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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:48:02 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 02:48:02 -0700 |
| commit | 6450c7759ca2827901e7865fa3937ede5a513e38 (patch) | |
| tree | 85f9cc6864adfa692872a39a8ed798081e33d380 /29685-h | |
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diff --git a/29685-h/29685-h.htm b/29685-h/29685-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c049f1e --- /dev/null +++ b/29685-h/29685-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,11087 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Submarine Warfare of To-Day, by Charles W. Domville-Fife. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p {margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + text-indent: 1.25em; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + img {border: 0;} + .tnote {border: dashed 1px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + ins {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin dotted gray;} + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + .copyright {text-align: center; font-size: 70%;} + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%; text-align: justify;} + + .bbox {border: solid 2px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold; font-variant: small-caps;} + .attrib {font-style: italic; font-size: 60%; text-align: right;} + .attrib2 {font-style: italic; font-size: 60%; text-align: left;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .unindent {margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + .right {text-align: right;} + .poem {margin-left: 30%; margin-right: 10%; text-align: left;} + .poem2 {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 10%; text-align: left;} + .sig {margin-right: 10%; text-align: right;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; + padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em; margin-left: 1em; + float: right; clear: right; margin-top: 1em; + font-size: smaller; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: dashed 1px;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align:baseline; + position: relative; + bottom: 0.33em; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: none;} + .hang1 {text-indent: -3em; margin-left: 3em; text-align: justify;} + .cap:first-letter {float: left; clear: left; margin: -0.2em 0.1em 0; margin-top: 0%; + padding: 0; line-height: .75em; font-size: 300%; text-align: justify;} + .cap {text-align: justify;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Submarine Warfare of To-day, by Charles W. Domville-Fife + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Submarine Warfare of To-day + How the Submarine Menace was Met and Vanquished, With + Descriptions of the Inventions and Devices Used, Fast + Boats, Mystery Ships + +Author: Charles W. Domville-Fife + +Release Date: August 13, 2009 [EBook #29685] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SUBMARINE WARFARE OF TO-DAY *** + + + + +Produced by Emmy, Dave Morgan and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 329px;"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="329" height="500" alt="Cover" title="" /> +</div> +<div class='tnote'>Links to larger editions of some of the images were included to +allow for seeing better detail. Clicking on the image will allow the reader access +to these larger images.</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<h1>SUBMARINE WARFARE OF TO-DAY</h1> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span><br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 320px;"><a name="front" id="front"></a> +<img src="images/i-009.jpg" width="320" height="500" alt="The Surrender of the German Submarine Fleet" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>British Official Photograph</i></div><span class="caption">The Surrender of the German Submarine Fleet</span> +<div class='center'>The White Ensign is hoisted over the German Eagle.</div></div> + + + + + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> +<h1>SUBMARINE WARFARE<br /> +OF TO-DAY</h1> + +<div class='center'> +HOW THE SUBMARINE MENACE WAS MET AND VANQUISHED,<br /> +WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THE INVENTIONS AND DEVICES<br /> +USED, FAST BOATS, MYSTERY SHIPS, NETS, AIRCRAFT,<br /> +&c. &c., ALSO DESCRIBING THE SELECTION<br /> +AND TRAINING OF THE ENORMOUS<br /> +PERSONNEL USED IN THIS NEW<br /> +BRANCH OF THE NAVY<br /> +</div> + + +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<i>Lieut. R.N.V.R., late of the Staff of H.M. School of Submarine Mining</i><br /> +<small>AUTHOR OF</small><br /> +<small>"SUBMARINES & SEA POWER" "SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD'S NAVIES"</small><br /> +<small>"SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY" <i>&c.</i> <i>&c.</i> <i>&c.</i></small><br /> +<br /> +<br /><br /><br /> +WITH 53 ILLUSTRATIONS<br /> +<br /> +<br /><br /><br /> +LONDON<br /> +<big>SEELEY, SERVICE & CO. LIMITED</big><br /> +<small><span class="smcap">38 Great Russell Street</span></small><br /> +<small>1920</small><br /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> +<h2>Science of To-Day<br /> +Series</h2> + +<h3>NEW VOLUME</h3> + +<div class='hang1'>13. Submarine Warfare of +To-Day.<br /> + +By <span class="smcap">C. W. Domville-Fife</span>, Lieut., +R.N.V.R., late of the Staff of H.M. +School of Submarine Mining. Author +of "Submarines and Sea Power," +"Submarines of the World's Navies," +"Submarine Engineering of To-Day," +<i>&c.</i> <i>&c.</i> With many Illustrations +and Diagrams. Extra Crown 8vo. +7s. 6d. nett.</div> + + +<h4>ALREADY PUBLISHED</h4> + +<div class='poem'> +1. <span class="smcap">Electricity of To-Day.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>By <span class="smcap">C. R. Gibson, f.r.s.e.</span></small></span><br /> +<br /> +2. <span class="smcap">Astronomy of To-Day.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>By <span class="smcap">Cecil G. Dolmage, m.a., d.c.l., ll.d., f.r.a.s.</span></small></span><br /> +<br /> +3. <span class="smcap">Scientific Ideas of To-Day.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>By <span class="smcap">C. R. Gibson.</span></small></span><br /> +<br /> +4. <span class="smcap">Botany of To-Day.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>By Professor <span class="smcap">G. F. Scott Elliot, m.a., b.sc.</span></small></span><br /> +<br /> +6. <span class="smcap">Engineering of To-Day.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>By <span class="smcap">T. W. Corbin.</span></small></span><br /> +<br /> +7. <span class="smcap">Medical Science of To-Day.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>By <span class="smcap">Willmott Evans, m.d.</span></small></span><br /> +<br /> +8. <span class="smcap">Mechanical Inventions of To-Day.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>By <span class="smcap">T. W. Corbin.</span></small></span><br /> +<br /> +9. <span class="smcap">Photography of To-Day.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>By <span class="smcap">H. Chapman Jones, f.i.c., f.c.s., f.r.p.s.</span></small></span><br /> +<br /> +10. <span class="smcap">Submarine Engineering of To-Day.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>By <span class="smcap">C. W. Domville-Fife.</span></small></span><br /> +<br /> +11. <span class="smcap">Geology of To-Day.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>By Professor <span class="smcap">J. W. Gregory, f.r.s.</span></small></span><br /> +<br /> +12. <span class="smcap">Aircraft of To-Day.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><small>By <span class="smcap">Charles C. Turner</span>, Lieut., R.N.V.R.</small></span><br /> +</div> + +<div class='center'><br /><small><span class="smcap">Seeley, Service & Co., Ltd.</span>, 38 Great Russell St.</small></div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<b>Dedicated</b><br /> +<br /> +<small>TO THE MEMORY OF</small><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The late Lieut. WALTER PRICE, R.N.V.R.</span><br /> +<br /> +<small>A TRUE FRIEND AND A</small><br /> +<br /> +<small>GALLANT OFFICER</small> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> +<h2>AUTHOR'S NOTE</h2> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">I desire</span> simply to say that I commenced taking +an active interest in submarines in 1904. I wrote +my first book on the subject, <i>Submarines of the +World's Navies</i>, in 1910, and I have watched and +written of the rise of these and kindred weapons +for the past fifteen years of rapid development in +peace and war, finally taking a humble part in +the defeat of the great German submarine armada +during the years 1914-1918.</div> + +<div class='sig'> +C. D.-F.<br /> +</div> + +<div class='unindent'> +1919.<br /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> +<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">While</span> Great Britain remains an island, with +dominion over palm and pine, it is to the sea that +her four hundred millions of people must look for +the key to all that has been achieved in the past +and all that the future promises in the quickening +dawn of a new era.</div> + +<p>Not only over Great Britain alone, however, does +the ocean cast its spell, for it is the free highway of +the world, sailed by the ships of all nations, without +other hindrances than those of stormy nature, +and navigated without restriction from pole to +pole by the seamen of all races. It was the +international meeting-place, where ensigns were +"dipped" in friendly greeting, and since the dawn +of history there has been a freemasonry of the +sea which knew no distinction of nation or +creed.</p> + +<p>When the call of humanity boomed across the +dark, storm-tossed waters the answer came readily +from beneath whatever flag the sound was heard. +But in August, 1914, there came a change, so +dramatic, so sudden, that maritime nations were +stunned. Germany, in an excess of war fever, +broke the sea laws, and laughed while women and +children drowned. Crime followed crime, and the +great voice of the Republican West protested in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +unison with that of the Imperial East. Still the +Black Eagle laughed as it flew far and wide, carrying +death to whomsoever came within its shadow, +regardless of race and sex.</p> + +<p>But there was an avenger upon the seas, one +who had been rocked in its cradle from time immemorial, +and to whom the world appealed to save +the lives of their seamen. It sailed beneath the +White Ensign and the Blue, and with aid from +France, Italy and Japan it fought by day and by +night, in winter gale and snow, and in summer heat +and fog, in torrid zone and regions of perpetual ice +to free the seas of the traitorous monster who had, +in the twentieth century, hoisted the black flag of +piracy and murder. For three years this ceaseless +war was waged, and then, with her wonderful +patience exhausted, the great sister nation of the +mother tongue joined her fleets and armies with +those of the battle-worn Allies and peace came to +a long-suffering world.</p> + +<p>In that abyss of war there was romance sufficient +for many generations of novelists and historians. +Many were the epic fights, unimportant in themselves, +but which need only a Kingsley or a Stevenson +to make them famous for all time. So with +the happenings to be described in this book, many +of them historically unimportant compared with +the epoch-making events of which they formed a +decimal part, but told in plain words; just records +of romance on England's sea frontier in the years +1914-1918.</p> + +<p>Although jealous of any encroachment on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +space available for the description of guerrilla war +at sea, there are many things which must first be +said regarding the organisation and training of +what may appropriately be termed the "New +Navy," which took the sea to combat the submarine +and the mine; also of the novel weapons +devised amid the whirl of war for their use, protection +and offensive power. Into this brief +recital of the events leading to the real thing an +endeavour will be made to infuse the life and local +colour, which, however, would be more appropriate +in a personal narrative than in a general +description of anti-submarine warfare of to-day, +but without which much that is essential could not +be written without dire risk of tiring the reader +before the first few chapters had been passed.</p> + +<p>The names of places and ships have necessarily +been changed to avoid anything of a personal +character, and all references to existing or dead +officers and men have been rigidly excluded as +objectionable and unnecessary in a book dealing +entirely with events.</p> + +<p>Many of the incidents described—written while +the events stood out in clear, mental perspective—could +no doubt be duplicated and easily surpassed +by many whose fortunes took them into zones of +sea war during the historic years just past. If +such is found to be the case, then the object of this +book has been accomplished, for it sets out to tell, +not of great epoch-making events, but of the +organisation, men, ships, weapons and ordinary +incidents of life in what, for lack of a better term,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +has been called the "New Navy"—a production +of the World War.</p> + +<p>It may be that an apology is due for placing yet +another war book before a war-weary public, but +an effort has been made to make of the following +chapters <i>a record of British maritime achievement</i>, +more than a narrative of sea fighting, although to +do this without introducing the human element, +the arduous nature of the work, the monotony, the +danger and, finally, the compensating moments of +excitement would have been to falsify the account +and belittle the achievement.</p> + +<p>There are many books available, full of exciting +stories of sea and land war, but no other, so far as +the Author knows, which describes in detail and in +plain phraseology those important "little things"—liable +to be overlooked amid the whirl of war—which +go to make an anti-submarine personnel, +fleet and base, together with an account of "how +it was done."</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td align='left' colspan='2'><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td align='right'><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>I. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Task of the Allied Navies</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>II. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The New Navy—Training an Anti-Submarine Force</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>III. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Naval University in Time of War</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IV. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The New Fleets in Being</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>V. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Hydrophone and the Depth Charge</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VI. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Some Curious Weapons of Anti-Submarine Warfare</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VII. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Mystery Ships</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>VIII. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Typical War Base</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>IX. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Convoy System</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>X. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Mysteries of Submarine Hunting Explained</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XI. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Mysteries of German Mine-Laying Explained</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XII. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Mysteries of Minesweeping Explained</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIII. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The <a name="Mine_Barrage" id="Mine_Barrage"></a>Mine Barrage</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XIV. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Off to the Zones of War</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XV. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Memorable Christmas</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVI. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Derelict</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVII. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Mined-in</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XVIII. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Casualty</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>XIX. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How H.M. Trawler No. 6 Lost Her Refit</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XX. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Raider</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXI. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The S.O.S.</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_238">238</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXII. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">In the Shadow of a Big Sea Fight</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_248">248</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXIII. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Night Attack</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXIV. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Mysteries of the Great Sea Wastes</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXV. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">From out the Clouds and the Under-seas</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>XXVI. </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">On the Sea Flank of the Allied Armies</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_286">286</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'> </td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> +<h2>List of Illustrations</h2> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="List of illustrations"> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Surrender of the German Submarine Fleet</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#front"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'><small>FACING<br />PAGE </small></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Plan of a 55 feet Coastal Motor Boat</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Large Heavily Armed German Submarine</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Motor Launch Hulls being Constructed</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A 40 feet Coastal Motor Boat at Full Speed</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Another view of the same Boat at Full Speed</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Dropping Depth Charges</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Innocent-looking but Deadly</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Hidden Torpedo Tubes of H.M.S. <i>Hyderabad</i></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">After-deck of the <i>Hyderabad</i> (before action)</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">After-deck of the <i>Hyderabad</i> (prepared for action)</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Mock Wheel and Compass Pedestal of the <i>Hyderabad</i></span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Mock Wheel and Compass Pedestal of the <i>Hyderabad</i> (collapsed)</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Motor Launch cleared for Action</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Wrecked Coastal Motor Boat</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Captive Mine-Laying Submarine</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Minesweeper</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Paravane</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Morse Signalling</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Motor Launch of the Naval Patrol</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Monitor</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/i-023.jpg" width="600" height="346" alt="Plan of 55 feet Coastal Boat, carrying two 18-inch Torpedoes" title="" /> +<span class="caption">Plan of 55 feet Coastal Boat, carrying two 18-inch Torpedoes</span> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> +<h2>SUBMARINE WARFARE<br /> + +OF TO-DAY</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>THE TASK OF THE ALLIED NAVIES</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">The</span> hour was that of the Allies' greatest need—the +last months of the year 1914. On that fateful +4th August the British navy was concentrated in +the North Sea, and the chance for a surprise attack +by the German fleet, or an invasion of England by +the Kaiser's armies, vanished for ever, and with +this one chance went also all reasonable possibility +of a crushing German victory.