initial commit of ebook 29685HEADmain

1 files changed, 8642 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/29685.txt b/29685.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e9ea69
--- /dev/null
+++ b/29685.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,8642 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Submarine Warfare of To-day, by Charles W. Domville-Fife
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Submarine Warfare of To-day
+       How the Submarine Menace was Met and Vanquished, With
+       Descriptions of the Inventions and Devices Used, Fast
+       Boats, Mystery Ships
+
+Author: Charles W. Domville-Fife
+
+Release Date: August 13, 2009 [EBook #29685]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINE WARFARE OF TO-DAY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Emmy, Dave Morgan and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SUBMARINE WARFARE OF TO-DAY
+
+[Illustration: THE SURRENDER OF THE GERMAN SUBMARINE FLEET
+
+The White Ensign is hoisted over the German Eagle.
+
+_British Official Photograph_]
+
+
+
+
+
+SUBMARINE WARFARE OF TO-DAY
+
+          HOW THE SUBMARINE MENACE WAS MET AND VANQUISHED,
+          WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THE INVENTIONS AND DEVICES
+          USED, FAST BOATS, MYSTERY SHIPS, NETS, AIRCRAFT,
+              &c. &c., ALSO DESCRIBING THE SELECTION
+                   AND TRAINING OF THE ENORMOUS
+                    PERSONNEL USED IN THIS NEW
+                       BRANCH OF THE NAVY
+
+
+BY
+
+CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE
+
+  _Lieut. R.N.V.R., late of the Staff of H.M. School of Submarine Mining_
+
+          AUTHOR OF
+          "SUBMARINES & SEA POWER" "SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD'S NAVIES"
+          "SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY" _&c._ _&c._ _&c._
+
+
+          WITH 53 ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+          LONDON
+          SEELEY, SERVICE & CO. LIMITED
+          38 GREAT RUSSELL STREET
+          1920
+
+
+
+
+Science of To-Day Series
+
+NEW VOLUME
+
+13. Submarine Warfare of To-Day.
+
+By C. W. DOMVILLE-FIFE, Lieut., R.N.V.R., late of the Staff of H.M.
+School of Submarine Mining. Author of "Submarines and Sea Power,"
+"Submarines of the World's Navies," "Submarine Engineering of To-Day,"
+_&c._ _&c._ With many Illustrations and Diagrams. Extra Crown 8vo. 7s.
+6d. nett.
+
+
+ALREADY PUBLISHED
+
+        1. ELECTRICITY OF TO-DAY.
+          By C. R. GIBSON, F.R.S.E.
+
+        2. ASTRONOMY OF TO-DAY.
+          By CECIL G. DOLMAGE, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.A.S.
+
+        3. SCIENTIFIC IDEAS OF TO-DAY.
+          By C. R. GIBSON.
+
+        4. BOTANY OF TO-DAY.
+          By Professor G. F. SCOTT ELLIOT, M.A., B.SC.
+
+        6. ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY.
+          By T. W. CORBIN.
+
+        7. MEDICAL SCIENCE OF TO-DAY.
+          By WILLMOTT EVANS, M.D.
+
+        8. MECHANICAL INVENTIONS OF TO-DAY.
+          By T. W. CORBIN.
+
+        9. PHOTOGRAPHY OF TO-DAY.
+          By H. CHAPMAN JONES, F.I.C., F.C.S., F.R.P.S.
+
+       10. SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY.
+          By C. W. DOMVILLE-FIFE.
+
+       11. GEOLOGY OF TO-DAY.
+          By Professor J. W. GREGORY, F.R.S.
+
+       12. AIRCRAFT OF TO-DAY.
+          By CHARLES C. TURNER, Lieut., R.N.V.R.
+
+SEELEY, SERVICE & CO., LTD., 38 Great Russell St.
+
+
+
+
+                    =Dedicated=
+
+                   TO THE MEMORY OF
+
+          THE LATE LIEUT. WALTER PRICE, R.N.V.R.
+
+                  A TRUE FRIEND AND A
+
+                   GALLANT OFFICER
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S NOTE
+
+
+I DESIRE simply to say that I commenced taking an active interest in
+submarines in 1904. I wrote my first book on the subject, _Submarines of
+the World's Navies_, in 1910, and I have watched and written of the rise
+of these and kindred weapons for the past fifteen years of rapid
+development in peace and war, finally taking a humble part in the defeat
+of the great German submarine armada during the years 1914-1918.
+
+                                                             C. D.-F.
+
+          1919.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+WHILE Great Britain remains an island, with dominion over palm and pine,
+it is to the sea that her four hundred millions of people must look for
+the key to all that has been achieved in the past and all that the
+future promises in the quickening dawn of a new era.
+
+Not only over Great Britain alone, however, does the ocean cast its
+spell, for it is the free highway of the world, sailed by the ships of
+all nations, without other hindrances than those of stormy nature, and
+navigated without restriction from pole to pole by the seamen of all
+races. It was the international meeting-place, where ensigns were
+"dipped" in friendly greeting, and since the dawn of history there has
+been a freemasonry of the sea which knew no distinction of nation or
+creed.
+
+When the call of humanity boomed across the dark, storm-tossed waters
+the answer came readily from beneath whatever flag the sound was heard.
+But in August, 1914, there came a change, so dramatic, so sudden, that
+maritime nations were stunned. Germany, in an excess of war fever, broke
+the sea laws, and laughed while women and children drowned. Crime
+followed crime, and the great voice of the Republican West protested in
+unison with that of the Imperial East. Still the Black Eagle laughed as
+it flew far and wide, carrying death to whomsoever came within its
+shadow, regardless of race and sex.
+
+But there was an avenger upon the seas, one who had been rocked in its
+cradle from time immemorial, and to whom the world appealed to save the
+lives of their seamen. It sailed beneath the White Ensign and the Blue,
+and with aid from France, Italy and Japan it fought by day and by night,
+in winter gale and snow, and in summer heat and fog, in torrid zone and
+regions of perpetual ice to free the seas of the traitorous monster who
+had, in the twentieth century, hoisted the black flag of piracy and
+murder. For three years this ceaseless war was waged, and then, with her
+wonderful patience exhausted, the great sister nation of the mother
+tongue joined her fleets and armies with those of the battle-worn Allies
+and peace came to a long-suffering world.
+
+In that abyss of war there was romance sufficient for many generations
+of novelists and historians. Many were the epic fights, unimportant in
+themselves, but which need only a Kingsley or a Stevenson to make them
+famous for all time. So with the happenings to be described in this
+book, many of them historically unimportant compared with the
+epoch-making events of which they formed a decimal part, but told in
+plain words; just records of romance on England's sea frontier in the
+years 1914-1918.
+
+Although jealous of any encroachment on the space available for the
+description of guerrilla war at sea, there are many things which must
+first be said regarding the organisation and training of what may
+appropriately be termed the "New Navy," which took the sea to combat the
+submarine and the mine; also of the novel weapons devised amid the whirl
+of war for their use, protection and offensive power. Into this brief
+recital of the events leading to the real thing an endeavour will be
+made to infuse the life and local colour, which, however, would be more
+appropriate in a personal narrative than in a general description of
+anti-submarine warfare of to-day, but without which much that is
+essential could not be written without dire risk of tiring the reader
+before the first few chapters had been passed.
+
+The names of places and ships have necessarily been changed to avoid
+anything of a personal character, and all references to existing or dead
+officers and men have been rigidly excluded as objectionable and
+unnecessary in a book dealing entirely with events.
+
+Many of the incidents described--written while the events stood out in
+clear, mental perspective--could no doubt be duplicated and easily
+surpassed by many whose fortunes took them into zones of sea war during
+the historic years just past. If such is found to be the case, then the
+object of this book has been accomplished, for it sets out to tell, not
+of great epoch-making events, but of the organisation, men, ships,
+weapons and ordinary incidents of life in what, for lack of a better
+term, has been called the "New Navy"--a production of the World War.
+
+It may be that an apology is due for placing yet another war book before
+a war-weary public, but an effort has been made to make of the following
+chapters _a record of British maritime achievement_, more than a
+narrative of sea fighting, although to do this without introducing the
+human element, the arduous nature of the work, the monotony, the danger
+and, finally, the compensating moments of excitement would have been to
+falsify the account and belittle the achievement.
+
+There are many books available, full of exciting stories of sea and land
+war, but no other, so far as the Author knows, which describes in detail
+and in plain phraseology those important "little things"--liable to be
+overlooked amid the whirl of war--which go to make an anti-submarine
+personnel, fleet and base, together with an account of "how it was
+done."
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                       PAGE
+       I. THE TASK OF THE ALLIED NAVIES                           17
+
+      II. THE NEW NAVY--TRAINING AN ANTI-SUBMARINE FORCE          36
+
+     III. A NAVAL UNIVERSITY IN TIME OF WAR                       47
+
+      IV. THE NEW FLEETS IN BEING                                 50
+
+       V. THE HYDROPHONE AND THE DEPTH CHARGE                     70
+
+      VI. SOME CURIOUS WEAPONS OF ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE          85
+
+     VII. MYSTERY SHIPS                                           96
+
+    VIII. A TYPICAL WAR BASE                                     102
+
+      IX. THE CONVOY SYSTEM                                      116
+
+       X. THE MYSTERIES OF SUBMARINE HUNTING EXPLAINED           126
+
+      XI. THE MYSTERIES OF GERMAN MINE-LAYING EXPLAINED          143
+
+     XII. THE MYSTERIES OF MINESWEEPING EXPLAINED                157
+
+    XIII. THE MINE BARRAGE                                       179
+
+     XIV. OFF TO THE ZONES OF WAR                                187
+
+      XV. A MEMORABLE CHRISTMAS                                  192
+
+     XVI. THE DERELICT                                           202
+
+    XVII. MINED-IN                                               209
+
+   XVIII. THE CASUALTY                                           220
+
+     XIX. HOW H.M. TRAWLER NO. 6 LOST HER REFIT                  226
+
+      XX. THE RAIDER                                             233
+
+     XXI. THE S.O.S.                                             238
+
+    XXII. IN THE SHADOW OF A BIG SEA FIGHT                       248
+
+   XXIII. A NIGHT ATTACK                                         258
+
+    XXIV. MYSTERIES OF THE GREAT SEA WASTES                      264
+
+     XXV. FROM OUT THE CLOUDS AND THE UNDER-SEAS                 273
+
+    XXVI. ON THE SEA FLANK OF THE ALLIED ARMIES                  286
+
+          INDEX                                                  301
+
+
+
+
+List of Illustrations
+
+
+  SURRENDER OF THE GERMAN SUBMARINE FLEET              _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                                FACING
+                                                                 PAGE
+  PLAN OF A 55 FEET COASTAL MOTOR BOAT                            16
+
+  LARGE HEAVILY ARMED GERMAN SUBMARINE                            32
+
+  MOTOR LAUNCH HULLS BEING CONSTRUCTED                            56
+
+  A 40 FEET COASTAL MOTOR BOAT AT FULL SPEED                      64
+
+  ANOTHER VIEW OF THE SAME BOAT AT FULL SPEED                     64
+
+  DROPPING DEPTH CHARGES                                          80
+
+  INNOCENT-LOOKING BUT DEADLY                                     96
+
+  HIDDEN TORPEDO TUBES OF H.M.S. _HYDERABAD_                      96
+
+  AFTER-DECK OF THE _HYDERABAD_ (BEFORE ACTION)                  104
+
+  AFTER-DECK OF THE _HYDERABAD_ (PREPARED FOR ACTION)            104
+
+  MOCK WHEEL AND COMPASS PEDESTAL OF THE _HYDERABAD_             112
+
+  MOCK WHEEL AND COMPASS PEDESTAL OF THE _HYDERABAD_ (COLLAPSED) 112
+
+  MOTOR LAUNCH CLEARED FOR ACTION                                120
+
+  A WRECKED COASTAL MOTOR BOAT                                   136
+
+  CAPTIVE MINE-LAYING SUBMARINE                                  144
+
+  A MINESWEEPER                                                  160
+
+  A PARAVANE                                                     176
+
+  MORSE SIGNALLING                                               184
+
+  MOTOR LAUNCH OF THE NAVAL PATROL                               216
+
+  A MONITOR                                                      280
+
+[Illustration: PLAN OF 55 FEET COASTAL BOAT, CARRYING TWO 18-INCH
+TORPEDOES]
+
+
+
+
+SUBMARINE WARFARE
+
+OF TO-DAY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE TASK OF THE ALLIED NAVIES
+
+
+THE hour was that of the Allies' greatest need--the last months of the
+year 1914. On that fateful 4th August the British navy was concentrated
+in the North Sea, and the chance for a surprise attack by the German
+fleet, or an invasion of England by the Kaiser's armies, vanished for
+ever, and with this one chance went also all reasonable possibility of a
+crushing German victory.
+
+Although during the years of bitter warfare which followed this silent
+_coup de main_ the German fleet many times showed signs of awakening
+ambition, it did not, after Jutland, dare to thrust even its vanguard
+far into the open sea. Behind its forts, mines and submarines it waited,
+growing weaker with the dry-rot of inaction, for the chance that fickle
+Fortune might place a single unit of the Allied fleet within easy reach
+of its whole mailed-fist.
+
+With a great and modern fleet--the second strongest in the
+world--awaiting its chance less than twenty hours' steam from the coast
+of Great Britain, it quickly became evident that the old Mistress of
+the Seas would have to call upon her islanders to supply a "new navy" to
+scour the oceans while her main battle squadrons waited and watched for
+the second Trafalgar.
+
+Faced, then, with the problem of a long blockade, a powerful fleet in
+readiness to strike at any weak or unduly exposed point of land or
+squadron, and with similar problems on a decreasing scale imposed by
+Austria in the Adriatic and by Turkey behind the Dardanelles, the work
+of the main battle fleets became well defined by the commonest laws of
+naval strategy.
+
+All this without taking into account the widespread menace of submarines
+and mines, and, in the earlier stages of the war, the rounding-up of
+detached enemy squadrons, such as that under Von Spee in South American
+waters, and the protection of the transport and food ships from raiders
+like the _Wolfe_ and the _Moewe_.
+
+The German High Command realised this as quickly as that of the Allies.
+Their oversea commerce was strangled within a few days of the
+Declaration of War with Great Britain, and their fleet was confined to
+harbour, with the exception of occasional operations against Russia in
+the Baltic. From the German standpoint the naval problem resolved itself
+into one of how best to strike at the lines of communication of the
+Allies, paying special attention, first, to the transport of troops,
+and, second, to England's food supply. As they alone knew to what extent
+they would violate the laws of war and of humanity, it became apparent
+that the submarine and the mine were the only possible weapons which
+could be used for this purpose in face of the superior fleets of the
+Allies. But the number of these weapons was strictly limited compared
+with the immense shipping resources at the command of the Western
+Powers, so one submarine must do the work of many, and an effort was
+made to accomplish this by a reign of sea terrorism and inhuman conduct
+unparalleled in the history of the world. It opened with the sinking of
+the _Lusitania_.
+
+The Allies had secured and maintained the command of the sea, and _all
+that it implies_, but to do this with the certainty of correct strategy
+they had to dedicate almost their entire battle fleet to the purpose for
+which battle fleets have always been intended--the checkmating or
+annihilation of the opposing navy.
+
+There came a second problem, however, one entirely new to sea warfare,
+and unconsidered or provided against in its strategic and tactical
+entirety because hitherto deemed too inhuman for modern war. This was
+the ruthless use of armed submarines against unarmed passenger and
+merchant ships, and the scattering broadcast over the seas, regardless
+of the lives and property of neutrals, of thousands of explosive mines.
+
+The type of ship constructed exclusively for open sea warfare against
+surface adversaries was not the best answer to the submarine. The
+blockading of the hostile surface fleet did not prevent, or even greatly
+hinder, the free passage of submarine flotillas, and the building by
+Germany of under-water mine-layers enabled fields of these weapons to be
+laid anywhere within the carrier's radius of action.
+
+In this way the second, or submarine, phase of the naval war opened, and
+it was to supplement the comparatively few fast destroyers and other
+suitable ships which could be spared from the main fleets that the "new
+navy" was formed.
+
+
+THE SHIPS
+
+The area of the North Sea alone exceeds 140,000 square miles, and when
+the whole vast stretch of water encompassed by what was known as the
+radius of action of hostile submarines, from their bases on the German,
+Belgian, Austrian, Turkish and Bulgarian coasts, had to be considered as
+a possible zone of operations for German and Austrian under-water
+flotillas, much of the water surface of the world was included. Likewise
+the network of sea communications on which the Allies depended for the
+maintenance of essential transport and communication comprised the
+pathways of the seven seas. To patrol all these routes adequately, and
+to guard the food and troop ships, hastening in large numbers to the aid
+of the Motherland from the most distant corners of the earth; to protect
+the 1500 miles sea frontier of the British Isles; to give timely aid to
+sinking or hard-pressed units of the mercantile fleet; to hound the
+submarine from the under-seas and to sweep clear, almost weekly, several
+thousand square miles of sea, from Belle Isle to Cape Town and the
+Orkneys to Colombo, required ships, not in tens, but in thousands. To
+find these in an incredibly short space of time became the primary naval
+need of the moment.
+
+Who that lived through those days will forget the struggle to supply
+ships and guns? The searching of every harbour for craft, from motor
+boats to old-time sailing-ships, and from fishing craft to liners. The
+scouring of the Dominions and Colonies. How blessed was their aid! Help,
+generous and spontaneous, came from all quarters, including the most
+unexpected. Over five hundred fast patrol boats, or motor launches, in
+less than twelve months from Canada and America. Guns from Japan.
+Coasting steamers from India, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
+Seaplanes from the Crown Colonies. Rifles from Canada. Machine guns from
+the United States. Ambulances from English and Colonial women's leagues.
+In fact, contributions to the "new navy" from all corners of the earth.
+
+To patrol the coasts of Britain alone, and to keep its harbours and
+coastal trade routes clear of mines, needed over 3500 ships, with at
+least an equal number of guns, 30,000 rifles and revolvers, and millions
+of shells.
+
+In addition to this huge fleet other smaller squadrons were required for
+the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal and Red Sea, the East and West
+Indies, the coasts of the Dominions and Colonies, and for the Russian
+lines of communication in the White Sea. For these oversea bases just
+under 1000 ships were required, exclusive of those locally supplied by
+the Dominions and Colonies themselves.
+
+All this without considering the main battle fleets or, in fact, any
+portion of the regular navy, and the ships required for the transport of
+food, troops and munitions of war, together with their escorts. Some
+idea of the numbers engaged in keeping the Allies supplied with the
+diverse necessities of life and war may be gathered from the fact that
+the average sailings in and out of the harbours of the United Kingdom
+alone during the four years of war amounted to over 1200 a week.
+
+The immense fleet forming the new navy was not homogeneous in design,
+power, appearance or, in fact, in anything except the spirit of the
+personnel and the flag beneath which they fought--and alas! nearly 4000
+died. The squadrons, or units, as they were called, consisted of fine
+steam yachts, liners from the ocean trade routes, sturdy sea tramps,
+deep-sea trawlers, oilers, colliers, drifters, paddle steamers, and the
+more uniform and specially built fighting sloops, whalers, motor
+launches and coastal motor boats. The latter type of craft was aided by
+its great speed, nearly fifty miles an hour; but more about these ships
+and their curious armament later.
+
+
+WAR BASES
+
+The great auxiliary navy had to be built or obtained without depleting
+the ordinary mercantile fleets, and the shipbuilding and repairing
+yards, even in the smallest sea and river ports, worked day and night.
+The triumph was as wonderful as it was speedy. In less than fifteen
+months from August, 1914, the new navy was a gigantic force, and its
+operations extended from the Arctic Sea to the Equator. All units were
+armed, manned and linked up by wireless and a common cause.
+
+Before this could be accomplished, however, the problem of maintaining
+this vast fleet and adequately controlling its operations had to be
+faced and overcome. The seas adjacent to the coasts of the United
+Kingdom, the Mediterranean Littoral and Colonial waters were divided
+into "patrol areas" on special secret charts, and each "area" had its
+own naval base, with harbour, stores, repairing and docking facilities,
+intelligence centre, wireless and signal stations, reserve of officers
+and men, social headquarters, workshops and medical department.
+
+Each base was under the command of an admiral and staff, many of the
+former returning to duty, after several years of well-earned rest, as
+captains and commodores, with salaries commensurate with their reduced
+rank. Their staffs consisted of some six to twelve officers of the new
+navy, with possibly one or two from the "pukka service," and their
+command often extended over many hundreds of square miles of submarine
+and mine infested sea.
+
+Of these bases, which will be fully described in later chapters, there
+were about fifty, excluding the great dockyards and fleet headquarters,
+but inclusive of those situated overseas. When it is considered what a
+war base needs to make it an efficient rendezvous for some hundreds of
+ships and thousands of men, some idea of the gigantic task of
+organisation which their establishment, often in poorly equipped
+harbours and distant islands, required, not only in the first instance,
+but also with regard to maintenance and supplies, will be realised,
+perhaps, however, more fully when it is stated that the average ship
+needs a month spent in docking and overhauling at least once a year, and
+that the delicate and more speedy units of such a fleet need nearly four
+times that amount of attention.
+
+
+HEADQUARTERS STAFF
+
+One of the first requisites of the auxiliary navy was the creation of a
+headquarters staff at the Admiralty, London. This was formed from naval
+officers of experience both in the regular service and in the two
+reserves (R.N.R. and R.N.V.R.).
+
+Forming an integral part of the great British or Allied armada, all
+operations were under the control of the Naval War Staff, but for
+purposes of more detailed organisation and administration additional
+departments were created which exercised direct jurisdiction over their
+respective fleets. The principal of these was known as the "Auxiliary
+Patrol Office," under the Fourth Sea Lord and the Department of the
+Director of Minesweeping. These formed a part of the General Staff--if a
+military term is permissible--and both issued official publications
+periodically throughout the war, which served to keep the staffs of all
+the different war bases and the commanding officers of the thousands of
+ships informed as to current movements and ruses of the enemy.
+
+It is unnecessary to detail more closely the work of these departments,
+especially as much has yet to be said before plunging into the maelstrom
+of war. A sufficient indication of the colossal nature of the work they
+were called upon to perform will be found in a moment's reflection of
+what the administration and control of such a large and nondescript
+fleet, spread over the world--from the White Sea to the East
+Indies--must have meant to the small staff allowed by the exigencies of
+an unparalleled war.
+
+
+OFFICERS AND MEN
+
+The greatest problem in modern naval war is, undoubtedly, the supply of
+trained men. For this reason it has been left to the last to describe
+how the difficulty was faced and overcome by England and her oversea
+Dominions in 1914.
+
+Before doing so, however, it may be of interest to give here a few
+extracts from an excellent little official publication, showing how the
+British fleet was manned and expanded in bygone days of national
+peril[1]:
+
+          "In time of war there has always been an intimate
+          connection between the Royal Navy and the Merchant
+          Service. Latterly, and more especially since the
+          Russian War of 1854 to 1856, this fact tended to
+          be forgotten, partly because men-of-war developed
+          on particular lines and became far more unlike
+          merchantmen than they had ever been before, and
+          also because, by the introduction of continuous
+          service, the personnel of the Navy seemed to have
+          developed into a separate caste, distinguished by
+          its associations, traditions and _esprit de
+          corps_, as much by its special training and
+          qualifications, from other seafaring men. This war
+          has proved once again, to such as needed proof,
+          that the two services cannot exist without each
+          other, and that the Sea Power of the Empire is not
+          its naval strength alone, but its maritime
+          strength. Even at the risk of insisting on the
+          obvious, it is necessary to repeat that, for an
+          Island Empire, a war at sea cannot be won merely
+          by the naval action which defeats the enemy; naval
+          successes are of value for the fruit they bear,
+          the chief of which is the power that they give to
+          the victor to maintain his own sea-borne trade and
+          to interrupt that of the enemy.
+
+          "An elementary way of looking at the problems of
+          manning the Royal Navy and the Merchant Service
+          is to consider that there is in the country a
+          common stock of seamen, on which both can draw.
+          But this theory, like many others equally obvious
+          and tempting, has the disadvantage that it leaves
+          important factors out of account and, if worked
+          out, results in an absurdity. Thus, shortly before
+          war began there were in the country some 420,000
+          seamen, of whom one-third were in the Navy and
+          two-thirds engaged in merchant ships and fishing
+          vessels. There was no considerable body of
+          unemployed seamen. During the war the personnel of
+          the Navy was expanded to something like the
+          420,000 which represents the common stock of
+          seamen. Therefore, if the theory met the case,
+          there would have been no men left for the Merchant
+          Service. But the merchant ships, in spite of
+          difficulty and danger, continued to run, employing
+          great numbers of men. And we must not forget to
+          take into account the number of men, amounting to
+          48,000 killed and 4500 prisoners of war, who have
+          been lost in the two services during the war. So
+          it comes to this, that the common stock of seamen,
+          or at least of men fit to man ships, has expanded
+          during the war by more than 50 per cent. Whence
+          came these extra men? Clearly for the most part
+          from the non-seafaring classes.
+
+          "The Navy in November, 1918, employed some 80,000
+          officers and men from the Merchant Service--viz.
+          20,000 R.N.R. ratings, 36,000 Trawler Reserve, and
+          20,000 mercantile seamen and firemen on Transport
+          agreements, plus the officers. If the supposition,
+          made in the absence of statistics, is correct
+          that at this time the number of men in the
+          Merchant Service itself had decreased
+          proportionately to the loss of tonnage, it would
+          seem that the Merchant Service needed no
+          considerable inflow of men during the war. In
+          other words, most of those added to the stock of
+          seamen during the war must have gone into the
+          Navy. This corresponds with known fact: the Navy
+          has, in addition to the Reserve men already
+          mentioned, nearly 200,000 men to demobilise in
+          order to put its personnel on the footing on which
+          it stood when war broke out.
+
+          "It will be of interest to see how the personnel
+          of the Navy expanded in former wars, and how at
+          the peace it was invariably reduced to something
+          like its pre-war figures. This can readily be done
+          in tabular form:
+
+
+NAVAL PERSONNEL (_Numbers Voted_)
+
+           Year    Name of War    Before War   Maximum    After the
+                                              during War    Peace
+          1689}                     7,040        --          --
+          1697}League of Augsburg    --        40,000        --
+          1700}                      --          --         7,000
+
+          1700}                     7,000        --          --
+          1712}Spanish Succession    --        40,000        --
+          1713}                      --          --        10,000
+
+          1738}Austrian            10,000        --          --
+          1748}Succession            --        40,000        --
+          1759}                      --          --        10,000
+
+          1754}                    10,000        --          --
+          1762}Seven Years' War      --        70,000        --
+          1764}                      --          --        16,000
+
+          1775}American            18,000        --          --
+          1783}Independence          --       110,000        --
+          1785}                      --          --        18,000
+
+          1793}French              16,000        --          --
+          1801}Revolution            --       135,000        --
+          1803}                      --          --        50,000
+
+          1803}                    50,000        --          --
+          1812}Napoleonic War        --       145,000        --
+          1817}                      --          --        19,000
+
+          1853}                    45,500        --          --
+          1856}Russian War           --        76,000        --
+          1857}                      --          --        53,000
+
+          1914}The Present War    146,000        --          --
+          1918}                      --       450,000        --
+
+          "It appears at once from these figures that the
+          naval expansion during earlier wars was in most
+          cases much greater proportionately than it has
+          been in this. Roughly the personnel in this war
+          has been multiplied by three; in earlier wars it
+          was increased six, seven, eight, or even nine
+          fold, if we take the difference between the
+          figures for 1792 and 1812.
+
+          "It is a common error to suppose that our ships in
+          the old wars were manned entirely by seamen. A
+          knowledge of how the men were raised shows that
+          this cannot have been so; and confirmation can be
+          had from a very brief study of ships' muster
+          books. Only about a third of the crew of a
+          line-of-battle ship were, in the seaman's phrase,
+          'prime seamen.' The rest were either only partly
+          trained or were frankly not sailor men. The
+          _Victory_ at Trafalgar was not an ill-manned
+          ship--here is an analysis of her crew: officers,
+          commissioned and warrant, 28; petty officers,
+          including marines, 63; able seamen, 213; ordinary
+          seamen and boys, 225; landsmen, 86; marines, 137;
+          artificers, 18; quarter gunners, 12;
+          supernumeraries and domestics, 37.
+
+          "During the whole of our naval history down to
+          1815 it was the invariable rule that in peace time
+          the battle fleets were laid up unmanned, and only
+          enough ships were kept in commission to 'show the
+          flag' and to police the sea. This accounts for the
+          very large increase of the naval personnel which
+          immediately became necessary when there was a
+          threat of war; and it accounts also for the
+          difficulty which was always experienced in raising
+          the men. This difficulty was even greater than we
+          are apt to suppose, for the Merchant Service has
+          never been able to give the navy more than a
+          fraction of the total number of men needed, and
+          the machinery for raising extra men has, until
+          this war, always been of a most primitive nature.
+
+          "When war came the ships were commissioned,
+          without crews. This could be done because from the
+          latter part of the seventeenth century there was a
+          permanent force of officers. Then the officers had
+          to find their own crews. They began by drawing
+          their proportion of marines, and then proceeded
+          to invite seamen to volunteer. In this way they
+          got a number of skilled seamen, men who had been
+          in the navy before, and came back to it either as
+          petty officers or in the hope of becoming so. Then
+          warrants to impress seamen would be issued.
+          Theoretically the impress was merely a form of
+          conscription, the Crown claiming by prerogative
+          the right to the services of its seafaring
+          subjects. Practically a good deal of violence was
+          at times necessary, as many of the men, preferring
+          to sail in merchant ships, or wishing to wait for
+          a proclamation of bounty, tried to avoid arrest.
+          The scuffles that took place on these occasions
+          gave the impress service a bad name, not
+          altogether deserved, for real efforts were made to
+          avoid hardship, and in any case the number of men
+          raised in this way was greatly exaggerated by
+          popular report."
+
+There was no compulsion during the Great War to join any unit of the
+British fleet. Therefore all were either in the regular service,
+reservists or volunteers. The need was made known not only throughout
+the British Isles, but also from Vancouver to Cape Town, Sydney and
+Wellington, and men in all walks of life, but with either the
+_Wander-Lust_ or true love of the wide open sea in their blood, rallied
+from all parts of the far-flung Empire to the call of the White Ensign.
+
+In order to obtain some 6000 officers and nearly 200,000 trained or
+semi-trained men, new sources of supply had to be tapped. Already the
+great battle fleets, brought up to full war strength and with adequate
+reserves, had absorbed nearly all the Reserve officers who could be
+spared from the food and troop transports.[2]
+
+First came the great sea-training establishment of the Empire--the
+Mercantile Marine and its retired officers and men--already heavily
+depleted. Then the yacht clubs from the Fraser to the Thames and Clyde.
+Thousands of professionals and amateurs came overseas to the training
+cruisers and the "naval university," Canada alone supplying several
+hundred officers.
+
+Doctors came from the hospitals and from lucrative private practices.
+The engineering professions and trades supplied the technical staffs and
+skilled mechanics. The great banks and city offices yielded the
+accountants, and the fishing and pleasure-boating communities, not only
+of Great Britain, but also of the Dominions and Colonies, yielded the
+men in tens of thousands. In this way the personnel of the new navy was
+completed in a very few months.
+
+Before passing on to describe, in the detail of personal acquaintance,
+the severe training of this naval force, a general knowledge of its
+heterogeneous character is necessary to enable the reader to understand
+this great assemblage of the sons of the Empire.
+
+[Illustration: A LARGE AND HEAVILY ARMED GERMAN SUBMARINE OF THE CRUISER
+TYPE
+
+_British Official Photograph_]
+
+In the smoke-filled wardroom and gunroom of the training cruiser, H.M.S.
+_Hermione_ one windy March evening in 1916 there were some eighty
+officers of the auxiliary fleet, and of this number one hailed from
+distant Rhodesia, where he was the owner of thousands of acres of land
+and a goodly herd of cattle, but who, some time in the past, had rounded
+the Horn in a _wind-jammer_ and taken _sights_ in the "Roaring Forties."
+Another was a seascape painter of renown both in England and the United
+States. A third was a member of a Pacific coast yacht club. A fourth was
+the son of an Irish peer, the owner of a steam yacht. Then came a London
+journalist, a barrister, a solicitor and a New Zealand yachtsman, while
+sitting at the table was a famous traveller and a _pukka_ commander.
+
+In the neighbouring gunroom, among the crowd of sub-lieutenants--all of
+the same great force, the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve--was a
+grey-haired veteran from the Canadian Lakes, a youngster from the Clyde,
+the son of a shipowner from Australia and a bronzed mine manager from
+the Witwatersrand.
+
+Among the engineers and mechanics the same diversity. Men from several
+of the great engineering establishments, a student from a North Country
+university, electrical engineers from the power stations and mechanics
+from the bench, with here and there one or two with sea-going
+experience.
+
+In the forecastle and elsewhere about the old cruiser--now merely a
+training establishment--were sailors with years of experience in both
+sail and steam. Fishermen from the Hebrides and Newfoundland rubbing
+shoulders with yacht hands from the Solent and Clyde.
+
+From this curiously mixed but excellent raw material a naval personnel,
+with its essential knowledge and discipline, had to be fashioned in
+record time by an incredibly small staff of commissioned and warrant
+officers of the permanent service, aided by the more experienced
+amateurs.
+
+It must, however, not be thought from this that the amateur was
+converted into a professional seaman in the space of a week or two.
+Three months of specialised training enabled them to take their place in
+the new fleet, but with some it required a much longer period to enable
+them to feel that perfect self-confidence when _alone_ in the face of
+difficulties and dangers which is the true heritage of the sea.
+
+To describe here the training of officers and men would be to repeat
+what will be more fully and personally described in succeeding chapters.
+It is sufficient to say that the aim was to bring them all to a
+predetermined standard of efficiency, which would enable the officers to
+command ships of specific types at sea and in action, and the men to
+form efficient engineers and deck hands for almost any ship in the Navy.
+
+The medical branches naturally required no special training and the
+accountants merely a knowledge of naval systems of financial and general
+administration. These two branches had their own training
+establishments.
+
+When the period of preliminary training in the cruiser _Hermione_ was
+over the officers were passed on to the Royal Naval College at
+Greenwich, and from there to one or other of the fifty war bases in the
+United Kingdom, the Mediterranean or farther afield. Their appointments
+were to ships forming the fleets attached to each of these bases and
+generally operating in the surrounding seas.
+
+In this way the whole zone of war was covered by an anti-submarine and
+minesweeping organisation and general naval patrol, which operated in
+conjunction with, but separate from, the battle fleets, squadrons and
+flotillas, which were thus left free to perform their true functions in
+big naval engagements.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Extract from _Naval Demobilisation_--issued by the Ministry of
+Reconstruction.
+
+[2] The personnel of the new navy consisted of R.N., R.N.R. and R.N.V.R.
+officers. The former came mostly from the retired list. The R.N.R.
+needed training only in such subjects as gunnery, tactics, etc. The
+training of the R.N.V.R. is here described.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE NEW NAVY--TRAINING AN ANTI-SUBMARINE FORCE
+
+
+HAVING described the _raison d'etre_ of the new navy, and how it became
+a fleet in being, with its own admirals, captains, staffs, bases and all
+the paraphernalia of war, I can pass on to a more intimate description
+of the training of the officers and men, preparatory to their being
+drafted to the scattered units of this great anti-submarine force.
+
+Lying in the spacious docks at Southampton was the old 4000-ton cruiser
+_Hermione_, which had been brought round from her natural base in
+Portsmouth dockyard to act as the depot ship and training establishment
+for a large section of this new force. Not all the officers and men of
+the auxiliary fleet were, however, destined to pass across its decks.
+This vessel was reserved for the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, from
+which a very considerable proportion of the entire personnel of the new
+fleet was drawn. Nor was H.M.S. _Hermione_ the first depot ship of the
+war-time R.N.V.R. at Southampton, for the Admiralty yacht _Resource II._
+had been used for the first few drafts, but was unfortunately burned to
+the water's edge. There were also other vessels and establishments at
+Portsmouth, Devonport and Chatham. These were, however, mainly for the
+reception and brief training of the more experienced Merchant Service
+officers, entered in the Royal Naval Reserve for the duration of the
+war, and for the surgeons and accountants.
+
+The men of the new force were mostly trained in the naval barracks and
+depot ships situated at the big naval centres, such as Portsmouth and
+Chatham. After a few weeks all these establishments were drafting, in a
+constant stream, the trained human element to the vessels awaiting full
+complements at the different war bases, or being constructed in the
+hundreds of shipyards of the Empire.
+
+About H.M.S. _Hermione_, which has been selected as being representative
+of the training depots of a large section of the auxiliary service,
+little need be said, beyond the fact that she was commanded, first, by a
+distinguished officer from the Dardanelles, and subsequently by an
+equally capable officer, who, by the irony of fate, had in pre-war times
+been a member of the British Naval Mission to the Turkish navy--both of
+them men whose experience and unfailing tact contributed largely to the
+success of the thousands of embryo officers trained under their command.
+
+The ship herself was a rambling old cruiser, but very little of the
+actual training was carried out on board. Spacious buildings on the
+quayside provided the training grounds for gunnery, drill, signalling,
+engineering and all the complicated curricula, of which more anon.
+Lying in the still waters of the dock, alongside the comparatively big
+grey cruiser, were the trim little hulls of a numerous flotilla of
+20-knot motor launches, newly arrived from Canada, with wicked-looking
+13-pounder high-angle guns, stumpy torpedo-boat masts and brand-new
+White Ensigns and brass-bound decks. These were the advance guard of a
+fleet of over 500 similar craft, to the command of which many of the
+officers being trained would, after a period of practical experience at
+sea, eventually succeed.
+
+There were besides numerous other mosquito craft, which throbbed in and
+out of the dock from that vast sheltered arm of the sea called
+_Southampton Water_ on mysterious errands, soon to be solved by new
+recruits in the chilly winds of winter nights and early mornings.
+
+This, then, was the mother ship and her children. When once the aft
+gangway leading up from the dockside to the clean-scrubbed decks had
+been crossed, and the sentry's challenge answered, the embryo officer
+left civilian life behind and commenced his training for the stern work
+of war.
+
+It may not be out of place to give here a closer description of the
+training of the officers and men of the new navy, drawn from personal
+experience. To do this without the irritating egoism of the personal
+narrative it will be necessary, as often in future pages, to adopt the
+convenient "third person."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The night was fine, but a keen March wind blew from off the sea. The
+dock lights were reflected in the still waters of the harbour. Tall
+cranes stood out black and clearly defined against the cold night sky.
+The shadows were deep around the warehouses, stores and other buildings
+of the busy dockside.
+
+Lying in the south-western basin was the big grey hull of the cruiser,
+newly painted, and looking very formidable, with its tall masts and
+fighting-tops towering into the blue void, and its massive bow rising
+high above the dock wall.
+
+Coming from the darkness on board were the tinkling notes of a banjo and
+the subdued hum of voices. Then the loud call of the quartermaster and
+the ringing of eight bells.
+
+A group of newly appointed officers picked their way carefully among the
+tangled mooring ropes on the quayside and as they approached the warship
+were duly challenged by the sentries. Two of them had only just arrived
+from distant New Zealand. They were all "for training," and on mounting
+the quarterdeck gangway were politely requested by the smiling
+quartermaster to report at the ship's office.
+
+In order to get from the deck to this abode of paymasters and writers,
+except by the tabooed "captain's hatchway," there had to be negotiated a
+long passage leading past the wardroom and the gunroom. In normal times
+at such an hour this passage would probably have been almost deserted,
+with the exception of a sentry, but the training was being speeded up to
+meet the demands of war, and with nearly 200 officers, many of whom
+fortunately lived ashore, constantly moving to and fro, it became either
+a semi-dark, congested thoroughfare, in which everyone was curtly
+apologising for knocking against someone else, or else it contained the
+steady pressure of a gunroom overflow meeting, with a tobacco-scented
+atmosphere peculiarly its own.
+
+When the formality of reporting arrival had been completed, the embryo
+officers were taken in tow by the "Officer of the Day," whose duty it
+was to introduce them to the gunroom and make them familiar in a general
+way with the routine of the ship. The officer who performed this
+ceremony on the night in question has since held a highly responsible
+post at the Admiralty--such is the fortune of war.
+
+The first shock came when the work for the following day was explained.
+It commenced with physical drill on the quayside at 7 A.M. and ended
+with instruction in signalling at 6 P.M.!
+
+     .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .
+
+The early morning was bitterly cold but fine. Physical "jerks" was not a
+dress parade; in fact, some of the early risers on the surrounding
+transports and ocean mail boats must have wondered what particular form
+of mania the crowd of running, leaping and arm-swinging men, in all
+stages of undress on the quayside, really suffered from.
+
+Breakfast and Divisions were the next items on the programme, and the
+new-comers looked forward to the day's work with the keen interest of
+freshness.
+
+_Morning Divisions_ and _Evening Quarters_ are events of some importance
+in the daily routine of his Majesty's ships. They are parades of the
+entire ship's company, with the exception of those on important duty,
+marking the beginning and end of the day's work. The crew, or men under
+training, are mustered in "Watches," under their respective officers,
+and stand to attention at the bugle call. The senior officer taking
+divisions then enters, a roll is called and the names of those absent
+reported. The chaplain stands between the lines of men; the order "Off
+caps!" is given and prayers commence. When these are finished certain
+orders of the day are read out to the assembled ship's company and the
+parade is over.
+
+At evening quarters, on certain days in the week, the names were read
+out of the officers and men detailed for special duties or for draft to
+a zone of war.
+
+When morning divisions were over the day's work began. The embryo
+officers were attached to the seamanship class, consisting of about
+twenty men of all ages. Oilskins were donned, for the sky was overcast
+and the wind keen. They climbed down the steel sides of the cruiser on
+to the small deck of a tender, which was to convey them out on to the
+broad but sheltered waters where much of the preliminary practical
+training was to take place during the following weeks.
+
+The instructor, an officer attached for the purpose, then divided his
+class into two "watches," one being directed to work out the proposed
+course of the ship on the charts in the cabin and to give the necessary
+orders to the other watch on deck, who were to carry them into effect as
+the ship steamed along, with the aid of sextant, compass, wheel,
+engine-room telegraph, lead and log-line. As all possessed some
+knowledge of the sea, and had experience in navigating, this work did
+not prove as difficult as it undoubtedly would to anyone entirely devoid
+of nautical knowledge.
+
+Those in the cabin with the charts worked out the compass courses from
+one point to another, making the necessary allowances for tide,
+deviation, etc. Others of the same watch received reports from the
+"bridge" and made the correct entries in the log-book. All elementary
+work, but which needed practice to make perfect, and on the accuracy of
+which men's lives would depend in the very near future.
+
+The watch on deck was engaged in the more practical work of coastal
+navigation and could see the effect of any mistake made theoretically by
+their companions below. At midday the watches were reversed. Those
+working at the charts and courses came on deck and the seamen of the
+morning became the navigating officers of the afternoon.
+
+On this particular day the second or port watch had the worst of it. A
+squally wind and rain had set in, making the work on deck thoroughly wet
+and uncomfortable. An hour or so later the small ship was rolling and
+pitching and everyone was drenched. The lead was kept going by hands
+numb with cold--a foretaste of the long and bitter days and nights to be
+afterwards spent in wintry seas.
+
+The training cruises were continued for many days and were interspersed
+with lectures on the elements of good seamanship, the more advanced
+theory and practice of navigation being left for a later course at the
+Royal Naval College, Greenwich.
+
+After seamanship came gunnery. Each of the different types of heavy but
+finely made weapons had to be learned in detail--a feat of memory when
+it came to the watch-like mechanism of the Maxim. Guns were disabled and
+had to be put right. They missed fire and were made by the
+instructors--old naval gunners--to play every dastardly trick
+conceivable. The final test which had to be successfully passed was the
+dismantling of each type of gun used in the auxiliary fleet and the
+reassembling of it.
+
+With gunnery came also the marks and uses of the different kinds of
+ammunition, the systems of "spotting" and "range-finding." Every gun had
+its officer crew and the rapidity of fire was recorded. Each man in turn
+was chosen to give the necessary orders and to judge the ranges and
+deflections. In this way not only was the practical work learned by
+heart, but also the theory of naval gunnery, so far as it related to the
+smaller types of weapon.
