. + + + Indianapolis--50 Cleveland--7 San Francisco--23 + + +For example: "50-K" indicates that the battery was manufactured at +Indianopolis in January, 1920. + +In addition to the above, each "Wet" Prest-O-Lite battery is branded +in the side with a date, as "9-19," indicating October, 1919. This +date is really sixty days ahead of the actual building date, to allow +time for shipping, etc., before the guarentee starts. The branded +"9-19" was actually built in August, 1919. + + +Titan Age Code. + + +The age of Titan batteries is indicated by a number stamped on one of +the inter-cell connectors, this number indicating the month the +battery was hipped from the factory. + + [Image: Age code charts for Titan batteries] + + [Image: Age code charts for U.S.L., and Vesta batteries] + + [Image: Age code charts for Westinghouse and Willard batteries] + + + +RENTAL BATTERIES + + +Rental batteries are those which are put on a customer's car while his +own is being repaired or recharged. They are usually rebuilt batteries +turned in when a new battery is bought. They may also be made of the +good parts of batteries which are junked. By carefully saving good +parts, such as plates, jars, covers, and cases, a stock of parts will +gradually be acquired from which rental batteries may be made. Rental +batteries may also be bought from the battery manufacturers. + +A supply of rental batteries should, of course, be kept ready to go +out at any time. The number of such batteries depends upon the size of +the business. 25 batteries for each 1000 cars in the territory served +is a good average. Do not have too many rental batteries of the same +type. Many of them will be idle most of the time and thus will not +bring in any money. Rentals should be made to fit those makes of cars +of which there are the greatest number in the territory served by the +repair shop. Sufficient parts should be kept on hand to make up other +rentals on short notice. + + +Terminals for Rental Batteries + + +There are several combination terminals on the market which allow +rental batteries equipped with them to be easily connected to several +of the various types of cable terminals that are in use. Yet it is a +universal experience for the average service station always to have +calls for rental batteries with just the type of terminals which are +not on hand. When the station has many batteries with the clamp type +straight posts the call always seems to be for the taper plug type and +vice versa. + + [Fig. 152 Best type of connection to be used whenever possible] + +Most of us will agree that the clamp type post terminal is the cause +of much trouble. It is almost impossible to prevent corrosion at the +positive post and many a car owner has found that this has been his +trouble when his lights burn all right but the battery seemingly does +not have power enough to turn over the engine and yet every cell tests +1.280. Service Station men should not scrape and clean up a corroded +clamp type terminal and put it back on again, but should cut it off +and put on either a taper plug or, preferably, a lead-plated copper +terminal lug. Of course either of these terminal connections +necessitates changing the battery terminals to correspond. + +For rental batteries it will be found that short cable terminals with +lead-plated copper lugs at the end will enable a battery man to +connect most any type of cable terminal on any car. It is true that +such connections must be taped up, but the prompt service rendered +more than offsets a little tape. Figures 152 to 158 illustrate how +these connections can be made to the taper plug and clamp types which +are used on most cars. + + [Fig. 153 Method of connecting rental battery with cable + terminals to car with taper plug] + + [Fig. 154 Another method of connecting copper terminal + lug to clamp terminal on car] + + [Fig. 155 Method of connecting rental batteries with + cable terminals to cars with clamp type terminals] + +Fig. 155. Showing method of connecting rental batteries with cable +terminals, to cars with clamp type terminals. In Fig. 155 the cable +insulation is stripped for a space of an inch and the strands are +equally divided with an awl. A bolt is passed through the opening and +a washer and nut complete the connection. + + [Fig. 156 and Fig. 157 Two methods of connecting a clamp type + terminal to taper plug terminals] + +Two methods of connecting a clamp type terminal to taper plug +terminals. In Fig. 156 a taper plug is inserted and screwed tight. The +projecting part of the plug has been turned down to fit the clamp type +terminal which is clamped to it. In Fig. 157 a bolt is passed through +and the clamp type terminal tightened to the plug type terminal with a +washer and nut. + + [Fig. 158 Lead plated copper terminal lug] + +Fig. 158 shows a simple means of putting on a lead-plated copper +terminal lug without solder. These lugs should be soldered on whenever +possible, but it is often a difficult job to put one on in the +confined space of some battery compartments. In such places, a quick +and lasting job can be made with a band vise and a short piece of +round iron. This latter is laid across the lug and the vise screwed +up, making a crimp across the lug which firmly grips down upon the +bared cable strands that have been inserted into the lug. + +New batteries sold to replace other batteries should be installed with +cable connections, as illustrated in Figure 152. This method of +connecting a battery is superior to any other method and will never +cause trouble. It will usually be found that the old taper plugs or +clamp terminals that have been in use have started to corrode and that +a new battery works increasingly at a disadvantage from the day it is +installed until the corrosion becomes so great that the car cannot be +started and then the customer kicks about his new battery. The best +connection possible will pay handsome dividends to all concerned, in +the end. + +Marking Rental Batteries. Rental batteries should be marked in a +mariner which enables them to be recognized quickly. Painting the +cases a red color is a good way. The service station's name should +appear somewhere on the battery. A good plan is to have a lead tag, +which is attached to the handle at the negative end of the battery, or +is tacked to the case. The name may also be painted on the case. Each +battery should be given a number which should preferably be painted in +large white figures on the end or side of each case. The number may +also be stamped on a lead tag tied to the handle at the negative end. + +A service station which sells a certain make of battery should not use +cases of some other make if the name of the other make appears on the +case. Such names may give a wrong impression to the customer, which +will not be fair either to the service station or to the manufacturer +whose name appears on the case. If the service station sells, another +make of battery, the customer may get the impression that the service +station man does not have enough confidence in the make which he +sells, and must use some other make for his rentals. If the rental +battery does not give good service, the customer will get the +impression that the manufacturer whose name appears on the case does +not turn out good batteries, when as a matter of fact, the plates, +covers, jars, and other parts used in the rental battery may not have +been made by this manufacturer. Some battery men would, perhaps, +consider the failure of a rental battery as an opportunity to "knock" +the manufacturer whose name appears on the case. Such an action may +have the desired effect on a very few customers, but the great +majority of men have no use for any one who "knocks" a competitor's +products. + +Keeping a Record of Rental Batteries. A careful record should be kept +of all rental batteries. The more carefully such a record is kept, the +less confusion there will be in knowing just where every rental +battery is. A special rack for rental batteries, such as those shown +in Figures 88 and 89 should be provided, and all rental batteries +which are in the shop should be kept there, except when they are on +charge or are being overhauled. Have them fully charged and ready to +go out immediately, without keeping a customer waiting around, when he +is in a hurry to go somewhere else. + +General Rental Policy. No service station should make a practice of +installing rental batteries on any car unless the owner leaves his own +battery to be repaired or recharged. The purpose of having a stock of +rental batteries is to enable customers to have the use of their cars +while their own batteries are being repaired by the battery man who +furnishes the rental battery and not to furnish batteries to car +owners who may be taking their batteries to some other station to be +repaired. It is, of course, a good thing to be generous and +accommodating, but every battery repairman should think of his own +business first, before he helps build up the business of a competitor. + +The customer must have some inducement to bring in your rental battery +and get his own. A rental charge of 25 cents-per day serves as a +reminder to most customers. However, some customers are forgetful and +the battery man must telephone or write to any owner who fails to call +for his battery. If, due to failure to keep after the owner, a rental +battery is out for several weeks, there is likely to be an argument +when the rental bill is presented to the owner. If the delay in +calling in a rental battery is due to failure to repair the customer's +battery, the rental charge should be reduced. + +A rental battery should not be put in place of a battery which is +almost ready for the junk pile. The thing to do is to sell the +customer a new battery. Repairs on an almost worn out battery are +expensive and the results may not be satisfactory. + + +RADIO BATTERIES + + +The wide-awake battery man will not overlook the new and rapidly +growing field which has been opened for him by the installation of +hundreds of thousands of radio-phone receiving sets in all parts of +the country. The so-called radio "craze" has affected every state, and +every battery repairman can increase his income to a considerable +extent by selling, charging, and repairing radio storage batteries. + +The remarkable growth of the radio-phone has, of course, been due to +the radio broadcasting stations which have been established in all +parts of the country, and from which concerts, speeches, market +reports, baseball reports, news reports, children's stories and +religious services are sent out. These broadcasting stations have +sending ranges as high as 1,000 miles. The fact that a service station +is not located near a broadcasting station is therefore no reason why +it should not have its share of the radio battery business, because +the broadcasting stations are scattered all over the United States, +and receiving sets may be made powerful enough to "pick up" the waves +from at least one of the broadcasting stations. + +Radio receiving sets may be divided into two general classes, the +"Crystal" sets and the "Bulb" sets. "Crystal" sets use crystals of +galena (lead sulphide), silicon (a crystalline form of silicon, one of +the chemical elements), or carborundum (carbide of silicon) to +"detect" or, in other words, to rectify the incoming radio waves so +that they may be translated into sound by the telephone receivers. +Receiving sets using these crystals do not use a battery, but these +sets are not very sensitive, and cannot "pick up" weak waves. This +means that crystal receiving sets must be used near the broadcasting +stations, before the waves have been weakened by traveling any +considerable distance. + +As a general rule, the radio-listener's first receiving set uses a +crystal detector. Very often it is difficult to obtain good results +with such a set, and a more elaborate set is obtained. Moreover, even +if a crystal set does give good results, the owner of such a set soon +hears of friends who are able to hear concerts sent out from distance +stations. This gives him the desire to be able to hear such stations +also and he then buys a receiving set which uses the "audion-bulb" for +detecting, or rectifying the incoming waves. + +The audion-bulb resembles an ordinary incandescent lamp. It contains +three elements: + +1. In the center of the bulb is a short tungsten filament, the ends of +which are brought out to two terminals in the base of the bulb. This +filament must be heated to incandescence, and a storage battery is +required for this purpose, because it is necessary to have a very +steady current in order to obtain clear sounds in the receiver. Lately +plans have been suggested for using a direct current lighting line, +and even an alternating current lighting line for heating the +filament, but at present such plans have not been perfected, and the +battery will undoubtedly continue to be used with the majority of sets. + +2. Surrounding the filament but not touching it is a helix of wire, +only one end of which is brought out to a terminal in the base of the +bulb. This helix is called the "grid." In some bulbs the grid is not +made in the form of a helix, but is made of two flat gridlike +structures, one on each side of the filament. + +3. Surrounding the "grid" is the "plate" which is sometimes in the +shape of a hollow metallic cylinder. Some plates are not round, but +may be oval, or they may be two flat plates joined together at some +point, and one placed on either side of the grid. The plate has one +terminal in the base of the bulb. + + [Fig. 159 Illustrating the principle of the Audion Bulb] + +The action of an audion-bulb is quite complex, but a simpler +explanation, though one which may not be exactly correct from a purely +technical point of view, is as follows, referring to Figure 159: + +The "A" battery heats the filament, causing a stream of electrically +charged particles to flow out from the filament in all directions. +These electrons act as a conductor, and close the circuit which +consists of the plate, the "B" battery, and the telephone receivers, +one end of this circuit being connected to one side of the filament +circuit. Current then flows from the positive terminal of the "B" +battery to the plate, then to the filament by means of the stream of +electrons emitted by the filament, along one side of the filament, +through the wire connected to the positive terminal of the "A" battery +to the telephone receivers, through the receivers to the negative +terminal of the "B" battery. + +As long as the filament remains lighted a steady current flows through +the above circuit. The "grid" is connected to the aerial wire to +intercept the radio waves. These waves produce varying electrical +charges on the grid. Since the stream of charged particles emitted by +the filament must pass through the grid to reach the plate, the +charges which the radio waves produce on the grid strengthen or weaken +the stream of electrons emitted by the filament, and thus vary the +current flowing in the telephone receiver circuit. The changes in this +current cause the receiver diaphragm to vibrate, the vibrations +causing sounds to be heard. Since the variation in the telephone +receiver circuit is caused by electrical charges produced by the radio +waves, and since the radio waves change according to the sounds made +at the transmitting station, the variations in the telephone receiver +current produces the same sounds that are sent out at the transmitting +station. In this way concerts, speeches, etc., are reproduced in the +receivers. + +The modern radio receiving set includes various devices, such as +variable condensers, variocouplers, loose-couplers, variometers, the +purpose of which is to "tune" or adjust the receiving set to be +capable of receiving the radio waves. An explanation of such devices +is not within the scope of this book, but there are numerous +reasonably priced books and pamphlets on the market which describes in +a simple manner all the component parts of a radio-receiving set. + +From the foregoing remarks it is seen that a six-volt storage battery +is required with each receiving set which uses the audionbulb type +detector. The filament current of an audion-bulb averages about one +ampere. If additional bulbs are used to obtain louder sounds, each +such bulb also draws one ampere from the storage battery. The standard +audion-bulb receiving set does not use more than three bulbs, and +hence the maximum current drawn from the battery does not exceed three +amperes. + +The automobile battery manufacturers have built special radio +batteries which have thick plates and thick separators to give longer +life. The thick plates are much stronger and more durable than the +thin plates used in starting and lighting work, but do not have the +heavy current capacity that the starting and lighting battery plates +have. A high current capacity is, of course, not necessary for radio +work, and hence thick plates are used. + +Batteries used for radio work do not operate under the severe +conditions which exist on automobiles, and trouble is much less likely +to develop. However, the owner of the radio set rarely has any means +of keeping his battery charged, and his battery gradually discharges +and must then be recharged. It is in the sale of batteries for radio +work and in the recharging of them that the battery man can "cash-in" +on the radio phone "craze." + +This business rightfully belongs to the automobile battery man and he +should go after it as hard as he can. A little advertising by the +service station man, stating that he sells radio batteries, and also +recharges them should bring in: very profitable business. The battery +man who calls for and delivers the radio batteries which need +recharging and leaves rental batteries in their place so that there is +no interruption in the reception of the evening concerts is the one +who will get the business. + +As already stated, radio storage batteries have thick plates and thick +separators. Perforated rubber sheets are also used in addition to the +separators. Large sediment spaces are also generally provided to allow +a considerable amount of sediment to accumulate without causing +short-circuits. The cases are made of wood or hard rubber. Since radio +batteries are used in homes and are, therefore, used with handsomely +finished cabinets containing the radio apparatus, the manufacturers +give the cases of some of their radio batteries a pleasing varnished +or mahogany finish. Before returning radio batteries which have been +recharged, the entire batteries should be cleaned and the cases +polished. Returning radio batteries in a dirty condition, when they +were received clean, and polished, will drive the radio recharging +business to some other service station. + + +VESTA RADIO BATTERIES + + +The Vesta Battery Corporation manufacturers three special types of "A" +batteries for radio work, as follows: + +1. The 6EA battery, made in capacities of 60, 80, and 100 ampere +hours. Fig. 160. + +2. The V6EA7 battery, having a capacity of 80 ampere hours. Fig. 161. + +3. The R6EA battery, having a capacity of 100 ampere hours. Fig. 162. + + [Fig. 160, 161, 162, 163 Various Vesta Radio batteries] + +Vesta Radio Batteries. Fig. 160 shows the 6EA Series, "A" Battery. +Fig. 161 shows the V6EA Series, "A" Battery. Fig. 162 shows the R6EA +(Rubber Case) Series, "A" Battery. Fig. 163 shows the "B" Battery. + +These batteries have 5, 7, 9 plates per cell, respectively. The plates +are each 5 inches high, 5 7/8 inches wide, and 5/32 inches thick. The +cases for these batteries are furnished in three designs--plain black +boxes (all sizes), finished maple boxes (7 plate size only), and hard +rubber boxes (9 plate size only). These Vesta batteries are the "A" +batteries used for heating the filaments of the audion bulbs. The +Vesta Radio "B" battery, Fig. 163, is a 12 cell, 24 volt battery, with +a 22 and a 20 volt tap. + + +EXIDE RADIO BATTERIES + + + [Fig. 164 Exide Radio "A" battery] + +The Exide Radio "A" battery, Fig. 164, is made in four sizes, the +capacities ranging from 20 to 120 ampere-hours. The design and +construction of these batteries are similar to the Exide starting +batteries. The over-all height of these batteries is approximately +95/8 inches, the width 7-5/16 inches, while the length varies with the +number of the plates. + +Type Cat. No. Length Weight Capacity +-------- -------- ------ ------ -------- +3-LXL-3 13735 4-9/16 15-1/2 lbs. 20 amp. hrs. +3-LXL-5 13736 5-11/16 24-1/2 lbs. 40 amp. hrs. +3-LXL-9 13737 9-1/16 42-1/2 lbs. 80 amp. hrs. +3-LXL-13 13750 12-7/16 59-1/2 lbs. 120 amp. hrs. + + +WILLARD RADIO BATTERIES + + +The Willard Storage Battery Co. manufactures both "A" and "B" storage +batteries. The Willard "A" battery, Fig. 165, is an all-rubber +battery. The case is a rubber "Monobloc" construction, that is, the +entire case is pressed into shape at one time. There are no separate +jars for the cells, there being rubber partitions which form integral +parts of the case. The case is, therefore, really a solid, one piece, +three compartment jar. The ribs at the bottoms of the compartments are +parts of the one-piece block, and are higher than those found in the +usual starting and lighting battery. Embedded in each side wall of the +case is a bronze button which holds the handle in place. Soft rubber +gaskets of pure gum rubber surround the post to make an acid proof +seal to prevent electrolyte from seeping from the cells. The +separators are the standard Willard "Threaded Rubber" separators. + + [Fig. 165, 166, and 167 Various Willard Radio Batteries] + +Willard Radio Batteries. Fig. 165 shows the All-Rubber "A" Battery. +Fig. 166 shows the complete "B" Battery. Fig. 167 shows one cell of +the "B" Battery. + +The Willard "A" battery comes in five sizes, type WRR97 (20 ampere +hours capacity), type WRRO (50 ampere hours capacity), type WRR1 (89 +ampere hours capacity), type WRR2 (100 ampere hours capacity), and +type WRR3 (125 ampere hours capacity). + +The Willard "B" storage battery, type CBR124, Figs. 166 and 167, is a +twelve cell battery, each cell consisting of a round glass container +having one negative and one positive plate insulated from each other +by a small "Threaded Rubber" separator. The plates and separators rest +on a hard rubber "bottom rest" which consists of a short length of +hard rubber tube, so formed as to support the plates and separators +and at the same time hold them together. The cells are assembled in a +case which has a separate compartment for each cell. As seen from Fig, +166, the upper parts of the cells project above the top of the case, +which simplifies inspection. + + +WESTINGHOUSE RADIO BATTERIES + + + [Fig. 168 Westinghouse Radio "A" battery, Type HR] + + [Fig. 169 Westinghouse Radio "B" battery, Type L, and + Fig. 170 Westinghouse Radio "B" battery, Type M] + +The Westinghouse Union Battery Co. manufactures both "A" and "B" +storage batteries. Their "ER" type, Fig. 168, is the "A" battery, and +their "L" and "M" types, Figs. 169 and 170, are the "B" batteries. The +HR battery has 3/16 inch thick plates, high rests to provide ample mud +and acid space, and thick separators. Rubber sheets are placed on both +sides of the positive plates. Rubber covered cables are moulded into +the terminals to minimize corrosion at the positive terminal. The "HR" +batteries are made in six and eight volt sizes, with 3 plates per +cell, 5 plates per cell, 9 plates per cell, and 13 plates per cell. + +The Westinghouse Radio "B" batteries are made in two sizes. Type +22-M-2, Fig. 170, has a capacity of 1.2 ampere hours at 0.04 ampere. +It is designed to operate a receiving set having one detector and two +amplifier bulbs for three to five weeks between charges. The type +22-L-2 battery, Fig. 169, has a capacity of 4.5 ampere hours at 0.25 +ampere. + +Part No. Type Volts Amp. Hours at 3 Amps. Weight + Intermittent Rate +-------- ---- ----- --------------------- ------ +100110 6-HR-5 6 54 A.H. 30 Lbs. +100111 6-HR-9 6 108 A.H. 46 Lbs. +100112 6-HR-13 6 162 A.H. 65 Lbs. +100135 8-HR-5 8 54 A.H. 40 Lbs. +100136 8-HR-9 8 108 A.H. 60 Lbs. +100137 8-HR-13 8 162 A.H. 87 Lbs. +100145 6-HR-3 6 27 A.H. 20 Lbs. + +Part No. Type Volts Capacity Weight +------- ------ ----- -------- ------ +100148 22-M-2 22 1.2 A.H. at .04 Amps. 6-1/4 Lbs. +100140 2-L-2 22 1.2 A.H. at 25 Amps. 19-3/4 Lbs. + + +PHILADELPHIA RADIO BATTERIES + + + [Fig. 171 Philadelphia Radio "A" battery] + +The Philadelphia Storage Battery Co. makes both "A" and "B" Radio +batteries. The "A" battery, Fig. 171, uses the standard diamond-grid +plates, and the "Philco Slotted Retainer" used in Philadelphia +starting batteries. The cases of the "A" batteries are made of +hardwood, finished in an ebonite black. Soft rubber insulating feet on +the bottom of the case prevent scratching any table or varnished floor +on which the battery may be set. The instructions for preparing the +Philadelphia "A" battery for service are similar to those given for +the starting and lighting batteries, given on page 228. For the +initial filling, 1.220 electrolyte is used, and the battery charged at +the following rates: + + +Initial and Recharge Charging Rate +---------------------------------- +Type Initial Rate Recharge Rate +---- ------------ ------------- +56LAR 1.0 2 +56RAR 2.0 3 +76RAR 3.0 4.5 +96RAR 4.0 6 +116RAR 5.6 7.5 +136RAR 6.0 9 + +The final gravity of the electrolyte should be 1.250. However, if the +owner insists on getting maximum capacity, the battery may be filled +with 1.250 electrolyte and balanced to 1.290 at the end of the charge. + + [Fig. 172 Philadelphia Radio "B" battery] + +The Philadelphia Radio "B" battery, type 224-RB, Fig. 172, has 12 +cells contained in a one-piece rubber case. It is shipped dry, and +requires no initial charge. To prepare it for service, the soft rubber +vent caps are removed and 25 c. c. of 1.250 electrolyte poured into +each cell. + + +U. S. L. RADIO BATTERY + + + [Fig. 173 U.S.L. Radio "A" battery] + +The U. S. L. Radio "A" battery, Fig. 173, uses 1/4 inch positives, +with 3/16 inch intermediate and 1/8 inch outside negatives. Port +Orford cedar separators are used which are four times as thick as the +usual starting battery separator. The case is made of hardwood, and is +varnished to match cabinet work. The electrolyte has a specific +gravity of 1.220. The heavy plates and separators and the low gravity +of the electrolyte are designed to give long life. + + Ampere Ampere Hour + Plates Hour Capacity + per Capacity (or intermittent +Type Cell @ 3 Amperes use) Dimensions Weight +---- ---- ----------- ---------------- ---------- ------ +DXA-303-X 3 12 20 5-3/16 x 18 + 7-1/4 x 9-1/4 +DXA-305-X 5 40 60 9-1/8 x 7-1/4 39 + x 9-1/4 +DXA-307-X 7 70 85 11-3/4 x 7-7/16 48 + x 9-1/4 +DXA-309-X 9 98 115 14-3/8 x 7-7/16 59 + x 9-1/4 + + +PREST-O-LITE RADIO BATTERIES + + +The Prest-O-Lite Co. makes two lines of Radio "A" Batteries. First, an +inexpensive battery, Fig. 174, and a deluxe battery, Fig. 175, which +has a better finish and appearance. Both types have a mahogany +finished case with rubber feet to prevent damaging furniture. A bail +handle simplifies the carrying of the battery. Capacities range from +47 ampere-hours to 127 ampere-hours at a one ampere discharge rate. + + [Fig. 174 & 175 Presto-O-Lite Radio "A" battery] + +Table of Prest-O-Lite Radio Batteries +------------------------------------- + Hours Discharge at Rate of: +Type 1 Amp. 2 Amps. 3 Amps. 5 Amps. 10 Amps. +------- ------ ------- ------- ------- -------- +67 WHNR 47.5 21.7 13.6 7.5 3.0 +69 WHNR 66 30 18.9 10.5 4.5 +611 WHNR 82.8 38.5 24.3 13.5 6.0 +67 KPNR 95 44.2 27.8 15.0 6.5 +69 KPNR 127 61.5 38.5 21.5 9.5 + + +UNIVERSAL RADIO BATTERIES + + + [Fig. 176 Universal Type WR, Radio "A" battery] + +The Universal Battery Co. manufacture three types of Radio "A" storage +batteries. Type WR, Fig. 176, has three sealed hard rubber jars +assembled in a hardwood case which is stained and finished in +mahogany. The separators are made of Port Orford cedar and are 1/8 +inch thick, about twice the thickness of the separator used in +starting and lighting batteries. The plates also are much thicker than +the standard starting and lighting battery plate. The type WR battery +comes in three sizes. Types WR-5, WR-7, and WR-9, having capacities of +60, 85, and 105 ampere hours, respectively, at a 3 ampere rate. + +The Universal type RR radio "A" battery, Fig. 177, is assembled in a +hard rubber combination case, which is a solid piece of rubber divided +into three compartments. This gives a compact, acid proof case. This +battery also comes in three sizes, types RR-5, RR-7, and RR-9, having +capacities of 60, 85 and 105 ampere hours, respectively, at a three +ampere discharge rate. + + [Fig. 177 Universal Type RR, Radio "A" battery] + + [Fig. 178 Universal Type GR, Radio "A" battery] + +The Universal type GR radio "A" battery, Fig. 178, is assembled in +three sealed glass jars which are placed in a mahogany finished wooden +crate. This construction makes the cell interiors visible, enabling +the owner to detect troubles and to watch the action of the cells on +charge and discharge. The GR battery comes in two sizes, GR-5 and +GR-Jr., having respective capacities of 60 and 16 ampere hours at a 3 +ampere discharge rate. + + +"DRY" STORAGE BATTERIES + + +During the past year or two, so-called "dry" starting and lighting +storage batteries have appeared on the market. This class includes +batteries having "dry," "semi-dry," and "jelly" electrolytes. The +claims made for these batteries are that there is nothing to evaporate +and that the periodical addition of water is therefore unnecessary, +that spilling and slopping of electrolyte is impossible, and that +injurious sulphation does not take place. + +The "dry" storage battery is not a new idea, for as much as +thirty-five years ago, the Oerlikon Company of Switzerland +manufactured "dry" electrolyte storage batteries in commercial +quantities. These batteries were for a long time a distinct success +for work requiring only low rates of discharge. For high rates of +discharge the lack of diffusion, due to the absence of a liquid +electrolyte, reduces the capacity. The lack of diffusion will cause a +rapid drop in voltage when cranking the engine! and a slow recovery +after the engine begins to run under its own power. + +The manufacturers of the "dry" storage batteries, of course, claim +that their batteries are more efficient and satisfactory than the +standard "wet" battery, but it has been impossible to get sufficient +data from the manufacturers to go into detail on the subject. + +Several of the largest of "wet" battery manufacturers formerly made +"dry" storage batteries for lighting and ignition service, but when +starting motors came into use, discarded the "dry" batteries in favor +of the present "wet" storage batteries. + + +DISCHARGE TESTS + + +Discharge tests may be divided into four general classes: + +(a) Brief High Rate Discharge Tests to determine condition of battery. +These tests are made for 15 seconds at a high rate. + +(b) Lighting Ability Discharge Tests. + +(c) Starting Ability Discharge Tests. + +(d) "Cycling" Discharge Tests. + + +The 15 Seconds High Rate Discharge Test + + +The 1.5 seconds high rate discharge test is a valuable aid in +determining the condition of a battery, particularly where the +hydrometer readings give false indications, such as is the case when +electrolyte or acid is added to a cell instead of water to replace +evaporation. Only two or three percent of the battery capacity is +consumed by the test, and it is not usually necessary to recharge the +battery after making the test. The test must be made in conjunction +with hydrometer readings, as otherwise it might give false indications +itself. Both incoming and outgoing batteries may be tested, and the +method of testing depends upon whether the battery is coming in for +repairs, or is going out after having been charged, repaired, or +worked on in any way. In either case, the test consists of discharging +the battery at a high rate for a short time, and taking voltage +readings and making observations while the battery is discharging. + + [Fig. 179 Making a 20 seconds high rate discharge test] + +Rates of Discharge. It is not necessary to have any definitely fixed +discharge rate. The rate should merely be high enough to reveal any +improperly burned joints, short-circuited cells, or cells low in +capacity for any reason. The discharge tester is suitable for all +batteries used on cars and trucks. + +For an Incoming Battery. Take a hydrometer reading of each cell. If +the readings are all below 1.200 and are within 50 points of each +other, most likely all the battery needs is a bench charge, with a +possible adjustment of the gravity of the electrolyte at the end of +the charge. The discharge test should in this case be made after the +battery has been fully charged. + +If the gravity readings are all above 1.200, or if the reading of one +cell differs from the others by 50 points or more, make the discharge +test, as shown in Fig. 179. + +After fifteen seconds, read the voltage of each cell. If the cells are +uniformly low in voltage; that is, below 1.5 volts per cell, the +battery needs recharging. If the voltage readings of the cells differ +by 0.1.0 volt or more and the battery is fairly well charged, there is +something wrong in the cell having the low reading, and the battery +should be opened and examined. With a discharged battery the +difference in cell voltage will be greater, depending on the extent of +the discharge, and only experience can guide in drawing correct +conclusions. A short-circuited cell will give a very low voltage +reading. Remember that the actual voltage reading is not as important +in indicating a defective cell as the difference between the voltage +readings of the cells. A cell which gives a voltage which is 0.1 volt +or more less than the others is generally defective. + +For Outgoing New, Charged, or Repaired Batteries. Just before putting +the battery into service, make the test as a check on the internal +condition of the battery, particularly if the battery has been +repaired or has stood for sometime since being charged. (It is assumed +that the battery has been charged and the gravity of the electrolyte +properly adjusted when the test is made.) + +The battery should not show more than 0.10 volt difference between any +two cells at the end of 15 seconds, and no cell should show a voltage +less than 1.75 volts, and the voltage should remain fairly constant +during the test. If every cell reads below 1.75 volts, the battery has +not been completely charged. If one cell is more than 0.10 volt lower +than the others, or if its voltage falls off rapidly, that cell still +needs repairs, or is insufficiently charged, or else the top +connectors are not burned on properly. Top connectors which heat up +during the test are not burned on properly. + + +Lighting Ability Discharge Tests + + +These are tests continuing for 5 hours to a final voltage of 1.7 per +cell. These tests are not of as great an interest as the Starting +Ability Tests, description of which follows: + + +Starting Ability Discharge Tests + + +The Society of Automotive Engineers recommends two ratings for +starting and lighting batteries: + +"Batteries for combined lighting and starting service shall have two +ratings. The first shall indicate the lighting ability and be the +capacity in ampere-hours of the battery when discharged continuously +at the 5 hour rate to a final voltage of not less than 1.7 per cell, +the temperature of the battery beginning such a discharge being 80 +deg. Fahr. The second rating shall indicate the starting ability and +shall be the capacity in ampere-hours when the battery is discharged +continuously at the 20 minute rate to a final voltage of not less than +1.50 per cell, the temperature of the battery beginning such discharge +being 80 deg. Fahr." + +The capacity in ampere-hours given by manufacturers is for a +continuous discharge for 5 hours. In the battery shop, however, the +"starting-ability" discharge test is the test which should be made, +though the conditions of the test are changed somewhat. To make this +test, the battery should be fully charged. Connect a rheostat to the +battery terminals and adjust the rheostat to draw about 100 amperes +from an 11 plate battery, 120 amperes from a 13 plate battery, 135 +amperes from a 15 plate battery, 155 amperes from a 17 plate battery, +170 amperes from a 19 plate battery and so on. Continue the discharge +for 20 minutes, keeping the discharge current constant, and taking +voltage readings of each cell at the start, and at the end of 5, 10, +15, and 20 minutes. At the end of 20 minutes, if the battery is in +good condition, the voltage of each cell should not be less than 1.5, +and the temperature of the electrolyte in any cell should not exceed +95 degrees Fahrenheit, provided that the temperature at the start was +about 80 degrees. + +The cell voltages should drop slowly during the test. If the voltage +begins to drop rapidly during the test, as shown by the current +falling off so rapidly that it is difficult to keep it at 100 amperes, +measure the cell voltages quickly to see which cells are dropping +rapidly. An example of a 100 ampere test on a good rebuilt cell with +eleven plates is as follows: + +Voltage immediately after start of discharge, 1.88. After 5 minutes, +1.86 volts. After 10 minutes, 1.80 volts. After 15 minutes, 1.72 +volts. After 20 minutes, 1.5 volts. + +If the voltage of a cell begins to fall off rapidly before the twenty +minutes are up, but not before 15 minutes, the cell needs "cycling" +(charging and discharging) to bring it up to capacity. + +If the voltage drops rapidly before the end of 15 minutes, the plates +are low in capacity, due to age, or some defect. It is not safe to +expect very good service from a cell which will not stand up for 20 +minutes before de voltage begins to drop rapidly. + +If the rapid voltage drop begins very much before 20 minutes, it is +very doubtful whether the battery will give good service. Comparisons +of the results of tests with the service which the battery gives after +installed on the car will soon enable the repairman to tell from the +results of the tests just what to expect from any battery. + +The "starting-ability" test should be made on all batteries which have +been rebuilt whenever there is time to do so and on all batteries +about which there is any doubt as to what service they will give. +After the test, the batteries should be put on the line again and +charged before sending them out. + +The rates of discharge given here for the "starting-ability" tests may +be varied if experience with a particular make of battery shows some +other rate to be better. The important thing is to use the same rate +of discharge for the same make and type of battery at all times. In +this way the repairman will soon be able to distinguish between good +and bad batteries of a particular make and type. + +Cadmium Tests may be made during the Starting Ability Discharge Tests. +See page 174. + + +"Cycling" Discharge Tests + + +New batteries, or rebuilt batteries which have had new plates +installed, or sulphated batteries which will not "come up" on charge, +should be discharged when they have "come-up," as far as they will go. +In some cases it is necessary to charge and discharge them several +times before they will be ready for service. This charging and +discharging is often called "cycling" the battery. + +New batteries are generally "cycled" at the factory before sending +them out. The forming charge generally does not convert all the pastes +into active material and the battery using plates which have been +treated in the forming room is put through several discharges and +charges after the battery is fully assembled. In service on a car, the +battery is being "cycled" constantly and there is generally an +increase in capacity after a battery is put on a car. Positive plates +naturally increase in capacity, sometimes up to the very clay when +they fall to pieces, while negatives tend to lose capacity with age. + +Batteries which are assembled in the service station, using new +plates, generally require several cycles of charge and discharge +before the specific gravity will rise to 1.280 before the positives +will give 2.4-2.5 volts on a Cadmium test, before the negatives will +give a reversed voltage reading of 0.175 to 0.20 volt on a Cadmium +test, and before a satisfactory "starting-ability" or "breakdown" test +can be made. + +A battery which has been abused by failing to add water to replace +evaporation, by allowing to remain in a partially or completely +discharged condition for sometime, or which has been allowed to become +sulphated in any other way, will generally require "cycling" before it +will "come-up" to a serviceable condition. + +The rates for a "cycling" discharge should be such that the battery +will be discharged during the daytime, the discharge being started in +the morning, and the battery being put back oil the charging line in +the evening in order that it may be charging during the night. The +rate of discharge should be somewhat higher than the rate used when +the plates are formed. Two or three amperes per positive plate in each +cell will generally be satisfactory. + + +Discharge Apparatus + + +A simple discharge rheostat is shown in Fig. 180. The terminal on the +end of the cable attached to the right hand terminal of the battery +shown in the illustration is movable, and it may be clamped at any +point along the coils of wire so as to give various currents. The wire +should be greased lightly to prevent rusting. + + [Fig. 180 Simple high rate discharge rheostat] + +Another simple apparatus consists of a board on which are mounted six +double contact automobile lamp sockets which are all connected in +parallel. A pair of leads having test clips attached is brought out +from the sockets for fastening to the battery terminals. Lamps of +various candlepower may be turned into the sockets to obtain different +currents. + +Discharge tests are helpful in the case of a battery that has lost +capacity. The battery is first fully charged, and is then discharged +at the 5 hour rate. When the voltage of the battery has fallen to 1.7 +volts per cell (measured while the battery is discharging) a Cadmium +test is made to determine whether the positives or negatives are +causing the lack of capacity. For further descriptions of the Cadmium +Test see Page 174. + +In reviving sulphated batteries, it is sometimes necessary to charge +and discharge the battery several times to put the active material in +a healthy condition. + +Discharge tests at a high rate are very valuable in diagnosing the +condition of a battery. A description of such tests will be found on +Page 267. For making the heavy discharge tests a rheostat of the +carbon plate type is suitable. With such a rheostat currents from 25 +to more than 200 may be drawn from a six volt battery, and a smooth, +even variation of a current may be obtained from the minimum to the +maximum values. Such a rheostat is on the market and may be purchased +complete with ammeter and leads for attaching to the battery. + + +PACKING BATTERIES FOR SHIPPING + + +Batteries which are shipped without electrolyte need merely have +plenty of excelsior placed around them in a strong crate for +protection from mechanical injury. + +Batteries which are shipped filled with electrolyte must be protected +from mechanical injury and must also be packed so that it is difficult +to turn the crate upside down and thus allow the electrolyte to run +out. A very popular crate has been the so-called "dog-house," with a +gable roof such as is actually used on dog-houses. The idea of such a +roof is that it is impossible to place the crate with the roof down, +since it will tip over if this is done. However, if these crates are +placed side by side, it is a very simple matter to put a second row of +crates on top of them, turning the second row up-side-down, as shown +in Fig. 181, and allowing the electrolyte to run out. The men who load +freight or express-cars have often shown great skill and cunning in +packing "dog-house" crates in other ways so as to damage the +batteries. Many have attained a high degree of perfection in breaking +the crates. + + [Fig. 181 "Dog-house" crates for shipping batteries] + +Some sort of a roof on a battery crate is required by law, the idea +being to make it difficult to turn the crate up-side-down. Perhaps the +best crate would be one with a flat top marked "This Side Up," but +such a crate would not comply with the law. + + + [Fig. 182 Steps for construction of a crate for shipping + battery] + +A better form of crate than the "dog-house" and one which complies +with the law, is shown in Fig. 182. The top of each end piece is cut +at an angle, the peak on one end being placed opposite the low point +of the opposite end piece. Fig. 182 shows the steps in the +construction of the crate. + +1. The case should be built of strong lumber (11/2 inch preferably), +and of ample size to allow packing with excelsior top, bottom, sides +and ends to a thickness of two or three inches. Nail strongly. + +2. When the case is complete (except cover) place a thick, even layer +of excelsior (or packing straw) in the bottom and set in *he battery +right side up. Lay paper (preferably paraffined) over top of battery +to keep it clean, then pack tightly with excelsior sides and ends. + +3. Now lay sufficient packing material on top of the battery so that +cover will compress it tightly, stuffing it under cover boards as they +are put on. + +The extended boards at bottom, and the gable roof are provided to +prevent the battery from being tipped over; extensions of sides for +carrying. Box should be plainly labeled: "HANDLE WITH CARE. DAMAGES +CLAIMED IF TIPPED ON SIDE." In addition to the address of destination, +as given in shipping instructions be sure to mark with name of shipper +for identification upon arrival. When shipping by freight, the proper +freight classification in the United States is "Electric Storage +Batteries, Assembled." When shipping by express in the United States, +"Acid" caution labels must be attached to each package. + + +STORING SEPARATORS + + +Separators which have been given the chemical treatment necessary to +remove the substances which would cause trouble in the battery, and to +make the wood porous, must be kept wet and never be allowed to become +dry. A lead lined box, or large earthenware jars may be used as +containers. Put the separators in the container and then pour in +enough very weak electrolyte to cover the separators. This electrolyte +may be made of I part of 1.220 electrolyte to 10 parts of distilled +water, by volume. Be very careful to have the container absolutely +clean and to use chemically pure acid and distilled water in making +the weak electrolyte. Remember that impurities which are picked up by +the separators will go into the battery in which the separators are +placed. Therefore, keep the separator tank in a clean place and keep a +cover on it. Have your hands clean when you take separators out of the +tank to place in a battery, and do not put the separators on a dirty +bench before inserting them between plates. The best thing to do is to +hold the separators in one hand and insert them with the other, and +not lay them on any bench at all. + + +REINSULATION + + +Separators are the weakest part of a battery and wear out while the +other parts of a battery are still in good condition. Good plates are +often ruined by weakened separators causing short-circuits. Many +batteries which have to be junked after being in service about a year +would have given considerable service if they had been reinsulated. + +Generally the separators of one cell wear out before those of the +other cells. Do not, however, reinsulate that cell alone. The +separators in the other cells are as old as those which have worn out, +and are very near the breaking down point. If you reinsulate only one +cell, the owner will naturally assume that the other cells are in good +condition. What happens? A month or so later one of the other cells +"goes dead." This does not have a very soothing effect on the owner, +who will begin to lose confidence in you and begin to look around for +another service station. + +If you explain frankly that it is useless to reinsulate only one cell +of a battery and that the other cells will break down in a short time, +the customer will want you to reinsulate all the cells. A somewhat +higher bill for reinsulating all the cells at once will be more +agreeable than having the cells break down one at a time within a +month or two. + +In the case of the customers who come in regularly for testing and +filling service, you will be able to tell when the separators are +wearing out. When you find that a battery which has been in service +about a year begins to run down frequently, and successive tests made +in connection with testing and filling service show that the generator +is not able to keep the battery charged, advise the owner to have the +battery reinsulated. Do not wait for the battery to have a dead cell. +Sell the owner on the idea that reinsulation will prevent the +possibility of his battery breaking down when he may be out on a tour, +and when it may be necessary to have his car towed in to a service +station. If you allow the battery to remain on the car when it begins +to lose its charge, the owner will not, of course, suspect that +anything is wrong, and if his battery one day breaks down suddenly, +lie will very likely lose confidence both in you and the battery, +since he has been bringing in his car regularly in order to have his +battery kept in good shape. The sudden failure of his battery will, +therefore, make him believe that you do not know your business, or +that the battery is a poor one. + +New separators will give every battery which is a year old a new lease +on life. If you explain to a customer that he will get a much longer +period of service from his battery if he has it reinsulated when the +battery is a year old, you should have no trouble in getting the job, +and the subsequent performance of the battery will show that you knew +what you were talking about. + + +SAFETY FIRST FOR THE BATTERY REPAIRMAN + + +1. Do not work on an empty stomach-you can then absorb lead easily. + +2. Keep your fingers out of your mouth when at work. + +3. Keep your finger nails short and clean. + +4. Do not chew tobacco while at work. In handling tobacco, the lead +oxides are carried to your mouth. Chewing tobacco does not prevent you +from swallowing lead. + +5. When you leave the shop at night, and before eating, wash your +face, hands, and arms with soap, and clean your nose, mouth, and +finger nails. + +6. Do not eat in the repair shop. + +7. Drink plenty of good milk. It prevents lead poisoning. + +8. Use Epsom Salts when constipated. This is very important. + +9. Bathe frequently to prevent lead poisoning. + +10. Leave your working clothes in the shop. + +11. It is better not to wear a beard or mustache. Keep your hair +covered with a cap. + +12. Before sweeping the shop dampen the floor to keep down the dust. + +13. Do not drink beer or whisky, or any other alcoholic liquors. These +weaken your system and make you more susceptible to lead poisoning. + +14. In handling lead, wear gloves as much as possible, and wash and +dry the gloves every day that you wear them. + +15. Wear goggles to keep lead and acid out of your eyes. + +16. When melting lead in a hydrogen flame, as in burning on the top +connectors, the fumes given off may be blown away by a stream of air. +The air supply to the flame may be tapped for this purpose. + +17. The symptoms of lead poisoning are: gums darken or become blue, +indigestion, colic, constipation, loss of appetite, muscular pain. In +the later stages there is muscular weakness and paralysis. The hands +become limp and useless. + +18. Wear rubber shoes or boots. Leather shoes should be painted with a +hot mixture of equal parts of paraffine and beeswax. + +19. Wear woolen clothes if possible. Cotton clothing should be dipped +in a strong solution of baking soda and dried. Wear a flannel apron +covered with sacking. + +20. Keep a bottle of strong ammonia handy. If you should spill acid on +your clothes, apply some of the ammonia immediately to neutralize the +acid, which will otherwise burn a hole in your clothes. + +21. Keep a stone, earthenware, or porcelain jar filled with a solution +of washing soda or baking soda (bicarbonate of soda). Rinse your hands +in this solution occasionally to prevent the acid from irritating them. + +22. If you should splash acid in your eye, wash it out immediately +with warm water, and drop olive oil on the eye. If you have no olive +oil at hand, do not wait to get some, but use any, lubricating oil, or +vaseline. + + +TESTING THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM + + +"Out of sight, out of mind," is a familiar saying. But when does it +hold true? + +What about the battery repairman? Are the batteries he repairs "out of +sight, out of mind?" Does his responsibility end when he has installed +a battery on a car? Suppose he put a battery in first class shape, +installs it on a car, and, after a week or two the battery comes back, +absolutely dead? Is the battery at fault, or is the repairman to +blame for neglecting to make sure that the battery would be given a +reasonably good chance to give good service and receive fair treatment +from the other part of the electrical system? + +The actual work on the battery is finished when the battery cables are +fastened to the battery terminals. But real battery SERVICE does not +end there. The battery is the most important part of the electrical +system of a car, but it is only one part, and a good battery cannot be +expected to give satisfactory service when it is connected to the +other parts of the electrical system without making sure that these +parts are working properly, any more than a man wearing new, shoes can +step into a mud puddle and not have his shoes covered with dirt. + +The battery functions by means of the current which flows through it +by way of the cables which are connected to its terminals. A battery +is human in many respects. It must have both food and exercise and +there must be a proper balance between the food and the exercise. Too +much food for the amount of exercise, or too much exercise for the +amount of food consumed will both lead to a lowering of efficiency, +and disease frequently results. A battery exercises when it turns over +the starting motor, furnishes energy to the lamps, or operates the a +ignition system. It receives food when it is charged. Proper attention +to the electrical system will result in a correct balance between food +and exercise, or in other words, charge and discharge. + +The electrical equipment of a car consists of five principal parts: + +1. The Battery. +2. The Ignition System. +3. The Starting Motor. +4. The Generator. +5. The Lighting System. + +The normal course of operation of this system is as follows: + +Starting. The ignition switch is closed, and connects the ignition +system to the battery. The starting switch is then closed, connecting +the starting motor to the battery. The battery sends a heavy current +through the starting motor, causing the motor to turn over, or "crank" +the engine. The motion of the engine pistons draws a mixture of air +and gasoline vapor into the cylinders. At the proper instant sparks +are made to jump between the points of the spark plugs, igniting the +air and gasoline vapor mixture, forming a large amount of gas. This +gas expands, and in doing so puts the engine into motion. The engine +begins to run under its own power and the starting switch is opened, +since the starting motor has performed the work required of it, and +has nothing further to do as long as the engine runs. + +The engine now operates the generator. The generator begins to build +up a voltage as the engine speed increases. When the voltage of the +generator has risen to about 7-7.5, the generator is automatically +connected to the battery by the cutout (also known as reverse-current +relay, cut-out relay, or relay). The voltage of the generator being +higher than that of the battery, the generator sends a current through +the battery, which "charges" the battery. As long As the engine +continues to run above the speed at which the generator develops a +voltage higher than that of the battery, a charging current will +normally flow through the battery. When the ignition switch is opened +the engine can no longer develop any power and consequently stops +running. When the decreasing engine speed causes the generator speed +to drop to a point at which the generator voltage is less than that of +battery, the battery sends a reverse, or discharge current through the +cutout and generator, thereby causing the cutout to open and +disconnect the generator from the battery. + +Lights. When the engine is not running, the battery furnishes current +to the lights. This is a discharge current. When the engine runs at a +speed which is greater than that at which the the cutout closes, the +generator furnishes current for the lights, and also for the ignition +system, in addition to sending a charging current through the battery. + +From the foregoing description, we see that the battery is at rest, is +discharging, or charging under the following conditions: + +Engine Not Running, Lamps Off, Ignition Off. Under these conditions +all switches are open, and hence no current should be passing through +the battery. If a current is found to be passing through the battery +under these conditions, it is a discharge current which is not doing +any work and is caused by a defective cutout, defective switches, or +grounds and short-circuits in the wires, cables, or apparatus +connected to the battery. + +Starting the Engine. A heavy discharge current is drawn from the +battery. This current should not flow more than 10 seconds. If the +starting motor does not crank the engine or cranks it too slowly, the +motor or the cables and switch connecting the motor to the battery are +defective, assuming that the battery is large enough and is in a good +condition. If the starting motor cranks the engine, but the engine +does not begin to run under its own power within ten seconds, the +starting system is not at fault, and the starting switch should be +opened. + +Engine Not Running, All Lamps On. A discharge current flows from the +battery which is equal to the sum of the currents drawn by lamps when +connected to the battery separately. If the current is greater than +this sum, trouble is present. + +Engine Running, Lamps Off. The generator sends a charging current into +the battery and also supplies current to the ignition system (except +when a magneto is used). If the generator does not send a charging +current through the battery there is trouble in the generator, or in +the parts connecting the generator to the battery (assuming the +battery to be in a good condition). If the generator sends a current +through the battery, it may be of the correct value, it may be +insufficient, or it may be excessive. A normal current is one which +keeps the battery fully charged, but does not overheat it or cause +excessive gassing. An insufficient current is one which fails to keep +the battery charged. An excessive charging current is one which keeps +the battery charged, but which at the same time overheats the battery +and causes excessive gassing. The excessive current may also overheat +the generator, while a normal or insufficient charging current will +not injure the generator. + +It is possible, but not probable, that the generator may be sending +current through the battery in the wrong direction, so as to discharge +it instead of charging it. This will happen if a very badly discharged +battery is installed with the connections reversed. If a fully or even +partly charged battery is installed with its connections reversed, the +battery will generally reverse the polarity of the generator +automatically, and the battery will be charged in the proper +direction, although the current flow in the charging circuit is +actually reversed. + +Engine Running, Lamps On. Under these conditions, the generator should +supply the current for the lights, and still send a charging current +of 3 to 5 amperes through the battery. This means that the current +drawn from the battery when the engine is not running and the lights +are all turned on should be at least several amperes less than the +charging current which the generator sends into the battery when the +engine is running and the lamps are turned off. + + +Tests to Be Made by the Repairman + + +The battery repairman can, and always should, make a few simple tests +which will tell him whether the various conditions of operation are +normal. This should be done as follows: + +1. Install the battery carefully (see page 236), and connect the +negative battery cable to the negative battery terminal. Now tap the +positive battery cable on the positive battery terminal. If a snappy +spark is obtained when this is done, some of the switches are open or +are defective, the cutout is stuck in the