</div> + +<p>Although during the years of bitter warfare +which followed this silent <i>coup de main</i> the +German fleet many times showed signs of awakening +ambition, it did not, after Jutland, dare to +thrust even its vanguard far into the open sea. +Behind its forts, mines and submarines it waited, +growing weaker with the dry-rot of inaction, for +the chance that fickle Fortune might place a single +unit of the Allied fleet within easy reach of its +whole mailed-fist.</p> + +<p>With a great and modern fleet—the second +strongest in the world—awaiting its chance less +than twenty hours' steam from the coast of Great +Britain, it quickly became evident that the old<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +Mistress of the Seas would have to call upon her +islanders to supply a "new navy" to scour the +oceans while her main battle squadrons waited +and watched for the second Trafalgar.</p> + +<p>Faced, then, with the problem of a long blockade, +a powerful fleet in readiness to strike at any +weak or unduly exposed point of land or squadron, +and with similar problems on a decreasing scale +imposed by Austria in the Adriatic and by Turkey +behind the Dardanelles, the work of the main +battle fleets became well defined by the commonest +laws of naval strategy.</p> + +<p>All this without taking into account the widespread +menace of submarines and mines, and, in +the earlier stages of the war, the rounding-up of +detached enemy squadrons, such as that under +Von Spee in South American waters, and the +protection of the transport and food ships from +raiders like the <i>Wolfe</i> and the <i>Moewe</i>.</p> + +<p>The German High Command realised this as +quickly as that of the Allies. Their oversea commerce +was strangled within a few days of the +Declaration of War with Great Britain, and their +fleet was confined to harbour, with the exception +of occasional operations against Russia in the +Baltic. From the German standpoint the naval +problem resolved itself into one of how best to +strike at the lines of communication of the Allies, +paying special attention, first, to the transport of +troops, and, second, to England's food supply. As +they alone knew to what extent they would violate +the laws of war and of humanity, it became apparent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +that the submarine and the mine were the only +possible weapons which could be used for this +purpose in face of the superior fleets of the Allies. +But the number of these weapons was strictly +limited compared with the immense shipping resources +at the command of the Western Powers, +so one submarine must do the work of many, and +an effort was made to accomplish this by a reign +of sea terrorism and inhuman conduct unparalleled +in the history of the world. It opened with the +sinking of the <i>Lusitania</i>.</p> + +<p>The Allies had secured and maintained the command +of the sea, and <i>all that it implies</i>, but to do +this with the certainty of correct strategy they +had to dedicate almost their entire battle fleet to +the purpose for which battle fleets have always +been intended—the checkmating or annihilation +of the opposing navy.</p> + +<p>There came a second problem, however, one +entirely new to sea warfare, and unconsidered or +provided against in its strategic and tactical entirety +because hitherto deemed too inhuman for +modern war. This was the ruthless use of armed +submarines against unarmed passenger and +merchant ships, and the scattering broadcast over +the seas, regardless of the lives and property of +neutrals, of thousands of explosive mines.</p> + +<p>The type of ship constructed exclusively for +open sea warfare against surface adversaries was +not the best answer to the submarine. The blockading +of the hostile surface fleet did not prevent, or +even greatly hinder, the free passage of submarine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +flotillas, and the building by Germany of under-water +mine-layers enabled fields of these weapons +to be laid anywhere within the carrier's radius of +action.</p> + +<p>In this way the second, or submarine, phase of +the naval war opened, and it was to supplement +the comparatively few fast destroyers and other +suitable ships which could be spared from the +main fleets that the "new navy" was formed.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The Ships</span></div> + +<p>The area of the North Sea alone exceeds 140,000 +square miles, and when the whole vast stretch of +water encompassed by what was known as the +radius of action of hostile submarines, from their +bases on the German, Belgian, Austrian, Turkish +and Bulgarian coasts, had to be considered as +a possible zone of operations for German and +Austrian under-water flotillas, much of the water +surface of the world was included. Likewise the +network of sea communications on which the +Allies depended for the maintenance of essential +transport and communication comprised the pathways +of the seven seas. To patrol all these routes +adequately, and to guard the food and troop ships, +hastening in large numbers to the aid of the +Motherland from the most distant corners of the +earth; to protect the 1500 miles sea frontier of +the British Isles; to give timely aid to sinking or +hard-pressed units of the mercantile fleet; to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +hound the submarine from the under-seas and to +sweep clear, almost weekly, several thousand +square miles of sea, from Belle Isle to Cape Town +and the Orkneys to Colombo, required ships, not +in tens, but in thousands. To find these in an incredibly +short space of time became the primary +naval need of the moment.</p> + +<p>Who that lived through those days will forget +the struggle to supply ships and guns? The +searching of every harbour for craft, from motor +boats to old-time sailing-ships, and from fishing +craft to liners. The scouring of the Dominions +and Colonies. How blessed was their aid! Help, +generous and spontaneous, came from all quarters, +including the most unexpected. Over five +hundred fast patrol boats, or motor launches, in +less than twelve months from Canada and America. +Guns from Japan. Coasting steamers from India, +Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Seaplanes +from the Crown Colonies. Rifles from +Canada. Machine guns from the United States. +Ambulances from English and Colonial women's +leagues. In fact, contributions to the "new +navy" from all corners of the earth.</p> + +<p>To patrol the coasts of Britain alone, and to keep +its harbours and coastal trade routes clear of +mines, needed over 3500 ships, with at least an +equal number of guns, 30,000 rifles and revolvers, +and millions of shells.</p> + +<p>In addition to this huge fleet other smaller +squadrons were required for the Mediterranean, +the Suez Canal and Red Sea, the East and West<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +Indies, the coasts of the Dominions and Colonies, +and for the Russian lines of communication in the +White Sea. For these oversea bases just under +1000 ships were required, exclusive of those locally +supplied by the Dominions and Colonies themselves.</p> + +<p>All this without considering the main battle +fleets or, in fact, any portion of the regular navy, +and the ships required for the transport of food, +troops and munitions of war, together with their +escorts. Some idea of the numbers engaged in +keeping the Allies supplied with the diverse +necessities of life and war may be gathered from +the fact that the average sailings in and out of +the harbours of the United Kingdom alone during +the four years of war amounted to over 1200 +a week.</p> + +<p>The immense fleet forming the new navy was +not homogeneous in design, power, appearance or, +in fact, in anything except the spirit of the personnel +and the flag beneath which they fought—and +alas! nearly 4000 died. The squadrons, or +units, as they were called, consisted of fine steam +yachts, liners from the ocean trade routes, sturdy +sea tramps, deep-sea trawlers, oilers, colliers, +drifters, paddle steamers, and the more uniform +and specially built fighting sloops, whalers, motor +launches and coastal motor boats. The latter +type of craft was aided by its great speed, nearly +fifty miles an hour; but more about these ships +and their curious armament later.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">War Bases</span></div> + +<p>The great auxiliary navy had to be built or +obtained without depleting the ordinary mercantile +fleets, and the shipbuilding and repairing yards, +even in the smallest sea and river ports, worked +day and night. The triumph was as wonderful as +it was speedy. In less than fifteen months from +August, 1914, the new navy was a gigantic force, +and its operations extended from the Arctic Sea +to the Equator. All units were armed, manned +and linked up by wireless and a common cause.</p> + +<p>Before this could be accomplished, however, +the problem of maintaining this vast fleet and +adequately controlling its operations had to be +faced and overcome. The seas adjacent to the +coasts of the United Kingdom, the Mediterranean +Littoral and Colonial waters were divided into +"patrol areas" on special secret charts, and each +"area" had its own naval base, with harbour, +stores, repairing and docking facilities, intelligence +centre, wireless and signal stations, reserve +of officers and men, social headquarters, workshops +and medical department.</p> + +<p>Each base was under the command of an +admiral and staff, many of the former returning +to duty, after several years of well-earned rest, as +captains and commodores, with salaries commensurate +with their reduced rank. Their staffs consisted +of some six to twelve officers of the new +navy, with possibly one or two from the "pukka +service," and their command often extended over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +many hundreds of square miles of submarine and +mine infested sea.</p> + +<p>Of these bases, which will be fully described in +later chapters, there were about fifty, excluding +the great dockyards and fleet headquarters, but +inclusive of those situated overseas. When it is +considered what a war base needs to make it an +efficient rendezvous for some hundreds of ships +and thousands of men, some idea of the gigantic +task of organisation which their establishment, +often in poorly equipped harbours and distant +islands, required, not only in the first instance, but +also with regard to maintenance and supplies, will +be realised, perhaps, however, more fully when it +is stated that the average ship needs a month spent +in docking and overhauling at least once a year, +and that the delicate and more speedy units of +such a fleet need nearly four times that amount of +attention.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Headquarters Staff</span></div> + +<p>One of the first requisites of the auxiliary navy +was the creation of a headquarters staff at the +Admiralty, London. This was formed from naval +officers of experience both in the regular service +and in the two reserves (R.N.R. and R.N.V.R.).</p> + +<p>Forming an integral part of the great British or +Allied armada, all operations were under the control +of the Naval War Staff, but for purposes of +more detailed organisation and administration +additional departments were created which exercised +direct jurisdiction over their respective fleets.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +The principal of these was known as the "Auxiliary +Patrol Office," under the Fourth Sea Lord and +the Department of the Director of Minesweeping. +These formed a part of the General Staff—if a +military term is permissible—and both issued +official publications periodically throughout the +war, which served to keep the staffs of all the +different war bases and the commanding officers +of the thousands of ships informed as to current +movements and ruses of the enemy.</p> + +<p>It is unnecessary to detail more closely the work +of these departments, especially as much has yet +to be said before plunging into the maelstrom +of war. A sufficient indication of the colossal +nature of the work they were called upon to perform +will be found in a moment's reflection of +what the administration and control of such a +large and nondescript fleet, spread over the world—from +the White Sea to the East Indies—must +have meant to the small staff allowed by the +exigencies of an unparalleled war.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Officers and Men</span></div> + +<p>The greatest problem in modern naval war is, +undoubtedly, the supply of trained men. For +this reason it has been left to the last to describe +how the difficulty was faced and overcome by +England and her oversea Dominions in 1914.</p> + +<p>Before doing so, however, it may be of interest +to give here a few extracts from an excellent little +official publication, showing how the British fleet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +was manned and expanded in bygone days of +national peril<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In time of war there has always been an intimate +connection between the Royal Navy and the +Merchant Service. Latterly, and more especially +since the Russian War of 1854 to 1856, this fact +tended to be forgotten, partly because men-of-war +developed on particular lines and became far more +unlike merchantmen than they had ever been +before, and also because, by the introduction of +continuous service, the personnel of the Navy +seemed to have developed into a separate caste, +distinguished by its associations, traditions and +<i>esprit de corps</i>, as much by its special training and +qualifications, from other seafaring men. This +war has proved once again, to such as needed proof, +that the two services cannot exist without each +other, and that the Sea Power of the Empire is not +its naval strength alone, but its maritime strength. +Even at the risk of insisting on the obvious, it is +necessary to repeat that, for an Island Empire, a +war at sea cannot be won merely by the naval +action which defeats the enemy; naval successes +are of value for the fruit they bear, the chief of +which is the power that they give to the victor to +maintain his own sea-borne trade and to interrupt +that of the enemy.</p> + +<p>"An elementary way of looking at the problems +of manning the Royal Navy and the Merchant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +Service is to consider that there is in the country a +common stock of seamen, on which both can draw. +But this theory, like many others equally obvious +and tempting, has the disadvantage that it leaves +important factors out of account and, if worked +out, results in an absurdity. Thus, shortly before +war began there were in the country some 420,000 +seamen, of whom one-third were in the Navy and +two-thirds engaged in merchant ships and fishing +vessels. There was no considerable body of unemployed +seamen. During the war the personnel +of the Navy was expanded to something like the +420,000 which represents the common stock of seamen. +Therefore, if the theory met the case, there +would have been no men left for the Merchant +Service. But the merchant ships, in spite of +difficulty and danger, continued to run, employing +great numbers of men. And we must not forget +to take into account the number of men, amounting +to 48,000 killed and 4500 prisoners of war, who +have been lost in the two services during the war. +So it comes to this, that the common stock of seamen, +or at least of men fit to man ships, has expanded +during the war by more than 50 per cent. +Whence came these extra men? Clearly for the +most part from the non-seafaring classes.</p> + +<p>"The Navy in November, 1918, employed some +80,000 officers and men from the Merchant Service—viz. +20,000 R.N.R. ratings, 36,000 Trawler +Reserve, and 20,000 mercantile seamen and firemen +on Transport agreements, plus the officers. +If the supposition, made in the absence of statistics,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +is correct that at this time the number of men in +the Merchant Service itself had decreased proportionately +to the loss of tonnage, it would seem that +the Merchant Service needed no considerable inflow +of men during the war. In other words, most +of those added to the stock of seamen during the +war must have gone into the Navy. This corresponds +with known fact: the Navy has, in addition +to the Reserve men already mentioned, nearly +200,000 men to demobilise in order to put its personnel +on the footing on which it stood when war +broke out.