+
+The use of the depth charge, both mechanically and tactically, was
+expounded and practically demonstrated, together with that of the
+torpedo, the mine, mine laying and sweeping, and the peculiarities of
+various explosives. Rifle and revolver practice was encouraged, and
+morse and semaphore signalling formed part of the daily routine.
+
+The training was not entirely preparatory for work afloat. Squad and
+company drill, rifle and bayonet exercise, and manoeuvring in extended
+order formed a part of the comprehensive training. One day, not many
+weeks after their arrival, the officers whose fortunes have been
+followed found themselves shouting orders and directing by arm and
+whistle lines of dusty _camarades_ advancing over a common in the most
+approved military fashion.
+
+The training was not all hard work. The gathering of so many men from
+all quarters of the world, with a wealth of experience and adventure
+behind them, was in itself a source of mutual interest--and incidentally
+an education in modern British Imperialism. Scarcely any part of the
+world went for long unrepresented in either the wardroom or gunroom of
+the old cruiser _Hermione_ in those days of war, and many were the yarns
+told of Alaska days, hunting in Africa, experiences in remote corners of
+North America, pearling in the Pacific and life on the Indian frontier,
+to say nothing of wild nights on the seven seas. Grey heads and round,
+boyish faces, the university and the frontier, with a camaraderie seldom
+equalled.
+
+The period of training in the old cruiser was drawing to a close when
+each officer was appointed to "Boat Duty." There were five launches on
+duty at a time, and their crews had to be instantly ready day and night.
+The most coveted were the two 21-knot boats, used almost exclusively for
+the conveyance of pilots to and from the hospital ships and transports.
+Then came the patrol boat, a slow old tub with a comfortable cabin, and
+work out on Southampton Water at night. The three "duty boats" were for
+emergency use and were held at the disposal of the naval transport
+officer.
+
+The duties on each boat varied and were in the nature of training. The
+pilot boat was required to lie alongside the cutter, out beyond the
+harbour, and to convey the pilots at high speed to and from the stream
+of shipping. It was a pleasant duty which entailed alternate nights in
+the generous, breezy company of the old sea-dogs of the cutter, with
+occasional races at half-a-mile a minute through the darkness and spray
+to the moving leviathans of the ocean.
+
+The patrol ambled up and down the sheltered waterways during the day and
+night, examining the "permits" of fishermen and preventing the movement
+of small craft during the hours of darkness, when the long lines of
+troop-ships were leaving for France.
+
+The work of the duty boats varied from day to day, but there was always
+the morning and evening mail to be collected from and delivered to the
+ships of the auxiliary fleet lying out in the fair-way.
+
+When this spell of water-police work was over there came a few days'
+practice in the handling of the fast sea-going patrol launches, or
+"M.L.'s," about which so much has since been written in the daily
+papers.
+
+After the cramming received in the lecture-rooms, the arduous drill and
+the somewhat monotonous work on the slow-moving tenders, the runs
+seaward on these new and trim little vessels, the manoeuvring at
+nineteen knots, the breeze of passage and the feeling of controlled
+power acted as an elixir on both mind and body. Then came firing
+practice in the open sea. The sharp crack of cordite, the tongues of
+livid flame, the scream of the shells, the white splashes of the
+ricochet and the salt sea breezes.
+
+Two days later the preliminary training was over and there loomed ahead
+a period of hard study at the Royal Naval College.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+A NAVAL UNIVERSITY IN TIME OF WAR
+
+
+BUILT by King Charles I. for the Stuart navy, and used for over two and
+a half centuries as the university of the Senior Service, the Royal
+Naval College, Greenwich, is a building with an historic past. It has
+housed, fed and taught many of England's most illustrious sailors.
+
+It was to cabin and lecture hall in this fine old building that officers
+of the new navy went to complete their knowledge of navigation and
+kindred subjects when their preliminary sea training came to a close.
+
+There is but little romance in a highly specialised course of study
+designed to enable the recipients to find their way with safety, both in
+sunshine and storm, over the vast water surface of the world. To
+describe here the subjects taught would only be wearisome and
+uninteresting. Sufficient to say that the course was a most
+comprehensive one and admirably arranged by masters of the mariner's
+art. If any fault can be found it is certainly not one of paucity of
+information, and the proof of its efficacy can be found in the fact
+that, so far as the author knows, there was not a single ship,
+afterwards commanded by officers who underwent this training, lost
+through insufficient knowledge of the art of navigation.
+
+The days spent in the Naval College were fully occupied by attendance at
+lectures and the evenings in private study and the preparation of
+elaborate notes and sketches for the final passing-out examination.
+There was one moment of each day which was rendered historic by old
+custom. It came at the conclusion of dinner in the big white hall, when
+the officer whose turn it happened to be rose to his feet and gave the
+toast of the navy--"Gentlemen, the King!"
+
+It was in the grounds of this college that many officers saw their first
+zeppelin raid. On one occasion it occurred late in the fourth week of
+the course. Nearly all were in their respective studies, surrounded by a
+mass of papers, charts, drawing instruments and books, making the last
+determined attack on various knotty problems previous to the final
+examination.
+
+Ten P.M. had just been registered by the electric clocks in the famous
+observatory overlooking the college, when the sound of running feet came
+down the long corridors. A stentorian voice shouted: "All lights out!"
+
+In a moment the whole building, with its labyrinth of corridors, was
+plunged into Ethiopian darkness. Doors were opened and a jostling crowd
+of men groped their way down passages and stone staircases into the
+grounds. Here the Admiral and his staff were making sure that no lights
+were visible. Traffic in the near-by thoroughfare had been stopped, and
+all around lay the Great Metropolis, oppressively dark and still.
+
+A searchlight flashed heavenwards and was followed by other beams. All
+of these suddenly concentrated on the gleaming white hull of a zeppelin,
+high in the indigo sky. The ground trembled under the fire of the
+anti-aircraft batteries. Shells whistled and moaned over the College and
+bright flashes came from little puffs of white smoke high in the central
+blue.
+
+Dull-sounding but earth-shaking booms came from different points as the
+airship dropped her deadly cargo. Shrapnel fell on the congested
+house-tops with a peculiar hiss and thud and ambulances rumbled over the
+stone-paved high-road.
+
+It was a small incident and scarcely worth the space required for its
+recording, but it served a purpose--to steel the heart and steady the
+hand for the time to come.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE NEW FLEETS IN BEING
+
+
+BACK once again on the old cruiser with training completed and awaiting
+draft to the zones of war. Then came the sailing orders. The name of
+each officer was called in turn and he disappeared into the ship's
+office, to return a few minutes later carrying a sheaf of white and blue
+Admiralty orders, his face grave or gay according to destination.
+
+Some were for the Spanish Main and bemoaned their fate at being ordered
+to a station so remote from the principal zone of war. Others were
+destined for the Mediterranean and comforted themselves with hopes that
+trouble was brewing elsewhere than in the Adriatic, to which a lucky few
+were appointed. The Suez Canal and Egypt claimed their share, but by far
+the greater number were bound for the misty northern seas.
+
+About the training given to the 200,000 men little can be said here
+because of its diversity. They came as volunteers from all quarters of
+the globe, were collected at the great depots in Portsmouth, Chatham and
+Devonport, were trained in the art of signalling, squad drill, gunnery,
+seamanship and the hundred and one things required by the "handy man,"
+then belched forth into the ships.
+
+Some had sailed the sea for years before in vessels of all kinds and
+needed little more than the sense of cohesion and unquestioning
+obedience imparted by discipline and drill. Others knew more of the
+working of a loom, or the extraction of coal, than of seamanship, and
+spent a cheerful but arduous few months in training depots and on
+special ships completing their education. Cooks there were who could
+make little else besides Scotch broth, while others, the engineers--or
+motor mechanics, as they were called when appointed to some of the
+petrol-driven patrol boats--knew their profession or trade better than
+they could be taught, and proved themselves untiring and indomitable
+when it came to the real thing--as will be seen later.
+
+Having now described the training of both officers and men, we come to
+the ships they were called upon to navigate down to the seas of
+adventure.
+
+
+ARMED LINERS
+
+To set on record the formation of the ships of the new navy in
+divisions, squadrons or units, and to classify them here under separate
+headings--an easy enough matter with regular fleets constructed for
+definite duties--is a task of considerable difficulty with a
+heterogeneous fleet composed of several thousand vessels with seldom two
+alike.
+
+Beginning with the ocean liners, as the largest and most powerfully
+armed of the new fleet: these were mostly grouped for administrative
+purposes in one large formation, known as the "Tenth Cruiser Squadron."
+But when at sea they operated in smaller units and frequently as single
+ship patrols. Their principal zone of activity was the vast stretch of
+Arctic sea extending from Norway and North Russia to Iceland, the
+Hebrides and Labrador. Their work was arduous in the extreme, as will
+easily be realised from the nature of the seas in which they primarily
+operated.
+
+Strictly speaking, were distinct divisions possible, the Tenth Cruiser
+Squadron did not form part of the auxiliary navy in its true sense,
+although many of the officers and men were drawn from newly raised
+corps. It acted rather as a distinct patrol fleet, filling the wide gap
+of sea between Scotland and the Arctic ice.
+
+
+FIGHTING SLOOPS
+
+Next in order of importance came the newly built screw sloops, with
+powerful guns and engines. Their numbers varied and they were
+continually being added to. Some of these vessels were used for patrol
+duties and others for minesweeping. The sloop flotillas had many zones
+of activity. One was the North Atlantic, with special care for the coast
+of Ireland. Another was the North Sea, with a marked preference for the
+east coast of Scotland and the Straits of Dover.
+
+These flotillas also were frequently assigned duties independent of the
+auxiliary patrol organisation, but nevertheless formed an important part
+of the vast anti-submarine and anti-mine navy.
+
+In the Mediterranean also there were a number of patrol gunboats and
+minesweepers similar to the fighting sloops. Their principal base in
+this region was on Italian soil.
+
+
+ARMED YACHTS
+
+We now come to that portion of the auxiliary fleet whose special care
+was the seas around the United Kingdom and the Colonies. First came the
+armed yachts, over 50 in number, with tonnages varying from one to five
+hundred. These were obtained from the owners, armed as heavily as their
+size and strength permitted, and mostly became the flag-ships of patrol
+flotillas. They were nearly always equipped with wireless, hydrophone
+listening apparatus, depth charges and all the appliances for
+anti-submarine warfare.
+
+Their losses were not heavy considering the dangerous nature of their
+work and could almost be counted on the fingers of both hands. This was
+due mainly to their good speed and manoeuvring qualities. They made
+wonderfully efficient auxiliary warships, maintaining the sea in almost
+all weathers and accounting for quite a number of U-boats. These vessels
+were, of course, never used for the rougher work of minesweeping.
+
+
+WHALERS
+
+The whalers were few in number and resembled small destroyers. They were
+powerful craft and well armed, but their sea-keeping qualities left
+much to be desired. In fact, to use a naval term, they were dirty boats
+even in a "lop." It was said that if an officer or man had been for long
+in one of these ships he was proof against all forms of sea-sickness. A
+big assertion, as even old sailors will admit--but they call it "liver."
+
+
+MINESWEEPERS
+
+About the screw and paddle minesweepers little can be said beyond the
+fact that they numbered about 200 and performed some of the most
+dangerous work in the war. Many of them were old passenger steamers from
+the Clyde, Bristol Channel, Thames and south and east coast resorts, the
+famous _Brighton Queen_ being, until her untimely end on a mine off the
+Belgian coast, one of their number. The loss among this class of ship
+was about 10 per cent.
+
+
+TRAWLERS
+
+By far the largest portion of the auxiliary patrol units consisted of
+armed and commissioned trawlers. Their numbers far exceeded 1000, and
+nearly half were used for the dangerous work of minesweeping. About a
+trawler little need be said, for beyond what can be seen in the
+accompanying illustrations there is little of interest until we come to
+the question of their curious arms and appliances, fit subjects for a
+special chapter.
+
+A large number of these units were fitted with wireless and carried
+masked batteries of quick-firing guns. To give here their zones of
+operation would be to set out in detail not only the seas around the
+British Isles, but distant waters such as the Mediterranean and the
+White Sea. They had distinct duties to perform, which may be summed up
+as follows:--(1) minesweeping; (2) night and day patrols alone or in
+company over immense areas of sea; (3) convoy duty; and (4) fishery
+guard.
+
+Their losses were heavy, both in ships and men, amounting to about 30
+per cent. Many were the lonely sea fights engaged in by these vessels. A
+few will receive the praise they deserve and the remainder will rest
+content with the knowledge of duty done.
+
+
+DRIFTERS
+
+If numbers or losses were the dominant factors the armed drifters should
+be high in the list. There were engaged considerably over 1000 of these
+craft, and the losses amounted to about 20 per cent.
+
+It may be necessary to inform some of my readers that a drifter is not
+necessarily a vessel that is content to start out on a voyage and rely
+on _drifting_ to its destination, as its name implies. The term is
+derived from the drift nets used by these vessels for fishing in time of
+peace. They are, in almost all respects, small editions of the deep-sea
+trawler--_minus_ the powerful steam-driven winch for hauling in the
+trawl nets.
+
+[Illustration: SOME OF THE 550 MOTOR LAUNCH HULLS BEING CONSTRUCTED ON
+THE BANKS OF THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER, CANADA
+
+_Yachting Monthly_]
+
+For war purposes the holds of these, and many other types of auxiliary
+warships, were converted into officers' cabins, or gun platforms for
+masked batteries. A few carried special nets in which to entangle the
+wily "Fritz." Others had aboard special types of submarine mines, and
+one, commanded by the author, was used for the transport of wounded from
+Admiral Sir David Beatty's flag-ship, H.M.S. _Lion_, after the Jutland
+fight.
+
+These were, as might be expected, good sea boats, and carried out duties
+of great danger and value. Several hundred were fitted with wireless.
+Their zone of operations was far flung, extending from the Arctic Circle
+to the Equator. It was, however, in the unequal fights with German
+destroyers in the Straits of Dover and with Austrian torpedo boat
+destroyers in the Adriatic that they made a name for valour. In two of
+these engagements no less than six and fourteen drifters were sunk in a
+few minutes.
+
+
+MOTOR LAUNCHES
+
+About the now famous motor launches, or "movies," as they are called in
+the Service, much will be said in later pages. They numbered over 500,
+and, with but few exceptions, were a homogeneous flotilla of fast
+sea-going patrol boats, heavily armed for their size. Some idea of their
+appearance under varying conditions will be gained from a study of the
+illustrations.
+
+They were all commanded by R.N.V.R. officers, whose training on H.M.S.
+_Hermione_ and elsewhere has been described in an earlier chapter. They
+carried a crew of nine men and two officers, and their zones of
+operations extended from the icy seas which wash the Orkneys and
+Shetlands to the West Indies and the Suez Canal.
+
+It may be of interest to give here an extract from the American journal,
+_Rudder_, showing how these vessels came into being.[3] Although the
+hulls were constructed in Canada, and much of the assembling was also
+carried out on the banks of the St Lawrence, the engines came from the
+United States. It was to the organising ability of Mr Henry R. Sutphen,
+of the Electric Boat Company, New York, that the delivery of over 500 of
+these wonderful little craft in less than a year was due. Here is that
+gentleman's story of the "M.L." contract:
+
+          "It was in February, 1915, that we had our initial
+          negotiations with the British Naval authorities. A
+          well-known English shipbuilder and ordnance expert
+          was in this country, presumably on secret business
+          for the Admiralty, and I met him one afternoon at
+          his hotel. Naturally the menace of the German
+          submarine warfare came into discussion; we both
+          agreed that the danger was a real one, and that
+          steps should be taken to meet it.
+
+          "I suggested the use of a number of small, speedy
+          gasolene boats for use in attacking and destroying
+          submarines. My idea was to have a mosquito fleet
+          big enough to thoroughly patrol the coastal waters
+          of Great Britain, each of them carrying a 13-lb.
+          rapid-fire gun.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram showing principal characteristics of an
+armed motor launch. _A._ Wheel-house. _B._ Searchlight. _C._ Chart-room.
+_D._ Navigation lights. _E._ 3 or 13 pounder quick-firing gun. _F._
+Wheel and indicators in wheel-house. _H._ Hand pumps supplementing power
+pumps in engine-room. _I._ Hatchway leading to engine-room. _J._
+Hatchway leading to wardroom. _K._ Life-boat. _L._ Officers' cabins.
+_M._ Hatchway leading to officers' cabins. _N._ Depth charges (2 or 4).
+_O._ Deck box containing life-belts. _P._ Stern petrol tanks (2). _Q._
+Officers' sleeping cabin. _R._ Officers' mess-room. _S._ Galley. _T._
+Engine-room. _U._ Main petrol engines (2). _V._ Reservoirs of compressed
+air for starting main engines. _W._ Foreward petrol tanks. _X._
+Forecastle and men's quarters. _Y._ Men's lavatory. _Z._ Forepeak.]
+
+          "I explained that I had in mind two distinct
+          types. The first would have an over-all length of
+          about 50 feet, and would be fitted with high-speed
+          engines; such a boat would show a maximum of 25
+          knots. The alternative would be something around
+          80 feet in length, with slow turning engines and
+          a speed of 19 knots. I added that my preference
+          was for the larger and slower type.
+
+          "He asked how many units of that class we could
+          build in a year's time, and I told him that I
+          could guarantee fifty. He said that he would think
+          the matter over, and we parted.
+
+          "A few days later I had another interview and was
+          told that the British Government was ready to give
+          us a contract for fifty vessels of the larger
+          type, the whole lot to be delivered within a
+          year's time.
+
+          "On April 9th, 1915, the contract for fifty
+          'chasers' was signed.
+
+     .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .
+
+          "The _Lusitania_ sailed on her last voyage May
+          1st, 1915, and a week later her torpedoing by a
+          German U-boat was reported. My English friend was
+          sailing that same day from New York, and we were
+          giving him a farewell luncheon at Delmonico's.
+          When the appalling news was communicated to him he
+          appeared much depressed, as indeed was natural
+          enough, and also very thoughtful. Before he said
+          good-bye he intimated to me that he intended
+          advising the Admiralty to increase the number of
+          'Chasers'; he asked me if I thought I could take
+          care of a bigger order. I told him that I could
+          guarantee to build a boat a day for so long a
+          period as the Admiralty might care to name.
+
+          "After he reached England we shortly received a
+          cablegram ordering five hundred additional
+          'Sutphens,' our code word for submarine 'Chaser';
+          in other words we were now asked to build five
+          hundred and fifty of these boats and deliver them
+          in complete running order by November 15th, 1915."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of armed motor launch, showing internal
+arrangements. _A._ Officers' sleeping cabin. _B.B._ Bunks. _C._
+Cupboard. _D._ Lavatory. _E.E._ Stern petrol tanks. _F._ Wardroom. _G._
+Table. _H._ Settee. _I._ Galley. _J._ Petrol stove. _K._ Engine-room.
+_L.L._ Main engines. _M._ Compressed air reservoirs. _N._ Auxiliary
+petrol engine driving dynamo, bilge pumps, fire pumps and air
+compressor. _O._ Electric storage batteries, switchboard and electrical
+starting arrangements for auxiliary engine. _P._ Chart-room with petrol
+tanks below. _Q._ Magazine. _R._ Fresh-water tanks. _S._ Forecastle.
+_T._ Bunks for crew. _U._ Forecastle lavatory. _V._ Watertight
+forepeak.]
+
+The armament of a motor launch consisted of a 13-pounder quick-firing
+high-angle gun, capable of throwing a lyddite shell for over four miles,
+and was as useful against aircraft as it was against submarines. In
+addition to this heavy gun for small craft they carried about 1200 lb.
+of high explosive in the form of depth charges for bombing under-water
+craft, a Lewis machine gun, rifles and revolvers.
+
+These vessels were driven by twin screws connected to twin engines of
+about 500 h.p. They possessed, in addition, an auxiliary petrol engine
+of about 60 h.p. for compressing the air required to start the main
+engines, for working the fire and bilge pumps, and for driving a dynamo
+to recharge the electric storage batteries. The triple tanks carried
+over 3000 gallons of petrol, and the consumption, when travelling at
+full speed, was a gallon a minute.
+
+Many were fitted with wireless, and all of them had on board the most
+approved pattern of hydrophone, with which to listen below the surface
+for the movements of hostile submarines. They had electric light in the
+cabins and for navigation, fighting and mast-head signalling purposes. A
+moderately powerful searchlight, fitted with a Morse signalling shutter,
+was also part of their equipment.
+
+These little miniature warships possessed a small wardroom and sleeping
+cabin for the officers, a galley with petrol range for cooking, an
+engine-room, magazine for the ammunition, chart-room, and ample
+forecastle accommodation for the crew of nine men. All parts of the ship
+were connected with the bridge by speaking-tubes and electric bells, and
+the aft deck accommodated a steel life-boat.
+
+The duties of these craft varied considerably. For over three years they
+maintained a constant patrol in the North Sea, Atlantic, English
+Channel, Irish Sea, Mediterranean, Adriatic, Suez Canal, Straits of
+Gibraltar, and in West Indian waters. Only one who knows by experience
+can fully appreciate what work in these northern seas, with their winter
+snows and Arctic winds, and their chilly summer fogs, really means to a
+mere thirty tons of nautical humanity in as many square leagues of
+storm-swept sea infested with mines and hostile submarines. But when
+this book has been finished the reader will be in a position to judge
+for himself.
+
+The losses of motor launches were not heavy considering the dangerous
+nature of their cargoes (3000 gallons of petrol within a few feet of
+1500 lb. of high explosive in a wooden hull) and the duties they were
+called upon to perform in all weathers short of heavy gales. Several
+were blown up with terrible results to those aboard. Others caught fire
+and were burned--allowing only just sufficient time to sink the
+explosives aboard. A few were smashed to pieces on exposed coasts after
+struggling for hours amid heavy seas. One struck a mine off Ostend.
+Another was destroyed by shell-fire in the Mediterranean, and the part
+they played in the raids on Zeebrugge and Ostend, in which two were lost
+and a V.C. gained, is now world famous.
+
+
+COASTAL MOTOR BOATS
+
+There was, besides M.L.'s, another smaller but faster type of submarine
+chaser. These little vessels, of which there were about 80 actually in
+commission, possessed no cabin or other accommodation for long cruises.
+They were simply thin grey hulls with powerful high-speed engines. They
+were known as C.M.B.'s, or, to give them their full title, Coastal Motor
+Boats. The purpose for which they were constructed was to operate from
+coastal bases, and to be launched from ocean-going ships to chase a
+hostile submarine which had been located by seaplanes and reported by
+wireless in a given locality. This, however, was what they were
+_intended_ for, but bore little relation to the work they actually
+accomplished. Their nickname was "Scooters," and they certainly did
+"scoot" over the sea.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram showing principal characteristics of a
+coastal motor boat (C.M.B.). Speed 50 miles per hour. _A._ Hydroplane
+hull, so constructed as to rise on to surface when travelling at full
+speed. _B._ Covered wheel-house. _C._ Navigating well. _D._ Wireless
+aerials. _E._ Depth charges (2 small size). _F._ Manhole to
+engine-room.]
+
+There were three types of C.M.B.'s. One had a length of only 44 feet,
+and was intended for carriage on the decks of light cruisers or other
+moderate-sized surface ships. The armament was a Lewis machine gun and
+two depth charges for anti-submarine warfare. The next class were 55
+feet in length and operated from coast bases. These were fitted with one
+or more Whitehead torpedoes, launched by an ingenious contrivance from
+the stern. Class III. were 70 feet in length, and were commissioned just
+before the signing of the Armistice. They were fitted for mine-laying
+close up to enemy harbours.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plan of coastal motor boat, showing torpedo in
+cleft stern. _A._ Whale-back or arched deck. _B._ Wheel-house. _C._
+Navigating well. _D._ Engine-room. _E._ Foreward petrol tanks. _F._
+Forepeak. _G._ Depth charges. _H._ Cleft stern with torpedo ready for
+launching. _I._ Whitehead torpedo, launched stern first.]
+
+The maximum speed of the 55-feet C.M.B.'s, which were the most numerous,
+was 40 knots, or nearly a mile a minute. They were driven by twin screws
+coupled to twin engines of 350 h.p. each--working at 1350 revolutions
+per minute. Being of very shallow draught, some 26 inches, these little
+vessels could skim, hydroplane fashion, over any ordinary mine-field,
+and a torpedo fired at them would merely pass under their keel. The risk
+of destruction from shell-fire was also reduced to a minimum by their
+small size and great speed. Their principal enemies were, however,
+seaplanes armed with machine guns.
+
+[Illustration: A 40-FT. COASTAL MOTOR BOAT TRAVELLING AT FULL SPEED
+
+_Thornycroft & Co., Ltd._]
+
+[Illustration: A 40-FT. COASTAL MOTOR BOAT TRAVELLING AT FULL SPEED
+
+_Thornycroft & Co., Ltd._]
+
+It is not difficult to imagine a fight between a C.M.B. travelling at 40
+knots, firing with its little Lewis gun at a big seaplane swooping down
+from the clouds at the rate of 70 miles an hour, and splashing the water
+around the frail little grey-hulled scooter with bullets from its
+machine gun. This actually occurred many times off the Belgian coast,
+and is a typical picture of guerrilla war at sea in the twentieth
+century.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Diagram illustrating method of attack by C.M.B.
+on surface ship (or submarine on surface). _A._ Object of attack
+travelling in direction indicated by arrow _E._ _B._ The position of the
+C.M.B. after delivering the attack. _C._ The torpedo, released by the
+C.M.B. at point _D_, travelling on course ending at _F_, which, allowing
+for movement of ship _A_, is the place where the torpedo should strike
+its object of attack. From this it will be seen that the torpedo, when
+released, actually follows the ship from which it is fired until the
+latter swerves from the straight course, when the torpedo continues
+until it strikes or misses the object of attack, the speed of the
+torpedo being about the same or a little less than that of the C.M.B.
+The total time occupied in such an attack over a course of two miles
+would be about 2 1/2 minutes before the torpedo struck its object.]
+
+The C.M.B. was a purely British design, and the firm largely responsible
+for the success achieved was Messrs John J. Thornycroft & Company
+Limited. There were bases for these sea-gnats at Portsmouth, Dover,
+Dunkirk, and in the Thames Estuary at Osea Island. From all of these
+points mid-Channel could be reached in less than thirty minutes.
+Although useless in rough weather, a trip in a C.M.B., even on a calm
+day, was sufficiently exciting. The roar of the engines made speech
+impossible, and vision when sitting in the little glass-screened well,
+or conning-tower, was limited by the great waves of greenish-white water
+which curved upwards from either bow, and rolled astern in a welter of
+foam. There was an awe-inspiring fury in the thunder of the 700 h.p.
+engines revolving at 1350 per minute, and a feeling of ecstasy in the
+stiff breeze of passage and the atomised spray. When waves came the
+slap-slap-slap of the water as the sharp bows cleft through the crest
+and the little vessel was for a brief moment poised dizzily on the bosom
+of the swell caused tremors to pass through the thin grey hull, and, to
+complete the review of sensation, there may be added the human thrill of
+battle and the indescribable feeling of controlled power beneath one's
+feet.
+
+The C.M.B.'s record of service, although short, is nevertheless a
+brilliant one. Towards the close of the year 1916 four of these little
+vessels coming from the base at Dunkirk intercepted five German
+destroyers returning from a Channel raid. The scooters raced towards the
+enemy in a smother of foam. Every quick-firing gun on the German ships
+spouted shells at the mysterious white streaks approaching them with the
+speed of lightning. So close did these plucky little ships go to their
+giant adversaries that the blast of the German guns was felt aboard, but
+no shells struck them. Then the line of C.M.B.'s swerved and their
+torpedoes were launched at close range. One of the enemy destroyers was
+hit and badly damaged, while two others had narrow shaves.
+
+There was no time for German retaliation. For a brief few minutes the
+sea around the scooters was ploughed up by the shells from the Hun
+artillery, then the four little attacking craft were five miles distant
+from the scene of their victory, and presented almost invisible white
+specks to the enemy gunners.
+
+At Zeebrugge these craft ran close in under the guns of the shore
+fortifications, and covered the approach of the landing parties and
+block-ships with a screen of artificial smoke. At Ostend they entered
+the harbour under heavy fire and ignited flares to enable the
+block-ships to navigate in the darkness. Others, in the same operations,
+torpedoed the piers and silenced the guns mounted thereon.
+
+Their exploits savour of old-time sea romance, as, for example, when the
+little _Condor_ ran in under the guns of the fortress of Alexandria, or
+further back in our naval history, when sail and round shot took the
+place of petrol and torpedoes.
+
+For anti-submarine work these wonderfully fast little chasers were used
+in small flotillas. They were fitted with short-range wireless sets, and
+when the message came stating that a vessel was being attacked in a
+certain position, perhaps twenty miles from the coast, a number were
+instantly released from the leash, and in a fraction of the time taken
+by larger vessels they were on the scene with torpedoes and Lewis guns
+for surface attack and depth charges for submerged bombing.
+
+They were commanded, in many instances, by R.N.V.R. officers of the
+auxiliary service, and carried two engineers. No crew was necessary, nor
+was space available for them. The plucky dash of these vessels into the
+harbours of Zeebrugge and Ostend, their subsequent operations on the
+Belgian coast, and their losses in the action at the entrance to the
+Heligoland Bight in 1918, when they were launched from a big ship, have
+earned for them high renown in naval history.
+
+
+BOOM DEFENCE SHIPS
+
+In addition to all these types of anti-submarine craft there were,
+forming part of the auxiliary fleet, over 300 ships, mostly trawlers and
+drifters, engaged in maintaining the great lines of boom defences,
+closing vast stretches of sheltered waters frequented by the battle
+fleets, and a considerable number of examination ships, staffed by
+interpreter officers, whose duty it was to examine all neutral shipping
+passing through the 10,000 miles of the blockade.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+These, then, were the ships of the new navy, and their formation into
+flotillas, or units, was usually accomplished by grouping four or five
+vessels of similar type together under the command of the senior officer
+afloat--mostly a lieutenant R.N.R. or R.N.V.R. In the case of
+minesweepers the unit nearly always consisted of an even number of
+ships, because their work was carried out in pairs, and with M.L.'s it
+usually consisted of five boats, as this was the number required for the
+intricate tactical work of submarine chasing.
+
+There were, of course, units from the United States, French, Japanese,
+Italian and Brazilian navies, in addition to the formidable British
+armada.
+
+The auxiliary units were all based on one or other of the fifty odd war
+stations which encompassed not only the coasts of Great Britain and
+Ireland, but also the littoral of every land in our world-wide Empire.
+The numbers given here do not include the local fleets of purely
+colonial naval bases, nor the large flotillas of destroyers and "P"
+boats operating in home and foreign waters in conjunction with the
+auxiliary navy. If these were incorporated the anti-submarine fleets
+would be almost doubled.
+
+Now that the reader is familiar with the _raison d'etre_ of the new
+navy, the personnel, the ships and their formation into fleets, the
+scope and limitations of their activity, and of the losses they
+sustained, the way is clear for a description of the curious weapons
+used, the mysteries of anti-submarine warfare, and the bases themselves
+before entering the zone of war and seeing something of the actual work
+of the auxiliary navy.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[3] _Yachting Monthly_ and _R.N.V.R. Magazine_, August, 1917.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE HYDROPHONE AND THE DEPTH CHARGE
+
+
+OF all the weapons used in the anti-submarine war the two most important
+were the _hydrophone_ and the _depth charge_. They were employed in
+conjunction with each other and comprised the surface warship's
+principal means of offence against submarines operating beneath the
+surface.
+
+The hydrophone resembles a delicate telephone. It is so constructed that
+when the instrument is lowered over the side of a ship into the sea any
+noise, such as the movement of a submarine's propellers, can be heard on
+deck by an operator listening at an ordinary telephone receiver
+connected to the submerged microphone by an electrified wire.
+
+There were many different types of hydrophone in use during the Great
+War. So important was this instrument for the work of submarine hunting
+that money was spent in millions, and a corps of naval and civil experts
+were engaged for several years, bringing it to a state of efficiency.
+Each type introduced into the Service was an improvement on its
+predecessor, and there were different patterns for the use of almost
+each class of vessel. The fast destroyer required a different
+instrument to the slow-moving trawler. The motor launch could only
+employ successfully a totally different type to the submarine, and, to
+add to the difficulties, the German submarines themselves were
+generously supplied with similar instruments. The games of
+"hide-and-seek" played on and under the seas with the aid of this
+wonderful little instrument would have been distinctly amusing had men's
+lives--and often those of women and children--not been dependent upon
+the issue.
+
+The portable hydrophone, used by some of the smaller and slower vessels
+of the auxiliary fleet, consisted of a microphone, or delicate
+mechanical ear, carefully guarded by metal discs from accidental damage,
+and connected to ear-pieces or ordinary telephone receivers by an
+electric wire which passed through a battery. Where the wire came in
+contact with the sea water it was heavily insulated and lightly
+armoured.
+
+When it was required to use this instrument the vessel was stopped and
+the microphone lowered overboard to a depth of about 20 feet. This was
+the distance down from the surface at which submarine noises could be
+heard most distinctly. The operator on deck or in the cabin then
+adjusted the ear-pieces and sat listening for any noises coming through
+the water. Although the sea is a far better conductor than air, the
+range at which sounds could be heard varied considerably. On a calm day
+or night the noise of a ship's propellers could frequently be
+distinguished at from five to seven miles; whereas on a rough day, with
+the sea splashing and the wind roaring, it was often difficult to hear
+anything beyond half-a-mile.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Diagram showing essential parts of a portable
+hydrophone. _A._ Head and ear pieces, by means of which a trained
+listener hears submarine sounds. _B._ Flexible leads to enable an
+officer to verify reports from listener. _C._ Battery box, containing
+spare set of cells. _D._ Terminals. _E._ Terminals of spare cells. _F._
+Flexible armoured electric cable which is lowered over side of ship.
+_G._ Metal case protecting the microphone _H_. _H._ Microphone or
+delicate receiver of submarine sounds, which is submerged (when
+required, but not when ship is moving) to a depth of about 18 feet, as
+in small diagram. The sound is detected by the microphone and
+transmitted up the cable _F_ and wires _B_ to the ear-pieces _A_.]
+
+In fine weather a submarine could usually be heard at a distance of
+about two or three miles. There were, however, many microscopic noises
+of the under-seas which were picked up and magnified by this type of
+hydrophone. They were called "water noises," and often made it extremely
+difficult to differentiate between them and the sound of a moving
+submarine at a great distance. Later types were not so prone to these
+disturbing influences.
+
+To describe here the different natural and artificial noises heard on a
+portable hydrophone is extremely difficult. One general statement can,
+however, be made. It is the noise caused by the rapidly revolving
+propellers of both surface ships and submarines that is the guiding
+factor in the work of detection by submarine sound. A destroyer
+travelling at full speed on a calm sea, when heard on a hydrophone
+resembles the roar of a gigantic dynamo. The sound does not alter as the
+distance between the _stationary_ listening ship and the _fast-moving_
+warship increases or decreases; it continues to be a roar or low hum,
+according to distance, until it fades out of hearing altogether. The
+same statement applies also to a slow-moving cargo steamer, only in this
+case the _single_ propeller is revolving very much slower, and, when
+listening on a hydrophone about two or three miles distant, each
+successive beat of the engines can be distinctly heard.
+
+The simple movement of a vessel's hull through the water cannot be heard
+on a hydrophone. Therefore for detecting the presence in the vicinity of
+a _sailing_ ship at night or in a thick fog this instrument is quite
+useless. The same drawback applies also to the location of a floating
+derelict or iceberg, and restricts the use of the hydrophone to
+faithfully reporting the presence of power-driven ships or special sound
+signals at a range of a few miles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--An improved directional hydrophone fitted
+through keel of motor launch. The tube _B_, at the lower extremity of
+which is the microphone, can be raised or lowered from _C_, the cabin of
+the M.L. This instrument is so arranged that the direction from which
+the submarine sound is coming can be simply and quickly ascertained.]
+
+A German submarine heard at a range of about a mile on a calm night
+presents a curious sound which almost defies description. Its principal
+constituent consists of a "clankety clank! clankety clank!" at first
+barely distinguishable from the low swish of the water past the face of
+the submerged microphone, then louder when the sound has been
+distinguished and the human ear is on the alert. But when this sound was
+heard in war there was little time for analysing or noting. It was the
+call to action. The microphone was hauled to the surface and the chase
+began, a halt being made every half-mile or so for a further period of
+listening on the hydrophone. If the sound was louder the commander of
+the pursuing vessel knew that he was on the right track, and if the
+sound came up from the sea more indistinct the course was changed and a
+run of a mile made in the opposite direction, when the vessel was again
+stopped and the instrument dropped overboard.
+
+Should this manoeuvre have placed the surface ship in close proximity
+to the submarine, one or more _depth charges_ were released, and if the
+explosion of these damaged the comparatively delicate hull or machinery
+of the under-water craft, she had either to rise to the surface and
+fight for her life with her two powerful deck guns, or, if badly
+damaged, sink helplessly to the bottom, emitting oil in large quantities
+from her crushed tanks.
+
+Before entering upon a description of the depth charge, however, there
+is more to say of the hydrophone, which has played such an important
+part in the defeat of the U-boats.
+
+When the advantages of this instrument had been fully demonstrated in
+the stern trial of war, successful efforts were made to improve upon the
+original crude appliances. The "water noises" were reduced and, greatest
+improvement of all, the hydrophone was made "directional." By this is
+meant that when a sound was heard its approximate direction north,
+south, east or west of the listening ship could be more or less
+accurately determined. What this improvement meant to a vessel hunting a
+submarine in a vast stretch of sea will be easily realised. When the
+sound came up the wires from the submerged microphone the operator had
+simply to turn a small handle in order to determine from which direction
+the noise was coming.
+
+If, for example, the sound was first heard away to the east, the
+instrument was turned to another quarter of the compass. Then, if the
+noise was plainer, the instrument was turned again until the sound
+decreased in intensity. In this way the line of maximum sound was
+obtained, and this showed the direction from the listening ship in which
+the U-boat was operating.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Plan showing how microphones or ears _B_ are
+fitted in a submarine _A_ to enable it to detect the approach of surface
+craft.]
+
+With the perfection of this invention the hydrophone section of the
+naval service came into being. Special courses in the detection of
+submarine sounds were instituted for officers and also for seamen
+listeners. The actual movements of a submarine under water at varying
+distances from a hydrophone were recorded by a phonograph, and records
+made so that the sounds might be reproduced at will for the education of
+the ear. Surgeons with aural experience estimated the physical
+efficiency in this respect of would-be volunteers for the
+hydrophone-listening service, and vessels were formed into special
+hydrophone flotillas, whose duties consisted of listening in long lines
+for submarines and when a discovery was made attacking them in the most
+approved tactical formation, with the aid of depth charges and guns.
+
+A considerable measure of success attended these arrangements, and the
+author spent many cold hours listening at night for the sound of the
+wily submarine. On more than one occasion an exciting chase resulted.
+
+It must, however, be pointed out that there is one great drawback to the
+successful use of the hydrophone. It exists in the necessity for the
+listening ship to stop before the hydrophone is hoisted outboard, it
+being quite impossible to hear anything beyond the roar of the engines
+of the carrying ship so long as they are in motion. Furthermore, all
+progress through the water must have ceased and the listening ship have
+become stationary before artificial sounds, such as the propellers of a
+submarine, can be distinguished from the natural noises of the sea
+water.
+
+Now it will at once be apparent that not only does a stationary ship
+offer a splendid target for under-water attack, but also it allows a
+somewhat humorous game of hide-and-seek to be played between a hunting
+vessel and a hunted submarine.
+
+Nearly all U-boats were fitted with a number of hydrophones and
+therefore were as well able to receive timely warning of an approaching
+surface ship as the surface ship was of the presence of the submarine.
+But the surface ship had the advantage of speed.
+
+The result of all this was that when a German submarine heard a surface
+vessel approaching she dived to the bottom, if the water was not too
+deep or the sea-bed too rocky. Then shutting off her engines she
+listened. The surface ship, mystified by the sudden cessation of the
+noise she had been pursuing, also waited, and this stagnation sometimes
+lasted for hours. Then if the surface ship moved, as she was often
+compelled to do in order to avoid drifting with the tide away from the
+locality, the submarine moved also, and the one that stopped her engines
+first detected the other, but could not catch up to her again without
+deafening her own listening appliance. In which case the next move would
+probably be in favour of her opponent.
+
+All of this is, perhaps, a little complicated, but a moment's pause for
+reflection will make this curious situation clear to the reader. And so
+the game went on, with decisive advantage to neither the surface ship
+nor the submarine. Darkness usually intervened and put an end to further
+manoeuvring, frequently allowing the submarine to escape.
+
+A case of this kind occurred to a vessel, of a certain hydrophone
+flotilla, commanded by the author. For over four hours the U-boat eluded
+the pursuing surface ships by moving only when they moved and stopping
+when they too had stopped, darkness and a rising sea eventually
+favouring the escape of the submarine, which, a few hours later, was
+able to attack (unsuccessfully) a big surface ship less than thirty
+miles distant from the scene.
+
+Nevertheless the hydrophone is a submarine instrument with a brilliant
+future. It has already been improved out of all resemblance to its
+original self, and more will undoubtedly follow. It is, however, purely
+an appliance for the detection of submarines when cruising beneath the
+surface, and not a weapon for their destruction. It should also be
+remembered that any improvement made in the efficiency of the hydrophone
+will benefit not only the surface ship, but also the submarine, for it
+cannot be supposed that under-water craft will be left without these
+wonderful submarine ears when their surface destroyers are equipped with
+them.
+
+The alliance between the hydrophone and the depth charge is a natural
+one. The former instrument enables the surface ship to discover, first,
+the presence of a submarine in the vicinity, and, secondly, its
+approximate position. At this point its utility _temporarily_ ceases and
+that of the depth charge begins. When a surface ship is hot on the track
+of a moving submarine she endeavours to attain a position directly over
+the top of her quarry, or even a little ahead, and then releases one or
+more depth charges according to whether the chance of a hit is good or
+only poor.
+
+From this it will be apparent that whereas the hydrophone is the
+instrument used for the initial detection of the submarine, and
+afterwards for enabling the surface ship to get to close quarters with
+her submerged adversary, it is the depth charge with which the attack is
+actually made.
+
+This weapon is really a powerful submarine bomb. It consists of several
+hundred pounds of very high explosive encased in a steel shell, with a
+special firing device which can quickly be set so that the charge
+explodes at almost any depth below the surface after being released from
+the above-water vessel.
+
+The methods in use during the war for its release from the decks of
+surface ships were very diverse, the most usual being for a number of
+these weapons to be fitted on slides and held in place by wire slings
+which could be released by simply pulling out a greased pin or bolt.
+
+When the depth charge rolled off the stern of the surface ship it sank
+to the "set depth" and then exploded like a submarine mine. The result
+was a shattering effect exerted through the water for several hundred
+feet around. If the submarine was close to the explosion her
+comparatively thin plates were nearly always stove-in. When she was over
+a hundred feet away, however, the rivets holding her plates together
+were often loosened, and the resulting leak frequently compelled her to
+come to the surface, where she could be destroyed by gun-fire.
+
+[Illustration: DROPPING DEPTH CHARGES
+
+_British Official Photograph_]
+
+It often happened, however, that neither one nor the other of these
+things occurred, but that the submarine's delicate electrical machinery
+was thrown out of order by the violence of a depth-charge explosion,
+even when a considerable distance away. With the electric engines
+used for submerged propulsion no longer available, and possibly the
+interior of the vessel in darkness, there were only two courses open.
+She could either rise to the surface and endeavour to fight it out with
+the aid of her powerful deck guns, or else sink to the bottom and trust
+to luck that other depth charges would not be dropped close enough to
+seriously damage her hull. In the open sea, however, the latter chance
+was denied because of the depth of water. Three hundred feet may be
+taken as the greatest depth to which an ordinarily constructed fighting
+submarine can safely descend without running a grave risk of having her
+plates crushed in by the great water pressure. Even at this depth the
+weight on every square foot of hull surface exceeds 8 3/4 tons.