closed position, or there +are grounds or short-circuits in the parts which are permanently +connected to the battery. + +Even though no spark is obtained when you tap the positive battery +cable on the positive battery terminal, there may be some trouble +which draws enough current from the battery to cause it to run down in +a short time. To detect such trouble, connect a voltmeter (which has +sufficient range to indicate the battery voltage) between the positive +battery cable and the positive battery terminal. (Cable is +disconnected from the terminal.) If the voltmeter now gives a reading +equal to the voltage of the battery, there is some condition causing a +current leakage from the battery, such as a cutout stuck in the closed +position, defective switches which do not break the circuits when in +the open position, or grounds or short-circuits in the cables and +wires connected to the battery. + +If the voltmeter pointer does not move from the "0" line on the scale, +complete the battery connections by fastening the positive battery +cable to the positive battery terminal, and make the test described in +Section 2. If the voltmeter pointer moves from the "0" line, and gives +a reading equal to the battery voltage, connect the voltmeter +permanently between the positive battery cable and the positive +battery terminal and make a general inspection of the wiring, looking +for cut or torn insulation which allows a wire or cable to come in +contact with the frame of the car, or with some other wire or cable, +thereby causing a ground or short-circuit. Old, oil-soaked insulation +on wires and cables will often cause such trouble. If a general +inspection does not reveal the cause of the current leakage, proceed +as follows: + +Closed Cutout, or Defective Cutout Windings. (a) If the cutout is +mounted outside the generator, remove the cover from it and see if the +points are stuck together. If they are, separate them and see if the +voltmeter pointer returns to the "0" line. If it does, you have found +the trouble. The points should be made smooth with 00 sandpaper. See +that the moving arm of the cutout moves freely and that the spring +which tends to hold the arm in the open position is not weak or broken. + +If the voltmeter pointer does not return to the "0" line when the +cutout points are separated, or if the points were not found to be +stuck together, disconnect from the cutout the wire which goes to the +ammeter or battery. If this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to +the "0" line, the cutout is defective and a new one should be +installed, unless the trouble can be found by inspection and repaired. + +If the voltmeter pointer does not return to the "0" line when the +battery or ammeter wire is disconnected from the cutout, see paragraph +(d). + +(b) If the cutout is mounted inside the generator, disconnect from the +generator the wire which goes to the ammeter or indicator. If this +causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, the cutout +points are stuck together or the cutout is defective, and the +generator should be taken apart for inspection. If this does not cause +the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, replace the wire and +see paragraph (d). + +(c) If no cutout is used and connections between the generator (or +motor-generator) and the battery are made by closing the ignition or +starting switch, such as is the case on Delco and Dyneto +motor-generators, and some Delco generators, disconnect from the +generator or motorgenerator the wire that goes to the ammeter or +indicator. If this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" +line, the switch which connects the generator or motor-generator to +the ammeter or indicator is defective. If the voltmeter pointer does +not return to the "0" line, replace the wire and consult paragraph (d). + +(d) Defective Starting Switch. Disconnect from the starting switch the +cable that goes to the battery. If one or more smaller wires are +connected to the same terminal as the heavy cable, disconnect them +also and hold their bare ends on the bare end of the heavy cable. If +this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, the +starting switch is defective. If the voltmeter pointer does not return +to the "0" line, replace the cable and wires on the starting switch +terminal and proceed as follows: + +Defective Switches. See that the ignition and lighting switches are in +their "OFF" positions. If they are not, open them and see if the +voltmeter pointer returns to the "0" line. If it does, you have found +the trouble. If it does not, disconnect from the switch (or switches, +if there are separate lighting and ignition switches), the feed wire +which supplies current to the switch from the battery. If this causes +the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, the switches are +defective. If the pointer does not return to the "0" line, replace the +wires on the switch and consult the next paragraph. + +If there are other switches which control a spot light, or special +circuits, such as tonneau lamps, or accessories, such as gasoline +vaporizers, electric primers, etc., make the same tests on these +switches. If no trouble has been found, see paragraph (e). + +(e) Grounds or Short-Circuits in Wiring. Disconnect from each terminal +point in the wiring system the wires which are connected together at +that point. Also remove fuses from the fuse blocks. If the voltmeter +pointer returns to the "0" line when a certain wire or fuse is +removed, there is a ground or short-circuit in the wire or in the +circuit to which the fuse is connected. + +(f) Turn on the Lights. Remove the voltmeter and complete the battery +connection. Note how much current is indicated on the ammeter mounted +on the instrument panel of the car as the different lamps are turned +on. In each case the ammeter should indicate "discharge." Should the +ammeter indicate "charge" the battery connections have been reversed, +or the ammeter connections are reversed. The driver will tell you +whether the ammeter has been reading "charge" or "discharge" when the +lamps were turned on. This is a good way to check your battery +connections. + +If the car has no ammeter, or has an indicator which is marked "ON" or +"OFF," or "Charge" or "Discharge," an ammeter may be connected in +series with the battery by disconnecting the cable from the positive +battery terminal and connecting the ammeter to the cable and to the +terminal, and the readings obtained from this meter. + +The amperes indicated on the ammeter should be the greatest when the +main headlamps are burning bright. By comparing the readings obtained +when the different lighting combinations are turned on, it is +sometimes possible to detect trouble in some of the lighting lines. + +3. Start the Engine. Before you do this, be sure that the cables are +connected directly to the battery terminals, and that no ammeter or +voltmeter is connected in series with the battery, as the heavy +current drawn by the starting motor would ruin the instruments very +quickly. An ammeter may be left connected in series with the battery, +providing that a switch is used to short-circuit the meter while +starting the engine. A meter having a 500 ampere scale may be left +connected in series with the battery while the engine is being +started, but for the tests which are to be made a 25 ampere scale +should be used. + +The engine should start within ten seconds after the starting switch +is closed. If more time than this is required, carburetor adjustments, +position of the choke lever, etc., should be looked after. Continued +cranking of the engine will run the battery down very quickly, and the +chances are that the car will not be run long enough to allow the +generator to recharge the battery. Make whatever adjustments are +necessary to reduce the cranking time to ten seconds, or advise the +owner to have them made, warning him that otherwise you will not be +responsible if the battery runs down very quickly. + +4. When the engine has started, set the throttle lever so that the +engine runs As slowly as possible. The ammeter (either that on the +instrument panel, or a special test ammeter connected in series with +the battery) will indicate several amperes discharge, this being the +current taken by the ignition system. + +Now speed up the engine gradually. At an engine speed corresponding to +a car speed of 7 to 10 miles per hour in high (if there is any +difficulty in estimating this speed, drive the car around the block +while making this and the following tests) the ammeter pointer should +move back to, or slightly past, the "0" line, showing that the cutout +has closed. If the ammeter needle jumps back and forth and the cutout +opens and closes rapidly, the polarity of the battery and that of the +generator are not the same. This condition may be remedied by holding +the cutout points closed for several seconds, or by short-circuiting +the "Battery" terminal on the cutout with the "Generator" terminal on +the cutout. + +After a slight movement of the ammeter pointer indicates that the +cutout has closed, speed up the engine gradually. When the engine +speed corresponds to a car speed of 18-25 miles per hour in "high," +the current indicated on the ammeter should reach its maximum value +and the pointer should then stop moving, or should begin to drop back +toward the "0" line as the speed is increased. + +For average driving conditions, the maximum charging current should +not exceed 12 to 14 amperes for a 6 volt, 11 to 13 plate battery, and +6 to 7 amperes for a 12 volt battery. (These currents should be +obtained if "constant-current" generators, such as the "third brush," +"reversed-series," or vibrating current regulators are used. The +"third brush" type of generator is used on more than 99 per cent of +the modern cars. Some cars use a "constant-voltage" regulated +generator, such as the Bijur generator, having a voltage regulator +carried in a box mounted on the generator. On all cars using a +"constant-voltage" generator, the charging rate when the battery is +fully charged should not exceed five amperes for a six volt +generator). If the generator has a thermostat, such as is used on the +Remy generators, the charging rate will be as high as 20 amperes until +the generator warms up, and then the charging rate will drop to 10-12 +amperes, due to the opening of the thermostat points, which inserts a +resistance coil in series with the shunt field. + +If the charging current reaches its maximum value at 18-25 miles per +hour, and shows no increase at higher speeds, decrease the engine +speed. When the engine is running at a speed corresponding to a car +speed of about 7 miles per hour, or less, the cutout should open, +indicated by the ammeter indicating several amperes discharge, in +addition to the ignition current, for an instant, and then dropping +back to the amount taken by the ignition system. + +Now turn on the headlights (and whatever lamps are turned on at the +same time) and speed the engine up again. The ammeter should indicate +some charging current at engine speeds corresponding to the usual +speed at which the car is driven. If it does not, the charging current +should be increased or smaller lamps must be installed. + + +Troubles + + +The operation of the electrical system when the engine is running may +not be as described in the foregoing paragraphs. Troubles may be found +as follows: + +1. Cutout does not close until engine reaches a speed in excess of 10 +miles per hour. This trouble may be due to the cutout or to the +generator. If the ammeter shows a charging current of three amperes or +more as soon as it closes, the cutout is at fault. The thing to do in +such a case is to adjust the cutout. First see that the movable +armature of the cutout moves freely and does not bind at the pivot. If +no trouble is found here, the thing to do is to decrease the air gap +which exists between the stationary and movable cutout points when the +cutout is open., or to decrease the tension of the spring which tends +to keep the points open. On most cutouts there is a stop which the +cutout armature strikes when the cutout opens. By bending this stop +the air-gap between the points may be decreased. This is the +adjustment which should be made to have the cutout close earlier, +rather than to decrease the spring tension. Some cutouts have a spiral +spring attached to the cutout armature. Others have a flat spring. On +still others, the spring forms the connection between the armature and +the cutout frame. In the first two types, the spring tension may be +decreased, but wherever possible the air-gap adjustment should be made +as described. + +If the cutout closes late, and only about an ampere of charging +current is indicated on the ammeter, and the cutout points are fairly +clean and smooth, the trouble is generally in the generator. + +The generator troubles which are most likely to exist are: + +a. Dirty commutator. +b. Dirty brush contact surface. +c. Loose brushes. +d. Brushes bearing on wrong point of commutator (to set brushes +properly, remove all outside connections from generator, open the +shunt field circuit, and apply a battery across the main brushes. +Shift the brushes until the armature does not tend to rotate in either +direction. This is, of course, a test which must be made with the +generator on the test bench). +e. Loose connections in the shunt field circuit. + +The foregoing conditions are the ones which will generally be found. +More serious troubles will generally prevent the generator from +building up at all. + +2. Cutout does hot open when engine stops. This condition is shown by +a discharge current of about 5 amperes when the engine has stopped. +(In Delco systems which have no cutout, an even greater discharge will +be noted as long as the ignition switch remains closed.) This trouble +is generally due to cutout points stuck together, a broken cutout +spring, or a bent or binding cutout armature. + +3. Cutout does not open until ammeter indicates a discharge of three +or more amperes (in addition to the ignition discharge). This may be +remedied by increasing the spring tension of the cutout, or removing +any trouble which causes the cutout armature to bind. On many cutouts +the armature does not actually touch the core of the cutout winding +when the points are closed, there being a small piece of copper or +other non-magnetic metal on the armature which touches the end of the +cutout and maintains a small air gap between the core and armature, +even when the points are closed. The opening action of the cutout may +be changed by filing this piece of non-magnetic material so as to +decrease the air gap, or pinching it with heavy pliers so as to make +it stand farther out from the cutout armature and thus increase the +air gap between the armature and core when the points are closed. + +Decreasing this air gap will cause the cutout to open late, and +increasing it will cause the cutout to open early. + +4. Cutout will not close at any engine speed. If cutout does not close +the first time the engine speed is increased, stop the engine. This +condition may be due to a defective cutout, an open-circuit in the +charging line, a ground or short-circuit between the cutout and the +generator, or a defective generator. To determine whether the cutout +is defective, remove the wires from it and hold together the ends of +the wires coming from the generator, and the one going to the ammeter. +Start the engine. If no other trouble exists, the ammeter will +indicate a charging current at speeds above 8-10 miles per hour. If no +current is obtained, stop the engine. If the cutout trouble consisted +of an open circuit in one of its windings, or in the points not +closing, due to dirt or a binding armature, or if there is an +open-circuit in the charging line, the generator will, of course, have +been running on open-circuit. This will cause the fuse in the shunt +field circuit to blow if there is such a fuse, and if there is no such +fuse, the shunt field coils may be burned open, or the insulation on +the field coil wires may have become overheated to a point at which it +burns and carbonizes, and causes a short-circuit between wires. Such +troubles will, of course, prevent a generator from building up when +the cutout wires are disconnected and their ends held together. + +If there is a ground in the cutout, or between the cutout and the +generator, the generator will very likely be unable to generate (if a +"one-wire" system is used on the car). If there is some defect in the +generator-such as dirty commutator, high mica, brushes not touching, +commutator dirty, or loose brushes, brushes too far from neutral, +grounded brushes, brushes not well ground in, wrong type of brushes, +grounded commutator or armature windings, short-circuited commutator +or armature windings, open-circuited armature windings, grounded field +windings, short-circuited field windings, open-circuit or poor +connections in field circuit, one or more field coil connections +reversed, wrong type of armature or field coils used in repairing +generator, generator drive mechanism broken-then the generator will +not build up. + +If no charging current is, therefore, obtained when the generator and +ammeter wires are disconnected from the cutout and their ends held +together, there may be a ground or short-circuit in the cutout +windings or in the circuit between the generator and the cutout, or +the generator may be defective, due to having been operated on +open-circuit, or due to troubles as described in the foregoing +paragraph. The presence of a ground or short in the circuit between +the generator and cutout or in the cutout may be determined by +disconnected the wire from the generator, disconnecting the battery +(or ammeter) wire from the cutout, and running a separate extra wire +from the generator to the wire removed from the cutout. Then start the +engine again. If a charging current is obtained, there is a ground or +short either in the cutout or in the circuit between the cutout and +the generator. (It is also possible that the failure of the generator +to build up was due to poor brush contact in the generator. The use of +the extra wire connected the generator directly to the battery, thus +magnetizing the generator fields and causing generator to build up. If +poor brush contact prevented the generator from building up, closing +the cutout by hand will often cause the generator to start charging. +If you can therefore cause the generator to build up by holding the +cutout points closed by hand, or by shorting across from the generator +terminal to the battery terminal of the cutout, it is probable that +the generator brushes are not making good contact). The cutout may be +tested by stopping the engine, replacing the battery (or ammeter) wire +on the cutout, and holding the end of the extra wire on the generator +terminal of the cutout. If a charging current is then obtained, the +cutout is 0. K. and the trouble is between the cutout and the +generator. + +5. An excessive current is obtained. If a third brush generator is +used, look for loose or dirty connections in the charging line, dirty +cutout points, dirty commutator, dirty brushes (especially the brush, +or brushes, which is Dot connected to one end of the field winding), +brushes loose, brushes not well ground in, and any other conditions +which will cause a high resistance in the charging line. It is +characteristic of third brush generators that their current output +increases if there is an increase in resistance in the charging +circuit. If no troubles such as those enumerated above are found, the +third brush may need adjusting. + +Generators using vibrating current or voltage regulators will give an +excessive output if the points need adjusting or if the regulating +resistance is short-circuited. + +Generators using reversed series regulation will give an excessive +output if there is a short-circuit in the series field coils. + +6. Low charging current is obtained. This may be due to adjustment of +the regulating device, to high resistance in the shunt field circuit +in case of a third brush generator. In case of generators using other +kinds of regulation, loose connections, dirty commutator and brushes, +etc., will cause low charging current. + +7. Generator charges up to a certain speed and then stops charging. +The trouble is caused by some condition which causes the brushes to +break contact with the commutator, especially in the case of a "third" +brush. High mica, loose brush spring, or a commutator which has been +turned down off-center may cause the trouble. This trouble most +frequently occurs on cars using third brush motor-generators having a +3 to 1 or more speed ratio between them and the engine. These +motor-generators operate at such high speeds that high mica and a +commutator which is even slightly off center have a much greater +effect than the same conditions would cause in separate generators +which operate at much lower speeds. The remedy for this trouble is to +keep the mica under-cut, and to be very careful to center the armature +in the lathe when taking a cut from the armature. In turning down the +commutators of high speed motor-generators, special fittings should be +made by means of which the armature may be mounted in its own +ball-bearings while the commutator is turned down. + + +ADJUSTING GENERATOR OUTPUTS + + +The repairman should be very slow in adjusting generator outputs. Most +cases of insufficient or excessive charging current are due to the +troubles enumerated in the foregoing paragraphs, and not due to +incorrect adjustment of the regulating device. Before changing the +adjustment of any generator, therefore, be sure that everything is in +good condition. The third brush generator, for instance, will have an +excessive output if the brushes are dirty, loose, or not well seated +on the commutator. The use of a third brush which is too wide, for +instance, will change the output considerably. A high resistance third +brush will decrease the output, while a low resistance brush will +increase the output. On the other hand, an increase in the resistance +of the charging circuit will cause an increase in the output of a +third brush generator, which is just the opposite to what is +ordinarily expected. Such an increase in resistance may be due to +loose or dirty connections, dirty cutout contact points, corroded +battery terminals and so on. Remember also that the third brush +generator sends a higher current into a fully charged battery than it +sends into a discharged battery. It is, therefore, essential that a +fully charged battery be on the car when the output of a third brush +generator is adjusted. + +There are two things which determine whether any change should be made +in the charging rate on the car, viz: Driving, Conditions and the +Season of the Year. + +Driving Conditions. A car which makes short runs, with numerous stops, +requires that the starting motor be used frequently. This tends to run +the battery down very quickly. Moreover, such a car usually does not +have its engine running long enough to give the generator an +opportunity to keep the battery charged, and to accomplish this, the +charging rate should be increased. + +A car which is used mostly at night may need a higher charging rate, +especially if short runs are made, and if the car stands at the curb +with its lights burning. Long night runs will generally call for only +a normal charging rate, since the long charging periods are offset by +the continuous use of the lamps. + +A car used on long daylight runs should generally have the charging +rate reduced, because the battery is charged throughout such runs with +no discharge into lamps or starting of motor to offset the continued +charge. If the lamps are kept lighted during such runs, the normal +charge rate will be satisfactory, because the lamp current will +automatically reduce the current sent into the battery. + +In the winter time, engines must be cranked for a longer time before +they will start, the battery is less efficient than in warm weather, +and lights are burning for a greater length of time than in summer. +Such conditions require an increase in the charging rate, especially +if the car is used on short runs. Oil long runs in the winter time, +the normal charging rate will generally be satisfactory because the +long charging period will offset the longer cranking period. + +In the summer time, engines start more easily than in winter, and +hence require less cranking. The lamps are used for only short periods +and the battery is more efficient than in winter. A lower charging +rate will, therefore, keep the battery charged. Long tours in the +summer time are especially likely to result in overcharged, overheated +batteries, and a reduced charging rate is called for. + + +How and When to Adjust Charging Rates + + +A correct charging rate is one which keeps a battery fully charged, +but does not overcharge it, and which does not cause either the +generator or the battery to become overheated. The only way to +determine whether a certain charging rate is correct on any particular +car is to make an arrangement with the car owner to bring in his car +every two weeks. On such occasions hydrometer readings should be taken +and water added, if necessary, to bring the surface of the electrolyte +up to the proper level. The hydrometer readings will show whether the +generator is keeping the battery charged, and if a change in the +charging rate is necessary, the necessary adjustments may be made. If +a customer does not bring in his car every two weeks, call him up on +the phone or write to him. The interest which you show in his battery +by doing this will generally result in the customer giving you all his +repair business, and he will also tell his acquaintances about your +good service. This will give you considerable "word of mouth" +advertising, which is by far the best form of advertising and which +cannot be bought. It must be earned by good battery service. + +Adjusting a third brush generator. The best rule to remember for +changing the output of a third brush machine is that to increase the +output, move the third brush in the direction in which the commutator +rotates, and to decrease the output, move the third brush in the +opposite direction. Move the third brush only 1/16 inch and then +sandpaper the brush seat with 00 sandpaper. Allow the generator to run +for about twenty minutes to "run-in" the brush. Then vary the speed to +see what the maximum charging rate is. If the change in the charging +rate is not sufficient, move the third brush another 1/16 inch and +proceed as before until the desired charging rate is obtained. + +Adjusting Vibrating Regulators. The output of generators which use a +vibrating regulator is adjusted by changing the tension of the spring +fastened to the regulator arm. In many cases this adjustment is made +by means of a screw which is turned up or down to change the spring +tension. In other cases a hook or prong is bent to change the spring +tension. Where a coil spring is used, lengthening the spring will +decrease the tension and lower the output, while shortening the spring +will increase the tension and raise the output. + +Vibrating regulators are of the "constant" current or the +"constant-voltage" types. The constant current regulator has a winding +of heavy wire which carries the charging current. When the charging +current reaches the value for which the regulator is set, the +electromagnet formed by the coil and the core on which it is wound +draws the regulator armature toward it and thereby separates the +regulator points, which are in series with the shunt field. A +resistance coil, which is connected across the regulator points and +which is short-circuited when the points are closed, is put in series +with the shunt field when the points separate. This reduces the shunt +field current, causing a decrease in generator voltage and hence +current output. As the current decreases, the pull of the +electromagnet on the regulator armature weakens and the spring +overcomes the pull of the electromagnet and closes the regulator +points. This short-circuits the resistance coil connected across the +regulator points and allows the shunt field current to increase again, +thereby increasing the generator output. This cycle is repeated at a +high rate of speed, causing the regulator points to vibrate rapidly. + +The action of a vibrating "constant-voltage" regulator is exactly the +same as that of the "constant current" regulator, except that the coil +is connected across the generator brushes. The action of this coil +therefore depends on the generator voltage, the regulator points +vibrating when the generator voltage rises to the value for which the +regulator is set. + +Adjusting Reverse-Series Generators. The regulation of the output of +this type of generator is accomplished by means of a field winding +which is in series with the armature, and which therefore carries the +charging current. These series field coils are magnetically opposed to +the shunt field coils, and an increase in charging current results in +a weakening of the field flux. A balanced condition is reached at +which no increase of flux takes place as the generator speed +increases, the tendency of the increased shunt field current to +increase the total flux being counterbalanced by the weakening action +of the flux produced by the series field current. + +To increase the output of a reverse series generator, it is necessary +to weaken the opposing series field flux. The only way of doing this +is to short-circuit the series field coils, or connect a resistance +across them. To decrease the output of a reverse series generator, a +resistance coil may be connected in series with the shunt field +winding. Neither of these schemes is practicable, and hence the +reverse series generator may be considered as a "non-adjustable" +machine. Under-charging may be prevented by using the starting motor +and lights as little as possible, or by giving the battery a bench +charge occasionally. Over-charging may be prevented by burning the +lights whenever the engine is running, or leaving the lights turned on +over night. + +Other forms of regulation have been used on the older cars, but the +majority of the cars now in use use one of the four forms of +regulation described in the foregoing paragraphs. If adjustments need +to be made on some car having a system of-regulation with which the +battery man is not familiar, the work should be done in a service +station doing generator work. + +If generator outputs are changed because of some special operating +condition, such as summer tours, the rate should be changed to normal +as soon as the usual driving conditions are resumed. + + +TESTING AND FILLING SERVICE + + +Every man expects to be paid for his work, since his purpose in +working is to get money. Yet there are numerous instances in every +line of work requiring work to be done for which no money is received. +The term "Free Service" is familiar to every repairman, and it has +been the cause of considerable discussion and dispute, since it is +often very difficult to know where to draw the Tine between Free +Service and Paid Service. + +The term "Free Service" might be abolished with benefit to all +concerned. In the battery business "Free Inspection" service is a +familiar term. It is intended to apply to the regular addition of +distilled water by the repairman and to tests made at the time the +water is added. Since the term "Inspection" might be Misinterpreted +and taken to apply to the opening of batteries for examination, the +term "Testing and Filling Service" should be used instead of "Free +Inspection Service." + +Battery makers furnish cards for distribution to car owners. These +cards entitle the holder to bring in his battery every two weeks to +have distilled water added if necessary, and to have his battery +tested without paying for it. This service requires very little time, +and should be given cheerfully by every service man. + +"Testing and Filling Service" is an excellent means of becoming +acquainted with car owners. Be as pleasant and courteous to the +"Testing and Filling" customer as you are to the man who brings in a +battery that needs repairs. For this customer will certainly give you +his repair business if you have been pleasant in giving the Testing +and Filling Service. + +A thoroughly competent battery man should be put in charge of the +Testing and Filling Service, since this man must meet the car owners, +upon whom the service station depends for its income. Customers are +impressed, not by an imposing array of repair shop equipment, but by +the manner of the men who meet them. These men will increase the +number of your customers, or will drive trade to competitors, +depending on the impression they leave in the minds of the car owners. + +Every service station owner should persuade all the car owners in the +vicinity of the station to come in regularly for the free testing and +filling service, and when they do come in they should be given +cheerful, courteous service. Each "testing" and "filling" customer is +a prospective paying customer, for it is entirely natural that a car +owner will give his repair work to the battery man who has been taking +care of the testing and filling work Oil his battery. When a new +battery is needed, the "testing" and "filling" customer will certainly +buy it from the man who has been relieving him of the work of keeping +his batteries in good shape. + +Car owners who depend on your competitor for their "testing and +filling" service will not come to you when their battery needs +repairing, or when they need a new battery. You may be convinced that +you handle a better make of battery than your competitor does, but +your competitor's word will carry far more weight than yours with the +man who has been coming to him for testing and filling. Good testing +and filling service is, therefore, the best method of advertising and +building up your business. The cost of this service to you is more +than offset by the paying business it certainly brings, and by the +saving in money spent for advertising. Remember that a boost by a +satisfied customer is of considerably greater value to your business +than newspaper advertising. + +A careful record should be kept of every battery which is brought in +regularly for testing and filling service. If a test shows that one or +more cells are low in gravity, say about 1.220, this fact should be +recorded. If the gravity is still low when the battery comes in again +for test, remove the battery and give it a bench charge. The customer +should, of course, pay for the bench charge and for the rental battery +which is put on the car in the meantime. + +Battery manufacturers generally furnish cards to be used in connection +with the testing and filling service, such cards being issued to the +customers. A punch mark is made every time the battery is brought in, +If the owner neglects to come in, this is indicated by the absence of +a punch mark, and puts the blame for any trouble caused by this +neglect on the owner if any cell shows low gravity, a notation of +that fact may be made opposite the punch mark for the date on which +the low gravity was observed. If the low gravity is again found the +next time the battery is brought in, the battery should be removed and +given a bench charge. If the bench charge puts the battery in good +shape, and the subsequent gravity readings are high, no trouble is +present. If, however, the low gravity readings begin to drop off +again, it is probable that new separators are required, especially if +the battery is about a year old. + +The logical course of events in the testing and filling service is to +keep the battery properly filled (at no cost to the customer), give +the battery an occasional bench charge (for which the customer pays), +reinsulate the battery when it is about a year old (for which the +customer pays), and sell the customer a new battery when the old one +is worn out. If some trouble develops during the lifetime of the +battery which is not due to lack of proper attention, the customer +should pay to have the repairs made. From this the battery man will +see how the Testing and Filling Service pays. The way to get business +is to have people come to your shop. Become acquainted with them, +treat them right, and you need not wonder where the money is to come +from. + + +SERVICE RECORDS + + +In order to run a repair shop in an orderly, business-like manner, it +is necessary to have an efficient system of Service Records. Such a +system will protect both the repairman and the customer, and simplify +the repairman's bookkeeping. For a small service station a very simple +system should be adopted. As the business grows, the service record +system must necessarily become more complicated, since each battery +will pass through several persons' hands. Battery manufacturers +generally furnish service record sheets and cards to their service +stations, and the repairman who has a contract with a manufacturer +generally adopts them. The manufacturers' service record systems are +often somewhat complicated, and require considerable bookkeeping. + +For the smaller service station a single sheet or card is most +suitable, there being only one for each job, and carbon sheets and +copies being unnecessary. Such a service record has three essential +parts: (a) The customer's claim check. (b) The battery tag. (c) The +record card. Fig. 183 shows a service record card which is suitable +for the average repair shop. Part No. I is the customer's claim check, +Part No. 2 the battery tag, and part No. 3 the record card, and is 5 +inches by 8 inches in size. The overall size of the entire card is 5 +inches by 12 inches. Parts I and 2 are torn off along the perforated +lines marked (A). + +When a battery comes in the three parts are given the same number to +identify them when they have been torn apart. The number may be +written in the "No." space shown on each part, or the numbers may be +stamped on the card. The record should not be made out as soon as a +customer comes in, but after the battery has been examined and tested +and the necessary work determined. Put the customer's name on parts 2 +and 3. Record the address, telephone, etc., in the proper spaces on +part 3. Having determined by test and inspection what is to be done, +fill out the "WORKCOSTS" table on part 3, putting a check mark in the +first column to indicate the work to be done and the material needed. +Figure up the cost while the customer waits, if this is possible. +Explain the costs to the customer, and have him sign Contract No. 1. +If you do this there can never be any argument about the bill you hand +the customer later If the customer cannot wait, or if he is well known +to you and you know lie will not question your bill, have him sign +Contract No. 2. In either case, the terms printed on the back of the +card authorize the repairman to make whatever repairs he finds to be +necessary, and bind the customer to pay for them. Find out whether the +customer will call, whether you are to deliver the battery, or whether +you are to ship it, and put a check mark in the proper space at the +right of the "WORK-COSTS" table. Mark the battery with the chalk whose +color is indicated, and you will know how to dispose of the battery +when the repairs are completed. + +Fill out the claim check and give it to the customer, tearing it off +along the perforated lines. Fill out the battery tag, indicating after +"Instructions" just what is to be done. + + [Fig. 183 Front & Back of the Battery Service Card] + +Make a sketch of the top of the battery in the space provided, dip the +tag in the paraffine dip pot (see page 182) and tack the card on the +battery. File part 3 in a standard 5 by 8 card index file. To the +right of the "WORK-COSTS" table are spaces for entering the date on +which the work is completed, the date the customer is notified and the +date the battery goes out. These dates are useful in keeping a record +of the job. When the job is finished and the rental comes in, enter +the costs in the "COSTS" table, and note the date the bill was paid, +in the space marked "PAID." + + [Fig. 184 Rental battery card to be tied on car of customer] + +File all the 5 by 8 cards (Part 3) in alphabetical order in a "dead" +ticket file, in either alphabetical or numerical order. With this file +you can build up an excellent mailing list of your customers. You can +note how many new customers you are securing and how many customers +are not coming back. The latter information is very valuable, as it +enables you to find out what customers have quit, and you can go after +them to get their repair business again. + +When a rental is put on a card, the card shown in Fig. 184 may be tied +to the car where it is easily seen. This will serve as a reminder to +the customer and will help advertise your shop to those who ride in +the car. + +Each rental battery should have a number painted on it in large white +letters, or should have attached to it at all times a lead tag on +which is stamped a number to identify the battery. To keep a record of +the rental batteries, a card or sheet similar to that shown in Fig. +185 may be used. Each time the rental is put on a car, a record is +made of this fact on the card. Each rental battery has its own card, +and reference to this card will show at once where the battery is. +Each card thus gives a record of the battery. The number of the rental +is also written on the Stock Card shown in Fig. 183, but the purpose +of putting the number on these cards is merely to make sure that the +battery is returned when the customer's battery is replaced on the car +and to be able to figure out the rental cost quickly and add it to the +time and material costs in repairing the customer's battery. + +The Record Card shown in Fig. 183 does not help you locate any +particular rental battery. For instance, suppose that rental battery +No. 896 is out and you wish to know who is using it. You may, of +course, look over the "Battery Tags" which are tied to the batteries +which are being repaired in the shop, or you may examine the file +containing the record cards, but this would take too much time. But if +you refer to the rental file you can determine immediately where +rental battery No. 896 is, since the cards in this file should be +arranged numerically. + +The rack on which rental batteries are placed should have a tag +bearing the same number as the rental battery tacked to the shelf +below the place provided for the battery. Each rental battery should +always be placed in the same place on the shelf. You can then tell at +a glance which batteries are out. + +A good plan, and one which will save space, is to write the number of +the rental battery on the customer's claim check, and when repairs on +his own battery are completed, to set his battery in the place +provided on the rental rack for the rental which he is using. When he +comes in for his battery, you can tell at a glance whether his battery +is ready by looking at the place where the rental he is using is +normally placed on the rental rack. If a battery is there you will +know that it is his battery, and that it is ready for him. + + [Fig. 185 Rental Battery Stock Card] + +You could, of course, look through the batteries on the "Ready Rack," +but this would take more time, since the numbers of the batteries on +this rack will always be different, and you would have to look through +all the batteries on the "Ready Rack" before you would be able to tell +whether any particular battery were ready. By putting a customer's +battery in place of the rental he is using, you will have only one +place to look at in order to know whether his battery is ready. + + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 13. +BUSINESS METHODS. +----------------- + +Success in this day and age cannot be attained without a well +thought-out plan of action. There is no business which does not demand +some sort of system of management. The smallest business must have it, +and will go to ruin without it. Hence every battery service station +proprietor should see to it that his affairs are systematized -- +arranged according to a carefully studied method. Most men look upon +"red-tape" with contempt and in the sense of a mere monotonous and +meaningless routine, it merits all the contempt poured upon it. Hard, +fast and iron-clad rules, which cease to be a means, and become an +end, prove a hindrance rather than a help. But an intelligent method, +which adapts itself to the needs of the business, is one of the most +powerful instruments of business. The battery man who despises it will +never do anything well. It does not matter how clever he is, how good +a workman he is, how complete his knowledge of batteries, if he +attempts to run his business without a plan, he will eventually come +to grief. + + +Purchasing Methods. + + +Every battery service station proprietor is eager to build up his +business, and improve the character of his trade, because this in turn +means that he will be assured of larger sales to a good class of +customers. And it is at once evident that there are a number of +requirements that affect this question of building up a business, one +of the first in importance being that of purchasing. + +One of the first things with which the battery man is faced is the +question of what, where, and in what quantities to purchase. The +philosophy of correct purchasing consists in getting the right +materials, in proper quantities, at a low price, and with as little +cost for the doing of it as possible. The purchasing problem should be +a most interesting and important subject to the proprietor of every +service station, because the policy pursued with regard to purchasing +will not only largely govern the economy of all his expenditures, +except rent and payroll, but it will also control his selling +policies. Goods are sold, and services rendered only because some one +wants to buy. The customer's purchasing problems govern the +proprietor's selling problems. To sell properly, it is necessary to +meet the requirements of those who buy. + +Correct purchasing is not merely a matter of "buying." The buying +itself has but little to do, after all, with the question of real +economy in this part of the business. The proprietor's purchasing +policy should not cease when the purchase order is + + [Fig. 186 Stock Record] + +made out, but should continue after the goods have been delivered, +received and inspected. He should see that they are properly stored, +that they are put to the use intended, and that they are used +efficiently. This can be accomplished to good advantage by the use of +the Stock Record illustrated in Fig. 186. + +When goods are received, each item should be entered on these Stock +Record cards, keeping in mind always that the requirements of a +"perpetual" or "going" inventory of this kind are that a separate +account be kept with each kind or class of stock, and not alone with +each class, but with each grade of each class. + +For example, if a quantity of batteries were received, it would not +suffice to have one card only for the entire quantity, unless they +should happen to be all of the same type and make. It should be +understood that these cards are a record of all articles coming into +stock, and all articles going out of stock in the way of sales or +otherwise, with an individual card for each kind, grade, style or size +of stock carried on hand. + +From the purchase invoices covering stock received, an entry is made +in the column headed "Received", to the proper account, showing date, +order number, quantity and price. + +Each sales tag is used to make the entries in the columns headed +"Disbursed", in which the date, tag number, quantity, price, and the +balance quantity on hand are shown. + +If this is done daily, for all the sales tags of the particular day, +and the cards on which the "disbursed" entries were made are kept +separate from the balance of the cards, it is an easy matter to arrive +at the cost of all sales for each day, The advantage of having this +daily information will be explained and illustrated in following +paragraphs. + + +The Use and Abuse of Credit. + + +The question of the proper use of credit is closely allied with the +purchasing of goods. A great many business failures can be traced +directly to overexpanded credit. Any battery service station +proprietor who does not place a voluntary limit on the amount of +credit for which he asks is, to say the least, running a very great +business risk. The moment he expands his credit to the limit, he +leaves himself with no margin of safety, and a sudden change in +business conditions may place him in a serious situation. + +Commercial agencies usually call this condition a lack of capital. The +real cause, however, is not so much lack of capital as it is too much +business on credit. This does not mean that credit should not be +sought; or that all business should be done on the capital actually +invested in the concern. Credit is necessary to commercial life. Very +few business concerns are so strong financially as to be able to do +without credit. + +Credit should be sought and used intelligently, and it is not a hard +matter for any battery service station proprietor to keep his credit +good. All that is necessary is to take a few precautions, and observe +in general the principles of good business. The first requisite, of +course, is to accept no more credit than the business will stand. +Sometimes it is possible to secure enough credit to ruin a business. +Its present condition and future prospects may appear so good as to +warrant securing all the credit possible under the circumstances. + +It requires courage to limit the growth and the temporary prosperity +of a business by keeping down the credit accepted. It is very hard to +refuse business. It is difficult not to make extensions when there is +enough business in sight to pay for the extensions. But the acid test +of whether or not you should extend and borrow is not the amount of +business that can be done, but the amount of money that can be spared. +The mere fact that you have the money or can get it does not in the +least mean that it should be spent. + +And the reason for this is that, in order to keep your credit good, +you must meet all obligations promptly. Nothing has a more chilling +effect on any business than failure to meet all indebtedness when due. +As soon as additional time is requested in which to meet obligations, +your credit rating begins to contract; and if, at the same time, your +credit has been overexpanded the business is placed in a most +difficult position. More than one concern has gone to the wall when +faced with this combination. + + +Proper Bookkeeping Records. + + +The principal difficulty in this matter of the proper use of credit +will lie in poor bookkeeping records, making it impossible for the +proprietor to know very much about his financial position or operating +condition day by day and week by week and month by month. + +Many service station proprietors figure what they owe once a year +only, when they inventory, and many do not keep a permanent record +even then; and usually those who are neglectful in this regard are the +ones who owe the most, proportionately, who do not take their +discounts, and who do not progress. + +The following table covers the average discounts allowed in various +lines. If you study it, and find out how much it costs you to lose +discounts, you will at once realize the necessity for the proper sort +of bookkeeping records. + +1. 1% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12% per year +2. 2% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24% per year +3. 3% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36% per year +4. 5% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60% per year +5. 8% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96% per year +6. 1% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18% per year +7. 2% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36% per year +8. 3% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54% per year +9. 5% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90% per year +10. 8% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144% per year +11. 1% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4% per year +12. 2% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.8% per year +13. 3% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.2% per year +14. 5% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72% per year +15. 8% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115.2% per year + +Then there is the matter of expenses; rent, wages, insurances, taxes, +depreciation, freight and express, and all the other miscellaneous +items that go to make up the total of your cost of doing business. +Expenses eat up a business unless controlled. They ought to be so +analyzed that you are able to place your finger on items which appear +too large, or uncalled for, or which need explanation. + + +A Daily Exhibit of Your Business. + + +In order to accomplish this, you ought to keep a record similar to +that shown by Fig. 187--a Daily Exhibit of your business. + +The advantage of this record is that it will give any battery man +daily information as to the following facts of his business: + +1. The amount of stock on hand. +2. The amount of gross profit. +3. The percentage of gross profit. + +It will give monthly information as to: + +1. The expense and percentage of expense. +2. The actual net profit. +3. The percentage of net profit. + +Such information will help you to locate exactly when and where your +losses come; during what months and from what causes. It will enable +you to turn losing months this year into profitable months next year; +to tell whether your losses were due to a too great expense account, +or to too low gross profits. + +The percentage columns on the sheet are the most important, because +only by percentages can you make proper comparisons, and know just how +your business is headed. You cannot guess percentages; you must have a +way of knowing continually what they are, in order to be certain of +getting the right return on your investment. + + [Fig. 187a "Daily Exhibit" form] + + [Fig. 187b "Daily Exhibit" form, continued] + +In analyzing this Daily Exhibit, you will note that it is ruled for +five weeks and two extra days, in order to provide for any one and all +months of the year. The various columns are provided so that the +entries in them will give a clear-cut story of the actual state of +your affairs, daily, weekly, and monthly. Each column will be +considered in the order in which it appears on the form. + +First Column--"Merchandise on Hand." +In starting this record the first day, the figures entered in this +column must be an actual physical inventory of your stock on hand, +priced and extended at cost. Do not total this column. + +Second Column--"New Goods Added to Stock." +The figures entered in this column should be the total value of all +new goods received from manufacturers or jobbers on the particular +day. If you return any articles to the seller immediately upon +receipt, and before putting them into your stock, deduct such goods +from the invoices and enter only the net amount in this column. This +column should be totaled every week and every month. + +Third Column--"Goods Returned by Customers;--Deduct from Sales." +The total value of all goods returned by customers extended at the +prices charged customers should be entered in this column daily. Every +week and every month this column is totaled. + +Fourth Column--"Cost of Goods Returned;--Deduct from Cost of Goods +Sold." +The cost of all goods returned by customers should be entered in this +column. The cost prices can always be secured from the Stock Record +cards, as previously explained. Total this column every week and every +month. + +Fifth Column--"Goods Returned to Manufacturers." +Sometimes there is occasion to return merchandise after it has been +put into stock. In such cases, the money value of the articles sent +back to manufacturers or jobbers should be entered in this column. +This does not mean such goods as were returned on the day received, +and were deducted from the seller's invoice, and at no time have +appeared in the second column, "New Goods Added to Stock," but only to +such merchandise as was originally entered in the second column, and +later returned to the manufacturer. This column should be totaled +every week and every month. + +Sixth Column--"Goods Sold, Less Goods Returned." +Enter here total of selling prices on sales tags for each day, after +deducting amount in the third column. Total this column every week and +every month. + +Seventh Oolumn--"Cost of Goods Sold, Less Cost of Goods Returned." +The total of the sales extended at cost prices for each day, minus the +amount showing in the fourth column, should be entered in this column. +It should be totaled every week and every month. + +Eighth Column--"Gross Profits." +To arrive at the figures to be entered in this column deduct the +amount in the seventh column from the amount in the sixth column. +Total this column every week and every month. + +Ninth Column--"Per Cent to Sales." +This percentage should be figured every day, and every week and every +month, and is arrived at by dividing the figures in the eighth column +by the figures in the sixth column. It will pay you to watch this +column closely. You will be astonished at the way it varies from day +to day, week to week, and month to month. If you watch it closely +enough, you will soon learn a great deal more about your business than +you ever knew before. You do not need to total this column. + +Tenth Column--"Accounts Receivable." +On the day the Daily Exhibit is first started, the figures for this +column must be taken from whatever records you have kept in the past. +Do not total this column. + +Eleventh Column--"Collections." +Every day you collect any money from those customers who run charge +accounts with you, enter the amount collected in this column. Total it +every week and every month. + +Twelfth Column--"Cash Sales." +Every day enter the amount of cash sales in this column, and total it +every week and every month. + +Thirteenth Column--"Charge Sales." +The amount of daily sales made to those customers who do not pay cash +but run a charge account should be entered in this column. Every week +and every month this column should be totaled. + +General Calculations. +To arrive at the amount of "Merchandise on Hand" after the first day, +which is, as has been previously explained, an actual physical +inventory, add the amounts showing in the first and second columns, +and deduct from this total the sum of the fifth and seventh columns. +Enter this result in the first column for the next succeeding day. +Continue as above throughout the entire month. + +After the first day the figures in "Accounts Receivable" column are +obtained by adding together the amounts showing in the tenth and +thirteenth column and deducting from this total the amount in the +eleventh column. This balance will be entered in the tenth column for +the next day, the same procedure being followed for each day +thereafter. + +"Merchandise on Hand" after the close of business on the last day of +the month should be entered in the first column on the line marked +"Month Total." This same amount will be carried forward to the first +column of next month's sheet and entered on the line of the particular +day of the week on which the first of the month falls. + +Following the "Month Total" are the "Year to Date" and "Last Year to +Date." These figures are important for purposes of comparison. Arrive +at total for "Year to Date" by adding the total for the present month +to the total for "Year to Date" found on the previous month's sheet. +The figures for "Last Year to Date" are taken directly from the sheet +kept for the same month last year. It is, of course, evident that this +cannot be done until one year's records have been completed. + + +Expenses and Profits. + + +Under the heading "Summary" at the bottom of the sheet, provision has +been made for finding out how much net profit YOU have made for the +month. + +On the line marked "Gross Profits" enter the "Month Total" figures in +the eighth column. Below this enter all the various items of expense +as follows: + +(1) Advertising: By advertising is meant such copy, signs, etc., which +may be prepared and used for the purpose of keeping the public +informed as to your ability to serve them--in other words, any space +which is used for general publicity purposes, such as for instance, +your card in the classified telephone directory, or blotters, folders, +dodgers which you may have printed up and distributed. + +Do not load this account with church programs, contributions to the +ball team, tickets to the fireman's ball and the like. These are +donations, and not advertising. + +(2) Electricity: All bills for electrical current will be charged to +this account. + +(3) Freight: Charges for all freight and express will be made to this +account. + +(4) Insurance: The total yearly insurance should be divined by twelve, +to obtain the amount to be charged to this account monthly. + +(5) Proprietor's salary: Many battery service station proprietors do +not charge their own living as an expense. That's a serious mistake, +of course. If those same men should hire a manager to run their +service station, the manager's salary would naturally be charged to +expense. The amount of money withdrawn from the business by the +proprietor should therefore be charged to expense. + +(6) Rent: The amount of money you pay monthly for rent should be +charged to this account. If, on the other hand, you own your own +building, charge the business with rent, the same as if you were +paying it to someone else. Every business should stand rent; besides, +the building itself should show itself a profitable investment. Charge +yourself just as much as you would anyone else; don't favor your +business by undercharging, nor handicap it by overcharging. + +(7) Supplies: The cost of all supplies, small tools and miscellaneous +articles which are bought for use in the business and not for sale +should be charged to this account. + +(8) Taxes: The yearly amount of taxes paid should be divided by +twelve, in order to arrive at the monthly proportion to be charged to +this account. + +(9) Wages: The amount of wages paid to employees should be charged to +this account. Care should be taken to determine the actual amount for +the month, if wages are paid on a daily or weekly wage rate. + +(10) Miscellaneous: Any expenses of the business not listed above will +be charged to this account. This may include such items as donations, +loss on bad accounts, and such like items of expense. You may itemize +these into as many headings as you desire, but for the purposes of the +Daily Exhibit combine all of them under "Miscellaneous Expense." + +All these expense items are then added together, and this total is +entered on the line marked "Total Expenses." + +Deduct "Total Expenses" from "Gross Profit" to arrive at "Net Profit." + +To arrive at the totals for "This Year to Date," carry the figures +forward from the previous month's sheet and add figures for present +month. + +The figures for "Last Year to Date" will be found on the sheet for the +corresponding month of last year, and are copied in this column. + +All percentages should be figured on sales. The figures shown on each +line in the "Amount" columns under the headings "This Month," "This +Year to Date" and "Last Year to Date" should be divided by the "Month +Total" of the sixth column, shown above, i. e., "Goods Sold, Less +Goods Returned." + +When you take inventory, the amount of stock should equal "Merchandise +on Hand," as shown by the Daily Exhibit. But there will generally be a +discrepancy, varying with the size of your stock, and that discrepancy +will represent the amount of goods gone out of your station without +being paid for; sold for cash and not accounted for; sold on credit +and not charged, and the like. It's worth something to know exactly +what this amounts to. The place for this information is under +"Inventory Variations" on the sheet. + +The space headed "Accounts Payable" is provided for recording, on the +last day of every month, just what you owe for accounts and for notes, +and also the same information for the corresponding date of last year. + + +Invaluable Monthly Comparative Information. + + +You see now that by the use of the Daily Exhibit you have a running +history of your business by days, weeks and months. But this is hardly +sufficient for a clear view of your business, since you will want some +record which will tell you what the year's business has been, and how +it varied from month to month. + + [Fig. 188. Statistical and Comparative Record] + +This is provided for in the Statistical and Comparative Record, +illustrated by Fig. 188, on which the amount of sales, cost of sales, +gross profit, expenses and net profit are entered for each month of +the year. All the figures for entry in this record are taken directly +from the Daily Exhibit at the end of the month, which makes the work +of compiling it a very easy task. + +The advantages of a record of this kind can hardly be overstated. The +figures in the upper part of this statement will show which months +have been profit payers and which have not, while from the figures in +the lower part of the report you are able to determine the percentage +any group of expenses bears to sales, and are thus in position to +subsequently control such items. + +Do not let the fear of doing a little bookkeeping work prevent you +from keeping these records. They should go a long way toward solving +the problems which the average proprietor faces today: + +1. Selling his goods and services without a profit. +2. Failure to show sufficient net profit at the end of the year. +3. Constantly increasing cost of doing business. + +You may think at first glance that it will require a great deal of +extra work to keep these records, but in this you are mistaken. They +are very simple and easy to operate. The American Bureau of +Engineering, Inc., will advise you where to obtain these forms. + + +======================================================================= + +CHAPTER 14. +WHAT'S WRONG WITH THE BATTERY? +------------------------------ + +When a man does not feel well, he visits a doctor. When he has trouble +on his car, he takes the car to a service station. What connection is +there between these two cases? None whatever, you may say. And yet in +each instance the man is seeking service. The term "Service Station" +generally suggests a place where automobile troubles are taken care +of. That does not mean, however, that the term may not be used in +other lines of business. The doctor's office is just as much a +"Service Station" as the automobile repair shop. The one is a "Health +Service Station" and the other is an "Automobile Service Station." The +business of each is to eliminate trouble. + +The battery repairman may think that he cannot learn anything from a +doctor which will be of any use to his battery business, but, as a +matter of fact, the battery man can learn much that is valuable from +the doctor's methods of handling trouble. The doctor greets a patient +courteously and always waits for him to tell what his symptoms are. He +then examines the patient, asking questions based on what the patient +tells him, to bring out certain points which will help in making an +accurate diagnosis. Very often such questioning will enable the doctor +to determine just what the nature of the illness is. But he does not +then proceed to write out a prescription without making an +examination. If he did, the whole case might just as well have been +handled over the telephone. No competent physician will treat patients +from a distance. Neither will he write out a prescription without +making a physical examination of the patient. The questioning of the +patient and the physical examination always go together, some +questions being asked before an examination is made to give an +approximate idea of what is wrong and some during the examination to +aid the doctor in making an accurate diagnosis. + +The patient expects a doctor to listen to his description of the +symptoms and to be guided by them in the subsequent examination, but +not to arrive at a conclusion entirely by the description of the +symptoms. A patient very often misinterprets his pains and aches, and +tells the doctor that he has a certain ailment. Yet the doctor makes +his examination and determines what the trouble is, and frequently +find a condition which is entirely different from what the patient +suspected. He then prescribes a treatment based on his own conclusions +and not on what the patient believes to be wrong. + +Calling for Batteries. A doctor treats many patients in his office, +but also makes his daily calls on others. Similarly, the battery +repairman should have a service truck for use in calling for +customers' batteries, especially where competition is keen. Some car +owners cannot bring their cars to the repair shop during working +hours, and yet if they knew that they could have their battery called +for and have a rental battery installed, they would undoubtedly have +their battery tested and repaired more frequently. In some instances a +battery will be so badly run down that the car cannot be started, and +the car is allowed to stand idle because the owner does not care to +remove his battery, carry it to a service station and carry a rental +battery with him. Batteries are heavy and generally dirty and wet with +acid, and few people wish to run the risk of ruining their clothes by +carrying the battery to a shop. The wise battery mail will not +overlook the business possibilities offered by the call for and +deliver service, especially when business is slow. A Ford roadster +with a short express body will furnish this service, or any old +chassis may be fitted up for it at a moderate cost. Of course, you +must advertise this service. Do not wait for car owners to ask whether +you will call for their batteries. Many of them may not think of +telephoning for such service, and even if they do, they might call up +some other service station. + + +When Batteries Come In + + +What does a man expect when he brings his battery to the battery +service-station? Obviously lie expects to be greeted courteously and +to be permitted to tell the symptoms of trouble which he has observed. +He furthermore expects the repairman to examine and test the battery +carefully before deciding what repairs are necessary and not to tell +him that he needs new positives, new separators, or an entirely new +battery without even looking at the battery. + +When a car is brought to your shop, you are the doctor. Sonic part of +the mechanism is in trouble, and it is your duty to put yourself in +charge of the situation. Listen to what the customer hp to say. He has +certainly noticed that something is wrong, or he would not have come +to you. Ask him what he has observed. + +He has been driving the car, starting the engine, and turning on the +lights, and certainly has noticed whether everything has been +operating as it should. The things he has noticed were caused by the +trouble which exists. He may not know what sort of trouble they +indicate, but you, as the battery doctor can generally make a fairly +accurate estimate of what the trouble is. You should, of course, do +more than merely listen to what the customer says. You can question +him as to how the car has been used, just as the doctor, after +listening to what a patient has to say, asks questions to give him a +clue to what has caused such symptoms. + +The purpose of the preliminary questioning and examination is not +merely to make an accurate diagnosis of the troubles, but to establish +a feeling of confidence on the part of the customer. A man who owns a +car generally possesses an average amount of intelligence and likes to +have it recognized and respected. Your questioning and examination +will either show the customer that you know your business and know +what should be done, or it will convince him that you are merely +putting up a bluff to hide your ignorance. + +What the customer wants to know is how much the repairs will cost, +and how soon lie may have his battery again. Estimate carefully what +the work, will cost, and tell him. If a considerable amount of work is +required and you cannot estimate how much time and material will be +needed, tell the customer that you will let him know the approximate +cost later, when you have gone far enough with the work to be able to +make an estimate. If you find that the battery should be taken off, +take it off without any loss of time and put on a rental battery. If +there is something wrong outside of the battery, however, it will be +necessary to eliminate the trouble before the car leaves the +shop, otherwise the same battery trouble will occur again. If there is +no actual trouble outside the battery, and if the driving conditions +have been such that the battery is not charged sufficiently while on +the car, no actual repairs are necessary on the electrical system. The +customer should be advised to drive in about every two weeks to have +his battery tested, and occasionally taken off and given a bench +charge. It is better to do this than to increase the charging rate to +a value which might damage the generator or battery. + +Adopt a standard method of procedure in meeting, a customer and in +determining what is wrong and what should be done. If the customer is +one who brings his car in regularly to have the battery filled and +tested, you will: be able to detect any trouble as soon as it occurs, +and will be able to eliminate it before the battery is seriously +damaged. A change in the charging rate, cleaning of the generator +commutator or cutout contact points, if done in time, will often keep +everything in good shape. + +With a new customer who has had his battery for sometime, you must, +however, ask questions and make tests to determine what is wrong. +Before sending the customer away with a new, rental, or repaired +battery, test the electrical system as described on page 276. + +The most important transaction and one which will save you +considerable argument and trouble is to get everything down in black +and white. Always try to have the customer wait while you test the +battery. If you find it necessary to open the battery do this in his +presence. When he leaves there should be no question as to what he +shall have to pay for. If more time is required to determine the +necessary work, do not actually do the work without getting in touch +with the owner and making a written agreement as to what is to be done +and how much the cost will be. The Service Record shown in Fig. 183 +may be used for this purpose. + +The following method of procedure is suggested as a standard. Follow +it closely if possible, though in some cases, where the nature of the +trouble is plainly evident, this will not be necessary any more than a +doctor who sees blood streaming from a severe cut needs to question +the patient to find out what is wrong. + +It may not always be necessary to ask all the questions which follow, +or to ask them in the order given, but they cover points which the +repairman should know in order to work intelligently. Some of the +information called for in the questions may often be obtained without +questioning the customer. Do not, however, hesitate to ask any and all +questions covering points which you wish to know. + +1. Greet the customer with a smile. + +Your manner and appearance are of great importance. Be polite and +pleasant. Do not lose your temper, no matter how much cause the +customer gives you to do so. A calm, courteous manner will generally +cool the anger of an irate customer and make it possible to gain his +confidence and good will. Do not argue with your customers, Your +business is to get the job and do it in an agreeable manner. If you +make mistakes admit it and your customer will come again. Keep your +clothes neat and clean and have your face and hands clean. Remember +that the first glimpse the customer has of the man who approaches him +will influence him to a very considerable extent in giving you his +business or going elsewhere. Do not have a customer wait around a long +time before he receives any attention. If he grows impatient because +nobody notices him when he comes in, it will be hard to gain his +confidence, no matter how well you may afterwards do the work. + +2. What's the Trouble? + +Let the customer tell you his story. While listening, try to get an +idea of what may be wrong. When he has given you all the information +he can, question him so that you will be able to get a better idea of +what is wrong. + +(a) How long have you had the battery? See page 242. + +(b) Was it a new battery when you bought it? + +(c) How often has water been added? + +(d) Has distilled water been used exclusively, or has faucet, well, or +river water ever been used? Impure water may introduce substances +which will damage or even ruin a battery. + +(e) Has too much water been added? If this is done, the electrolyte +will flood the tops of the jars and may rot the upper parts of the +wooden case. + +(f) How fast is car generally driven? The speed should average 15 M. +P. H. or more to keep battery charged. + +(g) How long must engine be cranked before it starts? This should not +require more than about 10 seconds. If customer is in doubt, start the +engine to find out. If starting motor cranks engine at a fair speed, +engine should start within 10 seconds. If starting motor cranks engine +at a low speed, a longer cranking time may be required. The low +cranking speed may be due to a run-down or defective battery, to +trouble in the starting motor or starting circuit, or to a stiff +engine. To determine if battery is at fault, see "Battery Tests," +below. + +(h) Has the car been used regularly, or has it been standing idle for +any length of time? An idle battery discharges itself and often +becomes damaged. If car has been standing idle in cold weather, the +battery has probably been frozen. + +(i) Has it been necessary to remove the battery occasionally for a +bench charge? + +(j) Has battery ever been repaired? See page 322. + + +Battery Tests + + +1. Remove the vent plugs and inspect electrolyte. If the electrolyte +covers the plates and separators to a sufficient depth, measure the +specific gravity of the electrolyte. If the electrolyte is below the +tops of the plates and separators, see following section No. 2. + +If all cells read 1.150 or less, remove the battery and give it a +bench charge. + +If the specific gravity readings of all cells are between 1.150 and +1.200, and if no serious troubles have been found up to this point, +advise the owner to use his lights and starting motor as little as +possible until the gravity rises to 1.280-1.300. If this is not +satisfactory to him, remove the battery and give it a bench charge. + +If the specific gravity readings are all above 1.200, or if the +gravity reading of one cell is 50 points (such as the difference +between 1.200 and 1.250, which is 50 "points") lower or higher than +the others (no matter what the actual gravity readings may be), make +the 15 seconds high rate discharge test on the battery. See page 266. +If this test indicates that the internal condition of the battery is +bad, the battery should be removed from the car and opened for +inspection. If the test indicates that the internal condition of the +battery is good, the specific gravity of the electrolyte needs +adjusting. The difference in specific gravity readings in the cells is +due to one of the following, causes: + +(a) Water added to the cell or cells which have low gravity to replace +electrolyte which had been spilled or lost in some other manner. + +(b) Electrolyte added to the cell or cells which have high gravity to +replace the water which naturally evaporates from the electrolyte. + +(c) Trouble inside the cell or cells which have low gravity. The high +rate discharge test will show whether there is any internal trouble. + +If any cell shows a gravity above 1.300, remove the battery, dump out +all the electrolyte, fill battery with distilled water and put the +battery on charge. + +If the gravity of one or more cells is 50 points less than the others, +water has been used to replace electrolyte which has been spilled or +lost in some other manner, or else one or more jars are cracked. A +battery with one or more cracked jars usually has the bottom parts of +its wooden case rotted by the electrolyte which leaks from the jar. If +you are not certain whether the battery has one or more cracked jars, +see that the electrolyte covers the plates in all the cells one-half +inch or so, and then let the battery stand. If the electrolyte sinks +below the tops of the plates in one or more cells within twenty-four +hours, those cells have leaky jars and the battery must be opened, and +new jars put in. + +If the low gravity is not caused by leaky jars, give the battery a +bench charge and adjust the level of the electrolyte. + +2. If you found electrolyte to be below tops of plates in all the +cells, the battery has been neglected, or there mail be leaky jars. +Add distilled water until the electrolyte covers the plates to a +depth of about one-half inch. + +(a) If it requires only a small amount of water to bring up the level +of the electrolyte, remove the battery and give it a bench charge. See +page 198. Only a brief charge may be necessary. Ask the driver when +water was added last. If more than 1 month has passed since the last +filling, the upper parts of the plates may be sulphated, and the +battery should be charged at a low rate. + +(b) If it requires a considerable amount of water to bring up the +level of the electrolyte, and the bottom of the wooden battery case +shows no signs of being rotted, the battery has been neglected and has +been dry for a long time, and the plates are mostly likely badly +damaged. Open the battery for inspection. + +(c) If only one cell requires a considerable amount of water to bring +up the level of its electrolyte, and the bottom of the wooden battery +ease shows no sign of being rotted, that cell is probably "dead," due +to in internal short-circuit. To test for "dead" cells, turn on the +lamps and measure the voltage of each cell. A dead cell will not give +any voltage on test, may give a reversed voltage reading, or at the +most will give a very low voltage. A battery with a dead cell should +be opened for inspection. + +(d) If the bottom part of the wooden battery case is rotted, and a +considerable amount of water had to be added to any or all cells to +bring up the level of the electrolyte, the battery has leaky jars and +must be opened to have the leaky jars replaced by good ones. + +If there is any doubt in your mind as to whether any or all jars are +leaking, fill the cells with distilled water and let the battery stand +for twelve to twenty-four hours. If at or before the end of that time +the electrolyte has, fallen below the tops of the plates in any or all +cells, these cells have leaky Jars and the battery must be opened and +the leaky jars replaced with good ones. The electrolyte which leaks +out will wet the bench or on which the battery is placed and this is +another indication of a leaky jar. + + +General Inspection + + +In addition to the tests which have been described, a general +inspection as outlined below will often be a great help in deciding +what must be done. + +1. Is battery loose? A battery which is not held down firmly may have +broken jars, cracked sealing compound around posts or between posts +and separators, and active material shaken out of the grids. There may +also be corrosion at the terminals. + +2. Are cables loose? This will cause battery to be in a run down +condition and cause failure to crank engine. + +3. Is there corrosion at the terminals? This will cause battery to be +in a run-down condition and cause failure to start engine. Corrosion +is caused by electrolyte attacking terminals. A coating of vaseline on +the terminals prevents corrosion. + +4. Is top of battery wet? This may be due to addition of too much +water, overheating of battery, cracks around posts and between posts +and cover, electrolyte thrown out of vents because of battery being +loose, or electrolyte or water spilled on battery. Such a condition +causes battery to run down. + +5. Is top of case acid soaked? This is caused by leaks around posts or +between covers and jars, flooding of electrolyte due to overheating or +due to addition of too much water, or by electrolyte spilled on covers. + +6. Is lower part of case acid soaked? This is caused by leaky jars. + +7. Are ends of case bulged out? This may be due to battery having been +frozen. + +This general inspection of the battery can be made in a few seconds, +and often shows what the condition of the battery is. + + +Operation Tests + + +Two simple tests may be made which will help considerably in the +diagnosis. + +Turn on the lights. If they burn dim, battery is run down (and may be +defective) and battery needs bench charge or repairs. If they burn +bright battery is probably in a good condition. + +With the lights burning, have the customer or a helper step on the +starting switch. If the lights now become very dim, the battery is run +down (and may also be defective), or else the starting motor is +drawing too much current from the battery. + + +Trouble Charts + + +For the convenience of the repairman, the battery troubles which may +be found when a car is brought in, are summarized in the following +tables: + + +All Cells Show Low Gravity or Low Voltage + + +A. Look for the following conditions: + + +1. Loose or dirty terminals or cell connectors. This may reduce +charging rate, or open charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Tighten and +clean connections. + +2. Corrosion on terminals or cell connectors caused by acid on top of +battery due to over-filling, flooding, defective sealing, lead scraped +from lead-coated terminals, and copper wires attached directly to +battery. A badly corroded battery terminal may cause the generator, +ignition coil, and lamps to burn out because of the high resistance +which the corroded terminal causes in the charging line. It may reduce +charging rate, or open charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Remove cause +of corrosion. Clean corroded parts and give coating of vaseline. + +3. Broken terminals or cell connectors. These may reduce charging rate +or open charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Install new parts. + +4. Generator not charging. Remedy: Find and remove cause of generator +not charging (see page 284). + +5. Charging rate too low. Remedy: If due to generator trouble, repair +generator. If due to incorrect generator setting change setting. If +due to driving conditions increase charging rate. + +6. Acid or moisture on top of battery due to defective sealing, +flooding, spilling electrolyte in taking gravity readings, loose vent +plugs. This causes corrosion and current leakage. Remedy: Find and +remove cause. + +7. Tools or wires on battery causing short-circuits. Remedy: Tell +customer to keep such things off the battery. + +8. Short-circuits or grounds in wiring. Remedy: Repair wiring. + +9. Cutout relay closing late, resulting in battery not being charged +at ordinary driving speeds. Remedy: Check action of cutout. See page +282. + +10. Excessive lighting current, due to too many or too large lamps. +Remedy: Check by turning on all lamps while engine is running. Ammeter +should show three to five amperes charge with lamps burning. In winter +the charging rate may have to be increased. + + +B. Question Driver as to following causes of low gravity and low +voltage: + +1. Has water been added regularly? + +2. Has impure water, such as faucet, well, or river water ever been +added to battery? + +3. Has too much water been added? + +4. Has electrolyte been spilled and replaced by water? + +5. Has battery been idle, or stored without regular charging? + +6. Is car used more at night than in daytime? Considerable night +driving may prevent battery from being fully charged. + +7. Is starter used frequently? + +8. What is average driving speed? Should be over 15 M. P. 11. + +9. How long is engine usually cranked before starting-? Cranking +period should not exceed 10 seconds. + + +C. If battery has been repaired. The trouble may be due to: + + +1. Improperly treated separators used. + +2. Grooved side of separators put against negatives instead of +positives. + +3. Separator left out. + +4. Cracked separator. + +5. Positives used which should have been discarded. + +6. Bulged, swollen negatives used. + +7. Poor joints due to improper lead-burning. + + +D. Battery Troubles which may exist: + + +1. Sulfated plates. + +2. Buckled Plates. + +3. Internal Short-circuits. + +4. Cracked Jars. + +5. Clogged Separators. + + + +Gravity Readings Unequal + + +1. Acid or moisture on top of battery, due to defective sealing, +flooding, spilling electrolyte, loose vent plugs. This causes current +leakage. Remedy: Find and remove cause. + +2. Tools or wires on battery, causing short-circuits. Remedy: Tell +driver to keep such things off the battery. + +3. Electrolyte or acid added to cells giving the high gravity readings. + +4. Electrolyte spilled and replaced by water in cells giving low +readings. + +5. Grooved side of separators placed against negatives in cells giving +the low readings. + +6. Separator left out, cracked separator used, hole worn through +separator by buckled plate or swollen negatives, or separators in +some cells and new ones in others. + +7. Old plates used in some cells and new ones in others. + +8. Impurities in cells showing low gravity. + +9. Shorted cell, due to plates cutting through separators. + +10. Cracked jar. + +11. Oil some of the older cars a three wire lighting system was used. +If the lights are arranged so that more are connected between one of +the outside wires and the center, than between the other outside wire +and the center, the cells carrying the heavier lighting load will show +low gravity. + +12. On some of the older cars, the battery is made of two or more +sections which are connected in series for starting and in parallel +for charging. Oil such cars the cells in one of the sections may show +lower gravity than other cells due to longer connecting cables, poor +connections, corroded terminals, and so on. Such a condition AN-ill +often be found in the old two section Maxwell batteries used previous +to 1918. + + +High Gravity + + +This is a condition in which the hydrometer readings would indicate +that a battery is almost or fully-charged, but the battery may fail to +operate the starting motor. If the lights are burning while the +starting switch is closed, they will become very dim. The gravity +readings may be found to be above 1.300. + +The probable causes of this condition are: + +1. Electrolyte or concentrated acid added instead of water. + +2. One of the numerous "dope" solutions which have been advertised +extensively within the past two years. Never use them. If customer +admits having used such a "dope" warn him not to do so again. + + +Low Electrolyte + +Probable Causes: + +1. Water not added. + +2. Electrolyte replaced in wrong cell after taking gravity readings. + +3. Cracked jars. + +4. Battery overcharged, causing loss of water by overheating and +excessive gassing. + + +Probable Results: + +1. Sulfated Plates. + +2. Carbonized, dry, cracked separators. + +3. Considerable shedding. + + +Battery Overheats + +Probable Causes: + +1. Water not added regularly. + +2. Impure water used. + +3. Impure acid used. + +4. Battery on hot place on car. + +5. Alcohol or other anti-freeze preparation added. + +6. Excessive charging rate. + +7. Improperly treated separators. + +8. Battery over-charged by long daylight runs. + + +Probable Results: + +1. Sulfated Plates. + +2. Burned, Carbonized Separators. + +3. Buckled Plates. + +4. Excessive Shedding. + + +Electrolyte Leaking Out at Top + +Probable Causes: + +1. Too much water added. + +2. Battery loose in box. + +3. Cracks in sealing compound due to poor sealing, or cables pulling +on terminals, or due to poor quality of sealing compound, or good +quality compound which has been burned. + +4. Vent plugs loose. + +Probable Results: + +1. Upper portion of case rotted by acid. + +2. Electrolyte low. + +3. Plates sulphated. + +4. Upper parts of separators dry. + + +Summary + +1. When May a Battery Be Left on the Car? + +(a) When you find that the specific gravity of all cells is more than +1.150, the voltage of each cell is at least 2, the voltage doe's not +drop when the lights are turned on, or the lights do not become very +dim when the engine is cranked with the starting motor, there are no +loose terminals or connectors, the sealing compound is not broken or +cracked so as to cause a "slopper," the electrolyte covers the plates, +the box is not rotted by acid, and there are no broken jars. + +These conditions will exist only if battery has been well taken care +of, and some trouble has suddenly and recently arisen, such as caused +by a break in one of the battery cables, loosening of a cable +connection at the battery or in the line to the starting motor. + +2. When Should a Battery Be Removed From Car? + +(a) When you find broken sealing compound, causing the battery to be a +"slopper." + +(b) When you find inter-cell connectors and terminals loose, corroded, +or poorly burned on. + +(c) When you find box badly rotted by acid, or otherwise defective. + +(d) When you find a cracked jar, indicated by lower part of case being +acid soaked, or by low electrolyte, or find that electrolyte level +falls below the tops of the plates soon after adding water. + +(e) When you find a dead cell, indicated by very low or no voltage, +even on open circuit. + +(f) When specific gravity of electrolyte is less than 1.150, or +gravity readings of cells vary considerably. + +(g) When battery voltage drops to about 1.7 or less per cell when +lamps are turned on, or lamps become very dim when the starting motor +is cranking the engine, or the high rate discharge test shows that +there is trouble in the cells. + +(h) When you find that electrolyte is below tops of plates, and it +requires considerable water to bring it up to the correct height. + +(i) When battery overheats on charge, or discharge, although battery +is not located in hot place, charging rate is not too high and lamps +and accessories load is normal. + +(j) When battery is more than a year old and action is not +satisfactory. + +(k) When a blacksmith, tinsmith or plumber has tried his hand at +rebuilding the battery. Such a battery is shown in Fig. 189. + +(1) When ends of care are bulged out. + +3. When Is It Unnecessary to Open a Battery? + +(a) When the only trouble is broken sealing compound. The battery +should be resealed. + +(b) When loose, corroded, or poorly burned on terminals and connectors +have merely resulted in keeping battery only partly charged and no +internal troubles exist. The remedy is to drill off the connectors, or +terminals, and re-burn them. + +(c) When the external condition of battery is good, and a bench +charge, see page 198 (with several charge and discharge cycles if +necessary) puts battery in a good condition, as indicated by voltage, +cadmium, and 20 minute high rate discharge test. + +4. When Must a Battery Be Opened? + +(a) When prolonged charging (72 hours or more) will not cause gravity +or voltage to rise. Such trouble is due to defective plates and +separators. + +(b) When battery case is badly acid soaked. A slightly acid soaked +case need not be discarded, but if the damage caused by the acid has +been excessive, a new case is needed. Plates may also be damaged. + +(c) When one or more jars are cracked. New jars are needed. The plates +may also be damaged. + +(d) When one or more cells are "dead," as indicated by little or no +voltage, even on open circuit. New plates (positives at least) may be +required. + +(e) When battery is more than a year old and action is unsatisfactory. +(Battery will not hold its charge.) Battery may have to be junked, or +new separators may be required. Every battery should be reinsulated at +least once during its lifetime. + +(f) When a blacksmith, tinsmith, or plumber have tried to repair a +case, Fig. 189. + + [Fig. 189. A Blacksmith and Tinsmith Tried Their Hands on This Case, + Lower Part Enclosed in Tin, Strap Iron, Covered with Friction Tape, + Around The Top] + +(g) When the ends of case are bulged. A new case is needed. If the +battery has been frozen it should generally be junked. There are some +cases on record of a frozen battery having been thawed out and put in +serviceable condition by a long charge at a low rate followed by +several cycles of discharge and recharge. Generally, at least, a new +case, jars, and positives are required. + +NOTE: New separators should always be installed, whenever a battery is +opened for repairs, unless the separators already in the battery are +new, and the trouble for which the battery was opened consists of a +leaky jar, a separator left out, or some other trouble which does not +require pulling the plates out of mesh. + + +==================================================================== + +CHAPTER 15. +REBUILDING THE BATTERY. +----------------------- + + +How to Open a Battery + + [Fig. 190 Battery to be opened] + +A battery is open when its plates have been drawn out of the hard +rubber jars. All parts are then exposed, and accessible for inspection +and repairs. In an assembled battery, the top of each cell is closed +by a hard rubber cover. Leakproof joints are made between these covers +and the rubber jars and the wooden case by means of sealing compound +which is poured in place while in a molten condition, and joins the +covers to the jars and which hardens as it cools. The joints between +the covers and the posts which project through the covers are in many +batteries made with sealing compound. The cells are then connected to +each other by means of the cell connectors, also called +"top-connectors," or simply "connectors." These connectors are joined +to the lead posts, to which are connected the plate groups by fusing +with a flame, and melting in additional lead to make a joint. + +In opening a battery, we must first disconnect the cells from each +other, and then open the joint made by the sealing compound between +the covers and the jars and case. The plates may then be lifted out of +the jars, and the battery is open. The steps necessary to open a +battery follow, in the order in which they must be taken. + +1. Clean the Battery. Set the battery on the tear down rack. See that +the vent plugs are all tight in place. Then clean the outside of the +battery. Remove the greater part of the dirt with a brush, old +whisk-broom, or a putty knife. Then put the battery in the water, +using a stiff bristled brush to remove whatever dirt was not removed +in the first place. A four-inch paint brush is satisfactory for this +work, and will last a year or more if taken care of. If water will not +remove all the dirt, try a rag wet with gasoline. + +2. Drilling Off the Connectors and Terminals. When you have cleaned +the outside of the battery as thoroughly as possible, set the battery +on the floor near your work bench. Make a sketch of the top of the +battery, showing the exact arrangement of the terminals and +connectors. This sketch should be made on the tag which is tied to the +battery. Tic this tag on the handle near the negative terminal of the +battery or tack it to the ease. Then drill down over the Center of the +posts. For this you will need a large brace with a heavy chuck, a +drill the same size as the post (the part that goes down into the +battery), a large screw driver, a center punch, and a hammer. + + [Fig. 191 Drilling post and cell connector] + +With the center punch, mark the exact centers of the tops of the posts +and connectors. Then drill down about half way through the connectors +and terminals until you cut through the part of the connector which is +welded to the post. When you can see a seam between the post and +connector you have drilled through the welded part. See Figs. 191 and +192. + +Now pry off the connectors with the screw driver, as shown in Fig. +193. Lay a flat tool such as a chisel or file on the top edge of the +ease to avoid damaging the ease when prying off the connectors. + +If any connector is still tight, and you cannot pry it off with a +reasonable effort, drill down a little deeper, and it will come off +easily, provided that the hole which you are drilling is exactly over +the center of the post and as large as the post. There are five things +to remember in drilling the connectors and posts: + + [Fig. 192 Connector drilled to correct depth] + +(a) Be sure that the hole is exactly over the center of the post. + +(b) Do not drill too deep. Make each hole just deep enough so that the +connector will come off easily. Fig. 192 shows a cross section of a +post and connector drilled to the proper depth. Notice that you need +not drill down the whole depth of the connector, because the bottom +part is not burned to the post. + +(c) Be sure that the drill makes the right sized hole to permit the +connectors and terminals to be removed easily when drilled half way +through. An electric drill will do the work much faster than a hand +brace. + +(d) Protect the edge of the battery box when you pry up the connectors +with a screw driver. + +(e) Remove your drill after the hole is well started and see whether +the hole is in the center of the post. Should you find that it is off +center, tilt the drill, and with the end of the drill pointing the +center of the post as you drill, gradually straighten the drill. This +will bring the hole over the center of the post. + +Having removed the connectors, sweep all the lead drillings front the +top of the battery into a box kept for lead drillings only. Fig. 194. +When this box is full, melt the drillings and pour off in the burning +lead mould. + + [Fig. 193 Prying off cell connector] + +Post Seal. If the post seal consists of a lead sealing nut, this may +be removed now. With some types of batteries (Willard and U. S. L.), +drilling the connectors also breaks the post seal. With other +batteries, such as the Vesta, Westinghouse, Prest-0-Lite, Universal, +it is more difficult to break the post seal. + + [Fig. 194 Brushing lead drillings into box] + +On these batteries, therefore, do not break this seal before drawing +out the plates. You may find that it will not be necessary to separate +the groups, and the post seal will not have to be broken at all, +thereby saving yourself considerable time on the overhauling job. + +3. Heating Up the Sealing Compound. Having disconnected the cells from +each other by removing the cell connectors, the next step is to open +the joint made by the sealing compound between the covers and jars. +Fig. 195 shows the battery ready for this step. When cold, the +compound is a tough substance that sticks to the cover and jar, and +hence it must be heated until it is so soft that it is easily removed. +There are several methods by means of which compound may be heated. +These are as follows: + +Steam. This is the most popular, and undoubtedly the best means of +heating the compound, and in the following instructions it will be +assumed that steam has been used. The battery is either placed in a +special box in which steam is sent, or else steam is sent directly +into each cell through the vent tube. In the first method the compound +is heated from the outside, and in the second it is heated from the +inside of the cell. + + [Fig. 195 Battery ready for steaming] + + [Fig. 196 Drawing up an element] + +If the battery is placed in the steaming box, about ten minutes will +be required for the steam to heat up the sealing compound. For +batteries which use but very little compound, less time is required. +if steam is sent directly into the cells through the vent tubes, five +to seven minutes will generally be enough. The covers must be limp and +the 1 compound must be soft before turning off the steam. + +Hot Water. The electrolyte is poured out of the battery, which is then +inverted in a vessel of hot water. This method is slower than the +others, and is more expensive because it requires a larger volume of +water to be heated. + +Hot Putty Knife and Screwdriver. The compound may be dug out with a +hot putty knife. This is a slow, unsatisfactory method in most +instances, especially in those batteries which use a considerable +amount of sealing compound. With some batteries using only a small +quantity of compound, a heated putty knife may be run around the +inside of the jar between the jar and the cover. This will break the +joint between the cover and the jar, and allow the plates to be lifted +out. The compound is then scraped from covers and inside of jars, +heating the knife or screwdriver whenever it cools off. + +Lead Burning Flame. Any soft lead burning flame may be used. Such a +flame may be adjusted to any desired size. Where steam is available, a +flame should, however, never be used. The temperature of the flame is +very high, and the covers, jars, case, posts, and vent plugs may be +burned and made worthless. Even for the expert repairman, a flame is +not as satisfactory as steam. + +The Gasoline Torch. This is the most unsatisfactory method, and should +not be used if possible. The torch gives a hot, spreading flame and it +is difficult to prevent the covers, jars, case, etc., from being +burned. Do not use a gasoline torch if you can possibly avoid doing +so. Alcohol torches are open to the same objections, and are not +satisfactory, even in the hands of a highly skilled workman. + +If a flame is used for heating the compound, be sure to blow out with +a hand bellows or compressed air any gas that may have gathered above +the plates, before you bring the flame near the battery. + +Electric Heat. Special electric ovens for softening sealing compound +are on the market. The heating element is brought close to the top of +the battery. Where electric power is cheap, this method may be used. +Otherwise it is rather expensive. + + [Fig. 197 Resting element on jar to drain] + +When the sealing compound has been softened, place the battery on the +floor between your feet. Grasp the two posts of one cell with pliers, +and pull straight up with an even, steady pull. If the battery has +been steamed long enough, the plates will come up easily, carrying +with them the cover (or covers, if the batter has upper and lower +covers) to which the compound is sticking, as shown in Fig. 196. Do +not remove the plates of the other cells until later. + +Rest the plates on the top of the jar just long enough to allow most +of the acid to drain from them, Fig. 197. If you have removed the post +seal, or if the seal consists of compound (old Philadelphia +batteries), pry off the covers now with a screw driver. Otherwise, +leave the covers in place while cleaning off the compound. + +While the plates are resting on the jars to drain, scrape the compound +from the covers with a warm screw driver or putty knife, Fig. 198. +Work quickly while the compound is still hot and soft, and comes off +easily. As the compound cools it hardens and sticks to the covers and +is removed with difficulty. If the battery has sealing compound around +the posts, this should also be removed thoroughly, both from the cover +and from the post. + +When you scrape the compound from the covers, do a good job. Do not +scrape off most of it, and then leave pieces of it here and there. +Remove every bit of compound, on the tops, edges, sides, and bottoms +of the covers. If you need different sized putty knives or screw +drivers to do this, use them. The time to remove all the compound is +while it is still hot, and not after it has become hard and cold. If +the battery has single covers, the compound can be removed very +quickly. If the battery is of the old double-cover type, the job will +take more time, since all the compound should be scraped from both top +and bottom covers, Fig. 199. + + [Fig. 198 Removing compound from cover] + + +As soon as you have removed the compound from the covers of the first +cell, serape away the compound which may be sticking to the top and +inside walls of the jar, Fig. 200. Here again you must do a good job, +and remove all of this compound. If you do not do it now, you will +have to do it when you try to put the plates back into the jar later +on, as compound sticking to the inside walls of the jar will make it +difficult, and even impossible to lower the plates into the jar. + +Now draw up the plates of the next cell. Rest the plates on the top of +the jar just long enough to drain, and then lift off the covers, and +remove all of the compound, from cover, posts, and jar, just as you +did in the first cell. The third cell, (and the others, if there are +more than three cells) are handled just as you did the first one. + +Remember that you should lose no time after you have steamed the +battery. Hot compound is soft and does not stick to the covers, jars, +and posts and may therefore be removed quickly and easily. Cold +compound is hard, and sticks to the covers. Draw out the plates of +only one cell at a time, and clean the compound from the cover, posts +and jar of that one cell before you draw out the plates of the other +cells. In this way, the compound on the covers of the other cells will +remain hotter than if all the plates of the battery were drawn out of +the jars before any of the compound was removed from the covers. You +should have all the plates drawn out, and all the compound removed +within five minutes after you draw up the plates. + + [Fig. 199 Removing sealing compound from double cover] + +Throw away the old compound. If is very likely acid-soaked and not fit +for further use. + + +What Must Be Done with the Battery? + + +The battery is now open, and in a condition to be examined and +judgment pronounced upon it. The question now arises, "What must be +done with it!" In deciding upon this, be honest with your customer, +put yourself in his place, and do just what you would like to have him +do if he were the repairman and you the car owner. The best battery +men occasionally make mistakes in their diagnosis of the battery's +condition, and the repairs necessary. Experience is the best teacher +in this respect, and you will in time learn to analyze the condition +of a battery quickly. + +Handle every cell of a battery that comes in for repairs in the same +way, even though only one dead cell is found, and the others are +apparently in good condition. Each cell must be overhauled, for all +cells are of the same age, and the active materials are in about the +same condition in all the cells, and one cell just happened to give +out before the others. If you overhaul only the dead cell, the others +cells are quite likely to give out soon after the battery is put into +service again. + + [Fig. 200 Removing compound from top of jar] + +It is absolutely necessary for you to have a standard method in +working on battery plates. You must divide your work into a number of +definite steps, and always perform these steps, and in the same order +each time. If you have a different method of procedure for every +battery, you will never be successful. Without a definite, tangible +method of procedure for your work you will be working in the dark, and +groping around like a blind man, never becoming a battery expert, +never knowing why you did a certain thing, never gaining confidence in +yourself. + +It is impossible to overemphasize the importance of having a standard +method of procedure and to stick to that method. Careless, slip-shod +methods will please your competitor and give him the business which +belongs to you. + +1. Examine plates to determine whether they can be used again Rules +for determining when to discard or use old plates follow. + +2. If all plates of both positive and negative groups are to be +discarded, use new groups. + +The question as to whether the old negatives should be used with new +positives has caused considerable discussion. If the negatives are old +and granulated, they should of course be discarded. Remember that the +capacity of negatives decreases steadily after they are put into +service, while the capacity of positives increases. Putting new +positives against negatives which are rapidly losing capacity is not +advisable. However, trouble often arises in a battery whose negatives +still have considerable capacity, and such negatives may safely be +used with new positives. + +If you feel that a battery will not give at least six months more +service after rebuilding with the old negatives, put in all new +plates, or sell the owner a new battery, allowing him some money on +the old battery. But if you really believe that the negatives still +have considerable capacity, put in new positives if required. If all +new plates are used, proceed as directed in this chapter, beginning at +page 348. + +3. If you find that only some of the plates are to be discarded, or if +you are not certain as to the condition of the plates, eliminate any +short circuits which may exist, and give the battery a preliminary +charge, as described later, before you do any work on the plates. +Plates that are fully charged are in the best possible condition for +handling, and you should make it an ironclad rule that if some of the +plates can be used again always to charge a battery before you work on +the plates, no matter what is to be done to them. If both positives +and negatives are to be discarded, the preliminary charge should not, +of course, be given, but if only the negatives, or the negatives and +some or all of the positives are to be used again, give this +preliminary charge. Very few batteries will come to your shop in a +charged condition, and an exhausted battery is not in a good condition +to be worked on. Charge the whole battery even though only one cell is +in a very bad condition. This is a method that has been tried out +thoroughly in practice, not in one or two cases, but in thousands. +Batteries in all sorts of conditions have been rebuilt by this method, +and have always given first class service, a service which was +frequently as good, if not better than that given by new batteries. + + +Examining the Plates + + +Place an element on a block of wood as shown in Fig. 201. Carefully +pry the plates apart so that you can look down between them and make a +fair preliminary examination. Whenever possible, make your examination +of the plates without separating the groups or removing the old +separators. This should be done because: + +(a) Very often the active material is bulged or swollen, and if you +pull out the old separators and put in new ones before charging, the +element spreads out so at the bottom that it cannot be put back into +the jars without first pressing in a plate press. Pressing a complete +element with the separators in place should never be done if it can +possibly be avoided. If it is done the separators should be thrown. +away after you have charged the battery, washed and pressed the +negatives, and washed the positive. + + [Fig. 201 Element on block for examination] + +(b) If you put in new separators before giving the battery the +preliminary charge, the new separators may pick up any impurities +which may be on the plates, and will probably be cracked by forcing +them between the bulged and sulphated plates. If, however, the old +separators are covered with sulphate, it is best to throw them away +and put in new separators before giving the battery its preliminary +charge, because such separators will greatly hinder the flow of the +charging current. In batteries using rubber sheets in addition to the +wooden separators, remove all the wooden separators and leave the +rubber sheets in place between the plates. Where only wooden +separators are used in a battery, these may be thrown away and +perforated rubber separators used for the preliminary charge. Rubber +separators may be used again. See (a) above about precautions against +pressing a complete element. + + [Fig. 202 Separating the groups] + +If you are not absolutely certain as to the condition of the plates, +draw out a few separators. If separators stick to the plates, loosen +them by inserting a putty knife blade between them and the plates. +Removing a few separators will permit you to separate the groups +before removing the rest of the separators. To separate the groups, +grasp a post in each hand, as, in Fig. 202, and work them back and +forth, being careful not to injure the posts, or break off any plates. +With the groups separated, the remaining separators will either fall +out or may be easily pushed out with a putty knife. Ordinarily, the +groups may be separated in this way if the elements have thirteen +plates or less. + +The natural thing to do at this point is to decide what must be done +to the plates, and we therefore give a number of rules to help you +determine which are to be junked, and which are to be used again. +Study these rules carefully, and have them fixed firmly in your mind +so that you can tell instantly what must be done with the plates. + + [Fig. 203 Positives from frozen vehicle cell, showing active + material sticking to separator] + + +When to Put In New Plates + + +1. If one or more jars are cracked and leak, and positive plates have +been ruined by freezing, as shown in Fig. 203, and if upon drawing out +the separators, and separating the positive and negative groups the +active material drops out of the grids, the only way to put the +battery in a good condition is to put in new positives, and new jars +and case if necessary. + +Make a careful estimate of + +1. (a) Cost of new jars. +2. (b) Cost of new plates. +3. (c) Cost of new case if needed. +4. (d) Cost of labor required. + +Try to have the owner present while you are opening his battery. If, +however, he could not wait, and has left, call him up and tell him +what the total cost will be, and if he has no objections, go ahead +with the job. If he is not entirely satisfied with your price, try to +get him to come to your shop. Show him the battery, explain its +condition, tell him just what must be done with it, and explain how +you made your estimate of the cost of the whole job. If you do this. +there will never be any misunderstanding as to cost. Tell him the cost +of a new battery, and let him decide if lie wants one. If the cost of +repairing is almost as much as the price of a new battery. advise him +to buy a new one, but allow him to make the decision himself. He will +then have no cause for complaint. + + + [Fig. 204 and 205 Show Diseased Negatives. The Large Ones Only + Eight Months Old. Active Material, Granulated and Blistered] + + +2. If the battery is more than two years old, and the active material +on the negative plates is granulated (grainy appearance), Figs. 204 +and 205, and somewhat disintegrated; if the plates are weak and +brittle around the edges, and several grids are cracked, Fig. 206, and +the plates have lost a considerable amount of active material; and if +the case has been rotted by the acid, the battery should be junked. + + [Fig. 206 Weak and cracked positives] + +Call up the owner, and tell him he needs a new battery. If he does not +seem pleased, ask him to come to your shop. Then show him his battery, +and explain its condition. If you are courteous and patient, you will +sell him a new battery. Otherwise he will never return. + + [Fig. 207 Buckled plates, and Fig. 208 An unusually bad case + of buckling] + +3. If the positive plates are badly distorted from buckling, as in +Figs. 207 and 208 discard them, for they will cut through new +separators, if put into commission again, ill from two to six months. + +4. A battery which has has been dry and badly sulphated at some past +period of its life will have the dry portions covered with a white +sulphate, the acid line being clearly distinguishable by this white +color, as shown at A and B in Fig. 201. If the plates are otherwise +in good shape and you wish to use them, give them the "water cure" +described on page 349. + + [Fig. 209 Corroded, bulged and sulphated negatives. + Disintegrated, rotten positives.] + + [Fig. 210 Disintegrated positives.] + +5. Rotten and disintegrated positive plates, Figs. 209 and 210, must +be replaced with new plates. The plates have fallen to pieces or break +at the slightest pressure. Disintegrated plates are an indication of +impurities or overcharging, providing the battery is not old enough to +cause disintegration normally,--say about two years. The lead grid is +converted into peroxide of lead and becomes soft. As a result, there +is nothing to support the paste, and it falls out. Better put in new +negatives also. + +6. Batteries with high gravity or hot electrolyte have burned and +carbonized separators, turning them black and rotting them, the +negative paste becomes granulated and is kept in a soft condition, and +gradually drops from the grids on account of the jolting of the car on +the road. Fig. 211 shows such a battery. + +7. Dry, hard, and white, long discharged, and badly sulphated plates, +Figs. 201 and 209, are practically ruined, though if the trouble is +not of long standing, the plates may be revived somewhat by a long +charge at a very low rate, using distilled water in place of the +electrolyte, and then discharging at a current equal to about +one-eight to one-tenth of the ampere hour capacity of the battery at +the discharge board. Charge and discharge a battery a number or times, +and you may be able to put a little "pep" into it. In charging +sulphated plates, use a low charging rate, and do not allow gassing +before the end of the charge, or a temperature of the electrolyte +above 110°F. + + [Fig. 211 Side and end view of element from traveling + salesman's battery] + +8. If a battery case is not held down firmly, or if the elements are +loose in the jars, the plates will jump around when the car is in +motion. This will break the sealing compound on top of the battery, +and cause the battery to be a slopper. The active materials will be +shaken out of the grids, as shown in Fig. 212, and the plates will +wear through