</p> + +<p>"It will be of interest to see how the personnel +of the Navy expanded in former wars, and how at +the peace it was invariably reduced to something +like its pre-war figures. This can readily be done +in tabular form:</p></div> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Naval Personnel</span> (<i>Numbers Voted</i>)</h4> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Naval Personnel (Numbers Voted)"> +<tr><td align='center'>Year</td><td align='center'> </td><td align='center'><small>Name of War</small></td><td align='center'><small>Before<br />the War</small></td><td align='center'><small>Maximum<br />during<br />War</small></td><td align='center' valign='bottom'><small>After<br />the<br />Peace</small></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left' valign='bottom'>1689</td><td valign="top" class="tdright" rowspan="3" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 55pt">}</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right' valign='bottom'>7,040</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1697</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>League of Augsberg</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>40,000</td><td align='center'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='top'>1700</td><td align='left' valign='top'> </td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='right' valign='top'>7,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='bottom'>1700</td><td valign="top" class="tdright" rowspan="3" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 55pt">}</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right' valign='bottom'>7,000</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1712</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>Spanish Succession</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>40,000</td><td align='center'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='top'>1713</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>10,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='bottom'>1738</td><td valign="top" class="tdright" rowspan="3" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 55pt">}</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right' valign='bottom'>10,000</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1748</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>Austrian Succession</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>40,000</td><td align='center'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='top'>1759</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>10,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='bottom'>1754</td><td valign="top" class="tdright" rowspan="3" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 55pt">}</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right' valign='bottom'>10,000</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1762</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>Seven Years' War</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>70,000</td><td align='center'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='top'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>1764</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>16,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='bottom'>1775</td><td valign="top" class="tdright" rowspan="3" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 55pt">}</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right' valign='bottom'>18,000</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1783</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>American Independence</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>110,000</td><td align='center'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='top'>1785</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>18,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='bottom'>1793</td><td valign="top" class="tdright" rowspan="3" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 55pt">}</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right' valign='bottom'>16,000</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1801</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>French Revolution</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>135,000</td><td align='center'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='top'>1803</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>50,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='bottom'>1803</td><td valign="top" class="tdright" rowspan="3" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 55pt">}</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right' valign='bottom'>50,000</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1812</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>Napoleonic War</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>145,000</td><td align='center'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='top'>1817</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>19,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='bottom'>1853</td><td valign="top" class="tdright" rowspan="3" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 55pt">}</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='right' valign='bottom'>45,500</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1856</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>Russian War</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>76,000</td><td align='center'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='top'>1857</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>53,000</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left' valign='bottom'>1914</td><td valign="top" class="tdright" rowspan="3" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 45pt">}</td><td align='left' valign='bottom'>The Present</td><td align='right' valign='bottom'>146,000</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td><td align='center' valign='bottom'>—</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>1918</td><td align='left' valign='top'>War</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='left'>450,000</td><td align='center'>—</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It appears at once from these figures that the +naval expansion during earlier wars was in most +cases much greater proportionately than it has been +in this. Roughly the personnel in this war has +been multiplied by three; in earlier wars it was +increased six, seven, eight, or even nine fold, if we +take the difference between the figures for 1792 +and 1812.</p> + +<p>"It is a common error to suppose that our ships +in the old wars were manned entirely by seamen. +A knowledge of how the men were raised shows +that this cannot have been so; and confirmation +can be had from a very brief study of ships' muster +books. Only about a third of the crew of a line-of-battle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +ship were, in the seaman's phrase, 'prime +seamen.' The rest were either only partly trained +or were frankly not sailor men. The <i>Victory</i> at +Trafalgar was not an ill-manned ship—here is an +analysis of her crew: officers, commissioned and +warrant, 28; petty officers, including marines, +63; able seamen, 213; ordinary seamen and +boys, 225; landsmen, 86; marines, 137; artificers, +18; quarter gunners, 12; supernumeraries and +domestics, 37.</p> + +<p>"During the whole of our naval history down to +1815 it was the invariable rule that in peace time +the battle fleets were laid up unmanned, and only +enough ships were kept in commission to 'show +the flag' and to police the sea. This accounts for +the very large increase of the naval personnel +which immediately became necessary when there +was a threat of war; and it accounts also for +the difficulty which was always experienced in +raising the men. This difficulty was even greater +than we are apt to suppose, for the Merchant +Service has never been able to give the navy more +than a fraction of the total number of men +needed, and the machinery for raising extra men +has, until this war, always been of a most primitive +nature.</p> + +<p>"When war came the ships were commissioned, +without crews. This could be done because from +the latter part of the seventeenth century there was +a permanent force of officers. Then the officers +had to find their own crews. They began by drawing +their proportion of marines, and then proceeded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +to invite seamen to volunteer. In this way they +got a number of skilled seamen, men who had been +in the navy before, and came back to it either as +petty officers or in the hope of becoming so. Then +warrants to impress seamen would be issued. +Theoretically the impress was merely a form of +conscription, the Crown claiming by prerogative +the right to the services of its seafaring subjects. +Practically a good deal of violence was at times +necessary, as many of the men, preferring to sail in +merchant ships, or wishing to wait for a proclamation +of bounty, tried to avoid arrest. The scuffles +that took place on these occasions gave the impress +service a bad name, not altogether deserved, for +real efforts were made to avoid hardship, and in +any case the number of men raised in this way +was greatly exaggerated by popular report."</p></div> + +<p>There was no compulsion during the Great War +to join any unit of the British fleet. Therefore +all were either in the regular service, reservists +or volunteers. The need was made known not +only throughout the British Isles, but also from +Vancouver to Cape Town, Sydney and Wellington, +and men in all walks of life, but with either the +<i>Wander-Lust</i> or true love of the wide open sea in +their blood, rallied from all parts of the far-flung +Empire to the call of the White Ensign.</p> + +<p>In order to obtain some 6000 officers and nearly +200,000 trained or semi-trained men, new sources +of supply had to be tapped. Already the great +battle fleets, brought up to full war strength and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +with adequate reserves, had absorbed nearly all +the Reserve officers who could be spared from the +food and troop transports.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i-040.jpg" width="500" height="321" alt="A Large and Heavily armed German Submarine of the Cruiser Type" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>British Official Photograph</i></div><span class="caption">A Large and Heavily armed German Submarine of the Cruiser Type</span> +</div> + +<p>First came the great sea-training establishment +of the Empire—the Mercantile Marine and its +retired officers and men—already heavily depleted. +Then the yacht clubs from the Fraser to the +Thames and Clyde. Thousands of professionals +and amateurs came overseas to the training +cruisers and the "naval university," Canada alone +supplying several hundred officers.</p> + +<p>Doctors came from the hospitals and from +lucrative private practices. The engineering professions +and trades supplied the technical staffs +and skilled mechanics. The great banks and city +offices yielded the accountants, and the fishing and +pleasure-boating communities, not only of Great +Britain, but also of the Dominions and Colonies, +yielded the men in tens of thousands. In this way +the personnel of the new navy was completed in a +very few months.</p> + +<p>Before passing on to describe, in the detail of +personal acquaintance, the severe training of this +naval force, a general knowledge of its heterogeneous +character is necessary to enable the reader +to understand this great assemblage of the sons of +the Empire.</p> + + + + +<p>In the smoke-filled wardroom and gunroom +of the training cruiser, H.M.S. <i>Hermione</i> one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> +windy March evening in 1916 there were some +eighty officers of the auxiliary fleet, and of this +number one hailed from distant Rhodesia, where +he was the owner of thousands of acres of land and +a goodly herd of cattle, but who, some time in the +past, had rounded the Horn in a <i>wind-jammer</i> and +taken <i>sights</i> in the "Roaring Forties." Another +was a seascape painter of renown both in England +and the United States. A third was a member of +a Pacific coast yacht club. A fourth was the son of +an Irish peer, the owner of a steam yacht. Then +came a London journalist, a barrister, a solicitor +and a New Zealand yachtsman, while sitting at +the table was a famous traveller and a <i>pukka</i> +commander.</p> + +<p>In the neighbouring gunroom, among the crowd +of sub-lieutenants—all of the same great force, the +Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve—was a grey-haired +veteran from the Canadian Lakes, a +youngster from the Clyde, the son of a shipowner +from Australia and a bronzed mine manager from +the Witwatersrand.</p> + +<p>Among the engineers and mechanics the same +diversity. Men from several of the great engineering +establishments, a student from a North +Country university, electrical engineers from the +power stations and mechanics from the bench, +with here and there one or two with sea-going +experience.</p> + +<p>In the forecastle and elsewhere about the old +cruiser—now merely a training establishment—were +sailors with years of experience in both sail<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +and steam. Fishermen from the Hebrides and +Newfoundland rubbing shoulders with yacht +hands from the Solent and Clyde.</p> + +<p>From this curiously mixed but excellent raw +material a naval personnel, with its essential knowledge +and discipline, had to be fashioned in record +time by an incredibly small staff of commissioned +and warrant officers of the permanent service, +aided by the more experienced amateurs.</p> + +<p>It must, however, not be thought from this that +the amateur was converted into a professional seaman +in the space of a week or two. Three months +of specialised training enabled them to take their +place in the new fleet, but with some it required a +much longer period to enable them to feel that +perfect self-confidence when <i>alone</i> in the face of +difficulties and dangers which is the true heritage +of the sea.</p> + +<p>To describe here the training of officers and men +would be to repeat what will be more fully and +personally described in succeeding chapters. It is +sufficient to say that the aim was to bring them all +to a predetermined standard of efficiency, which +would enable the officers to command ships of +specific types at sea and in action, and the men to +form efficient engineers and deck hands for almost +any ship in the Navy.</p> + +<p>The medical branches naturally required no +special training and the accountants merely a +knowledge of naval systems of financial and +general administration. These two branches had +their own training establishments.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span></p> + +<p>When the period of preliminary training in the +cruiser <i>Hermione</i> was over the officers were passed +on to the Royal Naval College at Greenwich, and +from there to one or other of the fifty war bases in +the United Kingdom, the Mediterranean or farther +afield. Their appointments were to ships forming +the fleets attached to each of these bases and +generally operating in the surrounding seas.</p> + +<p>In this way the whole zone of war was covered +by an anti-submarine and minesweeping organisation +and general naval patrol, which operated in +conjunction with, but separate from, the battle +fleets, squadrons and flotillas, which were thus left +free to perform their true functions in big naval +engagements.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> + +<h3>THE NEW NAVY—TRAINING AN +ANTI-SUBMARINE FORCE</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">Having</span> described the <i>raison d'être</i> of the new +navy, and how it became a fleet in being, with its +own admirals, captains, staffs, bases and all the +paraphernalia of war, I can pass on to a more +intimate description of the training of the officers +and men, preparatory to their being drafted to the +scattered units of this great anti-submarine force.</div> + +<p>Lying in the spacious docks at Southampton +was the old 4000-ton cruiser <i>Hermione</i>, which had +been brought round from her natural base in +Portsmouth dockyard to act as the depot ship and +training establishment for a large section of this +new force. Not all the officers and men of the +auxiliary fleet were, however, destined to pass +across its decks. This vessel was reserved for +the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve, from which +a very considerable proportion of the entire personnel +of the new fleet was drawn. Nor was +H.M.S. <i>Hermione</i> the first depot ship of the war-time +R.N.V.R. at Southampton, for the Admiralty +yacht <i>Resource II.</i> had been used for the +first few drafts, but was unfortunately burned to +the water's edge. There were also other vessels +and establishments at Portsmouth, Devonport and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +Chatham. These were, however, mainly for the +reception and brief training of the more experienced +Merchant Service officers, entered in the +Royal Naval Reserve for the duration of the war, +and for the surgeons and accountants.</p> + +<p>The men of the new force were mostly trained +in the naval barracks and depot ships situated at +the big naval centres, such as Portsmouth and +Chatham. After a few weeks all these establishments +were drafting, in a constant stream, the +trained human element to the vessels awaiting full +complements at the different war bases, or being +constructed in the hundreds of shipyards of the +Empire.</p> + +<p>About H.M.S. <i>Hermione</i>, which has been selected +as being representative of the training depots of a +large section of the auxiliary service, little need be +said, beyond the fact that she was commanded, +first, by a distinguished officer from the Dardanelles, +and subsequently by an equally capable +officer, who, by the irony of fate, had in pre-war +times been a member of the British Naval Mission +to the Turkish navy—both of them men whose +experience and unfailing tact contributed largely +to the success of the thousands of embryo officers +trained under their command.</p> + +<p>The ship herself was a rambling old cruiser, +but very little of the actual training was carried +out on board. Spacious buildings on the quayside +provided the training grounds for gunnery, +drill, signalling, engineering and all the complicated +curricula, of which more anon. Lying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +in the still waters of the dock, alongside the comparatively +big grey cruiser, were the trim little +hulls of a numerous flotilla of 20-knot motor +launches, newly arrived from Canada, with wicked-looking +13-pounder high-angle guns, stumpy +torpedo-boat masts and brand-new White Ensigns +and brass-bound decks. These were the advance +guard of a fleet of over 500 similar craft, to the +command of which many of the officers being +trained would, after a period of practical experience +at sea, eventually succeed.</p> + +<p>There were besides numerous other mosquito +craft, which throbbed in and out of the dock from +that vast sheltered arm of the sea called <i>Southampton +Water</i> on mysterious errands, soon to be +solved by new recruits in the chilly winds of +winter nights and early mornings.</p> + +<p>This, then, was the mother ship and her children. +When once the aft gangway leading up from the +dockside to the clean-scrubbed decks had been +crossed, and the sentry's challenge answered, the +embryo officer left civilian life behind and commenced +his training for the stern work of war.</p> + +<p>It may not be out of place to give here a closer +description of the training of the officers and men +of the new navy, drawn from personal experience. +To do this without the irritating egoism of the +personal narrative it will be necessary, as often +in future pages, to adopt the convenient "third +person."</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The night was fine, but a keen March wind blew<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +from off the sea. The dock lights were reflected +in the still waters of the harbour. Tall cranes +stood out black and clearly defined against the +cold night sky. The shadows were deep around +the warehouses, stores and other buildings of the +busy dockside.</p> + +<p>Lying in the south-western basin was the big +grey hull of the cruiser, newly painted, and looking +very formidable, with its tall masts and fighting-tops +towering into the blue void, and its massive +bow rising high above the dock wall.</p> + +<p>Coming from the darkness on board were the +tinkling notes of a banjo and the subdued hum of +voices. Then the loud call of the quartermaster +and the ringing of eight bells.</p> + +<p>A group of newly appointed officers picked their +way carefully among the tangled mooring ropes on +the quayside and as they approached the warship +were duly challenged by the sentries. Two +of them had only just arrived from distant New +Zealand. They were all "for training," and on +mounting the quarterdeck gangway were politely +requested by the smiling quartermaster to report +at the ship's office.</p> + +<p>In order to get from the deck to this abode of +paymasters and writers, except by the tabooed +"captain's hatchway," there had to be negotiated +a long passage leading past the wardroom and the +gunroom. In normal times at such an hour +this passage would probably have been almost +deserted, with the exception of a sentry, but the +training was being speeded up to meet the demands<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +of war, and with nearly 200 officers, many of whom +fortunately lived ashore, constantly moving to +and fro, it became either a semi-dark, congested +thoroughfare, in which everyone was curtly apologising +for knocking against someone else, or else it +contained the steady pressure of a gunroom overflow +meeting, with a tobacco-scented atmosphere +peculiarly its own.</p> + +<p>When the formality of reporting arrival had +been completed, the embryo officers were taken in +tow by the "Officer of the Day," whose duty it was +to introduce them to the gunroom and make them +familiar in a general way with the routine of the +ship. The officer who performed this ceremony +on the night in question has since held a highly +responsible post at the Admiralty—such is the +fortune of war.</p> + +<p>The first shock came when the work for the +following day was explained. It commenced with +physical drill on the quayside at 7 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> and ended +with instruction in signalling at 6 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span>!</p> + +<div class='center'><b>. . . . . . . .