+
+If the damaged submarine rose to the surface the guns of her pursuers
+were ready and could generally be relied upon to place her at least
+_hors de combat_ before the hatches of the under-water vessel could be
+opened and her own guns brought into action.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Diagram showing how depth charges are carried on
+the stern of a motor launch. _AA._ Depth charges, each containing 300
+lb. of high explosive. _B._ Hydrostatic device by means of which the
+charge can be made to explode when it has sunk from the surface to a
+depth of 40 or 80 feet, and by which it is rendered comparatively safe
+while on deck. _C._ Slings holding charges in place on inclined
+platform. _D._ Greased bolts which, on being pulled out, allow wire
+slings to fly free and depth charge to roll into the sea. Depth charges
+can only be released from vessels under way, otherwise the explosion
+which occurs a few seconds after release damages surface vessel.]
+
+In shallow water where there was a fairly smooth bottom it generally
+happened that a submarine damaged by depth charges elected to sink to
+the sea-bed and trust to luck. This was also frequently resorted to as a
+means of eluding pursuit even when the U-boat was not damaged by the
+first few charges dropped. It was then that the hydrophones carried by
+the surface ships were again brought into use to ascertain if the
+submarine was still under way. When no sound was heard those on the
+surface knew that "Fritz" was lying doggo, or else that he had escaped.
+If a number of ships were available a few waited over the spot where it
+was considered the U-boat was lying, while the others scoured the
+surrounding seas in circles trying to pick up the sound of the runaway's
+engines if she had escaped in the melee. When nothing further was heard
+they returned to the scene and set about the work of systematically
+bombing the surrounding sea-bed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Diagram illustrating a depth charge attack on a
+submerged submarine. _A._ Motor launch, which has dropped a depth charge
+to destroy a submarine _B_ travelling at a depth of 90 feet below the
+surface. _C_ is the depth charge sinking as the M.L. steams away from
+the danger area. _D_ is the point (80 feet below the surface) at which
+it will explode, and _E_ indicates the danger area for the submarine
+_B_.]
+
+As many as one hundred depth charges were dropped in quite a small area
+of sea and yet a submarine known to have been lying "doggo" in the
+locality was not damaged. In cases such as this other means, which will
+be described in a succeeding chapter, were then resorted to.
+
+All the foregoing sounds very thorough and hopeful, but in fairness it
+must be said that submarine hunting is a heart-breaking task. The
+reader may have noticed that the method of depth-charge attack
+presupposes the surface vessel to have attained a position almost
+directly over the top of her enemy, a manoeuvre extremely difficult of
+achievement even with the most efficient hydrophone. Heavy seas, snow
+and fog have also to be taken into consideration, to say nothing of
+darkness, the presence of a second submarine, a surf-beaten rock or
+sandbank and the confusing sounds of passing merchant ships, making a
+difficult task more difficult, as will be seen when we come to the
+actual fighting.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+SOME CURIOUS WEAPONS OF ANTI-SUBMARINE WARFARE
+
+
+ALTHOUGH modern war has shown that there exists no certain antidote for
+the submarine, it nevertheless brought into being many curious weapons
+of attack and defence. It is the purpose of this chapter to describe
+some of the anti-submarine devices used with more or less successful
+results during the protracted naval operations against the Central
+Powers.
+
+
+INDICATOR NETS
+
+Among the most important of these were the immense meshes of wire known
+as "indicator nets," which were used to entangle a submarine and then to
+proclaim her movements to surface ships waiting to attack with guns and
+depth charges.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Diagram showing principal features of a line of
+submerged indicator nets. _AA._ Two sections (100 feet in breadth) of
+thin wire-netting with a very wide mesh. _B._ Framework of wire rope
+holding each section of net in place by means of metal clips _C_. _C._
+Metal clips which expand and release netting from rope frame when a pull
+of more than 100 lb. is exerted upon them. _D._ Line of invisible glass
+balls, or hollow floats, attached to a surface wire _E_, supporting by
+wires _F_, the nets which hang down from the surface vertically in long
+lines (1/2 to 1 mile in length and 50 feet deep). _G._ Heavy iron
+weights or sinkers holding down the nets by their weight when hanging in
+water. _H._ Wooden floats, attached to each section of net by wires _I_.
+_J._ Canisters of chemical which give off flame and smoke when exposed
+to sea-water. _K._ Lanyard attached to surface wire _E_. When a section
+of net is pulled out of its wire frame by a submarine passing through
+the line the float is dragged along the surface by the wire _I_. The
+lanyard is held back by being attached to surface wire _E_, and pulls a
+plug out of the canister _J_, exposing the chemical inside to the
+sea-water (see Fig. 12).]
+
+These nets were made of specially light but strong wire, with a mesh of
+several feet. They were joined together in lengths of 100 feet by metal
+clips which opened when a certain strain was exerted on any particular
+section. Their depth was usually about 50 feet, and they were laid in
+lengths varying from a few hundred yards to two miles. Weights at the
+lower end and invisible glass floats along the top held them suspended
+vertically from the surface. The floats were kept in place by a wire
+hawser running along the top of the nets, and to this were attached, at
+intervals, wooden buoys containing tin cases filled with a chemical
+compound which, when brought into contact with sea-water, emitted dense
+smoke by day and flame by night.
+
+The 100-feet sections were linked together, and to the top and bottom
+ropes, by the metal clips. These clips opened when a submarine headed
+into that part of the line. The result was that a section of net
+enveloped the bow of the under-water craft, was detached from the line
+and carried along, dragging its _indicator float_ on the surface behind.
+
+The indicator float, containing the chemical, was attached (1) to the
+section of net by a short wire and (2) to the top rope of the whole line
+by a lanyard, which, when pulled free, exposed the chemical contents of
+the canisters in the float to the sea-water. The float was then dragged
+along the surface burning furiously.
+
+As there was nothing to materially impede her progress, a submarine
+would consequently be unaware that she had passed through a line of nets
+and was actually towing a flaming buoy. Even if she became aware of the
+tell-tale appendage it would be extremely difficult to clear herself,
+owing to the forward hydroplanes becoming entangled in the wire-netting,
+before the fast surface ships, waiting in readiness, had spotted the
+flaming buoy being towed along and were hot in pursuit.
+
+Once entangled in such a net, the submarine's chance of avoiding
+destruction was small. Not only did the indicator buoy proclaim her
+every movement to the pursuing surface ships, so that she could not
+avoid them by turning, sinking to the bottom or doubling in her tracks,
+but it also enabled depth charges to be literally dropped on her decks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Diagram showing a submarine entangled in a
+submerged net. The submarine _A_ after passing through a line of nets
+emerges with her bows enveloped by one section _B_ which she has carried
+out of its wire-rope frame. The flaming buoy _C_, betraying her
+movements, is being towed along the surface.]
+
+A considerable measure of success attended the use of this ingenious
+device until "Fritz" became shy of waters close inshore, and kept a
+careful look-out for possible lines of indicator nets when forced to
+pass through narrow channels and waterways. One of the main
+disadvantages attending the use of these nets was the impossibility of
+laying them--or, when laid, of hauling them inboard again, during even
+moderately rough seas. Another difficulty which presented itself when
+indicator nets were required to be laid in the open sea was the
+screening of the waiting surface ships from observation. Submarines
+could not be used on account of their slow speed, and when fast patrol
+craft cruised about openly within easy range of the nets "Fritz"
+suspected a trap and steered clear. Even this, however, had its uses.
+
+
+MINE NETS
+
+It was sought to overcome this difficulty by attaching small explosive
+mines to the nets instead of indicator floats, so that when a submarine
+passed through a line she unavoidably struck one or other of the
+attached mines, which instantly exploded.
+
+This device also proved fairly successful, but the dangers of handling
+mined nets were considerable and disasters resulted. Furthermore, as
+such obstructions could not be securely moored in one spot for very
+long, owing to the action of gales and strong tides, it became necessary
+for the sake of neutral and allied shipping to maintain a vessel in the
+vicinity from which warnings could be issued and repairs to the nets
+effected. This partly defeated the object of mined nets, except for the
+closing of narrow fair-ways, and their scope as a weapon of attack
+became strictly limited.
+
+
+THE MODIFIED SWEEP
+
+This elaborate and costly anti-submarine device was very widely, but not
+altogether successfully, employed by the auxiliary fleet during the
+first two years of war. It was nothing more than a long explosive tail
+towed submerged by a surface ship, the object being to either drag it
+over a submarine resting on the sea-bed, or else, if the under-water
+craft was moving, to so manoeuvre the towing surface ship as to swing
+the tail close to the U-boat, when the heavy charges of T.N.T. attached
+to the armoured electric cable, forming the tail, would be exploded
+either by actual contact with the hull of the enemy, or, when
+sufficiently close to be effective, by the closing of a firing circuit
+on board the surface ship.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Diagram showing a vessel towing a modified
+sweep. This appliance consists of an armoured electric cable _G_ towed
+in vertical loop under the surface. The floats _D_ support the 100-lb.
+charges _E_, which have strikers attached. If a submarine _B_ is lying
+"doggo" on the sea-bed one or other of these charges may strike her hull
+and the whole line then blows up, shattering everything in the
+surrounding sea. If the strikers fitted on the charges do not touch the
+submarine the whole line can be exploded at will from the surface ship
+by closing an electric circuit.]
+
+Excellent in theory but very difficult of accomplishment in actual
+practice. The diagram given will explain the details of this elaborate
+contrivance, which, however, was soon discarded for more practical
+methods, although at least one German submarine is known to have been
+destroyed by it.
+
+
+LANCE BOMBS
+
+These little engines of destruction were intended for fighting at close
+quarters, and can be described here in a few lines because of their
+guileless simplicity. They consisted of conical explosive bombs on the
+ends of broom handles! A strong man could whirl one of them round his
+head, like a two-handed sword or battle-axe, and, when the momentum was
+sufficient, hurl it over the water for about seventy-five feet. On
+nose-diving into the sea and hitting the hull of a submarine in the act
+of rising or plunging, the little bomb, containing about 7 lb. of
+amatol, was exploded by contact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--A lance bomb. The wooden handle _A_ enables the
+charge _B_ (7 lb. of high explosive) to be whirled round the head and
+hurled a distance of about twenty yards.]
+
+The damage inflicted on one of the earlier types of submarines by an
+under-water hand-grenade or lance bomb depended entirely upon what part
+of the vessel happened to be struck. Their sphere of usefulness was,
+from the first, very limited, and the advent of the big cruiser
+submarine, with armoured conning-tower and 5-inch guns, rendered them
+obsolete.
+
+
+SMOKE SCREENS
+
+We now come to a more useful device of the purely defensive type
+employed to screen surface ships from submarine attack. The very simple
+mechanical and chemical apparatus needed for making the heavy clouds of
+smoke needs no description beyond that given in the text, but something
+must be said here regarding the methods of use.
+
+It was not until the third year of the Great War had been ushered in by
+the unprecedented sinking of Allied merchantmen by German U-boats that
+the value of the smoke screen as a means of baffling an under-water
+attack was fully realised. Convoy guards were supplied with the
+necessary appliances for emitting the fumes with which to cover the
+movements of the ships under their protection, and so successful was
+this method of blinding attacking submarines that within a few months
+thousands of transports, food-ships and warships had been equipped.
+
+When a submarine proclaimed her presence in the vicinity of a convoy
+either by showing too much of her periscope or by a misdirected torpedo,
+the guard-ships on the flank attacked immediately dropped their smoke
+buoys as they continued moving at full speed. By this means an
+impenetrable optical barrier was interposed between the attacking
+submarine and the fleet of merchantmen under convoy. When thus shielded
+from attack--a submarine values her small stock of torpedoes (six to
+ten) too highly to risk the loss of one or more on something she cannot
+even see--the mercantile fleet altered course so as to present their
+sterns to the attacking U-boat, while certain prearranged warships
+belonging to the escort proceeded to the attack with guns and depth
+charges.
+
+This means of masking the movements of ships--by no means new in naval
+warfare--was employed with conspicuous success in the operations of
+Allied squadrons off Zeebrugge. Individual merchantmen, when attacked by
+one or more submarines, often threw out a smoke screen to avoid
+destruction by the big surface guns of the more modern German craft, and
+its use to cover the movements of transports was very frequently
+resorted to.
+
+
+CAMOUFLAGE
+
+The use of camouflage, or the deceptive painting and rigging of ships,
+came first into being owing to the method employed by submarines for
+judging the speed of passing surface ships by the white wave thrown off
+from their bows. It is of the utmost importance for the commander of an
+under-water warship to correctly judge the speed of the vessel he is
+about to attack before discharging a torpedo at her. If the estimated
+speed is too high the torpedo will, in all probability, pass ahead of
+the moving target, and if it is too low it will run harmlessly astern.
+
+To cause this to happen as frequently as possible, and valuable
+torpedoes to be wasted--even if the attacking submarine herself could
+not then be discovered and destroyed--it became advisable to paint
+imitation white waves on the bows of slow-moving ships in order to give
+the appearance of speed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--A camouflaged ship. It will be observed that a
+vessel so painted would, from a distance of several miles, give the
+appearance of a ship sinking while headed in the opposite direction.]
+
+So successful was this simple form of deceptive paint-work that a
+special camouflage section of the naval service, with an eminent artist
+as its director, was formed, and all kinds of grotesque designs were
+painted on the broadsides and superstructures of almost every British
+merchantman operating in the submarine danger zone.
+
+There was method and meaning in the seemingly haphazard streaks of
+black, green, blue and white. When looked at from close range only a
+jumble of colours could at first be seen, but if the distance was
+increased the effect became instantly apparent. In some cases the
+deceptive decoration caused big ocean liners to appear small and
+insignificant. In others it gave the appearance that the vessel was
+sinking; while quite a favourite ruse was to cause the vessel to appear
+as if she was travelling in the opposite direction to that which she
+really was. Two-funnelled ships became single-funnelled, when viewed
+from a distance or in a dim light, by the simple expedient of painting
+one funnel black and the other light grey. Liners with tiers of
+passenger decks had the latter obscured by contrasts of colouring which
+were really masterpieces of deceptive art. In fact so deceptive became
+almost every ship in the dim light of dawn and dusk that collisions were
+often narrowly averted.
+
+It frequently occurred that paint alone was not sufficient to disguise a
+ship, and woodwork and canvas were resorted to. Big guns were made of
+drain-pipes and shields of the wood from packing-cases. Cargo boats were
+given the appearance of cruisers, and cruisers reduced to the appearance
+of cargo boats. In this way hostile submarines were induced to attack
+ships, thinking them unarmed and helpless, when in reality they were
+small floating forts. But at this point simple camouflage ceases and the
+famous _Mystery Ship_ begins. Before closing this chapter, however, it
+must be pointed out that camouflage only came into being when the German
+U-boats commenced their ruthless submarine warfare.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+MYSTERY SHIPS
+
+
+THE "Q" boat, or mystery ship, has been surrounded by so much secrecy
+that to most people its very being is an unknown quantity. Yet it is to
+these curious vessels of all sizes and types that the destruction of
+many hostile submarines was due, and the dangerous work performed by
+their intrepid crews equalled anything described in sea romance.
+
+The mystery ship was not a specially constructed war vessel, such as a
+destroyer or cruiser, but merely a merchantman converted into a
+powerfully armed patrol ship, camouflaged to give the appearance of
+genuine innocence, but with masked batteries, hulls stuffed with wood to
+render them almost unsinkable, hidden torpedo tubes, picked gunners, a
+roving commission and a daring commander and crew. Their work was
+performed on the broad highways of the sea, and they hunted singly or in
+pairs, often fighting against overwhelming odds with certain death as
+the price of failure.
+
+[Illustration: INNOCENT LOOKING BUT DEADLY, H.M.S. "HYDERABAD"
+
+The famous "Mystery Ship," powerfully built to resemble a helpless
+merchantman. Sitting almost flat on the surface of the sea the torpedoes
+from U-boats ran harmlessly beneath her keel.
+
+_Thornycroft & Co., Ltd._]
+
+
+[Illustration: THE HIDDEN TORPEDO TUBES OF H.M.S. "HYDERABAD"
+
+_Thornycroft & Co., Ltd._]
+
+The number of these vessels was not large, possibly 180, but their
+operations extended far and wide. They roamed the North Sea, the
+Atlantic, the English Channel, the Mediterranean, the Arctic Ocean
+and even the Baltic, but until challenged were quite unknown to all
+other vessels of the Allied navies. Theirs was a secret service,
+performed amidst great hardships, with no popular applause to spur them
+on.
+
+As all "Q" boats--as they were officially called--differed from each
+other in size and armament, any description given here can only be taken
+as applying to one or more vessels with which the writer was personally
+familiar. Some of these so-called mystery ships were old sailing
+schooners, others fine steamships, while quite a number were converted
+fishing smacks, drifters and trawlers, the method being to give the
+prospective commander a free hand in the conversion of his ship from a
+peaceable merchantman to a camouflaged man-of-war, and many were the
+ingenious devices used.
+
+One vessel fitted out for this desperate duty at a Scottish base was a
+steamer of about 400 tons burden. She was armed with a 4.7 quick-firing
+gun hidden in a deck-house with imitation glass windows, the sides of
+which could be dropped flat on to the deck for the gun to be trained
+outboard by simply pressing an electric button on the steamer's bridge.
+Two life-boats, one on each side of the aft deck, were bottomless, and
+formed covers for two additional 12-pounder guns. A false deck in the
+bow shielded a pair of wicked-looking torpedo tubes, each containing an
+18-inch Whitehead ready for launching; and the crew for each gun were
+able to reach their respective weapons, without appearing on deck, by
+means of specially constructed gangways and hatches. The very act of
+dropping the sides of the aft gun-house hoisted the White Ensign, and
+technically converted this unsuspicious-looking merchantman, which asked
+only to be allowed to pursue its lawful vocation on the high seas, into
+a heavily armed warship.
+
+This "Q" boat had, when met and challenged by the writer's ship, already
+accounted for no less than three German submarines which had opened the
+attack from close range, thinking her defenceless.
+
+Another smaller mystery ship was a converted fishing drifter with a
+single 12-pounder gun on a specially strengthened platform fitted in the
+fish-hold, which had been cleaned, matchboarded and painted to provide
+accommodation for the crew of picked gunners. This little ship had no
+torpedo tubes and the muzzle of her gun was hidden beneath fishing nets.
+
+There were, however, some very large and elaborately fitted "Q" boats.
+These had specially constructed torpedo tubes low down in the hull,
+masked 4.7-inch guns in more than one position, special chutes for depth
+charges, coal bunkers arranged round the vital machinery to protect it
+from shell-fire, and, moreover, were filled with wood to make them
+almost unsinkable even if torpedoed.
+
+Each such vessel was provided with a "panic party," whose duty was to
+rush to the life-boats when the ship was attacked by a submarine. This
+gave the final touch to the disguise, and often induced the submarine to
+save further torpedoes by coming to the surface and continuing the
+assault with gun-fire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Method of masking a 3, 6, 12 or 13 pounder gun.
+_A._ Stern of ship. _B._ Shield constructed to resemble a life-boat
+which can be raised or lowered over gun _C_.]
+
+The story of the sinking of the last German submarine in the war by the
+"Q 19" will give some idea of how these vessels worked. It occurred in
+the Straits of Gibraltar, about twenty-four hours before the signing of
+the Armistice. The Q 19 was waiting in the Straits expecting to
+intercept three big U-boats on their way back to Heligoland. About
+midnight the first of these craft came along, and sighting the
+innocent-looking "Q" boat prepared to attack her with gun-fire. For
+nearly an hour the mystery ship "played" the submarine by pretending to
+make frantic efforts to escape, but all the time allowing the
+under-water craft to draw closer and closer.
+
+The "Q" boat was under a heavy fire from the submarine, one shell
+wounding eleven out of the crew of sixty, another carrying away the mast
+and a portion of the funnel, but no sign of a gun was yet displayed on
+board the surface ship. This withholding of fire until the last moment,
+when the range has become short and the effect certain, is one of the
+great nerve tests imposed on the crews of all mystery ships. It is an
+essential of success, for a few wild shots at long range would disclose
+the fact that the vessel was heavily armed, and the attacking submarine
+would either sheer off or else submerge and use her torpedoes.
+
+When the chase had been on for about fifty minutes, and the submarine
+was only 200 yards astern, the "panic party" in the "Q" boat rushed for
+the life-boats. The shells were now doing serious damage to both hull
+and upper works, and the submarine was creeping close to give the _coup
+de grace_.
+
+At this, the psychological moment, the order to open fire was given. The
+collapsible deck-house, shielding the 4.7 gun, fell away on its hinges.
+Eleven shots were fired in quick succession, all of which struck the
+submarine. One blew the commander off the conning-tower and another rent
+a gaping hole in the vessel's hull. In less than fifteen minutes the
+fight was over and the last U-boat to be sunk in the Great War of
+civilisation had disappeared beneath the waters of the Straits of
+Gibraltar.[4]
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[4] One of the remaining U-boats afterwards succeeded in torpedoing the
+battleship _Britannia_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+A TYPICAL WAR BASE
+
+
+THE last few chapters have dealt mainly with the weapons used in
+anti-submarine warfare. We now come to the naval bases on which the
+fleets armed with these curious devices were stationed for active
+operations.
+
+Around the coasts of the British Isles there were about forty of these
+war bases, each with its own patrol flotillas, minesweeping units and
+hunting squadrons. The harbours, breakwaters and docks had to be
+furnished with stores, workshops, wireless stations, quarters for
+officers and men, searchlights, oil-storage tanks, coal bunkers,
+magazines, fire equipment, guard-rooms, signal stations, hospitals, pay
+offices, dry docks, intelligence centres and all the vitally necessary
+stores, machinery and equipment of small dockyards.
+
+To do this in the shortest possible time, and to maintain the supplies
+of such rapidly consumed materials as oil fuel, coal, food, paint, rope
+and shells for perhaps a hundred ships for an indefinite number of
+years, it was often necessary to lay down metals and sidings to connect
+the base with the nearest railway system. At many bases secure moorings
+had also to be laid by divers, and the channels and fair-ways dredged.
+The larger bases also required temporary shore defences, and booms
+arranged across the harbour entrances to prevent hostile under-water
+attacks.
+
+Then came the problem of finding the personnel. The ships had already
+been provided for, but to keep them in fighting condition, and for the
+work of administration, it was necessary to have a shore navy behind the
+sea-going units. An admiral from the active or retired list was
+appointed to each base as the "Senior Naval Officer." Then came
+additions to his staff in the persons of executive and engineer
+commanders, officers of the Reserve, chaplains, surgeons and paymasters.
+With these departmental chiefs came their respective staffs of warrant
+officers, petty officers, wireless operators, engine-room artificers,
+motor mechanics, shipwrights, carpenters, smiths, naval police,
+signalmen, storekeepers, sick berth attendants and parties of seamen.
+Finally, a generous supply of printed forms and train-loads of stores.
+
+This then, in brief outline, was the material which went to form the war
+bases of the auxiliary, or anti-submarine, fleets. In many cases much
+more was required, especially at such important depots as Dover, Granton
+and Queenstown. About the permanent dockyards, like Portsmouth,
+Devonport and Rosyth, or the Grand Fleet bases, nothing need be said
+here, because they do not come within the scope of this book. The same
+may also be said of that desolate but wonderful natural anchorage,
+_Scapa Flow_, the headquarters of the Grand Fleet in the misty north.
+Each of these mammoth naval bases had an auxiliary base for
+anti-submarine and minesweeping divisions.
+
+With a knowledge of these essentials a more detailed description of a
+typical war base and the work of its staff may prove of interest. Taking
+as an example a large depot, supplying all the needs of over a hundred
+erstwhile warships, and situated in the centre of the danger zone, we
+find a central stone pier on which has been erected a perfect maze of
+wood and corrugated iron buildings, with the tall antennae of a wireless
+station, a little look-out tower and a gigantic signal mast from which a
+line of coloured flags is aflutter in the sea breeze. The shore end of
+the pier is shut off from prying eyes by a lofty wooden palisade with
+big gates, in one of which is a small wicket. Outside a sentry with
+fixed bayonet paces to and fro.
+
+[Illustration: AFTER-DECK OF THE "HYDERABAD"
+
+Showing quick-firing gun on disappearing platform.
+
+_Thornycroft & Co., Ltd._]
+
+
+[Illustration: AFTER-DECK OF THE "HYDERABAD"
+
+Showing gun raised to firing position.
+
+_Thornycroft & Co., Ltd._]
+
+The first person inside the sacred precincts to greet the stranger is a
+keen-eyed "Petty Officer of the Guard." When the credentials have been
+examined the visitor is sent under the guidance of a bluejacket to the
+"Officer of the Day," whose "cabin" is inside the maze of corrugated
+iron and weather-board. The doors flanking the passages traversed
+display cryptic lettering, such as I.O. (Intelligence Office), S.R.
+(Signal Room), S.N.O. (Senior Naval Officer), "Commander" (usually the
+second in command of the base), P.M.S.O. (Port Minesweeping Officer),
+C.B.O. (Confidential Book Office), M.L.Com. (Motor Launch Commander),
+O.O.W. (Officer of the Watch), "Officers only" (the wardroom and
+gunroom combined), and, finally, the O.O.D., or the abode of that
+much-worried individual, the Officer of the Day, whose duties happily
+terminate when his twenty-four hours of administrative responsibility
+are over, only, however, to return in strict rotation.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--The central pier of a typical anti-submarine
+naval base. 1. Wardroom. 2. Sec. to senior naval officer. 3. Admiral's
+cabin (S.N.O.). 4. Flag commander (or lieutenant). 5. Base intelligence
+office. 6. Base commander. 7. Chaplain and gift store. 8. Drafting
+officer. 9. Store officer. 10. Chart-issuing office. 11. Cabin of the
+officer of the day. 12. Telephone exchange. 13. Warrant officers. 14.
+Pay office. 15. Fleet paymaster. 16. Paymasters and asst.-paymasters.
+17. Writers and W.R.N.S. 18. Engineer-commander's office. 19. Men's
+quarters (for base duties and reserve). 20. Men's recreation room. 21.
+Petty officers. 22. Men's mess-room and adjoining galley. 23. Sick-bay.
+24. Fleet surgeon. 25. Baths. 26. Baths. 27. Stores. 28. Boom defence
+office. 29. King's harbour master. 30. Hull defects office. 31. Police
+and cells. 32. Coaling office. 33. Wireless cabin. 34. Guard room. 35.
+Railway platform. 36. Sentry box. 37. Cranes. 38. Berths for armed
+yachts in harbour. 39. Motor launches in harbour. 40. Drifters. 41.
+Patrol trawlers. 42. Minesweepers. 43. Whalers. 44. Coastal motor boats.
+Larger ships, such as sloops, destroyers, "P" boats, coaling and
+ammunition hulks, lying out in basin.]
+
+Again comes an apologetic examination of credentials, possibly followed
+by a few minutes with the admiral commanding, and then the grand tour
+commences. First come the ships lying alongside the stone pier, with
+their short funnels belching black and very sooty smoke. These are the
+"stand-off" units, whose crews are enjoying a brief few hours ashore
+after days or weeks out on the dangerous seas beyond. Big drums of oil
+are being lowered by ropes on to their decks. The sound of hammering
+comes from more than one engine-room, where machinery is being
+overhauled. On the decks of several, men with little or no resemblance
+to the clean "Jacks" of the naval review are fondly polishing, painting
+or greasing the long grey barrels, steel breech mechanism, or the yellow
+metal training wheels of guns. Others are cleaning rifles, which have
+recently been used with special bullets for sinking floating mines. One
+ship is washing down decks after coming in late from night patrol;
+another is receiving its three-monthly coat of grey paint; while on to
+the deck of a whaler--black and ominous-looking--hundredweights of
+provisions in boxes and bags are being lowered from the quay.
+
+Astern of these lie two tiers of light grey spick and span motor
+launches, their decks spotlessly white, and their small canvas and glass
+screened wheel-houses ill concealing polished brass indicators, Morse
+signalling key, electric switches, binnacles and other paraphernalia.
+Behind these lie the 40-knot coastal motor boats, like miniature
+submarines, with torpedoes in cavities in their aft decks, and little
+glass-sheltered steering-wells. Further towards the head of the pier is
+a line of big flat Scotch motor drifters, built for rough weather with
+9-inch timbers, their decks a maze of wire nets, glass floats and
+brick-red chemical canisters.
+
+On the opposite side of the pier, in front of the S.N.O.'s cabin, lies a
+big grey yacht with four 12-pounder guns and an anti-aircraft weapon
+pointing over the sky-reflecting water. Lying out in the basin are big
+minesweepers, looking more like pre-war third-class cruisers, two
+slim-looking dark grey destroyers, a dredger and a few nondescript
+craft.
+
+Inside the first row of iron sheds are stores, with barrels of tar,
+drums of paint, immense coils of rope and a naval "William
+Whiteley's"--in which anything from a looking-glass to a ball of string,
+or a razor to a dish-cloth, can be obtained in exchange for a signed
+form from the Naval Store Officer, whose cabin near by is a maze of
+similar forms of all colours.
+
+Then a worried-looking man hurries by and the O.O.D. smiles. "He's the
+coaling officer, and there's some twenty ships waiting to get alongside
+to take the beastly stuff aboard," is the laconic explanation.
+
+A cabin marked I.O. is entered--every room is a cabin in a naval base.
+Here the walls are decorated with innumerable charts with mysterious red
+lines. A curious device, with the names of all the ships belonging to
+the base painted on wooden slides, reaches across one side. It is the
+indicator which shows at a glance the ships at sea and those in harbour,
+the names of those under repair, the unit to which each vessel belongs
+and when she goes out or comes in for "stand-off."
+
+This is the Intelligence Office, and signals and wireless messages from
+the patrols and battle fleets are being almost continuously brought in
+and carried out by messengers. The Commanding Officer (C.O.) of a
+minesweeper is making inquiries about tides and the exact position on
+the chart of a newly located mine-field. Another officer is locking a
+black patent-leather dispatch-case--he is the King's Messenger or, more
+correctly, the "Admiralty Dispatch Bearer," who carries to and from
+London and the fleets all the secret correspondence and memoranda of the
+Naval War Staff and other important departments. A big safe in the
+corner of the cabin contains the secret codes and ciphers used when
+transmitting messages, and two overworked officers are busy at near-by
+desks translating signals to and from "plain English."
+
+The next cabin contains the admiral's secretary and his staff of
+writers. Here a flotilla commander is receiving his "sailing orders,"
+without which no ship proceeds on a voyage. Adjoining this is the Pay
+Office, in which, with the exception of a newly joined recruit
+mortgaging his pay for two weeks ahead--he knows that he will be at sea
+for that time--there is a decided air of quietude. The rush in this
+abode of paymasters comes at the end of each month, when all the
+officers arrive in a body to demand the meagre fruits of their labours.
+
+Sandwiched between the clean and varnished cabin of the Base Commander,
+who is "taking" defaulters, and the camp-bedded apartment of the O.O.W.
+is a most interesting little combined cabin and store, presided over by
+the Chaplain. Here are piles of woollen socks, cardigans, balaclavas,
+mitts and other clothes knitted by the thoughtful women of the Empire
+for their sailor sons. Here seamen are estimating the cold-resisting
+qualities of different garments--for winter in the North Sea is the next
+thing to Arctic exploration. Officers are popping in and out to borrow a
+pile of books--thrice blessed were the senders of these donations. The
+corner of the cabin is piled with fresh vegetables, but alas! the cry is
+apples! No exhortations to righteousness adorn the walls, and the
+chaplain is joking with a big stoker who is distractedly turning over
+the cardigans in search for one large enough to encompass his massive
+frame. A signal boy slips in, gets chocolate, gives a breathless thanks
+and slips out just in time to avoid the playfully raised hand of the
+P.O. of his ship. Two deck hands, covered in coal dust, put their heads
+round the door to ask if they can have a bath, and the indefatigable
+chaplain hands them the keys of the room provided for the purpose by the
+generous.
+
+Religion here is more practical than theoretical. If a man swears when
+the "Padre" is present he pays a small fine, which goes to the
+recreation or other needy fund. The Commander is not immune from this
+law at the base under review, and has more than once been "heavily
+fined" for giving his true opinion of German sailors and winter weather.
+
+The next cabin is that of the O.O.W., a seething mass of officers
+demanding "duty boats" and pinnaces to convey them to and from their
+ships lying out in the fair-way. Others are expostulating about being
+ordered to sea during their "stand-off," informing everyone what a
+rotten service the navy is, crossing-sweeping is a sinecure compared
+with it. Then a few pass on to the cabin near the men's quarters. Here
+the "Drafting Officer" is trying to palm off a deck hand on the C.O. of
+a trawler, who is vainly explaining that he must have a signalman. A
+telephone rings and news comes from the "Sick Bay" that an engineer has
+been badly burned and will be unable to go to sea with his ship. The
+distracted drafting officer searches through his lists of reserves for
+some competent man to take the place of the casualty.
+
+Peace reigns in the adjoining department, where a grey-haired veteran is
+issuing charts, "Sailing Directions," "Tide Tables" and "Warnings to
+Mariners." In the near-by engineer-commander's office worried experts
+are wrestling with innumerable problems relating to M.L. motors, steam
+capstans, steam steering gear, electric dynamos, damaged propellers,
+broken shafts, boiler cleaning and the numerous imperfections of
+overworked ships' engines.
+
+The Boom Defence staff is placidly serene. The turn of this department
+comes after a heavy gale has damaged the submarine nets, chains and
+buoys. The torpedo officers and their "parties" are discussing the best
+way of moving four of these steel monsters from a neighbouring depot
+ship to a new "Q" boat with only a rowing-boat at their disposal--soon
+the O.O.W. will be called upon to supply a drifter for the purpose.
+
+In the ordnance store a veteran P.O. is trying to make his list of
+returned brass shell-cases correspond with the number of shells supplied
+to various ships six months before. He knows the sailors' fondness for
+shell-cases as ornaments in their little far-away homes, and, failing to
+make all the figures agree, decides that some _must_ have been "washed
+overboard."
+
+The Port Minesweeping Officer is discussing with his sea commanders the
+clearing of a new mine-field laid by U-C-boats within the past few days,
+when a sudden stir is caused by the arrival of a signal from the
+wireless room to the effect that one of his vessels has struck a mine in
+lat. ---- long. ---- and is sinking. He appeals by telephone to the M.L.
+commander and in less than ten minutes a flotilla of fast launches is
+racing at 19 knots to the rescue.
+
+[Illustration: MOCK-WHEEL AND COMPASS-PEDESTAL OF THE "HYDERABAD"
+
+_Thornycroft & Co., Ltd._]
+
+[Illustration: WHICH COLLAPSE AND LEAVE A CLEAR RANGE FOR THE GUNS
+
+_Thornycroft & Co., Ltd._]
+
+In the Admiral's cabin there is to be a conference of senior officers
+later in the day to decide on the best means of ridding the seas within
+that area--and each base has its own area of sea--of a hostile submarine
+which has been inflicting undue loss upon shipping, its latest victim
+being a Danish barque.
+
+The combined wardroom and gunroom has some twenty occupants, reading the
+newspapers and magazines, warming themselves before the two big fires,
+or talking in little groups. This base has suffered some heavy losses
+lately, but reference to those "gone aloft" is seldom made, except
+quietly and a little awkwardly. The talk is of theatres in neighbouring
+towns, the respective merits of certain types of ships and weapons, the
+prospects of early leave, the dirty warfare of "Fritz" or the "beauties"
+of the North Sea in winter.
+
+In this room all questions of rank and precedence are more or less
+waived. There are, of course, differences, especially when the wardroom,
+or abode of senior officers, does duty also as a gunroom for the
+juniors. But here there is camaraderie and an absence of iron
+discipline, although a sub-lieutenant would be extremely ill advised
+either to drop the prefix "Sir" or to slap the Commander on the back in
+an excess of joviality, relying on "neutral territory" to save him from
+rebuke. It is, however, no uncommon event to see all ranks of officers
+engaged in a heated debate, or groups of juniors laughing round the fire
+while their elders are vainly trying to concentrate their minds on
+the latest Press dispatches. Games are played and glasses clink merrily,
+but in a gunroom there is a very strict limit as to both time and
+quantity, though none regarding volume or discordance of sound.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Passing on to the organisation of the flotillas for sea, we find in this
+large base six minesweeping units, two being composed of fast paddle
+sweepers and four of trawlers. The former are used for distant
+operations and comprise nine vessels. They work in pairs, but the extra
+ship is available to sink mines cut up by the sweeps of the others, and
+to be immediately ready to beat off submarine attacks.
+
+The trawlers are engaged in sweeping _daily_ the approaches to the
+harbour and a recognised channel up and down the coast. Their work
+overlaps with that done by the ships belonging to the neighbouring
+bases. In this way the "war channel," about which more will be said
+later, was kept free of mines, and afforded a safe route for ships from
+the Thames to the Tyne, and in reality to the northernmost limit of
+Scotland.
+
+This important duty was seldom left unperformed even for a day, except
+during fierce gales. Often the discovery of a distant mine-field caused
+many ships to be concentrated on clearing it, and the number available
+for the "routine sweeps" was consequently reduced, but longer hours of
+this arduous and dangerous work made up the difference, and the work
+went on in summer fog and winter snow for over four years.
+
+The anti-submarine patrols were composed of five ships each, under the
+command of the senior officer of the unit--frequently a lieutenant with
+the responsibility of a captain. Their work lay out on the wastes of sea
+lying between England and Germany. It was seldom that the whole five
+vessels of each unit cruised together, the usual method being to scatter
+over the different "beats" and rendezvous in a given latitude and
+longitude at a specified time and date. They were usually able to
+communicate with each other and with the base on important matters by
+wireless. Their periods at sea varied from ten days to three weeks, with
+a four days' "stand off" when they came into harbour. But of this time
+one day at least was spent in coaling and provisioning the ship ready
+for the next patrol. This ceaseless vigilance on the grey-green seas of
+England's frontier was seldom interrupted for more than a few days in
+the year by impossible gales. Anything short of literally mountainous
+seas did not prevent the trawler patrols from riding out the storm
+carefully battened down and with just sufficient speed to keep head to
+sea.
+
+The drifters were divided into patrol units, boom defence flotillas and
+under-water or mine-net units. Their work was thus more varied but
+equally as arduous and risky, as the loss of 30 per cent. of the entire
+fleet of over 1000 ships affords undeniable proof. The periods of sea
+duty were similar to those of the trawlers.
+
+The motor launches at each base had some hundred square miles of sea to
+guard, and hunted in fives. The rough weather these plucky little ships
+endured in the open sea in mid-winter, the intense cold--for there was
+no proper heating appliance--and the state of perpetual wetness made
+their duties among the most arduous in the sea war. Later pages of true
+narrative will show to the full the work of these gnats of the sea.
+
+In addition to all these flotillas there were convoy ships, whaler
+patrols, "Q" boats and a number of special duty ships. The work of the
+former was of the most exacting character, and left the crews of these
+vessels but little time ashore. In the base under review so arduous were
+the duties of the convoy ships that it became a matter of
+self-congratulation for patrol and sweeper officers and men that their
+ships were not so employed, and this by men who sailed submarine and
+mine infested seas for an average of 270 days in each year!
+
+It must not be assumed that when in harbour there were no duties to be
+performed by either officers or men of sea-going ships. They had, on the
+contrary, to furnish anchor watches, shore sentries, duty crews for
+emergency pickets, prisoner guards, working and church parties, to
+attend drills, rifle practice, gun practice and instructional parades.
+The officers had similar shore duties to perform, which left them little
+time to rest from the strain of keeping watch and ward on the
+death-strewn seas.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE CONVOY SYSTEM
+
+
+ALTHOUGH the convoy system was employed at the beginning of the war for
+the transport of the Imperial armies to France, and subsequently for all
+the Allied troop movements overseas, it was some three years later
+before it was extended to the entire British Mercantile navy, on which
+the United Kingdom depended for too many of the necessities of civilised
+life.
+
+The rapid development of submarine piracy, however, compelled the
+Admiralty, early in the year 1917, to resort to what was merely a new
+form of the old system of protecting sea-borne trade. This comprised the
+collection of all merchant ships passing through the danger zones into
+nondescript fleets, and the provision of light cruisers, destroyers,
+torpedo-boats, trawlers and occasionally (for coastal convoys) of patrol
+launches to escort them. Certain types of aircraft were also frequently
+used for observation and scouting purposes.
+
+Previous to the adoption of the convoy system a merchantman, whether it
+was a fast-moving liner or a sturdy but slow ocean tramp, _zigzagged_
+through the danger zones with lights out and life-boats ready. Many were
+the exciting runs made in this way, with shells ploughing up the water
+around and torpedoes avoided only by the quick use of the helm; but the
+courage of our merchant seamen was of that indomitable character
+exhibited now for over three centuries, since the days of Drake,
+Hawkins, Raleigh and the other sea-dogs of old.
+
+But the danger zones grew wider as the radius of action of newer and
+larger German submarines increased. At last no waters were immune, from
+the Arctic circle to the Equator, or from Heligoland to New York.
+
+The hour was one of extreme peril for the sea-divided Empire. To lose
+several hundred ships, with many thousands of lives and much-needed
+cargoes of food and munitions, when the valiant armies of civilisation
+were battling with the Teuton hordes, was bad enough; but if the enemy
+had been able, by casting aside the laws of humanity and sea war, to
+compel British ships to remain in harbour or meet certain destruction on
+the high seas, the result could only have been the complete failure of
+the Allied cause, the conquest of Europe and the fall of the greatest
+political edifice since Imperial Rome.
+
+Between the world and these catastrophes, however, stood the undefeated
+Mercantile Marine and the Allied navies. Councils were held in the
+historic rooms of Whitehall and the old convoy system emerged from the
+archives of Nelson's day. The commerce raiders were no longer the
+canvas-pressed privateers of the sixteenth, seventeenth and early
+eighteenth centuries, who fought a clean fight, often against great
+odds, but were submarine pirates of the mechanical age, who only
+appeared from the sea depths when their victims had been placed _hors de
+combat_.
+
+It is an old axiom of war that new weapons of attack are invariably met
+by new methods of defence. So it was with the convoy system which gave
+the death-blow to German hopes of a submarine victory. In order to
+understand this _new_ method it is necessary to study the accompanying
+diagram, which, however simple it may appear on paper, is extremely
+difficult to carry out in practice.
+
+At each great port there was a convoy officer, who assembled the
+merchant ships when they had been loaded and explained to their captains
+the exact position each ship was to occupy when the fleet was at sea.
+Printed instructions were handed round urging each vessel to keep its
+correct station, stating the procedure to be adopted in the event of an
+engine breakdown, giving the manoeuvres which were instantly to be
+carried into effect when an attack was threatened, and finally the
+special signals arranged for communication between the merchantmen and
+their escort by day and by night.
+
+The number of vessels composing a convoy varied, but often exceeded
+twenty big cargo ships, carrying some 120,000 tons of merchandise, or
+six liners, with 20,000 troops on board, while the escorting flotilla
+consisted of a light cruiser, acting as flag-ship, six destroyers, two
+special vessels ("P" boats) towing observation airships, and some eight
+or ten trawlers, with possibly one or more seaplanes and several M.L.'s
+for the first few miles of the voyage. The destroyers were spread out
+ahead and on the flanks of the fleet, and by using their greatly
+superior speed were able to zigzag and circle round the whole convoy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Diagram showing the disposition of a convoy of
+troops, munitions or food.]
+
+In the event of an attack the whole fleet turned off from the course
+they were steering at a sharp angle, showing only their sterns to the
+U-boat. A destroyer acted as rearguard to prevent any of the convoyed
+ships from straggling. When the fleet had arrived at a rendezvous far
+out in the open sea, where the danger of a submarine attack was much
+less, the escort handed over their charges to one or two ocean-going
+cruisers, which stayed with the merchant ships throughout the remainder
+of their voyage.
+
+[Illustration: A MOTOR LAUNCH CLEARED FOR ACTION
+
+_Yachting Monthly_]
+
+The escorting flotilla then cruised about in the vicinity of the
+rendezvous until an incoming convoy appeared. These ships were then
+taken over from their mid-ocean cruiser guard and escorted back through
+the danger zone to port, and so the game of war continued until months
+became years.