the separators. New plates are required. + +9. If Battery Has Been Reversed. Often the plates of such a battery +disintegrate and crumble under the slightest pressure. If the reversal +is not too far advanced, the plates may be restored (See page 81), but +otherwise they should be discarded. This condition is recognized by +the original negatives being brown, and the original positives gray. + +From the foregoing explanations, you see that most of the trouble is +with the positives: + +(a) Because the positive active material does not stick together well, +but drops off, or sheds easily. + +(b) Because the positives warp or buckle, this causing most of the +battery troubles. + +(c) Because the positive plate is weaker and is ruined by freezing. + + +When the Old Plates May be Used Again + + +1. If one or more plates are broken from the plate connecting straps, +or the joint between any strap and the plate is poorly made. If plates +are in good condition, reburn the plate lugs to the straps. + + [Fig. 212] + + Fig. 212. Element from a "Slopper." Element was Loose in Jar and + Jolting of Car Caused Paste to Fall Out. + + +2. Straight Rebuild. If the general condition of the battery is good, +i.e., the plates straight or only slightly buckled, only a slight +amount of shedding of active material, no white sulphate oil either +plate, the grids not brittle, active material adhering to and firmly +touching the grids, the positive active material of a dark chocolate +brown color and fairly hard (as determined by scratching with blade of +a pocket knife), the negative active Material dark gray in color and +not blistered or granulated, and the plates not too thin, make a +straight rebuild. To do this, charge the battery, remove any sediment +from the bottom of the jar, wash and press the negatives, wash the +positives, clean the parts, insert new separators, and reassemble as +directed later. The only trouble may be cracked sealing compound, or a +broken jar. Broken jars should, of course, be replaced. + + [Fig. 213 Badly bulged negatives. Such plates must be pressed] + +3. Badly bulged negative plates, Fig. 213, cause lack of capacity +because the active material is loose, and does not make good contact +with the grids. If the active material is not badly granulated (having +a grainy appearance) the plates call be used again. Sulphated +negatives have very hard active material, and will feel as bard as +stone when scratched with a knife. Hard negatives from Which active +material has been falling ill lumps Oil account of being +overdischarged after having been in in undercharged condition may be +nursed back to life, if too much of the active material has not been +lost. + +4. The formation of an excessive amount of sulphate may result in +cracking the grids, and the active materials falls out in lumps. Such +plates may be put in a serviceable condition by a long charge and +several cycles of charge and discharge if there is not too much +cracking or too much loss of active material. + +5. Positives which are only slightly warped or buckled may be used +again. + +6. When the only trouble found is a slight amount of shedding. +Positive active material must be of a dark chocolate brown color and +fairly hard. Negatives must be a dark gray. + +7. When the plates are in a good condition, but one or more separators +have been worn or out through, or a jar is cracked. + +If the battery is one which will not hold its charge, and plates seem +to be in a good condition, the trouble is very likely caused by the +separators approaching the breaking down point, and the repair job +consists of putting in new separators or "reinsulating" the battery. + + +What To Do With the Separators + + +It is the safest plan to put in new separators whenever a battery is +opened, and the groups separated. Separators are the weakest part of +the battery, and it is absolutely essential that all their pores be +fully opened so as to allow free passing of electrolyte through them. +Some of the conditions requiring new separators are: + +1. Whenever the pores are closed by any foreign matter whatsoever. Put +in new separators whether you can figure out the cause of the trouble +or not. The separator shown in Fig. 201 is sulphated clear through +above the line B, and is worthless. The separator shown in Fig. 203 +should not be used again. + +2. When the separators have been cut or "chiseled off" by the edge of +a buckled plate, Fig. 214. + +3. When a buckling plate or plate with bulged active material breaks +through the separator, Fig. 214. + + [Fig. 214] + + Fig. 214. Separators Worn Thin and Cut Through on Edges by Buckled + Plates. Holes Worn Through by Bulged Active Material, Center One Shows + Cell Was Dry Two Thirds of the Way Down. + + +4. When a battery has been used while the level of the Fig. 214. +Separators Worn Thin and Cut Through on Edges by Buckled Plates. Holes +Worn Through by Bulged Active Material. Center One Shows Cell Was Dry +Two Thirds of the Way Down electrolyte has been below the tops of the +plates, or the battery has been used in a discharged condition, and +lead sulphate has deposited on the separators, Fig. 201. + + [Fig. 215 Rotted separators] + +5. When a battery has been over-heated by overcharging or other +causes, and the hot acid has rotted, burned and carbonized the +separators, Fig. 215. + +6. When a battery has been damaged by the addition of acid and the +separators have been rotted, Fig. 215. + +7. Separators which are more than a year old should be replaced by new +ones, whether plates are defective or not. + +When you have put in new separators, and put the battery on charge, +the specific gravity of the electrolyte may go down at first, instead +of rising. This is because the separators may absorb some of the acid. +If the battery was discharged when you put in the new separators, the +lowering of the specific gravity might not take place, but in most +cases the specific gravity will go down, or not change at all. + + +Find the Cause of Every Trouble + + +The foregoing rules must be studied carefully and be clearly tabulated +in your mind to be able to tell what to put into commission again and +what to discard as junk. It will take time to learn how to +discriminate, but keep at it persistently and persevere, and as you +pass judgment on this battery and that battery, ask yourself such +questions as: What put this battery in this condition? Why are the +negative plates granulated? Why are the positive plates buckled? What +caused the positive plates to disintegrate? Why are the separators +black? Why is the case rotten when less than a year old? Why did the +sealing compound crack on top and cause the electrolyte to slop? Why +did one of the terminal connectors get loose and make a slopper? Who +is to blame for it, the car manufacturer, the manufacturer of the +battery, or the owner of the car? Why did this battery have to be +taken off the car, opened up and rebuilt at 5 months old, when the +battery taken off a car just the day before had been on for 30 months +and never had been charged off the car but once? There is a reason; +find it. Locate the cause of the trouble if possible, remove the +cause; your customer will appreciate it and tell his friends about it, +and this will mean more business for you. + + +Eliminating "Shorts" + + +If you have decided that some or all of the plates may be used again, +the next thing to do is to separate any plates that are touching, and +put the battery on charge. It may be necessary to put in new +separators in place of the defective ones. Examine the separators +carefully. Whenever you find the pores of the separators stopped up +from any cause whatsoever, put in new separators before charging. + +1. Sometimes the negative plates are bulged or blistered badly and +have worn clear through the separators, Fig. 214, and touch the +positives. In cases of this kind, to save time and trouble, separate +the groups, press the negatives lightly, as described later, assemble +the element with new separators, and it is ready for charging. + +2. There is another case where the groups must be separated and new +separators inserted before they will take charge, and that is where +the battery has suffered from lack of water and has sulphated clear +through the separators, Fig. 201. The separators will be covered with +white sulphate. Chemical action is very sluggish in such cases. + +If you find that the separator pores are still open, leave the +separators in place and proceed to separate the plates that are +touching. How? That depends on what insulating material you have +available that is thin enough. If nothing else is available, take a +piece of new dry separator about 3/8 inch to 1/2 inch square, or a +piece of pasteboard the same size. Use a screw driver or putty knife +to separate the plates far enough to insert the little piece of +insulation as in Fig. 216. Free all the shorts in this way, unless you +have some old rubber insulators. In this case, break off some narrow +strips 3/4 inch wide or less, put two together and repeat the +operation as above, using the rubber strips instead of the pieces of +separator. Insert down 1/2 inch or so and bend over and break off. +Occasionally the Lipper edges of the plates are shorted, in which case +they must be treated the same way. + + [Fig. 216 Clearing short circuits] + + [Fig. 217 Cleaning scale from posts before replacing connectors + temporarily for charge] + + +Charging + + +When you have in this way cleared all the "shorts" in the elements +place the elements back in the jars in the same position as they were +when you opened the battery, and add enough distilled water to the +electrolyte to cover the plates to a depth of one-half inch. + +If the negatives are badly sulphated (active material very hard), they +will charge more quickly if all the old electrolyte is dumped out and +the cells filled with distilled water before putting the battery on +charge. This "water cure" is the best for sulphated negatives and will +save many plates that could otherwise not be used again. Make it a +rule to replace the old electrolyte with distilled water if negatives +are sulphated. + + [Fig. 218] + + Fig. 218. Tapping Connectors in Place. + Preparatory to Charging After Battery + Has Been Opened and Shorts Removed + + +The next operation is to put the battery on charge. Grasp each post in +the jaws of a pair of gas pliers and work the pliers back and forth, +Fig. 217, so as to remove the scale and allow the connecting straps to +make good contact. Now take a knife and cut off the rough edges left +in the connecting straps by the drill. Taper the edge, if necessary to +go on post. Turn the connectors upside down and pound gently in +position, Fig. 218, to make a good connection. Temporary charging +connections may also be made by burning lead strips on the posts. This +being properly done, the battery is ready for charging. Check up the +connections to be sure they are correct. + +Now put the battery on charge, and charge at a low rate. Do not allow +the temperature of any cell to rise above 110°F. Continue the charge +until the electrolyte clears up, and its specific gravity stops rising +and the plates have a normal color over their entire surface. Fully +charged positive plates have a chocolate brown color, and fully +charged negative plates have a dark gray color. By holding an electric +light directly over a cell, and looking down, the color of both +negatives and positives may be determined. Do not take the battery off +charge until you have obtained these results, although it may be +necessary to continue the charge for two, three, four, or five days. +In this preliminary charge it is not necessary to bring the gravity up +to 1.280, because the electrolyte is not to be used again, and the +plates will become charged completely, regardless of what the gravity +is. The essential thing is to charge until the electrolyte becomes +perfectly clear, the gravity stops rising, and the plates have the +right color. The Cadmium test may be used here to determine when the +plates are charged. If the gravity rises above 1.280 during the +preliminary charge, adjust it to 1.280 by drawing out some of the +electrolyte and adding distilled water. The battery must stay on +charge until you have the desired conditions. If one cell does not +charge,--that is, if its specific gravity does not rise,--you have +probably not freed all the shorts, and must take the element out of +the jar again and carefully inspect it for more shorts. + +Right here is where one of the most important questions may be asked +about rebuilding batteries. Why must you free the shorts and put the +battery on charge? Why not save time by putting in all new separators, +sealing the battery, burning on the cell connectors, and then putting +it on charge? If you have ever treated a battery in this way, what +results did you get? Why did you have a badly unbalanced gravity of +electrolyte? How could you know what specific gravity electrolyte to +put in each cell? Perhaps one was charged, one only half charged, and +the other dead. Suppose the dead cell had impurities in it. How could +you get rid of them? Suppose the battery showed poor capacity on test, +what would you do? + + +Washing and Pressing the Negatives + + +To continue the actual work on the battery. The battery being fully +charged,--the electrolyte clear, the plates of normal color, the +specific gravity no longer rising,-- remove it from the charging bench +and put it on the work bench. Draw each element and let drain as in +Fig. 197. + + [Fig. 219 Nesting plates] + +Here again the labeled boxes described on page 183 come in handy. +Separate one group, remove the separators, and put one group in each +end of box to keep clean. Separate another group, And nest the plates, +Fig. 219, the negative with the negative, and positive with positive. +Separate the third element and put groups in the boxes. Pour the old +electrolyte out of the jars, and wash out the jars as described on +page 360. You now have the plates in the best possible shape for +handling. Take the boxes containing the plates to the sink. Have the +plate press and the plate press boards ready for use. + +If, for any reason, you are called away from your work at this point +to be gone for five minutes, do not leave the fully charged negatives +exposed to the air, as they will become very hot. Cover them with +water. A one-gallon stone or earthenware jar will hold the negative +plates of a 100 ampere hour battery if you nest two of the groups. You +may also put negatives back in jars from which they were taken, and +fill with water. + +Now hold a negative group under the faucet, and let a strong stream of +water run down over each plate so as to wash it thoroughly, and to +remove any foreign matter from the plate surfaces. All negative groups +must be handled in exactly the same way so as to get the same results +in each case. + +After you have washed the first group, place it on edge on a clean +board with the post down and pointing away from you, and the bottom of +the group toward you. Now insert plate press boards which are slightly +larger than the plates, and of the exact thickness required to fill +the spaces between plates, Fig. 113. For the standard 1/8 inch plates, +a 5-16 inch board, or two 1/8 inch boards should be placed between +plates. + +The 1/8 inch boards are actually more than 1/8 inch thick, and will +give the proper spacing. For thin plates, use 1/4 inch boards. Do not +push the plate press boards more than 1/8 inch above the tops of the +plates, and be sure that the boards cover the entire plates. Put a +board on the outside of each end plate of the group. In this way +insert the plate press boards in each of the three negative groups. + +Then place each negative group on the lower jaw of the plate press +with the post of each group pointing toward you. Three groups may be +pressed at one time. Bring the top edges of the transite boards flush +with the front edge of the lower jaw of the press, so that no pressure +will be applied to the plate lugs. See Fig. 114. Pressure applied to +the plate lugs will break them off. + +Now screw down the upper jaw of the press as tightly as you can with +the handwheel, so as to put as much pressure on the plates as +possible. Leave the plates in the press for about five minutes. Then +remove them from the press, take out the boards, and replace the +plates in the battery jar from which they were removed, and cover with +water. They may also be placed in a stone or earthernware jar and +covered with water, especially if there is any work to be done on the +jars or case of the battery. If the spongy lead of the negatives is +firm, they may be reassembled in the battery as soon as they have been +pressed. If, however, the spongy lead is soft and mushy, keep the +negatives covered with water for 12 to 24 hours. This will make them +hard and firm. Then remove them from the water and dry them in the +air. In drying, the plates will become heated and will steam. As soon +as you notice any steaming, dip the plates in water until they are +cool. Then remove them from the water and continue the drying process. +Each time the negatives begin to steam as they dry in the air, dip +them in the water until they are cool. + +When the negatives are dry, they are ready to be reassembled in the +battery and prepared for service. Negatives treated in this way will +give good service for a much longer time than they would if not +treated in this way. The spongy lead has been made firm and elastic. +If you have other negatives in your shop which are not in use, treat +them in the same way and put them away for future use, to use as +rental batteries. Always put them through the same process: + +1. Charge them fully. + +2. Press them in the plate press to force the spongy lead back into +the grids. + +3. Soak them in water, if the spongy lead is soft and mushy, for 12 to +24 hours, or even longer until the spongy lead is firm. Dry them in +the air, dipping them in water whenever they begin to steam and become +heated. This will give you negatives that will give excellent service +and have a long life. Many negatives treated in this way will be good +for fifteen months to two years of additional service. The rental +batteries should be assembled in the same way as those you are +rebuilding for the owners. + +The importance of pressing negatives cannot be exaggerated. Always +press the negatives of the batteries which you rebuild. Do not do it +to half, or three-fourths of the negatives, but to all of them. The +work takes but a few minutes, and the time could not be put to better +advantage. The spongy lead of the negatives swells and bulges out and +makes very poor contact with the grids as a battery becomes +discharged. This results in a loss of capacity, gradual sulphation of +the loose active material, corrosion of the grids, failure of the +gravity to rise high enough on charge, overheating of the battery on +charge, gassing before the sulphate is reduced to active material with +breaking off and roughening of the active material, and makes the +battery lazy and sluggish in action. The spongy lead must make good +contact with the grids if the battery is to have a long life and give +good service. + +No amount of charging will cure a negative with bulged, swollen active +material. Once this material becomes bulged nothing but pressing will +put it back where it belongs, and until it is pressed back into the +grids the plates are in a poor condition for service. Even if the +bulging is but very slight, the plates must be pressed. + + +Washing Positives + + +If you intend to use some of the positives, they should now be washed. +If you intend to use all new positives, throw away the old ones, of +course. The positives should not be held under the faucet as the +negatives were, because the stream of water will wash out much of the +positive active material. Rinse the positives a number of times in a +jar of clean water by moving them up and down in the water. This will +remove impurities from the surfaces of the plates and wash off any +foreign or loose materials. After rinsing each positive group, replace +it in the box. + +Never attempt to straighten badly buckled positives, as the bending +cannot be done successfully, and the active material will not have +good contact with the grids. Positives cannot be pressed as negatives +can, because the positive active material lacks the elasticity and +toughness of the negative spongy lead. Slightly buckled positives may +sometimes be straightened by bending them lightly all around the edges +with a pair of thin, wide nosed pliers. This should be done very +carefully, however, and the straightening done gradually. If the +plates cannot be straightened in this way and the separators do not +lie perfectly flat against them without pinching at the corners, the +plates should be discarded, and new ones used in their place. + +This is all the work to be done on the old plates, and those which are +to be used again are ready to be reassembled in the battery. The +process of treating the plates should be followed in every battery +that you rebuild, and the same steps should always be taken, and in +the same order. With one Standard method of rebuilding batteries you +will do uniformly good work and satisfy all your customers. The +essential thing for the success of your battery business is to learn +the Standard method and use it. Do not rush a battery through your +shop, and leave out some of the steps of the process, even though the +owner may be in a hurry. If you have a good stock of rental batteries +you can put one on his car and keep it there until you have done as +good a job of rebuilding on his battery as you possibly can. Remember +that the Standard method which has been described has not simply been +figured out as being a good method. This method has been worked out in +the actual rebuilding of thousands and thousands of batteries of all +makes and in all conditions, and has produced batteries full of life +and power, ready to give one to two years more of good, reliable +service. + + +Burning on Plates + + +When you put new plates into a battery, or find some of the plates +broken from the connecting strap, it will be necessary to burn the +plates to the strap. Frequently you will find plates which are +otherwise in a good condition broken from the connecting straps. This +is most likely to happen when the plates have been cast on to the +connecting strap instead of being burned on. These plates must be +burned on. + +New plates are frequently necessary. From pages 339 to 346 you see +that new plates are required under the following conditions: + +(a) Positives. Ruined by freezing; weak and brittle from age, large +part of active material shed; badly buckled; rotten and disintegrated +by impurities; reversed. Positives in a reasonably good mechanical +condition can be restored to a good electrical condition by charging. + +(b) Negatives. Active material granulated, bulged and disintegrated; +charged while dry; positives disintegrated by impurities; ruined by +overcharging; badly sulphated because allowed to stand idle, or used +while discharged; much active material lost, and that which is left +soft and mushy; negatives reversed by charging battery backwards. + +When making plate renewals, never install plates of different design +in the same group. Always use plates of the type intended for the +battery. The battery should first be fully charged, as already +explained. If all the plates in a group are to be discarded, clamp the +post in a vise, being careful not to crack the hard rubber shell if +one is on it, or to damage the threads on Posts such as the Exide or +to draw up the vise so tightly as to crush the post. Then saw off all +the old plates with a new coarse toothed hacksaw, a sharp key hole +saw, or any good saw which has a wide set, close to the post. This +separates the entire group of plates from the post in one short +operation. This method is much better than the one of sawing the +plates off below the connecting strap, and sawing or punching the old +plate ends out of the strap. See page 217 for instructions for welding +plates to the straps. + + +Work on the Jars + + +The work on the jars consists of removing any sediment which may have +collected, washing out all dirt, and replacing leaky jars. The removal +of sediment and washing should be done after the preliminary charge +has been given and the old electrolyte poured out unless the +preliminary charge was given with distilled water in the jars. The old +electrolyte need not be poured down the sewer, but may be kept in +stone or earthenware jars and used later in making electrical tests to +locate leaky jars. + + +Testing Jars + + +Remove all sealing compound from the jar by means of a hot putty +knife, finishing by wiping with a gasoline soaked rag. Inspect each +jar carefully under a strong light for cracks and leaks. If you know +which jar is leaky by having filled each cell with water up to the +correct level, when you made the first examination of the battery, and +then having it allowed to stand over night to see if the electrolyte +in any cell has dropped below the tops of the plates, no tests are +necessary, but if you are in doubt as to which jar, if any, is leaky, +you must make tests to determine which jar is leaky. If you know that +there is no leaky jar, because of the bottom of the case not being +acid eaten and rotted, it is, of course, not necessary to test the +jars. + +One test consists in filling the jar within about an inch of the top +with old or weak electrolyte, partly immersing the jar in a tank which +also contains electrolyte, and applying a voltage of 110 or 220 +between the electrolyte in the jar and the electrolyte in the tank in +which the jar is partly immersed. If current Vows, this indicates that +the jar is leaky. + + [Fig. 220 Testing jar for leaks, using a 15-watt lamp in series + with test circuit] + +Fig. 220 shows the principle of the test. A suitable box,--an old +battery case will do--is lined with sheet lead, and the lead lining +is connected to either side of the 110 or 220 volt line. The box is +then partly filled with weak electrolyte. The jar to be tested is +filled to within about one inch of the top with weak electrolyte. The +jar is immersed to within about an inch of its top in the box. The top +part of the jar must be perfectly dry when the test is made, or else +the current will go through any electrolyte which may be wetting the +walls of the jar. A lead strip or rod, which is connected to the other +side of the 110 or 220 volt line, through a lamp as shown, is inserted +in the jar. If there is, a leak in the jar, the lamp will burn, and +the jar must be discarded. If the lamp does not light, the jar does +not leak. + +Instead of using a lead lined box, a stone or earthenware jar may be +used. A sheet of lead should be placed in this jar, being bent into a +circular shape to fit the inside of the jar, and connected to one side +of the line. The lead rod or sheet which is inserted in the jar may be +mounted on a handle for convenience in making the test. The details of +the testing outfit may, of course, be varied according to what +material is available for use. The lamps should be suitably mounted on +the wall above the tester. + + [Fig. 221 Testing jar for leaks, using a voltmeter in series + with test circuit] + +This test may be made by using a voltmeter instead of lamps, as shown +in Fig. 221. If a voltmeter is used, be especially careful to have the +part projecting above the liquid perfectly dry. A leaky cell will be +indicated by a reading on the meter equal to the line voltage. + + [Fig. 222 Testing jar for leaks, using secondary of Ford ignition + coil, or any other vibrator ignition coil] + +A third method uses a Ford ignition coil, as shown in Fig. 222. A leak +will be indicated by a spark, or by the vibrator making more noise +than it ordinarily does. Instead of using the Ford coil, as shown in +Fig. 222, the test may be made as shown in Fig. 223. Fill the jar to +within an inch of the top with electrolyte and immerse one of the high +tension wires in the electrolyte. Attach the other high tension wire +to a wire brush, comb, or rod having a wooden handle and rub it over +the outside of the jar. A leak is shown by a spark jumping to the jar. + + [Fig. 223 Testing jar for leaks, using secondary of Ford ignition + coil, or any other vibrator ignition coil] + +The test may also be made without removing the jar. If the lead lined +box be made two feet long, the entire battery may be set in the box so +that the electrolyte in the box comes within an inch of the top of the +battery case. Fill each jar with weak electrolyte and make the test as +before. If this is done, however, remove the battery immediately after +making the test and wipe the case dry with a cloth. To make the test +in this way, the case must be considerably acid eaten in order to have +a circuit through it to the jar. + + +Removing Defective Jars + + +The method of removing the jars from the case depends on the battery. +In some batteries the jars are set in sealing compound. To remove a +jar from such a battery, put the steam hose from your steamer outfit +into the jar, cover up the top of the jar with rags, and steam the jar +for about five minutes. Another way is to fill the jar with boiling +hot water and let it stand for fully five minutes. Either of these +methods will soften the sealing compound around the jar so that the +jar may be pulled out. To remove the jar, grasp two sides of the jar +with two pairs of long, flat nosed pliers and pull straight up with an +even, steady pull. Have the new jar at hand and push it into the place +of the old one as soon as the latter is removed. The new jar should +first be steamed to soften it somewhat. Press down steadily on the new +jar until its top is flush with the tops of the other jars. + +Some batteries do not use sealing compound around the jars, but simply +use thin wooden wedges to hold the jars in place, or have bolts +running through opposite faces of the case by means of which the sides +are pressed against the jars to hold them in place. The jars of such +batteries may be removed without heating, by removing the wedges or +loosening the bolts, as the case may be, and lifting out the jars with +pliers, as before. New jars should be steamed for several minutes +before being put in the case. When you put jars into such batteries, +do not apply too much pressure to them, as they may be cracked by the +pressure, or the jar may be squeezed out of shape, and the assembling +process made difficult. + + [Fig. 224 Washing sediment from Jars. Water supply controlled + by foot valve] + + +Repairing the Case + +The case may be repaired with all the jars in place, or it may be +necessary to remove the jars. If the case is to be junked and the jars +used again, the case may simply be broken off, especially if there is +much sealing compound around the jars. + +Empty the old acid from the jars, take the case to the sink and wash +out all the sediment, Fig. 224. With the pipe shown in Fig. '14, you +have both hands free to hold the case, as the water is controlled by' +a foot operated spring cock. + +If the case is rotten at top, patch it with good wood. If the top and +bottom are so rotten that considerable time will be required to repair +it, advise the owner to buy a new case. Sometimes the top of the case +can be greatly improved by straightening the side edges with a small +smoothing plane, and sometimes a 1/2 inch strip or more fitted all +along the edge is necessary for a good job. Handles that have been +pulled, rotted, or corroded off make disagreeable repair jobs, but a +satisfactory job can be done unless the end of the case has been +pulled off or rotted. Sometimes the handle will hold in place until +the battery is worn out by old age if three or four extra holes are +bored and countersunk in the handle where the wood is solid, and +common wood screws, size 12, 1/2 or 5/8 inch long used to fasten the +handle in place. Sometimes it will be necessary to put in one half of +a new end, the handle being fastened to the new piece with brass bolts +and nuts before it is put into place. Sometimes you can do a good job +by using a plate of sheet iron 1-16 inch thick, and 4 inches wide, and +as long as the end of the case is wide. Rivet the handle to this plate +with stovepipe, or copper rivets, and then fasten the plate to the +case with No. 12 wood screws, 1/2 inch long. + +If the old case is good enough to use again, soak it for several hours +in a solution of baking soda in water to neutralize any acid which may +have been spilled on it, or which may be spilled on it later. After +soaking the case, rinse it in water, and allow it to dry thoroughly. +Then paint the case carefully with asphaltum paint. + + +REASSEMBLING THE BATTERY + + +Reassembling the Elements + + +Take a negative group and put it on edge on a board, with post away +from you, and lower edge toward you. Mesh a positive in the negative +group. The groups are now ready for the separators. Take six moist +separators from your stock. Slip one into position from the bottom in +the middle of the group, with the grooved side toward the positive +plate, spreading the plates slightly if necessary. Take another +separator, slip it into position on the opposite side of the positive +against which your first separator was placed. In this way, put in the +six separators, with the grooved side toward the positives, working +outward in both directions from the center, Fig. 225. The grooves +must, of course, extend from the top to the bottom of the plate. Now +grasp the element in both hands, and set it right side up on the +block, giving it a slight jar to bring the bottoms of the plates and +separators on a level. + + [Fig. 225 Inserting separators] + +Now grasp the element in both hands, and set it right side up on the +block, giving it a slight jar to bring the bottoms of the plates and +separators on a level. + +Next take a cover, and try it on the posts, Fig. 226. Pull the groups +apart slightly, if necessary, before inserting any more separators, so +that the cover fits exactly over the posts, Fig. 227. See that the +separators extend the same distance beyond each side of the plates. +You may take a stick, about 10 inches long, 1 1/2 inches wide, and 7/8 +inch thick, and tap the separators gently to even them up. A small +wood plane may be used to even up the side edges of wood separators. +If you put in too many separators before trying on the cover, the +plates may become so tight that you may not be able to shift them to +make the cover fit the posts or you may not be able to shift the +separators to their proper positions. It is therefore best to Put in +only enough separators to hold the groups together and so they can be +handled and yet remain in their proper position when set up on the +block. Without separators, the posts will not remain in position. + + [Fig. 226 Trying on a cover] + + [Fig. 227 Shifting groups to make cover fit] + +With the element reassembled, and the remaining separators in their +proper positions, see that all the plates are level on bottom, and no +foreign matter sticking to them. Place the element in box shown in +Fig. 219 to keep clean. Reassemble the other elements in exactly the +same way, and put them in the box. The elements are now ready to be +put in the jars. + + +Putting Elements in Jars + + +Steam the jars in the steamer for about five minutes to soften them +somewhat, so that there will be no danger of breaking a jar when you +put in the elements. + +With the case ready, look for the "+", "P" or "POS" mark on it. (Cases +which are not marked in this way at the factory should be marked by +the repairman before the battery is opened.) Place the case so that +this mark is toward you. Grip an element near the bottom in order to +prevent the plates from spreading, and put it in the jar nearest the +mark, with the positive post toward you, next to the mark. Put an +element in the next jar so that the negative post is toward you. Put +an element in the third jar so that the positive post is toward you, +and so on. The elements are correctly placed when each connecting +strap connects a positive to a negative post. If the case has no mark +on it, reassemble exactly according to the diagram you made on the tag +before you opened the battery. Set the jars so that the posts are +exactly in line so that the cell connectors will fit. + + [Fig. 228 Tightening a loose element by placing a separator + against outside negative] + +If an element fits loosely in the jar, it must be tightened. The best +way to do this is to put one or more separators on one or both sides +of the elements before putting it in the jar, Fig. 228. If you leave +the elements loose in the jars, the jolting of the car will soon crack +the sealing compound, and you will have a "slopper" on your hands. + +If element fits very tight, be sure that the corners of the plate +straps have been rounded off and trimmed flush with outside negatives. +Be sure also that there is no compound sticking to the inside of jars. +Take care not to break the jar by forcing in a tight fitting element +when the jar is cold and stiff. + + +Filling Jars with Electrolyte or Putting on the Covers + + +With all the elements in place in the jars, one of two things may be. +done. First, the jars may be filled with electrolyte and the covers +then sealed on, or the covers may first be sealed on and the jars then +filled with electrolyte. Each method has its advantages and +disadvantages. If the jars are first filled with electrolyte, acid may +be splashed on the tipper parts of the jars and sealing made very +difficult. + +On the other hand, if the electrolyte is first poured in, the charged +negatives will not become hot, and sealing compound which runs into +the jar will be chilled as soon as it strikes the electrolyte and will +float on top and do no harm. If the covers are sealed before any +electrolyte is added, it will be easier to do a good sealing job, but +the negatives will heat up. Furthermore, any sealing compound which +runs into the jar will run down between the plates and reduce the +plate area. + +If care is taken to thoroughly dry the upper parts of the jars, add +the electrolyte before sealing on the covers. + +Use 1.400 Acid + +If you have followed the directions carefully, and have therefore +freed all the shorts, have thoroughly charged the plates, have washed +and pressed the negative groups, have washed the positives, have then +added any new plates which were needed, and have put in new +separators, use 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte. This is necessary +because washing the plates removed some of the acid, and the new +separators will absorb enough acid so that the specific gravity after +charging will be about 1.280. + +The final specific gravity must be between 1.280 and 1.300. In measuring +the specific gravity the temperature must be about 70°F., or else +corrections must be made. For every three degrees above 70°, add one +point (.001) to the reading you obtain on the hydrometer. For every three +degrees under 70°, subtract one point (.001) from the reading you obtain +on the hydrometer. For instance, if you read a specific gravity of 1.275 +and find that the temperature of the electrolyte is 82°F., add +((82-70)/3 = 4)four points (1.275 + .004), which gives 1.279, which is +what the specific gravity of the electrolyte would be if its temperature +were lowered to 70°. The reason this is done is that when Ave speak of an +electrolyte of a certain specific gravity, say 1.280, we mean that this is +its specific gravity when its temperature is 70°F. We must therefore make +the temperature correction if the temperature of the electrolyte is much +higher or lower than 70°F. + + +Putting on The Covers + + +This operation is a particular one, and must be done properly, or you +will come to grief. Get the box containing the covers and connectors +for the battery you are working on; take the covers, and clean them +thoroughly. There are several ways to clean them. If you have gasoline +at hand, dip a brush in it and scrub off the compound. The covers may +also be cleaned off with boiling water, but even after you have used +the hot water, it will be necessary to wipe off the covers with +gasoline. Another way to soften any compound which may be sticking to +them, is to put the covers in the Battery Steamer and steam them for +about ten minutes. This will also heat the covers and make them limp +so that they may be handled without breaking. + +If the covers fit snugly all around the inside of the jars so that +there is no crack which will allow the compound to run down on the +elements, all is well and good. If, however, there are cracks large +enough to put a small, thin putty knife in, you must close them. If +the cracks are due to the tops of the jars being bent out of shape, +heat the tops with a soft flame until they are limp, (be careful not +to burn them). Now, with short, thin wedges of wood, (new dry +separators generally answer the purpose), crowd down on the outside +edges of the jar, until you have the upper edge of jars straight and +even all around. If the jars are set in compound, take a hot +screwdriver and remove the compound from between the jar and case +near the top. If the cracks between cover and jar still remain, calk +them with asbestos packing, tow, or ordinary wrapping string. Do not +use too much packing;--just enough to close the cracks is sufficient. +When this is done, see that the top of the case is perfectly level, so +that when the compound is poured in, it will settle level all around +the upper edge of the case. + + +Sealing Compounds + + +There are many grades of compounds (see page 149), and the kind to use +must be determined by the type of battery to be sealed. There is no +question but that a poor grade used as carefully as possible will soon +crack and produce a slopper. A battery carelessly sealed with the best +compound is no better. + +The three imperative conditions for a permanent lasting job are: + +1. Use the best quality of the proper kind of compound for sealing the +battery on hand. + +2. All surfaces that the compound comes in contact with must be free +from acid and absolutely clean and dry. + +3. The sealing must be done conscientiously and all details properly +attended to step by step, and all work done in a workmanlike manner. + +With respect to sealing, batteries may be divided into two general +classes. First, the old type battery with a considerable amount of +sealing compound. This type of battery generally has a lower and an +upper cover, the vent tube being attached or removable, depending on +the design. The compound is poured on top of the lower cover and +around the vent tube, and the top covers are then put on. Most of the +batteries of this type have a thin hard rubber sleeve shrunk on the +post where the compound comes in contact with it; this hard rubber +sleeve usually has several shallow grooves around it which increase +its holding power. This is good construction, provided everything else +is normal and the work properly done with a good stick-, compound. +There are a few single cover batteries with connecting straps close to +top of covers, and the compound is poured over the top of the straps. +See Fig. 262. + +The second general type consists of single one-piece cover batteries +that have small channels or spaces around the covers next to the jars +into which the sealing compound is poured. This type of battery is the +most common type. + + [Fig. 229 Pouring compound on lower covers] + +Compound in bulk or in thin iron barrels can be cut into small pieces +with a hatchet or hand ax. To cut off a piece in hot weather, strike +it a quick hard blow in the same place once or twice, and a piece will +crack off. Directions for properly beating sealing compound will be +found on page 150. + + +Sealing Double Cover Batteries + + +The following instructions apply to batteries having double covers. +These are more difficult to seal than the single cover batteries. If +you can seal the double cover batteries well, the single cover +batteries will give you no trouble. + +Always start the fire under the compound before you are ready to use +it, and turn the fire lower after it has melted, so as not to have it +too hot at the time of pouring. If you have a special long nosed +pouring ladle, fill it with compound by dipping in the pot, or by +pouring compound from a closed vessel. If you heat the compound in an +iron kettle, pour it directly into pouring ladle, using just about +enough for the first pouring. The compound should not be too hot, as a +poor sealing job battery will result from its use. See page 150. + +Before sealing, always wipe the surfaces to be sealed with a rag wet +with ammonia or soda solution, rinsed with water, and wiped dry with a +rag or waste. If you fail to do this the compound will not stick well, +and a top leak may develop. Then run a soft lead burning flame over +the surfaces to be sealed, in order to have perfectly dry surfaces. +Remember that sealing compound will not stick to a wet surface. + + [Fig. 230 First pouring of sealing compound] + + [Fig. 231 Cooling compound with electric fan] + +Pour compound on the lower covers, as in Fig. 229. Use enough to fill +the case just over the tops of the jars, Fig. 230. Then pour the rest +of the compound back in compound vessel or kettle. To complete the +job, and make as good a job as possible, take a small hot lead burning +flame and run it around the edges of case, tops of jars, and around +the posts until the compound runs and makes a good contact all around. +If you have an electric fan, let it blow on the compound a few minutes +to cool it, as in Fig. 231. Then the compound used for the second +pouring may be hotter and thinner than the first. + +Fill the pouring ladle with compound, which is thinner than that used +in the first pouring, and pour within 1/16 inch of the top of the +case, being careful to get in just enough, so that-after it has +cooled, the covers will press down exactly even with the top of the +case, Fig. 232. It will require some experience to do this, but you +will soon learn just how much to use. + +As soon as you have finished pouring, run the flame all around the +edges of the case and around the post, being very careful not to +injure any of the vent tubes. A small, hot-pointed flame should be +used. Now turn on the fan again to cool the compound. + + [Fig. 232 Second pouring of sealing compound] + +While the compound is cooling, get the cell connectors and terminal +connectors, put them in a two-quart granite stew pan, just barely +cover with water, and sprinkle a tablespoon of baking soda over them. +Set the stew pan over the fire and bring water to boiling point. Then +pour the water on some spot on a bench or floor where the acid has +been spilled. This helps to neutralize the acid and keep it from +injuring the wood or cement. Rinse off the connectors and wipe them +dry with a cloth, or heat them to dry them. + + [Fig. 233 Pressing covers down to make them level with top + of case] + +Now take the top covers, which must be absolutely clean and dry, and +spread a thin coat of vaseline over the top only, wiping off any +vaseline from the beveled edges. Place these covers right side up on a +clean board and heat perfectly limp with a large, spreading blow torch +flame. Never apply this flame to the under side of the top covers. The +purpose is to get the covers on top of the battery absolutely level, +and exactly even with the top of the case all around it, and to have +them sticking firmly to the compound. There is not an operation in +repairing and rebuilding batteries that requires greater care than +this one, that will show as clearly just what kind of a workman you +are, or will count as much in appearance for a finished job. If you +are careless with any of the detail, if just one bump appears on top, +if one top is warped, if one cover sticks above top of case, try as +you may, you never can cover it up, and show you are a first-class +workman. See that you have these four conditions, and you should not +have any difficulty after a little experience: + + [Fig. 234 Pressing covers down around posts to make them + flush with top of case] + +1. You must have just enough compound on top to allow the top covers +to be pressed down exactly even with upper edge of case. + +2. The top covers must be absolutely clean and have a thin coat of +vaseline over their top, but none on the bevel edge. + +3. A good sized spreading flame to heat quickly and evenly the tops to +a perfectly limp condition without burning or scorching them. + +4. Procure a piece of 7/8-inch board 1-1/2 inches wide and just long +enough to go between handles of battery you are working on. Spread a +thin film of oil or vaseline all over it. + +Having heated the covers and also the top surface of the compound +until it is sticky so that the covers may be put down far enough and +adhere firmly to it, place the covers in position. Then press the +covers down firmly with a piece of oiled wood, as in Fig. 233, +applying the wood sidewise and lengthwise of case until the top of +cover is exactly even with the top of the case. It may be necessary to +use the wood on end around the vent tubes and posts as in Fig. 234, to +get that part of the cover level. If the compound comes up between +covers and around the edges of the case, and interferes with the use +of the wood, clean it out with a screwdriver. You can then finish +without smearing any compound on the covers. + + [Fig. 235 Wiping bottom of spoon filled with sealing + compound] + + [Fig. 236 Filling cracks around covers with sealing + compound] + +When you have removed the excess compound from the cracks around the +edges of the covers with the screwdriver, take a large iron spoon +which has the end bent into a pouring lip, and dip up from 1/2 to 2/3 +of a spoonful of melted compound (not too hot). Wipe off the bottom of +the spoon, Fig. 235, and pour a small stream of compound evenly in all +the cracks around the edges of the covers until they are full, as in +Fig. 236. Do not hold the spoon too high, and do not smear or drop any +compound on top of battery or on the posts. No harm is done if a +little runs over the outside of the case, except that it requires a +little time to clean it off. A small teapot may be used instead of the +spoon. If you have the compound at the right temperature, and do not +put in too much at a time, you will obtain good results, but you +should take care not to spill the compound over covers or case. + + [Fig. 237 Final operation of cleaning off excess compound] + +After the last compound has cooled,--this requires only a few +minutes,--take a putty knife, and scrape off all the surplus +compound, making it even with the top of the covers and case, Fig. +.237. Be careful not to dig into a soft place in the compound with the +putty knife. If you have done your work right, and have followed +directions explicitly, you have scraped off the compound with one +sweep of the putty knife over each crack, leaving the compound smooth +and level. You will be surprised to see how finished the battery looks. + +Some workmen pour hot compound clear to the top of the case and then +hurry to put on a cold, dirty top. What happens? The underside of the +cover, coming in contact with the hot compound, expands and lengthens +out, curling the top surface beyond redemption. As you push down one +corner, another goes up, and it is impossible to make the covers level. + + +Sealing Single Cover Batteries + + +Single cover batteries are scaled in a similar manner. The covers are +put in place before any compound is poured in. Covers should first be +steamed to make them soft and pliable. The surfaces which come in +contact with the sealing compound must be perfectly dry and free from +acid. Before pouring in any compound, run a soft flame over the +surfaces which are to be sealed, so as to dry them and warm them. +Close up all cracks between Jars and covers as already directed. Then +pour the cover channels half full of sealing compound, which must not +be too thin. Now run a soft flame over the compound until it flows +freely and unites with the covers and jars. Allow the compound to +cool. + +For the second pouring, somewhat hotter compound may be used. Fill the +cover channels flush with the top of the case, and again run a soft +flame over the compound to make it flow freely and unite with the +covers, and to give it a glossy finish. If any compound has run over +on the covers or case, remove it with a hot putty knife. + + +Burning-on the Cell Connectors + + +With the covers in place, the next operation is to burn in the cell +connectors. Directions for doing this are given on page 213. If you +did not fill the jars with electrolyte before sealing the covers, do +so now. See page 364. + + +Marking the Battery + + +You should have a set of stencil letters and mark every battery you +rebuild or repair. Stamp "POS," "P," or "+" on positive terminal and +"NEG," "N," or on negative terminal. Then stamp your initials, the +date that you finished rebuilding the battery, and the date that +battery left the factory, on the top of the connectors. Record the +factory date, and type of battery in a book, also your date mark and +what was done to the battery. By doing this, you will always be able +to settle disputes that may arise, as you will know when you repaired +the battery, and what was done. + +To go one step farther, keep a record of condition of plates, and +number of new plates, if you have used any. Grade the plates in three +divisions, good, medium and doubtful. The "doubtful" division will +grow smaller as you become experienced and learn by their appearance +the ones to be discarded and not used in a rebuilt battery. There is +no question that even the most experienced man will occasionally make +a mistake in judgment, as there is no way of knowing what a battery +has been subjected to during its life before it is brought to you. + + +Cleaning and Painting the Case + + +The next operation is to thoroughly clean the case; scrape off all +compound that has been spilled on it, and also any grease or dirt. If +any grease is on the case, wipe off with rag soaked in gasoline. +Unless the case is clean, the paint will not dry. Brush the sides and +end with a wire brush; also brighten the name plate. Then coat the +case with good asphaltum paint. Any good turpentine asphaltum is +excellent for this purpose. If it is too thick, thin it with +turpentine, but be sure to mix well before using, as it does not mix +readily. Use a rather narrow brush, but of good quality. Paint all +around the upper edge, first drawing the brush straight along the +edges, just to the outer edges of rubber tops. Now paint the sides, +ends and handles, but be careful not to cover the nameplate. To +finish, put a second, and thick coat all around top edge to protect +edge of case. Paint will soak in around the edge on top of an old case +more easily than on the body of the case as it is more porous. + + +Charging the Rebuilt Battery + + +With the battery completely assembled, the next step is to charge it +at about one-third of the starting or normal charge rate. For +batteries having a capacity of 80 ampere hours or more, use a current +of 5 amperes. Do not start the charge until at least 12 hours after +filling with electrolyte. This allows the electrolyte to cool. Then +add water to bring electrolyte up to correct level if necessary. The +specific gravity will probably at first drop to 1.220-1.240, and will +then begin to rise. + +Continue the charge until the specific gravity and voltage do not rise +during the last 5 hours of the charge. The cell voltage at the end of +the charge should be 2.5 to 2.7, measured while the battery is still +on charge. Make Cadmium tests on both positive and negatives. The +positives should give a Cadmium reading of 2.4 or more. The negatives +should give a reversed reading of 0.175. The tests should be made near +the end of the charge, with the cell voltages at about 2.7. The +Cadmium readings will tell the condition of the plates better than +specific gravity readings. The Cadmium readings are especially +valuable when new plates have been installed, to determine whether the +new plates are, fully charged. When Cadmium readings indicate that the +plates are fully charged, and specific gravity readings have not +changed for five hours, the battery is fully charged. If you have put +in new plates, charge for at least 96 hours. + +Measure the temperature of the electrolyte occasionally, and if it +should go above 110°F., either cut down the charging current, or take +the battery off charge long enough to allow the electrolyte to cool +below 90°F. + + +Adjusting the Electrolyte + + +If the specific gravity of the electrolyte is 1.280 to 1.300 at the +end of the charge, the battery is ready for testing. If the specific +gravity is below or above these figures, draw off as much electrolyte +as you can with the hydrometer. If the specific gravity is below +1.280, add enough 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte with the +hydrometer to bring the level up to the correct height (about 1/2 inch +above tops of plates). If the specific gravity is above 1.300, add +a-similar amount of distilled water instead of electrolyte. If the +specific gravity is not more than 15 points (.015) too low or too +high, adjust as directed above. If the variation is greater than this, +pour out all the electrolyte and add fresh 1.280 specific gravity +electrolyte. + +After adjusting the electrolyte, continue the charge until the gravity +of all cells is 1.280-1.300, and there is no further change in gravity +for at least two hours. Then take the battery off charge and make a +final measurement of the specific gravity. Measure the temperature at +the same time, and if it varies more than 10° above or below 70°, +correct the hydrometer readings by adding one point (.001 sp. gr.) for +each 3 degrees above 70°, and subtracting one point (.001 sp. gr.) for +each 3 degrees below 70°. Be sure to wipe off any electrolyte which +you spilled on the battery in adjusting the electrolyte or measuring +the specific gravity. Use a rag dipped in ammonia, or baking soda +solution. + + +High Rate Discharge + + +Whenever you have time to do so, make a 20-minute high rate discharge +test on the rebuilt battery, as described on page 266. This test will +show up any defect in the battery, such as a poorly burned joint, or a +missing separator, and will show if battery is low in capacity. If the +test gives satisfactory results, the battery is in good condition, and +ready to be put into service, after being charged again to replace the +energy used by the test. + + +================================================================ + +CHAPTER 16. +SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS. +--------------------- + +EXIDE BATTERIES + +Exide batteries may be classified according to their cover +constructions as follows: + +1. Batteries with single flange covers, as shown in Figs. 15 and 238. +This class includes types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV. + + [Fig. 238 Exide Battery, partly disassembled] + +2. Batteries with double flange covers, as shown in Fig. 242. This +class includes types MHA, KZ, KXD, LXRE, and XE. The cover +constructions are-described in Chapter 3. + +All Exide batteries, except types KXD, LXRE, and XE, have burned-in +lead top connectors. All types have a removable sealing nut around +each post to make a tight joint between the post and cell cover, as +described on page 19. Formerly some Exide batteries had cell +connectors which were bolted to the cell posts, but this construction +is now obsolete. Types KXD, LXRE, and XE have cell connectors made of +flexible, lead coated copper strips. + +Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, MHA, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV have been designed +and built to meet the requirements of starting, lighting and ignition +service for passenger automobiles and power boats. + +Types KXD, LXRE, and XE have been especially developed to meet the +requirements of the starting, lighting and ignition service on motor +trucks and tractors. + +Type KZ has been produced particularly for motorcycle lighting and +ignition service. + + [Fig. 239 Exide Battery with Single Flange Cover] + + +Type Numbers + + +The type of an Exide battery is stamped on the battery name plate. +Thus, on one of the most popular Exide batteries is marked Type +3-XC-13-1. Other Exide batteries have different numerals and letters +in their type numbers, but the numerals., and letters are always +arranged in the same order as given above. The first numeral gives the +number of cells. The letters give the type of cell. The numerals +following the letters give the number of plates per cell. The last +numeral indicates the manner of arranging the cells in the battery +case. Thus, in the example given above, 3-XC-13-1 indicates that there +are three cells in the battery, that the type of cell is XC, that each +cell has 13 plates, and that the cells are arranged according to +method No. 1, this being a side to side assembly. + + +Methods of Holding