</b></div> + +<p>The early morning was bitterly cold but fine. +Physical "jerks" was not a dress parade; in fact, +some of the early risers on the surrounding transports +and ocean mail boats must have wondered +what particular form of mania the crowd of +running, leaping and arm-swinging men, in all +stages of undress on the quayside, really suffered +from.</p> + +<p>Breakfast and Divisions were the next items on +the programme, and the new-comers looked forward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +to the day's work with the keen interest of +freshness.</p> + +<p><i>Morning Divisions</i> and <i>Evening Quarters</i> are +events of some importance in the daily routine of +his Majesty's ships. They are parades of the entire +ship's company, with the exception of those on +important duty, marking the beginning and end of +the day's work. The crew, or men under training, +are mustered in "Watches," under their respective +officers, and stand to attention at the bugle call. +The senior officer taking divisions then enters, a +roll is called and the names of those absent reported. +The chaplain stands between the lines of +men; the order "Off caps!" is given and prayers +commence. When these are finished certain orders +of the day are read out to the assembled ship's +company and the parade is over.</p> + +<p>At evening quarters, on certain days in the week, +the names were read out of the officers and men +detailed for special duties or for draft to a zone of +war.</p> + +<p>When morning divisions were over the day's +work began. The embryo officers were attached +to the seamanship class, consisting of about twenty +men of all ages. Oilskins were donned, for the sky +was overcast and the wind keen. They climbed +down the steel sides of the cruiser on to the small +deck of a tender, which was to convey them out on +to the broad but sheltered waters where much of +the preliminary practical training was to take place +during the following weeks.</p> + +<p>The instructor, an officer attached for the purpose,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +then divided his class into two "watches," +one being directed to work out the proposed course +of the ship on the charts in the cabin and to give +the necessary orders to the other watch on deck, +who were to carry them into effect as the ship +steamed along, with the aid of sextant, compass, +wheel, engine-room telegraph, lead and log-line. +As all possessed some knowledge of the sea, and had +experience in navigating, this work did not prove +as difficult as it undoubtedly would to anyone +entirely devoid of nautical knowledge.</p> + +<p>Those in the cabin with the charts worked out +the compass courses from one point to another, +making the necessary allowances for tide, deviation, +etc. Others of the same watch received +reports from the "bridge" and made the correct +entries in the log-book. All elementary work, but +which needed practice to make perfect, and on the +accuracy of which men's lives would depend in the +very near future.</p> + +<p>The watch on deck was engaged in the more +practical work of coastal navigation and could see +the effect of any mistake made theoretically by +their companions below. At midday the watches +were reversed. Those working at the charts and +courses came on deck and the seamen of the +morning became the navigating officers of the +afternoon.</p> + +<p>On this particular day the second or port watch +had the worst of it. A squally wind and rain had +set in, making the work on deck thoroughly wet +and uncomfortable. An hour or so later the small<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +ship was rolling and pitching and everyone was +drenched. The lead was kept going by hands +numb with cold—a foretaste of the long and bitter +days and nights to be afterwards spent in wintry +seas.</p> + +<p>The training cruises were continued for many +days and were interspersed with lectures on the +elements of good seamanship, the more advanced +theory and practice of navigation being left for a +later course at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.</p> + +<p>After seamanship came gunnery. Each of the +different types of heavy but finely made weapons +had to be learned in detail—a feat of memory +when it came to the watch-like mechanism of the +Maxim. Guns were disabled and had to be put +right. They missed fire and were made by the +instructors—old naval gunners—to play every +dastardly trick conceivable. The final test which +had to be successfully passed was the dismantling +of each type of gun used in the auxiliary fleet and +the reassembling of it.</p> + +<p>With gunnery came also the marks and uses of +the different kinds of ammunition, the systems +of "spotting" and "range-finding." Every gun +had its officer crew and the rapidity of fire was +recorded. Each man in turn was chosen to give +the necessary orders and to judge the ranges and +deflections. In this way not only was the practical +work learned by heart, but also the theory of naval +gunnery, so far as it related to the smaller types of +weapon.</p> + +<p>The use of the depth charge, both mechanically<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +and tactically, was expounded and practically +demonstrated, together with that of the torpedo, +the mine, mine laying and sweeping, and the +peculiarities of various explosives. Rifle and +revolver practice was encouraged, and morse and +semaphore signalling formed part of the daily +routine.</p> + +<p>The training was not entirely preparatory for +work afloat. Squad and company drill, rifle and +bayonet exercise, and man[oe]uvring in extended +order formed a part of the comprehensive training. +One day, not many weeks after their arrival, the +officers whose fortunes have been followed found +themselves shouting orders and directing by arm +and whistle lines of dusty <i>camarades</i> advancing +over a common in the most approved military +fashion.</p> + +<p>The training was not all hard work. The gathering +of so many men from all quarters of the world, +with a wealth of experience and adventure behind +them, was in itself a source of mutual interest—and +incidentally an education in modern British +Imperialism. Scarcely any part of the world +went for long unrepresented in either the wardroom +or gunroom of the old cruiser <i>Hermione</i> in +those days of war, and many were the yarns told +of Alaska days, hunting in Africa, experiences in +remote corners of North America, pearling in the +Pacific and life on the Indian frontier, to say +nothing of wild nights on the seven seas. Grey +heads and round, boyish faces, the university and +the frontier, with a camaraderie seldom equalled.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p> + +<p>The period of training in the old cruiser was +drawing to a close when each officer was appointed +to "Boat Duty." There were five launches on +duty at a time, and their crews had to be instantly +ready day and night. The most coveted were the +two 21-knot boats, used almost exclusively for the +conveyance of pilots to and from the hospital +ships and transports. Then came the patrol boat, +a slow old tub with a comfortable cabin, and work +out on Southampton Water at night. The three +"duty boats" were for emergency use and were +held at the disposal of the naval transport officer.</p> + +<p>The duties on each boat varied and were in the +nature of training. The pilot boat was required to +lie alongside the cutter, out beyond the harbour, +and to convey the pilots at high speed to and from +the stream of shipping. It was a pleasant duty +which entailed alternate nights in the generous, +breezy company of the old sea-dogs of the cutter, +with occasional races at half-a-mile a minute +through the darkness and spray to the moving +leviathans of the ocean.</p> + +<p>The patrol ambled up and down the sheltered +waterways during the day and night, examining +the "permits" of fishermen and preventing the +movement of small craft during the hours of darkness, +when the long lines of troop-ships were +leaving for France.</p> + +<p>The work of the duty boats varied from day to +day, but there was always the morning and evening +mail to be collected from and delivered to the +ships of the auxiliary fleet lying out in the fair-way.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> + +<p>When this spell of water-police work was over +there came a few days' practice in the handling of +the fast sea-going patrol launches, or "M.L.'s," +about which so much has since been written in the +daily papers.</p> + +<p>After the cramming received in the lecture-rooms, +the arduous drill and the somewhat monotonous +work on the slow-moving tenders, the runs seaward +on these new and trim little vessels, the +man[oe]uvring at nineteen knots, the breeze of +passage and the feeling of controlled power acted +as an elixir on both mind and body. Then came +firing practice in the open sea. The sharp crack +of cordite, the tongues of livid flame, the scream of +the shells, the white splashes of the ricochet and +the salt sea breezes.</p> + +<p>Two days later the preliminary training was +over and there loomed ahead a period of hard +study at the Royal Naval College.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>A NAVAL UNIVERSITY IN TIME OF WAR</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">Built</span> by King Charles I. for the Stuart navy, +and used for over two and a half centuries +as the university of the Senior Service, the +Royal Naval College, Greenwich, is a building +with an historic past. It has housed, fed and +taught many of England's most illustrious +sailors.</div> + +<p>It was to cabin and lecture hall in this fine old +building that officers of the new navy went to complete +their knowledge of navigation and kindred +subjects when their preliminary sea training came +to a close.</p> + +<p>There is but little romance in a highly specialised +course of study designed to enable the recipients +to find their way with safety, both in sunshine and +storm, over the vast water surface of the world. +To describe here the subjects taught would only +be wearisome and uninteresting. Sufficient to say +that the course was a most comprehensive one and +admirably arranged by masters of the mariner's +art. If any fault can be found it is certainly not +one of paucity of information, and the proof of its +efficacy can be found in the fact that, so far as the +author knows, there was not a single ship, afterwards +commanded by officers who underwent this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +training, lost through insufficient knowledge of +the art of navigation.</p> + +<p>The days spent in the Naval College were fully +occupied by attendance at lectures and the evenings +in private study and the preparation of elaborate +notes and sketches for the final passing-out +examination. There was one moment of each day +which was rendered historic by old custom. It +came at the conclusion of dinner in the big white +hall, when the officer whose turn it happened to be +rose to his feet and gave the toast of the navy—"Gentlemen, +the King!"</p> + +<p>It was in the grounds of this college that many +officers saw their first zeppelin raid. On one occasion +it occurred late in the fourth week of the +course. Nearly all were in their respective studies, +surrounded by a mass of papers, charts, drawing +instruments and books, making the last determined +attack on various knotty problems previous +to the final examination.</p> + +<p>Ten <span class="smcap">p.m.</span> had just been registered by the electric +clocks in the famous observatory overlooking the +college, when the sound of running feet came down +the long corridors. A stentorian voice shouted: +"All lights out!"</p> + +<p>In a moment the whole building, with its labyrinth +of corridors, was plunged into Ethiopian +darkness. Doors were opened and a jostling +crowd of men groped their way down passages +and stone staircases into the grounds. Here the +Admiral and his staff were making sure that +no lights were visible. Traffic in the near-by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +thoroughfare had been stopped, and all around lay +the Great Metropolis, oppressively dark and still.</p> + +<p>A searchlight flashed heavenwards and was +followed by other beams. All of these suddenly +concentrated on the gleaming white hull of a +zeppelin, high in the indigo sky. The ground +trembled under the fire of the anti-aircraft +batteries. Shells whistled and moaned over the +College and bright flashes came from little puffs +of white smoke high in the central blue.</p> + +<p>Dull-sounding but earth-shaking booms came +from different points as the airship dropped her +deadly cargo. Shrapnel fell on the congested +house-tops with a peculiar hiss and thud and +ambulances rumbled over the stone-paved high-road.</p> + +<p>It was a small incident and scarcely worth the +space required for its recording, but it served a +purpose—to steel the heart and steady the hand +for the time to come.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>THE NEW FLEETS IN BEING</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">Back</span> once again on the old cruiser with training +completed and awaiting draft to the zones of war. +Then came the sailing orders. The name of each +officer was called in turn and he disappeared into +the ship's office, to return a few minutes later carrying +a sheaf of white and blue Admiralty orders, +his face grave or gay according to destination.</div> + +<p>Some were for the Spanish Main and bemoaned +their fate at being ordered to a station so remote +from the principal zone of war. Others were +destined for the Mediterranean and comforted +themselves with hopes that trouble was brewing +elsewhere than in the Adriatic, to which a lucky +few were appointed. The Suez Canal and Egypt +claimed their share, but by far the greater number +were bound for the misty northern seas.</p> + +<p>About the training given to the 200,000 men +little can be said here because of its diversity. +They came as volunteers from all quarters of the +globe, were collected at the great depots in Portsmouth, +Chatham and Devonport, were trained in +the art of signalling, squad drill, gunnery, seamanship +and the hundred and one things required by +the "handy man," then belched forth into the +ships.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> + +<p>Some had sailed the sea for years before in vessels +of all kinds and needed little more than the sense +of cohesion and unquestioning obedience imparted +by discipline and drill. Others knew more of the +working of a loom, or the extraction of coal, than +of seamanship, and spent a cheerful but arduous +few months in training depots and on special ships +completing their education. Cooks there were +who could make little else besides Scotch broth, +while others, the engineers—or motor mechanics, +as they were called when appointed to some of the +petrol-driven patrol boats—knew their profession +or trade better than they could be taught, and +proved themselves untiring and indomitable when +it came to the real thing—as will be seen later.</p> + +<p>Having now described the training of both +officers and men, we come to the ships they were +called upon to navigate down to the seas of +adventure.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Armed Liners</span></div> + +<p>To set on record the formation of the ships of +the new navy in divisions, squadrons or units, and +to classify them here under separate headings—an +easy enough matter with regular fleets constructed +for definite duties—is a task of considerable difficulty +with a heterogeneous fleet composed of +several thousand vessels with seldom two alike.</p> + +<p>Beginning with the ocean liners, as the largest +and most powerfully armed of the new fleet: these +were mostly grouped for administrative purposes +in one large formation, known as the "Tenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +Cruiser Squadron." But when at sea they operated +in smaller units and frequently as single ship +patrols. Their principal zone of activity was the +vast stretch of Arctic sea extending from Norway +and North Russia to Iceland, the Hebrides and +Labrador. Their work was arduous in the extreme, +as will easily be realised from the nature of the +seas in which they primarily operated.</p> + +<p>Strictly speaking, were distinct divisions possible, +the Tenth Cruiser Squadron did not form part of +the auxiliary navy in its true sense, although many +of the officers and men were drawn from newly +raised corps. It acted rather as a distinct patrol +fleet, filling the wide gap of sea between Scotland +and the Arctic ice.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Fighting Sloops</span></div> + +<p>Next in order of importance came the newly +built screw sloops, with powerful guns and engines. +Their numbers varied and they were continually +being added to. Some of these vessels were used +for patrol duties and others for minesweeping. +The sloop flotillas had many zones of activity. +One was the North Atlantic, with special care for +the coast of Ireland. Another was the North Sea, +with a marked preference for the east coast of +Scotland and the Straits of Dover.</p> + +<p>These flotillas also were frequently assigned +duties independent of the auxiliary patrol organisation, +but nevertheless formed an important part +of the vast anti-submarine and anti-mine navy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the Mediterranean also there were a number +of patrol gunboats and minesweepers similar to the +fighting sloops. Their principal base in this region +was on Italian soil.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Armed Yachts</span></div> + +<p>We now come to that portion of the auxiliary +fleet whose special care was the seas around the +United Kingdom and the Colonies. First came +the armed yachts, over 50 in number, with tonnages +varying from one to five hundred. These +were obtained from the owners, armed as heavily +as their size and strength permitted, and mostly +became the flag-ships of patrol flotillas. They +were nearly always equipped with wireless, hydrophone +listening apparatus, depth charges and all +the appliances for anti-submarine warfare.</p> + +<p>Their losses were not heavy considering the +dangerous nature of their work and could almost +be counted on the fingers of both hands. This +was due mainly to their good speed and man[oe]uvring +qualities. They made wonderfully efficient +auxiliary warships, maintaining the sea in +almost all weathers and accounting for quite a +number of U-boats. These vessels were, of course, +never used for the rougher work of minesweeping.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Whalers</span></div> + +<p>The whalers were few in number and resembled +small destroyers. They were powerful craft and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +well armed, but their sea-keeping qualities left +much to be desired. In fact, to use a naval term, +they were dirty boats even in a "lop." It was +said that if an officer or man had been for long in +one of these ships he was proof against all forms of +sea-sickness. A big assertion, as even old sailors +will admit—but they call it "liver."</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Minesweepers</span></div> + +<p>About the screw and paddle minesweepers little +can be said beyond the fact that they numbered +about 200 and performed some of the most dangerous +work in the war. Many of them were old +passenger steamers from the Clyde, Bristol Channel, +Thames and south and east coast resorts, the +famous <i>Brighton Queen</i> being, until her untimely +end on a mine off the Belgian coast, one of their +number. The loss among this class of ship was +about 10 per cent.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Trawlers</span></div> + +<p>By far the largest portion of the auxiliary patrol +units consisted of armed and commissioned +trawlers. Their numbers far exceeded 1000, and +nearly half were used for the dangerous work +of minesweeping. About a trawler little need be +said, for beyond what can be seen in the accompanying +illustrations there is little of interest until +we come to the question of their curious arms and +appliances, fit subjects for a special chapter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> + +<p>A large number of these units were fitted with +wireless and carried masked batteries of quick-firing +guns. To give here their zones of operation +would be to set out in detail not only the seas +around the British Isles, but distant waters such +as the Mediterranean and the White Sea. They had +distinct duties to perform, which may be summed +up as follows:—(1) minesweeping; (2) night and +day patrols alone or in company over immense +areas of sea; (3) convoy duty; and (4) fishery +guard.