+
+All this may sound straightforward and quite simple, but there were
+difficulties, to say nothing of dangers, which made it a most arduous
+operation. First came the speed problem. Every merchant ship differed in
+this important respect, so the speed of the slowest unit became the
+speed of the entire fleet, and this reduction made an attack by
+under-water craft much easier of accomplishment. Hence the call for
+"standard ships," which is a point that should be borne in mind by
+future generations as a safeguard against blockade. Then came the
+question of destination, which increased the number of escorting
+flotillas, and especially ocean cruiser guards, required for a given
+number of cargo ships. Next there was the loading and unloading to be
+considered, involving long hours and hard work by the men on the
+quaysides. This great difficulty was one of the reasons for the
+formation of docker battalions. Coaling such big fleets by given times
+caused many grey hairs to appear where otherwise they would not have
+been. Finally there was the danger of mines having been laid in the
+fair-ways leading to the port, which necessitated every convoy being met
+by special vessels to sweep the seas in front of each incoming and
+outgoing fleet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Diagram showing the convoy system.]
+
+All this and more had to be contended with and overcome before each
+convoy was able to sail. Then danger and difficulty came hand-in-hand.
+On a bright morning, with probably a fresh breeze blowing and a choppy
+sea, the work of the escorting flotilla was easy, but with such climatic
+conditions the risk of attack was so great in the waters around the
+coasts that troopships usually left harbour under cover of night. No
+lights were then allowed, and it will not be difficult for readers to
+imagine what it meant to be pounding through a black void in a
+fast-moving destroyer, against, possibly, a heavy head sea, with some
+twenty or thirty big ships in the darkness and spray around. Thick
+sea-mists were the cause of endless trouble, for the safety of an
+invisible fleet depended on the vigilance of a half-blind escort. Winter
+gales scattered the ships and rendered signals invisible. Attacks came
+from the most unexpected quarters and often from more than one point of
+the compass at the same time. However, relief came at last, on that
+never-to-be-forgotten morning when Sir David Beatty and his admirals
+accepted the unconditional surrender of the German fleet and its unsunk
+submarines.
+
+Were this chapter to end with the foregoing description of the convoy
+system the reader would not be in possession of the full facts from
+which to gauge the importance of the work. Something must be said of
+what was accomplished. First in order of importance came the transport
+of many millions of soldiers not only from England to France, but also
+to and from every colony and dominion of the world-wide Empire. By
+August, 1915, the British navy had transported, across seas infested
+with submarines and mines, a million men without the loss of a single
+life or a single troopship.[5] The first Canadian army of 33,000 men
+crossed the Atlantic in one big fleet of forty liners, under the escort
+of four cruisers and a battleship, in October, 1914, without accident.
+Transports to the number of 60 were required to convey the first
+Australian army over the 14,000 miles of sea to Europe, and it was while
+convoying this huge fleet that the cruiser _Sydney_ chased and destroyed
+the German raider _Emden_. The Russian force which rendered valuable
+service in France was safely convoyed over the 9000 miles of sea from
+Dalny to Marseilles. Never once during the four and a half years of war
+was the supply of food, munitions and reinforcements, or the return of
+the wounded--to and from the many theatres of land operations--seriously
+hindered by the German, Austrian or Turkish navies.
+
+Turning to the gigantic task of guarding England's food supply, we find,
+in one notable case, an example of the good work performed almost daily
+for nearly five years. Over 4500 merchant ships had been escorted across
+the North Sea to Scandinavian ports alone before the disaster of 14th
+October 1917 befell the convoy on that route. On that occasion the
+anti-submarine escort of three destroyers were intercepted, midway
+between the Shetland Islands and Norway, by two heavily armed German
+cruisers. The destroyers fought to the last to save their charges, but
+unfortunately only three merchant ships succeeded in getting safely
+away. Five Norwegian ships, three Swedish and one Danish ship were sunk.
+From this it will be observed that not only British merchantmen were
+protected by escorts.
+
+The second attack on the Scandinavian convoy occurred on 12th December.
+The escort consisted of two destroyers, the _Partridge_ and _Pellew_,
+with four armed trawlers. Fortunately the convoy was comparatively a
+small one, for it was attacked and almost totally destroyed in the North
+Sea by four of the largest German destroyers. H.M.S. _Pellew_, although
+badly damaged, succeeded in returning to England.
+
+It may be rightly thought that in both these cases the escorting
+flotilla was not strong enough, but it should be remembered that if
+heavier ships had been employed they would have been much less able to
+cope with a submarine attack. The escort in both cases was purely an
+anti-submarine defence, and only on the Scandinavian and Netherlands
+routes was a surface attack at all possible, because all exits from the
+North Sea were securely closed by the strategic positions occupied by
+the Grand Fleet and the battle cruiser squadrons, in conjunction with
+subsidiary fleets at Harwich and extensive mine-fields.
+
+When it became apparent that surface as well as submarine attacks on the
+North Sea convoys had to be provided against, other means were promptly
+adopted, and no further disasters occurred.
+
+The strong escort accompanying the transports bringing to Europe the
+first American army were attacked at night by a submarine, but succeeded
+in avoiding the torpedoes fired. This was due to the smartness with
+which the United States warships were manoeuvred. Three subsequent
+attacks on the same convoy route also failed.
+
+The Report of the War Cabinet for the year 1917 gives some remarkable
+figures in support of the convoy system. On the Atlantic routes about 90
+per cent. of the ships were formed into fleets and escorted. From the
+inauguration of this system the loss on these routes from all causes was
+0.82 per cent., and if all the trade routes to and from the United
+Kingdom are included, the loss was only 0.58 per cent. With these
+figures in mind, who will deny that the navy is the surest form of
+national as well as Imperial insurance?
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[5] When writing of the navy in this connection due praise should be
+given to the Mercantile Marine, which this war has proved to be a very
+important part of the _true_ sea power of Great Britain.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE MYSTERIES OF SUBMARINE HUNTING EXPLAINED
+
+
+WHEN all is said and done, anti-submarine warfare is very like big-game
+hunting. Success depends entirely on the initiative, skill and resource
+of the individual hunter. Contrary to general belief, there is, at
+present, no sovereign remedy for the depredations of under-water craft
+with their torpedoes and mines. There are, however, several recognised
+methods of attack and defence employed by surface ships in this newest
+form of naval warfare.
+
+When the new navy took the seas in 1914-1915, bases were established not
+only round the coasts of the British Isles, but also in the more distant
+seas. The principal danger zones were, however, the North Sea, the
+English Channel, the Irish Sea, the Mediterranean and the eastern
+portion of the North Atlantic. It was through these waters that every
+hostile submarine must pass on its voyage out and home.
+
+This geographical factor restricted the theatre of major operations to
+some 180,000 square miles of sea. Minor offensive measures might have to
+be adopted against individual U-boats cruising at long distances from
+their bases, as actually occurred off the United States coast, but the
+fact of Germany possessing large submarine bases only along her own
+North Sea coast, and temporary ones on the Flanders littoral, enabled a
+concentration of Allied anti-submarine craft to be made in the narrow
+seas which afforded the only means of entry and exit to and from those
+bases.
+
+The same may be said of Austria in the Adriatic and of Turkey behind the
+Dardanelles.
+
+This favourable combination of circumstances would not occur if (however
+unthinkable) England, France or the United States were ever to wage a
+rigorous war against shipping. The large number of oversea naval bases
+possessed by these Powers would cause every sea to become a danger zone
+within a few hours of the commencement of hostilities. No effective
+concentration of hostile surface craft would be possible with the zone
+of operations spread over the water surface of the entire globe, and if
+the bases themselves were secured by predominant battle fleets, or
+numbers of heavily armed monitors, the seas would quickly become
+impossible for purposes of hostile transport.
+
+This geographical restriction of the German and Austrian danger zones
+made effective concentration of the Allied anti-submarine fleets and
+their devices possible. The 180,000 square miles of sea, forming the
+theatre of major operations, was, on special charts, divided into areas,
+comprising a few hundred square miles of sea. Each area was given a
+distinctive number, and a base was established for its own patrol and
+minesweeping fleet.
+
+The areas themselves were again subdivided on special charts into
+squares or sections. Each square covered a few leagues of sea and was
+known by an alphabetical sign. In this way the waters of the submarine
+danger zone were divided into areas, with their bases and protective
+fleets, and squares with their respective squadrons or ships.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Diagram showing division of sea into
+anti-submarine patrol areas.]
+
+Each square of sea was covered once or twice daily by its own patrol
+ship or flotilla. Where the danger was less the patrol was not so
+frequent and the squares were almost indefinite in size, but where the
+chances of successful operations were exceptional, as in the Straits of
+Dover, additional offensive measures were employed (see under _Mine
+Barrages_).
+
+This, then, was the chess-board on which the game of submarine warfare
+was played. To facilitate communication between the different patrols
+spread over the squares of sea, wireless was fitted in many ships, and
+war signal stations were erected on prominent points of land. Each base
+was able to communicate by wireless with any of its ships out on patrol
+duty, and was also connected by land-line telegraph, telephone and
+wireless with _naval centres_.
+
+These latter were head intelligence offices, usually situated at the
+great bases of the battle fleets. In this way any concentration of
+hostile surface warships noticed by the patrols (sometimes submarines
+were employed, especially in the Heligoland Bight) could be communicated
+in a few minutes to the admirals commanding the Grand Fleet, the Battle
+Cruiser Squadron or other large fighting organisations.
+
+At the naval centres the movements of hostile submarines were recorded
+on charts. If, for example, it was reported from a patrol boat that the
+U16 had torpedoed a ship in square "C," area 41, at 10 A.M. (G.M.T.[6])
+on 4th August, and the patrol had arrived on the scene too late to be of
+any service, a warning could be wirelessed to hundreds of vessels on the
+seas surrounding the scene of outrage to keep a careful look-out for
+the U16.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Diagram showing how an area is covered by
+patrols. _A_. Unit or flotilla of ships may proceed out from the base on
+course indicated by arrows _B_, which would be called the "Northern
+Inner Beat," and return to harbour on course _A_, "Northern Outer Beat."
+Other units of ships would simultaneously follow the course _E_. These
+and adjacent squares of sea would be covered daily by one or more ships
+of each unit. The southern half of the area would be patrolled in the
+same way. The "Outer Beat" is shown by the arrows _C_, and the "Inner
+Beat" by the arrows _D_. The points _+F_ show the possible positions of
+armed patrols acting independently of any unit or flotilla.]
+
+Subsequently a further message might come to the naval centre that the
+same submarine had been chasing a merchantman in square "D," "E" or "F"
+in the adjoining area. A concentration of fast ships, such as
+destroyers, M.L.'s or coastal motor boats, could then be made so as to
+intercept the raider or enclose her in a circle while other vessels
+hunted her down.
+
+In a like manner important convoys coming down the coast, or entering a
+danger zone from the open sea, could be met by a local flotilla and
+escorted to a _rendezvous_ with a flotilla from the adjoining area. In
+this way they were passed through the submarine and mine infested seas
+to and from their harbour terminus.
+
+Almost the same methods were employed in dealing with the thousands of
+German mines. But to describe that part of anti-submarine warfare here
+would be to encroach on the subject of a succeeding chapter.
+
+
+PATROLS
+
+The _method_ of patrolling the areas and squares of sea was
+comparatively simple, though the same cannot be said of the actual work.
+The lines of patrol were called "beats," and there was usually an
+"inner" and an "outer" beat for each unit or flotilla of ships. If when
+a ship (or a unit) reached her allotted square, from which the line of
+patrol extended, she elected to proceed on the _inner beat_, she would
+generally accomplish the return journey to the point of departure on the
+_outer beat_, thus covering her respective zone of patrol, but leaving
+the exact route to the discretion of the commanding officer. In this way
+no hostile submarine with a knowledge of the system could be sure of
+when or where a patrol ship would be met. In the same way it was left to
+the commander of a flotilla to either divide his ships into pairs,
+single units, or to maintain them as a homogeneous fleet, so that any
+combination of hostile submarines could not be made which would be sure
+of being able to attack a _single_ patrol. Such an enemy combination
+might encounter a single ship, but it might also walk into the arms of a
+whole flotilla; or it might attack a single ship only to find itself
+surrounded by a following fleet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Diagram illustrating the operations of a
+hydrophone flotilla composed of armed motor launches. Each vessel is
+given a number, and the flotilla proceeds in line-abreast along the
+course shown by the dotted lines. Each vessel is one mile from the
+other, and the whole line stops by signal at the point marked with a
+cross. Hydrophones are put in operation, and after a period of listening
+the flotilla continues on its course, as no submarine sounds are heard.
+The flotilla turns to head south, and a stop is again made to listen on
+the hydrophones. This time the sound of a hostile submarine is heard by
+vessel No. 1, bearing S.W. This report is confirmed by vessel No. 2
+hearing the same sound, bearing a few degrees farther W. The two
+bearings _A_ and _B_ are then drawn on a chart, and the point where the
+two lines cross is the approximate position of the invisible submarine.
+The attack with depth charges is then ordered.]
+
+The beats which were most distant from the base were given to the
+largest ships. This was done because it was often impossible for the
+more distant patrols to reach a place of shelter before one of the
+fierce gales which swept the northern seas was upon them. Trawlers,
+large steam yachts and converted merchantmen were usually employed on
+squares more than one hundred miles distant from a harbour of refuge,
+while motor launches kept watch and ward on the seas closer inshore.
+
+The duration of patrols varied according to their position. Some lasted
+three weeks and others only a few days or hours. When the ships returned
+to their base after a spell at sea they were given a corresponding
+"rest" in harbour. A three weeks' patrol meant several days'
+"stand-off," while a two or three days' patrol entitled the ship to
+twenty-four hours in the comparative comfort of a harbour.
+
+It must not be imagined, however, that a stand-off meant entire idleness
+or thorough rest. There were duties to perform which robbed it of much
+that it was intended to give. Ships had to be coaled, provisioned,
+painted or repaired. Engines had to be overhauled, sentries posted
+ashore, a guard to be furnished, and every day one ship in each unit
+that was in harbour had to be manned and in readiness for emergencies.
+
+
+HYDROPHONE FLOTILLAS
+
+We now come to the actual methods employed by surface craft when
+attacking submarines. Although, as previously stated, much was left to
+individual initiative, there were, nevertheless, certain recognised
+methods.
+
+Taking as an example the operations of a hydrophone flotilla of armed
+motor launches, the number of vessels forming the unit was usually five.
+When out scouting for the enemy they proceeded in line-abreast for about
+one sea mile, then stopped their engines and listened on their
+hydrophones for the noise of a submarine cruising in the vicinity. If
+nothing was heard the mile-long line of miniature warships advanced
+another mile and again stopped to listen. This manoeuvre was repeated
+until one or other of the ships heard the familiar sound of a U-boat.
+Nothing might be visible on the surface of the sea, but if this was the
+case and the noise came up from the ocean depths over the electrified
+wires of the detector, it was conclusive proof that a submarine was in
+the near vicinity.
+
+The M.L. first detecting the noise hoisted a signal (flag by day and
+coloured electric light by night), giving the direction from which the
+sound came (see Fig. 22). The next ship in the line to receive the
+sound on its instruments then hoisted a signal, also giving the
+bearing--_i.e._ N.N.W., E.S.E., etc. If the two coincided in regard to
+direction, the attack commenced. If, however, they did not agree in this
+important respect, the line of patrol ships advanced another mile and
+listened again.
+
+The flag-ship of the unit on receiving the direction from one or more
+ships marked the lines of sound on a chart (as in Fig. 22), and when
+this was substantiated by another ship the point where the two lines
+crossed was known to be the position of the hostile submarine, and the
+attack was ordered.
+
+As to the exact method of an anti-submarine attack little need be said
+here beyond the fact that the ships advanced at full speed,
+manoeuvring into a special formation which enabled them to cover about
+half a square mile of sea with the explosive force of their collective
+depth charges.
+
+When the attack had been completed all vessels engaged resumed their
+stations and waited with quick-firing guns ready in case the monster
+should rise from the deep to make a dying effort to destroy her
+pursuers.
+
+The tactical methods of anti-submarine attack were, of course, numerous,
+and they varied according to the speed of the surface ships engaged.
+What was possible of accomplishment by fast-moving coastal motor boats
+or the larger-sized M.L.'s proved impracticable for the more heavily
+armed but slow-moving trawlers and drifters. The tactics of these
+latter craft were often of the simplest character, and consisted
+principally of either independent attacks with the aid of hydrophones
+and depth charges, or, more frequently, the assumption of an innocent
+air in order to induce the submarine to open the attack at close range.
+
+[Illustration: THE RESULT OF A DIRECT HIT
+
+A photograph left by the Germans in Ostend showing a coastal motor boat
+washed ashore after the great raid.
+
+_Thornycroft & Co., Ltd._]
+
+In many respects this proved the most effective method of anti-submarine
+warfare. Not only did it frequently cause the under-water craft to rise
+to the surface and commence the attack by gun-fire, in order not to
+expend a valuable torpedo on what appeared to be an unarmed and helpless
+ship, but it also produced a _moral_ effect throughout the German
+submarine flotillas.
+
+When a few U-boats had been either sunk or damaged in this way the news
+that every Allied ship was heavily armed circulated among the enemy
+personnel, and they became very nervous of attacking in any position
+except totally submerged. This meant the loss of at least one torpedo,
+out of from five to ten carried, for every attack made, whether
+successful or unsuccessful, and the latter were predominant.
+
+It soon became apparent that either they must risk surface attacks and
+so save their torpedoes, or else curtail their cruises to meet the rapid
+expenditure of their only submarine weapon. This does not, of course,
+cover the activities of under-water mine-layers, whose nefarious purpose
+consisted simply of laying their mines wherever they appeared most
+likely to catch Allied shipping. These craft were usually armed with
+torpedoes as well as mines, to enable them to continue the work of
+destruction when the cargo of the latter had been safely laid. In this
+way the problem of combating the German submarine offensive resolved
+itself into two parts, one being to checkmate the commerce raider and
+the other the mine-layer. With the second of these difficulties we shall
+deal in a later chapter.
+
+Many merchantmen, both Allied and neutral, owed their escape to this
+camouflage warfare, which was brought to a high pitch of perfection and
+daring in the now famous mystery ships.
+
+What may be said to form the second method of anti-submarine warfare was
+the decoy or camouflage system. Of primary importance in this category
+were the mystery ships already described, but there were also
+innumerable other _ruses de guerre_ which increased its efficiency.
+
+To describe one of these will enable the reader to draw on his own
+imagination for the remainder. A vessel was steaming in from the
+Atlantic and was about a hundred miles from the Cornish coast when she
+was attacked by a submarine above water. The surface ship was heavily
+armed, but instead of using her weapons at once she sent out frantic
+wireless signals for assistance. Every few minutes the call went far and
+wide in plain Morse.
+
+The shells from the submarine splashed into the sea around, but none
+struck the target for some minutes. Had the surface ship desired, she
+could in all probability have avoided the under-water craft by using her
+superior speed, but instead she dropped back, allowing the submarine to
+catch up to her, and the shells began to burst unpleasantly close.
+
+Still the frantic wireless calls went forth. First the simple message:
+"I am being attacked by a large German submarine." Then the vehemence
+increased to: "I am being heavily shelled." A few minutes elapsed and
+then the call: "Help. Submarine gaining on me." And finally: "Abandoning
+ship."
+
+At this point the submarine was close astern and the liner slowing down
+preparatory to lowering her life-boats. The shells were damaging her
+superstructure, but a heavy swell interfered with the German
+marksmanship. Then came the surprise. A life-boat on the liner's poop
+was hoisted clear of the deck and from under its cover there appeared
+the lean grey muzzle of a 4.7-inch gun. A few sharp blasts of cordite
+and the submarine sagged and disappeared.
+
+The captain of the liner had noticed when first attacked that the
+submarine was fitted with wireless and the calls sent out by him were in
+_plain Morse code_. On the strength of these the German commander had
+saved his torpedoes but lost his ship.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Another form of anti-submarine tactics was the employment of indicator
+and mined nets around an apparently disabled ship, or in lines across
+narrow channels known to be used by German submarines on their way to
+and from their bases. This method has, however, received full mention
+in other chapters.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+What may be termed the third system of anti-submarine warfare was the
+use of extensive mine barriers, specially laid to catch submarines
+attempting to pass through them under water. The surface of the sea was
+patrolled by shallow-draft vessels and the under-seas guarded by mines.
+If a submarine was sighted in the vicinity of one of the mine barriers
+already described she was attacked and forced to submerge herself in
+order to escape destruction from the guns of the pursuing surface
+flotilla. From that moment her fate was sealed. By cautious
+manoeuvring and using to full advantage their great superiority of
+speed (20-40 knots against 6-10 knots) the surface ships were able to
+head their quarry into the mine-field. Usually the submarine dived deep
+in order to throw her pursuers off the track, and all unconscious of the
+deep-laid mines in thousands she plunged to her doom--a heavy rumble,
+followed by an upheaval of the surface, and the chase was over.
+
+This method, when carried out on the vast and scientifically sound
+principle described in a previous chapter, offers the best possible
+antidote to the submarine. Its employment in the Great European War
+placed the seal of complete success on the Allied anti-submarine
+offensive. It should, however, be remembered that comparatively narrow
+seas and a restricted zone of major operations made possible of
+accomplishment with some hundreds of thousands of mines (average cost,
+L400) what would in many cases and in many seas have been quite
+impracticable with as many millions of these difficult weapons.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The employment of submarines against submarines also forms a method of
+under-sea warfare which gives considerable scope for both daring and
+resource. It is of course quite impossible for one of these vessels when
+totally submerged to fight another in the same blind condition. But with
+just the small periscopic tube--or eye of the submarine--projecting
+above the surface, one craft can scout and watch for another to rise to
+the surface, thinking no enemy is near, in order to replenish her air
+supply for breathing or for recharging the electric storage batteries
+which supply the current for submerged propulsion.
+
+When such a position obtains the submarine which comes unknowingly to
+the surface stands a grave danger of being torpedoed by her opponent.
+This actually occurred to at least one German U-boat during the Great
+War.
+
+One or more submarines can also be employed around a slow-moving decoy
+ship. In this case they would have the advantage of being invisible
+until the actual moment of attack. The result of such a manoeuvre
+would be either a gun duel on the surface or the torpedoing of the
+attacking submarine by one or other vessel of the decoy's submerged
+escort.
+
+It was a ruse of this kind which achieved success in the North Sea
+during the early stages of the war. A trawler was employed to tow a
+submarine by a submerged hawser. This mode of progress was adopted to
+enable the submarine to economise the strictly limited supply of
+electricity carried for under-water propulsion.
+
+The trawler then cruised very slowly about, dragging the submarine under
+the surface behind her. In order to divert any suspicion which might
+have been aroused by her slow speed she was rigged so as to give the
+impression that a net was being towed, and the area of operations chosen
+was well-known fishing-ground.
+
+In this curious way days were spent before the desired consummation was
+reached. Then a large U-boat came boldly to the surface and opened fire.
+Instantly the submarine astern of the trawler was released from the tow
+rope and forged ahead under her own electric engines. The commander of
+the surface decoy stopped his ship and commenced lowering the small
+life-boat carried. This was done in order to distract the attention of
+the Germans from the tiny periscope which was planing through the water
+to the attack.
+
+A shell struck the trawler, carrying away her funnel, but did no other
+damage, and a few seconds later the water around the U-boat rose up in a
+vast upheaval of white. The plan had succeeded, and when the air cleared
+of the smoke from the trawler's damaged stack there was nothing afloat
+on the surface of the sea around--except an ever-widening patch of oil
+and bubbles.
+
+A few minutes later the thin grey line of the British submarine rose
+above the swell some five hundred yards distant from the scene of her
+triumph.
+
+Another means by which one subaqueous fleet can attack another is by
+laying mines in the seas around the enemy base.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+These simple methods formed what may be termed the backbone of the
+widespread anti-submarine operations during the Great War, but with the
+experience gained and the brains of almost every nation focussed on the
+problem of providing an effective counterblast to the under-water
+warship, there can be little doubt that in the next great naval conflict
+new and more scientific means of attacking these pests of the sea will
+have been perfected, though what degree of success they will attain in
+the stern trial of war the future alone can tell.[7]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6] Greenwich mean time.
+
+[7] For a careful study of the effect of the submarine on the old
+theories of sea power see _Submarines and Sea Power_, by Charles
+Domville-Fife (Messrs George Bell & Sons, Ltd., London, and Messrs
+Lippincotts, New York.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE MYSTERIES OF GERMAN MINE-LAYING EXPLAINED
+
+
+TO those unversed in modern war it may have appeared strange that,
+although the Allied navies held command of the sea from the opening of
+the Great War in 1914 to the signature of Peace in 1919, the Germans
+were nevertheless able to lay several thousand mines every year off the
+coasts of England, France and even the most distant colonies and
+dominions. It often occurred that harbour entrances and narrow fair-ways
+were repeatedly mined, notwithstanding a vigilant day-and-night watch
+from the bridges, look-outs and decks of many patrol ships cruising or
+listening in the vicinity.
+
+The explanation is that the mines were laid by large submarines capable
+of approaching the coast, laying their deadly cargo from specially
+constructed stern tubes and retreating to comparative safety far out in
+the broad ocean, without rising more than momentarily to the surface for
+the purpose of observation.
+
+[Illustration: A CAPTIVE MINE-LAYING SUBMARINE
+
+U.C. 5 off Temple Pier, London.
+
+_Sport and General_]
+
+This, it may be said, did not absolve the ships listening on their
+hydrophones, who should have been able to detect the approach of a
+submarine from the sound of her engines. During the first year of war
+the hydrophone was a very imperfect instrument, and although the sound
+might be heard it was quite impossible to tell from what direction it
+was coming. Later on, when the listening appliances had been greatly
+improved, there still remained two detrimental factors. The noise of
+breakers beating against rocks, sands or other obstructions destroyed
+much of the value of these instruments when used close inshore. On dark
+and rough nights the roar of wind and sea and the lurching of the vessel
+rendered subaqueous sounds extremely difficult to detect; and in a
+fair-way or channel used by surface shipping it was frequently
+impossible, even in fine but dark weather, to tell if the sound coming
+up from the sea emanated from a surface ship or a submarine.
+
+If, in the latter case, the patrol ship started her own engines and
+moved forward in the darkness to ascertain from whence the noise came,
+she gave away her presence to the hostile submarine, _also fitted with
+listening appliances_. Whereas if she remained still and waited for the
+enemy to approach, mines might be laid in the meantime across important
+fair-ways which it was her duty to guard.
+
+German mine-laying submarines were designated U-C boats, and often these
+vessels would employ a ruse in order to lay their mines in safety.
+Sometimes a decoy would draw the patrols away on a fruitless chase while
+the mines were being launched from the tubes of another U-C boat. In one
+case a big armed steamer was attacked with torpedoes while mines were
+being laid across the line of advance by which a flotilla of warships
+would be likely to come out to her aid from a near-by base.
+
+In these and other ways over 3000 mines were laid off the British coast
+in one year. There were also several raids by surface mine-layers, which
+succeeded in eluding the network of patrols in the fogs and snows which
+prevail in the North Sea during several months out of every twelve. The
+two most important of these were the cruises of the _Wolfe_ and the
+_Moewe_. The former vessel left Germany during the November fogs of
+1916, and, by skirting the Norwegian coast, succeeded in passing the
+British patrol flotillas. She carried 500 mines, and after crossing the
+North Sea in high latitudes, proceeded down the mid-Atlantic until off
+the Cape of Good Hope, where the first mine-field was laid. She then
+crossed the Indian Ocean, laying fields off Bombay and Colombo.
+
+It was in these seas that she succeeded in capturing a British
+merchantman. Placing a German crew and a cargo of mines aboard, she sent
+the prize to lay a field off Aden, while she herself proceeded to New
+Zealand. In these far-distant waters another field was laid, and a few
+months later the last of her cargo was discharged off Singapore. From
+this time onward she became a commerce raider.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--A typical German mine and sinker. _A._ The
+mine-casing containing about 300 lb. of high explosive, and the electric
+firing device which is put in force when the horns _B_ are struck and
+bent by a passing ship. _B._ Horns, made of lead and easily bent if
+touched by a surface ship, but sufficiently rigid to resist blows by
+sea-water. _C._ Hydrostatic device, operated by the pressure of the
+water at a given depth, rendering the mine safe until submerged. _D._
+Slings holding mine to mooring rope _F_. _F._ Mooring rope to reel in
+sinker. _G._ Reel of mooring wire, which unwinds when the mine floats to
+the surface. _H._ Iron supports held together (as in small left-hand
+diagram) by a band round the mine-casing. The mine goes overboard and
+sinks like this to the bottom. The band is then released by a special
+device, and the supports drop away, leaving the mine free to float to
+the surface (as in small right-hand diagram). _I._ A heavy iron sinker
+which acts as an anchor, holding the mine in one position.]
+
+The _Moewe_ left Germany in December, 1916, and crossed the North Sea
+amid heavy snow squalls. Proceeding into the North Atlantic, she awaited
+a favourable opportunity to approach the British coast. This came one
+wild January night with a rising gale and a haze of snow. All her
+mines, about 400 in number, were laid off the Scottish coast in the
+teeth of a nor'wester. Then, with the "jolly Roger at the fore," she
+steamed out on to the wastes of sea lying between the New World and the
+Old.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Diagram illustrating the effect of tide on a
+moored mine. A vessel is approaching a mine _D_, moored to the bottom by
+a sinker _H_. The distance from the top of the horns of the mine to the
+surface of the sea is approximately 5 feet at low tide, and as the
+vessel's draught is 7 feet she would strike the mine. If, however, the
+same vessel passed over the same mine a few hours later, at high tide,
+the level of the sea would have risen 5 feet, and the mine would then be
+10 feet below the surface; in which case the ship would just pass over
+in safety. This is known as the "tide difficulty." There is, in
+addition, the "dip" of the mine due to the strength of the tidal
+current. _E_ and _F_ show what is meant by the dip of a mine. It is the
+deflection from the vertical caused by the ebb and flow of the tide. It
+frequently causes a mine-field to be quite harmless to passing surface
+craft except during the period of slack water between tides.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We now come to the mines themselves and the method of laying them both
+above and below the surface.
+
+A good idea of the shape, size and general characteristics of these
+weapons will be obtained from the accompanying diagrams. On being
+discharged into the sea they automatically adjust themselves to float
+about ten feet below the surface (according to tide) and are anchored to
+the bottom by means of a wire mooring rope attached to a heavy sinker.
+To describe here the mechanical details of all the different types of
+German submarine mines would occupy many pages with uninteresting
+technical formulae. It is sufficient to say that they carried an
+explosive charge (200 to 400 lb. of T.N.T.) sufficient to blow to pieces
+vessels of several hundred tons and to seriously damage the largest
+warship. They were intended to float a few feet below the surface--being
+held down by the mooring rope--but, as there was no means of
+compensating for the rise and fall of the tide, many of them often
+showed their horns above the surface at low water and were immersed too
+deep to be of much use against any but the deepest draught ships at high
+tide. A reference to Fig. 24 will make this difficulty clear.
+
+There was scarcely a ship afloat in the zone of operations which did
+not, during those years of storm, sight one or more of these hateful
+weapons with their horns showing above the surface. Motor launches were
+employed to scout for them during the hour before and the hour after low
+water. In this way many hundreds were discovered and destroyed almost
+as soon as they had been laid. One badly laid mine, which shows on the
+surface when the tide ebbs, will often give away a whole field of these
+otherwise invisible weapons, and the work of sweeping them up and
+destroying them is then rendered comparatively easy.
+
+The effect of strong tides on a moored mine is considerable, and will
+render a field quite harmless for several hours out of every
+twenty-four. The reason for this is best described with the aid of a
+diagram.
+
+It will be seen from the above that the mine will not remain vertically
+above its sinker when there is a tide, but will incline at an angle
+determined by the strength of the current, which, if considerable, will
+press the weapon down much deeper than the keel of any ship (see Fig.
+24). When the tide turns the mine will first regain its true
+perpendicular position and then incline in the opposite direction,
+accommodating itself to the ebb and flow. From this it will be apparent
+that in places where there is a strong current or tide a mine-field is
+only dangerous to passing ships of shallow or medium draft for a few
+hours (during slack water) out of the twenty-four. Between the ebb and
+the flow of a tide there is a short period when the water is almost
+still. Then the movement begins to set in from the opposite direction
+and gradually gains in speed until about one hour before high or low
+tide. This period of what is known as "slack water" varies considerably
+in different places and different weather conditions, but plays an
+important part in all minesweeping operations.
+
+In this way many a ship has passed over a mine-field all unconscious of
+the fate which would have befallen her had she traversed the same area
+of sea an hour or so earlier or later.
+
+Mines which break adrift, or are laid without moorings of any kind, are
+called _floating mines_. The latter are a direct violation of
+International Law, as they cannot be recovered when once they have been
+laid, and become a danger to neutral as well as to enemy shipping. The
+laws of civilised warfare also require even a moored mine to be fitted
+with some mechanical device which renders it safe when once it has
+broken adrift from the wire and heavy sinker which holds it in a stated
+position. The reason for this humanitarian rule is that neutrals can be
+warned not to approach a given area of sea in which there are moored
+mines, but if these weapons break adrift--as they frequently do in heavy
+weather--and float all over the oceans, they would seriously endanger
+the lives and property of neutral states unless something were done to
+render them innocuous.
+
+The total disregard of all the laws and customs of civilised warfare by
+the Germans in 1914-1919 has now been so well established that it seems
+almost unnecessary to give yet another instance of this callousness. In
+the case about to be quoted, however, there is, as the reader will
+observe, an almost superlative cunning.
+
+Any cursory examination of a German moored mine will show that there is
+a device fitted ostensibly to ensure the weapon becoming safe when it
+breaks adrift from its moorings and thus complying with The Hague
+Convention. For several months after the outbreak of war it puzzled many
+minesweeping officers and men why, with this device fitted, every German
+_floating_ or _drifting_ mine was dangerous. A few, relying on these
+weapons being safe when adrift, had endeavoured to salve one and had
+paid for the experiment with the lives of themselves and their comrades.
+This caused every mine, whether moored or adrift, to be regarded by
+seamen as dangerous, notwithstanding the oft-repeated assurances that
+German mines fulfilled all International requirements in this respect.
+Then a mine which had broken away from its moorings was successfully
+salved, in face of the great danger involved, and the truth came out.
+
+A device _was_ fitted to render it safe, but, with truly Hunnish
+ingenuity, the metal out of which an essential part of this appliance
+was made was quite unable to bear the strain imposed by its work, and,
+to make doubly sure, another part was half filed through. The result was
+that, instead of rendering the mine safe when torn from its moorings by
+rough seas, the essential parts broke and left the mine fully _alive_.
+
+Any discovery such as this--_only made at the great risk of salving a
+live mine_--could be easily explained away by German diplomacy as faulty
+workmanship in a particular weapon, reliance being placed on the fact
+that not many mines could be salved in this way without heavy loss of
+life; but numbers were recovered in spite of the dangers and
+extraordinary difficulties of such operations, and the guilt was for
+ever established in the minds of those who sail the seas.
+
+Little need be said here regarding the method of laying mines from
+surface ships like the _Wolfe_ and _Moewe_. The weapons were arranged to
+run along the decks on railway lines and roll off the stern, or through
+a large port-hole, into the sea as the vessel steamed along.
+
+With submarine mine-layers or U-C boats the method was, however, much
+more complicated and needs full description. Each vessel was fitted with
+large expulsion tubes in the stern and carried some eighteen to twenty
+mines. These weapons, although similar in their internal mechanism to
+the ordinary mine, were specially designed for expulsion from submerged
+tubes or chambers.
+
+The mines were stored in the stern compartment of the submarine, between
+guide-rails fitted with rollers. They were in two rows and moved easily
+on the well-greased wheels. The loading was accomplished through
+water-tight hatchways in the deck above. In order to expel these mines
+from the interior of the submarine when travelling under the surface
+each weapon had to be moved into a short expulsion tube or chamber, the
+inner cap of which was closed when a mine was inside, and the outer or
+sea-cap opened. A supply of compressed air was then admitted into the
+back of the tube and the mine forced out into the open sea, in the same
+way as a torpedo is now expelled from a submerged tube.
+
+Before another mine could be launched the sea-cap had to be closed, the
+water blown from the tube, the inner cap opened and a second mine placed
+ready in the chamber. This, however, did not end the difficulty of
+laying mines from submarines. The increase in the buoyancy of the boat,
+due to the loss of weight as each mine was discharged into the sea, had
+to be instantly and automatically compensated by the admission of
+quantities of sea-water of equal weight into special tanks, hitherto
+empty, situated below the mine-tubes. If this had been neglected the
+submarine would have come quickly to the surface, stern uppermost, owing
+to the lightening of the hull by the expulsion therefrom of some fifteen
+weapons weighing many hundreds of pounds each.
+
+When the mine was clear of the submarine it sank to the bottom, owing to
+the weight of the sinker or anchor. After a short immersion, however, a
+special device enabled the top half, containing the charge of explosive
+and the contact firing horns, to part company with the heavy lower half,
+composed of the iron sinker and the reel of mooring wire. The explosive
+section then floated up towards the surface, unwinding the wire from the
+sinker.
+
+Each mine being set, before discharge, to a certain prearranged depth
+(obtained by the captain of the U-C boat either by sounding wires or
+from special charts showing the depth of water in feet), the weapon
+could not rise quite up to the surface, being checked in its ascent,
+when ten feet from the top, by the mooring wire refusing to unwind
+farther.
+
+This may sound a little involved, but a careful study of the
+accompanying diagrams will make the various movements of the mine and
+its sinker, after leaving the submarine, quite clear to the lay reader.
+
+There were also other types of mines employed. Some were fitted with an
+automatic device which was actuated by the pressure of the water at a
+set depth. These weapons could be expelled from submarines without the
+necessity of knowing and adjusting the depth at which they were to float
+below the surface. A mine of this pattern rose up, after discharge from
+the tube, until the pressure of water on its casing was reduced to 4 1/2
+lb. per square inch (the pressure which obtains at a depth of ten feet
+below the surface[8]), and there the weapon stopped, waiting patiently
+for its prey.
+
+Another kind of mine was of the floating variety--tabooed by The Hague
+Convention--which drifted along under the surface with no moorings to
+hold it in one position.
+
+Now that the reader is familiar with the mines themselves and the actual
+methods of laying them, we can pass on to a brief review of the German
+mine-laying policy during the Great War.
+
+The submarine offensive reached its maximum intensity in 1916-1917,
+during which period no less than 7000 mines were destroyed by the
+British navy alone.[9] Of this number about 2000 were drifting when
+discovered. There was, with one small exception, no portion of the coast
+of the United Kingdom which was not mined at least once during those
+eventful _two_ years, the unmined area being undoubtedly left clear to
+facilitate a raid or invasion. About 200 minesweeping vessels were blown
+up or seriously damaged, but the losses among the Mercantile Marine were
+kept down to less than 300 ships out of the 5000 sailings which, on an
+average, took place weekly.
+
+The heavy losses inflicted on the enemy's submarine fleets in 1917
+marked the turning of the tide, and from that date onwards there was a
+steady but sure reduction in the number of mines laid.
+
+During the first twelve months of the intensified submarine war the
+Germans concentrated their mine-laying on the food routes from the
+United States, the sea communications of the Grand Fleet off the east
+coast of Scotland and the line of supply to France. Then, when they
+commenced to realise the impossibility of starving the sea-girt island,
+and the weight of the ever-increasing British armies began to tell in
+the land war, the submarine policy changed to conform with the general
+strategy of the High Command, and the troop convoy bases and routes were
+the objects of special attack.
+
+The arrival in Europe of the advance guard of the United States army
+caused another change in the submarine strategy. From that time onwards
+the Atlantic routes assumed a fresh importance and became the major zone
+of operations.
+
+In the first year of the war the U-C boats discharged their cargoes of
+mines as soon as they could reach their respective areas of operation.
+The mines were usually laid close together in one field, frequently
+situated off some prominent headland, or at a point where trade routes
+converged. Then the enemy learned to respect the British minesweeping
+and patrol organisation, and endeavoured to lay their "sea-gulls' eggs"
+in waters which had been recently swept, or where sweeping forces
+appeared to be weak in numbers.
+
+When this failed they played their last card, scattering the mines in
+twos and threes over wide areas of sea. To meet this new mode of attack
+large numbers of shallow-draught M.L.'s were employed to scout for the
+mines at low water.
+
+It was about this time that the great Allied mine barriers across the
+entrances and exits to and from the North Sea were completed and the
+losses among the U and U-C boats became heavy. A rapid abatement in the
+submarine offensive soon became apparent, and utter failure was only a
+matter of time.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[8] The question of water pressures and many other problems of submarine
+engineering relating to under-water fighting are fully treated in
+_Submarine Engineering of To-day_, by the Author.
+
+[9] A few of the 7000 were British mines no longer required in the
+positions in which they had been laid.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE MYSTERIES OF MINESWEEPING EXPLAINED
+
+
+THE task which confronted the naval minesweeping organisations in the
+years succeeding 4th August 1914 was an appalling one. Any square yard
+of sea around the 1500 miles of coast-line of the British Isles might be
+mined at any moment of any day or night. There were, in addition, the
+widely scattered fields laid by surface raiders like the _Wolfe_ and the
+_Moewe_, which, as described in a previous chapter, extended their
+operations to the uttermost ends of the earth. A wonderfully efficient
+patrol of the danger zones had its effect in reducing the number of
+submarine mine-layers available to the enemy and in rendering both
+difficult and hazardous the successful execution of their work, but
+neither a predominant and subsequently victorious fleet, nor an equally
+skilful and alert patrol, could guarantee the immunity of any
+considerable area of sea from mines.
+
+The Germans laid many thousands of these deadly and invisible weapons in
+the 140,000 square miles of sea around the British Isles _alone_ in the
+face of over 2000 warships. To search for these patches of death in the
+wastes of water may well be likened to exploring for the proverbial
+"needle in a haystack." Yet the sweepers, whose sole duty it was to
+fill this breach in the gigantic system of Allied naval defence,
+explored daily and almost hourly, for over four years, the vast ocean
+depths, discovering and destroying some 7000 German mines, with a loss
+of 200 vessels of their number. The result of this silent victory over
+one of the greatest perils that ever threatened the Sea Empire was that
+some 5000 food, munition and troop ships were able to enter and leave
+the ports of the United Kingdom _weekly_ with a remarkably small
+percentage of loss from a peril which might easily have proved
+disastrous to the entire Allied cause.
+
+This, then, in broad outline, was the task which confronted this section
+of the naval service, and its successful accomplishment forged a big
+link in the steel chain encompassing the glorious victory.
+
+Before passing on to describe the ships and the appliances used it is
+first necessary to give a more detailed account of the operations
+generally included under the heading of minesweeping. As it was
+impossible to tell exactly where mines would be laid from day to day, an
+immense area of sea had to be covered by what was known as _exploratory
+sweeping_. This consisted of many units of ships emerging from the
+different anti-submarine bases almost every day throughout the year and
+proceeding to allotted areas of water, where they commenced sweeping
+north, south, east or west, in an endeavour to discover if the areas in
+question were safe for mercantile traffic. If no mines were discovered
+that particular area would be reported safe, but if only one of these
+weapons was cut from its mooring by a sweep-wire the area would be
+closed to merchant ships until the sea around was definitely cleared of
+the hidden danger. This system of open and closed areas entailed an
+enormous amount of efficient administrative staff work apart from the
+actual sweeping, and its success was partly dependent upon the vigilance
+of the patrols employed to divert shipping from dangerous patches of
+sea.
+
+When a mine-field was discovered which interfered with the free movement
+of a large number of ships a big concentration of sweepers from all the
+adjacent bases was ordered by telegraph and wireless. The area was
+isolated by patrols and the mines swept up. In one field no less than
+300-400 mines were known to have been laid. Finally a further
+exploratory sweep was made, and if nothing further was discovered the
+area was again opened to traffic, and the sweepers turned their
+attention either to routine duties or to the clearance of another field.
+
+The entrance to every important harbour was swept once or twice a day,
+and all convoys had sweepers ahead of them when they left or entered
+such confined waters. The seas adjacent to harbours and naval bases were
+searched at low water for mines which might be showing above the
+surface. Around the anchorage of the Grand Fleet in Scapa Flow a wide
+belt of sea was kept clear of mines so that at any moment the fleet
+could reach blue water without risk from these weapons. The same
+precautions were taken off the Firth of Forth for the benefit of the
+battle cruisers, and outside Harwich for Admiral Tyrwhitt's light
+forces.