Jars in Case + + +Two methods of holding Exide jars in the battery case are used: + +1. Types MHA, KXD, LXRE, and XE have the jars separated by horizontal +wooden spacers, there being two spacers between adjoining jars. +Running horizontally between these two spacers are tie bolts which +pass through the case. These bolts are tightened after the jars are +placed in the case, thus pressing the sides of the case against the +jars and holding them in, place. + +Types KXD, LXRE, and XE, in addition to the tie bolts, are secured in +the case by sealing compound beneath and around the jars. Each cell is +provided with two soft rubber buffers which are V shaped, and are +placed over the ridges in the bottom of the jars, thereby minimizing +the effect of shocks on the plates and separators which rest on the +buffers. + +2. In types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV, there are no +spacers between adjoining jars, and the jars simply fit tight in the +case. Should they not fit tight enough to hold them in place securely, +thin boards are inserted between the jars and the case to pack them in. + +Type KZ has the three sets of plates in one jar, having three +compartments, with a three compartment cover. + + +Opening Exide Batteries + + +1. Drilling Off the Top Connectors. Do this as described on page 329. +For type KZ batteries use a 3/8 inch drill. For all other types use a +5/8 inch drill. + +2. Removing Plates from Jars. Follow the general instructions on page +333. + +Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV. In opening these +batteries, all of which have the single flange cover, you may remove +each cell complete from the case, and then draw out the plates; or you +may draw out the plates without taking out the jars. To remove the +complete cell, heat a thin bladed putty knife and work it down all +around the outside of the jar. Then lift out the complete cell by +pulling steadily on the cell posts with two pairs of gas pliers. The +battery should be placed on the floor when you do this, and you should +stand with one foot pressed against the side of the case. + +If you do not wish to remove the complete cells, or should the jars +fit too tight in the case, unseal the covers and remove the plates +according to the instructions given on page 333. + +Types KZ and MHA. These batteries have the double flanged cover. +Several methods may be used in removing the plates from the jars. In +each case, the top of the cell is cleaned, gas blown out of the vent +holes, and the sealing nuts removed before opening the cells. + + [Fig. 240 Removing double flange exide cover] + +First, a flame may be used to soften the sealing compound which is +placed in the slot formed by the two flanges of the cover. If you wish +to use a flame, first remove each complete cell from the case, +loosening the tie bolts that pass through the case to release the +jars. Then hit out each complete cell. Now get two strong boards which +are about one fourth inch longer than the height of the jar. See Fig. +240. Support the jar on these boards by resting the lower edge of the +sides of the cover on the top edge of the boards. Then run a moderate +flame around the outside of the flange until the cover is soft, and +the compound melting. Then press down on the cell posts with your +thumbs, and the jar and plates will drop free of the cover. The +plates are then drawn out and rested on the top of the jars to drain, +as usual. + +Another method is to remove the cells from the case and put them in +the battery steamer for ten minutes as described on page 332. Instead +of first taking the complete cells out of the case and then steaming +them separately, you may steam the entire battery for about ten +minutes, and then draw out the plates and cover of each cell with gas +pliers without removing the jars. This method must be used in opening +types KXD, LXRE, and XE, which have sealing compound under the jars. + + +Work on Plates, Separators, Jars, and Case + + +Having opened the battery, follow the instructions given on pages 335 +to 361 for examination of plates and separators, and all work on +plates, jars, separators, and case. + + +Reassembling Plates + + + [Fig. 241 Upsetting threads to prevent nut from turning] + +First slip the positive and negative groups together without +separators. Then wipe the posts with a rag moistened with ammonia, +rinse them with water, and dry thoroughly with a clean rag. Next slip +the soft rubber washers over the posts and place the cover in +position. Lubricate the lead sealing nuts with graphite that has been +mixed to a paste with water. Do not use grease or vaseline to +lubricate these nuts. Then put on the sealing nuts and tighten them +partly with your fingers. + +You are now ready to insert the separators as directed on page 361. +Types MHA, PHC, KXD, KZ, LXR, LXRE, LXRV, XX, and XXV have, in +addition to the usual wooden separators, perforated rubber sheets, +which should be placed against the grooved side of each wooden +separator before inserting, and insert with rubber sheet against the +positives. + +Make a careful examination to see that you have not left out any +separators. + +When the separators are all in place, even them up on each side. Then +tighten the sealing nuts with the special Exide wrench. When you have +turned the nuts down tight, lock them in place by driving a center +punch on the threads on the post just above the nut, Fig. 241. This +will damage the thread and prevent the nut from turning loose. + + +Putting Plates In Jars + + +The next step is to lower the plates into the jars, as described on +page 362. In types KXD, LXRE, and XE be sure to first replace the two +soft rubber buffers in the bottom of the jar, one over each ridge. + + +Filling Jars With Electrolyte + + +As soon as you have an element in place in the jar, fill the jar with +electrolyte of the proper strength, as described on page 364, to +prevent the separators and plates from drying. The negatives, +especially, must be covered with electrolyte to prevent them from +heating and drying. + + +Sealing Exide Battery Covers + + [Fig. 242 Laying "worm" of sealing compound] + + [Image: Chart showing capacity of Exide batteries] + +For Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV, which have the +single flange type of cover, slowly heat the sealing compound until it +runs, but do not get it so thin that it will run down into the cell +between the cover and jar. Then pour it into the channel between cover +and jar walls. Allow it to cool and finish it off flush with a hot +knife. When pouring, be sure the compound is liquid and not lumpy, as +in such a case a poor seal will result. A glossy, finished appearance +may be given to the compound by passing a flame over it after the job +is finished. + +For Types KXD, KZ, LXRE, MHA, and XE, which have the double flange +type of cover, have ready a string or worm of sealing compound about +3-16 inch in diameter, made by rolling between boards some of the +special compound furnished for the purpose. The cover may or may not +have been attached to the element, depending on how repairs have been +made. In either case the procedure is the same as far as sealing is +concerned. Assuming the element is attached, stand it upside down, +with the cover resting upon two strips, Fig. 242. Lay the string of +compound all around the cover channel. Now turn right side up and +insert in the jar, taking care that the jar walls enter the cover +channels at all points. Apply heat carefully to the edges of the cover +and gently force cover clown. If too much compound has been used, so +that it squeezes out around the cover, scrape off the excess with a +hot knife while forcing cover down. + + +Putting Cells In Case + + +When the covers have all been sealed, put the cells in the case, +taking care to put the negative and positive posts in their proper +positions, so that each cell connector will connect a positive to a +negative post. + +In Types MHA, KXD, LXRE, and XE, which have wooden spacers between the +cells, take care that the spacers are in position and then, after +cells are in place, tighten the tie bolts with a screw driver to clamp +the jars. + +In Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, SX, XC, XX, and XXV the cells should fit +tight in the case; pack them in with thin boards if necessary. + + +Burning on the Cell Connectors + + +See instructions on pages 213 to 216. + + +Charging After Repairing + + +See also instructions on page 373. + +Not sooner than ten to fifteen hours after filling battery with +electrolyte, add electrolyte to restore level if it has fallen. + + +U. S. L. BATTERIES + + +The instructions for rebuilding batteries which have already been +given, pages 328 to 374, apply also to all U. S. L. batteries. In +working on the old U. S. L. batteries, illustrated in Fig. 243, draw +out the electrolyte down to the tops of the plates so that the +electrolyte is below the lower end of the vent tube. Then blow out any +gas which may have collected under the cover with compressed air or +bellows. Never fail to do this, as there is only a small vent hole in +the cover through which the gas can escape, the vent tubes extending +down into the electrolyte when the cells are properly filled. + + [Fig. 243 Cross section of old type USL battery] + + [Fig. 244 Cross section of new type USL battery] + +Fig. 244 shows the new U. S. L. cover construction. Note that the +special cell filling device is no longer used. U. S. L. batteries have +lead bushings moulded into the cover. These bushings fit around the +posts, and are burned to the posts and top connectors, Figs. 243 and +244, thus giving leak proof joints between the cover and the posts. In +burning on the connectors, melt bottom edge of hole first, then top of +post and cover bushing, and melt in your burning lead slowly. + + [Image: Chart showing capacity of USL batteries, Page 1] + + [Image: Chart showing capacity of USL batteries, Page 2] + + +PREST-O-LITE BATTERIES + + + [Fig. 245 Old type Prest-O-Lite battery with lead bushings + that screw up into cover] + +Some of the old Prest-O-Lite batteries have a lead bushing around the +post, Fig. 245, similar to the U. S. L. batteries. This will make a +perfectly tight seal, provided that you screw the bushing up tight. +The new types of Prest-O-Lite batteries have a "Peened" post seal, +special instructions for which follow. + +The general instructions for rebuilding batteries given on pages 328 +to 374 apply to Prest-O-Lite batteries in every respect. The "Peened" +post seal is, however, a special construction, and directions for +working on this seal are as follows: + + [Fig. 246 Prest-O-Lite Element Locked] + +All Prest-O-Lite batteries designated as Types WHN, RIJN, BHN, JFN, +KPN, and SHC, have a single moulded cover which is locked directly on +to the posts of the element. This feature is the result of forcing a +solid ring of lead from a portion of the post, projecting above the +cover, down into a deep chamfer in the top of the cover. Figs. 246 and +247 show this construction. + +This construction makes a solid unit of the cover and element, which +does away with the sealing compound, washers, nuts, etc., for making +the acid tight seal around the posts. + +The locking operation requires some special instructions and shop +equipment for assembly and all repairs which involve removal from and +replacement of the cover on the element. + +The majority of battery repairs such as renewal of jars, separators, +straightening of plates, and removal of sediment, can be made without +separating the cover and element. In such cases the connectors are +drilled off, compound is softened and removed from around the covers +and the complete unit is removed from the cell. It may be handled +throughout the repair as a unit, and the cover serves as a bridge to +hold the plates of both groups in line just as they remain in the jar. + + [Fig. 247 Sectional view of Prest-O-Lite battery with peened + post seal] + +However, where the cover is broken or must be replaced for other +reasons, when plates have to be renewed, or the posts have been broken +off below the cover, the element and cover must be separated. + +All the apparatus and special tools which are used in connection with +the locking, as well as the building-up, unlocking (freeing), and +rebuilding, of the posts in all Prest-O-Lite battery types are grouped +together and collectively termed the type "N" Post Locking Outfit. + +This outfit, complete, is carried in stock at all Prest-O-Lite +warehouses under the part number 27116. Each of the individual parts +or tools also has a separate part number and may be bought separately. + +Prest-O-Lite Type "N" Post Locking Outfit + +Arbor Press (complete with following 12 parts) 27115 +Main Casting 27114 +Latch 27107 +Bed Plate 27113 +Lever 27108 +Rack 27211 +Washer 27112 +Pinion Shaft 27110 +Pinion 27109 +Latch Pin 27111 +*Special CLN & KPN Spacer 27233 +*Special CLN & KPN Latch 27232 +*Special CLN & KPN Bed Plate 27234 +Large Peening Tool (9-21 RHN, WHN, BHN, SHC, KPN, CLN; 11-17 JFN) 27101 +Small Peening Tool (7-WHN, RHN, SHC; 9-JFN) 27100 +Peening Tool for small terminal posts in which are east threaded + brass inserts (Columbia) 27105 +Large Post Freeing Tool 27103 +Small Post Freeing Tool 27102 +No. 8 Post Freeing Tool (13/16" diameter straight post) 27123 +[1] Large Post Re-Builder + (9-21 RHN, WHN, BHN, SHC, KPN, CLN; 11-17 JFN) 27005 +[1] Small Post Re-Builder (7-WHN, RHN, SHC; 9-JFN) 27004 +[2] Ford Positive Post Builder 27006 +[2] Ford Negative Post Builder 27224 +2 No. 8 Post Builder (13/16" diameter straight post) 27225 +Style "B" Prest-O-Lite Torch, with six feet of red gum tubing A-3116 +Automatic Reducing Valve A-427 +COMPLETE TYPE "N" OUTFIT including all parts above 27116 + +* The CLN and KPN Spacer block, bent Latch and Bed Plate are special +parts used only in the Arbor Press when it is especially assembled to +lock CLN or KPN posts. + +[1] The Re-Builder is used to build up posts before attempting to lock +on the cover. The replacing of the metal cut away from the original +diameter of the post when the jar cover was removed is necessary to +the correct operation of the Peening Tool. + +[2] The Builder is used to build up posts, after they have been locked +and shaped by the Peening Tool, to a size large enough to take some +special terminal. For example, the Ford Positive Post Builder is used +in building up posts, locked by the Large Peening Tool, to the proper +size to take the Ford positive terminal. + +The Automatic Reducing Valve delivers the gas from the P-O-L tank at a +uniform pressure of 3 pounds per square inch, whether the tank is +full, half empty, or nearly empty, and regardless of the volume of gas +used. The volume or flow of gas is regulated by the key. + +The style "B" torch mixes the pure acetylene from the gas tank with +the proper amount of air necessary to an efficient heating flame. + +The heating flame is conducted or delivered to the Peening Tool by the +short length of brass tubing known as the Torch-Holder, over which the +"B" Torch is pressed by hand in completing the assembly. + + [Fig. 248 Special Prest-O-Lite Peening Press] + +Both the "B" Torch and the Automatic Reducing Valve are absolutely +essential to the use of the Prest-O-Lite gas tank for heating the +Peening Tool. + +Prest-O-Lite gas tanks, style A, B, C, or E, may be used in connection +with the Automatic Reducing Valve, as shown in Fig. 248. To use a +welding size gas tank it is necessary to insert a "W to A" Adapter +between the tank and Reducing Valve. This Adapter can be purchased +from the Prest-O-Lite Co., Inc. + +The Arbor Press when received by the Service Station is fully +assembled, ready for mounting and operation with all P-O-L locked post +types except CLN and KPN. + +Mount the Press in a vertical position (Fig. 248) in a convenient +place and at an accessible height on a wall or post. Holes are +provided in the Press for mounting by lag screws or bolts. The +position of the Peening Tool should be well below the level of the +eyes, to prevent serious injury from a possible spattering of +overheated lead. + +Screw the proper size Peening Tool into the bottom of the Press rack, +as shown in Fig. 248. The Torch-Holder must be removed from the +Peening Tool to do this; it should be immediately replaced. + +In using the Press to lock CLN or KPN posts it is necessary to remove +the Bed Plate and the Latch, and replace these parts with the Special +Bed Plate and Special Latch provided for this purpose, using the +spacing block or Spacer (also provided) between the Special Bed Plate +and the bottom of the Press. + + [Fig. 249 Reaming Prest-O-Lite peened post to remove cover] + +Connect the "B" Torch to the Peening Tool. The Torch is merely pressed +by the hand over the Torch-Holder. + +Connect the Torch with the Automatic Reducing Valve on the gas tank by +the rubber tubing, and turn on the gas and light. The flame should be +blue and hot. + +Allow the Peening Tool to become just hot enough to melt the end of a +piece of 50-50 solder. Do not allow it to get any hotter than this. +The tool is then ready for use. The flame may be left on while the +Tool is in use. In case the Tool becomes too hot turn the flame off +and allow it to cool to the proper temperature before using. + + +To Remove Cell Covers from Elements + + +Drill off cell connectors and terminals as usual. Insert the proper +size Freeing Tool (or reamer), furnished with the outfit, in an +ordinary hand-power drill press or bit-and-brace. With this reamer +remove the ring of metal or flange on the post, thereby releasing the +cell cover. Fig. 249. The Freeing Tool should not be used in a +power-driven press, as slow speed is essential to prevent breaking +cell covers. To get the best results, center the Freeing Tool over the +post, gradually forcing it down, at the same time keep it turning +slowly until the ring of metal which locks the post in the cover has +been removed. A little machine oil should be put on the metal directly +under the tool for this operation. After the metal ring has been +removed, the cover can be easily lifted off the posts, Fig. 250. + + [Fig. 250 Removing Prest-O-Lite cover] + + [Fig. 251 Building up posts on Prest-O-Lite element] + +The use of the Freeing Tool in removing the cell cover cuts away a +certain amount of metal from the diameter of the posts. Before these +posts can be relocked by the Peening Tool in replacing the cell cover +they must be built up in size or diameter again so that there will be +enough lead to insure a tight joint. + + +To Rebuild Posts + + +Thoroughly clean the post. Place the proper Post Re-Builder so that it +rests on the shoulder of the post, and run in enough new lead to fill +the Re-Builder. Fig. 251. Be sure and bring the lead surface of the +post into fusion before the new lead is run in, to insure a strong +post. + +To build a smooth, solid post, be sure that the post is thoroughly +clean; then use a hot flame. + + +To Lock or Peen Posts + + +(1) Assemble positive and negative groups without separators, and +paint the posts (just above the shoulder) with hot sealing compound. + +(2) Prepare the cell covers by immersing them in hot water until they +are flexible. + +(3) Place a warmed cover over the posts of the two assembled groups +(the elements). Fig. 252. + + [Fig. 252 Replacing Prest-O-Lite cover on built-up posts] + +(4) Slide the element over the Bed Plate directly under Peening Tool, +with the bottom of the plate connectors resting on the Bed Plate. (See +Fig. 253). + +(5) Pull down the Latch to hold the Bed Plate in alignment. + +(6) Center the post with Peening Tool. Then force the Peening Tool +down slowly until it has covered about two-thirds of the distance to +the cover. Pause in this operation to allow the metal of the post to +become heated; then force tool the rest of the distance. Raise the +Peening Tool slightly and force down again. + +(7) Release the Latch, withdraw and reverse the element, and repeat +operations 4, 5 and 6 on the other post. + +(8) The assembled groups are now ready to receive separators. + + [Fig. 253 Peening Prest-O-Lite post with special peening press] + + +Precautions in Post Locking Operations + + +1--Be sure all covers are warmed until they are flexible before +attempting to assemble. + +2--Be sure that the Peening Tool is not too hot. If it is, the post +will melt away and be ruined. A very hot tool sometimes causes +dangerous spattering of hot lead. + +3--Be sure that the post is centered with the Peening Tool before +forcing the Tool down on the post. + +4--Be sure the cover has been forced down, so that it rests on the +shoulder of the post, before releasing. + + +General Instructions + + +In breaking in a new Peening Tool it is advisable to squirt several +drops of machine oil inside the Tool, as well as putting some oil on +the top of the post, before forcing the hot Tool down over the post. +This will prevent the Tool from sticking to the post. + +If the Peening Tool should stick to the post, force the Tool down +again, being certain that the cover is slightly compressed. Sticking +of the Peening Tool indicates either that the Tool has not yet been +broken in, or that there is not sufficient compression in the cover to +free the Tool on releasing the pressure on the lever of the Press. + +To repair the 13/16" diameter straight terminal post, the Ford +positive terminal post, the Ford negative terminal post, it is good +practice to remove the cover in the usual manner, then cut the upper +portion of the posts off and rebuild them with the large Post +Re-Builder. Reassemble the element and cover in the recommended manner +and then use the proper Post Builder to burn the post to its original +size. + + +Standard Types of Prest-O-Lite Starting, Lighting and Ignition +Batteries + + [Image: Chart for Prest-O-Lite starting batteries, 6-volt] + + [Image: Chart for Prest-O-Lite starting batteries, 12-volt] + + [Image: Chart for Prest-O-Lite starting batteries, 16-18-24 + and 30-volt] + + [Image: Chart for Prest-O-Lite special heavy duty truck + batteries for starting and light; Chart for 6-volt + lighting and ignition types] + + + +THE PHILADELPHIA DIAMOND GRID BATTERY + + +Old Type + + [Fig. 254 Cross section of old type Philadelphia diamond grid + battery] + +Figs. 254 and 255 show the construction of the old type Philadelphia +Diamond Grid. Battery. Figs. 254 and 256 show the diamond shaped grid +from which the battery derives its name. It is claimed that this +construction gives a very strong grid, holding the active materials +firmly in place, and giving a large amount of contact surface between +the grid and the active material. + +Figs. 254 and 255 show the old type battery, and give the details of +the cover, terminal posts, vent plug, and so on. The post seal is made +tight by pouring the compound into the cover well so that it flows in +around all of the petticoats on the post. + + [Fig. 255 Cross section old type Philadelphia Diamond Grid] + +This construction increases the distance that the acid must travel +along the post, in order to cause a leak, about two and one-half times +the vertical distance on a smooth post. The hard rubber washer which +fits around the post acts as a lock to prevent the post from turning. +This applies especially to the two terminal posts to which the cables +are attached. The washer is intended to prevent any strain in the +cable from turning the post and breaking the seal between the post and +the compound. + + +New Development in the Philadelphia Battery + + + [Fig. 256 Cross section new type Philadelphia battery] + + [Fig. 257 New type Philadelphia Diamond Grid Battery] + +Rubber Lockt Seal Covers. During the last few years there has been a +marked tendency in the battery industry to do away with the use of +sealing compound for making a joint between the cell cover and the +terminal posts and to substitute a mechanical seal of some kind at +this joint. The Philadelphia Storage Battery Co. has developed the +"Rubber Lockt". cover seal, the construction of which is shown in +detail in Figs. 256 and 257. On the cell posts there is a. flange +which supports the cover, and above this there is a recessed portion +into which is slipped a soft rubber sleeve or bushing. This portion of +the post is made with a ridge extending around the post and with the +rubber sleeve forming a high point over which a corresponding locking +edge in the terminal hole of the cover is snapped. This construction +makes a joint which is flexible and at the same time acid tight. +Vibration tends to push the cover down on the supporting flanges, as +the post diameter is smaller below the locking edge. The design is +simple, both from the assembly and the repair standpoint, as no tools +are required for either operation. In the assembly operation the +groups are lined up so that the post centers are correct and, after +wetting the soft rubber sleeves, the cover is snapped in place with a +quick downward push. See Fig. 258. In removing the covers, catch under +each end with the fingers and pull upward, at the same time pressing +with the thumbs on the top of the posts. See Fig. 259. + + [Fig. 258 Replacing cover of Philadelphia Diamond Grid Battery] + + [Fig. 259 Removing cover of Philadelphia Diamond Grid Battery] + +Rubber Case Batteries. Another development of recent years consists of +the replacing of the wood case and rubber jars by a one-piece +container of hard rubber with compartments for the elements The +Philadelphia Storage Battery Co. has developed the Diamond Rubber +case, which combines strength and lightness with an attractive +appearance. See Fig. 260. One of the troubles experienced with the +earlier designs of the rubber case was the bulging of the end, due to +the pull of the battery hold down rod on a small handle attached to +the center of the end. In the Philadelphia battery this has been +overcome by the use of a wide handle which snaps into openings in the +end of the case in such a way that the pull on the handle is +transferred to the sides. Another feature of this type handle is that +it is a separate piece snapped into the case without the use of any +metal insert in the rubber case, and if the handle should break, it +can be replaced at small expense without the use of any tools. + + [Fig. 260 Philadelphia Diamond Grid Battery with rubber case] + +The Philadelphia vent plug is of the bayonet type, and is tightened by +a quarter turn. The plug simply has a small vent hole in the top, and +may either be taken out or left on while battery is charging. + + +The Philadelphia Separator + + +The Philadelphia separator is made of quarter sawed hardwood. It has a +hard resinous wood in which the hard and soft portions occur in +regular alternating vertical layers. The soft layers are porous, and +permit the diffusion of the acid from plate to plate. The hard layers +give the separator stiffness and long life. The alternating hard and +soft layers are at right angles to the surface of the separator, so +that the electrolyte has a direct path between plates. + +The methods of repairing Philadelphia Diamond Grid batteries are no +different from those already given, on pages 328 to 374. + +When the elements of the old type batteries have been assembled and +returned to the jars, put the covers in place, and pour the compound +around the edges of the cover, and in the post wells. The old compound +must be removed from the petticoats on the posts before new compound +is poured in. The compound must be warm and thin enough to flow around +and fill up the petticoat spaces on the posts in order to get a good +seal. When the post wells are full of compound, and while compound is +still warm, put on the square sealing washers and press them down so +that the holes in the washers fit closely around the octagonal part of +the posts. + + +THE EVEREADY STORAGE BATTERY + + +It is claimed by the manufacturers that the sulphate which forms in +the Eveready battery during discharge always remains in the porous, +convertible form, and never crystallizes and becomes injurious, even +though the battery is allowed to stand idle on open circuit for a +considerable length of time. Due to this fact, the Eveready battery is +called a "Non-Sulphating Battery." + +The manufacturers state that Eveready batteries which have stood idle +or in a discharged condition for months do not suffer the damages +which usually result from such treatment, namely: buckling, and +injurious sulphation. The plates do become sulphated, but the sulphate +remains in the porous, non-crystalline state in which it forms. +Charging such a battery at its normal rate is all that is necessary to +bring it back to its normal, healthy condition. Due to the excessive +amount of sulphate which forms when the battery stands idle or +discharged for a long time, it is necessary to give the battery 50 +percent overcharge to remove all the sulphate and bring the battery +back to a healthy working condition. The colors of the plates are good +guides as to their condition at the end of the charge. The positives +should be free from blotches of white sulphate, and should have a dark +brown or chocolate color. The negatives should have a bright gray or +slate color. + + +Description of Parts + + +Eveready plates are of two general types. Plates of the R type are +each provided with two feet on lower ends, the positive set and the +negative set resting on two separate pairs of bridges in the jars, +thereby preventing the sediment which accumulates on top of bridges +from short circuiting a cell. + +Plates of the M type, instead of having feet, are cut away where they +pass over the bridges of the opposite group. See Fig. 261. This +construction secures a greater capacity for a given space, and gives +the same protection against short circuit from sediment as the foot +construction does, since the same amount of sediment must accumulate +with either type of plate to cause a short circuit. + + [Fig. 261 Type "M" Eveready grid] + +The separators used in Eveready batteries are made of cherry wood +because it is a hard wood which will resist wear, is of uniform +texture, even porosity, and has a long life in a given degree and +condition of acid. + +Eveready cherry wood separators go to the repair man in a dry +condition, as they do not require chemical treatment. Separators when +received should be soaked in 1.250 specific gravity acid for four days +or longer in order to expand them to proper size and remove natural +impurities from the wood. After being fully expanded they should be +stored moist as previously described. Stock separators may be kept +indefinitely in this solution and can be used as required. Fig. 262 +shows the top construction in the Eveready battery. + + [Fig. 262 Eveready Battery, cell connectors covered by compound] + +Cell connectors are heavily constructed and are sealed over solidly +with a flexible sealing compound, Fig. 262. Two types of cell +connectors are used-the crescent and the heavy or "three way" type. + + +Repairing Eveready Batteries + + +To properly open and re-assemble an Eveready battery, proceed as +follows: + +1. Take a hot putty knife and cut the compound from the top of each of +the inter-cell connectors until the entire top of the connector is +exposed. + +2. Center punch tops of cell connectors and terminal posts. + +3. Drill off cell connectors. In drilling off crescent cell connector +use 1/2 inch drill, and for heavy type connector use 5/8 inch drill. + +Drill deep enough, usually 3/8 to 1/2 inch, until a seam between +connector and post is visible around lower edge of hole. Having +drilled holes in both ends of connector, heat connector with soft +flame until compound adhering to it becomes soft. Then take a 1/2 inch +or 5/8 inch round iron or bolt, depending on connector to be removed, +insert in one of the holes, and pry connector off with a side to side +motion, being careful not to carry this motion so far as to jam +connector into top of jar. + +4. After connectors have been removed, steam and open the battery, as +described on pages 332 to 335. + +5. Examine plates, and handle them as described on pages 335 to 355. +Remember, however, that Eveready plates which show the presence of +large amounts of sulphate, even to the extent of being entirely +covered with white sulphate, should not be discarded. A battery with +such plates should be charged at the normal rate, and given a 50 +percent overcharge. + +6. Before re-assembling plate groups preparatory to assembling the +battery, take negative and positive plate groups and build up the +posts with the aid of a post builder to their original height. + +Assemble groups in usual manner, taking care that posts on straps are +in proper position relative to group in adjoining cell, so that cell +connectors will span properly. Eveready batteries use a right and left +hand strap for both positive and negatives, making it necessary to use +only one length of cell connector. + +7. After inserting assembled plate groups into battery in their proper +relation as to polarity, heat rubber covers to make them fairly +pliable and fit them over posts and into top of jar, pressing them +down until they rest firmly on top of plate straps. See that covers +are perfectly level and that vent tubes are perpendicular and all at +same height above the plates. + +8. Heat compound just hot enough so that it will flow. Pour first +layer about one quarter inch thick, being careful to cover entire jar +cover. Take a soft flame and seal compound around edges of jar and +onto posts. + +9. Now proceed to burn on top connectors. Cell connectors need only be +cleaned in hole left by post, and top of each end. + +10. While burning in cell connectors the first layer of compound will +have cooled sufficiently to permit the second layer to be applied. +This should be done immediately after burning on connectors and while +they are still hot. Also heat the terminal posts, as compound will +adhere to hot lead more readily than to cold. + +Start second layer of compound by pouring it over cell connectors and +terminal posts, first filling in with sufficient compound to bring +level just above the tops of jars. Apply flame, sealing around edges +of wood case, being particularly careful to properly seal terminal +posts. Let this layer cool thoroughly before applying third layer. + +11. The third layer of compound should be applied in the same way as +second layer, pouring on connectors and terminal posts first, and +filling in to the level of top of wood ease. The spaces between bars +of cell connectors will fill and flow over properly if second layer +has been allowed to cool and if cell connectors have not been burned +up too high. In sealing last layer with flame, care should be taken +not to play flame on compound too long as this hardens and burns the +compound. Burned compound has no flexibility and will crack readily in +service, thus causing the battery to become a "slopper." In pouring +compound be sure to have battery setting level so that compound will +come up even on all edges of case. Do not move battery after pouring +last layer until thoroughly cool. + +Before installing battery on car be sure that no compound, etc., has +been allowed to get onto taper of terminal post, as this will make a +poor connection. If this has happened, clean with medium grade +sandpaper. + + +VESTA BATTERIES + + + [Fig. 263 Vesta grid with 3-piece isolator] + +Vesta Isolators. The Vesta plate embodies in its design devices which +are intended to hold the plates straight and thus eliminate the +buckling and short-circuiting which form a large percentage of battery +trouble. Fig. 263 shows clearly the construction of the old type of +plate. Each isolator used in the old type of plate consists of two +notched strips of celluloid, with a plain celluloid strip between +them. The notches are as wide as the plates are thick, the teeth +between the notches fitting into the spaces between plates, thus +holding the plates at the correct distances apart. The plain celluloid +strip holds the notched strips in place. At each corner of the Vesta +plate is a slot into which the isolator fits, as shown in Fig. 263. +Since the teeth on the two notched pieces of each isolator hold the +plates apart, they cannot "cut-out" or "short-out" by pinching +through the wooden separators, or "impregnated mats" as they are +called by the Vesta Company. + +The celluloid of which the isolators are made are not attacked by the +electrolyte at ordinary temperatures. At higher temperatures, however, +the electrolyte slowly dissolves the isolators. The condition of the +isolator, therefore, may be used to determine whether the temperature +of the electrolyte has been allowed to rise above 100° Fahrenheit. + + +The Vesta Type "D" Battery + + +The appearance of a group of the new Type "D" construction is shown in +Fig. 265, where Type "C" and Type "D" groups are illustrated side by +side for purposes of comparison. It will be seen that the "D" isolator +is of one piece only (shown separately in Fig. 266). The material is a +heavy hard rubber stock which will be no more affected by acid or by +electrical conditions in the cell than the hard rubber battery jar +itself. The indentations on the two edges of isolator engage in hook +shaped lugs on plate edges (Fig. 267 shows these clearly) and lock the +plates apart fully as efficiently as the three-piece construction. + + [Fig. 264 Cross section, Vesta Isolator Battery, type C] + +There are a number of important advantages which have been gained by +the new method of isolation. The illustration (Fig. 265) shows how the +"D" isolator permits the separators to completely cover and project +slightly beyond the edges of the plates, whereas in the old +construction there is an edge just above the isolators where the +plates are not covered. This improvement means protection against +shorts due to flaking, always so likely to occur during the summer +"overcharging" season. Overcharging is, of course, a form of abuse, +and Type "D" batteries are designed to meet this sort of service. +Another great advantage gained is in the arrangement of lugs, It will +be noted that the positive isolator hooks are in alignment, as are the +negative hooks, but that these two rows, of opposite polarity, are +separated from each other by the full width of the isolator; whereas +in the Type "C" construction the outer edges of the plates, of +opposite polarity, were separated only by the usual distance between +plates. + + [Fig. 265 Vesta elements: showing old 3-piece celluloid isolator and + new one-piece hard rubber isolator] + + [Fig. 267 Vesta plates type U and DJ] + + [Fig.268 Inserting Vesta hard rubber isolator] + +The new isolator is simple to insert and remove. Being made of hard +rubber, it will soften and become pliable if a sufficient degree of +heat is applied. The heat required is approximately 150° to 160°F., a +temperature far above that reached by any battery cell, even under the +most extravagant condition of abuse, but readily attained in the shop +by means of a small flame of any kind-even a match will do in an +emergency. The flame (which should be of the yellow or luminous +variety, as the blue flame tends to scorch the rubber) is played +lightly over the isolator a few seconds. The rubber becomes soft and +is then removed by inserting under the end of the isolator any narrow +tool, such as a small screw driver, a wedge point, chisel, etc., and +prying gently. In replacing isolators, a small hot plate is convenient +but not at all necessary. The isolators are placed on the hot plate, +or held in a luminous flame, until soft enough to bend. They are then +bent into an arched shape, as shown in Fig. 268, and quickly fitted +into place under the proper lugs. The regular isolator spacing tool is +convenient and helpful in maintaining the plates at uniform intervals +while this operation is carried out. The job is completed by pressing +down the still warm isolator with any handy piece of metal having a +flat edge that will fit the distance between the lugs (Fig. 269). The +shank of a screw driver does splendidly for this work. The pressure +causes the isolator to straighten out, and the indentations fit snugly +under the respective hooks on the plates. At the same time the contact +with the cold metal chills the rubber to its normal hard condition. It +is especially to be noted that the entire operation of isolator +removal and replacement can be carried out with none but the commonest +of shop tools. + + [Fig. 269 Pressing down Vesta hard rubber isolator] + + [Fig. 270 Complete vesta battery] + +All of the "U" size batteries have been changed to Type "D," so that +all "CU" types are superseded by corresponding "DU's." Type "D" will +not be used on cells of sizes "L," "H," or "A", all of which remain of +the "C" or three-piece isolator construction. Type "S" remains old +style as before. + + +Type "DJ" + + +The Vesta Company has added a new plate size, produced in the "D" +style (one-piece) isolator only, and known as "DJ." + +This plate is one-half inch higher than the "U," as shown in Fig. 267. +It has 10 per cent more capacity. "DJ" batteries are available in all +forms corresponding with "CU" types, and can be obtained by merely +changing the type form name in ordering, as for example, to replace +form 150, 6-DJ11-Y-150. The overall height of the completed battery +is, of course, one-half inch more, and the "DJ" should therefore be +ordered only when this additional height space is available in the +battery compartment of the car. + + +Vesta Separators + + +The Vesta separators, or "mats," are treated by a special process. The +Vesta Company considers its "mats" a very important feature of the +battery. See page 15. + + +Vesta Post Seal + + +A lead collar fits over each post to hold the cover tight against the +soft rubber gasket underneath. This collar is not screwed or burned on +the post, but is simply pressed down over the post, depending for its +holding power upon the fact that two lead surfaces rubbing against +each other tend to "freeze," and unite so as to become a unit. The +connector rests upon the upper race of the collar, and also helps to +hold it down in its proper position. Fig. 270 shows the complete +battery with the lead collar, and the large vent plug. + +In rebuilding Vesta batteries having the lead collars, the cover +should be left in place when working on the plates, if possible. If, +however, it is necessary to separate groups, and the lead collars must +be removed, this is done as shown in Fig. 271. A few blows on the side +of the collar with a light, two ounce hammer expands the lead collar +several thousands of an inch so that the collar may be removed. + + [Fig. 271 Expanding lead collar of Vesta battery with light + hammer] + + [Fig. 272 Placing soft rubber gasket over post of Vesta battery] + +In replacing the covers, the lead collar must be forced down over the +post, and special pressure tongs are required for this purpose. Before +driving on the old collar, the post should be expanded slightly by +driving the point of a center-punch into the shoulder on the post. +Instead of expanding the shoulder a new collar may be used. + +Fig. 272 shows the soft rubber gasket being placed over the post, and +shows the construction of the cover with its recess to fit the gasket. + +Fig. 273 shows the lead collar being placed over the post after the +cover is in place. + +Fig. 274 shows the special long lipped tongs required to force the +collar down on the post shoulder. One lip of the tongs has a hole into +which the post fits. The necessary driving force may be obtained by +applying pressure to the ends of the lips of the tongs With an +ordinary vise. This forces the cover down on the rubber gasket to make +the acid-tight seal. + + [Fig. 273 Placing lead collar over post of Vesta battery] + + [Fig. 274 Pressing lead collar over post of Vesta battery] + + +WESTINGHOUSE BATTERIES + + +Westinghouse batteries have a special seal between covers and posts, +as shown in Fig. 275. A lead foundation washer (J) is set around the +post. A "U" shaped rubber gasket, (K) is then forced between the cover +and post, with the open end up. The lips of this gasket are tapered, +with the narrow edge up. A tapered lead sleeve (L) is then forced +between the lips of gasket (K), thereby pressing the inner lip against +the post and the outer lip against the cover. + + [Fig. 275 Westinghouse battery, partly dis-assembled] + +The lead sleeve is held in place by broaching or indenting the collar +on taper lead sleeve into the posts. + +To break the seal, a hollow reamer or facing tool, fitted into a drill +press or breast drill, is slipped over the post. A few turns will +remove that part of the sleeve which has been forced into the post. +Remove sealing compound around cover, remove group from cell. The +cover can then be lifted off and if any difficulty is experienced, it +can easily be removed by prying up cover with screwdriver. After +removing the cover, the tapered lead sleeve and "U" shaped gasket can +be removed. If these instructions are followed, the "U" shaped gasket +and taper lead sleeves can be used when battery is reassembled. + +With the addition of the foregoing instructions on the post seal, the +standard directions for rebuilding batteries given on pages 328 to 374 +apply to Westinghouse batteries. + + +Westinghouse Plates + + +In any given size, the Westinghouse battery has two more plates per +cell than the usual 1/8 inch plate battery. It has the same number of +plates as the 3/32 inch thin plate battery, but the thickness of the +plates is about half-way between the 1/8 inch and 3/32 inch plates. + +The Westinghouse negative grids, Fig. 276, have very few and small +bars, just enough to hold the active material. It is slightly thinner +than the positive but has the same amount of active material, due to +the design of the grids. The condition of Westinghouse negatives +should not be determined by cadmium readings as these plates may be +fully charged and yet not give reversed cadmium readings. + + [Fig. 276 Westinghouse positive and negative plates] + +Aside from the special instructions given for the Westinghouse Post +Seal, the Standard Instructions for Rebuilding Batteries, given on +pages 328 to 374 may be used in rebuilding Westinghouse batteries. + + +TYPES OF WESTINGHOUSE BATTERIES + + +Type "A" Batteries + + +The type "A" series was designed to fit the battery compartment in +certain rather old models of cars. Owing to a lack of space this +series is not of as efficient design as the "C" and "B" series. It +does have the Westinghouse Post Seal, however. + +Type "A" batteries are not recommended for use when "B" or "C" +batteries can be used. + + Ampere + Hours Ampere Ampere Length Weight + at Usual Rate for Rate for in Inches in +Type Part No. Lighting Rate 20 Minutes 5 Hours L. Pounds +---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ + +6-A-11 100071 64 68 9.1 8 38 +6-A-13 100072 79 82 11.0 9-1/8 42 +6-A-15 100073 94 96 12.8 10-1/4 46 +6-A-17 100074 109 109 14.6 11-9/16 52 +6-A-21 100075 139 136 18.2 14-3/16 63 +6-A-25 100076 169 164 22.0 17 75 +12-A-7 100077 34 41 5.5 10-7/16 48 +12-A-11 100078 64 68 9.1 14-15/16 70 +12-A-17 100079 109 109 14.6 22-1/16 102 + + +Plates + +Width Height Thickness +----- ------ --------- +5-5/8 4-1/8 .098 + + +Type "B" Batteries + + +The type "B" series of batteries has been designed for use on a number +of cars now in service that do not have a sufficient headroom in the +battery compartment for type "C." + +Type "B" batteries carry all of the features of the type "C." Due to +the fact that the plates of necessity must be somewhat shorter than in +the type "C" batteries their efficiency from the point of ampere hours +per pound of weight is slightly less than the type "C" series. + + Ampere + Hours Ampere Ampere Length Weight + at Usual Rate for Rate for in Inches in +Type Part No. Lighting Rate 20 Minutes 5 Hours L. Pounds +---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ +6-B-7 100031 41 44 6.6 5-3/4 30 +6-B-9 100032 59 66 8.8 6.7/8 36 +6-B-11 100033 77 82 11.0 8 41 +6-B-13 100034 95 99 13.2 9-1/2 47 +6-B-15 100035 114 115 15.4 10-1/4 52 +6-B-17 100036 132 131 17.6 11-9/16 57 +6-B-19 100037 150 148 19.8 12-7/8 60 +6-B-21 100038 168 164 22.0 14-3/16 68 +6-B-23 100039 186 181 24.2 15-1/2 75 +6-B-25 100040 205 197 26.4 17 82 +12-B-7 100041 41 49 6.6 10-7/16 54 +12-B-9 100042 59 66 8.8 12-11/16 66 +12-B-11 100043 77 82 11.0 14-15/16 78 +12-B-13 100044 95 99 13.2 17-3/16 91 +12-B-15 100045 114 115 15.4 19-7/16 102 +12-B-17 100046 132 131 17.6 22-1/16 113 + + +Plates + +Width Height Thickness +----- ------ --------- +5-5/8 4-3/4 0.1 + + +Type "C" Batteries + + +The type "C" series of batteries is the Westinghouse standard. The +outside dimensions and capacity are such that some one of this design +may be used in a majority of cars now in service. The Westinghouse +design was built around this type and it should be used for +replacement or new equipment. + +Type "C" batteries are provided with the Westinghouse Post Seal +wherever possible. + + Ampere + Hours Ampere Ampere Length Weight + at Usual Rate for Rate for in Inches in +Type Part No. Lighting Rate 20 Minutes 5 Hours L. Pounds +---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ +6-C-7 100001 45 54 7.3 5-7/8 34 +6-C-9 100002 65 73 9.7 7 39 +6-C-11 100003 85 91 12.1 8-1/8 44 +6-C-13 100004 105 109 14.6 9-1/4 50 +6-C-15 100005 125 127 17.0 10-3/8 56 +6-C-17 100006 145 145 19.4 11-11/16 63 +6-C-19 100007 165 163 21.8 13 70 +6-C-21 100008 185 181 24.3 14-5/16 77 +6-C-23 100009 205 199 26.7 15-5/8 85 +6-C-25 100010 225 218 29.2 17-1/8 93 +12-C-7 100011 45 54 7.3 10-9/16 59 +12-C-19 100012 65 73 9.7 12-13/16 72 +12-C-11 100013 85 91 12.1 15-1/16 84 +12-C-13 100014 105 109 14.6 17-5/16 96 +12-C-15 100015 125 127 17.0 19-8/16 110 + + +Plates + +Width Height Thickness +----- ------ --------- +5-5/8 4-1/4 0.1 inch + + +Type "E" Batteries + + +The type "E" series was designed for replacement work on a few old +model cars now in service where a narrow, high battery was necessary. +The design is not as efficient as the "B" and "C" lines, due to a lack +of space and further, it has been necessary to omit the Westinghouse +Post Seal for the same reason. + + Ampere + Hours Ampere Ampere Length Weight + at Usual Rate for Rate for in Inches in +Type Part No. Lighting Rate 20 Minutes 5 Hours L. Pounds +---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ +6-E-13 100058 79 82 11.0 9-1/8 40 +6-E-15 100062 94 96 12.8 10-1/4 44 +6-E-17 100065 109 109 14.6 11-9/16 50 +6-E-21 100067 139 136 18.2 14-3/16 62 +12-E-11 100088 64 68 9.1 14-15/16 70 +12-E-13 100060 79 82 11.0 17-3/16 79 +12-E-15 100069 94 96 12.8 19-7/16 90 +18-E-9 100070 49 54 7.3 15-5/16 75 + + +Plates + +Width Height Thickness +----- ------ --------- +4-1/8 5-5/8 .098 + + +Type "H" Batteries + + +The type "H" battery is built with heavier plates than the type "C" +and "B" batteries for use in cars where the necessary increased space +is available and where the weight per ampere output is not a +consideration. Under the same use the battery will give a greater life +than the type "C" or "B" battery having the same positive area. + +This battery has a greater space between the plates than the "C" or +"B" battery and will therefore have less internal discharge when +standing on open circuit, and is more desirable for miscellaneous use +where open circuit discharge is of consideration. + + Ampere + Hours Ampere Ampere Length Weight + at Usual Rate for Rate for in Inches in +Type Part No. Lighting Rate 20 Minutes 5 Hours L. Pounds +---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ +6-H-17 100089 61 74 9.9 7-3/4 35 +6-H-9 100090 88 89 13.2 9-1/4 43 +6-H-11 100091 115 124 16.5 11-1/2 55 +6-H-13 100092 143 149 19.8 12-5/8 36 +6-H-15 100093 170 173 23.2 14-5/16 70 +6-H-17 100094 197 109 26.5 16 79 + + +Plates + +Width Height Thickness +----- ------ --------- +5-5/8 5 .19 + + +Type "J" Batteries + + +The type "J" battery is an extremely heavy construction battery with +thick plates, and it was designed primarily for use on trucks and +other vehicles of this type where there is excessive vibration and +other possibility of mechanical abuse. This battery will give a +greater life than either the "H", "C" or "B" battery with the same +plate area. It is provided with wood separators and rubber sheets. + +This battery has a greater space between the plates than the "C" or +"B" battery and will therefore have less internal discharge when +standing on open circuit, and is more desirable for miscellaneous use +where open circuit discharge is of consideration. + + Ampere + Hours Ampere Ampere Length Weight + at Usual Rate for Rate for in Inches in +Type Part No. Lighting Rate 20 Minutes 5 Hours L. Pounds +---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ +6-J-5 100095 38 55 7.35 6-7/16 38 +6-J-7 100096 68 82 11.0 8-1/8 40 +6-J-9 100097 98 110 14.7 10-3/8 50 +6-J-11 100098 128 137 18.4 11-7/8 60 +6-J-13 100099 159 165 22.1 13-3/4 69 +6-J-15 100100 189 192 25.7 15-5/8 84 +6-J-17 100101 220 220 29.4 17-1/2 96 + + +Plates + +Width Height Thickness +----- ------ --------- +5-5/8 5 .19 + + +Type "0" Batteries + + +The "0" type battery sacrifices some capacity in obtaining a rugged +strength. It is a special battery made only with nineteen plates per +cell where the percentage of sacrificed capacity is not great as +compared with the twenty-one plate "C" type. It fills the same space +as does a 6-C-21. It has greater life and strength. It has less +capacity but it is built for conditions requiring less capacity than a +twenty-one plate cell. + + Ampere + Hours Ampere Ampere Length Weight + at Usual Rate for Rate for in Inches in +Type Part No. Lighting Rate 20 Minutes 5 Hours L. Pounds +---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ +6-O-19 100143 185 185 24.5 13-11/16 68 + + +Plates + +Width Height Thickness +----- ------ --------- +5-5/8 5-1/4 .123 + + +Type "F" Batteries + + +There is only one type "F" battery. It is of big heavy construction +exactly the same dimensions as the battery used for a number of years +on the Cadillac and certain other cars. This battery is heavier than +type "C" of the same capacity and it has a greater life. + + Ampere + Hours Ampere Ampere Length Weight + at Usual Rate for Rate for in Inches in +Type Part No. Lighting Rate 20 Minutes 5 Hours L. Pounds +---- -------- ------------- ---------- -------- --------- ------ +6-F-13 100086 150 160 21.2 17-11/16 79 + + +Plates + +Width Height Thickness +----- ------ --------- +4-3/4 5-1/4 .17 + + +WILLARD BATTERIES + + +Since 1912, when the Willard Storage Battery Co. began to manufacture +storage batteries for starting and lighting work, various types of +Willard batteries have been developed. The original Willard starting +and lighting batteries used two-piece, or "double" covers. These are +shown in the cuts used to illustrate the sealing of double-cover +covers in the preceding chapter, and no further description will be +given here. The doublecover batteries are no longer made, but the +repairman will probably be called upon to repair some of them. The +instructions given in the preceding chapter should be used in making +such repairs. + +Following the double cover batteries came the single cover battery, of +which a number of types have been made. One type used a rectangular +post, and was very difficult to repair. Fortunately, this type was not +used extensively, and the battery is obsolete. + + +Willard Batteries With Compound Sealed Posts + + +The oldest type single-cover Willard battery which the repairman will +be called upon to handle is the compound sealed post type, illustrated +in-Fig. 277. This battery includes types SEW, SER, SJW, SL, SLR, SM, +SMR, STR, SXW, SXR, SP, SK, SQ, EM, and EMR. As shown in Fig. 277, +there is a well around each post which is filled with: sealing +compound. On the under side of the cover is a corresponding well which +fits into the post well, the sealing compound serving to make the seal +between the cover and the post. + + [Fig. 277 Willard Battery cross section] + +Aside from this post seal, no special instructions are required in +rebuilding this type of Willard battery. A 3/4 inch drill is needed +for drilling off the connectors. When the plates have been lifted out +of the jars, and are resting on the jar to drain, and while the +compound and cover are still hot, remove the cover by placing your +fingers under it and pressing down on the posts with your thumbs. + +With a narrow screw driver or a knife, clean out all of the old +compound from the wells around the posts, and also remove the compound +from the under side of the cover which fits into the post wells. + +In reassembling the battery first try on the covers to see that they +will fit in the post wells. Then remove the covers again and heat them +with a soft flame. Then heat the post wells perfectly dry with a soft +flame. Pour the post wells nearly full of compound, and quickly press +the cover into position. + + +Willard Batteries With Lead Inserts In Covers + + +The types SJWN and SJRN Willard batteries have lead inserts in the +cover post holes, as shown in Mg. 278, the inserts being welded to the +posts. For removing the connectors and for separating the post from +the cover insert, the Willard Company furnishes special jigs and +forms. The work may also be done without these jigs and forms, as will +be described later. + +When the special jigs and forms are used, the work is done, as follows: + +1. Place Willard drill jig Z-72 (Fig. 279) over the connector, and +with a 13/16 inch drill, bore down far enough to release the connector +from the post (Fig. 279). + + [Fig. 278 lead insert used on Willard Batteries; Fig. 279 + Willard Drill Jig Z-72; Fig. 279 Willard Drill Jig Z-72 and + how it is used] + +2. File off the post stub left by drilling. This will give a flat +surface on top of the cover insert and will make it easier to center +the drill for the next operation. + +3. With a 57/64 inch drill, and Willard jig Z-94 (Fig. 280), drill +down to release the post from the cover insert. + + [Fig. 280 Willard Jig Z-94; Fig. 281 Willard Post-Builder Z-93] + +4. In reassembling, build the post up to a height of 1-5/16 inches +above the top of the plate strap, using Willard post builder Z-93 +(Fig. 281). + +5. After removing the post builder, bevel the top edge of the post +with a file, as indicated at "A" (Fig. 281). Then replace plates in +the jars. + +6. File off tops of cover inserts at "A" (Fig. 282), to a height of +3/16 inch above the cover. Also remove any roughness on surface "B" +caused by pliers when cover was removed. + + [Fig. 282 Willard Battery cross section of cover insert; + Fig. 283 Willard burning form Z-87 and how it is used] + +7. Put on the covers so that their tops will be 1/32 inch above the +top edge of the jars, tapping them lightly with a small hammer. + +8. Place Willard burning form Z-87 (Fig. 283) over the post and cover +insert and burn the post to the insert. + +9. Remove form Z-87 and thoroughly brush off the top of the post stub. +Then build up the stub post, using Willard burning form Z-88 on the +positive posts and form Z-89 on the negative posts (Fig. 284). + + [Fig. 284 Willard burning forms Z-88 and Z-89] + +10. Now seal the covers with sealing compound as usual, and burn on +the connectors. + +11. If the terminal posts are made for clamp terminals, build up the +posts by using Willard burning form Z-90, for the positive posts and +Z-91 for the negative posts (Fig. 285). + + [Fig. 285 Willard burning forms Z-90 and Z-91] + +To work on the post seals of Willard types SJWN and SJRN without the +special Willard jigs and forms: + +1. Remove the connectors and terminals as usual. + +2. Saw off the posts close to the covers, taking care not to injure +the covers; This will separate the posts from the cover inserts, and +the covers may be removed. + +3. In reassembling, Ale off the top of the cover insert at "A" (Fig. +292). + +4. Put covers on so that their tops will be 1/32 inch above the top +edge of the jars, tapping the covers lightly with a small hammer. + +5. Brush the top of post and cover insert perfectly clean. Now make a +burning form consisting of a ring 1-1/8 inside diameter and 1-5/8 inch +outside diameter and 3/16 to 1/4 inch high. Set this over the stub +post and cover. With a hot lead burning flame melt the top of the post +and cover insert together. Then melt in lead up to the top of the +special burning form (Fig. 286). Then remove the form. + + [Fig. 286 Cross section Willard Battery Posts Types SJWN and SJRN] + +6. Set post builders on the part of the posts which has been built up +and build up the posts as usual, Fig. 286. Then burn on the connectors +and terminals. + + +Willard Gasket Type Batteries + + +Fig. 287 shows this type of construction, used on types SJRG and SLWG. + +Fig. 288 shows the seal in detail. A soft rubber gasket is slipped +over the post, and the cover is pushed down over the gasket. For +removing the covers, have a cover removal frame made as shown in Fig. + +289. Fasten the frame to a solid wall or bench so that it will +withstand a strong pull. In rebuilding this type of battery proceed as +follows: + + [Fig. 287 Willard Gasket Seal Battery cross section] + +1. Drill off the connectors and terminals, leaving the post stubs, as +high as possible, since the only way of removing