</p> + +<p>Their losses were heavy, both in ships and men, +amounting to about 30 per cent. Many were the +lonely sea fights engaged in by these vessels. A +few will receive the praise they deserve and the +remainder will rest content with the knowledge +of duty done.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Drifters</span></div> + +<p>If numbers or losses were the dominant factors +the armed drifters should be high in the list. +There were engaged considerably over 1000 of +these craft, and the losses amounted to about +20 per cent.</p> + +<p>It may be necessary to inform some of my readers +that a drifter is not necessarily a vessel that is content +to start out on a voyage and rely on <i>drifting</i> +to its destination, as its name implies. The term +is derived from the drift nets used by these vessels +for fishing in time of peace. They are, in almost +all respects, small editions of the deep-sea trawler—<i>minus</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +the powerful steam-driven winch for hauling +in the trawl nets.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i-066.jpg" width="500" height="296" alt="Some of the 550 Motor Launch Hulls being constructed on the Banks of the St. Lawrence River, Canada" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>Yachting Monthly</i></div> +<span class="caption">Some of the 550 Motor Launch Hulls being constructed on the Banks of the St. Lawrence River, Canada</span> +</div> + + +<p>For war purposes the holds of these, and many +other types of auxiliary warships, were converted +into officers' cabins, or gun platforms for masked +batteries. A few carried special nets in which to +entangle the wily "Fritz." Others had aboard +special types of submarine mines, and one, commanded +by the author, was used for the transport +of wounded from Admiral Sir David Beatty's +flag-ship, H.M.S. <i>Lion</i>, after the Jutland fight.</p> + +<p>These were, as might be expected, good sea boats, +and carried out duties of great danger and value. +Several hundred were fitted with wireless. Their +zone of operations was far flung, extending from +the Arctic Circle to the Equator. It was, however, +in the unequal fights with German destroyers in +the Straits of Dover and with Austrian torpedo +boat destroyers in the Adriatic that they made a +name for valour. In two of these engagements +no less than six and fourteen drifters were sunk in +a few minutes.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Motor Launches</span></div> + +<p>About the now famous motor launches, or +"movies," as they are called in the Service, +much will be said in later pages. They numbered +over 500, and, with but few exceptions, were a +homogeneous flotilla of fast sea-going patrol boats, +heavily armed for their size. Some idea of their +appearance under varying conditions will be gained +from a study of the illustrations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> + +<p>They were all commanded by R.N.V.R. officers, +whose training on H.M.S. <i>Hermione</i> and elsewhere +has been described in an earlier chapter. They +carried a crew of nine men and two officers, and +their zones of operations extended from the icy +seas which wash the Orkneys and Shetlands to the +West Indies and the Suez Canal.</p> + +<p>It may be of interest to give here an extract from +the American journal, <i>Rudder</i>, showing how these +vessels came into being.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Although the hulls were +constructed in Canada, and much of the assembling +was also carried out on the banks of the St Lawrence, +the engines came from the United States. +It was to the organising ability of Mr Henry R. +Sutphen, of the Electric Boat Company, New +York, that the delivery of over 500 of these +wonderful little craft in less than a year was +due. Here is that gentleman's story of the +"M.L." contract:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"It was in February, 1915, that we had our +initial negotiations with the British Naval authorities. +A well-known English shipbuilder and +ordnance expert was in this country, presumably +on secret business for the Admiralty, and I met +him one afternoon at his hotel. Naturally the +menace of the German submarine warfare came +into discussion; we both agreed that the danger +was a real one, and that steps should be taken to +meet it.</p> + +<p>"I suggested the use of a number of small,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +speedy gasolene boats for use in attacking and +destroying submarines. My idea was to have a +mosquito fleet big enough to thoroughly patrol +the coastal waters of Great Britain, each of them +carrying a 13-lb. rapid-fire gun.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-069.jpg" width="450" height="225" alt="Fig. 1.—Diagram showing principal characteristics of an armed motor launch." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Diagram showing principal characteristics of an armed +motor launch. <i>A.</i> Wheel-house. <i>B.</i> Searchlight. <i>C.</i> Chart-room. +<i>D.</i> Navigation lights. <i>E.</i> 3 or 13 pounder quick-firing +gun. <i>F.</i> Wheel and indicators in wheel-house. <i>H.</i> Hand +pumps supplementing power pumps in engine-room. <i>I.</i> +Hatchway leading to engine-room. <i>J.</i> Hatchway leading to +wardroom. <i>K.</i> Life-boat. <i>L.</i> Officers' cabins. <i>M.</i> Hatchway +leading to officers' cabins. <i>N.</i> Depth charges (2 or 4). <i>O.</i> Deck +box containing life-belts. <i>P.</i> Stern petrol tanks (2). <i>Q.</i> +Officers' sleeping cabin. <i>R.</i> Officers' mess-room. <i>S.</i> Galley. +<i>T.</i> Engine-room. <i>U.</i> Main petrol engines (2). <i>V.</i> Reservoirs +of compressed air for starting main engines. <i>W.</i> Foreward +petrol tanks. <i>X.</i> Forecastle and men's quarters. <i>Y.</i> Men's +lavatory. <i>Z.</i> Forepeak.</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"I explained that I had in mind two distinct +types. The first would have an over-all length of +about 50 feet, and would be fitted with high-speed +engines; such a boat would show a maximum of +25 knots. The alternative would be something +around 80 feet in length, with slow turning engines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +and a speed of 19 knots. I added that my preference +was for the larger and slower type.</p> + +<p>"He asked how many units of that class we could +build in a year's time, and I told him that I could +guarantee fifty. He said that he would think the +matter over, and we parted.</p> + +<p>"A few days later I had another interview and +was told that the British Government was ready to +give us a contract for fifty vessels of the larger type, +the whole lot to be delivered within a year's time.</p> + +<p>"On April 9th, 1915, the contract for fifty +'chasers' was signed.</p></div> + +<div class='center'><b>. . . . . . . .</b></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The <i>Lusitania</i> sailed on her last voyage May +1st, 1915, and a week later her torpedoing by a +German U-boat was reported. My English friend +was sailing that same day from New York, and we +were giving him a farewell luncheon at Delmonico's. +When the appalling news was communicated to +him he appeared much depressed, as indeed was +natural enough, and also very thoughtful. Before +he said good-bye he intimated to me that he intended +advising the Admiralty to increase the +number of 'Chasers'; he asked me if I thought I +could take care of a bigger order. I told him that +I could guarantee to build a boat a day for so long +a period as the Admiralty might care to name.</p> + +<p>"After he reached England we shortly received +a cablegram ordering five hundred additional +'Sutphens,' our code word for submarine 'Chaser'; +in other words we were now asked to build five +hundred and fifty of these boats and deliver them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +in complete running order by November 15th, +1915."</p></div> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-071.jpg" width="450" height="96" alt="Fig. 2.—Plan of armed motor launch, showing internal arrangements." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.—Plan of armed motor launch, showing internal arrangements. +<i>A.</i> Officers' sleeping cabin. <i>B.B.</i> Bunks. <i>C.</i> Cupboard. +<i>D.</i> Lavatory. <i>E.E.</i> Stern petrol tanks. <i>F.</i> Wardroom. <i>G.</i> +Table. <i>H.</i> Settee. <i>I.</i> Galley. <i>J.</i> Petrol stove. <i>K.</i> Engine-room. +<i>L.L.</i> Main engines. <i>M.</i> Compressed air reservoirs. +<i>N.</i> Auxiliary petrol engine driving dynamo, bilge pumps, fire +pumps and air compressor. <i>O.</i> Electric storage batteries, +switchboard and electrical starting arrangements for auxiliary +engine. <i>P.</i> Chart-room with petrol tanks below. <i>Q.</i> Magazine. +<i>R.</i> Fresh-water tanks. <i>S.</i> Forecastle. <i>T.</i> Bunks for +crew. <i>U.</i> Forecastle lavatory. <i>V.</i> Watertight forepeak.</b></div> + +<p>The armament of a motor launch consisted of +a 13-pounder quick-firing high-angle gun, capable +of throwing a lyddite shell for over four miles, +and was as useful against aircraft as it was against +submarines. In addition to this heavy gun for +small craft they carried about 1200 lb. of high +explosive in the form of depth charges for bombing +under-water craft, a Lewis machine gun, rifles +and revolvers.</p> + +<p>These vessels were driven by twin screws connected +to twin engines of about 500 h.p. They +possessed, in addition, an auxiliary petrol engine +of about 60 h.p. for compressing the air required +to start the main engines, for working the fire and +bilge pumps, and for driving a dynamo to recharge +the electric storage batteries. The triple tanks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> +carried over 3000 gallons of petrol, and the consumption, +when travelling at full speed, was a +gallon a minute.</p> + +<p>Many were fitted with wireless, and all of them +had on board the most approved pattern of hydrophone, +with which to listen below the surface for +the movements of hostile submarines. They had +electric light in the cabins and for navigation, +fighting and mast-head signalling purposes. A +moderately powerful searchlight, fitted with a +Morse signalling shutter, was also part of their +equipment.</p> + +<p>These little miniature warships possessed a small +wardroom and sleeping cabin for the officers, a +galley with petrol range for cooking, an engine-room, +magazine for the ammunition, chart-room, +and ample forecastle accommodation for the crew +of nine men. All parts of the ship were connected +with the bridge by speaking-tubes and electric +bells, and the aft deck accommodated a steel +life-boat.</p> + +<p>The duties of these craft varied considerably. +For over three years they maintained a constant +patrol in the North Sea, Atlantic, English Channel, +Irish Sea, Mediterranean, Adriatic, Suez Canal, +Straits of Gibraltar, and in West Indian waters. +Only one who knows by experience can fully +appreciate what work in these northern seas, with +their winter snows and Arctic winds, and their +chilly summer fogs, really means to a mere thirty +tons of nautical humanity in as many square +leagues of storm-swept sea infested with mines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +and hostile submarines. But when this book has +been finished the reader will be in a position to +judge for himself.</p> + +<p>The losses of motor launches were not heavy +considering the dangerous nature of their cargoes +(3000 gallons of petrol within a few feet of 1500 +lb. of high explosive in a wooden hull) and the +duties they were called upon to perform in all +weathers short of heavy gales. Several were +blown up with terrible results to those aboard. +Others caught fire and were burned—allowing only +just sufficient time to sink the explosives aboard. +A few were smashed to pieces on exposed coasts +after struggling for hours amid heavy seas. One +struck a mine off Ostend. Another was destroyed +by shell-fire in the Mediterranean, and the part +they played in the raids on Zeebrugge and Ostend, +in which two were lost and a V.C. gained, is now +world famous.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Coastal Motor Boats</span></div> + +<p>There was, besides M.L.'s, another smaller but +faster type of submarine chaser. These little +vessels, of which there were about 80 actually +in commission, possessed no cabin or other accommodation +for long cruises. They were simply +thin grey hulls with powerful high-speed engines. +They were known as C.M.B.'s, or, to give them +their full title, Coastal Motor Boats. The purpose +for which they were constructed was to operate +from coastal bases, and to be launched from ocean-going<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +ships to chase a hostile submarine which had +been located by seaplanes and reported by wireless +in a given locality. This, however, was what +they were <i>intended</i> for, but bore little relation to +the work they actually accomplished. Their nickname +was "Scooters," and they certainly did +"scoot" over the sea.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-074.jpg" width="450" height="189" alt="Fig. 3.—Diagram showing principal characteristics of a coastal motor boat (C.M.B.)." title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Diagram showing principal characteristics of a coastal +motor boat (C.M.B.). Speed 50 miles per hour. <i>A.</i> <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'Hydrophone'">Hydroplane</ins> +hull, so constructed as to rise on to surface when travelling +at full speed. <i>B.</i> Covered wheel-house. <i>C.</i> Navigating +well. <i>D.</i> Wireless aerials. <i>E.</i> Depth charges (2 small size). +<i>F.</i> Manhole to engine-room.</b></div> + +<p>There were three types of C.M.B.'s. One had +a length of only 44 feet, and was intended for +carriage on the decks of light cruisers or other +moderate-sized surface ships. The armament was +a Lewis machine gun and two depth charges for +anti-submarine warfare. The next class were 55 +feet in length and operated from coast bases. +These were fitted with one or more Whitehead +torpedoes, launched by an ingenious contrivance +from the stern. Class III. were 70 feet in length, +and were commissioned just before the signing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +of the Armistice. They were fitted for mine-laying +close up to enemy harbours.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-075.jpg" width="450" height="109" alt="Fig. 4.—Plan of coastal motor boat, showing torpedo in cleft stern." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Plan of coastal motor boat, showing torpedo in cleft stern. +<i>A.</i> Whale-back or arched deck. <i>B.</i> Wheel-house. <i>C.</i> Navigating +well. <i>D.</i> Engine-room. <i>E.</i> Foreward petrol tanks. +<i>F.</i> Forepeak. <i>G.</i> Depth charges. <i>H.</i> Cleft stern with torpedo +ready for launching. <i>I.</i> Whitehead torpedo, launched stern +first.</b></div> + +<p>The maximum speed of the 55-feet C.M.B.'s, +which were the most numerous, was 40 knots, or +nearly a mile a minute. They were driven by +twin screws coupled to twin engines of 350 h.p. +each—working at 1350 revolutions per minute. +Being of very shallow draught, some 26 inches, +these little vessels could skim, hydroplane fashion, +over any ordinary mine-field, and a torpedo fired at +them would merely pass under their keel. The +risk of destruction from shell-fire was also reduced +to a minimum by their small size and great speed. +Their principal enemies were, however, seaplanes +armed with machine guns.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-076a.jpg" width="450" height="362" alt="A 40-ft. Coastal Motor Boat Travelling at Full Speed" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>Thornycroft & Co., Ltd.</i></div><span class="caption">A 40-ft. Coastal Motor Boat Travelling at Full Speed</span> +<br /><br /></div> + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-076b.jpg" width="450" height="286" alt="A 40-ft. Coastal Motor Boat Travelling at Full Speed" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>Thornycroft & Co., Ltd.</i></div><span class="caption">A 40-ft. Coastal Motor Boat Travelling at Full Speed</span> +</div> + + + +<p>It is not difficult to imagine a fight between a +C.M.B. travelling at 40 knots, firing with its little +Lewis gun at a big seaplane swooping down from +the clouds at the rate of 70 miles an hour, and +splashing the water around the frail little grey-hulled +scooter with bullets from its machine gun. This +actually occurred many times off the Belgian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +coast, and is a typical picture of guerrilla war at +sea in the twentieth century.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> +<img src="images/i-078.jpg" width="425" height="303" alt="Fig. 5.—Diagram illustrating method of attack by C.M.B. on surface ship (or submarine on surface)." title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Diagram illustrating method of attack by C.M.B. on surface +ship (or submarine on surface). <i>A.</i> Object of attack travelling +in direction indicated by arrow <i>E.</i> <i>B.</i> The position of the +C.M.B. after delivering the attack. <i>C.</i> The torpedo, released +by the C.M.B. at point <i>D</i>, travelling on course ending at <i>F</i>, +which, allowing for movement of ship <i>A</i>, is the place where the +torpedo should strike its object of attack. From this it will be +seen that the torpedo, when released, actually follows the ship +from which it is fired until the latter swerves from the straight +course, when the torpedo continues until it strikes or misses +the object of attack, the speed of the torpedo being about the +same or a little less than that of the C.M.B. The total time +occupied in such an attack over a course of two miles would be +about 2½ minutes before the torpedo struck its object.</b></div> + +<p>The C.M.B. was a purely British design, and the +firm largely responsible for the success achieved +was Messrs John J. Thornycroft & Company +Limited. There were bases for these sea-gnats at +Portsmouth, Dover, Dunkirk, and in the Thames +Estuary at Osea Island. From all of these points<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +mid-Channel could be reached in less than thirty +minutes. Although useless in rough weather, a +trip in a C.M.B., even on a calm day, was sufficiently +exciting. The roar of the engines made speech +impossible, and vision when sitting in the little +glass-screened well, or conning-tower, was limited +by the great waves of greenish-white water which +curved upwards from either bow, and rolled astern +in a welter of foam. There was an awe-inspiring +fury in the thunder of the 700 h.p. engines revolving +at 1350 per minute, and a feeling of ecstasy +in the stiff breeze of passage and the atomised +spray. When waves came the slap-slap-slap of the +water as the sharp bows cleft through the crest and +the little vessel was for a brief moment poised +dizzily on the bosom of the swell caused tremors +to pass through the thin grey hull, and, to complete +the review of sensation, there may be added the +human thrill of battle and the indescribable feeling +of controlled power beneath one's feet.</p> + +<p>The C.M.B.'s record of service, although short, is +nevertheless a brilliant one. Towards the close of +the year 1916 four of these little vessels coming +from the base at Dunkirk intercepted five German +destroyers returning from a Channel raid. The +scooters raced towards the enemy in a smother of +foam. Every quick-firing gun on the German +ships spouted shells at the mysterious white streaks +approaching them with the speed of lightning. +So close did these plucky little ships go to their +giant adversaries that the blast of the German +guns was felt aboard, but no shells struck them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +Then the line of C.M.B.'s swerved and their torpedoes +were launched at close range. One of the +enemy destroyers was hit and badly damaged, +while two others had narrow shaves.