+
+[Illustration: MODEL OF A COASTAL MOTOR BOAT (55 FT.) WITH TORPEDO AND
+FOUR DEPTH CHARGES
+
+_Thornycroft & Co., Ltd._]
+
+A passage known as the "war channel"--about which more will be said
+later--extending from the Downs to Newcastle, was swept daily by relays
+of sweepers operating from the anti-submarine bases along this 320 miles
+of coast-line. This buoyed and guarded channel formed a line of supply
+for the great fleets in the north.
+
+Each big fighting formation was provided with a special flotilla of fast
+fleet sweepers, which were capable of clearing the seas ahead of the
+battleships and cruisers moving at 20 knots. This was a separate
+organisation to what may be described as the routine sweeping of the
+trade routes. These vessels were always within call of the fleets they
+served.
+
+It has been estimated that over 1000 square miles of sea were swept
+daily by the anti-mine fleets of the British navy during the four years
+of war. This may not sound a very stupendous figure compared with the
+area of the danger zone, but in practice it necessitated terribly hard
+work from dawn to dusk by several thousand ships and many thousands of
+men in summer heat and winter snow.
+
+There was in addition to all this the clearing of British mine-fields no
+longer required in the positions in which they had been originally laid.
+This was not entirely an after-the-war problem, for although the
+great mine barriers were left until peace was assured, there were fields
+of minor importance which had to be cleared to meet new situations as
+the years of war passed swiftly by. A notable instance of this was the
+destruction of a big field of some 400 mines off the Moray Firth.
+
+The foregoing refers only to the minesweeping in the principal danger
+zones in British waters, no account being taken of the work carried out
+by Allied vessels in the Mediterranean, off the coasts of France, Italy,
+Greece, Gallipoli, and in such distant seas as those washing the shores
+of New Zealand, Australia, Hong-Kong, Japan, Singapore, Bombay, Aden,
+the Cape of Good Hope, the United States, Eastern Canada, West Africa
+and Arctic Russia, in all of which mines were laid by surface raiders
+like the _Wolfe_, and afterwards located and cleared by Allied warships.
+
+From the foregoing some idea of the gigantic nature of the task will be
+obtained, and we can pass on to a more detailed account of the actual
+work. Minesweeping may be divided into eight well-defined sections, as
+follows:--
+
+        (1) _Fleet Sweeping._--Keeping clear the sea
+             routes of the battle fleet.
+
+        (2) _Exploratory Sweeping._--Searching the sea for
+             isolated groups or fields.
+
+        (3) _Routine Sweeping._--The daily or weekly
+             sweeping of areas, channels and coastal trade
+             routes, largely used by shipping.
+
+        (4) _Clearing Large Mine-fields._--Big
+             concentrations of ships to rapidly clear
+             important routes temporarily blocked by large
+             mine-fields.
+
+        (5) _Special Shallow-Water Sweeping._--Such as
+             that carried out off the Belgian coast by
+             specially constructed shallow-draught ships,
+             frequently with single-ship sweeps.
+
+        (6) _Convoy Sweeping._--Precautionary sweeping in
+             front of incoming and outgoing convoys. This was
+             regularly done even if the fair-way was covered by
+             routine sweeping.
+
+        (7) _Harbour Sweeping._--Precautionary sweeping
+             usually carried out by small craft at big naval
+             bases such as Portsmouth (Spithead) and Rosyth
+             (Firth of Forth) inside the submerged defences.
+
+        (8) _Searching at Low Tide._--This was done by
+             shallow-draught vessels of the M.L. type in order
+             to locate badly laid mines which might project
+             above the surface at low water. Several hundred
+             were discovered in this way.
+
+In order to carry out these duties efficiently the heterogeneous fleet
+of minesweepers was divided into small fleets stationed at the numerous
+anti-submarine bases, and these were again subdivided into units of
+ships especially adapted for the different classes of work. Each _pair_
+of vessels had to be more or less alike in size, draught, speed and
+manoeuvring ability to enable them to work efficiently in dual
+harness. Consequently there were complete units of vessels specially
+constructed for dealing rapidly with discovered mine-fields and for use
+with the battle fleets. Shallow-draught vessels of the motor launch type
+for work in the shallow water off the Belgian coast. Converted pleasure
+steamers of the usual Thames, Mersey and Clyde type for convoy sweeping.
+Motor launches for clearing fair-ways and for searching at low water.
+Flotillas of trawlers and drifters for the hard and monotonous routine
+sweeping on the important coastal trade routes. They comprised in all
+several thousand ships engaged solely on this work.
+
+At each important base there was a Port Minesweeping Officer (P.M.S.O.),
+with one or more assistants, whose duty it was to administer, under the
+command of the S.N.O., the fleets in the attached area, and to furnish
+preliminary telegraphic and detailed reports to the Minesweeping Staff
+at the Admiralty, who issued a confidential bi-monthly publication to
+all commanding officers which was a veritable encyclopaedia of valuable
+information regarding current operations, events and enemy tactics.
+Attached to this department was a section of the Naval School of
+Submarine Mining, Portsmouth, where all knotty problems were unravelled
+and appliances devised to meet all kinds of emergencies.
+
+Each unit of ships was under the command of a senior officer,
+responsible for the operations of these vessels, and where big fleets
+were engaged a special minesweeping officer was placed in supreme
+command. Only by close co-ordination of effort from the staff at
+Whitehall and elsewhere to the units at sea could this gigantic work
+have been expeditiously accomplished. It frequently happened that any
+delay due to very severe weather in clearing a field or area meant
+complete stoppage or chaotic dislocation of the almost continuous stream
+of merchant shipping entering and leaving a big harbour, which, in turn,
+disorganised the adjacent harbours to which ships had often to be
+diverted. It disturbed the railway facilities for the rapid transport of
+the food or raw materials from the coast to the manufacturing centres,
+from the sugar on the breakfast-table to the shells for the batteries in
+France. One hour's delay in unloading a ship may mean three hours'
+additional delay on the railways, the loss of a shift at a munition
+works and a day's delay in a great offensive. It is a curious anomaly,
+made vividly apparent to those in administrative command during the past
+years of stress, that the more perfect the organisation the greater the
+delay in the event of a breakdown in the system.
+
+There were various methods of minesweeping, but in all of them the
+object was to cut the mooring wire of any mine that came within the area
+of the sweep and so cause the mine itself to bob up to the surface,
+where it could be seen and destroyed by gun-fire. In order to encompass
+this many kinds of minesweeping gear were devised and given practical
+trial during the war. The one most generally used, however, was the
+original but vastly improved sweep. This consisted of a special wire
+extended between two ships and held submerged by a device known as a
+kite. This apparatus is best described diagrammatically (Fig. 25).
+
+There was, however, another type of sweep used for exploratory work and
+also for sweeping in shallow water. It was a one-ship sweep (_i.e._
+required only one vessel to drag it), and this can also be best
+described by a diagram (Fig. 26).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Diagram showing the form of apparatus
+principally used by British minesweepers. _AA._ Sweeping vessels. _BB._
+Sweep-wire. _CC._ Wires holding kites. _DD._ Kites which hold sweep-wire
+at correct depth below the surface by their "kite-like" action when
+being towed through the water. _E._ Mine and mooring. _F._ Surface of
+the sea. _G._ Sea-bed.]
+
+It will be observed that in all cases the object is to drag a submerged
+wire through the water at an angle from the ship's course until it
+encounters the mooring wire of a mine. When this takes place it is the
+purpose of the sweep-wire to cut the mooring wire and allow the buoyant
+mine to float up to the surface free of its sinker (see Fig. 27). In
+order to effect this various kinds of hard wire with a cutting capacity
+were used as sweep-wires, and also numerous mechanical devices, all of
+which are more or less of a secret character; but the object remained
+the same--to find and cut the mooring wire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Diagrammatic sketch showing principal parts of
+a single-ship sweep. _A._ Towing vessel. _B._ Tail wire. _C._ Kite
+holding sweep-wires _D_ at correct depth below the surface. _D._ Light
+sweep-wires held at an angle by spars _E_ and surface hydroplane floats
+_F_. The dotted lines show how either arm of the sweep swing towards the
+centre line when exposed to the pull of a mine. This movement of the
+hydroplane floats indicates to those on board the sweeping vessel that a
+mine has been caught. The mine _H_ slides down the sweep-wire until the
+mooring is cut at _G_, and the mine floats freely to the surface.]
+
+The introduction of what became known as "delayed action mines"--weapons
+held down on the sea-bed, after being launched, for varying periods of
+time, so that sweeping operations might take place above them without
+their being discovered; then, when the time for which the delay was set
+had expired, they rose to within ten feet of the surface and became a
+great danger to shipping in places recently swept and reported
+clear--caused a new form of sweep to be devised and used in waters where
+these mines were likely to be sown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Diagram showing mine mooring being cut by
+sweep-wire. _A._ Mine-mooring wire. _B._ Hard and cutting face of
+sweep-wire. The dotted lines _C_ show how the mine floats to the surface
+by its own buoyancy when the mooring wire holding it down has been cut.]
+
+This type of sweep was known as a "bottom sweep," and generally
+consisted of a chain fitted into the bight of a sweep-wire and dragged
+along the sea-bed, the idea being to overturn the delayed mine and so
+upset its mechanism that it would either rise immediately to the surface
+or else remain for ever harmless at the bottom of the sea. In many cases
+the heavy chain passing over the horns of the mine would bend and make
+them useless, so destroying the efficiency of the mine even if it did
+eventually rise to the correct firing depth.
+
+Into almost every operation carried out on or under the sea there enters
+the tide difficulty, and in all mining and minesweeping operations it is
+one of the most important factors to be considered. The effect of the
+tide on mine-laying has been dealt with in a previous chapter, and the
+same difficulties in reverse order are experienced when sweeping the sea
+for these invisible and dangerous weapons. It has already been shown
+that a vessel may sometimes pass safely over a mine at high water which
+would touch her sides or keel and explode if she passed over it at low
+water when the mine was nearer to the surface. All minesweeping vessels,
+therefore, need to be of comparatively shallow draught in order to
+reduce the risk of touching mines, but against this is the fact that
+shallow-draught ships, even if powerfully engined, have but little grip
+on the water and experience an undue loss of speed when towing a heavy
+sweep-wire. Such vessels can seldom operate in even moderately heavy
+weather owing to their rolling and pitching propensities. Therefore a
+vessel of medium--bordering on shallow--draught, with a fairly broad
+beam, is the best type. Here, again, is a difficulty. Minesweeping is a
+type of defensive warfare requiring a vast number of ships successfully
+to carry on against an enemy well provided with surface and submarine
+mine-layers, and not even the greatest naval power in the world could
+seriously contemplate maintaining a peace fleet of, say, 2000 such
+vessels in constant readiness. Therefore recourse has to be made, when
+war comes, to mercantile craft, which seldom possess all the desired
+qualities.
+
+This is what actually occurred in every maritime country at war during
+the years succeeding August, 1914, and in order to meet the danger
+attending the use of passenger ships, trawlers and drifters, often with
+a considerable draught, minesweeping operations were, whenever possible,
+confined to the three hours before and the three hours after high water.
+Shallow-draught M.L.'s carried out the scouting for mines at low tide.
+It is difficult to see what would be the fate of a nation hemmed in by
+mines and devoid of a mercantile fleet sufficiently numerous to provide
+powerful sweeping units. The trawlers and pleasure steamers were a
+godsend to England in those years of intensive submarine warfare. This
+undeniable fact incidentally provides another example--if such is now
+needed--of naval power resting not entirely on fleets and dockyards, but
+on every branch and twig of maritime activity.
+
+It is difficult to describe in small compass and non-technical language
+the various tactical formations employed in minesweeping operations.
+They were many and various. The Germans used their vessels in long
+lines, the ships being connected together by a light wire-sweep
+plentifully supplied with cutting devices, into which the mooring wire
+of the mine was expected to obligingly slip. This method suffered from
+the serious drawback that if any part of the sweep-wire caught on a
+submerged obstacle, such as a projection of rock, the whole line of
+ships became disorganised. There were also many other objections to this
+system, some of which will doubtless be apparent to the thoughtful
+reader.
+
+The formation usually adopted by British minesweepers was that shown in
+Fig. 28, in which it will be observed that each pair of ships is
+actually independent of the others, but is acting in company with them,
+and that the pathway swept by one pair is slightly overlapped by the
+following pair. In the event of an accident to one ship the next astern
+can immediately let go its own end of sweep-wire and go to the rescue of
+any survivors. It may be apropos to say here that the smaller class of
+minesweeper is usually blown to pieces if she touches a mine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Plan showing the usual formation adopted by
+British minesweeping vessels. _A._ Three pairs of sweepers. _B._
+Sweep-wires. _C._ A mine entering the sweep of the second pair. _D._ A
+vessel following the sweepers for the purpose of sinking by gun-fire the
+mines cut up.]
+
+The set of the tide is another important factor which has to be taken
+into serious consideration when plotting a sweep. This complication
+enters into every operation, and its salient points will be made quite
+clear by referring to Fig. 29.
+
+The actual speed at which minesweeping operations are carried out
+depends greatly upon the engine-power of the sweepers themselves. In the
+case of trawlers and drifters it is seldom possible to drag the 300-600
+feet of heavy wire through the water at a greater rate than 4 to 6
+knots. M.L.'s can accomplish 8 knots with a lighter wire, while big
+fleet sweepers with engines of several thousand horse-power can clear
+the seas at 18-23 knots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Diagram illustrating the effect of tide on
+minesweeping operations. _A._ The vessels sweeping along the coast-line
+_B._ A fast ebb-tide is coming down the estuary _C._ Unless an allowance
+was made for this tide and mark-buoys or ships were placed along the
+dotted course _D_, the sweepers would unknowingly drift seawards along
+course _E_, leaving a space _F_ unswept and possibly dangerous to ships
+entering and leaving the estuary _C_.]
+
+Sufficient has now been said to enable the reader to realise fully the
+arduous, exciting and often very hazardous nature of the work. Veteran
+sweepers listen for the loud hum of the wire which proclaims that a
+mine has been caught. Then comes an interval of a few seconds of
+suspense. Sometimes the mine bobs up within a few feet of the ship; at
+other times it is in the middle or bight of the wire, far astern, and
+half-way between the two sweeping vessels. When a mine is cut up a few
+shots from a 3-pounder, a shattering roar and the mine is destroyed. All
+that remains is a column of smoke reaching from sea to sky.
+
+It frequently happened that the mine became entangled in the sweeping
+gear and was unknowingly hauled on board with the sweep. When this
+occurred the position was fraught with extreme peril. Any roll of the
+ship might cause an explosion which would shatter to fragments
+everything and everyone within range. Safety lay in lowering the sweep
+gently back into the sea--an extremely difficult operation on a rough
+day.
+
+
+THE WAR CHANNEL
+
+This carefully guarded fair-way consisted of a 320-mile stretch of sea,
+extending along the east coast of England from the Downs to Newcastle,
+which was marked on the seaward side by a continuous line of gigantic
+buoys, two miles apart. It was patrolled day and night by hundreds of
+small warships, and swept from end to end by relays of sweepers acting
+in conjunction with each other from the different anti-submarine bases
+along the coast.
+
+The war channel formed a comparatively safe highway for all coastal
+shipping passing north or south through the danger zone, and vessels
+from Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden were able to cross the North
+Sea at any point under escort and proceed independently and safely along
+the British coast to whichever port could most conveniently accommodate
+them at the time of their arrival. It also relieved the terrible
+congestion on the railway lines between the north and south of England
+by enabling a coast-wise traffic to be carried on between the ports of
+London, Grimsby, Hull and Newcastle, as well as enabling the numerous
+Iceland fishing fleet to pass up and down the coast in comparative
+safety on their frequent voyages to and from the fishing grounds of the
+far north. From the naval or strategic point of view it more or less
+secured a line of supply for the Grand Fleet assembled in the misty
+north. Colliers, oilers, ammunition and food ships were able to proceed
+through the comparatively narrow section of the danger zone with a
+minimum of risk; and, had it been required, there was available a
+cleared passage for any squadron from the big fighting formations to
+come south at high speed to checkmate a bombardment or attempted landing
+on anything like a grand scale.
+
+It may perhaps be wondered why _this_ channel was not extended up the
+east coast of Scotland as far as Scapa Flow. In the first place, the
+North Sea widens considerably as the higher latitudes are approached,
+the coast of Scotland does not lend itself to a clearly defined channel
+and the heavy weather which prevails for so many months in the year
+made the maintenance of gigantic buoys and their moorings almost
+impossible. Secondly, there were various systems of mine defences in
+this area, and, although not defined by a chain of buoys, the passage
+north from Newcastle to the Scottish islands was, in actual fact,
+maintained by a vast organisation of patrols and sweepers, but over this
+section of sea supply ships for the Grand Fleet were nearly always under
+escort. The area from the Scotch to the German coast was looked upon
+more as a possible battle-ground for the fleets at war than as a route
+for merchant shipping, owing to the comparatively few big commercial
+harbours along the eastern shore.
+
+Laying the moorings of over 150 gigantic buoys in fairly deep water,
+exceptionally prone to sudden and violent storms, was in itself a
+noteworthy feat of submarine engineering. The chains and anchors had to
+be of great strength, and the whole work, which occupied many weeks, was
+carried out in waters infested with submarines and mines.
+
+The task of sweeping this vast stretch of sea almost continuously for
+four years was by no means either straightforward or without risk. The
+Germans, when they discovered the existence and purpose of this channel,
+sought to turn it to their own advantage by systematically laying mines
+around the moorings of the mark-buoys, where they could only be swept up
+with great difficulty, owing to the sweep-wires fouling the moorings of
+the buoys. This strategem had to be answered by the creation of "switch
+lines," or small sections of false channel marked by buoys, while the
+real channel was only outlined on secret charts. In this way the
+preservation of the war channel and its use for misleading and
+entrapping U and U-C boats became a semi-independent campaign, in the
+same way as that which surrounded the great mine barrages and other
+activities of the anti-submarine service.
+
+
+MINE PROTECTION DEVICES
+
+It is an axiom of war that new weapons of attack are invariably met by
+new methods of defence. The mine was no exception to this rule, although
+up to the present time the various antidotes are in all cases only
+partial remedies. During the years of war, with the brains of a maritime
+nation focused on the subject, there were naturally many devices
+suggested and tried for protecting ships from mines. The great majority
+of these suggestions may be classified in two groups: (1) Those which
+sought to deflect the mine from the pathway of the ship; and (2) those
+which sought to minimise the result of the explosion. One method from
+each of these groups was adopted with various modifications to suit
+different classes of ships.
+
+In the first group came the _Paravane_, which had as its basis the
+suspension of a submerged wire around the bow of a ship, which caught
+and deflected the mine-mooring wire before the horns of the mine itself
+could reach the sides of the ship. It also cut the mooring and enabled
+the mine to rise to the surface and be destroyed by gun-fire.
+
+[Illustration: A PARAVANE
+
+Hoisting in the starboard paravane of the P.V. mine-defence gear.
+
+_Topical Press_]
+
+In order to understand this appliance it is first necessary to know what
+is the action of the majority of moored mines on coming in contact with
+a ship. It seldom happens that a vessel strikes a mine dead on the bow
+or stem-post. The cushion and dislocation of water formed by a big and
+fast ship around its bows is usually sufficient to cause the mine to
+swing a few inches away from the bow and to return and strike the ship
+several feet back on the port or starboard side. A careful study of Fig.
+30 will show how this is prevented by the deflecting wires of the
+paravane.
+
+The paravanes themselves are submerged torpedo-shaped bodies which hold
+the wires under the surface and away from the ship's side, deriving
+their ability to do this from the speed at which they are being towed,
+submerged, by the ship itself. A piece of string through the axle hole
+of a small wheel, which is then placed on the ground and pulled along,
+will give a good idea of the action of the paravane against the passing
+water.
+
+It is not possible to give here the exact details of this highly
+ingenious device upon which so much scientific and practical attention
+was wisely bestowed, but sufficient has been said to enable the reader
+to form a clear conception of how the mine was caught and held away from
+the ship's side by the deflecting wire of the paravane.
+
+This device, in one of its many forms, was fitted not only to warships,
+but also to many hundreds of merchantmen, and was known to have
+saved thousands of tons of valuable shipping and cargo.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Plan showing the chief characteristics of the
+paravane mine defence gear. _A._ The bow of the ship. _B._ The paravanes
+being towed submerged at an outward angle. These appliances maintain a
+fixed depth below the surface and hold the ends of the deflecting wires
+_C_ well away from the ship's sides. _C._ The submerged deflecting
+wires, held at one end by a short projection from the ship's stem-post
+below the water-line, and at the outer end by the submerged paravanes.
+_D._ A mine and its mooring caught by the deflecting wires and held away
+from the ship. In such a case it would slide down the deflecting wire
+towards the paravane, where the mooring would be cut and the mine would
+float to the surface.]
+
+Among those devices which had for their object the minimising of the
+result of a mine explosion may be mentioned the "Blister System" so
+successfully employed in the construction of monitors and other big
+ships, the idea being to surround the inner hull with an outer casing
+which received the effect of the explosion of either a mine or torpedo
+and left the inner or real hull of the ship water-tight. Its one weak
+feature was that it reduced the speed of the ship and the ease with
+which she could be manoeuvred. In future types of large and heavily
+armed ships this drawback will undoubtedly be largely overcome by an
+increase in engine-power made possible by the development of engineering
+science.
+
+The "blister," although outwardly forming a continuous structure round
+the entire vessel, extending well above and below the water-line,
+tapered off towards the bows and stern, and was subdivided into
+different compartments. In this way an explosion against one section did
+not necessarily damage any other part. The British monitors which so
+successfully bombarded the Belgian coast and the fortifications of the
+Dardanelles were fitted with blisters, and more than one of them owed
+their salvation to this means.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE MINE BARRAGE
+
+
+WHAT undoubtedly forms the most effective counter to unrestricted
+submarine warfare is the explosive mine barrage, as employed against the
+German U-boats in the North Sea and the Straits of Dover.
+
+The practicability of these barrage systems depends, however, very
+largely upon the following factors:--(1) the geographical features of
+the area of operations; (2) the hydrographical peculiarities of the seas
+in which the mines have to be laid; (3) the number of properly equipped
+mine-laying vessels available; (4) an adequate and highly trained
+personnel; and (5) the mechanical skill and manufacturing power of the
+nation employing the system.
+
+There are several forms of mine barrage. One is simply an elongated
+mine-field laid across a narrow sea to prevent the safe passage of
+hostile surface craft. In this case the mines are laid in the ordinary
+manner and at the ordinary depth below the surface. The anti-submarine
+barrage, however, consists of an enormous number of mines, laid _at a
+considerable depth below the surface_ and in such formation as to ensure
+that a submarine attempting to pass through the cordon _while
+submerged_ would inevitably collide with one or more of them.
+
+With this latter form of barrage the surface of the sea is quite clear
+of mines and is comparatively safe for the unrestricted movement of a
+numerous patrol flotilla, which forms part of the system, the under-seas
+alone being made dangerous by the mines.
+
+It will be apparent that if a hostile submarine base is enclosed by one
+or more of these barrages the under-water craft entering and leaving
+that base have the choice of travelling _submerged_ across the danger
+zone and thereby risking contact with the mines, or of performing the
+passage _on the surface_ and encountering the patrolling ships. In
+either case, the result is more likely than not to be the destruction of
+the submarine.
+
+In most cases the exact position of the barrage would be unknown to the
+hostile submarines, which, even if running on the surface, would dive
+immediately on the approach of a patrol ship. The few lucky ones
+succeeding in getting safely through the cordon of deep-laid mines, or
+passing unnoticed the patrol of surface ships on their outward
+journey--as might be the case in fog--would have the same peril to face
+on the return to their base, and probably without the aid of thick
+weather. This double risk would probably have to be taken by every
+submarine in the active flotilla at least once a month, this being
+approximately the period they can remain at sea without replenishing
+supplies of fuel, torpedoes and food.
+
+The object of the flotillas of shallow-draught patrol vessels operating
+in the vicinity of the deep mine barrier is twofold. Primarily their
+duty is to prevent the hostile submarines from running the blockade on
+the surface and, secondly, to prevent enemy surface craft from emerging
+from the base and sweeping clear a passage through the mine-field, or of
+laying counter-mines, which, on being exploded, would detonate some of
+the blockading deep-laid mines and so destroy a section of the barrier.
+
+From this it will be apparent that a force of hostile submarines hemmed
+in in this way would run a double risk of losing a number of vessels on
+every occasion on which a sortie was made. This is what actually
+occurred to the German under-water flotillas in the years 1917-1919,
+and, in combination with the other methods employed by the Allied
+navies, was mainly responsible for the failure of the great under-sea
+offensive.
+
+The only bases of the German navy being situated on the North Sea
+littoral, it was possible for the Allies to lay a vast mine barrier,
+stretching from the coast of Norway to the Scottish islands, and another
+smaller one across the Straits of Dover; also to concentrate in the
+vicinity of these two submarine "trench systems" a very numerous surface
+patrolling force, thus enclosing the thousands of square miles of sea
+forming what was sometimes boastfully referred to as the "German Ocean"
+in an almost impenetrable ring of steel and T.N.T.
+
+Here let us consider the gigantic nature of the task that was
+successfully accomplished. The distance from the Norwegian coast to the
+Orkney Islands is approximately 600 miles. It was over this vast expanse
+of sea, bent at the eastern end so as to rest on the Heligoland Bight,
+that the system known as the "Northern Barrages" extended. No exact
+statistics of the actual number of mines used is at present available,
+but reckoning at the low rate of one mine to every 750 feet of sea, with
+five lines stretching from shore to shore, the number required would be
+21,000 of these costly and difficult weapons. The number required
+annually to maintain such a barrage would also be very heavy, and it is
+safe to assume that _considerably_ over 50,000 mines were employed on
+the northern barrages alone. From this rough estimate some idea of the
+work of designing, manufacturing, testing, laying, renewing and watching
+this one field will be obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Diagram illustrating a mine barrage, or
+deep-laid mine-field. The submarine _A_, diving to avoid a surface
+warship, has become entangled in the mooring of a deep-laid mine which
+is being dragged down on top of her. These mines are often moored at a
+depth of 60 feet below the surface, which can then be patrolled by
+surface warships.]
+
+There were, of course, in the actual barrage several mine-fields placed
+strategically, and probably a far greater number of weapons than that
+given in the above estimate was needed. There were also the smaller
+fields lying between the northern barrage and the one across the Straits
+of Dover. These were so placed as to catch hostile submarines operating
+off the east coast of England, or a surface raiding squadron, such as
+those which in the earlier years of the war bombarded certain British
+ports.
+
+Finally, when victory had been achieved, there came the cold-blooded
+task of clearing these immense areas of sea, not only of German mines,
+laid haphazardly, but also of the thousands of British mines laid
+methodically and away from neutral traffic.
+
+The English Channel barrage differed from the northern line in several
+important respects. Being so much shorter (31 miles against 680), it
+could more easily be made perfect. The swift-running tide, however,
+greatly increased the difficulty of laying effective mine-fields.
+
+
+THE LIGHTED BARRAGE
+
+This southern system consisted, on the surface, of a number of vessels
+specially built to ride out the heaviest gale at anchor. These were
+moored at intervals across the Straits of Dover, forming two lines from
+the English to the French coast. The first line extended from Folkestone
+to Cape Gris Nez, and the second line about seven miles to the westward
+of these points (see Fig. 32). Each vessel was fitted with powerful
+searchlights for use at night, and the dark spaces of sea between were
+patrolled by large numbers of armed craft.
+
+[Illustration: MINESWEEPING GEAR ON A TRAWLER
+
+_From a photo by Stephen Cribb, Southsea_]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Diagram illustrating the Dover lighted barrage.
+This barrage consisted of two lines of lightships, _E_ and _F_, from
+England _A_ to France _B_. The first line extended from Folkestone _C_
+to Cape Gris Nez _D_. The second line _F_ was situated seven miles
+westwards of the first line. The small top diagram shows how the two
+pathways of light, with a numerous patrol between, compelled the U-boats
+to dive in order to avoid observation and destruction by gun-fire. The
+lower diagram shows the deep-laid mines arranged to receive the U-boats
+when they attempted to run the blockade in a submerged condition.]
+
+By this means the only avenues by which hostile submarines could hope to
+pass on the surface through the barrage at night were the dark lanes of
+water between the lightships. It was these points which were closely
+guarded by strong patrol flotillas, whose duty it was to attack
+submarines attempting to get through and, with the aid of guns and depth
+charges, to force them to dive below the surface.
+
+Here certain destruction awaited them on the submerged mine-fields. If,
+however, one line of defence was safely passed by a hostile submarine,
+there was another to be negotiated seven miles farther on, and once a
+submarine got between the two lines her chances of escape were indeed
+small, for whichever way she turned the surface would be covered with
+fast patrol craft and at night lighted by the rays of many searchlights,
+while the under-seas were almost impassable with mines.
+
+If, however, notwithstanding these defensive systems, a submarine
+succeeded in passing through and getting to work on the lines of
+communication with the armies in France, there were hydrophone
+organisations and patrols all down the Channel from the lighted barrage
+to the Scilly Islands. By this means a U-boat would be seldom out of the
+hearing of these instruments for more than an hour or so at a time.
+
+The success which attended the perfecting of this vast system was such
+that German submarines based on the Flanders coast gave up attempting to
+pass down the English Channel. They tried to go to and from their
+hunting grounds on the Atlantic trade routes round the north coast of
+Scotland. Here the great northern systems took their toll.
+
+During the first nine months of the year 1918 the German submarine
+flotillas at Zeebrugge and Ostend lost thirty vessels, and no less than
+fifteen of these had, at the time of the signing of the Armistice, been
+discovered lying wrecked under the lighted barrage.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+OFF TO THE ZONES OF WAR
+
+
+HITHERTO I have dealt with the scientific training of the personnel, the
+armament and the general organisation of the anti-submarine fleets,
+leaving it to the imagination of readers to invest the bare recital of
+facts with the due amount of romance. If, however, a true understanding
+of this most modern form of naval war is to be obtained, the human
+aspect must loom large in future pages.
+
+War, whether it be _on_ the sea, _under_ the sea, on the land or in the
+air, is a science in which the human element is of at least equal
+importance with that of the purely mechanical. It is a science of both
+"blood and iron."
+
+The armed motor launches described in earlier pages, after being built
+in Canada to the number of over 500, and engined by the United States,
+were transported across the Atlantic on the decks of big ocean-going
+steamships--more than one of which was torpedoed on the voyage. On their
+arrival in Portsmouth dockyard the guns and depth charges were placed
+aboard and the vessels thoroughly equipped and fitted out for active
+service.
+
+Officers and men were drafted from the training establishments of the
+new navy at Southampton, Portsmouth, Chatham, Greenwich and elsewhere.
+Each little vessel was given a number, and within a few weeks of their
+arrival from the building yards on the St Lawrence they sailed in
+flotillas out past the fortifications of Spithead, _en route_ for their
+respective war bases.
+
+Great secrecy had surrounded the construction of these small but
+powerful craft, and but few naval men, except those directly engaged in
+the anti-submarine service, had either seen or heard much of them until
+they commenced arriving at the different rendezvous.
+
+Among the early flotillas to leave Portsmouth dockyard was one of four
+ships destined for a base on the east coast of Scotland, and as these
+speedy little craft raced away north the expectations of both officers
+and men ran high.
+
+It was in the early summer of 1916, and although the air was crisp, the
+sea sparkled in the bright sunlight and the sky was a cloudless blue.
+Only a heavy-beam sea off Flamborough Head had marred the maiden voyage,
+and they were now on the last hundred miles, with the low-lying Farne
+Islands fading into the mist astern. By nightfall, if the wind remained
+light, they would make the Scottish port which was to form their base of
+operations.
+
+Hitherto these four brand-new little warships, all white wood, grey
+paint and polished metal, had been plodding over the 600 miles of sea
+from Portsmouth at what was termed "cruising speed"--a mere 10 knots.
+The engines had not been opened out to "full ahead" because these
+delicate pieces of mechanism needed time to settle down to their work
+before it was safe to drive them to the utmost limit of speed and power,
+but now that pistons and bearings had been given time to "run in" it was
+considered safe for the flotilla to increase speed in order to make
+harbour by nightfall.
+
+A hoist of new, bright-coloured flags fluttered from the squat mast of
+the leading ship. The steady throbbing of the engines grew suddenly to a
+low staccato roar. The white waves astern rose up almost level with the
+counters and clouds of fine spray blew across the decks. This rapid
+movement through the sun-lit water, with the breeze of passage and the
+tang of the salt sea in every breath, was exhilarating, and the spirits
+of those aboard rose with the speed.
+
+Running at nearly half-a-mile a minute, the flotilla forged northwards
+through clouds of fine, stinging spray, until at a late hour, when the
+sun was dipping below the horizon and the sea was a sheet of golden
+light, a smoky line appeared far away to the westward. It was that
+section of the Scottish coast which in future it would be the duty of
+these boats to patrol, and as the distance lessened those on board gazed
+in silence at the gigantic cliffs and black rocks, now tinged with the
+rays of the dying sun and encircled by the endless ripples which alone
+broke the peaceful surface of the sea, but one and all were picturing
+this forbidding coast on the stormy winter nights to come.
+
+Slowly the light faded from the western sky. The cliffs rose up black
+and sombre, and when the little flotilla turned westwards up the broad
+waterway leading to the base darkness had closed over land and sea. For
+some time they picked their way up this sheltered loch. No lights were
+visible, but more than once a destroyer appeared out of the blackness to
+make sure of their identity, and each time they were inspected very
+closely before the guard-ships were satisfied. An armed trawler guided
+them past dangerous obstructions and then faded into the night. Mile
+after mile of water was then traversed on courses laid down in
+confidential orders.
+
+Suddenly a searchlight flashed out from close ahead, followed almost
+instantly by other blinding rays, which swept the sea for a few seconds,
+and then all the beams concentrated on the little flotilla, showing up
+with the clearness of daylight the four low-lying submarine-like hulls
+gliding speedily through the water. There was a moment's silence, during
+which the Morse signalling lamps of the M.L.'s were being prepared to
+flash out their message. A searchlight blinked and there followed
+another brief interval of silence, then, without warning, a tongue of
+livid flame stabbed the darkness and a shell whistled overhead. It was
+followed by other flashes and the sharp reports of quick-firing guns.
+Columns of water spouted into the air close to the M.L.'s, whose engines
+had, luckily, ceased to throb. The firing stopped as suddenly as it had
+commenced. Signals began flashing angrily in many directions. Destroyers
+tore out of the darkness around into the broad circle of light. Armed
+trawlers nosed their way in and wicked grey tubes were trained on the
+now stationary flotilla. Presently the angry flashing of mast
+head-lights subsided into the regular dot and dash of respectable
+communication. Several destroyers seemed to be having nasty things said
+to them, which they answered with a feeble wink, and an armed trawler
+made futile flashes of explanation.
+
+A little twinkling star, more lofty and dignified than the rest, called
+up the leading M.L. and was answered with an alacrity that evidently
+unnerved it, for it flickered and died out. Suddenly it came to life
+again and winked away at an alarming rate, but all to no purpose, for,
+true to the old axiom that more haste means less speed, it had to stop
+and go over the message again, this time sufficiently slow for novices
+to understand. What it said is a State secret. It is rumoured, however,
+that several officers were "mentioned in dispatches" for the part they
+played in this local action, caused by mistaken identity, but alas!
+their skill and bravery remained unrewarded by an unsympathetic
+Government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+A MEMORABLE CHRISTMAS
+
+
+NO calling tempers the human steel in so short a period as that of the
+sea. At all times and in every part of the world the sailorman wages a
+never-ending fight with Nature in her wildest and most dreaded modes.
+When to this is added a conflict of nations and their ships, with all
+the ingenious death-traps of modern naval science, it merely increases
+the odds against him and serves to steady his hand and brain in order to
+overcome them.
+
+In a few short weeks the sea had set its stamp on the men of the new
+navy. Faces became bronzed by the sun, wind and spindrift. Muscles grew
+hard and eyes and nerves more steady. Each time a vessel went forth on
+patrol or other duty new difficulties or dangers were met and overcome
+without advice or assistance, and the confidence of men in themselves
+and in the ships they worked grew apace.
+
+In many of the principal zones of war, such as the North Sea and the
+Atlantic, the wind grew colder and the seas more fierce as the short
+summer passed. Duffel or Arctic clothing was served out to both officers
+and men. Sea-boots and oilskins became necessary. Balaclava helmets,
+mufflers and other woollen gear appeared, and men became almost
+unrecognisable bundles of clothing. The ascent at 4 A.M. from the cabin
+to the cold, wet deck can be likened only to the first plunge of a cold
+bathing season. Casualties became more frequent as the enemy intensified
+his submarine and mining campaign. The news and sight of sudden death no
+longer blanched the faces of men who knew that it might be their turn at
+any moment of every day and night. The stir of suppressed excitement
+when danger threatened no longer manifested itself in every movement,
+but rather in the cool, deliberate action of self-confidence. In a word,
+the raw material was being tempered in the furnace of war.
+
+To those in northern seas came the blinding sleet, the slate-grey
+combers and the innumerable hardships and dangers of winter patrol. A
+better idea of what these really were will be obtained from the
+following account of a Christmas spent on a German mine-field.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A bitter wind swept the grey wastes of the North Sea and a fine haze of
+snow, driven by stinging gusts, obscured all except the long hillocks of
+water which rose and fell around the tiny M.L.--a lonely thirty tons of
+nautical humanity in as many square leagues of sub-Arctic sea.
+
+Nineteen degrees of frost during the long winter night had flattened the
+boisterous, foam-capped waves, and now, in the early December dawn, all
+within vision was of that colourless grey so familiar to those who kept
+the North Sea on the winter patrol.
+
+It was one bell in the first watch and three shapeless figures clad in
+duffel coats with big hoods and wearing heavy sea-boots stood silent in
+the draughty, canvas-screened wheel-house as M.L.822 wallowed northwards
+through the seas which came in endless succession out of the snowy mist.
+It was just the ordinary everyday patrol duty, when nothing was expected
+but anything might happen, so eyes were strained seawards in a vain
+endeavour to penetrate the icy curtain blowing down from the Pole.
+Twelve hours more of half-frozen existence stretched in front of these
+silent watchers, as they clung with stiffened limbs to ropes stretched
+purposely handy to keep them upright when the little ship lurched more
+fiercely in a steeper sea.
+
+Of the three figures in the meagre shelter of the wheel-house there was
+little to distinguish who or what they were, except, perhaps, a cleaner
+and more yellowish duffel coat and a big white muffler in which the
+lieutenant-in-command tried, without success, to keep his teeth from
+chattering and the icy draught from finding its way into the seemingly
+endless openings of his woollen clothing. What he had been before the
+Great War and the North Sea claimed him was a mystery to those on board,
+but the people of more than one capital knew his name. Near by stood a
+younger man--a boy before the war--who, although pale and dark-eyed, did
+not appear to feel the intense cold so much, although the dampness of
+the long-past summer fogs had chilled him to the bone. He was the
+sub-lieutenant, and hailed from the Great North-West, where Canadian
+winters had hardened his skin to the stinging dry cold.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Duffel or Arctic clothing.]
+
+The immense bundle of nondescript clothing at the wheel was "Mac," the
+coxswain, whose voyages in Arctic seas with the Iceland fishing fleet
+numbered more than his years of life, and whose deep-voiced Gaelic roar
+could bring the "watch below" on to the cold, wet deck to their action
+stations in less time than it would take a new recruit to tumble out of
+his hammock.
+
+Although the silence of the sea seems to settle on its watchers in those
+northern marches, there was an unduly long absence of comment on the
+nature of the weather and the prospects of "something exciting" turning
+up out of the icy mist. The reason lay in the subconscious mind of all
+on deck, for it was Christmas morning, 1916, and the thoughts of all
+were dwelling on past years in the cheery surroundings of English and
+Colonial homes--in vivid contrast to the dismal grey of the North Sea.
+To break the spell of memory both officers felt would be blasphemy, and
+yet a feeble attempt at conversation was made every now and then for the
+sake of appearances.
+
+To Mac, from the Orkneys, no such sentiment held sway, for Christmas to
+him meant little compared with New Year's Day; but this was a special
+Christmas, for a big plum pudding was being boiled on the petrol stove
+below, and each roll of the little vessel threatened its useful
+existence. Eventually he could keep silent no longer and tentatively
+suggested a change of course to ease the violent lurching. The wheel was
+spun round with alacrity as the telegraph rang out below and the engines
+slowed down to a slow pulsating throb. The sharp bows of the patrol boat
+rose dripping from each green-grey mass of sea as it rolled up out of
+the white haze ahead and then fell gently back into the trough. The
+violent pitching gave place to a more easy see-saw movement, and in
+spite of the cold, which seemed to grow keener every minute to the
+half-numbed figures on deck, a grunt of satisfaction escaped the
+helmsman, and visions of steaming plum duff--a present from the
+Admiral's wife--supplanted the more anxious thoughts of war and the
+dangers of mine and submarine which lay hidden in the white snow-mists
+and grey seas around.
+
+The four hands in the forecastle, who formed the watch below, were lying
+on their bunks, for sitting meant holding on, and were discussing orgies
+on past Christmas days and planning future ones with a nonchalance bred
+of daily rubbing shoulders with danger and death. Snatches of popular
+music hall songs penetrated the closed hatchways, but were drowned by
+the splash of the sea against the ship's side.
+
+This silent battle with monotony, bitter cold and drenching showers of
+spray, with several numbing hours on deck, followed by an equal time
+lying on the bunks below--still cold and wet, for fires and dry clothes
+were almost unknown in the patrol boats during the long winter months in
+the cruel northern seas--might have lasted all day, until darkness and
+increasing cold added their quota to the sum of misery, and the day
+patrol crept silently into harbour, to be relieved by their brethren of
+the night guard.
+
+But such was not to be, for it was a Christmas Day that will live for
+ever in the memory of the men on Patrol Launch No. 822, to be recalled
+in the peaceful years ahead to eager listeners at many a fireside.
+
+Two bells in the afternoon watch had barely struck when from out of the
+haze ahead came a low reverberating boom! The three figures on the
+bridge stiffened to alertness and the chilled blood went coursing more
+warmly through their veins. A few seconds of strained listening,
+rewarded only by the noise of the sea, then the telegraph was moved
+forward, a sharp jangle of bells came from the engine-room and
+forecastle and the slow pulsating of the motors grew to a loud roar. The
+watch below came tumbling on to the wet deck, to be lashed with clouds
+of blinding, stinging spray, which now flew high over the little ship as
+the 400-horse-power engines drove her at 18 knots through the grey,
+misty seas.
+
+Experience had made that dull roar familiar to all on board, and it
+needed no order from the now hard-faced C.O. to cause every man to don
+his "capuc" life-belt in readiness for the hidden dangers which they
+knew to be strewn in the pathways of the sea ahead.
+
+Mines are moored at a given depth below the surface, usually from six to
+ten feet. The rise and fall of the tide, therefore, either increases or
+decreases the stratum of free water above them. This causes these
+invisible submarine weapons to be more dangerous to shallow-draught
+vessels, such as motor patrol launches, at low tide, when there is
+little water between the tops of their horns and the surface, than at
+high tide. More will, however, be said in a later chapter about mines
+and the difficulties of laying them.
+
+It so happened that on this occasion the tide was low and the mines
+consequently extremely dangerous to even the shallowest draught type of
+warship. The speed of the M.L. was increased until the twin engines
+were revolving at the rate of 490 a minute.
+
+The snow haze seemed suddenly to grow thicker and all around the
+flurries of white blotted out the distant view. The minutes of pounding
+through the slate-grey seas seemed interminably long, and the flying
+clouds of icy spray stung every exposed part of the human frame.
+
+When about three sea miles had been traversed the engines were stopped
+and all on board listened for a cry from the sea ahead. The C.O. pulled
+the peak of his drenched cap farther over his eyes and gazed out into
+the opaque greyness ahead.
+
+Minutes passed; but little ships cannot rest quietly on the open sea.
+The lash of the water and the slapping of the meagre rigging drowned any
+faint sound there might have been, and once more the engines throbbed to
+the order "Slow ahead!"
+
+Barely had the ship gathered way before a dark object appeared
+momentarily in the trough of the sea about two degrees on the starboard
+bow and the next instant seemed swallowed up.