the plates is by +grasping the post stubs with pliers. + + [Fig. 288 Details of Willard Gasket Seal] + +2. Steam the battery to soften the sealing compound and lift out the +plates as usual. + +3. To remove covers. Saw the post stubs off flush with the covers. +Place the element in the cover removal frame (Fig. 289) and pull +steadily on the element. A little swaying motion from side to side may +help in loosening the covers. If any of the gaskets remain on the +posts when the covers are removed, replace them in the cover and +thoroughly dry the inside with a rag. + + [Fig. 289 Cover removal frame for Willard Gasket Seal Battery] + +4. To replace covers. With a rag or tissue paper wipe off the posts +and then dry them thoroughly with a soft flame. + +With a 3/4 inch bristle bottle brush apply a thin coating of rubber +cement to the inside surfaces of the gaskets. Do this to one cover at +a time and apply the cover quickly before the cement dries. The cement +acts as a lubricant, and without it, it will be impossible to replace +the covers. + + +Willard Separators + + +Fig. 290 shows the Willard Threaded Rubber Separator which is made of +a rubber sheet pierced by thousands of threads which are designed to +make the separator porous. This separator is not injured by allowing +it to become dry, and makes it possible for the Willard Company to +ship its batteries fully assembled without electrolyte or moisture, +the parts being "bone-dry." + + [Fig. 290 Willard threaded rubber separator] + + +UNIVERSAL BATTERIES + + +Types. The Universal Battery Co. manufactures batteries for (a) +Starting and Lighting, (b) Lighting, (c) Ignition, (d) Radio, (e) +Electric Cars and Trucks, (f) Isolated, or Farm Lighting Plants, and +(g) General Stationary Work. + +Construction Features. The Universal Starting and Lighting Batteries +embody no special or unique constructions. The boxes are made of hard +maple, lock cornered and glued. The jars have single rubber covers. +The separators are made of Port Orford white cedar wood, this wood +being the same as that used in some of the other standard makes of +batteries. The space between the covers and connectors is sufficient +to permit lifting the battery by grasping the connectors. + + [Fig. 291 Universal Battery Cover cross section] + +Fig. 291 shows the Universal Co. Post Seal construction. A soft rubber +washer (A) is first slipped over the post. The cover (B) is then put +in place, and rests on the washer (A) as shown. A second washer (C) is +then slipped over the post, resting on the upper surface of the +shoulder of the cover. The lead sleeve washer (D) is then forced down +over the post, pressing washer (C) down on the cover, and pressing the +cover down on washer (A). The two rubber washers serve to make a leak +proof joint between post and cover. The lead sleeve-washer (D) +"freezes" to the post, and holds cover and washers in position. + +In rebuilding Universal batteries the cover need not be removed unless +it is desired to replace plate groups. To remove the cover, after the +cell connectors have been drilled off, drill down through the +post-stub until the drill has penetrated to the shoulder (E). This +releases the seal and the cover may be lifted off. To save time, the +post-stub may be cut off flush with the top of the cover with a hack +saw after the cell connectors have been drilled off. The drill is then +used as before to release the grip of the washer. Using a drill to +release the grip of the washer makes it necessary to build up the +posts when the battery is reassembled. Instead of using an ordinary +twist drill, a special hollow drill may be obtained from the Universal +Battery Co. This drill cuts away the lead sleeve gasket without +injuring the post. If an ordinary drill is used, a 3/4 inch drill is +required for the seven plate battery and a 13/16 inch drill for all +other sizes. + + +ONE-PIECE BATTERY CONTAINERS + + +The standard practice in battery assembly has always been to place the +plates of each cell in a separate, hard rubber jar, the jars being set +in a wooden box or case. Each six-volt battery thus has four +containers. When a wooden case is used, jars made of rubber, or some +other nonporous, acid-resisting material are necessary. + + [Fig. 292 One-piece battery container] + +Wooden cases have been fairly well standardized as to the kinds of +wood used, dimensions, constructional features, and to a certain +extent, the handles. The disadvantage of both the wooden case and the +iron handles is that they are not acid proof. Acid-proof paint +protects them from the action of the acid to a certain extent, but +paint is easily scraped off, exposing the wood and iron to the action +of the acid. It is practically impossible to prevent acid from +reaching the case and handles, and corroded handles and rotted cases +are quite common. + +A recent development is a one-piece container which takes the place of +the jars and wooden case. Such a container is made of hard rubber or a +composition of impregnated fibre which uses a small amount of rubber +as a binder. These cases are, of course, entirely acid proof, and +eliminate the possibility of having acid soaked and acid rotted cases. +Painting of cases is also eliminated. The handles are often integral +parts of the case, as shown in Fig. 292, being made of the same +material as the case. + +The repairman should not overlook the possibilities of the one-piece +containers. In making up rental batteries, or in replacing old cases, +the one-piece containers may be used to advantage. These containers +are suitable for Radio batteries, since they have a neater appearance +than the wooden cases, and are not as likely to damage floors or +furnishings because the acid cannot seep through them. + + +THE TITAN BATTERY + + +The Titan Battery is built along standard lines, as far as cases, +plates, separators, and jars are concerned. The ribs of the grids not +arranged at right angles but are arranged as shown in Fig. 293. Each +pellet of active material is supported by a diagonal rib on the +opposite face of the grid. + + [Fig. 293a Titan Battery grid] + [Fig. 293b Titan Post Seal construction] + +The Titan Post Seal is shown in Fig. 293. A soft rubber gasket (G) is +slipped over the post, and rests on a shoulder (F) on the post. The +cover has a channel which fits over the gasket and prevents the gasket +from being squeezed out of place when the cover is forced down on the +gasket. The post has two projections (DD), as shown, the lower surface +of each of which is inclined at an angle to the horizontal. A lock nut +(H), which has corresponding projections (IJ) is slipped over the post +as shown at (0), and is given a quarter turn. The top surfaces of the +projections on the lock-nut are inclined and as the locknut is turned, +the projections on the post and nut engage, and the cover is forced +down on the gasket (G). To lock the nut in place, a lock washer (L) is +then slipped over the post, the projections (MM) fitting into spaces +(KK) between the projections on the post and nut, thus preventing the +nut from turning. A special wrench is furnished for turning the +lock-nut. The cell connectors rest on the tops of the lock washers and +keep them in place. + +The overhauling of Titan batteries should be done as described on +pages 328 to 374. + + +======================================================================== + +SECTION 3. + +======================================================================== + +CHAPTER 17. +FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS. +-------------------------------------------- + +Although the large Central Station Companies are continually extending +their power lines, and are enlarging the territory served by them, yet +there are many places where such service is not available. To meet the +demand for electrical power in these places, small but complete +generating plants have been produced by a number of manufacturers. +These plants consist of an electrical generator, an engine, to drive +the generator, and a storage battery to supply power when the +generator is not running. The complete plants are called "House +Lighting," "Farm Lighting," or "Isolated" plants. + +The batteries used in these plants differ considerably from the +starting batteries used on automobiles. The starting battery is called +upon to deliver very heavy currents for short intervals. On the car +the battery is always being charged when the car is running at a +moderate speed or over. The battery must fit in the limited space +provided for it on the car, and must not lose any electrolyte as the +car jolts along over the road. It is subjected to both high and low +temperatures; and is generally on a car whose owner often does not +know that his car has such a thing as a battery until his starting +motor some day fails to turn over the engine. All starting batteries +have wooden cases (some now use rubber cases), hard rubber jars, and +sealed on covers. The case contains all the cells of the battery. +Automobile batteries have, therefore, become highly standardized, and +to the uninformed, one make looks just like any other. + +Farm lighting batteries, on the other hand, are not limited as to +space they occupy, are not subjected to irregular charging and +discharging, do not need leak proof covers, and are not called upon to +delivery very heavy currents for short periods. These facts are taken +advantage of by the manufacturers, who have designed their farm +lighting batteries to give a much longer life than is possible in the +automobile battery. As a result the farm lighting battery differs from +the automobile battery in a number of respects. + +Jars. Both glass and rubber are used for farm lighting battery jars, +and they may or may not have sealed-in covers. Fig. 294 shows a glass +jar of an Exide battery having a hard rubber cover, and Fig. 295 shows +a Prest-O-Lite glass jar cell having a cover made of lead and +antimony. Unsealed glass jars, such as the Exide type shown in Fig. +324, generally have a plate of glass placed across the top to catch +acid spray when the cell is gassing. Each jar with its plates and +electrolyte forms a complete and separate unit which may easily be +disconnected from the other cells of the battery by removing the bolts +which join them. In working on a farm lighting battery, the repairman, +therefore, works with individual cells instead of the battery as a +whole, as is done with automobile batteries. + + [Fig. 294 Exide "Delco Light" farming lighting cell with + hard rubber cover] + +Batteries with sealed jars are generally shipped completely assembled +and filled with electrolyte, and need only a freshening charge before +being put into service, just as automobile batteries which are shipped +"wet" are in a fully charged condition when they leave the factory and +need only a charge before being installed on the car. + + [Fig. 295 Prest-O-Lite farm lighting cell with lead-antimony + cover] + +Jars that are not sealed are set in separate glass trays filled with +sand, or sometimes the entire battery is set in a shallow wooden box +or tray filled with sand. This is necessary because the absence of a +sealed cover allows acid spray to run down the outside of the jar and +this acid would, of course, attack the wooden shelf and make a dirty, +sloppy battery. Batteries using jars without sealed covers cannot be +shipped assembled and charged, and hence they require a considerable +amount of work and along initial charge to put them in a serviceable +condition. + + [Fig. 296 Exide farm lighting cell with sealed glass jar] + +Farm lighting battery jars are less liable to become cracked than +those of automobile batteries because they are set in one place and +remain there, and are not jolted about as automobile batteries are. +Cracked jars in farm lighting batteries are more easily detected as +the jar will be wet on the outside and the acid will wet the shelf or +sand tray on which the jar rests. + +Batteries with sealed rubber jars are normally assembled four cells in +a case or tray, with a nameplate on each tray which gives the type and +size of cell. The cells are connected together with lead links which +are bolted to the cell posts by means of lead covered bolt connectors. + + [Fig. 297 Combination wood and rubber separator used in + Delco-Light and Exide Farm light cell] + +Plates. Since farm lighting batteries are not required to deliver very +heavy currents at any time, the plates are made thicker than in +starting batteries, this giving a stronger plate which has a longer +life than the starting battery plate. + +All makes of starting batteries use the Faure, or pasted plate. This +type of plate is also used in many farm lighting batteries, but the +Plante plate (see page 27) may also be used. The Exide "Chloride +Accumulator" cell, Fig. 323 uses a type of positive plate called the +"Manchester" positive as described on page 497. + +Separators. Grooved wooden separators are used in some farm lighting +batteries, while others use rubber separators, or both rubber and +wooden separators. Some use wooden separators which are smooth on both +sides, but have dowels pinned to them. + +Electrolyte. In a starting battery the specific gravity of the +electrolyte of a fully charged cell is 1.280-1.300, no matter what the +make of the battery may be. In farm lighting batteries, the different +types have different values of specific gravity when fully charged. +The usual values are as follows: + +(a) Batteries with sealed glass jars 1.210 to 1.250 + +(b) Batteries with open glass jars 1.200 to 1.250 + +(c) Batteries with sealed rubber jars 1.260 to 1.280 + +A brief discussion of specific gravity might be helpful at this point. +In any lead acid battery current is produced by a chemical action +between the active material in the plates and the water and sulphuric +acid in the electrolyte. The amount of energy which can be delivered +by the battery depends on the amount of active material, sulphuric +acid, and water which enter into the chemical actions of the cell. As +these chemical actions take place, sulphuric acid is used up, and +hence there must be enough acid contained in the electrolyte to enter +into the chemical actions. The amount of water and acid in the +electrolyte may be varied, as long as there is enough of each present +to combine with the active material of the plates so as to enable the +cell to deliver its full capacity. Increasing the amount of acid will +result in the plates and separators being attacked and injured by the +acid. Increasing the amount of water dilutes the acid, giving a lower +gravity, and preventing the Acid from injuring plates and separators. +This results in a longer life for the battery, and is a desirable +condition. In starter batteries, there is not enough space in the jars +for the increased amount of water. In farm lighting batteries, where +the space occupied by the battery is not so important, the jars are +made large enough to hold a greater amount of water, thus giving an +electrolyte which has a lower specific gravity than in starting +batteries. + +Take a fully charged cell of any starting battery. It contains a set +of plates and the electrolyte which is composed of a certain necessary +amount of acid and a certain amount of water. If we put the plates of +this cell in a larger jar, add the same amount of acid as before, but +add a greater amount of water than was contained in the smaller jar, +we will still have a fully charged cell of the same capacity as +before, but the specific gravity of the electrolyte will be lower. + +Charging Equipment. Automobile batteries are being charged whenever +the car is running at more than about 10 miles per hour, regardless of +what their condition may be. + +In farm lighting outfits, the charging is under the control of the +operator, and the battery is charged when a charge is necessary. There +is, therefore, very much less danger of starving or overcharging the +battery. The operator must, however, watch his battery carefully, and +charge it as often as may be necessary, and not allow it to go without +its regular charge. + +The generator of a farm lighting outfit is usually driven by an +internal combustion engine furnished with the outfit. The engine may +be connected to the generator by a belt, or its shaft may be connected +directly to the generator shaft. A switchboard carrying the necessary +instruments and switches also goes with the outfit. The charging of +farm lighting batteries is very much like the charging of automobile +batteries on the charging bench, except that the batteries are at all +times connected to switches, by means of which they may be put on the +charging line. + +Some plants are so arranged that the battery and generator do not +provide current for the lights at the same time, lights being out +while the battery is charging. In others the generator and battery, in +emergency, may both provide current. In others the lights may burn +while the battery is being charged; in this case the battery is +sometimes provided with counter-electromotive force cells which permit +high enough voltage across the battery to charge it and yet limit the +voltage across the lamps to prevent burning them out or shortening +their life. In some cases the battery is divided into two sets which +are charged in parallel and discharged in series. + +Relation of the Automobile Storage Battery Man to the Farm Lighting +Plant. Owners and prospective owners of farm lighting plants generally +know but little about the care or repair of electrical apparatus, +especially batteries, which are not as easily understood as lamps, +motors or generators. Prospective owners may quite likely call upon +the automobile battery repair man for advice as to the installation, +operation, maintenance, and repair of his battery and the automobile +battery repairman should have little trouble in learning how to take +care of farm lighting batteries. The details in which these batteries +differ from starting batteries should be studied and mastered, and a +new source of business will be opened. + +Farm lighting plants in the vicinity should be studied and observed +while they are in good working order, the details of construction and +operation studied, the layout of the various circuits to lamps, +motors, heaters, etc., examined so as to become familiar with the +plants. Then When anything goes wrong with the battery, or even the +other parts of the plant, there will be no difficulty in putting +things back in running order. + + +Selection of Plant + + +"Farm Lighting Plant" is the name applied to the small electric plant +to be used where a central station supply is not available. Such a +plant, of course, may be used for driving motors and heating devices, +as well as operating electric lights, and the plant is really a "Farm +Lighting and Power Plant." + +Make. There are several very good lighting plants on the market and +the selection of the make of the plant must be left to the discretion +of the owner, or whomever the owner may ask for advice. The selection +will depend on cost, whether the plant will fill the particular +requirements, what makes can be obtained nearby, on the delivery that +can be made, and the service policy of the manufacturer. + +Type. Plants are made which come complete with battery, generator, +engine, and switchboard mounted on one base. All such a plant requires +is a suitable floor space for its installation. Other plants have all +parts separate, and require more work to install. With some plants, +the generator and engine may be mounted as a unit on one base, with +battery and switchboard separate. + +The type of jar used in the battery may influence the choice. Jars are +made of glass or rubber. The glass jars have sealed covers, or have no +covers. The rubber jars generally have a sealed cover. The glass jar +has the advantage that the interior may be seen at all times, and the +height of the electrolyte and sediment may be seen and the condition +of the plates, etc., determined by a simple inspection. This is an +important feature and one that will be appreciated by the one who +takes care of the battery. Jars with sealed covers, or covers which +although not sealed, close up the top of the jar completely have the +advantage of keeping in acid spray, and keeping out dirt and +impurities. Open jars are generally set in trays of sand to catch +electrolyte which runs down the outside walls of the jars. The open +jars have the advantage that the plates are very easily removed, but +have the disadvantage that acid spray is not kept in effectually, +although a plate of glass is generally laid over part of the top of +the jar, and that dirt and dust may fall into the jar. + +Size. The capacity of storage battery cells is rated in ampere hours, +while power consumed by lights, motors, etc., is measured in watt +hours, or kilowatt hours. However, the ampere hour capacity of a +battery can be changed to watt hours since watt hours is equal to + + Watt hours = ampere hours multiplied by the volts + +If we have a 16 cell battery, each cell of which is an 80 ampere hour +cell, the ampere hour capacity of the entire battery will be 80, the +same as that of one of its cells, since the cells are all in series +and the same current passes through all cells. The watt hour capacity +of the battery will be 32 times 80, or 2560. The ampere hour capacity +is computed for the 8 hour rate, that is, the current is drawn from +the battery continuously for 8 hours, and at the end of that time the +battery is discharged. If the current is not drawn from the battery +continuously for 8 hours, but is used for shorter intervals +intermittently, the ampere hour capacity of the battery will be +somewhat greater. It seldom occurs that in any installation the +battery is used continuously for eight hours at a rate which will +discharge it in that time, and hence a greater capacity is obtained +from the battery. Some manufacturers do not rate their batteries at +the 8 hour continuous discharge rate but use the intermittent rate, +thus rating a battery 30 to 40 percent higher. Rated in this way, a +battery of 16 cells rated at 80 ampere hours at the 8 hour rate would +be rated at 112 ampere hours, or 3584 watt hours. + +In determining the size of the battery required, estimate as nearly as +possible how many lamps, motors, and heaters, etc., will be used. +Compute the watts (volts X amperes), required by each. Estimate how +long each appliance will be used each day, and thus obtain the total +watt hours used per day. Multiply this by 7 to get the watt hours per +week. The total watt hours required in one week should not be equal to +more than twice the watt hour capacity of the battery (ampere hours +multiplied by the total battery voltage) at the eight hour rate. This +means that the battery should not require a charge oftener than two +times a week. + +The capacity of a battery is often measured in the number of lamps it +will burn brightly for eight hours. The watts consumed by motors, +heaters, etc., may be expressed in a certain number of lamps. The +following table will be of assistance in determining the size of the +battery required: + + + Watts Equivalent Number +No. Type of Appliance Consumed of 20 Watt Lamps +--- ----------------- -------- ----------------- + +1 16 candle power, Mazda lamp 20 1 +2 12 candle power, Mazda lamp 115 3/4 +3 Electric Fan, small size 75 4 +4 Small Sewing machine motor 100 5 +5 Vacuum cleaner 160 8 +6 Washing machine 200 10 +7 Churn, 1/6 h.p. 200 10 +8 Cream Separator, 1/6 h.p. 200 10 +9 Water pump 1/6 h.p. 200 10 +10 Electric water heater, small 350 18 +11 Electric toaster 525 26 +12 Electric stove, small 600 30 +13 Electric iron 600 30 +14 Pump, 1/2 h.p. 600 30 + +From the foregoing table we can determine the current consumption of +the various appliances: + + Amps at 32 Amps at 110 +No. Watts Volts Volts +--- ----- ---------- ------------ +1 20 0.625 0.18 +2 15 0.47 0.14 +3 75 2.34 6.80 +4 100 3.125 0.90 +5 160 5.00 1.44 +6 200 6.25 1.80 +7 200 6.25 1.80 +8 200 6.25 1.80 +9 200 6.25 1.80 +10 350 11.00 3.20 +11 525 16.4 4.77 +12 600 18.75 5.40 +13 600 18.75 5.40 +14 600 18.75 5.40 + +The following tables show how long the battery will carry various +currents continuously: + + [Images: various charts/tables] + + +Location of Plant + + +The various appliances should be placed as near to each other as +possible. The lights, of course, must be placed so as to illuminate +the different rooms, barns, etc., but the power devices should be +placed as close as possible to each other and to the plant. The +purpose of this is to use as little wire as possible between the plant +and the various appliances so as to prevent excessive voltage drop in +the lines. + + +Wiring + + +The wires leading to the various appliances should be large enough so +that not more than one or two volts are lost in the wires. To obtain +the resistance of the wire leading to any appliance, use the following +equation: + +Knowing the resistance of the wire, and the total length of the two +wires leading from the plant to the appliance, the size of the wire +may be obtained from a wiring table. + +Rubber insulated copper wire covered with a double braid should +preferably be used, and the duplex wire is often more convenient than +the single wire, especially in running from one building to another. +Wiring on the inside of buildings should be done neatly, running the +wires on porcelain insulators, and as directly to the appliance as +possible. The standard rules for interior wiring as to fuses, +soldering joints, etc., should be followed. + + +Installation + + +(See also special instructions for the different makes, beginning page +460.) + +The room in which the plant is installed should be clean, dry, and +well ventilated. It should be one which is not very cold in winter, as +a cold battery is very sluggish and seems to lack capacity. If +possible, have the plant in a separate room in order to keep out dirt +and dust. If no separate room is available, it is a good plan to build +a small room in a corner of a large room. Keep the room clean and free +of miscellaneous tools and rubbish. + +If the entire plant comes complete on one base, all that is necessary +is to bolt the base securely to the floor, which should be as nearly +level as possible. If the battery is to be installed separately, build +a rack. Give the rack several coats of asphaltum paint to make it acid +proof. The location of the battery rack should be such that the rack +will be: + +(a) Free from vibration. + +(b) At least 3 feet from the exhaust pipe of engine. + +(c) Far enough away from the wall to prevent dirt or loose mortar from +dropping on the cells. + +Figs. 298 and 299 illustrate two types of battery racks recommended +for use with farm light batteries. The stair-step rack is most +desirable where there is sufficient room for its installation. Where +the space is insufficient to make this installation, use the two-tier +shelf rack. The racks should be made from 1-1/2 or 2 inch boards. + + [Fig. 298 "Stair-Step" rack for farm lighting battery] + +The cells may be placed on the battery rack with either the face or +the edges of the plates facing out. The latter method requires a +shorter battery rack and is very desirable from the standpoint of +future inspections. In very dark places, it is more desirable to have +the surface of the plates turned out to enable the user to see when +the cells are bubbling during the monthly equalizing charge. Either +method is satisfactory. + +All metal parts such as pipes, bolt heads, etc., which are near the +battery should be given at least three coats of asphaltum paint. Care +must be taken not to have an open flame of any kind in the battery +room, as the hydrogen and oxygen gases, given off as a battery charges +may explode and cause injury to the person and possible severe damage +to the battery. When making an installation, it is always a good plan +to carry the following material for taking care of spillage and +broken jars: + +1. 1 Thermometer +2. 2 Series Cells +3. 6 Battery Bolts and Nuts +4. 1 Hydrometer Syringe +5. 2 Gallons distilled water +6. 1 Jar Vaseline +7. 1 Gallon 1.220 specific gravity electrolyte + + [Fig. 299 Installation of a Delco-Light plant, showing two-tier + shelf rack for battery] + +When a battery arrives at the shipping destination, the person lifting +this shipment should remove the slats from the top of each crate and +inspect each cell for concealed damage, such as breakage: Should any +damage be discovered, it is important that a notation covering this +damage be made and signed by the freight agent on the freight bill. +This will enable the customer or dealer to make a claim against the +railroad for the amount of damage. If a notation of this kind is not +made before the battery is lifted, the dealer will be forced to stand +the expense of repairing or replacing the damaged cells. + +When removing cells from a crate, avoid lifting them by the terminal +posts as much as possible. This causes the weight of the electrolyte +and jar to pull on the sealing compound between the jar and cover, and +if the sealing is not absolutely tight, the jar and electrolyte may +fall from the cover. A cell should never be carried using the terminal +posts as handles. The hand should be put underneath the jar. + +Sometimes a battery will arrive with electrolyte spilled from some of +the cells. If spillage is only about one-half to one inch down on the +plates of three or four cells, this spillage may be replaced by +drawing a little electrolyte out of each cell of the other full cells +in the set. Oftentimes several cells will have electrolyte extending +above the water line, which will aid greatly in making up any loss in +other cells. After all cells have been drawn on to fill up the ones +that are spilled, the entire set may then have its electrolyte brought +up to the water line by adding distilled water. + +Very carefully adjust spillage of pilot cells (Delco), as it is very +important that the specific gravity of the pilot cells be left as +near 1.220 as possible. + +In case the spillage is more than one inch below the top of plates or +glass broken, remove cell and install a new cell in its place. The +spilled or broken cell must not be used until given special treatment. + + +Connecting Cells + + +Before connecting up the cells the terminals should be scraped clean +for about 11/2 inches on both sides. An old knife or rough file is +suitable for doing this work. After the terminals are thoroughly +brightened, they should be covered with vaseline. The bolts and nuts +used in making the connections on the battery should also be coated +with vaseline. The vaseline prevents and retards corrosion, which is +harmful to efficient operation. + +If a new battery is to be installed in parallel with one already in +service, connections should be made so that each series will consist +of half new and half old cells. The pilot cells for the new battery +should be placed in one series and that for the old battery in the +other, unless local conditions may make some other arrangement +desirable. + +A drop light must always be provided to enable the user to inspect his +battery, particularly when giving the monthly equalizing charge. + + +Initial Charge + + +When a battery is connected to the plant, it should be given a proper +INITIAL CHARGE before any power or lights are used. + +Batteries shipped filled with electrolyte are fully charged before +leaving the factory. As soon as a storage battery cell of any type or +make is taken off charge and stands idle for a considerable length of +time, some of the acid in the electrolyte is absorbed by the plates, +thereby lowering the gravity and forming sulphate on the plates. This +process is very gradual, but it is continuous, and unless the acid is +completely driven out of the plates by charging before the battery is +used, the battery will not give as good service as the user has a +right to expect. Due to the time required in shipment, the above +action has a chance to take place, which makes it necessary to give +the initial charge. + +The initial charge consists of charging the battery, with the power +and light switch open, until each cell is bubbling freely from the top +to bottom on the surface of the outside negative plates and both pilot +balls are up (Delco-Light), and then CONTINUING THE CHARGE FOR FIVE +HOURS MORE. If the battery has no pilot cells, measure the specific +gravity of the electrolyte of each cell, and continue the charge until +six consecutive readings show no increase in gravity. + +As an accurate check on giving the initial charge properly +(Delco-Light), we strongly recommend that hourly hydrometer readings +of both pilot cells be taken after both balls are up, the charge to be +continued until six consecutive hourly readings show no RISE in +gravity. + +Due to the fact that it is impossible to hold each cell in a battery +to a definite maximum gravity when fully charged, there is likely to +be a variation of from ten to fifteen points in the specific gravity +readings of the various cells. It should be understood, however, that +the maximum gravity is the gravity when the cells are fully charged +and with the level of the solution at the water line. For example, +with each cell in a battery fully charged and therefore at maximum +gravity and with the level at the proper height, some cells may read +1.230, one or two 1.235, several 1.215 and 1.210. All of these cells +will operate efficiently, and there should be no cause for alarm. An +exception to this is the pilot cell of the Delco-Light Battery. + +If this check on the initial charge is properly made, it assures the +service man and dealer that the battery is in proper operating +condition to be turned over to the user. Negligence in giving the +initial charge properly may result in trouble to both user, service +man and dealer. + +The initial charge may require considerable running of the plant, +depending upon the state of charge of the cells when installed. + + +Instructing Users + + +During the time the initial charge is being given, the service man +should instruct the user on the care and operation of the plant and +battery. + +The best way to give instructions to the user is to tack the +instruction cards on the wall near the plant in a place where the user +can read them easily. + +Proceed to read over the plant operating card with the user. Read the +first item, go to the plant, explain this feature to the user and +allow him to perform the operation, if the instruction calls for +actual performance. + +Remember, the user is not familiar with the plant and battery, and the +actual performance of each operation aids him to retain the +instructions. + +After the first item has been covered thoroughly, proceed to the +second, etc. During the course of instruction, the user will often +interrupt with questions not dealing directly with the point being +explained. The service man should keep the user's attention on the +points he is explaining. When the service man has finished explaining +both plant and battery instruction cards, he should answer any points +in question which the user wants explained. + +When the monthly equalizing charge is explained to the user, the +service man should always take the user to the battery and show him a +cell bubbling freely. This is necessary in order that the user may +recognize when the cells are bubbling freely at the time he gives the +monthly equalizing charge. + +Impress upon the user the importance of inspecting each cell when +giving the monthly equalizing charge to see that every cell bubbles +freely. If a cell fails to bubble freely at the end of the equalizing +charge, the user should inform the service man of this condition +immediately. + +Caution the user against the use of an open flame near the plant or +battery at any time. The gas which accumulates in a cell will explode +sufficiently to break the glass jar if this gas is ignited by a spark +or open flame. + + +Care of the Plant in Operation + + +(See also special instructions for the different makes, beginning page +460.) + +The battery repairman should be able not only to repair the batteries, +but should also be able to keep the entire plant in working order, and +suggestions will be given as to what must be done, although no +detailed instructions for work on the generator, engine, and +switchboard will be given as this is beyond the scope of this book. + +Battery Room. The essential things about the battery room are that it +must be clean, dry, and well ventilated. This means, of course, that +the battery and battery rack must also be kept clean and dry. A good +time to clean up is when the battery is being charged. Clean out the +room first, sweeping out dirt and rubbish, dusting the walls, and so +on. Both high and low temperatures should be avoided. If the battery +room is kept too hot, the battery will become heated and the hot +electrolyte will attack the plates and separators. Low temperatures do +no actual harm to a charged battery except to make the battery +sluggish, and seem to lack capacity. A discharged battery will, +however, freeze above 0° Fahrenheit. The battery will give the best +service if the battery room temperature is kept between 60° and 80° +Fahrenheit. + +Do not bring any open flame such as a lantern, candle or match near a +battery and do not go near the battery with a lighted cigar, cigarette +or pipe, especially while the battery is charging. Hydrogen and oxygen +gases form a highly explosive mixture. An explosion will not only +injure the battery, but will probably disfigure the one carrying the +light, or even destroy his eyes. + +It is a good plan to keep the windows of the battery room open as much +as possible. + +Engine. The engine which drives the generator requires attention +occasionally. Wipe off all dirt, oil or grease. Keep the engine well +lubricated with a good oil. If grease cups are used, give these +several turns whenever the engine is run to charge the battery. Use +clean fuel, straining it, if necessary, through a clean cloth or +chamois, if there is any dirt in it. The cooling water should also be +clean, and in winter a non-freezing preparation should be added to it. +Do not change the carburetor setting whenever the engine does not act +properly. First look over the ignition system and spark plug for +trouble, and also make sure that the carburetor is receiving fuel. If +possible, overhaul the engine once a year to clean out the carbon, +tighten bearings and flywheel, remove leaky gaskets, and so on. + +Generator. Keep the outside of the generator clean by wiping it +occasionally with an oiled rag. See that there is enough lubricating +oil in the bearings, but that there is not too much oil, especially in +the bearing at the commutator end of the generator. Keep the +commutator clean. If it is dirty, wipe it with a rag moistened +slightly with kerosene. The brushes should be lifted from the +commutator while this is being done. Finish with a dry cloth. If the +commutator is rough it may be made smooth with fine sandpaper held +against it while the generator is running, and the brushes are lifted. + +The surfaces of the brushes that bear on the commutator should be +inspected to see that they are clean, and that the entire surfaces +make contact with the commutator. The parts that are making contact +will look smooth and polished, while other parts will have a dull, +rough appearance. If the brush contact surfaces are dirty or all parts +do not touch the commutator, draw a piece of fine sandpaper back and +forth under the brushes, one at a time, with the sanded side of the +paper against the brush. This will clean the brushes and shape the +contact surfaces to fit the curve of the commutator. Brushes should be +discarded when they be come so short that they do not make good +contact with the commutator. See that the brush holders and brush +wires are all tight and clean. Watch for loose connections of wires, +as these will cause voltage loss when the generator is charging the +battery. Watch for "high mica," which means a condition in which the +insulation between the segments projects above the surface of the +commutator, due to the commutator wearing down faster than the +insulation. If this condition arises, the mica should be cut down +until it is slightly below the surface of the commutator. An old hack +saw blade makes a good tool for this purpose. A commutator may have +grooves cut in by the brushes. These grooves do no harm as long as the +brushes have become worn to the exact shape of the grooves. When the +brushes are "dressed" with sandpaper, however, they will not fit the +grooves, and the commutator should be turned down in a lathe until the +grooves are removed. + +A steady low hum will be heard when the generator is in operation. +Loud or unusual noises should be investigated, however, as a bearing +may need oil, the armature may be rubbing on the field pole faces, and +so on. + +Watch for overheating of the generator. If you can hold your hand on +the various parts of the generator, the temperature is safe. If the +temperature is so high that parts may be barely touched with the hand, +or if an odor of burned rubber is noticeable, the generator is being +overheated, and the load on the generator should be reduced. + +Switchboard. Clean off dirt and grease occasionally. Keep switch +contacts clean and smooth. If a "cutout" is on the board, keep its +contacts smooth and clean. If the knife switch blades are hard to +move, look for cutting at the pivots. Something may be cutting into +the blades. If this is found to be the case, use a file to remove all +roughness from the parts of the pivot. See that no switches are bent +or burned. + +Keep the back of the board clean and dry as well as the front. See +that all connections are tight. Keep all wires, rheostats, etc., +perfectly clean. A coat of shellac on the wires, switch studs, etc., +will be helpful in keeping these parts clean. + + +Care of Battery + + +Cleanliness. Keep the battery and battery rack clean. After a charge +is completed, wipe off any electrolyte that may be running down the +outsides of the jars. Wipe all electrolyte and other moisture from the +battery rack. Occasionally go over the rack with a rag wet with +ammonia or washing soda solution. Then finish with a dry cloth. Paint +the rack with asphaltum paint once a year, or oftener if the paint is +rubbed or scratched. + +If sand trays are used, renew the sand whenever it becomes very wet +with electrolyte. Keep the terminals and connectors clean. Near the +end of a charge, feel each joint between cells for a poor connection. +Watch also for corrosion on the connections. Corrosion is caused by +the electrolyte attacking any exposed metals other than lead, near the +battery, resulting in a grayish deposit on the connectors or bolts at +the joints. Such joints will become hotter than other joints, and may +thus be located by feeling the joints after the battery has been +charged for some time. Corrosion may be removed by washing the part in +a solution of baking soda. + +Be very careful to keep out of the cells anything that does not belong +there. Impurities injure a cell and may even ruin it. Do not let +anything, especially metals, fall into a cell. If this is done +accidentally, pour out the electrolyte immediately, put in new +separators, wash the plates in water, fill with electrolyte having a +gravity about 30 points higher than that which was poured out, and +charge. The cell may be connected in its proper place and the entire +battery charged. Vent plugs should be kept in place at all times, +except when water is added to the electrolyte. + +Keep the Electrolyte Above the Tops of the Plates. If the battery has +glass jars, the height of the electrolyte can be seen easily. If the +battery has sealed rubber jars, the height of the electrolyte may be +determined with a glass tube, as described on page 55. In most +batteries the electrolyte should stand from three-fourths of an inch +to an inch above the plates. Some jars have a line or mark showing the +proper height of the electrolyte. A good time to inspect the height of +the electrolyte is just before putting the battery on charge. If the +electrolyte is low, distilled water should be added to bring it up to +the proper level. Water should never be added at any other time, as +the charging current is required to mix the water thoroughly with the +electrolyte. + +Determining the Condition of the Cells. The specific gravity of the +electrolyte is the best indicator of the condition of the battery as +to charge, just as is the case in automobile batteries, and hence +should be watched closely. It is not convenient or necessary to take +gravity readings on every cell in the battery on every charge or +discharge. Therefore, one cell called the "Pilot" cell should be +selected near the center of the battery and its specific gravity +readings taken to indicate the state of charge or discharge of the +entire battery. Delco-Light batteries each have two pilot cells with +special jars. Each of these has a pocket in one of its walls in which +a ball operates as a hydrometer or battery gauge. One pilot cell +contains the pilot ball for determining the end of the charge, and +other pilot cell containing the ball for determining the end of the +discharge. See Fig. 294. + +Hydrometer readings should be taken frequently, and a record of +consecutive readings kept. When the gravity drops to the lowest value +allowable (1.150 to 1.180, depending on the make of battery) the +battery should be charged. + +Once every month voltage and gravity readings of every cell in the +battery should be taken and recorded for future guidance. These +readings should be taken after the monthly "overcharge" or "equalizing +charge" which is explained later. If the monthly readings of any cell +are always lower than that of other cells, it needs attention. The low +readings may be due to electrolyte having been spilled and replaced +with water, but in a farm lighting battery this is not very likely to +happen. More probably the cell has too much sediment, or bad +separators, and needs cleaning. See special instructions on Exide and +Prest-O-Lite batteries which are given later. + +There are several precautions that must be observed in taking gravity +readings in order to obtain dependable results. Do not take gravity +readings if: + +(a) The cell is gassing violently. + +(b) The hydrometer float does not ride freely. If a syringe hydrometer +is used, the float must not be touching the walls of the tube, and the +tube must not be so full that the top of the float projects into the +rubber bulb at the upper end of the tube. + +(c) Water has been added less than four hours before taking the +readings. A good time to take readings is just before water is added. + +The hydrometer which is used should have the specific gravity readings +marked on it in figures, such as 1.180, 1.200, 1.220 and so on. +Automobile battery hydrometers which are marked "Full," "Empty," +"Charged," "Discharged," must not be used, since the specific +gravities corresponding to these words are not the same in farm +lighting batteries as in automobile batteries and the readings would +be incorrect and misleading. If the manufacturer-of the battery +furnishes a special hydrometer which is marked "Full," "Half-Full," +"Empty," or in some similar manner, this hydrometer may, of course, be +used. + +Temperature corrections should be made in taking hydrometer readings, +as described on page 65. For Prest-O-Lite batteries, 80 degrees is the +standard temperature, and gravity readings on these batteries should +be corrected to 80 degrees as described on page 461. + +Gravity readings should, of course, be taken during charge as well as +during discharge. The readings taken during charge are described in +the following sections on charging. + + +Charging + + +(See also special instructions for the different makes, beginning page +460.) + +Two kinds of charges should be given the battery, the "Regular" +charge, and the "Overcharge" or "Equalizing Charge." These will be +spoken of as the "Regular" charge and the "Overcharge." The Regular +charge must be given whenever it is necessary in order to enable the +battery to meet the lighting or other load demands made upon it. The +overcharge, which is merely a continuation of a regular charge, should +be given once every month. The overcharge is given to keep the battery +in good condition, and to prevent the development of inequalities in +condition of cells. + +When to Charge. Experience will soon show how often you must give a +regular charge in order to keep the lights from becoming dim. When the +voltage reading, taken while all the lamps are on has dropped to 1.8 +volts per cell a Regular charge is necessary. When the specific +gravity of the pilot cell indicates that the battery is discharged, a +Regular charge is necessary. It is better to use the specific gravity +readings as a guide, as described later. + +A good plan, and the best one, is to give a battery a Regular charge +once every week, whether the battery becomes discharged in one week's +time or not. A regular charge may be required oftener than once a +week. Every fourth week give the Overcharge instead of the Regular +charge. + +If a battery is to be out of service, arrangements should be made to +add the necessary water and give an overcharge every month, the +Regular charges not being necessary when the battery stands absolutely +idle. + +Overcharge. Charge the battery as near as practicable at the rate +prescribed by the manufacturer. If the manufacturer's rate is not +known, then charge at a rate which will not allow the temperature of +the electrolyte to rise above 110° Fahrenheit, and which will not +cause gassing while the specific gravity is still considerably below +its maximum value. One ampere per plate in each cell is a safe value +of current to use. A battery having eleven plates in each cell should, +for example, be charged at about 11 to 12 amperes. + +Watch the temperature of the pilot cell carefully. This cell should +have an accurate Fahrenheit thermometer suspended above it so that the +bulb is immersed in the electrolyte. If this thermometer should show a +temperature of 110°, stop the charge immediately, and do not start it +again until the temperature has dropped to at least 90'. Feel the +other cells with your hand occasionally, and if any cell is so hot +that you cannot hold your hand on it measure its temperature with the +thermometer to see whether it is near 110'. A good plan is to measure +the temperature of the electrolyte in every cell during the charge. If +any cell shows a higher temperature than that of the pilot cell, place +the thermometer in the cell giving the higher reading, and be guided +by the temperature of that cell. You will then know that the +thermometer indicates the highest temperature in the entire battery, +and that no other cell is dangerously hot when the thermometer does +not read 100 degrees or over. Another point in the selection of a pilot +cell is to determine if any particular cell shows a gravity which is +slightly less than that of the other cells. If any such cell is found, +use that cell as the pilot cell in taking gravity readings while the +battery is on discharge and also on charge. No cell will then be +discharged too far. + +When all cells are gassing freely, continue the charge at the same +current until there is no rise in the specific gravity of the pilot +cell for one to two hours, and all cells are gassing freely throughout +the hour. Then stop the charge. + +After the overcharge is completed, take gravity readings of all the +cells. A variation of about eight to ten points either above or below +the fully charged gravity after correction for temperature does not +mean that a cell requires any attention. If, however, one cell +continually reads more than 10 points lower then the others, the whole +battery may be given an overcharge until the gravity of the low cell +comes up. If the cell then does not show any tendency to charge up +properly, disconnect it from the battery while the battery is +discharging and then connect it in again on the next charge. If this +fails to bring the gravity of the cell up to normal, the cells should +be examined for short circuits. Short circuits may be caused by broken +separators permitting the active material to bridge between the +plates; the sediment in the bottoms of the jars may have reached the +plates, or conducting substances may have fallen in the cells. + +Broken separators should be replaced without loss of time, and the +cells cleaned if the sediment in the jars is high. + +Regular Charge. A Regular Charge is made exactly like an Overcharge, +except that a Regular Charge is stopped when cells are gassing freely, +when the voltage per cell is about 2.6, and when the specific gravity +of the pilot cell rises to within 5 points of what it was on the +previous Overcharge. That is, if the gravity reading on the Overcharge +rose to 1.210, the Regular Charge should be stopped when the gravity +reaches 1.205. + +Partial or Rapid Charge. If there is not enough time to give the +battery a full Regular Charge, double the normal charging rate and +charge until all the cells are gassing, and then reduce to the normal +rate. Any current which does not cause excessive temperature or +premature gassing is permissible, as previously mentioned. If a +complete charge cannot be given, charge the battery as long as the +available time allows, and complete the charge at the earliest +possible opportunity. + + +Discharge + + +Do not allow the battery to discharge until the lights burn dim, or +the voltage drops below 1.8 per cell. The specific gravity is a better +guide than the lamps or voltage. The gravity falls as the battery +discharges, and is therefore a good indicator of the condition of the +battery. Voltage readings are good guides, but they must be taken +while the battery is discharging at its normal rate. If the load on +the battery is heavy, the voltage per cell might fall below 1.8 before +the battery was discharged. Lamps will be dim if the load on the +battery is heavy, especially if they are located far away from the +battery. The specific gravity readings are therefore the best means of +indicating when a battery is discharged. + +Overdischarge. Be very careful not to discharge the battery beyond the +safe limits. Batteries discharging at low rates are liable to be +overdischarged before the voltage gives any indication of the +discharged condition. This is another reason why hydrometer readings +should be used as a guide. + +A battery must be charged as soon as it becomes discharged. It is, in +fact, a good plan, and one which will lengthen the life of the +battery, to charge a battery when it is only about three fourths +discharged, as indicated by the hydrometer. Suppose, for instance, +that the specific gravity of the fully charged battery is 1.250, and +the specific gravity when the battery is discharged is 1.180. This +battery has a range of 1.250 minus 1.180, or 70 points between charge +and discharge. This battery will give a longer life if its discharge +is stopped and the battery is put on charge when the gravity falls to +1.200, a drop of 50 points instead of the allowable 70. + +Allowing discharged battery to stand without charge. A battery should +never be allowed to stand more than one day in a discharged condition. +The battery will continue to discharge although no current is drawn +from it, just as an automobile battery will. See page 89. The battery +plates and separators will gradually become badly sulphated and it +will be a difficult matter to charge the battery up to full capacity. + + +Battery Troubles + + +Farm lighting batteries are subject to the same general troubles that +automobile batteries are, although they are not as likely to occur +because the operating conditions are not as severe as is the case on +the automobile. Being in plain view at all times, and not being +charged and discharged irregularly, the farm lighting battery is not +likely to give as much trouble as an automobile battery. Neglect, such +as failure to keep the electrolyte up to the proper height, failure to +charge as soon as the battery becomes discharged, overdischarging, +allowing battery to become too hot or too cold, allowing impurities to +get into the cells, will lead to the same troubles that the same +treatment will cause in an automobile battery, and the descriptions +of, and instructions for troubles in automobile batteries will apply +in general to farm lighting batteries also. + +When a battery has been giving trouble, and you are called: upon to +diagnose and remedy that trouble, you should: + +1. Get all the details as to the length of time the battery has been +in service. + +2. Find out what regular attention has been paid to its upkeep; +whether it has been charged regularly and given an overcharge once a +month; whether distilled water has been used in replacing evaporation +of water from the electrolyte; whether impurities such as small nails, +pieces of wire, etc., have ever fallen into any cell; whether battery +has ever been allowed to stand in a discharged condition for one day +or more; whether temperature has been allowed to rise above 110 deg. F. +at any time; whether electrolyte has ever been frozen due to battery +standing discharged in very cold weather. + +3. Talk to the owner long enough to judge with what intelligence he +has taken care of the battery. Doing this may, save you both time and +subsequent embarrassment from a wrong diagnosis resulting from +incomplete data. + +4. After getting all the details that the owner can supply, you will +probably know just about what the trouble is. Look over the cells +carefully to determine their condition. If the jars are made of glass +note the following: + +(a) Height of sediment in each jar. + +(b) Color of electrolyte. This should be clear and colorless. A +decided color of any kind usually means that dirty or impure water has +been added, or impurities have fallen into the cell. For discussion of +impurities see page 76. + +(c) Condition of plates. The same troubles should be looked for as in +automobile batteries. See pages 339 to 346. An examination of the +outside negatives is usually sufficient. The condition of the +positives may also be determined if a flash light or other strong +light is directed on the edges of the plates. Look for growths or +"treeing" between plates. + +(d) Condition of separators. See page 346. + +If cells have sealed rubber jars, proceed as follows: + +(a) Measure height of electrolyte above plates with glass tube, as in +Fig. 30. If in any cell electrolyte is below tops of plates that cell +is very likely the defective one, and should be filled with distilled +water. If a considerable amount of water is required to fill the jar +it is best to open the cell, as the plates have probably become +damaged. If the jar is wet or the rack is acid eaten under the jar, +the jar is cracked and must be replaced. + +If you have not found the trouble, make the following tests, no matter +whether glass or rubber jars are used: + +(a) Measure specific gravity of each cell. If any cell is badly +discharged it is probably short-circuited, or contains impurities and +had better be opened for inspection. + +(b) Turn on all the lamps and measure the voltage of each cell. If any +cell shows a voltage much less than 1.8 it is short-circuited or +contains impurities, and should be opened for inspection. + +(c) Examine the connections between cells for looseness or corrosion; +and examine the connections between the battery and the generator, +going over cables, switches, rheostats, etc. Make sure that you have a +complete and closed charging circuit between the generator and the +battery. + +(d) If cutout is used on the switchboard, see that its contact points +are smooth and clean, and that they work freely. + +(e) Run the generator to see if it builds up a voltage which is +sufficient to charge the battery, about 42 volts for a 16 cell battery. +If the generator is not working properly, examine it according to +directions on page 451. Check up the field circuit of the generator to +be sure that it is closed. A circuit-tester made of a buzzer and +several dry cells, or a low voltage lamp and dry cells, or a hand +magneto is convenient for use in testing circuits. Test armature +windings and field coils for grounds. + +By the foregoing methods you should be able to determine what is to be +done. The following rules should also help: + +Cleaning and renewal of electrolyte is necessary when: + +(a) Sediment has risen to within one-half inch of the bottom of the +plates. + +(b) Much foreign material is floating in the electrolyte, or +electrolyte is of a deep brown color. + +Replacement of parts is necessary when + +(a) Separators are cracked or warped. See page 346 for Separator +troubles. + +(b) Plates are defective. See rules on pages 339 to 346. + + +PREST-O-LITE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES + + [Fig. 300 Element from Prest-O-Light farm light cell] + +The Prest-O-Lite battery which is designed for use in connection with +farm lighting plants is known as the FPL type. Cells of 7, 9, 11, 13 +and 15 plates are made, the number of plates being indicated by +putting the figure