</p> + +<p>There was no time for German retaliation. For +a brief few minutes the sea around the scooters was +ploughed up by the shells from the Hun artillery, +then the four little attacking craft were five miles +distant from the scene of their victory, and presented +almost invisible white specks to the enemy +gunners.</p> + +<p>At Zeebrugge these craft ran close in under the +guns of the shore fortifications, and covered the +approach of the landing parties and block-ships +with a screen of artificial smoke. At Ostend they +entered the harbour under heavy fire and ignited +flares to enable the block-ships to navigate in +the darkness. Others, in the same operations, +torpedoed the piers and silenced the guns mounted +thereon.</p> + +<p>Their exploits savour of old-time sea romance, +as, for example, when the little <i>Condor</i> ran in under +the guns of the fortress of Alexandria, or further +back in our naval history, when sail and round +shot took the place of petrol and torpedoes.</p> + +<p>For anti-submarine work these wonderfully fast +little chasers were used in small flotillas. They +were fitted with short-range wireless sets, and when +the message came stating that a vessel was being +attacked in a certain position, perhaps twenty +miles from the coast, a number were instantly released +from the leash, and in a fraction of the time<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +taken by larger vessels they were on the scene with +torpedoes and Lewis guns for surface attack and +depth charges for submerged bombing.</p> + +<p>They were commanded, in many instances, by +R.N.V.R. officers of the auxiliary service, and +carried two engineers. No crew was necessary, +nor was space available for them. The plucky +dash of these vessels into the harbours of Zeebrugge +and Ostend, their subsequent operations on the +Belgian coast, and their losses in the action at the +entrance to the Heligoland Bight in 1918, when +they were launched from a big ship, have earned +for them high renown in naval history.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Boom Defence Ships</span></div> + +<p>In addition to all these types of anti-submarine +craft there were, forming part of the auxiliary fleet, +over 300 ships, mostly trawlers and drifters, engaged +in maintaining the great lines of boom +defences, closing vast stretches of sheltered waters +frequented by the battle fleets, and a considerable +number of examination ships, staffed by interpreter +officers, whose duty it was to examine all neutral +shipping passing through the 10,000 miles of the +blockade.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>These, then, were the ships of the new navy, +and their formation into flotillas, or units, was +usually accomplished by grouping four or five +vessels of similar type together under the command +of the senior officer afloat—mostly a lieutenant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +R.N.R. or R.N.V.R. In the case of minesweepers +the unit nearly always consisted of an even number +of ships, because their work was carried out in +pairs, and with M.L.'s it usually consisted +of five boats, as this was the number required +for the intricate tactical work of submarine +chasing.</p> + +<p>There were, of course, units from the United +States, French, Japanese, Italian and Brazilian +navies, in addition to the formidable British +armada.</p> + +<p>The auxiliary units were all based on one or +other of the fifty odd war stations which encompassed +not only the coasts of Great Britain and +Ireland, but also the littoral of every land in our +world-wide Empire. The numbers given here do +not include the local fleets of purely colonial naval +bases, nor the large flotillas of destroyers and "P" +boats operating in home and foreign waters in +conjunction with the auxiliary navy. If these +were incorporated the anti-submarine fleets would +be almost doubled.</p> + +<p>Now that the reader is familiar with the <i>raison +d'être</i> of the new navy, the personnel, the ships and +their formation into fleets, the scope and limitations +of their activity, and of the losses they sustained, +the way is clear for a description of the +curious weapons used, the mysteries of anti-submarine +warfare, and the bases themselves +before entering the zone of war and seeing something +of the actual work of the auxiliary navy.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>THE HYDROPHONE AND THE DEPTH +CHARGE</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">Of</span> all the weapons used in the anti-submarine war +the two most important were the <i>hydrophone</i> and +the <i>depth charge</i>. They were employed in conjunction +with each other and comprised the surface +warship's principal means of offence against submarines +operating beneath the surface.</div> + +<p>The hydrophone resembles a delicate telephone. +It is so constructed that when the instrument is +lowered over the side of a ship into the sea any +noise, such as the movement of a submarine's propellers, +can be heard on deck by an operator listening +at an ordinary telephone receiver connected +to the submerged microphone by an electrified +wire.</p> + +<p>There were many different types of hydrophone +in use during the Great War. So important was +this instrument for the work of submarine hunting +that money was spent in millions, and a corps of +naval and civil experts were engaged for several +years, bringing it to a state of efficiency. Each +type introduced into the Service was an improvement +on its predecessor, and there were different +patterns for the use of almost each class of vessel. +The fast destroyer required a different instrument<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +to the slow-moving trawler. The motor launch +could only employ successfully a totally different +type to the submarine, and, to add to the difficulties, +the German submarines themselves were +generously supplied with similar instruments. The +games of "hide-and-seek" played on and under +the seas with the aid of this wonderful little instrument +would have been distinctly amusing had +men's lives—and often those of women and children—not +been dependent upon the issue.</p> + +<p>The portable hydrophone, used by some of the +smaller and slower vessels of the auxiliary fleet, +consisted of a microphone, or delicate mechanical +ear, carefully guarded by metal discs from accidental +damage, and connected to ear-pieces or +ordinary telephone receivers by an electric wire +which passed through a battery. Where the wire +came in contact with the sea water it was heavily +insulated and lightly armoured.</p> + +<p>When it was required to use this instrument the +vessel was stopped and the microphone lowered +overboard to a depth of about 20 feet. This was +the distance down from the surface at which submarine +noises could be heard most distinctly. The +operator on deck or in the cabin then adjusted the +ear-pieces and sat listening for any noises coming +through the water. Although the sea is a far +better conductor than air, the range at which +sounds could be heard varied considerably. On a +calm day or night the noise of a ship's propellers +could frequently be distinguished at from five to +seven miles; whereas on a rough day, with the sea<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +splashing and the wind roaring, it was often difficult +to hear anything beyond half-a-mile.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-085.jpg" width="450" height="396" alt="Fig. 6.—Diagram showing essential parts of a portable hydrophone." title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Diagram showing essential parts of a portable hydrophone. +<i>A.</i> Head and ear pieces, by means of which a trained listener +hears submarine sounds. <i>B.</i> Flexible leads to enable an officer +to verify reports from listener. <i>C.</i> Battery box, containing +spare set of cells. <i>D.</i> Terminals. <i>E.</i> Terminals of spare cells. +<i>F.</i> Flexible armoured electric cable which is lowered over side +of ship. <i>G.</i> Metal case protecting the microphone <i>H</i>. <i>H.</i> +Microphone or delicate receiver of submarine sounds, which is +submerged (when required, but not when ship is moving) to a +depth of about 18 feet, as in small diagram. The sound is +detected by the microphone and transmitted up the cable <i>F</i> +and wires <i>B</i> to the ear-pieces <i>A</i>.</b></div> + +<p>In fine weather a submarine could usually be +heard at a distance of about two or three miles. +There were, however, many microscopic noises of +the under-seas which were picked up and magnified<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +by this type of hydrophone. They were called +"water noises," and often made it extremely difficult +to differentiate between them and the sound +of a moving submarine at a great distance. Later +types were not so prone to these disturbing influences.</p> + +<p>To describe here the different natural and artificial +noises heard on a portable hydrophone is +extremely difficult. One general statement can, +however, be made. It is the noise caused by the +rapidly revolving propellers of both surface ships +and submarines that is the guiding factor in +the work of detection by submarine sound. A +destroyer travelling at full speed on a calm sea, +when heard on a hydrophone resembles the roar +of a gigantic dynamo. The sound does not alter +as the distance between the <i>stationary</i> listening +ship and the <i>fast-moving</i> warship increases or decreases; +it continues to be a roar or low hum, +according to distance, until it fades out of hearing +altogether. The same statement applies also to a +slow-moving cargo steamer, only in this case the +<i>single</i> propeller is revolving very much slower, and, +when listening on a hydrophone about two or three +miles distant, each successive beat of the engines +can be distinctly heard.</p> + +<p>The simple movement of a vessel's hull through +the water cannot be heard on a hydrophone. +Therefore for detecting the presence in the vicinity +of a <i>sailing</i> ship at night or in a thick fog this instrument +is quite useless. The same drawback +applies also to the location of a floating derelict or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +iceberg, and restricts the use of the hydrophone to +faithfully reporting the presence of power-driven +ships or special sound signals at a range of a few +miles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-087.jpg" width="450" height="215" alt="Fig. 7.—An improved directional hydrophone fitted through keel of motor launch." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—An improved directional hydrophone fitted through keel of +motor launch. The tube <i>B</i>, at the lower extremity of which is +the microphone, can be raised or lowered from <i>C</i>, the cabin of +the M.L. This instrument is so arranged that the direction +from which the submarine sound is coming can be simply and +quickly ascertained.</b></div> + +<p>A German submarine heard at a range of about +a mile on a calm night presents a curious sound +which almost defies description. Its principal +constituent consists of a "clankety clank! +clankety clank!" at first barely distinguishable +from the low swish of the water past the face of +the submerged microphone, then louder when the +sound has been distinguished and the human ear +is on the alert. But when this sound was heard in +war there was little time for analysing or noting. +It was the call to action. The microphone was +hauled to the surface and the chase began, a halt +being made every half-mile or so for a further<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +period of listening on the hydrophone. If the +sound was louder the commander of the pursuing +vessel knew that he was on the right track, and if +the sound came up from the sea more indistinct +the course was changed and a run of a mile made +in the opposite direction, when the vessel was again +stopped and the instrument dropped overboard.</p> + +<p>Should this man[oe]uvre have placed the surface +ship in close proximity to the submarine, one or +more <i>depth charges</i> were released, and if the explosion +of these damaged the comparatively delicate +hull or machinery of the under-water craft, she had +either to rise to the surface and fight for her life +with her two powerful deck guns, or, if badly +damaged, sink helplessly to the bottom, emitting +oil in large quantities from her crushed tanks.</p> + +<p>Before entering upon a description of the depth +charge, however, there is more to say of the hydrophone, +which has played such an important part in +the defeat of the U-boats.</p> + +<p>When the advantages of this instrument had +been fully demonstrated in the stern trial of war, +successful efforts were made to improve upon the +original crude appliances. The "water noises" +were reduced and, greatest improvement of all, the +hydrophone was made "directional." By this is +meant that when a sound was heard its approximate +direction north, south, east or west of the +listening ship could be more or less accurately +determined. What this improvement meant to a +vessel hunting a submarine in a vast stretch of sea +will be easily realised. When the sound came up<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +the wires from the submerged microphone the +operator had simply to turn a small handle in order +to determine from which direction the noise was +coming.</p> + +<p>If, for example, the sound was first heard away +to the east, the instrument was turned to another +quarter of the compass. Then, if the noise was +plainer, the instrument was turned again until +the sound decreased in intensity. In this way the +line of maximum sound was obtained, and this +showed the direction from the listening ship in +which the U-boat was operating.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-089.jpg" width="450" height="92" alt="Fig. 8.—Plan showing how microphones or ears B are fitted in a submarine A to enable it to detect the approach of surface craft." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Plan showing how microphones or ears <i>B</i> are fitted in a submarine +<i>A</i> to enable it to detect the approach of surface craft.</b></div> + +<p>With the perfection of this invention the hydrophone +section of the naval service came into being. +Special courses in the detection of submarine sounds +were instituted for officers and also for seamen +listeners. The actual movements of a submarine +under water at varying distances from a hydrophone +were recorded by a phonograph, and records +made so that the sounds might be reproduced at +will for the education of the ear. Surgeons with +<ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'oral'">aural</ins> experience estimated the physical efficiency +in this respect of would-be volunteers for the +hydrophone-listening service, and vessels were +formed into special hydrophone flotillas, whose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +duties consisted of listening in long lines for submarines +and when a discovery was made attacking +them in the most approved tactical formation, +with the aid of depth charges and guns.</p> + +<p>A considerable measure of success attended these +arrangements, and the author spent many cold +hours listening at night for the sound of the wily +submarine. On more than one occasion an exciting +chase resulted.</p> + +<p>It must, however, be pointed out that there is +one great drawback to the successful use of the +hydrophone. It exists in the necessity for the +listening ship to stop before the hydrophone is +hoisted outboard, it being quite impossible to hear +anything beyond the roar of the engines of the +carrying ship so long as they are in motion. +Furthermore, all progress through the water must +have ceased and the listening ship have become +stationary before artificial sounds, such as the propellers +of a submarine, can be distinguished from +the natural noises of the sea water.</p> + +<p>Now it will at once be apparent that not only +does a stationary ship offer a splendid target for +under-water attack, but also it allows a somewhat +humorous game of hide-and-seek to be played between +a hunting vessel and a hunted submarine.</p> + +<p>Nearly all U-boats were fitted with a number of +hydrophones and therefore were as well able to +receive timely warning of an approaching surface +ship as the surface ship was of the presence of the +submarine. But the surface ship had the advantage +of speed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> + +<p>The result of all this was that when a German +submarine heard a surface vessel approaching she +dived to the bottom, if the water was not too deep +or the sea-bed too rocky. Then shutting off her +engines she listened. The surface ship, mystified +by the sudden cessation of the noise she had been +pursuing, also waited, and this stagnation sometimes +lasted for hours. Then if the surface ship +moved, as she was often compelled to do in order +to avoid drifting with the tide away from the +locality, the submarine moved also, and the one +that stopped her engines first detected the other, +but could not catch up to her again without +deafening her own listening appliance. In which +case the next move would probably be in favour of +her opponent.</p> + +<p>All of this is, perhaps, a little complicated, but +a moment's pause for reflection will make this +curious situation clear to the reader. And so the +game went on, with decisive advantage to neither +the surface ship nor the submarine. Darkness +usually intervened and put an end to further +man[oe]uvring, frequently allowing the submarine +to escape.</p> + +<p>A case of this kind occurred to a vessel, of a +certain hydrophone flotilla, commanded by the +author. For over four hours the U-boat eluded +the pursuing surface ships by moving only when +they moved and stopping when they too had +stopped, darkness and a rising sea eventually +favouring the escape of the submarine, which, a +few hours later, was able to attack (unsuccessfully)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +a big surface ship less than thirty miles distant +from the scene.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless the hydrophone is a submarine +instrument with a brilliant future. It has already +been improved out of all resemblance to its original +self, and more will undoubtedly follow. It is, +however, purely an appliance for the detection of +submarines when cruising beneath the surface, and +not a weapon for their destruction. It should also +be remembered that any improvement made in the +efficiency of the hydrophone will benefit not only +the surface ship, but also the submarine, for it +cannot be supposed that under-water craft will +be left without these wonderful submarine ears +when their surface destroyers are equipped with +them.</p> + +<p>The alliance between the hydrophone and the +depth charge is a natural one. The former instrument +enables the surface ship to discover, first, +the presence of a submarine in the vicinity, and, +secondly, its approximate position. At this point +its utility <i>temporarily</i> ceases and that of the depth +charge begins. When a surface ship is hot on +the track of a moving submarine she endeavours +to attain a position directly over the top of her +quarry, or even a little ahead, and then releases +one or more depth charges according to whether +the chance of a hit is good or only poor.</p> + +<p>From this it will be apparent that whereas the +hydrophone is the instrument used for the initial +detection of the submarine, and afterwards for +enabling the surface ship to get to close quarters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +with her submerged adversary, it is the depth +charge with which the attack is actually made.