+
+A warning cry from the look-out on the tiny sea-washed fo'c'sle head, a
+sharp order from the bridge, and, within its own length, the patrol boat
+swung rapidly to port. At the same moment a dan-buoy splashed overboard
+to mark the position of the floating mine. A few yards more to the
+eastward and No. 822 would have appeared in the list of the missing.
+
+Minutes of tense nerve strain followed, for all knew that the ship was
+in the midst of a mine-field, and the deadly horns which had been
+momentarily visible on the surface were but a single example of the many
+which lurked around. Eyes were strained into the grey-green depths, and
+yet all knew the impossibility of seeing. Again the look-out's warning
+cry and the engines were reversed, but this time it was not a mine, but
+the victim of one, holding on to a piece of wreckage.
+
+Willing hands hauled the half-frozen form on board and stanched the
+blood that still oozed from cuts on the face and neck. Blankets and
+hot-water bottles were soon forthcoming, and the battered remnant--for
+both a leg and thigh bone were broken--was placed as carefully as the
+lurching of the ship would allow in the aft-cabin bunk. Before this
+could be accomplished, however, a cry again rang out from the watch on
+the fo'c'sle head and yet another body was hauled aboard, but the shock
+or the cold had here taken its toll.
+
+The sea around was searched in vain for further survivors. A few planks,
+a signal locker, a broken life-raft and a meat-safe were all that was
+left of the trawler _Mayflower_, homeward bound from Iceland to Grimsby.
+
+A silence seemed to brood over the patrol boat as she slowly picked her
+way out of the mine-field. The crew went about their tasks without the
+usual jests and snatches of song, and the pudding, which but a few short
+hours before had seemed the most important event of the day, lay
+unheeded on the floor of the galley, where it had been thrown by the
+cook in the haste for hot water.
+
+In the failing light of the December afternoon the bow of the patrol
+boat was turned shorewards, and, with a rising sea curling up astern,
+she raced through the slate-grey water with her burden of living and
+dead. It was one of those moments which call for a rapid decision on a
+difficult point, when the order had to be given for the course to be
+laid for harbour, and the C.O., cold and miserably wet after seven hours
+on the bridge, wore an anxious look. He knew not which had the greater
+claim, the desperately wounded man in the cabin or other ships which
+might bear down on the mine-field during the long bitter night. It was a
+point on which the rules of war and the dictates of humanity clashed.
+
+Again the ship was turned into the rapidly darkening east, and all
+through that bitter night the field of death was guarded. Stiffened
+fingers flashed out the warning signal when black hulls loomed out of
+the darkness. Numbed limbs clung for dear life when green seas washed
+the tiny decks, and when dawn broke over the waste of tumbling sea the
+men on M.L.822 knew that Christmas Day, 1916, would live for ever in
+their memory.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE DERELICT
+
+
+THERE are few things more heart-breaking than sea patrol, which forms
+the principal duty of anti-submarine fleets. Hours, days and even months
+may pass with nothing to relieve the monotony of grey sea and sky, with
+occasional glimpses of wave-tossed ships.
+
+There are, of course, intervening periods in harbour, when fierce gales
+howl overhead, and guard duty on rain-swept quaysides, or sentry-go in
+blinding snowstorms, comes almost as a relief from the sameness of
+winter days on northern seas.
+
+It is, however, the unexpected which generally occurs in war, and during
+those terrible winters from 1914-1918 it was the ever-present hope of
+action that kept the spirits of many a sailorman from sinking below the
+Plimsoll line of health.
+
+Sometimes the happenings were grave and at other times gay, but always
+they were welcomed eagerly, as providing excitement or change, with
+something to talk about in the unknown number of dreary weeks ahead.
+
+An episode of this kind occurred one snowy January night in 1917 on the
+quayside of a northern seaport. The commanding officer of one of the
+patrol boats in the harbour was going ashore to stay for the night with
+some friends. Knowing that his ship was due to proceed to sea early the
+following morning, he took the precaution to place a small alarm clock
+in the big pocket of his bridge-coat. Groping his way in the darkness
+and blinding snow across the gangway leading from the ship to the quay,
+he succeeded in reaching the dock wall. Almost instantly he was
+challenged by a military sentry on duty and was about to reply when a
+loud buzzing noise came from his pocket. He had not thought of
+ascertaining at what time the alarm clock had been set for and the
+consequences were distinctly unpleasant.
+
+The sentry, hearing the curious buzzing sound coming from the darkness
+directly he had given the challenge, and thinking it came from some form
+of bomb, lunged smartly with his bayonet at the spot from which the
+sound emanated.
+
+Fortunately the officer was near the edge of the dock wall and did not
+receive the full effect of the thrust. The bayonet tore his coat and
+pushed him violently over the edge into the icy water of the harbour.
+His lusty shouts caused searchlights to be turned on and he was rescued
+promptly, but the episode, small and unimportant as it was, caused
+considerable merriment--except to the principal actor--for many days
+afterwards.
+
+All this may sound much like heresy to those who think that naval war
+means constant fighting, with all the pomp and circumstance of old-time
+battles. There are, it is true, never-to-be-forgotten moments when the
+blood surges and pulses beat rapidly, when the months of weary waiting
+are atoned for in as many minutes of swift action. Such were Jutland,
+Zeebrugge, Heligoland, the Falklands and many an unrecorded fight on
+England's sea frontier in the years just past. Such times pass rapidly,
+however; they are the milestones of war, leaving the weary leagues
+between, in which there is so much that is sordid and even ghastly, as
+will be seen from the following.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The sea offers but few sights more melancholy than the wave-washed
+derelict--the now desolate, helpless and forlorn thing that was once a
+_ship_, the home of men--seen in the half-light of a winter dawn, rising
+and falling sluggishly on the dirty grey swell--the aftermath of
+storm--with white water washing through its broken bulwarks, yards and
+sails adrift, a thing without life on the sad sea waves.
+
+A wireless message from a ship passing the derelict on the previous day
+had brought an M.L. from the nearest naval base to search the area, and
+after a night of wandering over shadowy grey slopes of water the dawn
+had revealed it less than two miles distant.
+
+There could be no doubt as to its nationality, for the white cross of
+Denmark, on the red ground, was painted on the weather-beaten sides, now
+showing just above the sea. Deserted and half-waterlogged, it was being
+kept afloat by a cargo of timber, some of which could be seen in chaos
+on the deck.
+
+The M.L. approached cautiously, with thick rope fenders over her
+rubbing-streak to prevent the frail hull from being damaged. This
+coming alongside other ships in the open sea, except in the very calmest
+of weather, is a ticklish manoeuvre, and requires considerable skill
+in the handling of these small and very fragile craft. What would be
+considered quite a light blow on the stout hull of any ordinary ship
+would crush in the thin timbers of a patrol launch, for in the
+construction of these boats speed and shallow draught were the
+predominant factors considered.
+
+When the M.L. had been made fast on the lee-side of the derelict a
+boarding party scrambled over the damaged bulwarks on to the sea-washed
+deck. Here was a scene of chaos--rigging tangled and swinging loosely
+from masts and yards; sails torn and shreds still clinging to ropes and
+spars; loose planks of her deck cargo lying all over the place, and a
+general air of abandon and desolation difficult to describe.
+
+A mass of broken woodwork in the well of the ship was soon discovered to
+be the remains of a deck-house, and this gave the first clue to the
+reason for her sorry plight. Pieces of shrapnel were found sticking in
+the timbers, and further search revealed shell-holes through the hull
+and cut rigging. A signal was flying from the mizen halyards, and the
+name on the counter, although spattered with shot, was still, in part,
+decipherable--_Rickivik_, Copenhafen.
+
+So the officer in charge of the boarding party commenced his report with
+the name of the ship and the port from which she hailed, adding thereto
+the evident fact that she had been heavily shelled--just a brief
+statement which left to the imagination all the incidents and, alas!
+tragedies of an unequal fight.
+
+A high-explosive shell had struck the little raised poop, demolishing
+the hatchway leading to the cabins beneath, and some heavy work with axe
+and saw would have been necessary to obtain an entry had an easier way
+not been available through the shattered skylight. In the low-roofed
+cabin all was disorder. Tables and lockers were smashed, and the shell
+which had burst overhead had filled the place with heavy broken timbers
+from the deck above.
+
+So low was the cabin roof of this small three-masted barque, and so dark
+the interior, that it was difficult to see about. A lantern was procured
+and a careful search commenced. The yellow light fell on drawers pulled
+out and their contents--when worthless--flung on the floor; glasses and
+bottles smashed and a quaint old China figure lying intact on the broken
+timbers. But of the ship's papers there was no trace, with the single
+exception of an old Bill of Health, issued six years previously in
+Baltimore. Then the area of search moved from the cupboards and drawers
+to the floor--broken by a shell which had evidently penetrated the
+ship's stern and passed longitudinally through the cabin, exploding near
+the base of the companion-hatch.
+
+Presently a startled exclamation, followed by a call for the light, came
+from the gloom around the stairway. Two of the boarding party searching
+among the debris had stumbled across something which, instinctively,
+sent a cold shiver through them. The light, when moved in that
+direction, dimly revealed the body of a man lying face downwards on the
+floor. Only the lower half of the figure was, however, visible, a mass
+of shattered timbers having collapsed on the head and shoulders. That
+life had been extinct for some considerable time was evidenced by the
+sickly odour which hung heavily in the less ventilated parts of the
+cabin, and the work of extricating the body was not commenced before the
+whole ship had been searched for possible survivors.
+
+This work occupied a considerable time, but nothing of importance was
+discovered until a slight noise, not unlike the feeble, inarticulate cry
+of a child in pain, came through the timbers from some distant part of
+the hold. It was repeated several times, and the sailors, without
+waiting for orders, set hastily to work to find out the cause.
+
+The hatches were carefully removed, but only floating timber could be
+seen. Then the sound came again. This time it was unmistakable and
+relieved the tension. A little grim laugh from the searchers was
+followed by much poking about with a long piece of wood on the surface
+of the flooded hold under the decking, and some minutes later a large
+pile of timber floated into the light from the open hatchway, supporting
+a big tortoiseshell cat, looking very wet and emaciated. "Ricky"--for
+such is her name now--proved to be the only living thing on that
+ill-fated ship.
+
+The boarding party returned to the cabin and commenced the objectionable
+task of extricating the dead body from the mass of wreckage. The work
+proceeded slowly, for the heavy broken timbers pressed mercilessly on
+the object beneath, and when at last it lay revealed in the dim lantern
+light its ghastly appearance caused all to step back in horror. It was a
+headless corpse!
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+MINED-IN
+
+
+HOW many people realise that, with a single unimportant exception, there
+was no part of the English or Scottish coast which was not mined-in at
+least once by German submarines during 1914-1918? Harbour entrances,
+often less than two miles from the shore, were repeatedly blocked by
+lines of hostile mines, laid by U-C boats through their stern tubes, in
+which they seldom carried less than fifteen to twenty of these deadly
+weapons, without the vessels rising to the surface either when
+approaching the coast, laying the mines or effecting their escape.
+
+Many important waterways, such as the Straits of Dover, the mouth of the
+Thames, the approaches to Liverpool, the Firth of Forth, Aberdeen,
+Lowestoft and Portsmouth, were repeatedly chosen for this form of
+submarine attack. At one base alone no less than 400 mines were
+destroyed by the attached anti-submarine flotillas in one year, and
+round the coasts of the United Kingdom an average of about 3000 of these
+invisible weapons were located and destroyed annually.
+
+What this meant to the 24,000,000 tons of mercantile shipping passing to
+and fro through the danger zone _every month_ will be better realised
+when it is stated that less than 400 merchant ships were blown up by
+mines during the three years of intensive submarine warfare.
+
+The losses among the minesweeping and patrol flotillas, which were
+mainly responsible for the crushing defeat of this piratical campaign,
+were, however, very heavy. They amounted to over 200 ships and several
+thousand men. Few will therefore deny to those who lived and to those
+who died a share in the glory of the great victory.
+
+Statistics make but uninteresting reading, and from the following
+account of what happened off a big Scottish seaport while the
+inhabitants ashore slept in peace and safety a better idea will be
+obtained of the arduous nature of the work of minesweeping and patrol in
+time of war than could possibly be imparted by pages of figures.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The early dusk of a winter evening was settling over a white land and a
+leaden sea. A mist of sliding snow increased the gloom and blotted out
+the vessels ahead and astern as the line of patrol boats left the
+comparative warmth and security of one of the largest northern harbours
+for twelve hours in the bitter frost on night patrol.
+
+The cold was intense and of that penetrating nature which causes men to
+shiver even in the thickest of clothing. Although some eighteen degrees
+of frost had flattened the sea, a freezing spray still blew in showers
+over the narrow deck and, for just a few minutes, the lead-grey sky
+gleamed dully red as the sun dipped below the snow-covered land.
+
+The crew of the M.L. moved about the cramped deck stiffly, for they were
+clad in duffel suits, oilskins and sea-boots, and little but their eyes
+and hands were visible. The officer on the small canvas-screened bridge
+was likewise an almost unrecognisable bundle of yellow and white wool
+and black leather. As a contrast, however, to the whitening deck and
+snow-clad men, the reflection of a warm yellow light came up through the
+wardroom hatchway, and more than one longing glance was cast down into
+the snug interior.
+
+These men were not all hardened by long and severe sea training; many of
+them formed part of the new navy, gaining experience amid the bitter
+cold and dangers of the grey North Sea. A call for the signalman came
+from the bridge, and a boy, who had been swinging his arms to warm his
+numbed fingers, responded smartly. The lieutenant-in-command wiped the
+snow from his eyes as he peered round the canvas side-screen and asked
+tersely what the next ship ahead was trying to signal.
+
+The boy seized his semaphore flags and went out on to the spray-swept
+fore-deck, steadying himself against the fo'c'sle hatch cover. He
+flinched at first when the spray stung the exposed parts of his body,
+and then, with straining eyes and dripping oilskins, he managed, after
+the words had been repeated several times, to read the signal which was
+being sent down the line from the leading ship somewhere in the white
+haze ahead.
+
+"Proceed independently to allotted stations for night patrol" was the
+order then conveyed to the bridge and afterwards passed on by flag to
+the next astern. When the last ship had received the signal each unit of
+the flotilla swung out of line and disappeared in the sliding snow.
+
+As the darkness increased the cold strengthened and a little bitter wind
+began to moan through the scanty rigging. Men stamped their feet and
+swung their arms to increase the circulation in numbed limbs, and every
+now and then during the next three hours one member of the watch on deck
+would disappear for a few minutes down the galley hatchway to drink a
+cup of hot cocoa, which, so far, the cook had succeeded in keeping warm
+on the ill-natured petrol stove.
+
+At 9 P.M. the first watch was over and half-frozen men climbed stiffly
+down the iron ladder into the tiny fo'c'sle, where the heat and fugg of
+oil stoves caused their thawing limbs to throb painfully. The starboard
+watch, fresh from the heat of the tiny cabin, whose four hours on deck
+now commenced, were shivering in the icy wind and showers of spray.
+
+Glancing at the dimly lit chart on the small table cunningly fitted into
+the front of the wheel-house, the commander noted the approximate
+position of the ship in the 140,000 square miles of sea and snow around,
+and then turning to the coxswain, whose "trick" it was at the wheel, he
+gave the necessary orders for the course and speed. The duty of this
+vessel was to patrol certain approaches to the great harbour on which
+the flotilla was based until relieved at daybreak by another unit, and,
+as merchant ships had many times been attacked in these waters, a sharp
+look-out was necessary. To carry this out effectively in the darkness
+and driving snow was a task calling for all the qualities of dogged
+endurance inherent in the British sailor.
+
+For over two hours nothing was seen or heard except the moaning of the
+wind and the lash of the sea, but shortly after midnight one of the
+look-outs reported the sound of engines away to the starboard.
+
+The M.L.'s propellers were stopped and the watch on deck listened
+intently. The splash of the sea and the many noises of a rolling ship
+drowned any other sound there might have been, and the patrol was then
+continued. Less than half-an-hour later, however, the clank! clank!
+clank! of engines again became suddenly audible, and the vessel was
+turned in the direction of the sound.
+
+The engines were put to full speed ahead, and as each comber struck the
+bows the little ship trembled from stem to stern, and clouds of icy
+spray swept high over the mast. The big steel hull of some man-o'-war or
+merchantman might suddenly loom up out of the darkness so close ahead
+that no skill could avoid a collision, and the eyes of all aboard were
+gazing alertly into the blackness of the night.
+
+Five minutes' dash through the blinding, stinging spray and the engines
+were once more shut off to listen. The curious clanking noise had,
+however, ceased, and although hydrophones were used to again locate the
+sound, there was no result, only the ceaseless wash of the sea and the
+low moaning of the wind. Another mile or so of pounding through the
+waves, followed by an interval of listening, brought the same
+discouraging result, and the slow, monotonous routine of patrol was
+continued.
+
+The stinging frost of the night became the numbing cold of early
+morning, and the long hours in the snow and icy spray had left their
+mark on all. Limbs were stiff and sore. The edges of wet and half-frozen
+sleeves rasped swollen wrists. Faces smarted and eyes ached, but little
+was said in the way of complaint, for men grow hard on northern seas or
+else succumb to the hardships.
+
+When the first dim light of a winter dawn broke reluctantly over the
+grey tumbling sea and whirling snow another night patrol was over, and
+the cheering thought came to all that soon the welcome warmth and
+shelter of club and recreation room would embrace them for the brief
+hours of daylight, while others kept watch upon the seas.
+
+It had been snowing hard for the past twenty-four hours, but as the
+light of a new day strengthened it eased somewhat, and away to the
+westward the blue outline of the land became visible. The fitful wind of
+the night rose to a stiff breeze, but no one paid much attention to the
+increasing volume of bitter spray which swept the deck as the grey-green
+rollers put on their white caps of foam, for the ship was heading
+towards the harbour and their vigil was over until darkness again closed
+down.
+
+Few things are more trying to the temper than to be kept waiting for
+relief after a bad spell at sea, and but few crimes are more heinous
+than to leave the watched area before another patrol takes up the
+never-ceasing duties. Therefore, if peace and quietness and an absence
+of insulting signals counted for anything, it ill behove any ship in the
+day patrol to keep her opposite member of the night guard waiting.
+
+This time the relief was late and the M.L. steamed angrily up and down,
+with all eyes strained shorewards. Then the first of the line of armed
+trawlers and motor launches crawled out of the harbour in a smother of
+black smoke. When barely half-a-mile of sea separated the incoming and
+outgoing ships a loud reverberating boom rolled over the sea. So great
+was the explosion that the shock of it was felt rather than heard, and a
+gigantic column of black smoke, rising over 100 feet into the air,
+appeared to engulf the leading unit of the trawler patrol.
+
+Regardless of the danger, the C.O. of the motor launch sent his swift
+shallow-draught boat flying over the mine-field into the floating
+debris. The only two mangled survivors had, however, been picked up by
+the trawler astern of the ill-fated vessel, which had been literally
+blown to pieces, nothing remaining afloat when the smoke cleared away
+except a signal locker and a few timbers.
+
+[Illustration: A MOTOR LAUNCH OF THE NAVAL PATROL
+
+_Yachting Monthly_
+
+_Photo by Com. Sir A. Lee Guinness_]
+
+More than one of the other vessels, whose engines had been stopped
+immediately the explosion occurred, narrowly escaped drifting down with
+the tide on to the field of hidden mines, but with the skill and
+presence of mind gained by similar experiences in the past both the
+trawler unit and the M.L. flotilla were extricated without further loss.
+
+It was evident from the fact that several of the mines were barely
+submerged and could be dimly seen from the decks that the work of laying
+them had been done hastily under the cover of night, and a sense of keen
+sorrow and disappointment pervaded the vessels of the night guard. Once
+again climatic conditions had favoured the enemy. In those long winter
+hours of impenetrable blackness and driving snow no watch, however
+efficient, could be relied upon to prevent such operations from being
+occasionally carried out. It was merely the chance of war, but
+nevertheless it was felt keenly, and the sense of responsibility was not
+dispelled until some weeks later.
+
+When the _sweepers_ arrived it was soon discovered that the harbour was
+temporarily mined-in. Signals were exchanged with the "Senior Naval
+Officer" of the base, and the night guard was ordered to assist in
+preventing shipping from attempting to enter the harbour before the
+approaches had been swept clear and the mines destroyed. Weary ships
+with disappointed crews once more turned seawards, but the physical
+discomforts of stinging spray and frequent snowstorms passed almost
+unnoticed in the efforts of the flotilla to prevent the ceaseless stream
+of ocean traffic from approaching the danger zone unnoticed in the
+blinding white haze.
+
+Tired limbs were forced to continued efforts and numbed faculties were
+goaded afresh. Big ships loomed out of the mists around and were
+informed of the dangers and directed into the pathways of safety.
+Trawlers returning from the fishing-grounds of the far north had to be
+intercepted, local craft piloted round the mine-field in the shallow
+water close inshore, signals flashed to the outer patrols, and the hours
+of daylight and activity passed quickly by.
+
+By seven bells in the afternoon watch the dusk of the long winter night
+began again to settle over the sea, blotting out one patrol from
+another. On this as on many other similar nights spent in the bitter
+frost, thick sea fog or flying spume, in waters infested with mines and
+hostile submarines, certain senses became dulled, though the brain
+remained alert and the limbs as active as cramp and cold would allow.
+But the little incidents of those long hours are lost in blurred
+memories of cries from the look-out, hulls towering out of the
+blackness, the flashing of Morse lamps, the ceaseless and violent
+pitching and rolling of a small ship, moments of tense excitement,
+followed by hours of cold and an utter weariness of the soul.
+
+When the first pale streaks of returning daylight had turned to the
+fiery red of a frosty sunrise, dirty and unshaven men moved painfully
+about the slippery decks. The sea had flattened in the night and the
+snowing had ceased, but twenty degrees of frost had gripped the wet
+decks and the soaked clothing. As the vessels stood towards the shore
+weary eyes were turned anxiously on the signal station, but not yet was
+the recall to be hoisted, for although the seas around had been swept
+clear of mines, there was still a careful inspection to be made before
+the area could be reported clear, so that ships might come and go.
+
+When at last a line of flags fluttered to the distant mast-head away on
+the hill ashore, and the signal-boy read out, "M.L.'s to return to
+harbour," there was a feeble cheer.
+
+     .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .
+
+On a calm, frosty morning some three weeks later the boats of the old
+night guard, now doing their spell of day duty, discovered a long trail
+of thick greenish-black oil on the surface leading seawards. It was
+evident that a hostile submarine had rested during the previous night on
+the sandy bottom in the shallow water close inshore and, rising to the
+surface, had made off at daybreak. The trail was followed and
+information was quickly received from an Iceland trawler, which had
+passed the submarine on the surface some two hours previous. Ships were
+concentrated by wireless, and although it did not fall to the lot of the
+M.L.'s to give the _coup de grace_, they had the satisfaction of
+returning to harbour with the knowledge that their honour had been
+retrieved, and yet another German submarine would never again commit
+outrage on the high seas.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+THE CASUALTY
+
+
+THERE were duties performed by the new navy which bore no relationship
+to anti-submarine fighting, or, in fact, to warfare at all, unless it
+was to the ceaseless battle waged between all who go down to the sea in
+ships and the elements they seek to master.
+
+One such as this occurred at a little northern seaport in the late
+winter of 1917, unimportant and scarcely worth relating except as an
+illustration of the diverse services rendered by men of this great force
+during the years of national peril.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The gale was at the height of its fury when the March day drew to a
+close. The whole east coast of Scotland, from John o' Groats to the
+mouth of the Tweed, was a study in black and white--the white of foam
+and the black of rocks. All the minesweepers and smaller patrol ships
+had been confined to their respective bases for several days, and in a
+certain small harbour many of the officers and crews of the imprisoned
+ships were spending their time ashore, in the warmth and cheery comfort
+of hospitable firesides.
+
+The boisterous day became a wild night. The wind howled and whistled
+over the barren moors and through the streets of the small fishing
+town. Houses trembled and chimneys rocked under the blasts. Although a
+watch on the signal tower and elsewhere was religiously maintained, it
+was of little value, as all that could be seen in the darkness to
+seawards was a hazy mist of flying spray which the wind whisked from the
+surface and carried several miles inland.
+
+Standing back from the sea, and some half-mile from the centre of the
+little fishing town, stood a substantially built house, more commodious
+and better furnished than many of its neighbours, which had
+providentially fallen into the temporary grasp of one of the married
+officers of the patrol flotilla, who generously kept open house for his
+less fortunate brothers-in-arms.
+
+On this wild winter night the interior looked excessively cosy and
+inviting. Before a big blazing fire of logs sat three officers, talking
+between copious sips of whisky and soda. Their conversation was subdued
+and their inhalations of cigar smoke long. By their side were the
+faithful women who had followed them from the comforts of home and the
+gaieties of the great southern cities to this remote corner of northern
+Scotland. They too were talking among themselves and knitting for the
+crews of their husbands' ships.
+
+This quiet domestic scene would have gone on uninterruptedly until a
+late hour, for it was seldom that such precious moments of rest and
+contentment could be snatched amid the ever-recurring duties and the
+turmoil of war, had it not been for one of the officers who glanced
+ruefully at his wrist watch and then apologetically informed his host
+that it was his turn for night duty on the signal tower.
+
+Scarcely had he risen from the fire and moved towards the door of the
+room, however, before the dull boom of a gun was borne on the howling
+wind. All stood still and listened. The women ceased their knitting and
+looked up apprehensively. Then a minute or so later the boom came again,
+this time in a lull of the storm, and it sounded nearer.
+
+The three officers hurried into the hall to get on oilskins and
+sea-boots, but almost before this could be done there came a report
+which echoed sharply through the little town. They knew the sound only
+too well, for the coast was a dangerous one. It was the reply of the
+life-boat crew to the call of distress, and with one accord they moved
+towards the door. Almost instantly it was thrown violently open and the
+rush of wind and rain extinguished the hall light. For the next few
+minutes they were struggling against the gale, battling their way to the
+lofty little signal station, impeded in every movement by driving rain,
+flying scud, intense blackness and flapping oilskins.
+
+When they had reached the coast and mounted the rough stone steps
+leading to the elevated look-out tower, a clear sweep of the dark,
+foam-crested surface was obtained, and the news was shouted above the
+roar of the gale that somewhere out in the night, amid the tormented
+waters, a ship was in distress, though the flying spray made it
+impossible to locate the exact direction.
+
+Below the signal tower, and built on a mass of rock projecting into the
+half-sheltered water inside the concrete pier, was the life-boat house.
+From this point the white rays of a chemical flare lighted up the
+surface of the sea as far as the harbour bar, which, with its flanking
+rocks, resembled a seething cauldron. Into this the life-boat plunged
+from its inclined slipway, and was almost instantly swallowed up in the
+outer ring of darkness and spray. The flare died out suddenly and the
+night seemed even blacker than before.
+
+After a brief struggle with the wind, now blowing at a speed of over
+seventy miles an hour, the men who had assembled around the signal
+station made their way out on to the spray-swept breakwater, and there
+waited for the coloured rocket from the life-boat which would signify
+that she had found the wreck.
+
+Nearly an hour passed but no sign came from the darkness and boiling
+sea. Then a light appeared momentarily on the harbour bar and was lost
+in the smother of white. A few minutes later a grinding crash came from
+the rocks less than a hundred yards distant from the end of the
+breakwater.
+
+The groups of sailors standing under the lee of the wall, chafing at
+their apparent helplessness and gazing anxiously out to sea, were
+suddenly electrified into action by a few sharp orders from the
+oilskinned commander. A minute or two of seemingly inextricable
+confusion resulted in the beams of a portable searchlight flashing out
+from the spray-swept breakwater and lighting up rocks, foam, and a big
+three-masted Norwegian sailing ship, with sails torn, her fore-mast
+broken off short and every sea lifting high her stern and driving her
+farther on to the half-hidden tongues of stone. Even as the light played
+on her she heeled over to starboard at an angle of about forty-five
+degrees with an ominous rending of timbers which sounded above the roar
+of wind and surf.
+
+Orders were bellowed through a megaphone, and again men moved quickly in
+all directions. This time a fiery rocket, bearing a life-line, soared
+from its tube with a loud hiss and sped across the hundred yards of
+boiling sea. It straddled the wreck. The thin line it carried was soon
+exchanged for a stout hawser--hauled from the breakwater--and this was
+made fast to the stump of the mainmast, which had followed the other
+"sticks" overboard when the vessel heeled over on the rocks. It was now
+floating, wrestling and tugging at the mass of confused rigging, and
+pounding dangerously at the ship's side.
+
+One by one the unfortunate Norse crew were hauled over the harbour bar
+in the breeches-buoy by fifty willing British sailors, and the first to
+come was the captain's wife and little daughter.
+
+There was but one casualty, and that among the rescuers. The stretcher
+was lifted from the ambulance at the door of the substantially built
+house standing back from the little town. A white-faced woman ran out
+into the storm. She had spent a year of nights and days half expecting
+such as this, and now that it had come the blood seemed to ebb from her
+body, and at first she scarcely heard a familiar voice assuring her that
+it was only a cut on the head from a broken wire rope.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+HOW H.M. TRAWLER NO. 6 LOST HER REFIT
+
+
+AN earlier chapter described the periodical overhauls necessary to keep
+the ships of the hard-worked auxiliary navy in proper fighting
+condition. These "refits" were needed not only by the ships but also by
+the men who worked them. They came about once a year and lasted for two
+or three weeks, during which time the crews were able to go home for at
+least a few days of much-needed rest.
+
+To describe how everyone, from commander to signal-boy, looked forward
+to these spells of leave is unnecessary. Let the reader imagine how he
+himself would feel after nine or ten months of the monotony and danger,
+to say nothing of the hardships, of life at sea in time of war.
+
+There was, however, another consideration, one seldom referred to but
+nevertheless unavoidably present in the minds of all. Each time a refit
+came round there were ships which would never be docked again, and
+comrades who had missed their leave. Men told themselves that the luck
+they had enjoyed for so long could not last, and it is about one of
+these, in a fight against overwhelming odds, that the following story
+deals.
+
+Three of his Majesty's armed trawlers were plunging through the sea on
+their lonely beat in the Western Ocean. The Hebrides lay far to the
+southward, and less than two days' steam ahead lay the Arctic Circle.
+These cheerless surroundings, however, found no echo in the hearts of
+the watch below on the leading ship of the unit, who were lounging on
+the settees in the oil-smelling fo'c'sle discussing their prospects of
+long leave, for their ship was to "blow-down" for a thorough refit when
+they returned to harbour in less than three weeks' time.
+
+On the deck of the same vessel two officers, standing in the shelter of
+the wheel-house, were sweating and shivering in patches, but also happy
+with the thought of the forthcoming reunion with their families and the
+brief enjoyment of the comforts of home after seven long winter months'
+wandering, with soul-destroying monotony, over the windswept wastes of
+England's frontier. The watch on deck, with the exception of the
+helmsman and look-out, crouched under the lee of the iron
+superstructure, alternately swinging their arms and stamping their
+heavily booted feet, but they too were mentally impervious to the dismal
+surroundings.
+
+Of the second ship in the line the same cheery story cannot be told. She
+was jealous of the first. It would be another two months at least before
+she would go in dock for refit; and among the watch below there were
+three new hands on their first voyage, two of whom would, just then,
+have preferred the peace and stillness of the sea bottom to the
+friskiness of the surface.
+
+The third trawler was a happy little ship, for although the junior of
+the unit she had been very fortunate in securing a "Fritz" all to her
+own cheek less than three months before.
+
+This, then, was one of the units on the Outer Hebrides and Iceland
+patrol during the winter of 1915, and they seemed to be the sole
+occupants of the leagues of water around.
+
+It was barely eleven o'clock, Greenwich time, when they reached the last
+ten miles of their beat, and speed was reduced so that they would not
+have to turn about and begin steaming back over the course they had come
+until the morning watch went below at midday. This was an artful though
+harmless arrangement to enable those going off duty to have a meal and
+at least an hour's rest in peace, as on the voyage back both wind and
+sea would be astern and the vicious lurching of the small ship reduced
+to a minimum.
+
+The time passed slowly, as it generally did on patrol when nothing
+exciting was afoot, but a few minutes before the awaited eight bells the
+officer on duty snatched up the binoculars, and almost simultaneously
+the look-out gave a warning shout which caused the attention of everyone
+on deck to suddenly become strained.
+
+Away to port, less than half-a-mile distant, the thin grey tube of a
+periscope could be seen planing through the waves, with a fringe of
+white foam blowing from its base. There was a hoarse cry down the
+fo'c'sle hatch for "All hands on deck!" The telegraph tinkled for "Full
+ahead!" A signal was made to the ships astern for concerted action. The
+gun was manned, and the leading trawler, now cleared for action, headed
+towards her under-water opponent.
+
+The other two vessels of the unit put on speed and spread out until all
+three were line-abreast and about two cables apart. In this formation
+the chase was maintained for some twenty minutes, when a second
+submarine appeared above the surface away to starboard. She appeared to
+be a large vessel and would probably have turned the scale at 1000 tons.
+
+It was at this early stage in the action that the mistake was made. The
+leading trawler immediately opened fire, but the range was considerable
+and the shells fell short. Signalling to the other two trawlers to
+continue the chase of the first submarine sighted, she headed straight
+for the largest of the two hostile craft to engage her at close range.
+
+While this was in progress the first submarine came to the surface and
+proved to be also a larger craft than had been anticipated. The two
+trawlers chasing her immediately opened fire, but her superior surface
+speed soon placed her out of range of the comparatively small guns then
+carried by the trawler patrols.
+
+Now came the surprise. Almost simultaneously the two submarines opened
+fire from heavy guns. The shells at first fell wide, but in a moment
+the British officers realised that they were outranged, for whereas
+their shells were falling short, those from the enemy whistled over
+their heads and ploughed up columns of white water over a cable's length
+astern.
+
+To increase speed and so reduce the range became imperative, and the
+steam-pressure in the trawlers' boilers was raised to bursting point by
+the simple expedient of screwing down the safety valve. For some minutes
+it looked as though the effort would be successful, and then the range
+slowly increased again and "short" after "short" was registered by the
+gunners.
+
+At this psychological moment a German shell carried away the funnel of
+the leading trawler and smothered her decks with smoke. When a temporary
+shield had been rigged it was observed that one of the other patrol
+ships had been crippled by a direct hit and was in a sinking condition.
+
+It now became evident that the superior speed and gun-power of the
+submarines enabled them to keep out of range of the trawlers' weapons
+and to ply their long-range fire with telling effect.
+
+The officer in command of the patrol at once realised the mistake he had
+made when opening the action, in betraying the power of his own guns
+before he was sufficiently close to the enemy to ensure hits, and he
+cursed this want of foresight which looked like costing the life of the
+flotilla. Given one direct hit on each of his two powerful opponents and
+they would in all probability have been put out of action, but instead
+he had only the mortification of seeing every shell fired fall short,
+while his own vessels were being battered to pieces by the long-range
+guns of an enemy with whom he could not close.
+
+The withholding of fire while hostile shells are bursting around is one
+of the many severe strains imposed on the human mind by modern war, and
+in anti-submarine tactics it often means the difference between victory
+and defeat, which, followed to its logical conclusion, is generally life
+or death.
+
+One hope now remained--that by skilful manoeuvring the trawlers could
+be kept afloat until help arrived; but in those wastes of sea no vessel
+might pass for many hours, and even then not a warship.
+
+Such is the working of Fate: the leading trawler of the unit was to have
+been fitted with wireless while under the approaching refit, and with
+its aid patrol cruisers or fast destroyers could soon have been brought
+to the scene of operations.
+
+Thirty minutes later the crippled ship, the junior member, gave three
+defiant shrieks with her syren and slid under the surface with her
+colours flying. For over two hours the others manoeuvred to get one on
+each side of the submarines to enable them to get the few shells
+remaining in their magazines home on the target, but so great was the
+disparity of both range and speed that at five in the evening nearly
+half their crews were dead or wounded, and a little while later the
+ice-cold water closed over the leading ship. Still the other fought on,
+but as dusk closed over the sea she too went down in this obscure
+fight.
+
+No search for possible survivors was made by the submarines, which
+glided westwards into the smoky red afterglow, leaving the bitter cold
+to finish the work of death.
+
+     .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .
+
+A big armed liner of the Tenth Cruiser Squadron had heard the distant
+firing and came upon the scene just before darkness finally closed over.
+Four bodies were still lashed to a raft, but in all except one life was
+extinct.
+
+When the doctors bent over the half-frozen form in which a flicker still
+lingered they shook their heads. Death waged a stern battle even for
+this last relic, but life triumphed, and when the agony of returning
+animation had ceased the sole survivor told the cruiser's mess how
+Trawler No. 1 had lost her refit.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+THE RAIDER
+
+
+EVERYONE familiar with English history knows that it was a severe gale
+which destroyed the scattered and defeated units of the Spanish Armada
+in 1588, and that, in more modern times, it was the coming of darkness
+which prevented the British Grand Fleet from turning the victory of
+Jutland into a decisive rout. Such historical examples of the effect of
+the weather, and even ordinary climatic changes, on the course of naval
+operations could be multiplied almost indefinitely. Not only are the
+movements of the barometer important factors to be considered in the
+major operations of naval war but also in minor sea fights.
+
+Comparatively few people are, however, aware that one of the largest and
+most destructive of German mine-fields was laid off the British coast
+during the Great War by a surface ship which escaped detection through
+darkness and storm.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The barometer had fallen rapidly, and clouds rolled up from the
+north-west in ragged grey banks which scudded ominously over a cold
+steely blue sky. For some days the sea had been moderately calm, but it
+was mid-winter and quiescence of the elements could not be expected to
+last. Slowly the face of the Atlantic grew lined with white. It began
+with a moaning wind which soon developed into a stiff gale, accompanied
+by heavy storms of sleet and snow.
+
+One of his Majesty's ships coming up the west coast of Ireland found
+herself heading into the teeth of the gale. As the afternoon wore on the
+wind increased in violence and the ship rolled and plunged heavily,
+smothering herself in clouds of flying spume. The driving sleet made it
+difficult to see more than a cable's length in any direction, and when
+dusk closed over the storm-swept ocean the ship was headed for a
+sheltered stretch of water close inshore.
+
+Every stay and shroud whistled its own tune as the gale roared past.
+Foam-crested waves hurled themselves in a white fury against the
+plunging, dripping sides, piling up on the port bow and racing aft in
+cataracts of water which threatened instant death to any luckless sailor
+caught in their embrace. The lashings on the movable furniture of the
+decks, although of stout rope, were snapped like spun-yarn, and
+much-prized, newly painted ventilators, boat-covers, fenders, deck-rails
+and other necessary adornments were swept overboard by the ugly rushes
+of green sea. The iron superstructure and bridge-supports resounded to
+the heavy blows of the water, and the ship trembled as she rose after
+each ghastly plunge.
+
+The blasts of wind which struck the vessel with increasing violence had
+swept unimpeded over 5000 miles of ocean and carried in their breath
+the edge of the Arctic frost. The sleet felt warm compared with it, and
+the flying spray lost its sting.
+
+The forty-eight sea miles lying between the ship and the sheltered
+strait seemed endless leagues, for the speed had to be considerably
+reduced to avoid serious damage from Neptune's guns. The minutes of
+twilight grew rapidly less, and with the coming of darkness a new danger
+threatened. The ship was approaching a rock-strewn coast with no
+friendly lights to guide her, and every now and then lofty masses of
+black stone rose up, dimly, from their beds of foam. It was an anxious
+half-hour, and ears were strained for the warning thunder from
+surf-beaten rocks which sounded at intervals even above the roar of the
+gale.
+
+Fortunately the entrance to the sheltered waterway was broad, and almost
+before it could be realised the sea grew calm. Although the wind still
+shrieked and moaned, the waves rose barely three feet high. Great
+cliffs, invisible in the darkness and driving sleet, protected the
+strait, and as the vessel picked her way to a safe anchorage closer
+under the lee of the land the wind lost its giant strength and the
+howling receded into the upper air.
+
+Throughout the night the comparatively small warship rode safely at
+anchor, innocent of what was taking place out in the blackness and the
+storm. When morning broke the gale had lost some of its force, and
+streams of pale watery sunlight shone between the low-flying clouds on
+to a boisterous sea.
+
+     .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .
+
+Running before the wind and sea the German raider _Frederick_, carefully
+disguised and loaded with several hundred mines, approached the British
+coast. The gale was increasing in force as darkness closed down, and
+heavy showers of sleet shielded her from the view of any passing craft.
+The weather was ideal for her dark purpose, which was to lay a
+mine-field over a stretch of sea where it was thought the Anglo-American
+trade routes converged.
+
+For the first few days out from Wilhelmshaven the weather had been misty
+with heavy snowfalls, conditions enabling the mine-layer (and afterwards
+raider) to run the blockade and elude the network of patrols, not,
+however, without some very close shaves. On one occasion a large
+auxiliary cruiser passed in a snow squall, and during subsequent
+movements the raider found herself in the midst of a British fishing
+fleet, but passed unrecognised in the darkness. And now that she was
+approaching the British coast, and the scene of actual operations, the
+barometer again obliged by falling rapidly.
+
+It was a wild night and very dark when the first mine splashed
+overboard. A snowstorm set in, and as the work proceeded heavy seas
+broke over the vessel, smothering her with spray, but she was
+comparatively a large ship, built for ocean trade. Although the darkness
+and the snow were conditions favourable to the laying of mines in
+secret, and without their aid the danger of discovery would have been
+great, the rising gale and the heavy seas rendered the work both
+difficult and dangerous, notwithstanding that these deadly weapons were
+so arranged as to go automatically overboard.
+
+Before the last of her cargo had been consigned to the deep it was
+blowing great guns, and one sea after another was breaking over the
+ship. Although sheltered waters lay less than fifty miles distant, to
+proceed there would mean certain discovery and destruction, so all
+through that wild night, and for many hours afterwards, the raider
+sought by every means in her power to battle seawards, away from the
+coast and danger, heading into the teeth of the gale and out on to the
+broad bosom of the North Atlantic, all unknowing that but for the
+severity of the storm she must have been observed, probably in the very
+act of laying the mine-field, by the small warship riding out the
+north-wester in the more sheltered waters close inshore.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is interesting to note that it was on this mine-field a few days
+later that one of the largest transatlantic liners was sunk.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE S.O.S.
+
+
+A GREAT work of rescue was carried on throughout the war on all the
+seven seas by vessels of both the old and the new navy. This service was
+rendered to ally, neutral and enemy alike, but no complete record of the
+gallant deeds performed nor even of the numbers and nationalities of
+those saved will, in all probability, ever be available, and none is
+needed, for it was a duty which brought its own reward.
+
+Typical of the way succour was brought by the naval patrols to those
+unhappy victims of both sexes left adrift in open boats in calm and
+rough, sunshine and snow, all over the northern seas by the cowardly
+_Unterseeboten_ of the kultured race was the rescue of the passengers
+and crew of a liner off the wild west coast of Ireland in the winter of
+1916.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It was mid-December, and flurries of snow were being driven before a
+stinging north-westerly wind. The sea was moderate, but the heavy
+Atlantic swell caused the lonely patrol ship to sink sluggishly into the
+watery hollows, with only her aerials showing above the surrounding
+slopes of grey-green sea, and a minute or so later to be poised giddily
+on the bosoms of acre-wide rollers with nothing but the white mists
+obscuring the broad horizon.
+
+It was a wild wintry scene, pregnant with cold and hardship. The officer
+who had just come up from the warmth of the wardroom to relieve his
+"opposite number" on the bridge pulled the thick wool muffler closer
+round his neck and dug mittened hands deep into the pockets of his
+duffel coat.
+
+In the Marconi cabin, situated on the deck of the _sloop_, a young
+operator was sitting with the receiving instrument fixed to his head and
+the clean and bright apparatus all around. He was city born and bred,
+and felt keenly the monotony of life at sea, although to him came the
+many interesting wireless signals from the vast network of patrols which
+covered the Western Ocean--linking the sea-divided units into a more or
+less homogeneous fleet.
+
+Presently a message began to spell itself in Morse. Taking a pencil, the
+operator scribbled various hieroglyphics on the naval signal paper lying
+on the desk in front of him; then after a pause of a few seconds he
+pulled forward a tiny lever and began a rhythmic tap on an ebonite key.