in front of the type letters. A seven plate cell is +thus designated as a 7 FPL cell, which has an 80 ampere hour capacity +at the 8 hour continuous discharge rate. + +The FPL cell, the construction of which is shown in Figs. 295, 300, +301, 302 and 303, has a sealed glass jar with a lead antimony cover. +The cover construction is shown in detail in Figs. 301 and 302. +Insulation between the posts and cover is provided by a hard rubber +bushing, a hard rubber washer, and a soft rubber washer. The bushing +is shaped like a "T" with a hole drilled in the stem. The stem of the +bushing fits down into the post hole in the cover, the flange at the +top testing on the raised portion of the cover around the post hole. +The post has a shoulder a little less than halfway up from its lower +end. Upon this shoulder is placed the hard rubber washer, and upon the +hard rubber washer is placed the soft rubber washer. This assembly is +fastened to the cover by the "peening" process used in Prest-O-Lite +automobile batteries as described on page 386. This forces the soft +rubber washer tightly against the cover so as to make a leak proof +joint-between the bushing and cover. The ring of lead formed around +the posts by the peening process supports the posts, plates, and +separators, which therefore are suspended from the cell cover. The +plate straps extend horizontally across the tops of the plates, and +thus also act as "hold-downs" for the separators. The separators are +held up by two rectangular rubber bridges which fit Mito slotted +extension lugs cast into the lower corners of the outside negative +plates. An outside negative having these extension lugs is shown in +Figure 303. + + [Fig. 301 Cover of Prest-O-Light farm lighting cell] + + [Fig. 302 Parts of Prest-O-Light farm lighting cell: nut, + stud, terminal, hard rubber bushing] + + [Fig. 303a Parts of Prest-O-Light farming light cell: glass + jar, rubber jar, rubber cell connector, glass cell connector] + + [Fig. 303b Parts of Prest-O-Light farm lighting cell: positive + plate and outside negative plate] + + [Fig. 303c Parts of Prest-O-Light farm lighting cell: long + lead jumper, jumper, separator, short lead jumper] + +Specific Gravity of Electrolyte. The values of the specific gravity of +Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries are as follows: + +Battery fully charged reads 1.250 +Battery three-fourths charged reads 1.230 +Battery one-half charged reads 1.215 +Battery one-fourth charged reads 1.200 +Battery discharged completely reads 1.180 + +These readings are to be taken with the electrolyte at a temperature +of 80° Fahrenheit. Readings taken at other temperatures should be +converted to 80°. To convert readings at a lower temperature to the +values they would have at 80°, subtract one point for every two and +one-half degrees temperature difference. For example, suppose a cell +reads 1.225 gravity at 60°. To find what the gravity would be if the +temperature of the electrolyte were 80° divide the difference between +80° and 60° by 2-1/2, or 80° minus 60° divided by 21/2 equals 8. The +gravity at 80° would therefore be 1.225 minus .008, or 1.217, which is +the value of specific gravity to use. If the specific gravity is read +at a higher temperature than 80°, divide the difference between 80° +and the temperature at which the gravity reading was taken by 21/2, +and add the result to the actual gravity reading obtained. If, for +example, the gravity were 1.225 at 100°, the gravity at 80° would be +1.225 plus .008, or 1.233. + +Charging Rates. The normal charging rate to be used in giving +Prest-O-Lite batteries a regular charge or overcharge are as follows: + +Battery Charging Rate +------- ------------- +5 F.P.L. 5.0 amps. +7 F.P.L. 7.5 amps. +9 F.P.L. 10.0 amps. +11 F.P.L. 12.5 amps. +13 F.P.L. 15.0 amps. +15 F.P.L. 17.5 amps. + + +Rebuilding Prest-O-Lite Farm Lighting Batteries + + +Opening the Cell. + +1. Make sure that the cell is as fully charged as possible. Since it +is not very convenient to charge a single cell, a good time to open a +cell for cleaning and repairing is immediately after the battery has +been given an overcharge. See page 455. + +2. Disconnect the cell from the adjoining ones. + +3. Heat a thin bladed putty knife and insert it under the edge of the +lead-antimony cover to melt the sealing compound. Run the knife all +round the cover, heating it again if it should become too cool to cut +the compound readily. + +4. Grasp the lead posts above the cover and lift up gradually. This +will bring up the cover, plates, and separators. + +5. Place the plates on a clean board for examination. Use the +instructions given on pages 339 to 346. Do not keep the plates out of +the electrolyte long enough to let them dry, and the negatives heat +up. If you cannot examine the plates as soon as you have removed them +immerse them in 1.250 acid contained in a lead or non-metallic vessel +until you can examine them. + +6. In renewing the electrolyte, pour in as much new 1.250 acid as +there was old electrolyte in the jar. (It is assumed that the +electrolyte was up to the lower ridge of the glass jar before the cell +was opened.) The new electrolyte must not have a temperature above +100 degrees when it is poured into the jar. + +7. The separators can be pulled out easily when the plates are laid on +their sides. All that is necessary is to remove the small rubber +bridge at the bottom corners of the plates. The separators can then be +pulled out. If the old separators are to be used again brush off any +material that may be adhering to them, and keep them wet with 1.250 +acid until they are replaced between the plates. Any separators that +show cracks or holes, or that split while being replaced between the +plates should be thrown away and new ones used. + +8. It is not necessary to remove the sediment from the bottom of the +jar unless it is within one half inch of the bottom of the plates. If +the sediment is to be removed, carefully pour off the clear +electrolyte into a lead, hard rubber, or earthenware jar, if the +electrolyte is to be used again. + +9. If one or two of the plates in either positive or negative groups +need to be replaced it is best to burn a new plate to the strap +without removing the peened cover. This is done by blocking under the +row of plate lugs with metal blocks after cutting off old plate and +cleaning the surface of strap. Insert new plate, the lug of which has +been cut about 1/4 inch short, to allow for new metal. Choosing small +oblong iron blocks of suitable size, build a form about the plate lug +which fits same well. Now with a torch and burning lead fuse the new +plate onto the old strap. When cool remove and test joint by pulling +and slightly twisting the plate at the same time. + +Sometimes one group of a starting and lighting battery may be in +sufficiently good condition to pay to combine it with a new group, but +this condition will very rarely, if ever, be met in farm lighting +cell service. We advise the replacement of the complete cell element +if either group is worn out, for the cost of repairs and of new group +will probably not be warranted by the short additional life which the +remaining old group will give. + +10. Putting Repaired Cell Back into Service. After having finished all +necessary cleaning, replacement, or repairs, remove all old sealing +material, return the element with attached lead cover to the cell jar. +It is not necessary to reseal the cover to the jars this sealing is +essential only for insurance against breakage or leakage in shipment. + +Add through the vent plug opening sufficient cool acid of 1.250 Sp. +Gr. to reestablish the proper electrolyte level, which means that the +electrolyte is brought up to the lower moulded glass ridge near the +top of jar. + +Connect the cell with any other repaired cells and charge at normal +rate already indicated under "charging rates" until dell voltage reads +2.5 or above, at 80°. The positive to cadmium voltage should be at +least 0.10 volts less than cell voltage itself. When this condition is +obtained cell may be replaced in operating circuit with others and +should give satisfactory service. + + +EXIDE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES. + + +Exide Farm lighting Batteries are made with sealed glass jars, open +glass jars, and sealed rubber jars, each of which will be described. + + +Batteries with Sealed Glass Jars. + + +Two types with sealed glass jars are made, these being the Delco Light +Type, and the Exide type. + +1. Delco-Light Type. This type is shown in Fig. 294. The cell shown is +a pilot cell, there being two of these in each battery as explained +below. + +These cells are made in two sizes, the KXG-7, 7 plate, 80 ampere hour +cell, and the KXG-13, a 13 plate, 160 ampere hour cell. These cells +are assembled into a 32 volt, 16 cell battery, or a 110 volt, 56 cell +battery. + +The plate groups are supported from the cover, the weight being +carried by the wooden cover supports as shown in Fig. 294. The strap +posts are threaded, and are clamped to the cover and supports by means +of alloy nuts, just as is the case in Exide automobile batteries. + +A hard rubber supporting rod or lock pin extending across the bottoms +of the plates holds the separators in position and prevents the plates +from flaring out at the bottom. A soft rubber bumper fastened on each +end of the rod acts as a cushion to prevent jar breakage in shipping. + +The hard rubber cover overlaps the flanged top of the jar, to which it +is sealed with special compound. + + +Battery Gauges and Instruments for Testing. + + +Every set of Delco-Light batteries has either one or two cells +equipped with a pilot ball. Such a cell is known as a PILOT CELL. Fig. +294. + +Pilot Cells are used to indicate to the USER the approximate state of +charge or discharge of the battery. + +The pilot ball is a battery gauge which is UP or DOWN, depending upon +the state of charge of the battery. + +Very high temperature affects the operation of the pilot ball. This +accounts for-the fact that occasionally a battery will be charged and +the pilot ball will be at the bottom of the pocket. A few hours later, +after the electrolyte has cooled, the pilot ball will rise to the top. + +We urge that the user be made to feel that the pilot ball is an +excellent gauge and a good signal to watch in connection with the care +and operation of his Delco-Light plant and battery. (Further mention +will be made of the pilot ball in connection with the subject of +proper operation.) + +It is necessary that the maximum specific gravity of pilot cells be as +near 1.220 as possible. Any great variation higher or lower will +affect the operation of the pilot balls. Therefore, every effort +should be made to adjust the maximum specific gravity of pilot cells +to 1.220 when placed in service. + +Batteries equipped with one pilot cell contain a white pilot ball +which will be up when the specific gravity of the electrolyte is +approximately 1.185. This ball will drop DOWN when the specific +gravity falls a little below 1.185. + +In other words, the pilot ball will float at a specific gravity of +1:185 or higher, and will sink at a specific gravity lower than 1.185. + +Therefore, when the pilot ball is UP, the battery is more than half +charged. When the pilot ball is DOWN, the battery is more than half +discharged. + +Batteries equipped with two pilot cells have one cell which contains a +white ball and the other cell a white ball with a blue band. + +The plain white ball will be UP when the specific gravity is +approximately 1.175. The blue band ball will be UP when the specific +gravity is approximately 1.205. + +When both balls are UP, the battery is charged. When DOWN, the battery +is discharged. The blue band ball will drop soon after the battery +starts on discharge, or, in other words, when the specific gravity +falls below 1.205. The white ball will remain UP until the specific +gravity falls below 1.175. + + +The Ampere-Hour Meter + + +The ampere-hour meter, Fig. 304, is an instrument for indicating to +the user the state of charge of the battery at all times and serves +to-stop the plant automatically so equipped, when the battery is +charged. (Further mention will be made of the ampere hour meter on +page 471.) + +In order to check the speed of the ampere-hour meter, use the +following rule: On charge, the armature disc should give 16 +revolutions in 30 seconds, with a charging rate of 15 amperes; on +discharge, the armature disc should give 20 revolutions in 30 seconds, +with a discharging rate of 15 amperes. + + [Fig. 304 Delco-Light Ampere-Hour Meter] + + +Hydrometers + + +The standard hydrometer for service men is known as the Type V-2B. + +A special type hydrometer showing three colored bands in place of +numbers has been designed for users. + +The bands are red, green and black. When the hydrometer test shows the +bottom of the red band in the electrolyte, the battery, whether in +glass or rubber jar, is discharged. When the top of the green band is +out of the electrolyte, the glass jar battery is charged. The top of +the black band out of the electrolyte indicates the rubber jar battery +is charged. + + +When and How to Charge Battery + + +Plants with Average Loads + + +Loads of legs than ten (10) amperes can be taken directly from the +battery, until: + +1. The large hand on the ampere-hour meter reaches 12, or + +2. Both pilot balls are down, or + +3. Hydrometer test shows bottom of red band in the electrolyte. + +If any or all of the three gauges listed above show the battery +discharged, the plant should be started and operated continuously +until the battery is charged, as indicated by: + +1. Ampere-hour meter hand at FULL, or + +2. Both pilot balls UP, or + +3. Hydrometer test shows top of FULL band out of electrolyte. + +(NOTE: Any one or all of the above three items may indicate battery +charged. Meter hand at FULL would necessitate both balls UP. If both +balls are not up, set hand back and charge to bring them up; then set +hand at FULL.) + +Should the user be operating for two or three hours with a seven or +eight-ampere load, it would be more efficient to run the plant to +carry this load. This only applies for those cases where the battery +is partly discharged. + + +Carry Heavy Loads Greater Than 10 Amperes. + + +If there is a constant load of 10 amperes or more, the plant should be +started up when the heavy load comes on. When the heavy load is off, +the plant may be stopped, but it would be entirely satisfactory to +allow the plant to continue to run until "Charged," as indicated by: + +1. Ampere-hour meter hand reaches FULL, or + +2. Both pilot balls are UP, or + +3. Hydrometer test shows top of FULL band out of electrolyte. + +In any case, plant should be run until battery is "Charged" at least +once a week. + +Always Start Charging When Battery Gauges Indicate Battery Discharged. + +On ampere-hour meter plants, when the hand is at FULL, the plant +cannot be operated on account of the ignition circuit being broken. + +In such cases allow load to be taken from the battery until the hand +travels back sufficiently to allow the plant to run. + +Occasionally the plant and battery are used to carry continuous loads +of from 10 to 15 amperes each night, with practically no day load. +This condition necessitates running the plant to carry the load, but +at the same time the battery is continually receiving from 10 to 15 +amperes charge, with the result that the battery may receive too much +charging. This would be indicated by the battery bubbling freely every +time the plant is operated. To prevent this condition, the user should +be instructed to carry the load off the battery frequently enough to +prevent continual bubbling. + + +Where Small Load Is Used. + + +There are many installations where the battery capacity is sufficient +to last several weeks. On installations of this kind it is advisable +to charge the battery to FULL at least once a week. + +The dealer or service man should use his own judgment on the preceding +instructions as to which is best suited for the different conditions +encountered. + +Regularly on the first of each month, regardless of whether or not the +battery has been used, a special charge, called the Equalizing Charge, +should be given. This charge should be given as follows: The battery +should be charged until EACH cell is bubbling freely from top to +bottom on surface of the outside negative plates and then the charge +should be continued for TWO MORE HOURS. + +The monthly equalizing charge is a NECESSARY precautionary measure to +insure that the user will bring each cell in the battery up to maximum +gravity at least once a month. It also provides a means on the +ampere-hour meter plants to set the ampere-hour meter hand at FULL +when the battery is FULL. + +The users should be cautioned to inform the service man or dealer +immediately if any cell fails to bubble at the end of an equalizing +charge, when all others are bubbling freely. This will enable the +service man to inspect such cells for trouble and remedy same before +the trouble becomes serious. (See further information under inspection +and repairs.) + + +INSPECTION TRIPS + + +Undercharging or injurious sulphation is the most common trouble +encountered. Undercharging causes the plates to blister and bulge, and +in place of good gray edges on the negative plates and good brown +color edges on the positive plates, the edges will show a faded color, +with very little brown color showing on the edges of the positive +plates. + +Overcharging is not so evident on inspection, except that in such +cases the active material from the positive plates, which is brown in +color, will be thrown to the bottom as sediment more rapidly than the +sediment would accumulate due to normal wear. + +Heavy usage on a battery will also cause considerable sediment in the +bottom of the cells, so that it is necessary to investigate carefully +whether it is overcharging or overwork. A few questions as to method +of operation and load requirements will aid in deciding the cause of +excessive sediment. (See When and How to Charge, page 468.) + + +Sediment Space Filled. + + +When the space below the plates is filled up with sediment and +touching the plates, the cell becomes short-circuited and will +deteriorate very rapidly. It will be noticed, however, that the +sediment is heaped in the middle of the cell. If the cells are +unbolted and unshaken, it will level the sediment and leave a space +between the sediment and plates. It is very important that the +sediment be shaken down before the cell becomes short-circuited. This +will very often prolong the life of the battery a number of months. +When the sediment space is completely filled, approximately all the +active material will be out of the positive plates. + +A thorough study should be made as to the general condition of the +battery and method of operation before forming an opinion or +suggesting any change in method of operation. + + +Check Ampere-Hour Meters + + +On plants which have ampere-hour meters, the meter should be checked +as to its speed on discharge, and also check position of the meter +hand at the time of inspection, to see if it checks with the specific +gravity and the pilot balls. (See Ampere Hour Meter, page 467.) + +It will generally be found that when a battery is sulphated, it is +operating in very low specific gravity, or, in other words, the +charges have not been carried far enough to drive all the acid out of +the plates. + +A battery that is not receiving quite enough charge may not as a whole +become "sulphated," but several cells might become considerably weaker +than the others and become "sulphated," causing trouble in these +particular cells. Such cells will not bubble freely, or possibly not +at all, when the other cells are bubbling freely. Therefore, a few +questions to the user will generally help in locating the low cells. + +Cells that are in trouble, or which soon will be, can very easily be +picked out by making a few tests on the battery. Therefore, on all +inspections, regardless of the age of a battery, it is suggested that +the following tests be made: Take a specific gravity reading of all +cells and note if there are any cells much lower than the others. Amy +cells having a specific gravity of 30 points lower than the average +will generally be found to be in trouble, unless these cells happen to +be low from having had spillage in shipment, replaced with water. +(This condition, however, should not exist in future installations if +the spillage is properly taken care of, as has been explained on page +482.) + + +Voltage Readings + + +After taking a specific gravity reading, a voltage reading of each +cell should be taken. Voltage readings taken on open circuit are of no +value, so while taking these readings the battery should be on +discharge, having at least a discharge of 15 amperes. A good way to +get this discharge is to hold the starting switch in and set mixing +valve lever at lean point or wide open. + +A low or defective cell will show a voltage reading .10 to .20 volts +lower than the other cells on discharge, while a reversed cell will +show a reading in the reversed direction when on discharge, especially +on heavy discharge. + +The voltage readings are a sure check if taken in connection with the +specific gravity. When you have low specific gravity and low voltage +on the same cells, it is a sure indication of low cells. These cells +should be inspected for the probable cause of their being low. +Shorting of the lugs at bottom of plates and moss bridging across at +bottom of the elements, or possibly a split separator, will generally +be the main trouble. + +When any of these conditions exist, it is best to take the low cells +back to your shop for repairs. + +When there is absolutely no indication why the cells are low, they can +be cut out of the battery on discharge and put in on charge, until +they come up. + +The following is a good example of readings taken on a battery with a +10-ampere discharge and having four low cells, 4, 8, 11 and 16. The +battery had been giving poor service, due to insufficient charging: + +Cell No. Specific Gravity Volts +1 1.200 1.98 +2 1.180 1.95 +3 1.205 1.98 +4 1.150 1.75 +5 1.190 1.95 +6 1.195 1.98 +7 1.200 1.98 +8 1.130 1.70 +9 1.200 1.95 +10 1.205 1.98 +11 1.100 1.40 +12 1.190 1.95 +13 1.180 1.95 +14 1.195 1.98 +15 1.190 1.95 +16 0.000 zero or + reversal + + +The main thing to consider in checking voltage readings is the +variation from the average. The average voltage readings will vary, +depending on the state of charge of the battery when the readings are +taken. + + +REPAIRS + + +To repair, the following equipment is necessary: + +1. Portable lead burning outfit. +2. A suitable blow torch. +3. Standard sealing nut wrench. +4. File (shoemaker's rasp). +5. Pair of pliers. +6. Putty knife. +7. Pair of tin snips. +8. Wooden blocks to support elements while being worked upon. +9. Good supply of battery parts consisting of: + KXG-13 Glass jars + KXG-13 Pilot jars + KXG-13 Positive groups + KXG-13 Negative groups + KXG-13 Round rods + KXG-13 Vent plugs + Sealing nuts + Rubber gaskets + Wood separators + KXG-13 Rubber covers + KXG-7 Round rods + Lead pins + Carboy electrolyte (including retainer). + KXG-7 Pilot jars + KXG-7 Glass jars + KXG-7 Positive groups + KXG-7 Negative groups + Outside negative plates + KXG-7 Rubber covers + Emergency repair straps + + +Disassembling a Cell + + +The glass jar battery covers are sealed to the jars by sealing +compound, which may be softened very easily with a blow-torch. + +When a blow-torch or an open flame is used for softening the sealing +compound, the vent plug MUST be removed before applying a flame. It is +also important to blow into the vent after the plug has been removed +in order to expel any gas that may have collected in the space above +the electrolyte in the cell. + +If the gas is held in place by leaving the vent plug in, it is apt to +explode when an open flame or intense heat is applied to the cover., + +Removing covers may be greatly facilitated by suspending the cell by +the terminals, as shown in Fig. 305. Care should be taken to make this +suspension so that the bottom of the jar will not be more than two +inches above the table. A pad of excelsior should be placed under it +to avoid breaking the glass jar when it drops. + + [Fig. 305 Softening sealing compound, Delco-Light cell] + +After the sealing compound has been sufficiently softened, the cover +may be loosened by inserting a hot putty knife, as shown in Fig. 306, +There is no danger of breaking the cover by this operation if the +cover has been sufficiently warmed. After the jar of electrolyte has +dropped, the element should be removed from the jar and carefully +placed across the top of it, so that the solution upon the plates will +drain back into the jar. (See Fig. 307.) + + [Fig. 306 Removing Delco-Light cell cover] + + [Fig. 307 Draining element, Delco-Light cell] + + [Fig. 308 Removing cover of Delco-Light cell] + + [Fig. 309 Removing lock pin, Delco-Light cell] + +After element has drained, place on wooden blocks, as shown in Fig. +308, and remove cover. Clean the sealing compound from the cover and +jar immediately with a putty knife. Turn element upside down with +posts through holes in bench and remove lead pin and rubber bumper and +withdraw, lock pin. (Fig. 309.) The separators may then be withdrawn +from the group. (Fig. 310.) + + [Fig. 310 Removing separatots, Delco-Light cell] + + [Fig. 311 Assembling separators, Delco-Light cell] + + +Assembling + + +Place the positive and negative groups upside down with posts through +holes in bench and slide in separators. The wood and rubber separators +are inserted as follows: The rubber separator is placed against the +grooved side of the wood separator, and the two are then slipped +between the negative and positive plates with the rubber separator +next to the positive plate. (See Fig. 311.) + + +Inserting Locking Pin + + +A rubber bumper is pinned on one end of the lock pin by means of a +lead pin, and the lock pin is then slipped into place with the lock +pin insulating washer placed between the outside negative plates and +the wood separators. (See Fig. 312.) + +A rubber bumper is then slipped over the other end of the lock pin and +secured by a lead pin. + +Place element on wooden blocks and fasten cover, as shown in Fig. 313. + + [Fig. 313 Fastening cover, Delco-Light cell] + + [Fig. 314 Preparing cover for sealing, Delco-Light cell] + + +Sealing Covers + + +Be sure all old sealing compound and traces of electrolyte are removed +from the cover. Heat sealing compound until it can be handled like +putty, roll out into a strip about 1/2 inch in diameter, place strip +of compound around inside edge of cover (Fig. 314) and heat to melting +point with blow-torch. The top of jar should also be heated to insure +a tight seal. Compound can be melted in a suitable vessel and a 1/2 +inch strip poured around cover. + +When sealing compound and jar have been heated sufficiently, turn jar +upside down (Fig. 315) and carefully place jar over element and press +gently into compound. (Do not press hard.) Immediately place jar and +element upright, and press cover firmly into place. (Press hard.) +Finally, tighten sealing nuts. The cell is now ready for the +electrolyte. + + [Fig. 315 Sealing jar of Delco-Light cell] + + +Filling Cell with Electrolyte + + +Repaired cells should be filled with electrolyte of 1.200 specific +gravity, or with water, as the case may require. + +Standard Delco-Light electrolyte of 1.220 specific gravity may be +purchased from the Delco Light distributor. The 1.220 electrolyte +should be reduced to 1.200 by adding a very small amount of distilled +water. This should be thoroughly mixed by pouring the solution from +one battery jar into another. The 1.200 specific gravity electrolyte +may then be added to the newly assembled cell until flush with the +water line. + + +Charging + + +The completed KXG-13 cell should be placed on a 12-ampere charge and +kept on charge until maximum gravity has been reached. A KXG-7 cell +should be charged at a 6-ampere rate. + + +Adjusting Gravity of Electrolyte + + +If the maximum gravity is above 1.220, draw off some of the +electrolyte and refill to water line with distilled water. The charge +should then be continued for at least one hour to thoroughly mix the +electrolyte before taking another hydrometer reading. It may be +necessary to repeat this operation. + +If the maximum gravity is below 1.220, pour off the electrolyte into a +glass jar or a suitable receptacle, and then refill the cell with +1.220 electrolyte. Charge for one hour to thoroughly mix the solution +before checking readings. + +NOTE: Gravity readings in adjusting the electrolyte should always be +taken in connection with thermometer readings, making necessary +temperature corrections. This is particularly important in adjusting +electrolyte in pilot cells. + + +HOW TO REPAIR DELCO-LIGHT CELLS + + +Treating Broken Cells + + +Whenever a shipment of batteries is received in which any of the jars +have been broken, the first thing to do is to carefully remove the +elements from the broken jars to prevent damage to the plates or +separators. These elements should be placed in distilled water to +prevent further drying. The plates will not be damaged in any way and +can be restored to a healthy condition by charging in 1.200 specific +gravity at a 12-ampere rate for the 13-plate cell or, 6-ampere rate +for the 7-plate cell, until maximum gravity is reached. (See Charging +and Adjustment of Electrolyte, explained on page 481.) + + +Treating Spilled Cells + + +If the spillage is more than one inch below the water level, it should +be replaced by electrolyte of 1.200 specific gravity and charged to +maximum gravity. + + +Treating Badly Sulphated Cells That Have Been in Service + + +When cells are removed from an installation to make repairs, they are +usually badly sulphated, which means that considerable acid is in the +plates. + +In charging such cells, use distilled water in place of electrolyte, +as this will allow the acid to come out of the plates more readily. +The KXG-13 cells should be charged at about 12 amperes and the KXG-7 +cells at 6 amperes. Cells badly sulphated when charged at the low rate +will require from 50 to 100 hours to reach maximum gravity. Extreme +cases will require even longer charging. + +In case it is impossible to read the gravity after the cells have been +on charge a sufficient length of time, pour out the solution and use +1.220 specific gravity. + +The charge should then be continued further to insure that maximum +gravity has been reached. + +CAUTION: Should the temperature of the electrolyte approach 110° F., +the charging rate should be reduced or the charge stopped until the +cell has cooled. + + +Treating Reversed Cells + + +A complete battery may be reversed if the battery is completely +discharged and its voltage is not sufficient to overcome any residual +magnetism the generator might have. Under such conditions the negative +plates will begin to discolor brown and the positive turn gray. Such a +case would be extremely rare. + +The remedy is to first completely discharge the cells to get rid of +the charge in the wrong direction. Then short-circuit them. (Connect a +wire across the terminals.) Then charge them in the right direction at +a low rate. (12 amperes for a KXG-13 cell, or 6 amperes for a KXG-7 +cell.) Charge until the specific gravity reaches a maximum. If the +battery is operated reversed for any length of time, the negatives +will throw off their active material and become useless. + +A single cell may become reversed by gradually slipping behind the +rest of the cells in a set, due to insufficient charging, until it +becomes so low that it will reverse on each discharge. This condition +cannot be corrected by giving the regular charge, but it will be +necessary to give an equalizing charge, continuing the charge until +the cell is in normal condition. (Be sure to make temperature +corrections when taking hydrometer readings.) If the cell appears to +require an excessive amount of charge to restore it to condition, it +should be removed and taken to the repair shop for a separate charge. + +If the cell has been allowed to operate in a reversed condition to +such an extent that the entire material of the negative plates has +turned brown, both positive and negative groups should be discarded. + + +Removing Impurities + + +Impurities, such as iron, salt (chlorine) or oil, may accidentally get +into a cell, due to careless handling of distilled water. + +Iron is dissolved by sulphuric acid and the positive plates become +affected, change color (dirty yellow) and wear rapidly. The cell +becomes different from the rest in gravity, voltage and bubbling. The +remedy is to discard the electrolyte as soon as possible, flush the +plates and separators in several changes of water, thoroughly wash the +jar, use new electrolyte and then proceed in same manner as explained +for the treatment of badly sulphated cells, page 482. + +Chlorine has an effect about as described for iron, and is evident by +the odor of chlorine gas. The remedy is the same as for iron. + +Oil in the electrolyte, if allowed to get into the pores of the +plates, will fill them and lower the capacity very much. It affects +negative plates much more than positives. Probably the only remedy in +this case is new plates. + +Impurities of any nature should be removed as quickly as possible. + + +Clearing High Resistance Short Circuits + + +A high resistance short is caused by the sediment falling from the +plates and lodging between the positive and negative lugs. As a rule +this condition will occur only when severe sulphation is present in +the plates. + +A cell in this condition can be repaired by removing the element and +clearing the short circuit. The wood separators should then be +withdrawn and replaced by new ones. Lock pin insulating washers. +should be installed land the element reassembled in the jar and +charged to maximum gravity. + + +Clearing Lug Shorts + + +Short-circuited lugs are caused by excessive sulphation. The outside +negative bulges and the bottom lug bends over and touches the adjacent +positive lug. This can be remedied by removing both outside negative +plates and burning on new plates which have already been charged and +inserting lock pin insulating washers. + + +Putting Repaired Cells Back in Service + + +When placing a new or repaired cell in a battery which is in service, +connect in the cell at the beginning of a charge. This will insure +that the new or repaired cell is started off in good condition, +because this charge is of the nature of an initial charge to these +cells. + + +Charging Outside Negative Plates + + +Individual negative plates are always received dry, which makes it +necessary to charge them before using. The best way to charge such +plates is as follows: Set up 7 loose negative plates in a KXG-13 jar +together with a good positive group, using KXG separators to prevent +the plates touching. Then stretch a piece of wire solder across the +lugs at the top of the negative plates and solder the wire to the +plates. Fig. 316. The jar may then be filled with 1200 specific +gravity and the plates charged at a 12-ampere rate until maximum +gravity is obtained. Never use negative plates unless they have been +treated as described above. After the charge is completed, the +negative plates may be placed in distilled water and kept until ready +for use. Always be sure to give a charge to maximum gravity after +burning on new negative plates to an element. + + [Fig. 316 Preparing outside negatives for charging] + + +Pressing Negative Plates + + +After badly sulphated cells are recharged, it is sometimes advisable +to remove the elements and, press the negative plates, as explained on +page 351. Care should be taken to prevent the negative plates from +drying out while making repairs, in order to avoid the long charge +necessary for dried negative plates. + +The battery should be charged to maximum gravity before attempting to +press the plates. + +It is not necessary and will do no good to press the positive plates. + +In some cases the active material may be nearly all out of the outside +negative plates and the inside negatives may be in good condition, in +which case new charged plates should be burned on. (Fig. 322.) + + +Salvaging Replaced Cells + + +When it has been necessary to replace cells which have been in +service, the elements can very often be saved and assembled again and +used as replacement cells in batteries which are several years old. In +no case should the cells be used as new cells. + +The positive plates may be allowed to dry out, but the negatives +should be kept in distilled water and not allowed to dry out in the +least. They should not be kept this way indefinitely, but should be +assembled and charged as soon as possible. + +Do not attempt to repair groups or plates which have lost as much as +half of the active material in wear, or which have the active material +disintegrated and falling out. Such plates should not be used. This +does not apply to small bits of active material knocked out +mechanically and amounting to an extremely small percentage of the +whole. Abnormal color indicates possible impurity, and such plates +should be washed and used with caution. Badly cracked or broken plates +should be replaced with new plates or plates from other groups. + +Before new negative plates are used they should be fully charged. (See +Charging Negative Plates, page 484.) + +Always use new wood separators when assembling repaired cells. + +When cells have been operated reversed in polarity to such an extent +that the active material of the negative plates has turned brown, both +positive and negative groups may have to be replaced. + + +Repairing Lead Parts + + +The portable carbon burning outfit used for battery repairs is +operated from the battery itself, making it possible to make repairs +at the user's residence without using a gas flame. + +This outfit can be secured from the Delco-Light Company, Dayton, Ohio, +and consists of a carbon holder with cable, clamp, and one-fourth inch +carbon rods. Six cells are usually required to properly heat the +carbon. If it is completely discharged an outside source must be used. +For this purpose a six-volt automobile battery is suitable, or a tray +of demonstrating batteries, one terminal being connected to the +connection to be burned, the other to the cable of the burning tool. A +little experience will soon demonstrate the number of cells necessary +to give a satisfactory heat. The cable is connected by means of the +clamp to a cell in the battery, the required number of cells away from +the joint to be burned. Care should be taken that contact is made by +the clamp, the lead being scraped clean before the connection is made. +The carbon should be sharpened to a long point like a lead pencil and +should project not more than 2 inches from the holder. (Fig. 317.) + + [Fig. 317 Repairing broken post, Delco-Light cell] + +After being used a short time, the carbon will not heat properly, due +to a film of scale formed on the surface. This should be cleaned off +with a file. + +In case of lead burning, additional lead to make a flush joint should +not be added until the metal of the pieces to be joined has melted. +The carbon should be moved around to insure a solid joint at all +points. + +In case a post is broken off under the cover, proceed as follows: To +make repairs take an old group and cut off the post about one-half way +down. Saw off the post to be repaired to such a length that when the +new post is burned on the length of the post will be approximately the +same length as the original post. + + +Repairing Broken Posts. + + +Make a half circle mould out of a piece of tin or galvanized iron, as +shown in Fig. 317. Burn solid the side of the post facing up, file it +around and then turn the group over, place the form on the burned side +and proceed to complete the burning operation. + +Caution: + +1. Always use clean lead. + +2. Do not clean the lead and let it stand for any length of time +before starting to burn. If it is allowed to stand it will oxidize and +prevent a good burning operation. + +3. Burn with an are and not with a red hot carbon. + + +Burning on Straps + + +Place the strap to be burned in a vise and split the end through the +center and then bend the two halves over to form a foot, as shown in +Fig. 318. Make a mould out of a piece of tin or galvanized iron and +place this mould around the post to which this strap is to be burned. +(Fig. 319.) Then proceed to burn the post and strap together. + + [Fig. 318 Splitting end of strap, Delco-Light cell] + +When a union is made between the strap and the post a small amount of +new clean lead should be burned on the top of the foot to reinforce +this point. Care should be taken not to get the mould too high, as +this will cause trouble in getting the carbon down to the foot and the +post. + + + [Fig. 319 Burning on negative strap, Delco-Light cell] + + [Fig. 320 Auxiliary strap, Delco-Light cell] + + [Fig. 321 Positioning auxiliary strap, Delco-Light cell] + + +How to Eliminate Burning on Straps by Use of an Auxiliary Strap + + +A very good way to repair broken straps without the burning operation +is to use the auxiliary strap shown in Fig. 320. This strap is slipped +over the post of the terminal or strap which is broken and the sealing +nut is then clamped down on the strap, as shown in Fig. 321. These +straps may be obtained from the Delco-Light Distributors or from the +Delco-Light factory at Dayton, Ohio. + + +Burning on New Plates + + + [Fig. 322 Burning on outside negative plate, Delco-Light cell] + +When it is necessary to burn on new plates, carefully clean with a +file the lead on both the plate and the common strap to which all +plates of the group are attached. Block up the plate with thin boards +or wood separators until it is spaced the proper distance from the +adjacent plate. Care should be taken to see that the side and bottom +edge of the plate to be burned on is in line with the other plates of +the group. Proceed to burn on the plate by drawing a small blaze or +are and do not attempt to burn with just a glowing carbon. (Fig. 322.) + +If only a glowing carbon is used the result will be a smeary mass and +in the majority of cases will not hold, due to the fact that it is not +welded but simply attached in one or two points. + +The principle of lead burning is to weld or burn two parts into one +solid mass and not merely attach one to the other. + + +Keeping Wood Separators In Stock + + +No wood separators should be used except those furnished by the +Delco-Light Company. These should be kept in distilled water, to which +has been added 1.220 electrolyte in the proportion of one part to ten +parts of water. It is advisable whenever possible to use new +separators when making repairs on a cell. Separators which have been +in service are liable to be damaged by handling. + + +Freezing Temperature of Electrolyte + + +The freezing temperatures of electrolyte in the Delco-Light batteries +depends upon the specific gravity of the battery. The Delco-Light +battery fully charged, with a specific gravity of 1.220, should not +freeze above a temperature of 30 degrees below zero. Since, however, +the freezing point rises very rapidly with a decrease in specific +gravity, special care should be taken to keep batteries charged when +temperatures below zero are encountered. The following table shows +freezing temperatures of several different gravities of electrolyte. + +Specific Gravity Freezing Point +---------------- -------------- +1.100 19° F. above zero. +1.150 5° F. above zero. +1.175 6° F. below zero. +1.200 16° F. below zero. +1.220 31° F. below zero. + +At the temperature given, the electrolyte does not freeze solid, but +forms a slushy mass of crystals, which does not always result in jar +breakage. + + +Care of Cells in Stock + + +Frequently a Dealer or Distributor will have several sets of new +batteries in stock for five or six months. In this case, the cells +should be given a freshening charge before putting into service. This +charge should consist of charging the cells to maximum gravity. + +Cells received broken in transit or cells sent in for repairs should +be repaired and charged as soon as possible and put into service +immediately. This eliminates the possibility of the cells standing +idle over a long period in which they would need a freshening charge +before they could be used. + +However, if such cells must be kept in stock, they can be maintained +in a healthy condition by keeping on charge at a one fifth ampere rate +for 13-plate cells and one-tenth ampere rate for 7-plate cells. + + +Taking Batteries Out of Commission + + +If a battery is not to be used at all for a period not longer than +about 9 months, it can be left idle if it is first treated as follows: +Add sufficient water to bring the electrolyte up to the water line in +all cells and then give an equalizing charge, continuing the charge +until the specific gravity of each cell is at a maximum, five +consecutive hourly readings showing no rise in gravity. As soon as +this charge is completed, take out the battery fuse and open up one or +two of the connections between cells so that no current can be taken +from the battery. Have vent plugs in place to minimize evaporation. + +If the battery is to be taken out of commission for a longer time than +9 months, the battery should be fully charged as above and the +electrolyte poured off into suitable glass or porcelain receptacles. +The plates should immediately be covered with water for a few hours to +prevent the negatives heating, after which the separators should be +removed, the water poured out of the jars, and the positive and +negative groups placed back in the jar for storage. Examine the +separators. If they are cracked or split they should be thrown away. +If in good condition they should be stored for further use in a +non-metallic receptacle and covered with water, to which has been +added electrolyte of 1.220 specific gravity, in the proportion of one +part electrolyte to ten of water by volume. + + +Putting Batteries Into Commission After Being Out of Service + + +When putting batteries into commission again, if the electrolyte has +not been withdrawn, all that is necessary is to add water to the cells +if needed, replace connections, and give an equalizing charge. + +If the electrolyte has been withdrawn and battery disassembled, it +should be reassembled, taking care not to use cracked, split or +dried-out separators, and then the cells should be filled with the old +electrolyte, which has been saved, provided no impurity has entered +the electrolyte. After filling, allow the battery to stand for 12 +hours and then charge, using 6 amperes for KXG-7 size and 12 amperes +for the KXG-13 size. Charge at this rate until all cells start gassing +freely or temperature rises to 110° F. Then reduce the charging rate +one-half, and continue at this rate until the specific gravity is at a +maximum, five consecutive hourly readings showing no rise in gravity. +At least 40 hours will be required for this charge. To obtain these +low rates with the Delco-Light plant, lights or other +current-consuming devices must be turned on while charging. + + +General Complaints from Users and How to Handle Them. + + +1. Pilot balls do not come up. + +This condition may be caused by + +(a) Battery discharged. +(b) Weak electrolyte caused by spillage in shipment. +(c) Defective ball. + +Question the user to determine whether the ball will not come up if +the pilot cell is bubbling freely. Weak electrolyte or a defective +ball will require a service trip to determine the one which is +responsible for the ball not rising. (See page 470.) + +2. Lights dim-must charge daily. + +This condition may be caused by + +(a) Discharged battery. +(b) Loose dirty connections in battery or line. +(c) Low cells in battery. + +The user should be questioned to determine whether the battery is +being charged sufficiently. In case the user is positive the battery +is charged, the next probable trouble would be that there were some +loose or dirty connections in either plant or battery. Have the user +check for loose connections. Should it be necessary to make an +inspection trip, instruct the user to give battery an equalizing +charge so the battery will be fully charged when the inspection is +made. + +Low cells can be checked by asking the user if all of the cells bubble +freely when equalizing charge is given. In case user claims several +cells fail to bubble, an inspection trip would be necessary to +determine the trouble. (See page 470.) + +3. Cells bubbling when on discharge. + +This complaint would indicate a reversed cell. (See page 483.) + +4. Cells overflowing on charge. + +This would mean that the cells were filled too high above water lines. + +5. Engine cranks slowly but does not fire. + +This would indicate over-discharged battery. Explain to user how to +start plant under this condition. + +6. Plant will not crank. + +This might be caused by + +(a) Blown battery fuse. +(b) Battery over-discharged. +(c) Loose or broken connection on battery or switchboard. + + +OTHER EXIDE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES + + +The Exide type is shown in Figure 296. The plates are held in position +both by the cover and by soft rubber support pieces in the bottom of +the jar. The support pieces are provided with holes in which +projections on the bottom of the plates are inserted. The cover is of +heavy moulded glass. The separators are of grooved wood in combination +with a slotted rubber sheet (Fig. 297). The strap posts are threaded +and are clamped to the cover by means of alloy nuts. The cover +overlaps the top of the jar to which it is sealed with sealing +compound. The method of sealing and unsealing is practically the same +as in the Exide Delco-Light Type. + + +Batteries with Open Glass Jars + + +Batteries with open glass jars, in addition to the conducting lug, +have two hanging lugs for each plate. The plates are hung from the jar +walls by these hanging lugs, as shown in Figs. 323 and 324. The plate +straps, instead of being horizontal are vertical and provided with a +tail so that adjacent cells may be bolted together by bolt connectors +through the end of the tail. + +1. The Exide Cell is shown in Fig. 324. It has a grooved wood +separator between each positive and negative plate. The separators are +kept from floating up by a glass "hold-down" laid across the top. The +separators are provided at the top with a pin which rests on the +adjoining plates. The pins together with the plate glass hold-downs +keep the separators in Position. + +To remove an element it is simply necessary to unbolt the connectors, +remove the glass cover and hold-down and lift wit the element. + +2. The Chloride Accumulator cell is shown in Fig. 323. It differs from +the Exide only in type of plates and separators. The positive plates +are known as Manchester positives and have the active material in the +form of corrugated buttons which are held in a thick grid, as shown in +Fig. 325. The buttons are brown in color, the same as all positive +active material. + +The separators, instead of being grooved wood, am each a sheet of wood +with six dowels pinned to it. + +The element is removed the same as in the Exide type. + + [Fig. 323 Exide chloride accumulator cell with open glass jar, + and Fig. 324 Exide cell with open glass jar] + + +Batteries with Sealed Rubber Jars + + +1. The Exide cell is shown in Fig. 326. It is assembled similar to +Exide starting and lighting batteries, except that the plates are +considerably thicker, wood and rubber separators are used, and the +terminal posts are shaped to provide for bolted instead of burned-on +connection. The method of sealing and unsealing the cells is the same +as in Exide starting and lighting batteries. + +All instructions already given for glass for cells apply to rubber jar +cells except for a few differences in assembling and disassembling. + +Care should be taken to keep the water level at least 1/2 inch above +plates at all times as the evaporation is very rapid in rubber jar +cells. + +The temperature should be watched on charging to prevent overheating. +Never allow temperature to go above 110° F. + +Unlike the glass jar cells the sediment space in the rubber jar is not +sufficient to take care of all the active material in the positive +plates. On repairs, therefore, always clean out the sediment and +prevent premature short circuits. + + [Fig. 325 Manchester positive plates, and + Fig. 326 Exide cell with sealed rubber jar] + + +WESTINGHOUSE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES + + +Jars. Westinghouse Farm Lighting Battery jars are made of glass, with +a 5/16 inch wall. The jars are pressed with the supporting ribs for +the elements an integral part from a mass of molten glass. A heavy +flange is pressed around the upper edge to strengthen the jar. + +Top Construction. A sealed-in cover is used similar to that used in +starting and lighting batteries. The opening around the post hole is +sealed with compound. + +Plates. Pasted plates are used. The positives are 1/4 inch thick, and +the negatives 3/16 inch. Posts are 13/16 inch in diameter. + +Separators. A combination of wood and perforated rubber sheets is used. + + +Opening and Setting-Up Westinghouse Farm Lighting Batteries + + + [Fig. 327 Westinghouse farm lighting cell] + +It is preferable that the temperature never exceed 100 deg. Fahrenheit +nor fall below 10 deg. in the place where the battery is set up. If +the temperature is liable to drop below 10 degrees the battery should +be kept in a fully charged condition. + +1. Remove all excelsior and the other packing material from the top of +the cells. Take cells out carefully and set on the floor. Do not drop +or handle roughly. Be sure to remove the lead top connectors from each +compartment. + +2. Cells should be placed 1/4 inch apart. Also, cells should be placed +alternately so that positive post of one cell is adjacent to negative +post of the next cell. Positive post has "V" shape shoulder and the +negative post has a square shoulder. + +3. Grease all posts, straps and nuts with vaseline. + +4. Connect positive posts of each cell to negative post of adjacent +cell, using top connectors furnished. Top connectors are made so as to +fit when connection is made between positive post of one cell and +negative post of next cell. Use long connector between end cells of +upper and lower shelves. + +5. With all connections between cells in position, join the remaining +positive post with a connection marked "Positive" leading from the +electric generator. Do likewise with the remaining negative post. + +6. If liquid level in any cell is 1 inch or more below the "Liquid +Line" on side of glass jar, some liquid has been spilled and must be +replaced. This should be done by an experienced person. + +7. Immediately after installation operate electric generator and +charge battery until gas bubbles rise freely through the liquid in all +cells. A reading with the hydrometer syringe which is furnished with +the battery should be taken, When the hydrometer float reads between +1.240 and 1.250, the battery is fully charged. + +8. The time required to complete the charging operation mentioned +above may vary from one to several hours, depending upon the length of +time the battery has been in transit. During the charge the +temperature of the cells should not be permitted to rise above 110 +deg. Fahrenheit. If this condition occurs discontinue the charge or +decrease the charge rate until cells have cooled off. + +9. When charge is complete replace vent plugs. + + +The Relation Between Various Sizes of Westinghouse Farm Light +Batteries and Work to be Done + + +The size of the battery furnished with complete farm lighting units +vary greatly. Sometimes the battery size is varied with the size of +the engine and generator, while again the same size of battery may be +used for several sizes of engines and generators. In making +replacements, while it is always necessary to retain the same number +of cells, it is not necessary to retain the same size of cells. + +Usually increasing the cell size increases the convenience to the +owner and prolongs the life of the battery to an amount which warrants +the higher cost. + +With a larger battery, danger of injury through overcharging is +lessened, the load on the battery is more easily carried and the +engine and generator operate less frequently. + +In order to give an idea of various battery capacities, below is a +table showing the number of 32 volt, 25-watt lamps which may be +lighted for various lengths of time from sixteen cells. The number of +hours shows the length of time that the lamps will operate. + + +Table A + +Type 3 Hours 5 Hours 8 Hours +---- ------- ------- ------- +G-7 22 Lamps 14 Lamps 10 Lamps +G-9 28 Lamps 19 Lamps 13 Lamps +G-11 32 Lamps 24 Lamps 15 Lamps +G-13 41 Lamps 29 Lamps 19 Lamps +G-15 47 Lamps 33 Lamps 22 Lamps +G-17 54 Lamps 38 Lamps 25 Lamps + +Note:--Based on 32-Volt 25-Watt Lamps. + +For example--The table shows opposite G-7 that, with the battery +fully charged, twenty-two lamps may be lighted for three hours, +fourteen lamps for five hours and ten lamps for eight hours, by a +sixteen cell G-7 battery, without operating the engine and generator. + +Motors for operating various household and farm appliances are usually +rated either in horsepower or watts. The following table will give a +comparison between horse-power and watts as well as the number of +25-watt lamps to which these different sizes of motors and appliances +correspond. + + +Table B + +H.P. of Motor No. of Watts Corresponding No. of + 25-Watt Lamps +------------- ------------ -------------------- +1/8 93 4 +1/4 185 7 +1/2 373 15 +3/4 559 22 +1 H.P. 746 30 + +From table B it will be seen, for example, that a one horsepower motor +draws from the battery 373 watts or the same power as do fifteen +25-watt lamps. Then referring to table A, it will be found that a G-11 +battery could operate 15 lamps or this motor alone for 8 hours. + +Due to the fact that a motor or electric appliance may become +overloaded and therefore actually use many more watts than the name +plate indicates, it is not advisable to operate any motor of over 1/4 +H. P. or even an appliance of over 186 watts on the G-13 or smaller +sizes unless the engine and generator are running. + +It is safe, however, to operate motors or other appliances up to 375 +watts on the G-15 or G-17 batteries without operating the engine and +generator. + + +WILLARD FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES + + + [Fig. 328 Willard Farm Lighting Cell] + +The Willard Storage Battery Co. manufactures farm lighting batteries +which use sealed glass jars, or sealed rubber jars. Those using the +sealed glass jars include types PH and PA. The sealed rubber jar +batteries include types EM, EEW, IPR, SMW, and SEW. Both types of +batteries are shipped fully charged and filled with electrolyte, and +also dry, without electrolyte. The following instructions cover the +installation and preparation for service of these batteries. + + +Glass Jar Batteries. Fully Charged and Filled With Electrolyte + + +Each sixteen cell set of batteries is packed in two shipping crates. + +One crate, which is stenciled "No. 1" contains: + +* 8 Cells. +* 18 Bolt Connectors. +* 1 Hydrometer Syringe. +* 1 Instruction Book. + +The other crate which is stenciled "No. 2" contains: 8 Cells + +(NOTE:--If the batteries are re-shipped by the manufacturer or +distributor, care must be exercised to see that they are sent out in +sets.) + + +Unpacking + + +Remove the boards from the tops of the shipping crates and the +excelsior which is above the cells. + +To straighten the long top connector, grasp the strap firmly with the +left hand close to the pillar post and raise the outer end of the +strap until it is in an upright position. Do not make a short bend +near the pillar post. Lift the cells from the case by grasping the +glass jars. Do not attempt to lift them by means of the top connectors. + +Clean the outside of the cells by wiping with a damp cloth. + + +Inspection of Cells. + + +Inspect each cell to see if the level of the electrolyte is at the +proper height. This is indicated on the jar by a line marked LIQUID +LINE. + +If the electrolyte is simply a little low and there is no evidence of +any having been spilled (examine packing material for discoloration) +add distilled or clean rain water to bring the level to the proper +height. + +If the liquid does not cover the plates and the packing material is +discolored, it indicates that some or all of the electrolyte has been +lost from the cell either on account of a cracked jar or overturning +of the battery. + +If only a small quantity of electrolyte is lost through spilling, the +cell should be filled to the proper height with electrolyte of the +same specific gravity as in the other cells. This cell should then be +charged until the gravity has ceased rising. If all the electrolyte is +lost write to the Willard Storage Battery Co., Cleveland, Ohio, for +instructions. + + +Connecting the Cells + + +Each cell of the type PH battery is a complete unit, sealed in a glass +jar. The cells are to be placed side by side on the battery rack so +that the positive terminal of one cell (long connecting strap) can be +connected to the negative terminal (short strap) of the adjacent cell. + +Join the positive terminal of one cell to the negative terminal of the +adjacent cell and continue this procedure until all the cells are +connected together. This will leave one positive and one negative +terminal of the battery to be connected respectively to the positive +and negative wires from the switchboard. The bend in the top connector +should be made about one inch above the pillar post to eliminate the +danger of breakage at the post. + +In tightening the bolts do not use excessive force, as there is +liability of stripping the threads. + +Give the battery a freshening charge before it is put in service. Type +PH cells have a gravity of 1.250 when fully charged, and 1.185 when +discharged. + + +Willard Glass Jar Batteries Shipped "Knock-Down." + + +Each sixteen cell set of Batteries consists of: + + 16 Glass Jars. + 16 Positive Groups. + 16 Negative Groups. + 16 Covers. + 16 Vent Plugs. + 32 Lead Collars. + 32 Lead Keys. + 32 Soft Rubber Washers. + 32 Hard Rubber Rods. + 64 Hard Rubber Nuts. + 18 Bolt Connectors. + Wood Insulators (the quantity depends upon the size of the cells). + Sealing Compound. + Hydrometer. + Instruction Books. + +Electrolyte is not supplied with batteries shipped in a knockdown +condition. + +Examine all packing material carefully and check the parts with the +above list. + + +Cleaning the Glass Jars + + +Wash the glass jars and wipe them dry. + + +Preparing the Covers + + +Wash the covers and scrub around the under edge to remove all dust. +After they are thoroughly dry place them upside down on a bench. + +Melt the sealing compound and pour it around the outer edge to make a +fillet in the groove. + + +Assembling the Element and Separators + + +Place the plates of a positive group between the plates of a negative +group and lay the element thus formed on its edge, as shown in Fig. +329. + + [Fig. 329 Inserting Separators, Willard farm lighting cell] + + [Fig. 330 and Fig. 331 Fastening cover to posts, Willard farm + lighting cell] + +Next insert a wood separator between each of the positive and negative +plates. + +Next insert the hard rubber rods through the holes in the lugs of the +end negative plates, and screw on the nuts. Do not screw the nuts so +tight as to make the plates bulge out at the center. The rod should +project the same amount on each side of the element. + +Place the element in a vertical position. + +The cover can now be placed over the posts. Slip a rubber washer and a +lead collar over each post. The two key holes in the lead collar are +unequal in size. The collar must be placed over the post so that the +end which measures 3/16 inch from the bottom of the holes to the end +of the collar will be next to the rubber washer. Dip the lead key in +water and then put it through the holes, having the straight edge of +the key on the bottom side. This operation can easily be done by using +a pair of tongs (see Figs. 330 and 331) to compress the washer. After +the keys are driven tight they can be cut off with a pair of end +cutters and then smoothed with a file. + + +Sealing Element Assembly in Jar + + + [Fig. 332 Sealing Element Assembly, Willard farm lighting cell] + +Turn the element upside down and place over a block of wood so that +the weight is supported by the cover. (See Fig. 332.) + +Heat the sealing compound by means of a flame (a blow torch will +answer the purpose), and place the jar over the element, as shown in +Fig. 331. The jar should be firmly pressed down into the compound. +With a hot putty knife, clean off any compound which has oozed out of +the joint. The assembled cell can now be turned to an upright position. + +In case it is necessary to remove a cover, heat a wide putty knife and +run it around the edge between the cover and the glass jar. This will +soften the compound so that the cover can be pried off. + +If it is necessary to remove the cover from the posts, the keys must +be driven out by pounding on the small end, as the keys are +tapered-and the holes in the lead collars are unequal in size. + + + +Filling with Electrolyte + + +Fill the cells with 1.260 specific gravity electrolyte at 70° F. to +the LIQUID LINE marked on the glass jars. (About I inch above the top +edge of separators.) Allow the cells to stand 12 hours, and if the +level of the electrolyte has lowered, add sufficient electrolyte to +bring it to the proper height. + + +Initial Charge + + +Connect the positive terminal (long strap) of one cell to the negative +terminal (short strap) of the adjacent cell and continue this +procedure until all the cells are connected together. This will leave +one positive and one negative terminal to be connected respectively to +the positive and negative wires from the charging source. + +The bends in the top terminal connectors should be made about one inch +above the pillar posts to eliminate the danger of breakage at the post. + +In tightening the bolts, do not use excessive force, as there is +liability of stripping the threads. + +After the cells have stood for 12 hours with electrolyte in the jars, +they should be put on charge at the following rates: + +Type Amperes +---- ------- +PH-7 4 +PH-9 5 +PH-11 6-1/4 +PH-13 7-1/2 +PH-15 9 +PH-17 10 + +They should be left on charge continuously until the specific gravity +of the electrolyte reaches a maximum and remains constant for six +hours. At this point, each cell should be gassing freely and the +voltage should read about 2.45 volts per cell, with the above current +flowing. + +Under normal conditions it will require approximately 80 hours to +complete the initial charge. The final gravity will be approximately +1.250. If the gravity is above this value, remove a little electrolyte +and add the same amount of distilled water. + +If the gravity is too low, remove a little of the electrolyte and add +the same amount of 1.400 specific gravity acid and leave on charge as +before. + +After either water or acid has been added, charge the cells three +hours longer in order to thoroughly mix the solution, and if at the +end of that time the gravity is between 1.245 and 1.255, the cells are +ready for service. + +It is very important that the initial charge be continued until the +specific gravity reaches a maximum value, regardless of the length of +time required. The battery must not be discharged until the initial +charge has been completed. + +If it is impossible to charge the battery continuously, the charge can +be stopped over night, but must be resumed the next day. + +It is preferable to charge the battery at the ampere rate given above, +but if this cannot be done, the temperature must be carefully watched +so that it does not exceed 110° F. + + +Wilard Rubber Jar Batteries Shipped Completely Charged and Filled with +Electrolyte + + +Immediately upon receipt of battery, remove the soft rubber nipples +and unscrew the vent plugs. + +The soft rubber nipples are to be discarded, as they are used only for +protection during shipment. Inspect each cell to see whether the +electrolyte is at the proper height. + +If the electrolyte is simply a little low and there is no evidence of +any having been spilled (examine packing material for discoloration), +add distilled water to bring the level to the proper height. + +If electrolyte does not cover the plates and the packing material is +discolored, it indicates that some or all of the electrolyte has been +lost from the cell, either on account of cracked jar or overturning of +the battery. + +If only a small quantity of electrolyte is lost through spilling, the +cell should be filled to the proper height with electrolyte of the +same specific gravity as in the other cells. This cell should then be +charged until the gravity has ceased rising, If all the electrolyte is +lost, write to the Willard Storage Battery Co., Cleveland, Ohio, for +instructions. + +Place batteries on rack and connect the positive terminal of one crate +to the negative terminal of the next crate, using the jumpers +furnished. + +The main battery wires from the switch board should be soldered to the +pigtail terminals, which can then be bolted to the battery terminals. +Be sure to have the positive and negative battery terminals connected +respectively to the positive and negative generator terminals of +switchboard. + +Before using the battery, it should be given a freshening charge at +the rate given on page 510. + +The specific gravity of the rubber jar batteries is 1.285-1.300 when +fully charged, and 1.160 when discharged. + + +Willard Rubber Jar Batteries Shipped Dry (Export Batteries) + + +Batteries which have been prepared for export must be given the +following treatment: + +Upon receipt of battery by customer, the special soft rubber nipples, +used on the batteries for shipping purposes only, should be removed +and discarded. + +Types SMW and SEW batteries should at once be filled to bottom of vent +hole with 1.285 specific gravity electrolyte at 70° F. + +In mixing electrolyte, the acid should be poured into the water and +allowed to cool below 90° F. before being put into the cells. If +electrolyte is shipped with the battery, it is of the proper gravity +to put into the cells. + +Immediately after the batteries are filled with electrolyte, they must +be placed on charge at one half the normal charging rate given on page +510, and should be left on charge continuously until the specific +gravity of the electrolyte stops rising. At this point, each cell +should be gassing freely and the voltage should read at least 2.40 +volts per cell with one-half the normal charging current flowing. + +If during the charge the temperature of the electrolyte in any one +cell exceeds 105° F., the current must be reduced until the +temperature is below 90° F. This will necessitate a longer time to +complete the charge, but must be strictly adhered to. + +Under normal conditions it will require approximately 80 hours to +complete the initial charge. The final gravity of the types SMW and +SEW will be approximately 1.285. If the gravity is above this value, +remove a little electrolyte and add same amount of distilled water +while the battery is left charging (in order to thoroughly mix the +solution), and after three hours, if the electrolyte is within the +limits, the cell is ready for service. If the specific gravity is +below these values, remove a little electrolyte and add same amount of +1.400 specific gravity electrolyte. Leave on charge as before. The +acid should be poured into the water and allowed to cool below 90° P. +before being used. The batteries are then ready for service. + + +Installing Counter Electromotive Force Cells + + +Counter EMF cells, if used with a battery, are installed in the same +manner as regular cells. They are connected positive to negative, the +same as regular cells, but the negative terminal of the CEMF group is +to be connected to the negative terminal of the regular cell group. +The positive terminal of the counter CEMF group is then to be +connected to the switchboard. + + [Image: Table of charge and discharge rates for different types + of batteries, Willard farm lighting batteries] + + +======================================================================== + +Definitions and Descriptions of +Terms and Parts +------------------------------- + +Acid. As used in this book refers to sulphuric acid (H2SO4), the +active component of the electrolyte, or a mixture of sulphuric acid +and water. + +Active Material. The active portion of the battery plates; peroxide of +lead on the positives and spongy metallic lead on the negatives. + +Alloy. As used in battery practice, a homogeneous combination of lead +and antimony. + +Alternating Current. Electric current which does not flow in one +direction only, like direct current, but rapidly reverses its +direction or "alternates" in polarity so that it will not charge a +battery. + +Ampere. The unit of measure of the rate of flow of electric current. + +Ampere Hour. The product resulting from multiplication of amperes +flowing by time of flow in hours, e.g., a battery supplying 10 amperes +for 8 hours gives 80 ampere hours. See note under "Volt?" for more +complete explanation of current flow. + +Battery. Two or more electrical cells, electrically connected so that +combination furnishes current as a unit. + +Battery Terminals. Devices attached to the positive post of one end +cell and the negative of the other, by means of which the battery is +connected to the car circuit. + +Bridge (or Rib). Wedge-shaped vertical projection from bottom of +rubber jar on which plates rest and by which they are supported. + +Buckling. Warping or bending of the battery plates. + +Burning. A term used to describe the operation of joining two pieces +of lead by melting them at practically the same instant so they may +run together as one continuous piece. Usually done with mixture of +oxygen and hydrogen or acetylene gases, hydrogen and compressed air, +or oxygen and illuminating gas. + +Burning Strip. A convenient form of lead, in strips, for filling up +the joint in making burned connections. + +Cadmium. A metal used in about the shape of a pencil for obtaining +voltage of positive or negative plates. It is dipped in the +electrolyte but not allowed to come in contact with plates. + +Capacity. The number of ampere hours a battery can supply at a given +rate of current flow after being fully charged, e.g., a battery may be +capable of supplying 10 amperes of current for 8 hours before it is +exhausted. Its capacity is 80 ampere hours at the 8 hours rate of +current flow. It is necessary to state the rate of flow, since same +battery if discharged at 20 amperes would not last for 4 hours but for +a shorter period, say 3 hours. Hence, its capacity at the 3 hour rate +would be 3x2O=60 ampere hours. + +Case. The containing box which holds the battery cells. + +Cell. The battery unit, consisting of an element complete with +electrolyte, in its jar with cover. + +Charge. Passing direct current through a battery in the direction +opposite to that of discharge, in order to put back the energy used on +discharge. + +Charge Rate. The proper rate of current to use in charging a battery +from an outside source. It is expressed in amperes and varies for +different sized cells. + +Corrosion. The attack of metal parts by acid from the electrolyte; it +is the result of lack of cleanliness. + +Cover. The rubber cover which closes each individual cell; it is +flanged for sealing compound to insure an effective seal. + +Cycle. One charge and discharge. + +Density. Specific gravity. + +Developing. The first cycle or cycles of a new or rebuilt battery to +bring about proper electrochemical conditions to give rated capacity. + +Diffusion. Pertaining to movement of acid within the pores of plates. +(See Equalization.) + +Discharge. The flow of current from a battery through a circuit, +opposite of "charge." + +Dry. Term frequently applied to cell containing insufficient +electrolyte. Also applied to certain conditions of shipment of +batteries. + +Electrolyte. The conducting fluid of electro-chemical devices; for +lead-acid storage batteries it consists of about two parts of water to +one of chemically pure sulphuric acid, by weight. + +Element. Positive group, negative group and separators. + +Equalization. The result of circulation and diffusion within the cell +which accompanies charge and discharge. Difference in capacity at +various rates is caused by the time required for this feature. + +Equalizing. Term used to describe the making uniform of varying +specific gravities in different cells of the same battery, by adding +or removing water or electrolyte. + +Evaporation. Loss of water from electrolyte from heat or charging. + +Filling Plug. The plug which fits in and closes the orifice of the +filling tube in the cell cover. + +Finishing Rate. The current in amperes at which a battery may be +charged for twenty-four hours or more. Also the charging rate used +near the end of a charge when cells begin to gas. + +Flooding. Overflowing through the filling tube. + +Forming. Electro-chemical process of making pasted grid or other +plate, types into storage battery plates. (Often confused with +Developing.) + +Foreign Material. Objectionable substances. + +Freshening Charge. A charge given to a battery which has been standing +idle, to keep it fully charged. + +Gassing. The giving off of oxygen gas at positive plates and hydrogen +at negatives, which begins when charge is something more than half +completed-depending on the rate. + +Generator System. An equipment including a generator for automatically +recharging the battery, in contradistinction to a straight storage +system where the battery has to be removed to be recharged. + +Gravity. A contraction of the term "specific gravity," which means the +density compared to water as a standard. + +Grid. The metal framework of a plate, supporting the active material +and provided with a lug for conducting the current and for attachment +to the strap. + +Group. A set of plates, either positive or negative, joined to a +strap. Groups do not include separators. + +Hold-Down. Device for keeping separators from floating or working up. + +Hold-Down Clips. Brackets for the attachment of bolts for holding the +battery securely in position on the car. + +Hydrogen Flame. A very hot and clean flame of hydrogen gas and oxygen, +acetylene, or compressed air used for making burned connections. + +Hydrogen Generator. An apparatus for generating hydrogen gas for lead +burning. + +Hydrometer. An instrument for measuring the specific gravity of the +electrolyte. + +Hydrometer Syringe. A glass barrel enclosing a hydrometer and provided +with a rubber bulb for drawing up electrolyte. + +Jar. The hard rubber container holding the element and electrolyte. + +Lead Burning. Making a joint by melting together the metal of the +parts to be joined. + +Lug. The extension from the top frame of each plate, connecting the +plate to the strap. + +Maximum Gravity. The highest specific gravity which the electrolyte +will reach by continued charging, indicating that no acid remains in +the plates. + +Mud. (See Sediment.) + +Negative. The terminal of a source of electrical energy as a cell, +battery or generator through which current returns to complete +circuit. Generally marked "Neg." or "-". + +Ohm. The unit of electrical resistance. The smaller the wire conductor +the greater is the resistance. Six hundred and sixty-five feet of No. +14 wire (size used in house lighting circuit) offers I ohm resistance +to current flow. + +Oil of Vitriol. Commercial name for concentrated sulphuric acid (1.835 +specific gravity). This is never used in a battery and would quickly +ruin it. + +Over-Discharge. The carrying of discharge beyond proper cell voltage; +shortens life if carried far enough and done frequently. + +Paste. The mixture of lead oxide or spongy lead and other substances +which is put into grids. + +Plate. The combination of grid and paste properly "formed." Positive$ +are reddish brown and negatives slate gray. + +Polarity. An electrical condition. The positive terminal (or pole) of +a cell or battery or electrical circuit is said to have positive +polarity; the negative, negative polarity. + +Positive. The terminal of a source of electrical energy as a cell, +battery or generator from which the current flows. Generally marked +"Pos." or "+". + +Post. The portion of the strap extending through the cell cover, by +means of which connection is made to the adjoining cell or to the car +circuit. + +Potential Difference. Abbreviated P. D. Found on test curves. +Synonymous with voltage. + +Rate. Number of amperes for charge or discharge. Also used to express +time for either. + +Rectifier. Apparatus for converting alternating current into direct +current. + +Resistance. Material (usually lamps or wire) of low conductivity +inserted in a circuit to retard the flow of current. By varying the +resistance, the amount of current can be regulated. Also the property +of an electrical circuit whereby the flow of current is impeded. +Resistance is measured in ohms. Analogous to the impediment offered by +wall of a pipe to flow of water therein. + +Rheostat. An electrical appliance used to raise or lower the +resistance of a circuit and correspondingly to decrease or increase +the current flowing. + +Rib. (See Bridge.) + +Ribbed. (See Separator.) + +Reversal. Reversal of polarity of cell or battery, due to excessive +discharge, or charging in the wrong direction. + +Rubber Sheets. Thin, perforated hard rubber sheets used in combination +with the wood separators in some types of batteries. They are placed +between the grooved side of the wood separators and the positive plate. + +Sealing. Making tight joints between jar and cover; usually with a +black, thick, acid-proof compound. + +Sediment. Loosened or worn out particles of active material fallen to +the bottom of cells; frequently called "mud." + +Sediment Space. That part of jar between bottom and top of bridge. + +Separator. An insulator between plates of opposite polarity; usually +of wood, rubber or combination of both. Separators are generally +corrugated or ribbed to insure proper distance between plates and to +avoid too great displacement of electrolyte. + +Short Circuit. A metallic connection between the positive and negative +plates within a cell. The plates may be in actual contact or material +may lodge and bridge across. If the separators are in good condition, +a short circuit is unlikely to occur. + +Spacers. Wood strips used in some types to separate the cells in the +case, and divided to provide a space for the tie bolts. + +Specific Gravity. The density of the electrolyte compared to water as +a standard. It indicates the strength and is measured by the +hydrometer. + +Spray. Fine particles of electrolyte carried up from the surface by +gas bubbles. (See Gassing.) + +Starting Rate. A specified current in amperes at which a discharged +battery may be charged at the beginning of a charge. The starting rate +is reduced to the finishing rate when the cells begin to gas. It is +also reduced at any time during the charge if the temperature of the +electrolyte rises to or above 110 deg. Fahrenheit. + +Starvation. The result of giving insufficient charge in relation to +the amount of discharge, resulting in poor service and injury to the +battery. + +Strap. The leaden casting to which the plates of a group are joined. + +Sulphate. Common term for lead sulphate. (PbSO4.) + +Sulphated. Term used to describe cells in an under-charged condition, +from either over-discharging without corresponding long charges or +from standing idle some time and being self discharged. + +Sulphate Reading. A peculiarity of cell voltage when plates are +considerably sulphated, where charging voltage shows abnormally high +figures before dropping gradually to normal charging voltage. + +Terminal. Part to which outside wires are connected. + +Vent, Vent Plug or Vent-Cap. Hard or soft rubber part inserted in +cover to retain atmospheric pressure within the cell, while preventing +loss of electrolyte from spray. It allows gases formed in the cell to +escape, prevents electrolyte from spilling, and keeps dirt out of the +cell. + +Volt. The commercial unit of pressure in an electric circuit. Voltage +is measured by a voltmeter. Analogous to pressure or head of water +flow through pipes. NOTE.--Just as increase of pressure causes more +volume of water to flow through a given pipe so increase of voltage +(by putting more cells in circuit) will cause more amperes of current +to flow in same circuit. Decreasing size of pipes is increasing +resistance and decreases flow of water, so also introduction of +resistance in an electrical circuit decreases current flow with a +given voltage or pressure. + +Wall. Jar sides and ends. + +Washing. Removal of sediment from cells after taking out elements; +usually accompanied by rinsing of groups, replacement of wood +separators and renewal of electrolyte. + +Watt. The commercial unit of electrical power, and is the product of +voltage of circuit by amperes flowing. One ampere flowing under +pressure of one volt represents one watt of power. + +Watt Hour. The unit of electrical work. It is the product of power +expended by time of expenditure, e.g., 10 amperes flowing under 32 +volts pressure for 8 hours gives 2560 watt hours. + + +======================================================================== + +Index + +A + +Acetic acid from improperly treated separators 77 +Acetylene and Compressed Air Lead-burning Outfit147 +Acid Carboys 184 +Acid. Handling and mixing 222 +Acid. How lost while battery is on car 57 +Acid. How to draw, from carboys 184 +Acid should never be added to battery on car 57 +Acid used instead of water 57 +Active materials. Composition of 13 +Active materials. Effect of quantity, porosity, and arrangement of, on +capacity 42 +Active materials. Resistance of 49 +Age codes 242 +Age of battery. Determining 242 +Age of battery. Effect of, on capacity 47 +Alcohol torch lead-burning outfit 148 +Applying pastes to grids 11 +Arc lead-burning outfit 148 +Audion bulb for radio receiving sets 253 + +B + +Battery box should be kept clean and dry 51 +Battery carrier 173 +Battery case (see Case). +Battery steamer 158 +Battery truck 173 +Battery turntable 170 +Bench charge 198 to 210 +Bench charge. Arrangement of batteries for 200 +Bench charge. Charging rates for 201 +Bench charge. Conditions preventing batteries from charging 206 +Bench charge. Conditions preventing gravity from rising 207 +Bench charge. If battery becomes too hot 205 +Bench charge. If battery will not hold a charge 208 +Bench charge. If battery will not take half a charge 205 +Bench charge. If current cannot be passed through battery 206 +Bench charge. If electrolyte has a milky appearance 206 +Bench charge. If gravity rises above 1.300 205 +Bench charge. If gravity rises long before voltage does 205 +Bench charge. If new battery will not charge 205 +Bench charge. If one cell will not charge 205 +Bench charge. If vinegar-like odor is detected 205 +Bench charge. Leave vent-plugs in when charging 209 +Bench charge. Level of electrolyte at end of 203 +Bench charge. Painting case after 203 +Bench charge. Specific gravity at end of 203 +Bench charge. Specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 204 +Bench charge. Suggestions for 209 +Bench charge. Temperatures of batteries during 202 +Bench charge. Time required for 203 +Bench charge. Troubles arising during 204 +Bench charge. Voltage at end of 203 +Bench charge. When necessary 198 +Bins for stock parts 158 +Book-keeping records 302 (Omitted) +"Bone-dry" batteries. Putting into service 229 +Boxes for battery parts 183 +Buckling 72 +Buckling. Caused by charging at high rates 73 +Buckling. Caused by continued operation in discharged condition 73 +Buckling. Caused by defective grid alloy 73 +Buckling. Caused by non-uniform current distribution 73 +Buckling. Caused by overdischarge 73 +Buckling does not necessarily cause trouble 73 +Burning. (See Lead-Burning.) +Burning-lead mould 164 +Burning rack 162 +Business methods 299 to 312 (Omitted) + +C + +Cadmium. What it is 176 +Cadmium leads. Connection of, to voltmeter 179 +Cadmium readings affected by improperly treated separators 181 +Cadmium readings. Conditions necessary to obtain good negative-cadmium +readings 210 +Cadmium readings do not indicate capacity of a cell 175 +Cadmium readings on short-circuited cells 180 +Cadmium readings. Troubles shown by, on charge 206 +Cadmium readings. When they should be taken 176 +Cadmium test 174 +Cadmium test. How made 175 +Cadmium test on charging battery 181 +Cadmium test on discharging battery 180 +Cadmium test set. What it consists of 177 +Cadmium test voltmeter 178 +Calling for repair batteries 314 +Capacity. Effect of age of battery on 47 and 89 +Capacity. Effect of plate surface area on 42 +Capacity. Effect of clogged separators on 88 +Capacity. Effect of incorrect proportions of acid and acid in +electrolyte on 88 +Capacity. Effect of low level of electrolyte on 88 +Capacity. Effect of operating conditions on 44 +Capacity. Effect of quantity and strength of electrolyte on 42 +Capacity. Effect of quantity, arrangement, and porosity of active +materials on 42 +Capacity. Effect of rate of discharge on 44 +Capacity. Effect of reversal of plates on 89 +Capacity. Effect of shedding on 88 +Capacity. Effect of specific gravity on 43 +Capacity. Effect of temperature on 46 +Carbon-arc lead-burning outfit 148 +Carboys 184 +Care of battery on the car 51 to 68 +Care of battery when not in service 67 +Carrier for batteries 173 +Case. Cleaning and painting, after repairs 372 +Case manufacture 22 +Case. Painting, after bench charge 203 +Case. Repairing 360 +Case. Troubles indicated by rotted 319 +Case troubles 83 +Cases. Equipment for work on 98 and 170 +Casting plate grids 9 +Cell connector mould 168 +Cell connectors. Burning-on 213 +Cell connectors. Equipment for work on 98 +Cell connectors. How to remove 329 +Changing pastes into active materials 12 +Charge. (See Bench Charge.) +Charge. Changes at negative plates during 30 and 39 +Charge. Changes at positive plates during 30 and 40 +Charge. Changes in acid density during 39 +Charge. Changes in voltage during 38 +Charge. Loss of, in an idle battery 89 +Charge. Preliminary, in rebuilding batteries 349 +Charge. Trickle 239 +Charging bench133 to 139 +Charging bench. Arrangement of batteries on 200 +Charging bench. Temperature of batteries on 202 +Charging bench. Working drawings of 134 to 139 +Charging circuits. Drawings of 105 +Charging connections. Making temporary 220 +Charging. Constant potential 111 +Charging equipment for farm lighting batteries 439 +Charging equipment for starting batteries 100 +Charging farm lighting batteries 455 +Charging. Lamp-banks for 101 +Charging. Motor-generators for 106 +Charging rate. Adjusting 287 +Charging rate. Checking 283 +Charging rate. Governed by gassing 112 and 202 +Charging rate. How and when to adjust 289 +Charging rates for bench charge 112 and 201 +Charging rates for new Exide batteries 226 +Charging rates for new Philadelphia batteries 228 +Charging rates for new Prest-O-Lite batteries 234 +Charging rates on the car 283 +Charging rebuilt batteries 373 +Charging. Rheostats for 101 +Chemical actions and electricity. Relations between 31 +Chemical changes at the negatives during charge 30 +Chemical changes at the positives during charge 30 +Chemical changes at the negatives during discharge 29 +Chemical changes at the positives during discharge 29 +Chemical changes in the battery 27 to 31 +Composition of jars 16 +Composition of plate grids 9 +Compound. Scraping, from covers and jars 334 +Compressed air and hydrogen lead-burning outfit 147 +Compressed air and illuminating gas lead-burning outfit 149 +Condenser for making distilled water 160 +Connections. Making temporary, for charging 220 +Connectors. (See Cell Connectors.) +Connector troubles 84 +Constant-potential charging 111 +Construction of plate grids 10 +Convenient method of adding water 56 +Corroded grids 77 +Corroded grids. Caused by age 78 +Corroded grids. Caused by high temperatures 78 +Corroded grids. Caused by impurities 78 +Corrosion 321 +Covers. Eveready 17 +Covers. Exide 19 and 21 +Covers. Functions of 16 +Covers. Gould 17 +Covers. How to remove 331 +Covers. Philadelphia diamond grid 16 +Covers. Prest-O-Lite 18 and 19 +Covers. Putting on the 365 +Covers. Sealing 366 +Covers. Single and double 16 +Covers. Steaming 332 +Covers. U.S.L. 18 and 20 +Covers. Vesta 18 +Covers. Westinghouse 417 +Covers. Willard 19 +Credit. Use and abuse of 301 (Omitted) +Cutout. Checking action of 282? +Cycling discharge tests 269 + +D + +Dead cells. Causes of 87 +Delco-Light batteries 466 +Delco-Light batteries. Ampere-hour meter for 467 and 471 +Delco-Light batteries. Burning-on new plates of 492 +Delco-Light batteries. Burning-on new straps for 488 +Delco-Light batteries. Care of cells of, in stock 493 +Delco-Light batteries. Charging, after reassembling 481 +Delco-Light batteries. Charging outside negatives of 484 +Delco-Light batteries. Clearing high resistance shorts in 484 +Delco-Light batteries. Clearing lug shorts in 484 +Delco-Light batteries. Dis-assembling 474 +Delco-Light batteries. Gauges and instruments for testing 466 +Delco-Light batteries. General complaints from users of 495 +Delco-Light batteries. Hydrometers for 468 +Delco-Light batteries. Inspection trips 470 +Delco-Light batteries. Pressing negatives of 485 +Delco-Light batteries. Putting repaired cells into service 484 +Delco-Light batteries. Re-assembling 477 +Delco-Light batteries. Removing impurities from 483 +Delco-Light batteries. Repairing broken posts of 487 +Delco-Light batteries. Repairing lead parts of 486 +Delco-Light batteries. Salvaging replaced cells of 486 +Delco-Light batteries. Taking, out of commission 494 +Delco-Light batteries. Treating broken cells of 482 +Delco-Light batteries. Treating spilled cells of 482 +Delco-Light batteries. Treating reversed cells of 483 +Delco-Light batteries. Use of auxiliary straps with 492 +Delco-Light batteries. When and how to charge 468 +Discharge apparatus 270 +Discharge. Changes at negative plates during 37 +Discharge. Changes at positive plates during 37 +Discharge. Changes in acid density during 35 +Discharge. Chemical actions at negative plates during 29 +Discharge. Chemical actions at positive plates during 29 +Discharge. Effects of rates of, on capacity 44 +Discharge. Voltage changes during 32 +Discharge tests. Cycling 269 +Discharge tests. Fifteen seconds 266 +Discharge tests. Lighting ability 267 +Discharge tests. Starting ability 267 +Distilled water. Condenser for making 160 +Dope electrolytes 59 and 199 +Double covers. Sealing 366 +Dry shipment of batteries 24 +Dry storage 240 +Dry storage batteries 265 + +E + +Earthenware jars 184 +Electrical system. Normal course of operation of 277 +Electrical system. Testing the 276 +Electrical system. Tests on, to be made by the repairman 279 +Electrical system. Troubles in the 284 +Electricity and chemical actions. Relation between 31 +Electrolyte. Adjusting the 373 +Electrolyte below tops of plates. Causes and results of 319 and 323 +Electrolyte. Causes of milky appearance of 206 +Electrolyte. Composition of 199 and 222 +Electrolyte. Correct height of, above plates 55 +Electrolyte. Effect of circulation of, on capacity 44 +Electrolyte. Effect of low 67 +Electrolyte. Effect of quantity and strength of, on capacity 42 +Electrolyte. Freezing points of 67 +Electrolyte. Leaking of, at top of cells 324 +Electrolyte. Level of, at end of bench charge 203 +Electrolyte. Resistance of 43 and 48 +Electrolyte troubles. High gravity 85 +Electrolyte troubles. High level 85 +Electrolyte troubles. Low gravity 85 +Electrolyte troubles. Low level 85 +Electrolyte troubles. Milky appearance 85 +Element. Tightening loose 363 +Elements. Re-assembling 361 +Equipment for discharge tests 270 +Equipment for general work 98 +Equipment for general work on connectors and terminals 98 +Equipment for handling sealing compound 149 +Equipment for lead-burning 97 +Equipment for work on cases 98 and 170 +Equipment needed in opening batteries 97 +Equipment which is absolutely necessary 96 +Eveready batteries. Claimed to be non-sulphating 401 +Eveready batteries. Description of parts 404 +Eveready batteries. Rebuilding 405 +Examining and testing incoming batteries 317 +Exide farm lighting batteries 466 to 498 +Exide radio batteries 257 +Exide starting batteries. Age code for 243 (Age code chart omitted) +Exide starting batteries. Burning-on cell connectors of 382 +Exide starting batteries. Capacities of 381 (Chart omitted) +Exide starting batteries. Charging, after repairing 382 +Exide starting batteries. Methods of holding jars of, in case 377 +Exide starting batteries. Opening of 377 +Exide starting batteries. Putting cells of, in case 382 +Exide starting batteries. Putting jars of, in case 382 +Exide starting batteries. Putting new, into service 225 +Exide starting batteries. Re-assembling plates of 379 +Exide starting batteries. Sealing single covers of 380 +Exide starting batteries. Type numbers of 377 +Exide starting batteries. Types of 375 +Exide starting batteries. Work on plates, separators, jars, and cases +of 379 + +F + +Farm lighting batteries 435 to 510 +Farm lighting batteries. Care of, in operation 453 +Farm lighting batteries. Care of plant of, in operation 450 +Farm lighting batteries. Charging 453? or (455) +Farm lighting batteries. Charging equipment for 439 +Farm lighting batteries. Determining condition of cells of 453 +Farm lighting batteries. Difference between, and starting batteries 435 +Farm lighting batteries. Discharge rules for 457 +Farm lighting batteries. Exide 466 +Farm lighting batteries. Initial charge of 448 +Farm lighting batteries. Installation of plant 445 +Farm lighting batteries. Instructing users of 449 +Farm lighting batteries. Jars used in 436 +Farm lighting batteries. Loads carried by 443 (Charts omitted) +Farm lighting batteries. Location of plant 444 +Farm lighting batteries. Overcharge of 455 +Farm lighting batteries. Power consumed by appliances connected to 442 +Farm lighting batteries. Prest-O-Lite 460 +Farm lighting batteries. Selection of plant 440 +Farm lighting batteries. Separators for 438 +Farm lighting batteries. Size of plant required 442 +Farm lighting batteries. Specific gravity of electrolyte of 438 +Farm lighting batteries. Troubles with 458 +Farm lighting batteries. When to charge 455 +Farm lighting batteries. Wiring of plant for 444 +Filling and testing service 291 +Flames for lead-burning 211 +Floor. Care of 188 +Floor grating for shop 188 +Floor of shop 186 +Forming plates 11 +Freezing points of electrolyte 67 + +G + +Gassing causes shedding 74 +Gassing. Charging rate governed by 112 and 202 +Gassing. Definition of 31 +Gassing. Excessive, causes milky appearance of electrolyte 86 +Gassing of sulphated plates 40 and 75 +Gassing on charge 37? and 202 +Granulated negatives 78 +Granulated negatives. Caused by age 78 +Granulated negatives. Caused by heat 78 +Gravity. (See Specific Gravity). +Grids. Casting 9 +Grids. Composition of 9 +Grids. Corroded 77 +Grids. Effect of age on 78 and 80 and 342? (344) +Grids. Effect of defective grid alloy on 73 +Grids. Effect of impurities on 77 and 78 and 80 and 342 +Grids. Effect of overheating on 78 and 80 and 342? +Grids. Resistance of 48 +Grids. Trimming 10 + +H + +Handling and mixing acid 222 +Heating of negatives exposed to the air 78 +High rate discharge testers 181 +High rate discharge tests 266 and 267 and 374 +Home-made batteries 25 +Hydrogen and compressed air lead-burning outfit 147 +Hydrogen and oxygen lead-burning outfit 146 +Hydrometer. What it consists of 60 +Hydrometer readings. Effect of temperature on 65 +Hydrometer readings. How to take 61 + +I + +Idle battery. Care of 67 +Idle battery. How it becomes discharged 89 +Idle battery. How it sulphates 70 +Illuminating gas and compressed air lead-burning outfit 149 +Impurities 76 +Impurities which attack the plates 77 +Impurities which cause self-discharge 76 +Incoming batteries. Examining and testing 317 +Incoming batteries. General inspection of 320 +Incoming batteries. Operation tests on 320 +Incoming batteries. When it is necessary to open 326 +Incoming batteries. When it is necessary to remove from car 325 +Incoming batteries. When it is unnecessary to open 325 +Incoming batteries. When it is unnecessary to remove from car 324 +Installing battery on the car 236 +Internal resistance 48 to 50 +Isolators 408 +Inspection to determine height of electrolyte 55 + +J + +Jars. Construction of 16 +Jars. Filling with electrolyte 364 +Jars for farm lighting batteries 436 +Jars. Manufacture of 16 +Jars. Materials used for 16 +Jars. Removing defective 359 +Jars. Testing, for leaks 356 +Jars. Work on 356 +Jar troubles caused by explosion in cell 83 +Jar troubles caused by freezing 83 +Jar troubles caused by improperly trimmed groups 83 +Jar troubles caused by loose battery 82 +Jar troubles caused by rough handling 82 +Jar troubles caused by weights placed on top of battery 83 + +K + +(No Entries) + +L + +Lead burning cell connectors 213 +Lead burning. Classes of 211 +Lead burning. Equipment for 97 and 143 +Lead burning. General instructions for 210 to 220 +Lead burning plates to straps 217 +Lead burning terminals 213 +Lead burning. Safety precautions for 213 +Lead melting pots 220 +Lead mould 164 +Lead moulding instructions 220 +Light for shop 187 and 190 +Loose active material 75 +Loose active material caused by buckling 76 +Loose active material caused by overdischarge 75 +Loss of capacity 88 +Loss of charge in an idle battery 89 +Lugs. Extending plate 219 + +M + +Manufacture of batteries 9 to 26 +Manufacture of batteries. Assembling and sealing 23 +Manufacture of batteries. Auxiliary rubber separators 15 +Manufacture of batteries. Cases 22 +Manufacture of batteries. Casting the grid 9 +Manufacture of batteries. Composition of the grid 9 +Manufacture of batteries. Covers 16 +Manufacture of batteries. Drying the pasted plates 12 +Manufacture of batteries. Forming the plates 12 +Manufacture of batteries. Home-made batteries 25 +Manufacture of batteries. Jars 16 +Manufacture of batteries. Materials used for separators 14 +Manufacture of batteries. Mixing pastes 11 +Manufacture of batteries. Paste formulas 11 +Manufacture of batteries. Pasting plates 11 +Manufacture of batteries. Philco slotted retainer 15 +Manufacture of batteries. Post seal 16 +Manufacture of batteries. Preparing batteries for dry shipment 24 +Manufacture of batteries. Separators 14 +Manufacture of batteries. Terminal connections 25 +Manufacture of batteries. Treating separators 14 +Manufacture of batteries. Trimming the grid 10 +Manufacture of batteries. Vent plugs 22 +Manufacture of batteries. Vesta impregnated mats 15 +Mechanical rectifier 131 +Melting pot for lead 220 +Mercury-Arc rectifier 129 +Milky electrolyte 206 +Motor-generators 106 to 112 +Motor-generators. Care of 110 +Motor-generators. Operating charging circuits of 109 +Motor-generators. Sizes for small and large shops 106 +Motor-generators. Suggestions on 108 +Moulding instructions 220 +Moulding materials 220 +Moulds. 164 to 170 +Moulds for building up posts 165 +Moulds for burning lead sticks 164 +Moulds for cell connectors 168 +Moulds for plate straps 167 and 169 +Moulds for terminal screws 168 + +N + +Negative plates. Changes at, during charge 39 +Negative plates. Changes at, during discharge 37 +Negatives. Bulged 79 +Negatives. Granulated 78 +Negatives. Heating of, when exposed to the air 78 +Negatives with roughened surface 79 +Negatives with softened active material 79 +Negatives with hard active material 79 +Negatives. Washing and pressing 351 +New batteries. Putting, into service 224 +Non-sulphating Eveready batteries 402 + +O + +Open-circuits 86 +Open-circuits. Caused by acid on soldered joints 86 +Open-circuits. Caused by broken terminals 86 +Open-circuits. Caused by poor lead burning 86 +Opening batteries. Equipment needed in 97 +Opening batteries. Heating sealing compound 332 +Opening batteries. Instructions for 328 +Opening batteries. Pulling elements out of jars 333 +Opening batteries. Removing connectors and terminals 329 +Opening batteries. Removing post-seal 331 +Opening batteries. Scraping compound from covers 334 +Opening batteries. When necessary 326 +Opening batteries. When unnecessary 325 +Operating conditions. Effect of, on capacity 44 +Overdischarge causes sulphation 69 +Oxides used for plate pastes 11 +Oxygen and acetylene lead burning outfit 143 +Oxygen and hydrogen lead burning outfit 146 +Oxygen and illuminating gas lead burning outfit 146 + +P + +Packing batteries for shipping 271 +Painting case after bench charge 203 +Paraffine dip pot 182 +Paste formulas 11 +Pastes. Applying to grids 11 +Patent electrolytes 59 +Philadelphia radio batteries 260 +Philadelphia starting batteries. Age codes for 243 +Philadelphia starting batteries. Old type post seal for 398 +Philadelphia starting batteries. Putting new, into service 228 +Philadelphia starting batteries. Rubber cases for 401 +Philadelphia starting batteries. Rubber-Lockt seal 399 +Philadelphia starting batteries. Separators for 402 +Plante plates 27 +Plante's work on the storage battery 27 +Plate burning-rack 162 +Plate lugs. Extending 219 +Plate press 171 +Plate strap mould 167 and 169 +Plate surface area. Effect of, on capacity 42 +Plate troubles 69 +Plates. Burning, to straps 217 and 355 +Plates charged in wrong direction 81 and 343 +Plates. Examining, after opening battery 337 +Plates. Sulphated 342 +Plates. When old, may be used again 344 +Plates. When to put in new 339 +Positives. Buckled 80 and 341 +Positives. Changes at, during charge 40 +Positives. Changes at, during discharge 37 +Positives. Frozen 80 and 339 +Positives. Rotted, and disintegrated 80 and 341 +Positives. Washing 354 +Positives which have lost considerable active material 80 +Positives with hard active material 81 +Positives with soft active material. 80 +Post builders 165 +Post building instructions 218 +Post seal 17 +Post seal. Exide 19 +Post seal. Philadelphia 399 +Post seal. Prest-O-Lite 386 +Post seal. Titan 434 +Post seal. Universal 430 +Post seal. U.S.L. 18 +Post seal. Vesta 413 +Post seal. Westinghouse 417 +Post seal. Willard 424 to 428 +Posts. Burning, to plates 217 +Pots for melting lead 220 +Pressing plates 171 +Piest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries 460 +Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Descriptions 460 +Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Opening cells 464 +Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Putting repaired cell into +service 465 +Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Rebuilding 464 +Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Specific gravity of electrolyte +461 +Prest-O-Lite radio batteries 262 +Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Age code for 244 (Omitted) +Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peening instructions for 395 +Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Old style covers for 386 +Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peened post seal for 386 +Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peening posts of 391 and 394 +Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peening press for 390 +Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Post locking outfit for 388 +Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Putting new into service 233 +Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Rebuilding posts of 393 +Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Removing covers from 392 +Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Tables of 396 (Omitted) +Primary cell 5 +Purchasing methods 299 (Omitted) +Putting new batteries into service 224 + +Q + +(No entries) + +R + +Radio audion bulb 253 +Radio batteries 252 +Radio batteries. Exide 257 +Radio batteries. General features of 255 +Radio batteries. Philadelphia 260 +Radio batteries. Prest-O-Lite 262 +Radio batteries. Universal 263 +Radio batteries. U. S. L. 261 +Radio batteries. Vesta 256 +Radio batteries. Westinghouse 259 +Radio batteries. Willard 257 +Radio receiving sets. Types of 252 +Rebuilding batteries 328 (to rest of chapter 15) +Rebuilding batteries. Adjusting electrolyte 373 +Rebuilding batteries. Burning-on cell connectors 371 +Rebuilding batteries. Burning-on plates 355 +Rebuilding batteries. Charging rebuilt batteries 373 +Rebuilding batteries. Cleaning 329 +Rebuilding batteries. Cleaning and painting the case 372 +Rebuilding batteries. Determining repairs necessary 335 +Rebuilding batteries. Eliminating short-circuits 348 +Rebuilding batteries. Examining the plates 337 +Rebuilding batteries. Filling jars with electrolyte 364 +Rebuilding batteries. Heating sealing compound 332 +Rebuilding batteries. High rate discharge test 374 +Rebuilding batteries. Marking the repaired battery 372 +Rebuilding batteries. Preliminary charge 349 +Rebuilding batteries. Pressing negatives 351 +Rebuilding batteries. Pulling plates out of jars 333 +Rebuilding batteries. Putting elements in jars 362 +Rebuilding batteries. Putting on the covers 365 +Rebuilding batteries. Reassembling the elements 361 +Rebuilding batteries. Removing connectors and terminals 329 +Rebuilding batteries. Removing defective jars 359 +Rebuilding batteries. Removing post seal 331 +Rebuilding batteries. Repairing the case 360 +Rebuilding batteries. Scraping compound from covers and jars 334 +Rebuilding batteries. Sealing double covers 366 +Rebuilding batteries. Sealing single covers 371 +Rebuilding batteries. Testing jars 356 +Rebuilding batteries. Tightening loose elements 363 +Rebuilding batteries. Using 1.400 acid 364 +Rebuilding batteries. Washing negatives 351 +Rebuilding batteries. Washing positives 354 +Rebuilding batteries. When old plates may be used again 344 +Rebuilding batteries, When to put in new plates 339 +Rebuilding batteries. Work on jars 356 +Rectifier. Mechanical 131 +Rectifier. Mercury are 129 +Rectifier. Stahl 132 +Rectifier. Tungar 113 +Reinsulation 274 +Relations between chemical actions and electricity 31 +Rental batteries. General policy for 251 +Rental batteries. Marking 249 and 296 +Rental batteries. Record of 251 +Rental batteries. Stock card for 297 (Omitted very simple chart) +Rental batteries. Terminals for 248 +Reversed plates 81 and 89 +Reversed-series generator. Adjusting 290 + +S + +S. A. E. ratings for batteries 45 +Safety first rules 275 +Safety precautions during lead-burning 213 +Screw mould .... 168 +Sealing around the posts 17 +Sealing compound. Composition of 150 +Sealing compound. Equipment for handling 149 +Sealing compound. Heating with electricity 333 +Sealing compound. Heating with gasoline torch 333 +Sealing compound. Heating with hot water 332 +Sealing compound. Heating with lead burning flame 333 +Sealing compound. Heating with steam 332 +Sealing compound. Instructions for heating properly 150 +Sealing compound. Removing with hot putty knife 332 +Secondary cell 5 +Sediment. Effect of excessive 87 +Separator cutter 171 +Separator troubles 81 and 346 +Separators for farm lighting batteries 438 +Separators. Improperly treated, cause unsatisfactory negative-cadmium +readings 181 +Separators. Putting in new 274 +Separators. Storing 273 +Separators. Threaded rubber 430 +Service records 293 +Shedding 74 +Shedding caused by charging only a portion of the plate 75 +Shedding caused by charging sulphated plate at too high a rate 74 +Shedding caused by excessive charging rate 74 +Shedding caused by freezing 75 +Shedding caused by overcharging 74 +Shedding. Normal 74 +Shedding. Result of 74 +Shelving and racks 152 +Shipping batteries 271 +Shop equipment 95 +Shop equipment for charging 100 +Shop equipment for general work 98 +Shop equipment for lead-burning 97 +Shop equipment for opening batteries 97 +Shop equipment for work on cases 98 +Shop equipment for work on connectors and terminals 98 +Shop equipment which is absolutely necessary 96 +Shop floor 186 187? +Shop layouts 187? 189 to 196 +Shop light 190? 191 +Short-circuits. Eliminating 348 +Single covers. Scaling 371 +Sink. Working drawings of 144 and 145 +Specific gravity at end of bench charge 203 +Specific gravity. Changes in, during charge 39 +Specific gravity. Changes in, during discharge 35 +Specific gravity. Definition of 60 +Specific gravity. Effect of, on capacity 43 +Specific gravity in farm lighting cells 438 +Specific gravity. Limits of, during charge and discharge 43 +Specific gravity rises above 1.300 205 +Specific gravity rises long before voltage on charge 205 +Specific gravity should be measured every two weeks 60 +Specific gravity. What determines, of fully charged cell 438 +Specific gravity. What different values of, indicate 60 +Specific gravity. Why 1.280-1.300 indicates fully charged cell 43 +Specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 204 +Specific gravity readings. Effect of temperature on 65 +Specific gravity readings. How to take 61 +Specific gravity readings. If above 1.300 318 and 323 +Specific gravity readings. If all above 1.200 318 +Specific gravity readings. If below 1.150 in all cells 318 and 321? +Specific gravity readings. If between 1.150 and 1.200 in all cells 318 +and 321? +Specific gravity readings. If unequal 318 and 322 +Specific gravity readings. Troubles indicated by 63 +Stahl rectifier 132 +Starting ability discharge test 267 +Steamer 158 +Steps in the use of electricity on the automobile 1 +Storage battery does not "store" electricity 6 +Storage cell 5 +Storing batteries dry 240 +Storing batteries wet 239 +Strap. Burning plates to 217 +Strap mould 167 and 169 +Sulphate. Effect of, on voltage during discharge 32 +Sulphation. Caused by adding acid 72 +Sulphation. Caused by battery standing idle 70 +Sulphation. Caused by impurities 72 +Sulphation. Caused by low electrolyte 71 +Sulphation. Caused by overdischarge 69 +Sulphation. Caused by overheating 72 +Sulphation. Caused by starvation 71 + +T + +Temperature. Cause of high, on car 324 +Temperature corrections in specific gravity readings 65 +Temperature. Effect of, on battery operation 66 +Temperature. Effect of, on capacity 46 +Temperature of batteries on charging bench 202 +Terminal connections 25 +Terminals. Burning-on 213 +Terminals for rental batteries 248 +Testing and examining incoming batteries 317 +Testing and filling service 291 +Testing the electrical system 276 +Third brush generator. Adjusting 289 +Threaded rubber separators 430 +Time required for bench charge 203 +Titan batteries 432 +Titan batteries. Age code for 245 (Omitted) +Treating separators 14 +Trickle charge 239 +Trimming plate grids 10 +Trouble charts 321 +Troubles arising during bench charge 204 +Troubles. Battery 69 +Trucks for batteries 173 +Tungar rectifier. Battery connections of 127 +Tungar rectifier. Four battery 119 +Tungar rectifier. General instructions for 126 +Tungar rectifier. Half-wave and full-wave 114 and 115 +Tungar rectifier. Installation of 126 +Tungar rectifier. Line connections of 127 +Tungar rectifier. One battery 117 +Tungar rectifier. Operation of 128 +Tungar rectifier. Principle of 113 +Tungar rectifier. Ten battery 120 +Tungar rectifier. Troubles with 128 +Tungar rectifier. Twenty battery 122 +Tungar rectifier. Two ampere 116 +Tungar rectifier. Two battery 118 +Turntable for batteries 170 + +U + +Universal radio batteries 263 +Universal starting batteries 430 +Universal starting batteries. Construction features of 430 +Universal starting batteries. Putting new, into service 431 +Universal starting batteries. Types 430 +U. S. L. radio batteries. 261 +U. S. L. starting batteries. Age code for 246 +U. S. L. starting batteries. Special instructions for 382 +U. S. L. starting batteries. Tables of 384 (Omitted) +U. S. L. vent tube construction 20 + +V + +Vent plugs should be left in place during charge 209 +Vent tube construction 20 +Vesta radio batteries 256 +Vesta starting batteries 408 +Vesta starting batteries. Age code for 246246 +Vesta starting batteries. Isolators for 408 +Vesta starting batteries. Post seal 413 +Vesta starting batteries. Putting new, into service 227 +Vesta starting batteries. Separators 413 and 415 +Vesta starting batteries. Type D 409 +Vesta starting batteries. Type DJ 412 +Vibrating regulators. Adjusting 290 +Vinegar-like odor. Cause of 205 +Voltage. Causes of low 321 +Voltage changes during charge 38 +Voltage changes during discharge 32 +Voltage, limiting value of, on discharge 34 +Voltage of cell. Factors determining 34 +Voltage of a fully charged cell 203 +Voltage readings at end of bench charge 203 +Voltage readings on open circuit worthless 177 +Voltaic cell 4 + +W + +Wash tank. Working drawings of 144 +Water. Condenser for distilled 160 +Westinghouse farm lighting batteries 498 +Westinghouse radio batteries 259 +Westinghouse starting batteries 417 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Age code for 247247 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Plates for 418 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Post seal for 417 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Putting new, into service 231 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Type A 418 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Type B 419 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Type C 420 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Type E 420 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Type F 423 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Type H 421 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Type J 422 +Westinghouse starting batteries. Type 0 422 +Wet batteries. Putting new, into service 225 +Wet storage 239 +What's wrong with the battery 313 to 327 +When it is unnecessary to open battery 325 +When may battery be left on car 324 +When must battery be opened 326 +When should battery be removed from car 325 +Willard farm-lighting batteries 502 +Willard radio batteries 257 +Willard starting batteries. Age code for 247 +Willard starting batteries. Bone-dry 24 +Willard starting batteries. Putting new, into service 229 +Willard starting batteries with compound sealed post 424 +Willard starting batteries with gasket post seal 428 +Willard starting batteries with lead cover-inserts 424 +Willard threaded-rubber separators 430 +Working drawings of bins for stock 158 +Working drawings of charging bench 134 to 139 +Working drawings of flash-back tank 147 +Working drawings of shelving and racks 153 to 157 +Working drawings of shop layouts 189 to 196 +Working drawings of steamer bench 161 +Working drawings of wash tank 144 and 145 +Working drawings of work bench 140 and 141 + +X Y Z + +(No entries under X, Y or Z) + + +A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W XYZ + +Index + +(Table of) Contents + + + + +======================================================================== + +A VISIT TO THE FACTORY +---------------------- + +THE following pages show how Batteries are made at the Factory. The +illustrations will be especially interesting to Battery Service +Station Owners who have conceived the idea that they would like to +manufacture their own batteries. + +A completed battery is a simple looking piece of apparatus, yet the +equipment needed to make it is elaborate and expensive, as the +following illustrations will show. Quantity production is necessary in +order to build a good battery at a moderate cost to the car owner, and +quantity production means a large factory, elaborate and expensive +equipment, and a large working force. Furthermore, before any +batteries are put on the market, extensive research and +experimentation is necessary to develop a battery which will prove a +success in the field. This in itself requires considerable time and +money. No manufacturer who has developed formulas and designs at a +considerable expense will disclose them to others who desire to enter +the manufacturing field as competitors, nor can anyone expect them to +do so. + +If the man who contemplates entering the battery manufacturing +business can afford to develop his own formulas and designs, build a +factory, and organize a working force, it is, of course, perfectly. +proper for him to become a manufacturer; but unless he can do so, he +should not attempt to make a battery. + +The following illustrations, will of course, be of interest to the man +who repairs batteries. A knowledge of the manufacturing processes will +give him a better understanding of the batteries which he repairs. The +less mystery there is about the battery, the more efficiently can the +repairman do his work. + +[Photo: Casting Exide Grids] +[Photo: Pasting Exide Plates] +[Photo: Casting Small Exide Battery Parts] +[Photo: Forming Exide Positive Plates] +[Photo: Burning Exide Plates Into Groups] +[Photo: Cutting and grooving Exide wood separators] +[Photo: Charging Exide batteries] +[Photo: Mixing paste for Prest-O-Lite batteries] +[Photo: Moulding Prest-O-Lite Grids] +[Photo: Inspecting Prest-O-Lite grids for defects] +[Photo: Prest-O-Lite pasting room] +[Photo: Pasting Prest-O-Lite plates] +[Photo: A corner of Prest-O-Lite forming room] +[Photo: General view of Prest-O-Lite assembly room] +[Photo: Power operated Prest-O-Lite peening press] +[Photo: Inspecting Prest-O-Lite separators] +[Photo: Inserting separators in Prest-O-Lite plate elements] +[Photo: Final inspection of Prest-O-Lite batteries] +[Photo: Prest-O-Lite experimental laboratory] +[Photo: Laboratory tests of oxides for Vesta batteries] +[Photo: Moulding Vesta grids] +[Photo: Preparing Vesta plates for the forming room] +[Photo: Burning Vesta plates into groups. Assembling groups with + isolators.] +[Photo: Vesta acid mixing room] +[Photo: Checking and adjusting cell readings of Vesta batteries on + development charge] +[Photo: Final assembly inspection of Vesta batteries] +[Photo: Trimming Westinghouse grids] +[Photo: Pasting Westinghouse plates] +[Photo: Burning Westinghouse plates into groups] +[Photo: Packing Westinghouse batteries for shipment] +[Illustration: AMBU Official Service Station] + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Automobile Storage Battery, by O. A. 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