</p> + +<p>This weapon is really a powerful submarine +bomb. It consists of several hundred pounds of +very high explosive encased in a steel shell, with a +special firing device which can quickly be set so +that the charge explodes at almost any depth +below the surface after being released from the +above-water vessel.</p> + +<p>The methods in use during the war for its +release from the decks of surface ships were very +diverse, the most usual being for a number of +these weapons to be fitted on slides and held in +place by wire slings which could be released by +simply pulling out a greased pin or bolt.</p> + +<p>When the depth charge rolled off the stern of +the surface ship it sank to the "set depth" and +then exploded like a submarine mine. The result +was a shattering effect exerted through the water +for several hundred feet around. If the submarine +was close to the explosion her comparatively thin +plates were nearly always stove-in. When she +was over a hundred feet away, however, the +rivets holding her plates together were often +loosened, and the resulting leak frequently compelled +her to come to the surface, where she could +be destroyed by gun-fire.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> +<img src="images/i-094.jpg" width="550" height="350" alt="Dropping Depth Charges" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>British Official Photograph</i></div> +<span class="caption">Dropping Depth Charges</span> +</div> + + +<p>It often happened, however, that neither one +nor the other of these things occurred, but that +the submarine's delicate electrical machinery was +thrown out of order by the violence of a depth-charge +explosion, even when a considerable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +distance away. With the electric engines used +for submerged propulsion no longer available, and +possibly the interior of the vessel in darkness, +there were only two courses open. She could +either rise to the surface and endeavour to fight it +out with the aid of her powerful deck guns, or else +sink to the bottom and trust to luck that other +depth charges would not be dropped close enough +to seriously damage her hull. In the open sea, +however, the latter chance was denied because of +the depth of water. Three hundred feet may be +taken as the greatest depth to which an ordinarily +constructed fighting submarine can safely descend +without running a grave risk of having her plates +crushed in by the great water pressure. Even at +this depth the weight on every square foot of hull +surface exceeds 8¾ tons.</p> + +<p>If the damaged submarine rose to the surface +the guns of her pursuers were ready and could +generally be relied upon to place her at least <i>hors +de combat</i> before the hatches of the under-water +vessel could be opened and her own guns brought +into action.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i-097.jpg" width="500" height="393" alt="Fig. 9.—Diagram showing how depth charges are carried on the stern of a motor launch." title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Diagram showing how depth charges are carried on the stern +of a motor launch. <i>AA.</i> Depth charges, each containing 300 lb. +of high explosive. <i>B.</i> Hydrostatic device by means of which the +charge can be made to explode when it has sunk from the surface +to a depth of 40 or 80 feet, and by which it is rendered comparatively +safe while on deck. <i>C.</i> Slings holding charges in place on +inclined platform. <i>D.</i> Greased bolts which, on being pulled out, +allow wire slings to fly free and depth charge to roll into the sea. +Depth charges can only be released from vessels under way, +otherwise the explosion which occurs a few seconds after release +damages surface vessel.</b></div> + +<p>In shallow water where there was a fairly smooth +bottom it generally happened that a submarine +damaged by depth charges elected to sink to the +sea-bed and trust to luck. This was also frequently +resorted to as a means of eluding pursuit +even when the U-boat was not damaged by the first +few charges dropped. It was then that the hydrophones +carried by the surface ships were again +brought into use to ascertain if the submarine was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +still under way. When no sound was heard those +on the surface knew that "Fritz" was lying doggo, +or else that he had escaped. If a number of ships +were available a few waited over the spot where it +was considered the U-boat was lying, while the others +scoured the surrounding seas in circles trying to +pick up the sound of the runaway's engines if she +had escaped in the mêlée. When nothing further<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +was heard they returned to the scene and set +about the work of systematically bombing the +surrounding sea-bed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-098.jpg" width="450" height="353" alt="Fig. 10.—Diagram illustrating a depth charge attack on a submerged submarine." title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Diagram illustrating a depth charge attack on a submerged +submarine. <i>A.</i> Motor launch, which has dropped a +depth charge to destroy a submarine <i>B</i> travelling at a depth +of 90 feet below the surface. <i>C</i> is the depth charge sinking as +the M.L. steams away from the danger area. <i>D</i> is the point +(80 feet below the surface) at which it will explode, and <i>E</i> +indicates the danger area for the submarine <i>B</i>.</b></div> + +<p>As many as one hundred depth charges were +dropped in quite a small area of sea and yet a +submarine known to have been lying "doggo" +in the locality was not damaged. In cases such +as this other means, which will be described in a +succeeding chapter, were then resorted to.</p> + +<p>All the foregoing sounds very thorough and +hopeful, but in fairness it must be said that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +submarine hunting is a heart-breaking task. The +reader may have noticed that the method of depth-charge +attack presupposes the surface vessel to +have attained a position almost directly over the +top of her enemy, a man[oe]uvre extremely difficult +of achievement even with the most efficient hydrophone. +Heavy seas, snow and fog have also to be +taken into consideration, to say nothing of darkness, +the presence of a second submarine, a surf-beaten +rock or sandbank and the confusing sounds +of passing merchant ships, making a difficult task +more difficult, as will be seen when we come to the +actual fighting.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>SOME CURIOUS WEAPONS OF ANTI-SUBMARINE +WARFARE</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">Although</span> modern war has shown that there +exists no certain antidote for the submarine, it +nevertheless brought into being many curious +weapons of attack and defence. It is the purpose +of this chapter to describe some of the anti-submarine +devices used with more or less successful +results during the protracted naval operations +against the Central Powers.</div> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Indicator Nets</span></div> + +<p>Among the most important of these were the immense +meshes of wire known as "indicator nets," +which were used to entangle a submarine and then +to proclaim her movements to surface ships waiting +to attack with guns and depth charges.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-101.jpg" width="450" height="383" alt="Fig. 11.—Diagram showing principal features of a line of submerged indicator nets." title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Diagram showing principal features of a line of submerged +indicator nets. <i>AA.</i> Two sections (100 feet in breadth) of thin +wire-netting with a very wide mesh. <i>B.</i> Framework of wire rope +holding each section of net in place by means of metal clips <i>C</i>. +<i>C.</i> Metal clips which expand and release netting from rope frame +when a pull of more than 100 lb. is exerted upon them. <i>D.</i> Line +of invisible glass balls, or hollow floats, attached to a surface wire +<i>E</i>, supporting by wires <i>F</i>, the nets which hang down from the +surface vertically in long lines (½ to 1 mile in length and 50 feet +deep). <i>G.</i> Heavy iron weights or sinkers holding down the nets +by their weight when hanging in water. <i>H.</i> Wooden floats, attached +to each section of net by wires <i>I</i>. <i>J.</i> Canisters of chemical +which give off flame and smoke when exposed to sea-water. +<i>K.</i> Lanyard attached to surface wire <i>E</i>. When a section of net +is pulled out of its wire frame by a submarine passing through the +line the float is dragged along the surface by the wire <i>I</i>. The +lanyard is held back by being attached to surface wire <i>E</i>, and pulls +a plug out of the canister <i>J</i>, exposing the chemical inside to the +sea-water (see<a href="#Fig_12"> Fig. 1</a>2).</b></div> + +<p>These nets were made of specially light but +strong wire, with a mesh of several feet. They +were joined together in lengths of 100 feet by +metal clips which opened when a certain strain was +exerted on any particular section. Their depth +was usually about 50 feet, and they were laid in +lengths varying from a few hundred yards to two +miles. Weights at the lower end and invisible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +glass floats along the top held them suspended +vertically from the surface. The floats were kept<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +in place by a wire hawser running along the top +of the nets, and to this were attached, at intervals, +wooden buoys containing tin cases filled with a +chemical compound which, when brought into +contact with sea-water, emitted dense smoke by +day and flame by night.</p> + +<p>The 100-feet sections were linked together, and +to the top and bottom ropes, by the metal clips. +These clips opened when a submarine headed into +that part of the line. The result was that a section +of net enveloped the bow of the under-water craft, +was detached from the line and carried along, +dragging its <i>indicator float</i> on the surface behind.</p> + +<p>The indicator float, containing the chemical, was +attached (1) to the section of net by a short wire +and (2) to the top rope of the whole line by a +lanyard, which, when pulled free, exposed the +chemical contents of the canisters in the float to +the sea-water. The float was then dragged along +the surface burning furiously.</p> + +<p>As there was nothing to materially impede her +progress, a submarine would consequently be unaware +that she had passed through a line of nets +and was actually towing a flaming buoy. Even if +she became aware of the tell-tale appendage it +would be extremely difficult to clear herself, owing +to the forward hydroplanes becoming entangled in +the wire-netting, before the fast surface ships, +waiting in readiness, had spotted the flaming buoy +being towed along and were hot in pursuit.</p> + +<p>Once entangled in such a net, the submarine's +chance of avoiding destruction was small. Not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +only did the indicator buoy proclaim her every +movement to the pursuing surface ships, so that +she could not avoid them by turning, sinking to the +bottom or doubling in her tracks, but it also enabled +depth charges to be literally dropped on her decks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-103.jpg" width="450" height="293" alt="Fig. 12.—Diagram showing a submarine entangled in a submerged net." title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap"><a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a>Fig. 12.</span>—Diagram showing a submarine entangled in a submerged +net. The submarine <i>A</i> after passing through a line of nets emerges +with her bows enveloped by one section <i>B</i> which she has carried +out of its wire-rope frame. The flaming buoy <i>C</i>, betraying her +movements, is being towed along the surface.</b></div> + +<p>A considerable measure of success attended the +use of this ingenious device until "Fritz" became +shy of waters close inshore, and kept a careful +look-out for possible lines of indicator nets when +forced to pass through narrow channels and waterways. +One of the main disadvantages attending +the use of these nets was the impossibility of laying +them—or, when laid, of hauling them inboard +again, during even moderately rough seas. Another +difficulty which presented itself when indicator<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +nets were required to be laid in the open sea was +the screening of the waiting surface ships from +observation. Submarines could not be used on +account of their slow speed, and when fast patrol +craft cruised about openly within easy range of +the nets "Fritz" suspected a trap and steered +clear. Even this, however, had its uses.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Mine Nets</span></div> + +<p>It was sought to overcome this difficulty by attaching +small explosive mines to the nets instead +of indicator floats, so that when a submarine passed +through a line she unavoidably struck one or other +of the attached mines, which instantly exploded.</p> + +<p>This device also proved fairly successful, but +the dangers of handling mined nets were considerable +and disasters resulted. Furthermore, as such +obstructions could not be securely moored in one +spot for very long, owing to the action of gales +and strong tides, it became necessary for the sake +of neutral and allied shipping to maintain a vessel +in the vicinity from which warnings could be issued +and repairs to the nets effected. This partly defeated +the object of mined nets, except for the +closing of narrow fair-ways, and their scope as a +weapon of attack became strictly limited.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The Modified Sweep</span></div> + +<p>This elaborate and costly anti-submarine device +was very widely, but not altogether successfully,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +employed by the auxiliary fleet during the first +two years of war. It was nothing more than a +long explosive tail towed submerged by a surface +ship, the object being to either drag it over a submarine +resting on the sea-bed, or else, if the under-water +craft was moving, to so man[oe]uvre the towing +surface ship as to swing the tail close to the U-boat, +when the heavy charges of T.N.T. attached to the +armoured electric cable, forming the tail, would be +exploded either by actual contact with the hull +of the enemy, or, when sufficiently close to be +effective, by the closing of a firing circuit on board +the surface ship.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-105.jpg" width="450" height="170" alt="Fig. 13.—Diagram showing a vessel towing a modified sweep." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Diagram showing a vessel towing a modified sweep. This +appliance consists of an armoured electric cable <i>G</i> towed in vertical +loop under the surface. The floats <i>D</i> support the 100-lb. charges +<i>E</i>, which have strikers attached. If a submarine <i>B</i> is lying +"doggo" on the sea-bed one or other of these charges may strike +her hull and the whole line then blows up, shattering everything +in the surrounding sea. If the strikers fitted on the charges do not +touch the submarine the whole line can be exploded at will from +the surface ship by closing an electric circuit.</b></div> + +<p>Excellent in theory but very difficult of accomplishment +in actual practice. The diagram given +will explain the details of this elaborate contrivance, +which, however, was soon discarded for more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +practical methods, although at least one German +submarine is known to have been destroyed by it.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Lance Bombs</span></div> + +<p>These little engines of destruction were intended +for fighting at close quarters, and can be described +here in a few lines because of their guileless simplicity. +They consisted of conical explosive bombs +on the ends of broom handles! A strong man +could whirl one of them round his head, like a +two-handed sword or battle-axe, and, when the +momentum was sufficient, hurl it over the water +for about seventy-five feet. On nose-diving into +the sea and hitting the hull of a submarine in the +act of rising or plunging, the little bomb, containing +about 7 lb. of amatol, was exploded by +contact.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i-106.jpg" width="400" height="48" alt="Fig. 14.—A lance bomb." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—A lance bomb. The wooden handle <i>A</i> enables the +charge <i>B</i> (7 lb. of high explosive) to be whirled round the +head and hurled a distance of about twenty yards.</b></div> + +<p>The damage inflicted on one of the earlier types +of submarines by an under-water hand-grenade or +lance bomb depended entirely upon what part of +the vessel happened to be struck. Their sphere +of usefulness was, from the first, very limited, and +the advent of the big cruiser submarine, with +armoured conning-tower and 5-inch guns, rendered +them obsolete.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Smoke Screens</span></div> + +<p>We now come to a more useful device of the +purely defensive type employed to screen surface +ships from submarine attack. The very simple +mechanical and chemical apparatus needed for +making the heavy clouds of smoke needs no description +beyond that given in the text, but +something must be said here regarding the methods +of use.</p> + +<p>It was not until the third year of the Great War +had been ushered in by the unprecedented sinking +of Allied merchantmen by German U-boats that +the value of the smoke screen as a means of +baffling an under-water attack was fully realised. +Convoy guards were supplied with the necessary +appliances for emitting the fumes with which to +cover the movements of the ships under their +protection, and so successful was this method of +blinding attacking submarines that within a few +months thousands of transports, food-ships and +warships had been equipped.</p> + +<p>When a submarine proclaimed her presence in +the vicinity of a convoy either by showing too +much of her periscope or by a misdirected torpedo, +the guard-ships on the flank attacked immediately +dropped their smoke buoys as they continued +moving at full speed. By this means an impenetrable +optical barrier was interposed between the +attacking submarine and the fleet of merchantmen +under convoy. When thus shielded from attack—a +submarine values her small stock of torpedoes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +(six to ten) too highly to risk the loss of one or more +on something she cannot even see—the mercantile +fleet altered course so as to present their sterns to +the attacking U-boat, while certain prearranged +warships belonging to the escort proceeded to the +attack with guns and depth charges.</p> + +<p>This means of masking the movements of ships—by +no means new in naval warfare—was employed +with conspicuous success in the operations +of Allied squadrons off Zeebrugge. Individual +merchantmen, when attacked by one or more +submarines, often threw out a smoke screen to +avoid destruction by the big surface guns of the +more modern German craft, and its use to cover +the movements of transports was very frequently +resorted to.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Camouflage</span></div> + +<p>The use of camouflage, or the deceptive painting +and rigging of ships, came first into being owing to +the method employed by submarines for judging +the speed of passing surface ships by the white +wave thrown off from their bows. It is of the +utmost importance for the commander of an under-water +warship to correctly judge the speed of the +vessel he is about to attack before discharging a +torpedo at her. If the estimated speed is too high +the torpedo will, in all probability, pass ahead of +the moving target, and if it is too low it will run +harmlessly astern.</p> + +<p>To cause this to happen as frequently as possible,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +and valuable torpedoes to be wasted—even if the +attacking submarine herself could not then be +discovered and destroyed—it became advisable to +paint imitation white waves on the bows of slow-moving +ships in order to give the appearance of +speed.