+
+It was the "S.O.S." call and the reply that had flashed through the
+ether. A minute or so later the written signal, giving the appeal for
+help and the position and name of the torpedoed liner, was handed to the
+commander. A glance at the chart told that young but experienced
+officer that he could not hope to bring his ship to the scene of the
+disaster before dusk closed down, and a message was sparked across the
+eighty miles of intervening sea asking how long the crippled ship could
+be kept afloat.
+
+To this, however, there came no reply, and the engines of the sloop were
+put to full speed ahead. A heavy spray now commenced to sweep across the
+deck in drenching showers, and the snow haze thickened. The pitching of
+the ship increased as she raced over the ocean swell, driving her sharp
+bows deep into the masses of sea. The limbs of the watch grew stiff and
+numb, and a fine coating of wet salt stung their faces. Eyes ached from
+gazing into the bitter wind, and for over four hours the race against
+approaching night continued. If darkness closed down before that eighty
+miles of sea was covered all on board realised that the chances of
+finding any survivors would be greatly diminished. Even the strongest
+vitality could not long resist exposure to the intense cold, and there
+might be women and children in the sea ahead.
+
+Many of the officers and crew of the sloop had experienced the agonies
+of cold, wounds and salt water when cast adrift on wintry seas, and the
+memory acted like a whip. As the hours went by the greenish tint of the
+sea slowly turned to leaden-grey, and the pure white of the driving snow
+contrasted sharply with the quickening dusk of the December night.
+
+It was in the last half-hour of the dog watch that the sloop reached
+the scene of the disaster and the speed was reduced. Scattered over the
+sea around, and floating southwards in grim procession, was a mass of
+wreckage--a broken raft, a number of deck-chairs, spars and cordage, a
+life-belt and some oars--but of boats with living freights there was not
+a sign.
+
+Steaming slowly round in widening circles, the sloop searched while the
+light lasted, but the whirling haze of fine snow blotted out the
+distance, and soon the early darkness of a winter night settled over the
+sea. The cold became intense. The white beam of a searchlight now
+flashed out over the black waters. There was a grave risk in this
+betraying light, one not sanctioned by the theory of war. It made the
+warship a target for any hostile submarine lurking around, but it seemed
+impossible to believe that a 6000-ton liner, with probably several
+hundred human beings on board, could have been so completely
+obliterated, and to the commander of the sloop the risk seemed
+justified.
+
+Other ships might have intercepted the S.O.S. call and reached the scene
+of the disaster earlier, but the sloop's wireless, although put into
+action, could not confirm this, and so the search was continued.
+
+On and off during the bitter night the white beam of light flashed out
+through the snow. For a few seconds it swept the sea close around and
+was then shut off. In the pall-like blackness which followed ears
+listened intently, but could distinguish nothing except the lash of the
+sea.
+
+The sound-deadening qualities of falling snow would have cut short the
+range of any cry, for the human voice at its strongest, and with the
+atmospheric conditions favourable, can seldom be heard more than 1000
+yards distant. So hour after hour of numbing cold went by with nothing
+to show except the occasional pathway of light on the grey slopes of sea
+and the low moaning wind.
+
+The snowing ceased, and in the cold stillness which so often precedes
+daybreak in the north a faint cry came from the sea, at first so
+indistinct and mingled with water noises that it would never have been
+heard at all if the engines of the sloop had not been shut off, as they
+had been at frequent intervals during the night, to enable those on
+board to listen. The cry was quickly followed by the "snore" of a boat's
+fog-horn. A few turns of the sloop's propellers and in the grey light of
+the December dawn a large ship's life-boat could be dimly seen, away to
+starboard, when it rose on the bosom of the swell.
+
+Careful manoeuvring placed the warship alongside the boat-load of
+half-frozen castaways and the work of rescue commenced. It was a sad
+task. Amongst the thirty-two survivors there were twelve women and
+children, seven of whom had died of cold and exposure during that bitter
+night. One, a young Canadian wife coming home to her wounded soldier
+husband, had been crushed by the explosion of the first torpedo and
+suffered agonies in the open boat before sinking into the peace of
+death.
+
+To dwell here on the suffering caused by intense cold, exposure, hunger,
+thirst, untended wounds, and the mental agony of suspense, often to
+delicate women and children, when cast adrift on the open sea, would be
+merely to repeat what has so often been written, and which will live for
+ever in the memory of sailormen.
+
+When the survivors had all been lifted on board--and many had suffered
+badly from frost-bite--the search for two other life-boats which it was
+learned had succeeded in getting away from the wrecked liner was
+commenced.
+
+Shortly before midday the snowing began again and the wind moaned
+dismally through the rigging. Spurts of icy spray shot upwards from the
+bows and were blown back across the fore-deck of the ship, searing the
+skin of the tired men on watch. For several hours the sea around was
+searched in vain. Flurries of snow obscured everything more than a few
+hundred yards distant. Then towards four bells the storm passed and the
+air cleared of its white fog, but nothing was visible except the wide
+sweep of colourless heaving sea and leaden sky.
+
+It came suddenly--an indescribable explosion with a violent uprush of
+water, followed by the hoarse shouting of orders, the low groans of
+wounded men and the sharp crack of cordite. The bows of the sloop had
+been blown off by a torpedo, and the vessel commenced to rapidly settle
+down.
+
+The two undamaged boats were lowered and the survivors from the liner
+once again cast adrift to face the horrors of the previous night. Rafts
+floated free with all that were left of the crew of the sloop--two
+officers and thirty men. Their condition was pitiable. There had been no
+time to get either food or extra clothing, and so heavily laden were the
+light structures of _capuc_ and wood that the occupants were continually
+awash.
+
+Barely had the boats and rafts got clear of the ship before she took the
+final plunge, going down in a cloud of steam. A few minutes later the
+U-boat rose to the surface about 300 yards distant, and after remaining
+there for some time, without making any effort to render assistance, she
+steamed slowly away.
+
+The boats took the rafts in tow, and the wounded, who suffered terribly
+from the cold and the salt water, were all transferred to the former.
+One of the women survivors from the torpedoed liner collapsed during the
+first hour, and although given extra clothing cheerfully discarded by
+the men, she died soon afterwards.
+
+Seas washed over the rafts and sent clouds of stinging spray into the
+crowded life-boats. A biting frost stiffened the wet garments, which
+rasped the raw and bleeding wrists of the men who tugged at the
+oars--partly to increase their circulation and partly to keep the boats
+head-on to the sea. The only hope of rescue lay in keeping afloat until
+daylight, when the "S.O.S." call sent out before the sloop foundered
+might bring them aid. The coast of Ireland lay 300 miles to the
+south-east, and so intense was the cold that few expected to live
+through the night.
+
+The gloom of a winter afternoon gave place to darkness, and with the
+fading of daylight the cold increased. Men became numb and were washed
+unnoticed from the rafts. Others were dragged unconscious into the
+already overcrowded life-boats, which sank so deep in the water with the
+additional weight that green seas now splashed inboard and baling became
+necessary. Limbs stiffened in the sharp frost and had to be pounded back
+to life by unselfish comrades. Even under cover of the sails the cold
+was so intense that only five women and two children were left alive by
+midnight.
+
+Through the long dark hours men struggled under the drenching showers of
+bitter spray. When dawn broke, throwing a pale mystic light over the
+acre-wide Atlantic swell, each one knew that life depended on the coming
+of a ship before the light of day again faded in the west.
+
+The snowing had ceased some hours before darkness lifted, and in the
+clear morning cold men stood up painfully and searched the watery
+horizon for the sign which would bring them life. Just before three
+bells, as the boats rose on the bosom of the swell, a thin blur of smoke
+could be seen low down on the eastern horizon. Had there been strength
+left in the worn-out bodies there would have been a cheer, but now only
+a slight stir of suppressed excitement and many a silent prayer.
+
+The limit of human suffering and endurance had, however, not yet been
+reached. Some twenty minutes later it became evident that the ship had
+not received the wireless call and was passing too far off to be reached
+by any sound signal short of a big gun. Slowly the trail of smoke
+disappeared in the haze of great distance without even a glimpse of the
+ship itself.
+
+The spirits of all began to sink as hour after hour went by without
+sight of the hoped-for sail. Then, about eight bells, one of the men
+standing up in the centre of the first officer's boat gave a little
+inarticulate cry and some few minutes later the dim outline of a big
+ship hove in sight. The suspense was unbearable. Women to whom any sign
+of religious emotion was alien knelt openly and prayed, while men who
+had suffered similarly before gazed fixedly at the distant object,
+knowing how fickle is Fortune to sailormen in distress. But the hull
+grew larger and hope shone on the faces of all. Men pulled frantically
+at the oars, while others waved pieces of sail or clothing to attract
+attention.
+
+Now came a surprise. From the pocket of his duffel coat the first
+officer produced what he had hitherto kept hidden for just such an
+emergency--a Very's pistol, with its small-sized single red rocket. A
+hoarse cry of joy went up from all in spite of their exhaustion when
+they saw the rocket soar into the air and burst into a blood-red glow.
+
+A short time later keen eyes made out the string of flags which
+fluttered from the halyards of the oncoming warship, and although
+minutes seemed like hours, none could quite remember what happened
+after. Some say that the cruiser came alongside them and others that she
+lowered her boats and steamed round in a circle. But forty-eight
+survivors were landed in Liverpool three days later, leaving in the
+wastes of the Western Ocean a murdered two hundred.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is interesting to note that survivors from torpedoed ships frequently
+showed great reluctance to leave their life-boats and go aboard the
+rescuing vessel, especially when they were within easy sailing distance
+of a harbour. After being torpedoed, rescued and torpedoed again they
+often preferred the comparative safety but hardship of the small open
+boat to the risk and luxury of the big ship. This applied more
+especially to Scandinavian sailors, whose powers in small boats are well
+known.
+
+It should, however, be stated that, so far as British and American
+seamen were concerned, men sailed again and again, after being torpedoed
+or mined six, seven and even eight times. It was this remarkable
+fortitude of the Mercantile Marine which saved Europe from starvation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+IN THE SHADOW OF A BIG SEA FIGHT
+
+
+ON the evening of 30th May 1916 six of his Majesty's drifters were lying
+alongside the quay of a Scottish naval base having their few hours'
+"stand-off" after weary days patrolling lines of submerged nets. Their
+officers and crews, with the exception of one sad-faced company on guard
+duty, were enjoying either the comparative luxury of a corrugated-iron
+wardroom, situated on a windy stone pier, or a few the more complete
+relaxation of a brief visit to a theatre in a neighbouring town. There
+were also many other ships coaling, resting and being repaired, for the
+base was a large and important one.
+
+In the intelligence office an assistant paymaster, weary of decoding
+cypher wireless messages from flotillas, patrols and sweepers spread far
+out over the leagues of sea lying between this port and the German
+coast, sat talking to the executive officer on night duty.
+
+About 8 P.M. a messenger from the wireless cabin entered with the
+familiar signal form and the A.P. spread it out carelessly on the desk
+in front of him, taking the sturdy little lead-covered decipher book
+from the safe at his side. A few scratches of the pen beneath the secret
+signal and the deciphering was complete. He looked up quickly and with
+a gesture of keen satisfaction handed the signal to the officer
+temporarily in command of the base.
+
+The older man read it and paused for a moment before replying. It was
+the brief and now historic statement that an action between Sir David
+Beatty's battle cruisers and the German High Seas Fleet was imminent. A
+crowd of orders to be executed in the event of all kinds of emergencies
+were rapidly reviewed in his active brain. For a brief space the scene
+of what was occurring out in the blackness of the North Sea occupied his
+thoughts, for he had fought in the battle of the Dogger Bank and knew
+what those brief words really meant. It was the evening of the battle of
+Jutland.
+
+Rising quickly to his feet, the night duty officer seized the telephone,
+rang up the Admiral Commanding, who had gone home to dinner, and
+hurriedly left the intelligence office to carry out a host of
+prearranged orders.
+
+The "old man," as admirals are invariably called, was evidently ready
+for the emergency, for his large grey car tore past the sentries at the
+approaches to the base, and in a few minutes he was closeted with his
+commanders and other officers in the small matchboarded cabin. Charts
+were pinned down on the table in front of him, and for the next
+half-hour officers and messengers were kept busy with telephones and
+other means of rapid concentration.
+
+In the neighbouring large town the police had received the order for a
+"general naval recall" and were active in the streets politely informing
+officers and men on short leave that their services were required
+immediately at the bases. In the theatres and cinema halls the cryptic
+message, "All naval officers and men to return at once to their ships,"
+was given out from the stage or thrown on the screen, a replica of the
+night before Waterloo.
+
+Men wondered and women grew anxious. Did it mean an invasion or an air
+raid? Many were the questions asked as silently seats were left and
+files of blue and gold streamed out of the places of amusement.
+Taxi-cabs full of officers raced each other along the streets. Civilians
+had to give place to sailors on the tram-cars, and then, in less than
+thirty minutes, all was quiet again, except for groups of people
+discussing possibilities in front of the big public buildings. Even
+these soon dispersed when reassuring messages were circulated which
+hinted at the reason for the recall, and the level-headed Scottish
+citizens went home wondering what the great news would be on the
+morrow--for the fate of empires might be decided during the night.
+
+As each officer and man entered the base the gates were closed. The
+sentries and the officer of the guard knew nothing "officially," but in
+the wardroom at the end of the stone quay the news of the action was
+being discussed in imaginative detail. At 11 P.M. orders were received
+for certain small ships to get under way with sealed orders. An hour
+later came the message that six drifters were to be cleared of all their
+war appliances and were to be given stretchers, cots, slings and other
+appliances for the carriage of wounded. They were to be ready to proceed
+to sea at 2 A.M.
+
+All was ordered hurry. Piles of anti-submarine devices were taken from
+the holds of these ships. Other vessels came alongside and unloaded
+stretchers, cots and slings, which had been obtained from local naval
+hospitals and hospital ships. The officers were grouped round a
+commander in the wardroom having typed orders, which had evidently been
+prepared long beforehand, carefully explained to them. Red Cross flags
+were served out, and by 1.30 A.M. all were ready for sea.
+
+Other ships stole silently out into the blueness of the night to
+strengthen patrols and prevent hostile submarines from getting into
+position to attack the main battle fleets on their return to harbour.
+
+Wireless messages indicating a concentration of German submarines on the
+lines of communication were received. Every armed ship was in great
+demand, but over the dark waters, lashed by a stiff easterly breeze, the
+gunners of many batteries gazed steadily as the searchlights played
+around, investigating everything that moved on the face of the waters.
+Beams flashed heavenwards for hostile aerial fleets.
+
+On the dark quaysides and on the decks of the ships hundreds of sailors
+moved noiselessly about getting ready for sea. Columns of smoke from
+the short funnels of destroyers, trawlers and drifters showed up black
+against the indigo void, and ever and anon hoarse voices shouted orders,
+unintelligible from the distance. It was quiet preparation rather than
+noisy haste, and although an air of suppressed excitement did prevail
+when the men were mustered and extra hands told off to the different
+ships by the light of battle lanterns, it was more a feeling of hope
+than one of satisfaction.
+
+For nearly two years these men had quietly fought the elusive submarine,
+the nerve-shattering mine, and endured uncomplainingly the terrible
+hardships, arduous work and monotony of patrol, and now their one
+fervent hope was a glimpse at least of the real thing.
+
+In the wardroom on the quay about sixty officers of all ranks were
+discussing the possibilities of the fight while waiting impatiently for
+the last command before the relief of action--"Carry on as ordered."
+Conversation centred on the Grand Fleet, under Sir John Jellicoe,
+steaming down from the north. Many had seen those miles of gigantic
+warships, whose mere existence had preserved for the Entente the command
+of the sea and all that it implied. Others had served in ships whose
+names have been familiar to Englishmen since the days of Nelson, and now
+opined that when at last the "old ship"--perhaps a brand-new
+super-dreadnought--was going into action on the great day it was their
+luck to be in command of a "one-horse" boat miles from the field of
+glory.
+
+Four bells had struck when the signal came for all ships under orders
+to proceed to sea. Oilskins were rapidly slipped on, for a fine rain had
+commenced to fall and the damp wind was penetratingly cold at this early
+hour. Almost silently the small grey ships slid out of harbour and were
+lost in the blueness of the night.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+When dawn broke over the choppy tumbling sea the different flotillas
+were far apart, each attending to its allotted task. Those engaged in
+patrolling the route by which the battle cruisers would return found
+themselves acting in conjunction with a division of destroyers, some of
+whom had been under refit but a few hours previously, but when the
+tocsin of battle rang out had _made themselves_ ready for sea in an
+incredibly short time, thereby earning the praise of the
+commander-in-chief.
+
+Information had been received, and later in the day was confirmed, that
+no less than five hostile submarines were known to be waiting in the
+vicinity with the object of attacking any crippled ships from the battle
+fleets, and it became the duty of the patrols to clear them away from
+the lines of communication. For over twenty hours the seas around were
+churned by the keels of a heterogeneous fleet of ships armed with
+equally heterogeneous weapons. Guns' crews stayed by their weapons until
+their limbs ached and look-outs searched the sea with burning eyes.
+Through the short dark hours of a May night in northern latitudes
+searchlights swept the near approaches, while in the black void of sea
+and sky beyond myriads of mosquito craft moved over the face of the
+waters with all lights out and their narrow decks cleared for action.
+Alarms were frequent, and the occasional yellow flashes and sharp
+reports of cordite, some too far distant to be visible, told their own
+tale. In the treacherous light of early dawn the fins of big porpoises
+were more than once mistaken for the hunted periscope.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+With the Red Cross flotilla waiting behind the screen of patrols and
+defences things had moved rapidly. Each little ship had been told off to
+attend on one or other of the great warships which were hourly expected
+from the battle zone. Stretchers, bedding, cots and slings were piled on
+the decks, and extra hands had been lent for the work of removing the
+wounded.
+
+Another flotilla was in readiness to replace the casualties with
+reinforcements, which had been concentrated by special trains, in order
+that the battle fleets and squadrons might be again ready for sea in the
+shortest possible time.
+
+At the base trains and big ships were waiting with every known appliance
+to alleviate the suffering which was coming in from the sea.
+
+It was a typical May morning, with a light easterly breeze, when the
+first of the great line of ships--H.M.S. _Lion_--came into view. A
+hurricane of cheers greeted her from the deck of every ship that passed.
+Then the gallant _Warspite_, low by the stern and scarred and torn by
+tornadoes of shell; the _New Zealand_, scarcely touched by the fiery
+ordeal; the plucky little light cruiser _Southampton_, holed and
+battered; followed by cruiser after cruiser with attendant destroyers,
+some with great bright steel splinters of shell still sticking tight in
+the gouged armour-plate; others with holes plugged with wood and
+broadsides stained with the bright yellow of high explosives. Gun
+shields caught by the gusts of shell were cut out like fretwork; funnels
+were blotched with blackened holes; but of them all not one was out of
+action. Few, if any, of the heavy guns and armoured barbettes were
+damaged, and all except one--the _Warspite_--came in proudly under their
+own steam. This was the return of the battle cruiser and light cruiser
+squadrons, which, under Sir David Beatty, had met and defeated
+practically the entire German navy. Steaming back into the northern mist
+was the Grand Fleet--the largest assembly of warships ever known--which,
+had it been given the opportunity so eagerly sought, would undoubtedly
+have annihilated the remains of Von Hipper's fleet.
+
+An observer from a distance would have found it difficult to believe
+that this was the fleet which had just fought the greatest sea fight in
+the history of the world. Yet the decks of the seaplane carrier
+_Engadine_ were covered with men in motley clothes, a grim reminder of
+the severity of the ordeal, for they were the survivors from the
+thousands who had manned the _Princess Royal_ and _Invincible_. On the
+high poop a fleet chaplain was surrounded by figures in borrowed duffel
+suits giving thanks to the God of Battles for their rescue.
+
+As the engines of each great ship came temporarily to rest a vessel of
+the Red Cross flotilla ranged alongside and the more sombre work of war
+began. A shell through the sick-bay of H.M.S. _Lion_ had caused Sir
+David Beatty to have many of the wounded on that ship placed in his own
+cabins. The only casualty on the _New Zealand_ was caused by a gust of
+bursting steel over the signal bridge. A big shell had passed
+longitudinally through the line of officers' cabins in the battered
+little _Southampton_, and many were the curious escapes from death. In
+modern naval war a heavy casualty list seems unavoidable, and the deadly
+nature of a sea fight will perhaps be better realised when it is stated
+that on one of the battle cruisers there were just over three hundred
+casualties, of which number very nearly two hundred were killed
+outright, and this on a ship which still sailed proudly into port in
+fighting condition. Where the shells had burst in the steel flats the
+fierce heat generated had burnt off the clothes and skin of many who
+were untouched by the flying slivers of steel, and the crews of the
+secondary batteries of smaller guns suffered severely.
+
+Cot cases were the first to be lowered from the decks of the warships to
+the waiting Red Cross boats. The patience and care with which this
+difficult operation was carried out may be gauged from the fact that
+there were no casualties or deaths during the work of transportation.
+Human forms, swathed from head to foot in yellow picric-acid dressings,
+were lowered on to the decks or carried down the gangways. By a curious
+ordinance of fate, _picric acid_, one of the most deadly explosives
+known, also provides a medical dressing for the alleviation of the pain
+which in another form it may have caused. The walking wounded, with arms
+in slings or heads covered in lint, were helped down the ship's sides by
+smoke-blackened comrades in uniforms torn to shreds by the fierce work
+of naval war.
+
+All serious cases of shell shock were conveyed at the utmost speed by
+special units to the big and lavishly equipped hospital ships. Those
+with minor injuries were taken ashore and placed in ambulance trains for
+distribution among the big naval hospitals. So perfect was the
+organisation that within three hours all the sick-bays had been cleared
+and fresh crews placed on board. The squadrons were again ready to give
+battle.
+
+Twenty-four hours later the patrol flotillas returned to their base to
+commence once again the dangerous and monotonous but less spectacular
+work of minesweeping and patrol. Their work in preventing a
+concentration of German submarines on the line of route of the returning
+fleets and in the removal of the wounded received high praise from the
+commander-in-chief. In the wardroom on the little stone pier a silent
+toast was given that night to those who had gone aloft in the greatest
+sea fight since Trafalgar.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+A NIGHT ATTACK
+
+
+TWO drifters, about a mile apart, with no lights to indicate their
+presence, were drifting idly with the ebb tide. It was an oppressively
+hot night in mid-August. Scarcely a ripple disturbed the surface of the
+sea, but the intense darkness and the absence of stars told of the heavy
+clouds above. The barometer had been falling rapidly for some hours and
+all the conditions seemed to indicate a coming storm.
+
+The duty of these two vessels was to watch lines of cunningly laid
+submerged nets (described in an earlier chapter) and to guide the few
+merchant ships which passed that way through the labyrinth of these
+defences, laid temporarily as a trap for the wily "Fritz" if he should
+chance to be cruising in the vicinity.
+
+The drifters were adequately armed with guns and depth charges to attack
+any such monster of the deep which betrayed its presence by becoming
+entangled in the fine wire mesh and so attaching to itself a flaming
+tail, which would then be dragged along the surface, marking it as a
+target for all the pleasant surprises lying ready on the decks of the
+patrols.
+
+_Fishing for Fritz_ was a popular sport in the anti-submarine service
+until the "fish" became shy and its devotees _blase_; then the primitive
+net was changed for the more scientific devices already described. It
+required infinite patience and meant very hard work, with a _soupcon_ of
+danger thrown in. For when the tons of steel wire-netting, with its
+heavy sinkers and floats, had been laid, days were spent in watching and
+repairing, then endless resource employed to induce a submarine to enter
+the trap. Occasionally the voyage ended in an exciting chase, with the
+flaming buoy as the guiding light.
+
+It was in the early period of the war, when Paris was still threatened
+by the Teutonic armies and the Allies waited confidently for the clash
+of the great battle fleets. Every dark night on the northern sea eyes
+and ears were silently watching and listening for the comings and goings
+which would herald the storm. The strain was great though the work was
+not spectacular, for all knew that the safety of England, or at least
+its freedom from invasion, might, for one brief historical instant,
+depend on the vigilance and nerve of that heterogeneous, irregular
+horse, the sea patrols.
+
+The great cruiser squadrons were scouring the North Sea. Battle seemed
+imminent, and that vague wave of human electricity which passes along
+the firing line before the attack at dawn, and even extends to the lines
+of communication, was in the air on this dark night in 1915.
+
+Six bells had just struck when a faint, cool breeze swept across the
+surface, and a few minutes later the first vivid flash of lightning
+forked the eastern sky. There was a scramble for oilskins on Drifter 42
+as the rain came hissing down like a flood released. The storm was
+severe while it lasted. The thunder rolled over the placid surface.
+Lightning darted athwart the sky, illuminating the black void beneath.
+For about thirty minutes the sky blazed and roared, then the hiss of the
+rain ceased and the storm moved slowly northwards, but one of the final
+flashes revealed something low down on the surface moving stealthily
+forward. So brief was the glimpse obtained, however, that it seemed
+merely a phantom--by no means uncommon occurrences when men have been
+watching for years. When the next flash came the surface of the sea
+around was clear.
+
+As was usual in such cases, half the watch on deck could swear they had
+seen it, while those who were not looking ridiculed the idea, so the
+C.O. said nothing and took precautions. The watch below was called and
+the powerful little gun on the fore-deck manned. Then all waited in
+silence, listening intently for the curious, creaking noise of a
+submarine under way.
+
+In those early days of hostilities there were no elaborate hydrophones
+for detecting the approach of submarines under the water, and the only
+hope of a warning came from the possibility of the under-water vessel
+breaking surface momentarily. The uselessness of the periscope for
+navigation during darkness, which at present forms the principal
+limitation of submarines, made it distinctly likely that she would
+cruise on the surface at night, and if forced to dive would be more or
+less compelled to quickly rise again in order to ascertain the position
+of her enemy before it would be possible to fire a torpedo with any
+chance of success.
+
+For these reasons all eyes and ears on the drifter were strained to
+catch the first glimpse or sound, and dead silence was maintained. It is
+in times like this that one discovers how acute the senses become when
+danger lurks in the darkness around. Things undetectable under normal
+conditions can be seen or heard distinctly when life depends on the
+intelligence so gained.
+
+Long minutes of silence slipped by and nothing occurred; then came the
+distant and familiar creaking noise, almost inaudible at first. The
+gun's crew braced themselves for the stern work ahead. On the rapidity
+and accuracy of their fire not only their own lives, but also those of
+their comrades, would probably depend. The gun-layer bent his back and
+glanced along the grey tube to the tiny blue glow of the electric night
+sight. The shell was placed in the open breech. Then came those
+interminable seconds before an action begins.
+
+The tension would have been almost unsupportable had nearly all of the
+crew not grown accustomed to life hanging in the balance on the wastes
+of sea.
+
+A flicker of light, at first almost spectral, appeared from out of the
+darkness some 500 yards to starboard. It grew almost instantly into a
+bright white flare, illuminating the surface of the black water as it
+moved along. The pungent smell of burning calcium floated over the sea
+and the drifter's engines began to throb heavily.
+
+The tension relaxed, a subdued cheer broke from the crew of the drifter
+as she gathered speed, and the Morse lamp winked its order for concerted
+action to the other drifter somewhere in the darkness around. An
+answering dot-dash-dot of light appeared from away to starboard and the
+chase commenced in earnest.
+
+A few minutes later the glare from the calcium buoy, now being towed
+through the water at several knots, shone on the faces of the crew as
+they trained their gun ahead, but the submarine was under the surface
+and, although probably quite unaware of the flaming tail which was
+betraying her movements, appeared to know that she was being hunted by
+surface craft. After running straight ahead for a few minutes she turned
+eight points to the eastward in an attempt to baffle pursuit.
+
+The chase was a fairly long one, as the speed of the drifters was not
+sufficient to enable them to gain rapidly on their quarry, but the
+flexibility of the steam-engine gradually gave the surface ships the
+advantage and they crept up level with the light. Then, with their
+boilers almost bursting and flames spouting from the funnels, they drew
+ahead until over the submarine itself. Depth charges were dropped from
+the stern of the drifters. The water boiled with the force of the
+explosions and the light on the buoy went out. Still the drifters held
+their course in the now pall-like blackness, and other bombs splashed
+into the water astern, to explode with a dull vibration a few seconds
+after they had sunk from the surface.
+
+The engines of the two small surface ships were shut off and every ear
+became alert, but no sound broke the stillness of the summer night,
+except the rumble of distant thunder and the gentle lap of the sea
+against the sides. Morse signals winked from one ship to the other and
+back again. When due precautions had been taken against a further
+surprise attack, the chivalry of the sea called for a search to be made
+for possible survivors. This was done with the aid of flares, but only
+oil and some small debris were found. Dan-buoys were dropped to mark the
+spot and soundings taken. Twenty-four fathoms deep was added to the
+report of the action, and a few days later a diver reported having found
+the wreck of the U-C 00.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+MYSTERIES OF THE GREAT SEA WASTES
+
+
+THE piratical warfare of German submarines produced many sea mysteries.
+Some were solved after the lapse of months and even years, while others
+will, in all probability, remain unknown until the sea gives up its
+dead.
+
+Among the latter may be numbered the curious discovery in the North
+Atlantic of a nameless sailing ship, without cargo, identifying papers
+or crew, but sound from truck to kelson, and with her two life-boats
+stowed neatly inboard and a half-finished meal on the cabin table.
+Experts examined this vessel when brought into port, but so far have
+been utterly unable to offer any solution or discover any clue, beyond
+the fact that she was built and fitted out in some American port and
+carried an unusually large crew.
+
+Another similar mystery was the disappearance of a French vessel while
+on a voyage to New Orleans and the discovery eleven months afterwards
+that she had called for water and food at a small port on the Pacific
+coast of South America. No further trace has so far come to light, nor
+the reason for her changing course and rounding Cape Horn.
+
+A mystery which remains a mystery to the end of the chapter is likely to
+be irritating to the imaginative mind, but to the following occurrence
+there came a solution after the lapse of a few weeks.
+
+
+THE SPECTRE OF THE GOODWINS
+
+It was a pitch-black night, with fine rain driving up from the
+south-west. The summer gale which had raged for the past twenty-four
+hours had blown itself out, and although the steep seas still retained
+their night-caps, the wind came only in fitful gusts. Away to starboard
+an indistinct blur of white foam stretched athwart the sea and the dull
+roar from the maelstrom of the Goodwins rolled across the miles of
+intervening water.
+
+The armed trawler _Curlew_ bravely shouldered her way through each green
+comber as it rose to meet her, lurching over the seas in a smother of
+spray. Oilskinned figures moved warily along the life-lines, for when a
+wave struck her tons of water swept across her slanting decks,
+submerging the bulwarks and causing the sturdy ship to groan and tremble
+from stem to stern.
+
+In the little bridge-house the dim light from the binnacle shone on the
+hard wet face of the commanding officer, who watched the seas as they
+rose up ahead, giving directions to the man at the wheel, and all the
+while keeping a watchful eye on the distant blur of foam covering the
+treacherous shoals.
+
+Few except sailormen can realise the dangers and anxieties of navigation
+in times of war. The absence not only of the warning lights which in
+days of peace flash their signals far out over the seas, marking the
+innumerable dangers which lie along treacherous coasts, but also of
+warships and merchantmen rushing through the night with not even the
+flicker from a port-hole to denote their coming--perhaps at a speed of
+nearly three-quarters of a mile a minute; a second's indecision on the
+part of the brain and nerve directing each ship, a momentary
+forgetfulness of that elusive "right thing to do"--some second danger to
+attract a flash of attention from the first--even a blinding cloud of
+spray at the psychological moment and, well, two more ships have gone,
+with perhaps hundreds of lives. Yet these things but seldom happened,
+and the reason was that all that tireless energy, skill and nerve could
+do was done on the sea in those years of storm and stress.
+
+Some two hours later, and just before dawn broke over the tumbling sea,
+an exceptionally heavy wave struck the trawler full on the port-bow. The
+hammer-like blows of the water as it poured on board and struck the base
+of the wheel-house and superstructure momentarily drowned all other
+sound. When the air had cleared of flying spume a big black hull loomed
+out of the darkness ahead and seemed suddenly to grow to an immense
+size, towering high above the trawler's forecastle-head. A blast on the
+whistle, a sharp order and the trawler swung off to starboard, with the
+great black mass perilously near. It was a close shave, and the watch
+held their breath while waiting for the crash and shock which for a
+brief second seemed inevitable.
+
+There was no time for action or signal. The great ship slid past like
+some black phantom framed in the white of flying scud. It faded into the
+misty darkness of sea and sky almost as quickly as it had appeared, and,
+curiously, no sound of throbbing engines accompanied its passage.
+
+It took the captain of the patrol but a minute to make up his mind what
+to do. He gave a quick order to the helmsman and a warning shout to the
+watch below on deck. The little ship, as she came about, lurched into
+the trough of a sea and rose shivering from end to end. The next moment
+an avalanche of white and green water poured over her, flooding the
+decks and sending clouds of spray high over the funnel and masts. Then
+commenced an exciting chase, with the seas racing up astern and all eyes
+trying to penetrate the darkness ahead.
+
+The faint misty light of a new day had brightened the eastern horizon
+before the mysterious ship again loomed up ahead. The heavy sea still
+running made it difficult, however, to distinguish any national or local
+characteristics which might give a clue to her identity or intentions,
+and the suspense was keen.
+
+The two guns of the patrol vessel were manned, and a three-flag signal
+fluttered from the jumper-stay but received no immediate reply from the
+ship ahead. Then, after a few minutes' pause, during which time the
+trawler manoeuvred for the advantage of the light from the breaking
+dawn, a yellow flash belched from her side and a shell ricochetted off
+the water just ahead of the mysterious steamer. Still there was no
+response; but it could now be plainly seen that the engines were not
+working and that she was drifting before the wind and sea.
+
+Was it merely a _ruse de guerre_ to gain the advantage in the event of
+an attack, or was she a vessel disabled by the storm which had raged
+during the past forty-eight hours? Neither of these suppositions,
+however, satisfactorily explained the total disregard of signals and the
+warning shot which had been fired across her bows.
+
+Again a line of flags were hoisted on the trawler's halyards, this time
+a well-known signal from the _International Code_, but still no notice
+was taken of the peremptory order it conveyed.
+
+After the chase had been on for over an hour another shot was fired from
+the trawler. The report echoed across the still boisterous sea and the
+splash of the shell just cleared the ship's bow. Still there was no
+response, and the trawler's course was altered so that she would soon
+close in on her quarry. As the light increased it was seen that a stout
+wire hawser was trailing in the water from the starboard bow, and
+suspicion of some new evidence of sea _kultur_ increased. When the range
+had closed to about 1000 yards she slowly swung round until almost
+broadside-on to the trawler, whose guns instantly opened fire in
+earnest. The third shell struck the large wheel-house of the mystery
+ship, demolishing it completely. When it became evident that the fire
+was not going to be returned, the guns of the trawler again ceased, and
+the two vessels drew close to each other. A partly defaced name, which
+was rendered indecipherable by the splash of the seas as they struck the
+counter, could be distinguished with the aid of binoculars in the
+quickening light of early morning, but neither officers nor crew could
+be seen, the bridge and decks appearing deserted.
+
+Not to be misled by this ruse, however--for on similar occasions ships
+had been blown to pieces at close range by concealed batteries--the
+_Curlew_ approached cautiously, bows-on, offering the smallest possible
+target, and with her guns trained on the quarry. This sea-stalking is
+nervy work and must be played slowly. Twice the trawler circled round
+the mysterious ship, and the sun had mounted high, penetrating the banks
+of cloud which scudded across the summer sky and tingeing the still
+boisterous sea with flecks of golden light, before it was considered
+safe to relax all precautions. Even then the sea prevented any attempt
+being made to board the curious craft, and for six hours the trawler
+clung to the heels of her quarry, which was rapidly drifting far out
+into the North Sea.
+
+The danger of attack from hostile submarines was great, and the gunners
+stood by their weapons although drenched every few seconds by the floods
+of heavy spray which still poured over the bows. At last patience and
+endurance were rewarded. The sea calmed sufficiently to enable a boat to
+be lowered and with difficulty brought up under the lee of the
+mysterious ship.
+
+An armed guard, headed by the sub-lieutenant, eagerly scrambled up the
+lofty rolling sides. They had scarcely reached the deck before their
+only means of retreat was cut off. The two men left in the life-boat
+were unable to keep her off the iron sides of the big ship. She rose
+like a cork on the crest of a wave until almost level with the top line
+of port-holes and then dropped back, catching the edges of the
+rolling-stocks. There was a crash of splintering wood and the next
+minute two half-drowned men were being hauled up the sides by their
+comrades on deck.
+
+It was an anxious moment, for although the decks seemed deserted there
+was that curious, uncanny feeling which is ever present when facing an
+unknown peril. After all it _might_ prove to be a _ruse de guerre_ or
+some new form of frightfulness. There were only six men from the
+trawler--a small enough party, however well armed, if it came to a
+fight--and great caution was observed while exploring the ship. A signal
+had been arranged in the event of treachery, and the _Curlew_, with her
+guns _and wireless_, would prove a dangerous antagonist.
+
+All was well, however, for the ship was deserted. A careful inspection
+of the cabins showed that the departure of officers and crew had been a
+hasty one, but all the ship's papers had been carefully removed. The
+forepeak or bow water-tight compartment was full of water, but the
+bulk-head had held and kept the vessel afloat. Beyond this no damage
+was visible above the water-line and the condition of both hull and
+engines was good. She proved to be a Spanish ship, and to make the
+mystery deeper her four life-boats were still on the davits, although
+swung outboard ready for lowering.
+
+In those troublous days the fact of the life-boats being hoisted out in
+readiness for eventualities conveyed little or nothing, but when a
+careful search proved that many of the life-belts had gone with the crew
+the problem became an interesting one. Had they been taken on to the
+deck of a German submarine which had subsequently dived and left them to
+drown, as was the case with the crew of a British fishing vessel, or had
+they been conveyed as prisoners of war to Germany? Against both of these
+surmises was the fact that _all_ the ship's boats remained, and a German
+submarine would scarcely be likely to come close alongside even a
+neutral ship, especially during the bad weather that had prevailed for
+the past few days. Would it remain one of the many mysteries of the
+great sea war?
+
+Some few hours later the trawler, with her big "prize"--under her own
+steam--entered an eastern naval base and berthed her capture with the
+aid of tugs.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The explanation came from headquarters several weeks later. The s.s.
+----, of Barcelona, had grounded on the Goodwins about three hours
+before she nearly ran down the trawler. Her crew, thinking that she
+would rapidly break up in the surf, had fired distress signals and been
+taken safely ashore in a life-boat. The rising tide and south-westerly
+wind had done the rest, freeing her from the dangerous sands.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+FROM OUT THE CLOUDS AND UNDER-SEAS
+
+
+IT has already been shown that the science of aerial warfare is closely
+allied with that of under-sea fighting. Airships and seaplanes play
+important parts in all anti-submarine operations. They make very
+efficient patrols and can detect the presence of both submarines and
+mines under the surface.
+
+During the Great War there were stations for armed aircraft all round
+the British coast, and the patrols of the sea and air acted in close
+co-operation. It often happened that one was able to render important
+service to the other. An occasion such as this took place off an east
+coast base in November, 1916.
+
+
+SALVING AN AIRSHIP
+
+A big car dashed up the wooden pier of a small seaport regardless of the
+violent jolting from the uneven planking. It was pulled up with a jerk
+when level with one of the little grey patrol boats known by the generic
+name of M.L.'s, which was lying in the calm water alongside with its air
+compressor pumping vigorously.
+
+Two officers of the Royal Naval Air Service, with a P.O., carrying a
+powerful Morse signalling lamp, jumped from the car and scrambled down
+the wooden piles on to the deck of the M.L.
+
+A nod from the commanding officer and the mooring ropes were cast off as
+the telegraph was jammed over to "half ahead." Instantly the powerful
+engines responded to the order and the little ship began rapidly to
+gather way. When the harbour bar had been crossed the order for full
+speed was given and the engines settled down to a low staccato roar as
+they drove the M.L. over the heaving swell.
+
+No word had yet been spoken between the officers of the sea and air. A
+brief telephone message to the little hut on the quayside from the
+adjacent naval base to the effect that M.L.A6 was to be ready to embark
+two officers from the air station and was to proceed in search of an
+airship which was foundering about twenty miles seawards was all that
+had been told, and yet not a single second of time was lost in getting
+under way. All recognised that it was a race to save the lives of men.
+
+The little ship cleft the seas, smothering herself with foam, and bluish
+fumes poured out of the engine-room ventilators. The first half-hour
+seemed interminably long, and the horizon was continually searched with
+the aid of powerful glasses for a sign of the wrecked airship. At last a
+faint speck became visible away to the south-west, and as the distance
+slowly lessened--terribly slowly, notwithstanding the speed of nearly
+half-a-mile a minute--the crumpled envelope settling on the water could
+be distinguished.
+
+It was a question of minutes. Again the order was shouted down the
+speaking-tube for more speed, but this time there was no reply. The C.O.
+rang the telegraph viciously, but without result. The coxswain at the
+wheel looked up quickly and then shouted an order to a deck hand, who
+lowered himself down the tiny man-hole in the deck leading to the
+engine-room. A few seconds later the second engineer appeared at the top
+of the fo'c'sle hatch and, ducking to avoid a heavy shower of spray,
+scrambled aft and peered down the man-hole, from which blue fumes,
+somewhat thicker and more pungent than usual, were rising. The next
+instant he too disappeared below.
+
+The air officers were trying to get into communication with the rapidly
+sinking airship by means of the powerful Morse lamp, but without result,
+and one of them put his head into the wheel-house and asked anxiously if
+more speed was possible.
+
+Just then the second engineer and one of the crew crawled out of the
+man-hole, pulling a limp figure behind them. The C.O. turned to
+ascertain what had happened, and the men, very white and shaky,
+explained in a few gasps that they had found the chief engineer
+senseless at the bottom of the iron ladder leading up to the deck, and
+had themselves been nearly gassed by the petrol fumes.
+
+Glancing at the blue vapour now pouring up the hatchway and out of the
+ventilators, the C.O. realised the risk of fire and explosion he ran by
+carrying on at such high speed, but he also knew that men were drowning
+in the sea some eight miles ahead, and that the few extra knots might
+make the difference between life and death for them.
+
+That the risk must be taken was a foregone conclusion, but how to keep
+the engines running at that high speed without attention--for it was
+evident that no man could live for many minutes in the poisonous
+fumes--was a more difficult problem. This was solved, however, by the
+second engineer volunteering to go below with a life-line attached, so
+that he could be hauled up to the deck when giddiness came on. More than
+once this gallant petty officer had to be pulled up choking and
+exhausted. He risked instant death from the explosion of the gas from
+the leaking and overheated pipes and engines, as well as suffocation
+from the fumes, but he stuck to his post, returning again and again into
+the poisonous atmosphere.
+
+Darkness was gradually settling over the sea, and the flickering light
+of the Morse lamp--still asking for a reply--made yellow streaks on the
+wet fore-deck. Presently a faint speck of light blinked amid the dark
+mass of the airship, but almost instantly went out, and for some time
+nothing further was seen.
+
+Barely three miles of heaving sea separated the two ships when the
+bright glare of a Very's light, fired from a pistol, soared into the
+air. A cheer broke from the dark figures on the deck of the M.L., and a
+message of hope was eagerly flashed back.
+
+The last knot seemed a voyage in itself, but eventually the great dark
+mass of the still floating envelope loomed up ahead, and almost
+instantly the clang of the engine-room telegraph, shutting off the leaky
+engine, gave relief to the plucky second engineer, who had retained
+consciousness and control through that dreadful twenty minutes by
+frequently filling his aching lungs above the hatchway.
+
+The sea around was a mass of tangled wires, in which the mast and
+rigging of the M.L. was the first to become entangled. Near approach was
+impossible, so orders were given to lower away the boat. The sturdy
+little steel-built life-boat splashed into the sea alongside, one minute
+rising on a wave high above the deck-line and the next disappearing into
+the dark void below. Figures slid down the miniature falls to man her
+and the next minute were pulling through the tangled wreckage to where
+the beam of the M.L.'s searchlight showed six airmen clinging to a
+floating but upturned cupola.
+
+Numbed with the cold, they fell rather than jumped into the boat as it
+was pulled alongside. One was insensible and the others were too far
+gone to utter a word. Nothing but the wonderful vitality necessary to
+the airman as to the sailor had enabled them to hold on in that bitter
+cold for over two hours after eight hours in the air.
+
+The task of extricating the M.L. from the tangle of wire stays and other
+wreckage was a difficult one. A propeller had entwined itself and become
+useless (afterwards freed by going astern), the little signal topmast
+and yard had been broken off by a loop of wire from the gigantic
+envelope and the ensign staff carried away. After about twenty minutes
+cutting and manoeuvring, however, she floated free, and a question was
+raised as to the possibility of salving the airship.
+
+By this time another M.L., sent out to assist in the work of rescue, had
+arrived on the scene, and a conference between the air and sea officers
+on the senior ship resulted in the attempt at salving being made. Wires
+that were hanging from the nose of the airship were made fast to the
+stern of the M.L.'s, and all wreckage was, where possible, cut adrift.
+This, to the uninitiated, may sound a comparatively quick and simple
+operation, but when it is performed in the darkness, with the doubtful
+aid of two small searchlights, on a sea rising and falling under the
+influence of a heavy ground swell, it is anything but an easy or rapid
+operation, and occupied half the night.
+
+The huge mass of the modern airship towered above the little patrol
+boats like some leviathan of the deep. To attempt its towage over twenty
+miles of sea seemed almost ludicrous for such small craft, and yet so
+light and easy of passage was this aerial monster that progress at the
+rate of three knots an hour was made when once the wreckage had been cut
+adrift, the weights released and the envelope had risen off the surface
+of the water.
+
+Armed trawlers that passed in the night wondered if it was a captive
+zeppelin and winked out inquiries from their Morse lamps. A destroyer
+came out of the darkness to offer assistance. The cause of much anxiety
+had been the likelihood of hostile submarines being attracted to the
+scene by the helplessness of the airship, which had been visible, before
+darkness closed over, for many miles as she slowly settled down into the
+sea. This danger, however, passed away with the arrival of the destroyer
+and the armed trawlers, but another arose which threatened to wreck the
+whole venture.
+
+About 5 A.M. the wind began to freshen from the north-west and the
+M.L.'s towing the huge bag were immediately dragged to leeward. The
+combined power of their engines failed to head the airship into the wind
+and urgent signals for assistance were made to the destroyer and
+trawlers, who had, fortunately, constituted themselves a rear-guard.
+
+A trawler came quickly to the rescue and got hold of an additional wire
+hanging down from the envelope. The destroyer, in the masterful way of
+these craft, proceeded to take charge of the operations. Her
+9000-horse-power engines soon turned the airship into the path of
+safety, and with this big addition to the towing power it was less than
+half-an-hour later when the great envelope was safely landed on the
+quayside, much to the amazement of the townspeople.
+
+
+"UNLUCKY SMITH"
+
+There is, however, another side to this co-operation between fleets of
+the sea and air. It has more than once occurred that vessels equipped
+almost exclusively for submarine hunting have been engaged by
+zeppelins, and actions between seaplanes and under-water craft have been
+frequent.
+
+[Illustration: A MONITOR
+
+The bulge of the "blister" will be seen on the water-line near the bow.
+
+_British Official Photograph_]
+
+How a large fleet of unarmed fishing vessels were saved and a zeppelin
+raid on the east coast of England prevented by the timely action of an
+armed auxiliary proves once again the truth of the old military axiom
+that it is the unexpected which always happens in war.
+
+It had been one of the few really hot summer days granted by a grudging
+climate. The sea was a sheet of glass, the sky a cloudless blue, except
+where tinged with the golden glow of sunset. Lieutenant Smith smiled
+somewhat grimly as he mounted the little iron ladder and squeezed
+through the narrow doorway into the wheel-house. He nodded to the
+skipper--an old trawlerman acting as a chief warrant officer for
+navigational duties--as a signal for the mooring ropes to be cast off,
+and mechanically rang the engine-room telegraph. He had done all these
+things in the same way and at the same time of day for nearly two years.
+For a long while he had gone forth hopefully, saying to himself each
+cruise, "It's bound to come soon," but as the weeks grew into months,
+and the months promised to extend into years, disappointment gained the
+mastery and duty became appallingly monotonous and uninteresting.
+
+This, however, did not cause him to work less strenuously or to neglect
+to watch the large fishing fleet which he guarded on four nights out of
+the seven, but each letter he received from old friends in other
+branches of the King's service brought tidings of excitement, rapid
+promotion, or at least a little of the pomp and circumstance of war, and
+he saw himself at the end of it all with nothing to show for years of
+danger, hardship and impaired health. The worry and the lonely monotony,
+trivial as he knew them to be, were slowly sapping his nerve and
+vitality.
+
+The trawler glided from the harbour on to the broad expanse of tranquil
+sea, now aglow with the lights of a summer sunset. Slowly the coast-line
+faded into the blue haze of distance, and all around the watery plain
+was mottled with the shadowy patches made by the light evening breeze.
+
+Settling himself in an old deck-chair, which he kept in the wheel-house,
+Smith lit his pipe and allowed his thoughts to wander, but every now and
+then his eyes would search the sea from slowly darkening east to mellow
+west.
+
+Although the summer was well advanced, there were but few hours of
+darkness out of the twenty-four in these northern latitudes, and when
+the armed trawler came in sight of the widely scattered fishing fleet,
+which it was her duty to guard throughout the night, a mystic half-light
+subdued all colours to a shadowy grey, but a pale amber afterglow still
+lingered in the sky and the stars were pale.
+
+Smith lingered a few minutes on deck to finish a cigar before going
+below for his evening meal. Seldom during the past year had all the
+elements been so long at peace, and the contrast appealed to him as a
+luxury to be enjoyed at leisure. Even the light breeze of sunset had
+died away, leaving an unruffled calm, and the sails and stumpy funnels
+of the little fishing craft appeared like "painted ships on a painted
+ocean."
+
+For nearly an hour he sat inhaling the fragrant and satisfying smoke
+from more than one cigar, preferring the cool of the deck to the stuffy
+cabin. Then a dark blot appeared from out of the luminous blueness of
+the eastern sky and it travelled rapidly downwards towards his flock.
+
+Smith watched it for several seconds, then it suddenly dawned upon him
+that the hand of the destroyer was coming even into this haven of peace,
+and a fierce resentment entered his soul. He heard the distant shouting
+of fishermen as they cut adrift their nets and prepared to scatter
+before the approaching zeppelin, and in a moment he realised that the
+long-awaited chance had come. It all seemed too unreal to be true, but
+he rose up quickly and in a few terse sentences gave the necessary
+orders for the guns' crews and engineers.
+
+The whir of the airship's propellers grew rapidly louder and its bulk
+loomed black against the bright sky. Determined, however, to take no
+risk of failure, Lieutenant Smith withheld the fire of his guns until
+the great aerial monster, now travelling down to less than 1000 feet,
+was well within range.
+
+Attracted by the helplessness of a large number of fishing craft
+congregated in a comparatively small area of sea, the _destroyer_ dived
+to the attack like some giant bird of prey, unable in the gloom which
+shrouded the earth to distinguish the presence of an armed escort.
+
+The suspense was painful. Then the muzzles of two high-angle guns rose
+up from the well-deck and superstructure of the armed patrol, and in
+response to a low-toned order from the C.O., giving the height, time and
+deflection, they quickly covered the great black body of their
+objective. Tongues of livid flame leapt from their mouths and were
+followed by sharp reports. A few minutes of heavy firing and the nose of
+the monster appeared to sag.
+
+The men at the guns yelled exultantly, redoubling their efforts, and
+shell after shell went shrieking heavenwards. Suddenly the sea around
+rose up in huge cascades of foam and a shattering roar, which completely
+dwarfed the voice of the guns, shook the small ship from stem to stern.
+Everything movable was hurled across the deck. Breaking glass flew in
+all directions, and the aerials at the mast-heads snapped and came
+tumbling down with a mass of other gear. The cries of injured men arose
+from different parts of the ship, but still the guns hurled their
+shells, and the zeppelin, now well down by the head, rose high into the
+upper air and made off eastwards. After dropping all her bombs in close
+proximity to the armed trawler she had lightened herself sufficiently to
+rise out of range, but whether or not she would be able to keep up
+sufficiently long to reach her base, over 300 miles distant, was
+extremely doubtful.
+
+Flames spurted from the short funnel of the patrol as she steamed at
+full speed after the retreating zeppelin, endeavouring to keep her
+within range as long as possible. It was a question of seconds. Before
+she finally disappeared in the increasing darkness another long-range
+hit was observed and the zeppelin receded from view, drifting
+helplessly.
+
+The disappointment at not being able to give the _coup de grace_ to the
+aerial destroyer was keenly felt by all on board, for a half success is
+of little account in the navy. The gunners had done magnificently, the
+ship had been manoeuvred correctly and four of the crew had been
+wounded by fragments from the bombs dropped _en masse_, but
+notwithstanding their exertions and the luck which had brought the
+zeppelin down from the security of the skies, they had failed to secure
+the prize legitimately theirs. That the attack on the fishing fleet had
+been successfully beaten off appeared a minor detail, and the voyage
+back to port in the quickening light of a beautiful summer morning was a
+sad pilgrimage. Scarcely a word unnecessary for the working of the ship
+was spoken, except Lieutenant Smith's brief explanation that it was just
+his luck.
+
+     .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .
+
+About two weeks later the proverbially "unlucky Smith" was ordered to
+report at the office of the Admiral Commanding, and he had a sharp
+struggle to maintain a becoming composure when he heard the terse
+compliment and the mention of a recommendation from that austere
+officer, coupled with the intelligence that the zeppelin had dropped
+into the sea off the coast of Norway.
+
+The spell was broken, and the brisk step and gleam in his dark eyes told
+their own tale as he walked quickly back to his ship.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+ON THE SEA FLANK OF THE ALLIED ARMIES
+
+
+IT is a mere truism to say that the sea outflanks all land operations in
+warfare. Yet how many people fully realise that the left wing of the
+Allied armies in Belgium and France depended for its safety on the naval
+command of the North Sea and English Channel? Had this sea flank been
+permanently penetrated or forced back by the German fleet, the result
+must have been disastrous to a large section of the Allied military
+line, which actually extended from the North Sea to the Mediterranean.
+
+Although the security of the North Sea flank did not entirely depend
+upon the naval forces based on Dover, Dunkirk and Harwich--as all
+operations, whether on land or sea, were overshadowed by the
+unchallenged might of the Grand Fleet, which hemmed in the entire German
+navy--it was upon these light forces, largely composed of units of the
+new navy, that the brunt of the intermittent flank fighting and the
+repeated attempts by the enemy to break through--with the aid of all
+kinds of ruses and weapons--was borne for four and a half historic
+years.
+
+The detailed story of their work on the Belgian coast and in the Straits
+of Dover could only be told in a separate volume, but the following
+account of a bombardment and its sequel may not be without interest
+here. Its relevance to anti-submarine warfare lies in the fact that the
+bombardment was carried out with the object of destroying the nests of
+these under-water craft established in and around Zeebrugge. Much that
+has also been said in former chapters bases its claim to inclusion in
+this book almost entirely on the fact that although it did not deal
+exclusively with submarine fighting or minesweeping, it nevertheless
+formed part of the daily operations of the anti-submarine fleets, and no
+account of their work would bear any resemblance to the actual truth in
+which such seemingly extraneous episodes were excluded as irrelevant.
+
+
+THE BOMBARDMENT AND ITS SEQUEL
+
+There was a flat calm, with the freshness of early summer in the air.
+Zeebrugge lay away in the darkness some fifteen miles to the
+south-east--awake, watchful, but unsuspecting--when the British
+bombarding squadron steamed in towards the coast to take up its allotted
+position and wait for daybreak.
+
+It was a heterogeneous fleet, screened by fast-moving destroyers,
+torpedo-boats, trawlers, M.L.'s and C.M.B.'s. The great hulls of
+monitors loomed black against the paling east, and the long thin lines
+of destroyers moved stealthily across the shadowy sea. No lights were
+visible, and only the occasional rhythmic thud of propellers and the
+call of an awakened sea-bird broke the stillness of the morning calm.
+
+The sky was not yet alive with the whir of seaplanes, and the air
+remained undisturbed by the shattering roar of guns and shells. It was
+that brief space of time in which even Nature seems to hold her breath
+and make ready for the coming storm. The only movement other than the
+continued circling of destroyers was towards the shallow water close
+inshore, where powerful tugs were towing large barges--flat-bottomed
+craft carrying gigantic tripods made of railway metals. At predetermined
+places these were dropped overboard into the shallow sea and, with their
+legs embedded in the sandy bottom and their apices towering high above
+the surface, they formed observation platforms from which, in
+conjunction with aerial scouts, the fire of the big ships could be
+accurately directed on to the fortifications ashore.
+
+These tripods were laid a distance apart and quite away from the
+bombarding ships, but a system of range-finding and signalling had been
+organised and an officer chosen as a "spotter" in each trestle.
+
+The post of honour was on one or other of these observation towers,
+alone with the necessary instruments. The big shells from the shore
+batteries would scream overhead; some would plough up the water close
+by, smothering the tripod with spray, and the smaller guns would direct
+their fire against these eyes of the bombarding fleet. The chances were
+in favour of a hit, then there would be nothing left of the tripod or
+the spotter, simply a brief report to the Admiral Commanding that No.
+---- observation post had been destroyed and later a fresh name in the
+casualty lists. It was, however, accepted as the fortune of war, and
+many volunteered.
+
+The sky brightened until a pale yellow glow suffused the east, while
+behind the bombarding fleet the western horizon was still a cold, hazy
+blue. A flight of seaplanes buzzed overhead and a few minutes later the
+dull reports of anti-aircraft guns echoed across the miles of still
+water. Tiny bright flashes from white puffs of smoke appeared in the
+central blue, and then having got the range the great guns of the
+monitors roared away their charges and the scream of shells filled the
+air. The calm of the morning vanished, and with it the oppressive
+silence which precedes a battle.
+
+It was some time before the German airmen could rise from the ground and
+evade the British fighting formations. In the meantime a rain of heavy
+projectiles from the fleet was destroying all that was destroyable of
+the harbour and works of Zeebrugge. With the aid of glasses huge clouds
+of smoke and sand could be seen rising into the air almost every second.
+Objects discernible one minute had disappeared when the smoke cloud of
+bursting shells had moved to another point of concentration a short time
+later. When at last the enemy's planes, in isolated ones and twos,
+succeeded in hovering over the fleet the surface of the sea was almost
+instantly broken by great spouts of white water, at first far away,
+then nearer, and the battle commenced in earnest.
+
+A vast cloud of smoke now hung like a black curtain between the fleet
+and the shore. The M.L.'s were emitting their smoke screen to cover the
+bombarding ships. Shells splashed into the sea all around. The noise and
+vibration of the air seemed to bruise the senses, and lurid flashes came
+from the smoking monitors.
+
+It was at this stage of the bombardment that the curious and unexpected
+happened. A white wave raced along the surface towards a monitor. It was
+too big for the wake of a torpedo and quite unlike the periscope of a
+submarine. The small, quick-firing guns of all the ships within range
+were trained on it and the sea around was ploughed up with shell. The
+white wave swerved to avoid the tornado of shot, but continued to make
+direct for the hull of the great floating fort at a considerable speed.
+Then, as it drew _very_ near to its objective, a shell went home and the
+sea was rent by the force of a gigantic explosion, eclipsing that of any
+known weapon of sea warfare.
+
+It was, however, soon discovered that the mysterious wave came from a
+fast torpedo-shaped boat which was evidently being controlled by
+electric impulses from a shore wireless station some twelve to fourteen
+miles distant, the necessary information regarding direction of attack
+being transmitted by means of wireless signals from a seaplane hovering
+overhead, the abnormal force of the explosion being due to the heavy
+charge of high explosive which such a craft was able to carry in her
+bow, so arranged as to fire on striking the object of attack.
+
+With the failure of this ingenious but costly method of attack
+precautions were at once taken against a repetition and the seaplane
+hovering inconveniently overhead was driven off. The bombardment was
+carried on for the allotted span, by which time the shore batteries that
+still remained in action had found the range, notwithstanding the heavy
+smoke screen emitted by the M.L.'s. "Heavies" were ploughing up the
+water unpleasantly close to the monitors, one of which was struck,
+though but little damaged.
+
+It was now considered time to draw off seawards, and the spotting
+officers, perched on their tripods, had to climb down the railway irons
+under a heavy fire and swim to the ships sent to rescue them. The
+tripods were then pulled over on to their sides by ropes attached to
+their summits and left lying in the shallow water.
+
+Under cover of the smoke screen the bombarding fleet withdrew, after
+inflicting severe damage on the submarine base of Zeebrugge.
+
+     .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .
+
+Some two weeks previous to this bombardment a warship patrolling off the
+Belgian coast had reported a curious explosion in the direction of
+Nieuport. The night was dark and the stillness of summer rested over the
+Pas-de-Calais. Waves lapped gently the distant sand-dunes and war seemed
+a thing far away, remote as the icy winds which blow around the Poles.
+
+In the conning-tower and at the gun stations both officers and men
+watched keenly, silently, for the predatory Hun. At any moment the thin
+blackish-brown hulls of a raiding flotilla from the bases at Zeebrugge
+and Ostend might slide out of the blueness of the night. The beams of
+searchlights would momentarily cross and recross the intervening sea and
+then the guns would mingle their sharp reports with the groans of dying
+men.
+
+To the nerve-racking duties of night patrol in the Straits of Dover they
+had grown accustomed--indifferent with the contempt born of
+familiarity--but this did not cause any relaxation of vigilance. The
+element of surprise is too important a factor in modern war to be
+treated lightly.
+
+So it happened that when, shortly after eight bells in the middle watch,
+a momentary flash of lurid flame stabbed the darkness away over the
+Belgian coast, and was followed by the rumble of a great but distant
+explosion, no one stood on his head or lost his breath blowing up a
+patent waistcoat, but all remained at the "still." Minutes passed and
+nothing happened. Slowly the destroyer crept closer inshore, but the
+night was dark and no further sound broke its stillness.
+
+For two hours she scouted and listened. Little more than five miles away
+lay the German lines, and the theory was that somewhere in that maze of
+trenches and batteries an explosion had occurred.
+
+Next day the mystery deepened, for it became known that a large portion
+of Nieuport Pier had been blown away during the night. As this little
+seaport was, however, inside the German lines, the mystery remained
+unexplained until after the bombardment of Zeebrugge, when it became
+known, in _divers_ manner, that one of the electrically controlled boats
+had been out on a night manoeuvre and, owing to the difficulties of
+seaplane observation in the dark, had accidentally struck the breakwater
+of Nieuport.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Many of the patrol boats guarding the Straits of Dover or minesweeping
+under the fire of German coast batteries off the Belgian sand-dunes
+spent their days or nights of rest (!) in the French seaport of Dunkirk,
+returning to Dover only after considerable periods of work on the
+opposite coast.
+
+It may be thought that there was but little difference between life in
+the British port and that in the French town, considering the short
+stretch of sea between them. The following account of a night in Dunkirk
+will, however, give some idea of the advantage gained by having even
+thirty miles of blue water between an active enemy and a comfortable
+bed.
+
+
+A NIGHT IN DUNKIRK
+
+The night seemed uncannily quiet. In time of peace it would have passed
+unnoticed as just ideal summer weather, but when the human ear had grown
+accustomed to the almost perpetual thunder of the Flanders guns any
+cessation of the noise gave a feeling of disquietude, only to be
+likened to the hush of great forests before a tropical storm. The little
+town of Dunkirk, with its many ruins, was bathed in shadow, unrelieved
+by any artificial light, but the narrow, tortuous harbour showed a
+silvery streak in the brilliant moonrays. Above the sleeping town, with
+its Poilu sentries and English sailors, was the deep indigo sky,
+spangled with stars.
+
+Custom had taught the few civilian and the many naval and military
+inhabitants of Dunkirk to regard calm moonlight nights with very mixed
+feelings. It was seldom indeed that the Boche neglected such an
+opportunity for an air raid. Not merely one brief bombardment from the
+skies, but a succession of them, lasting from dusk until early morning,
+and repeated night after night while the weather remained favourable.
+
+Owing to adequate preparations for such attacks the casualties were
+generally few, but the loss of sleep was nearly always great, unless the
+individual was so tired with the day's or week's minesweeping, spell in
+the trenches, or sea patrol that the "popping" of guns and the thud of
+bombs merely caused a semi-return to consciousness, with a mild,
+indefinable feeling of vexation at being momentarily disturbed.
+
+To the majority, however, it meant not only the loss of sorely needed
+sleep, but also hard work under trying conditions. To realise fully what
+it is to be deprived of rest when the brain is reeling and the movement
+of every limb is an agony, it is necessary to have worked, marched and
+fought for days and nights incessantly, and then the _moral_ as
+distinct from the _material_ effect of successive air raids will be duly
+appreciated by those fortunate ones who spent the years 1914 to 1918
+remote from the menace.
+
+Although Dunkirk on this particular August night seemed uncannily quiet,
+the hour was not late. By Greenwich time it was but a few minutes past
+nine, and two bells had only just sounded through the many and diverse
+ships lying in tiers alongside the quays. So warm were the soft summer
+zephyrs, which scarcely stirred the surface of the water, that on the
+decks of many of these war-worn sweepers and patrols men lay stretched
+out under the sky in the sound sleep of exhaustion, while on the quays
+and at other points in the half-wrecked town steel-helmeted French
+sentries kept watch.
+
+Of the British naval forces based on this little French seaport few were
+ashore, as, without special permission, both officers and men had to
+remain on their ships after sunset, and those not playing cards or
+reading in the cabins were lounging and smoking on deck. Blot out of the
+view the ruined houses, the shell-holes in the streets, the guns, the
+dug-outs and the sentries, and few scenes more unlike the popular
+conception of a big war base, with the enemy only a few miles distant,
+can be imagined.
+
+But Dunkirk in that year of grace, 1917, did not always wear so peaceful
+a garb. There were frequent periods when the shells whistled over or on
+to the town, when the earth trembled from the concussion of high
+explosives, when buildings collapsed or went heavenwards in clouds of
+dust, when the streets were illumined with the yellow flash of picric
+acid, or were filled with clouds of poisoned gas, when ambulances
+clattered over the cobblestones, trains of wounded rolled in from the
+firing line and the killed and maimed were landed from the sea.
+
+The first indication of the change from calm to storm came at the early
+hour of 10 P.M., when the air raid warning sounded throughout the town.
+On the quayside all was ordered haste. Mooring ropes were cast off with
+a minimum of shouting, and the larger ships moved slowly down the
+harbour towards the open sea. The few small vessels left seemed to
+crouch under the dock walls.
+
+Sentries left their posts to take shelter in the great dug-outs,
+constructed of heavy timbers and sand-bags. These were situated at
+convenient points throughout the battered little town. In the houses
+some people descended to the cellars, but many remained wherever they
+happened to be, while in the cabins of the few ships which remained in
+harbour the games, the reading, the letter-writing and, in a few cases,
+even the sleeping went on undisturbed.
+
+After a short interval of oppressive silence, during which time no light
+or sound came from the seemingly deserted town, a faint whir of
+propellers became just audible in the stillness of the summer night.
+Then it died away momentarily. Suddenly a bright glare, like that of a
+star-shell, lit up the roofs and streets, and almost simultaneously
+came the dull vibrating report of a bomb. It sounded from the direction
+of the cathedral. Searchlights flashed out from various points, but
+their powerful rays were lost in the luminous vault above. Guns roared
+and bright flashes appeared like summer lightning in the sky. Every few
+seconds the town trembled from the shock of exploding bombs, first at
+one point and then at another, but nothing could be seen of the raiding
+squadron. Pieces from the shells bursting overhead and fragments of
+bombs and shattered masonry fell like rain into the streets and into the
+waters of the harbour.
+
+On the quayside a big aerial torpedo had made a crater large enough to
+bury the horse which it had killed in a near-by stable. A few seconds
+later another bomb fell close to a minesweeper and a fragment gashed the
+decks but did not penetrate them. In the cabins the concussion of almost
+every bomb which fell on shore was felt with curious precision. The
+glass of wheel-houses and deck cabins was shattered, and the rattle and
+thud on the decks and iron sides denoted the storm of falling metal.
+
+The din of the raid went on for some time and then died away with a
+final long-range shot from "Loose Lizzie" on the hills behind. When all
+was clear heads appeared from hatchways, dug-outs and cellars. People
+searched the sky curiously in an endeavour to make sure that there was
+"no deception," although from first to last nothing had been seen of
+the raiders except by those with the instruments, the searchlights and
+the guns. The latest news of the damage caused--two houses, a man and a
+horse--went from mouth to mouth. Then the summer night regained its
+tranquillity and Dunkirk slept.
+
+     .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .
+
+The familiar boom sounded its loudest in the stillness of the night and
+the ground seemed to tremble the more violently because of the darkness.
+It was 1 A.M. The young moon had sunk beneath the horizon and a light
+film of cloud had drifted over the sky.
+
+The old French reservist doing sentry-go on the quay glanced up with a
+shrug of indifference and slowly shouldering his rifle walked leisurely
+towards a dug-out. Searchlights became busy exploring the sky. This time
+their rays were not lost in the opaque blueness above, but went up in
+well-defined columns of light until reflected on the lofty clouds.
+Presently the beams concentrated and, when the eyes had grown accustomed
+to the glare, little white "butterflies" were seen circling in the upper
+air. Then the guns opened fire and white puffs, like tiny balls of
+cotton-wool, appeared among the butterflies. The earth trembled with the
+explosion of falling bombs and the recoil of anti-aircraft batteries. A
+little flicker of yellow light appeared in the circle of white. The guns
+increased in violence. The yellow light grew in size. It was falling.
+The burning machine crashed to earth.
+
+The bombs and the gun-fire lasted for some twenty minutes and then
+ceased suddenly, as if by prearranged signal. Allied squadrons were in
+the air and the distant crackle of machine guns sounded from the skies.
+It died away, however, almost immediately, but the raiders were chased
+back to within their own lines minus two of their number.
+
+With the coming of dawn two solitary hostile machines circling at a
+fairly low altitude could be seen. They dropped no bombs, but the reason
+for their presence was soon apparent. Shells from the long-range guns
+behind the German lines began to moan, whistle and burst in and around
+the luckless town. A hit was signified by a cloud of smoke, dust and
+debris, and ambulances again became busy in the stone-paved streets.
+
+One shell, carrying sufficient explosive to blow up an average-sized
+ship, ploughed up the water of the harbour, but did no damage, and by 6
+A.M. Allied squadrons had chased away the hostile aerial observers. Once
+again the peace of an ideal summer morning reigned over the historic
+town.
+
+The few minesweeping and other ships which had remained in the harbour
+through the night now commenced to show signs of returning life and
+activity. Heavy brown smoke poured from the funnels of some, the
+staccato noise of oil engines came from others, and men were busy on the
+decks of all. The night's "rest" was over and the vital work of
+sweeping, possibly under an irritating fire from shore batteries and
+the strain of a necessarily ever-alert patrol, commenced afresh. The
+steady barometer promised a fine day for the harvesting of mines and,
+for the ships that returned, another night's _rest_ similar to the
+previous three!
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+          ABERDEEN harbour mined, 209
+
+          Aden, mine-field laid off, 145
+
+          Admiralty dispatch bearers, 108
+
+          Aerial attacks, 293-300
+
+          -- bombs, effect of, 297
+
+          -- warfare and submarine fighting, 273
+
+          Aircraft and convoys, 116
+
+          Airship, salving of, 273-279
+
+          Allied navies, 69
+
+          A memorable Christmas, 191-201
+
+          American first army, transport of, 124
+
+          Arctic patrol, 52, 227
+
+          -- seas, work in, 193-201
+
+          Area of sea covered daily by sweepers, 161
+
+          Areas, command of, 23
+
+          -- patrol of, 128-131
+
+          Armed liners, 51
+
+          Armies, transport of, 116
+
+          Atlantic patrol, 226-232
+
+          Australian first army, transport of, 123
+
+          Auxiliary patrol office, 25
+
+
+          BASES and their fleets, 113-115
+
+          -- war, 23, 24, 102-115
+
+          Battle of Jutland, 248-256
+
+          Beatty, Sir David, 249, 255, 256
+
+          Blister system on monitors, 178
+
+          Blockade, naval, 18
+
+          Boarding parties, 201-208, 270
+
+          Bombardment of Zeebrugge, 287-293
+
+          Bombay, mine-field laid off, 145
+
+          Bombs, submarine, 91
+
+          Boom-defence ships, 68
+
+          -- staff, 111
+
+          _Brighton Queen_, H.M.S., 54
+
+          _Britannia_, H.M.S., torpedoed, 101
+
+          British coast completely mined-in, 145
+
+          -- Empire, dangerous position of, 117
+
+
+          CALL of the White Ensign, 31, 33
+
+          Camouflaged ships, 73, 95
+
+          Canada, officers from, 44, 195
+
+          Canadian first army, transport of, 123
+
+          Case of mistaken identity, 190-191
+
+          Castaways, 238-247
+
+          Casualties, naval, in Great War, 27, 256
+
+          Casualty, a, 220
+
+          Chaplains, naval, 109-110
+
+          Christmas Day, 1916, 192-201
+
+          Clearing large mine-fields, 161
+
+          Coastal motor boats, 62
+
+          -- construction of, 62-68
+
+          -- method of attack, 65
+
+          -- bases of, 65
+
+          -- _v._ German destroyers, 66
+
+          -- in actions off Zeebrugge and Ostend, 61, 68, 287
+
+          Colombo, mine-field laid off, 145
+
+          Colonial officers, 44-45
+
+          Colonies, aid from, 21
+
+          Concentration of British fleet, August, 1914, 17
+
+          Convoy, composition of, 118-119
+
+          Convoy ships, 115
+
+          Convoy system, 116-125
+
+          Convoying, difficulties of, 122
+
+          Convoys, minesweeping in front of, 121, 162
+
+          Co-operation between fleets of sea and air, 279
+
+          Cruiser Squadron, the Tenth, 51-52
+
+
+          DAN-BUOYS, 199
+
+          Danish derelict, 202-208
+
+          Decoy system of attack, 137-138
+
+          Deluding patrols, 236
+
+          Demobilisation, naval, 28
+
+          Depth charge, construction of, 80-84
+
+          -- method of use, 80-84
+
+          -- attacks with, 81-84, 262
+
+          Depth charges, 70, 84
+
+          Derelict, a, 201-208
+
+          Destruction of a U-C boat, 209, 218
+
+          Division of sea into patrol areas, 128-131
+
+          Docker battalions, 121
+
+          Dominions, aid from, 21
+
+          Dover lighted barrage, 183-185
+
+          -- naval base, 103
+
+          Dover patrols, 286, 295-300
+
+          Drafting officers, 110
+
+          Drifter units, 54, 55, 114
+
+          Drifters, loss of in Adriatic, 56
+
+          -- -- in Straits of Dover, 56
+
+          Duffel clothing, 195
+
+          Dunkirk, a night spent in, 293-300
+
+          -- patrols, 286, 293-300
+
+
+          EFFECT of danger on human senses, 261
+
+          Effect of shell fire, 256
+
+          Electrically controlled boats off Zeebrugge, 290-293
+
+          _Engadine_, H.M.S., 255
+
+          England's food supply, 18-19
+
+          Evening quarters in warships, 41
+
+          Examination ships, 68
+
+          Excitement, suppressed, before an action, 259
+
+          Exploratory minesweeping, 158-161
+
+
+          FIGHT, an epic, 226-232
+
+          Finding the ships, guns and men, 21
+
+          Firth of Forth, mines in, 209
+
+          Fishing fleets, armed guards with, 279-285
+
+          Fleet sweeping, 161
+
+          French ship, mysterious disappearance of, 264
+
+
+          GERMAN High Sea Fleet, 249
+
+          -- naval position in 1914, 18
+
+          -- submarine bases, 127
+
+          -- mine-laying, 143
+
+          -- raiders, _Wolfe_ and _Moewe_, 145
+
+          -- mines, description of, 145, 148
+
+          -- -- and Hague Convention, 150-152
+
+          -- mine-laying policy, 154-156
+
+          -- submarine offensive, 155
+
+          -- minesweeping, 169
+
+          -- submarines, loss of, 186
+
+          -- mine-field, a Christmas spent on, 192-201
+
+          Grand Fleet, 233, 255, 286
+
+          -- bases, 103
+
+          Granton Naval Base, 103
+
+          Guarding a mine-field, 201
+
+          Gunboats patrol, 53
+
+          Gunnery classes, 43-44
+
+
+          HARBOUR duties, 115
+
+          -- mines at entrance to, 209-219
+
+          -- sweeping, 162
+
+          Harwich patrols, 286
+
+          _Hermione_, training ship for new navy, 33, 36-49
+
+          Hope of action, 202
+
+          Hydrophone attack, 134-135
+
+          -- branch of naval service, 76
+
+          -- flotillas, 134-135
+
+          Hydrophones, 70-84
+
+          -- object of, 70
+
+          -- portable, 71
+
+          -- -- use of, 71-72
+
+          -- construction of, 72-74
+
+          -- limitations in use of, 77-78
+
+          -- directional, 75
+
+          -- -- use of, 76
+
+          -- fitted in U and U-C boats, 76-77
+
+
+          ICELAND fishing fleet, 195, 200
+
+          Indian Ocean, mine-fields in, 145
+
+          Indicator nets, 85, 89, 138, 258-263
+
+          Intelligence offices in naval bases, 108, 129
+
+          Interpreter officers, 68
+
+          _Invincible_, H.M.S., 255
+
+          Isolation of mined areas, 159
+
+
+          JELLICOE, Sir John, 252
+
+
+          KING'S Messengers, 108
+
+
+          LANCE bombs, 91
+
+          Life-boat, work of, 222-223
+
+          Lighted barrage, 183
+
+          Lightning reveals U-boat, 260
+
+          _Lion_, H.M.S., after Jutland, 56, 254
+
+          Liverpool harbour mined-in, 209
+
+          Loss of ships, percentage of, 54, 55
+
+          Lowestoft harbour mined-in, 209
+
+          _Lusitania_, sinking of, 18
+
+
+          MANNING of British ships in past, 20
+
+          Mercantile fleets under convoy, 116
+
+          -- Marine, 122
+
+          -- shipping in danger zone, 209
+
+          Merchant ships, loss of, due to mines, 155
+
+          Methods of attacking submarines, 134-142
+
+          Mine barrages, 129, 139, 156, 179, 286
+
+          Mine-field, Christmas on, 192-200
+
+          Mine-fields, deep-laid, 139, 179-186
+
+          Mine-layers, 233-236
+
+          Mine nets, 39, 138
+
+          Mine-protection devices, 175-178
+
+          Mined areas, isolation of, 159
+
+          Minesweeping, 54, 121, 157, 178, 209, 293-300
+
+          Mine-laying from U-C boats, 152-153, 157
+
+          Mines destroyed by British Navy, 155, 158, 209
+
+          Mines, floating, 150
+
+          Mining School, Portsmouth, 163
+
+          M.L.'s. See under Motor Launches
+
+          Modified sweeps, 96-101
+
+          _Moewe_, German raider, 145
+
+          Monotony, effect of, 280
+
+          Moonlight, effect of on searchlights, 297-298
+
+          Moral effect of air raids, 295
+
+          Moray Firth, mine-field in, 161
+
+          Morning divisions in warships, 41
+
+          Motor launch flotillas, 36, 115, 134-136
+
+          Motor launches, Admiralty contract for, 57
+
+          Motor launches, arrival of, 38
+
+          -- construction of, 58-62
+
+          -- description of, 56
+
+          -- area patrolled by, 61
+
+          -- loss of, 62
+
+          -- in actions off Zeebrugge and Ostend, 62, 287
+
+          Mysteries of sea war, 264-272
+
+          -- of submarine hunting, 126-162
+
+          -- of German mine-laying, 143-156
+
+          -- of minesweeping, 157-178
+
+          Mystery ships, 96, 101
+
+          -- numbers employed, 96
+
+
+          NATIONAL Insurance, 125
+
+          Naval bases, 102-115
+
+          -- centres, 129
+
+          -- College, Greenwich, 35
+
+          -- policy, British, 31
+
+          -- School of Submarine Mining, 163
+
+          -- situation in 1914, 18
+
+          Navigation, dangers of, in war time, 265-266
+
+          -- training in, 46-49
+
+          Navy, expansion of, in past wars, 28
+
+          Nerve tension before action, 261, 288
+
+          Nets, submarine, 56, 85-89
+
+          New fleets in being, 50-69
+
+          New navy, composition of, 50-69
+
+          -- formation into flotillas, 68-69
+
+          -- growth of, 23
+
+          -- officers and men of, 25, 33-34
+
+          -- _raison d'etre_, 18
+
+          _New Zealand_, H.M.S., 255
+
+          New Zealand, officers from, 39
+
+          -- waters, mines in, 145
+
+          Nieuport pier, destruction of, 292
+
+          Night attacks, 258-263
+
+          -- patrol, 209, 292
+
+          North Sea, area of, 20
+
+          -- British naval blockade of, 124
+
+          -- gales, 220
+
+          Northern mine barrage, 182
+
+
+          OFFICERS, training, 36-49
+
+          Oil trails, 218, 263
+
+
+          PARAVANES, 175-177
+
+          Patrol areas, 23-24, 128-131
+
+          -- boats, 130-133
+
+          -- -- on lines of communication during Jutland, 257
+
+          Personnel of new navy, 32
+
+          Petrol fumes, danger of, 275-276
+
+          Picric acid, for causing and alleviating pain, 257
+
+          Port minesweeping officers, 111, 163
+
+          _Princess Royal_, H.M.S., 255
+
+          Privateers, old and new, 117-118
+
+
+          "Q" BOATS, 96-101
+
+          -- description of, 96-99
+
+          -- number employed, 96
+
+          Q19, action of, in Straits of Gibraltar, 99
+
+          Queenstown naval base, 103
+
+
+          RAIDERS, German, cruises of, 145
+
+          Red Cross work, 248-252
+
+          Refits, 226
+
+          Rescue work, 220-225, 238, 273-279
+
+          Rescued crews, 247
+
+          _Resource II._, H.M.S., 36
+
+          Restriction of submarine danger zone, 126
+
+          Return of fleet from Jutland, 254-256
+
+          Rosyth Dockyard, 103
+
+          Routine sweeping, 161
+
+          Royal Naval Reserve, 37
+
+          -- -- Volunteer Reserve, 36
+
+          Royal Navy and Merchant Service, 26
+
+          -- -- manning of, in past, 26-27
+
+          Russian army, transport of, 123
+
+          -- lines of communication, 22
+
+          -- War of 1854-1856, 26
+
+
+          SALVING live mines, 151-152
+
+          Scandinavian convoys, 123-124
+
+          -- -- attacks on, 124
+
+          Scapa Flow, 103
+
+          Scottish waters, mine-fields in, 147
+
+          Sea fight, elements of, 255
+
+          -- flanks of armies, 286-300
+
+          -- power, elements of, 26
+
+          -- stalking, 270
+
+          Seamanship classes, 41-43
+
+          Searching for mines, 162
+
+          Shallow-water sweeping, 162
+
+          Shell-shock cases, 257
+
+          Ships of the new navy, 20-22
+
+          Sick bay, shells burst in, 256
+
+          Singapore mine-field, 145
+
+          Sinking of last U-boat, 99
+
+          Sloop flotillas, 52
+
+          Smoke screens, 92-93, 290
+
+          S.O.S., 238
+
+          Sounds, submarine, 70-73
+
+          South African mine-fields, 145
+
+          _Southampton_, H.M.S., 255
+
+          Southampton Water training ground, 38
+
+          Spanish Armada, 233
+
+          Spectre of the Goodwins, 265
+
+          Spotting officers at Zeebrugge, 288-291
+
+          Staff Headquarters, 24
+
+          Standard ships, 120
+
+          _Submarine Engineering of To-day_, 154
+
+          Submarine hide-and-seek, 77-78
+
+          -- nets, 258-263
+
+          -- phase of naval war, 17-20
+
+          -- sounds, 70-73
+
+          -- _v._ submarine, 140
+
+          -- _v._ merchantman, 19
+
+          -- warfare of the future, 127
+
+          Sutphen, Henry R., 57-58
+
+          _Sydney_, H.M.S., 123
+
+
+          TACTICAL methods, 134-135
+
+          Task of Allied navies, 18-35
+
+          Tenth Cruiser Squadron, 52, 232
+
+          Theatre of war, principal, 20
+
+          Thornycroft, Messrs John T., & Co. Ltd., 65
+
+          Tides, effect of, on moored mines, 149
+
+          -- -- on minesweeping, 171
+
+          Toast of the British Navy, 48
+
+          Tracking U-boats, methods of, 129-131
+
+          Training an anti-submarine force, 36-49
+
+          Transport of Allied armies, 116
+
+          Trawler units, 54, 55, 113
+
+          Treachery, guarding against, 270
+
+          Tripods (for observation) at Zeebrugge, 280
+
+
+          U-BOATS, fishing for, 87-88, 258-263
+
+          -- sunk, 263
+
+          -- sunk by Q19, 97-100
+
+          U-C boats, 144
+
+          United States, effect on German mine-laying, 156
+
+          -- help from, 21
+
+          -- navy, 69
+
+          -- warships attacked, 125
+
+          University, a naval, 46-49
+
+          Unrecorded sea fights, 204
+
+
+          VERY'S pistols, 246, 276
+
+          _Victory_, H.M.S., at Trafalgar, 30
+
+          Von Hipper's fleet, 255
+
+
+          WAR base, a typical, 102
+
+          -- bases, 23, 102, 115
+
+          -- -- description of, 104-115
+
+          -- Cabinet and convoys, 125
+
+          -- Channel, 160, 172-175
+
+          Wardrooms in naval bases, 112
+
+          _Warspite_, H.M.S., 254
+
+          Waterloo, a replica of, 250
+
+          Weapons, curious, 85-95
+
+          Weather, effect of, on naval operations, 233
+
+          Whaler units, 53-54, 115
+
+          William Whiteley's, a naval, 107
+
+          Winter patrol, 209
+
+          _Wolfe_, German raider, 145
+
+          Wounded, transport of, 256-257
+
+
+          YACHT clubs, officers from, 32
+
+          Yacht, armed, 53
+
+
+          ZEEBRUGGE, bombardment of, 287-293
+
+          Zeppelin attacks fishing fleet, 282, 285
+
+          Zeppelin raids, 48-49
+
+          Zigzagging to avoid U-boats, 116
+
+          Zones of war, drafting to, 50-51
+
+          -- vessels leaving for, 187
+
+
+
+
+          THE RIVERSIDE PRESS LIMITED, EDINBURGH
+                         1920
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Obvious punctuation errors repaired.
+
+On pages 37-51, the original uses "depot." On pages 103 and 104, it uses
+"depot." This was retained.
+
+Page 4, number 5 was missing from the list.
+
+Page 63, FIG. 3., "Hydrophone" changed to "Hydroplane" as it seems to
+make more sense in this situation (Hydroplane hull, so constructed)
+
+Page 76, "oral" changed to "aural" (aural experience estimated)
+
+Pages 97, 98, 115, 125 twice,138, the designation of the size of the gun
+was originally printed using a high-dot. As that cannot be replicated
+here, it has been replaced with a decimal. (with a 4.7 quick-firing)
+(masked 4.7-inch guns) (shielding the 4.7 gun) (causes was 0.82) (only
+0.58 per cent.) (of a 4.7-inch gun)
+
+Page 152, "he" changed to "the" (to the ordinary mine)
+
+Page 185, "bteween" changed to "between" (submarine got between the)
+
+Page 269, "tinging" changed to "tingeing" (tingeing the still
+boisterous)
+
+Page 270, "fore-peak" changed to "forepeak" to match rest of text. (The
+forepeak or bow)
+
+Page 287, "auti" changed to "anti" (of the anti-submarine fleets)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarine Warfare of To-day, by
+Charles W. Domville-Fife
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINE WARFARE OF TO-DAY ***
+
+***** This file should be named 29685.txt or 29685.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/9/6/8/29685/
+
+Produced by Emmy, Dave Morgan and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.