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> +<img src="images/i-109.jpg" width="425" height="168" alt="Fig. 15.—A camouflaged ship." title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—A camouflaged ship. It will be observed that a vessel +so painted would, from a distance of several miles, give the +appearance of a ship sinking while headed in the opposite +direction.</b></div> + +<p>So successful was this simple form of deceptive +paint-work that a special camouflage section of the +naval service, with an eminent artist as its director, +was formed, and all kinds of grotesque designs were +painted on the broadsides and superstructures of +almost every British merchantman operating in +the submarine danger zone.</p> + +<p>There was method and meaning in the seemingly +haphazard streaks of black, green, blue and white. +When looked at from close range only a jumble +of colours could at first be seen, but if the distance +was increased the effect became instantly apparent. +In some cases the deceptive decoration caused big +ocean liners to appear small and insignificant. In +others it gave the appearance that the vessel was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +sinking; while quite a favourite ruse was to cause +the vessel to appear as if she was travelling in the +opposite direction to that which she really was. +Two-funnelled ships became single-funnelled, when +viewed from a distance or in a dim light, by the +simple expedient of painting one funnel black and +the other light grey. Liners with tiers of passenger +decks had the latter obscured by contrasts of +colouring which were really masterpieces of deceptive +art. In fact so deceptive became almost +every ship in the dim light of dawn and dusk that +collisions were often narrowly averted.</p> + +<p>It frequently occurred that paint alone was not +sufficient to disguise a ship, and woodwork and +canvas were resorted to. Big guns were made of +drain-pipes and shields of the wood from packing-cases. +Cargo boats were given the appearance of +cruisers, and cruisers reduced to the appearance of +cargo boats. In this way hostile submarines were +induced to attack ships, thinking them unarmed +and helpless, when in reality they were small floating +forts. But at this point simple camouflage +ceases and the famous <i>Mystery Ship</i> begins. Before +closing this chapter, however, it must be pointed +out that camouflage only came into being when +the German U-boats commenced their ruthless +submarine warfare.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>MYSTERY SHIPS</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">The</span> "Q" boat, or mystery ship, has been surrounded +by so much secrecy that to most people +its very being is an unknown quantity. Yet it is +to these curious vessels of all sizes and types that +the destruction of many hostile submarines was +due, and the dangerous work performed by their +intrepid crews equalled anything described in +sea romance.</div> + +<p>The mystery ship was not a specially constructed +war vessel, such as a destroyer or cruiser, but +merely a merchantman converted into a powerfully +armed patrol ship, camouflaged to give the +appearance of genuine innocence, but with masked +batteries, hulls stuffed with wood to render them +almost unsinkable, hidden torpedo tubes, picked +gunners, a roving commission and a daring commander +and crew. Their work was performed on +the broad highways of the sea, and they hunted +singly or in pairs, often fighting against overwhelming +odds with certain death as the price of +failure.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i-112a.jpg" width="400" height="310" alt="Innocent Looking but Deadly, H.M.S. "Hyderabad"" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>Thornycroft & Co., Ltd.</i></div> +<span class="caption">Innocent Looking but Deadly, H.M.S. "Hyderabad"</span> +<p>The famous "Mystery Ship," powerfully built to resemble a helpless merchantman. +Sitting almost flat on the surface of the sea the torpedoes from U-boats ran harmlessly +beneath her keel.</p></div> + + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/i-112b.jpg" width="400" height="313" alt="The Hidden Torpedo Tubes of H.M.S. "Hyderabad"" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>Thornycroft & Co., Ltd.</i></div> +<span class="caption">The Hidden Torpedo Tubes of H.M.S. "Hyderabad"</span> +</div> + + +<p>The number of these vessels was not large, +possibly 180, but their operations extended +far and wide. They roamed the North Sea, the +Atlantic, the English Channel, the Mediterranean,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +the Arctic Ocean and even the Baltic, but until +challenged were quite unknown to all other vessels +of the Allied navies. Theirs was a secret service, +performed amidst great hardships, with no popular +applause to spur them on.</p> + +<p>As all "Q" boats—as they were officially called—differed +from each other in size and armament, +any description given here can only be taken as +applying to one or more vessels with which the +writer was personally familiar. Some of these +so-called mystery ships were old sailing schooners, +others fine steamships, while quite a number were +converted fishing smacks, drifters and trawlers, +the method being to give the prospective commander +a free hand in the conversion of his ship +from a peaceable merchantman to a camouflaged +man-of-war, and many were the ingenious devices +used.</p> + +<p>One vessel fitted out for this desperate duty at +a Scottish base was a steamer of about 400 tons +burden. She was armed with a 4<sup>.</sup>7 quick-firing +gun hidden in a deck-house with imitation glass +windows, the sides of which could be dropped flat +on to the deck for the gun to be trained outboard +by simply pressing an electric button on the +steamer's bridge. Two life-boats, one on each side +of the aft deck, were bottomless, and formed covers +for two additional 12-pounder guns. A false deck +in the bow shielded a pair of wicked-looking torpedo +tubes, each containing an 18-inch Whitehead ready +for launching; and the crew for each gun were +able to reach their respective weapons, without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +appearing on deck, by means of specially constructed +gangways and hatches. The very act of +dropping the sides of the aft gun-house hoisted +the White Ensign, and technically converted this +unsuspicious-looking merchantman, which asked +only to be allowed to pursue its lawful vocation +on the high seas, into a heavily armed warship.</p> + +<p>This "Q" boat had, when met and challenged +by the writer's ship, already accounted for no less +than three German submarines which had opened +the attack from close range, thinking her defenceless.</p> + +<p>Another smaller mystery ship was a converted +fishing drifter with a single 12-pounder gun on a +specially strengthened platform fitted in the fish-hold, +which had been cleaned, matchboarded and +painted to provide accommodation for the crew of +picked gunners. This little ship had no torpedo +tubes and the muzzle of her gun was hidden beneath +fishing nets.</p> + +<p>There were, however, some very large and +elaborately fitted "Q" boats. These had specially +constructed torpedo tubes low down in the hull, +masked 4<sup>.</sup>7-inch guns in more than one position, +special chutes for depth charges, coal bunkers +arranged round the vital machinery to protect it +from shell-fire, and, moreover, were filled with +wood to make them almost unsinkable even if +torpedoed.</p> + +<p>Each such vessel was provided with a "panic +party," whose duty was to rush to the life-boats +when the ship was attacked by a submarine. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> +gave the final touch to the disguise, and often +induced the submarine to save further torpedoes +by coming to the surface and continuing the +assault with gun-fire.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-116.jpg" width="450" height="402" alt="Fig. 16.—Method of masking a 3, 6, 12 or 13 pounder gun." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Method of masking a 3, 6, 12 or 13 pounder gun. <i>A.</i> Stern +of ship. <i>B.</i> Shield constructed to resemble a life-boat which +can be raised or lowered over gun <i>C</i>.</b></div> + +<p>The story of the sinking of the last German submarine +in the war by the "Q 19" will give some +idea of how these vessels worked. It occurred in +the Straits of Gibraltar, about twenty-four hours +before the signing of the Armistice. The Q 19 +was waiting in the Straits expecting to intercept +three big U-boats on their way back to Heligoland. +About midnight the first of these craft came along,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +and sighting the innocent-looking "Q" boat prepared +to attack her with gun-fire. For nearly an +hour the mystery ship "played" the submarine +by pretending to make frantic efforts to escape, +but all the time allowing the under-water craft to +draw closer and closer.</p> + +<p>The "Q" boat was under a heavy fire from the +submarine, one shell wounding eleven out of the +crew of sixty, another carrying away the mast and +a portion of the funnel, but no sign of a gun was +yet displayed on board the surface ship. This +withholding of fire until the last moment, when +the range has become short and the effect certain, +is one of the great nerve tests imposed on the crews +of all mystery ships. It is an essential of success, +for a few wild shots at long range would disclose +the fact that the vessel was heavily armed, and +the attacking submarine would either sheer off or +else submerge and use her torpedoes.</p> + +<p>When the chase had been on for about fifty +minutes, and the submarine was only 200 yards +astern, the "panic party" in the "Q" boat +rushed for the life-boats. The shells were now +doing serious damage to both hull and upper +works, and the submarine was creeping close to +give the <i>coup de grâce</i>.</p> + +<p>At this, the psychological moment, the order +to open fire was given. The collapsible deck-house, +shielding the 4<sup>.</sup>7 gun, fell away on its hinges. +Eleven shots were fired in quick succession, all of +which struck the submarine. One blew the commander +off the conning-tower and another rent a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +gaping hole in the vessel's hull. In less than fifteen +minutes the fight was over and the last U-boat to +be sunk in the Great War of civilisation had disappeared +beneath the waters of the Straits of +Gibraltar.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>A TYPICAL WAR BASE</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">The</span> last few chapters have dealt mainly with the +weapons used in anti-submarine warfare. We +now come to the naval bases on which the fleets +armed with these curious devices were stationed +for active operations.</div> + +<p>Around the coasts of the British Isles there were +about forty of these war bases, each with its own +patrol flotillas, minesweeping units and hunting +squadrons. The harbours, breakwaters and docks +had to be furnished with stores, workshops, wireless +stations, quarters for officers and men, searchlights, +oil-storage tanks, coal bunkers, magazines, +fire equipment, guard-rooms, signal stations, +hospitals, pay offices, dry docks, intelligence +centres and all the vitally necessary stores, +machinery and equipment of small dockyards.</p> + +<p>To do this in the shortest possible time, and to +maintain the supplies of such rapidly consumed +materials as oil fuel, coal, food, paint, rope and +shells for perhaps a hundred ships for an indefinite +number of years, it was often necessary to lay down +metals and sidings to connect the base with the +nearest railway system. At many bases secure +moorings had also to be laid by divers, and the +channels and fair-ways dredged. The larger bases<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +also required temporary shore defences, and booms +arranged across the harbour entrances to prevent +hostile under-water attacks.</p> + +<p>Then came the problem of finding the personnel. +The ships had already been provided for, but to +keep them in fighting condition, and for the work +of administration, it was necessary to have a shore +navy behind the sea-going units. An admiral from +the active or retired list was appointed to each +base as the "Senior Naval Officer." Then came +additions to his staff in the persons of executive +and engineer commanders, officers of the Reserve, +chaplains, surgeons and paymasters. With these +departmental chiefs came their respective staffs of +warrant officers, petty officers, wireless operators, +engine-room artificers, motor mechanics, shipwrights, +carpenters, smiths, naval police, signalmen, +storekeepers, sick berth attendants and +parties of seamen. Finally, a generous supply of +printed forms and train-loads of stores.</p> + +<p>This then, in brief outline, was the material +which went to form the war bases of the auxiliary, +or anti-submarine, fleets. In many cases much +more was required, especially at such important +depôts as Dover, Granton and Queenstown. About +the permanent dockyards, like Portsmouth, Devonport +and Rosyth, or the Grand Fleet bases, nothing +need be said here, because they do not come within +the scope of this book. The same may also be said +of that desolate but wonderful natural anchorage, +<i>Scapa Flow</i>, the headquarters of the Grand Fleet in +the misty north. Each of these mammoth naval<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +bases had an auxiliary base for anti-submarine +and minesweeping divisions.</p> + +<p>With a knowledge of these essentials a more +detailed description of a typical war base and the +work of its staff may prove of interest. Taking +as an example a large depôt, supplying all the needs +of over a hundred erstwhile warships, and situated +in the centre of the danger zone, we find a central +stone pier on which has been erected a perfect maze +of wood and corrugated iron buildings, with the +tall antennæ of a wireless station, a little look-out +tower and a gigantic signal mast from which a line +of coloured flags is aflutter in the sea breeze. The +shore end of the pier is shut off from prying eyes +by a lofty wooden palisade with big gates, in one +of which is a small wicket. Outside a sentry with +fixed bayonet paces to and fro.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> +<img src="images/i-122a.jpg" width="425" height="304" alt="After-deck of the "Hyderabad"" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>Thornycroft & Co., Ltd.</i></div> +<span class="caption">After-deck of the "Hyderabad"</span> +<p>Showing quick-firing gun on disappearing platform.</p></div> + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> +<img src="images/i-122b.jpg" width="425" height="302" alt="After-deck of the "Hyderabad"" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>Thornycroft & Co., Ltd.</i></div> +<span class="caption">After-deck of the "Hyderabad"</span> +<p>Showing gun raised to firing position.</p> +</div> + + + +<p>The first person inside the sacred precincts to +greet the stranger is a keen-eyed "Petty Officer of +the Guard." When the credentials have been +examined the visitor is sent under the guidance of +a bluejacket to the "Officer of the Day," whose +"cabin" is inside the maze of corrugated iron +and weather-board. The doors flanking the +passages traversed display cryptic lettering, such +as I.O. (Intelligence Office), S.R. (Signal Room), +S.N.O. (Senior Naval Officer), "Commander" +(usually the second in command of the base), +P.M.S.O. (Port Minesweeping Officer), C.B.O. +(Confidential Book Office), M.L.Com. (Motor +Launch Commander), O.O.W. (Officer of the +Watch), "Officers only" (the wardroom and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +gunroom combined), and, finally, the O.O.D., or the +abode of that much-worried individual, the Officer +of the Day, whose duties happily terminate when +his twenty-four hours of administrative responsibility +are over, only, however, to return in strict +rotation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;"> +<a href="images/i-124-big.jpg"><img src="images/i-124.jpg" width="352" height="450" alt="Fig. 17.—The central pier of a typical anti-submarine naval base." title="" /></a> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—The central pier of a typical anti-submarine naval base. +1. Wardroom. 2. Sec. to senior naval officer. 3. Admiral's cabin +(S.N.O.). 4. Flag commander (or lieutenant). 5. Base intelligence +office. 6. Base commander. 7. Chaplain and gift store. 8. Drafting +officer. 9. Store officer. 10. Chart-issuing office. 11. Cabin of +the officer of the day. 12. Telephone exchange. 13. Warrant +officers. 14. Pay office. 15. Fleet paymaster. 16. Paymasters +and asst.-paymasters. 17. Writers and W.R.N.S. 18. Engineer-commander's +office. 19. Men's quarters (for base duties and +reserve). 20. Men's recreation room. 21. Petty officers. 22. +Men's mess-room and adjoining galley. 23. Sick-bay. 24. Fleet +surgeon. 25. Baths. 26. Baths. 27. Stores. 28. Boom defence +office. 29. King's harbour master. 30. Hull defects office. 31. +Police and cells. 32. Coaling office. 33. Wireless cabin. 34. Guard +room. 35. Railway platform. 36. Sentry box. 37. Cranes. 38. +Berths for armed yachts in harbour. 39. Motor launches in harbour. +40. Drifters. 41. Patrol trawlers. 42. Minesweepers. 43. Whalers. +44. Coastal motor boats. Larger ships, such as sloops, destroyers, +"P" boats, coaling and ammunition hulks, lying out in basin.</b></div> + +<p>Again comes an apologetic examination of +credentials, possibly followed by a few minutes +with the admiral commanding, and then the grand +tour commences. First come the ships lying +alongside the stone pier, with their short funnels +belching black and very sooty smoke. These are +the "stand-off" units, whose crews are enjoying +a brief few hours ashore after days or weeks out +on the dangerous seas beyond. Big drums of oil +are being lowered by ropes on to their decks. The +sound of hammering comes from more than one +engine-room, where machinery is being overhauled. +On the decks of several, men with little or no resemblance +to the clean "Jacks" of the naval +review are fondly polishing, painting or greasing +the long grey barrels, steel breech mechanism, or +the yellow metal training wheels of guns. Others +are cleaning rifles, which have recently been used +with special bullets for sinking floating mines. +One ship is washing down decks after coming in +late from night patrol; another is receiving its +three-monthly coat of grey paint; while on to the +deck of a whaler—black and ominous-looking—hundredweights +of provisions in boxes and bags +are being lowered from the quay.</p> + +<p>Astern of these lie two tiers of light grey spick<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +and span motor launches, their decks spotlessly +white, and their small canvas and glass screened +wheel-houses ill concealing polished brass indicators, +Morse signalling key, electric switches, binnacles +and other paraphernalia. Behind these lie the +40-knot coastal motor boats, like miniature submarines, +with torpedoes in cavities in their aft +decks, and little glass-sheltered steering-wells. +Further towards the head of the pier is a line of +big flat Scotch motor drifters, built for rough +weather with 9-inch timbers, their decks a maze +of wire nets, glass floats and brick-red chemical +canisters.</p> + +<p>On the opposite side of the pier, in front of the +S.N.O.'s cabin, lies a big grey yacht with four 12-pounder +guns and an anti-aircraft weapon pointing +over the sky-reflecting water. Lying out in the +basin are big minesweepers, looking more like +pre-war third-class cruisers, two slim-looking dark +grey destroyers, a dredger and a few nondescript +craft.</p> + +<p>Inside the first row of iron sheds are stores, with +barrels of tar, drums of paint, immense coils of +rope and a naval "William Whiteley's"—in which +anything from a looking-glass to a ball of string, or +a razor to a dish-cloth, can be obtained in exchange +for a signed form from the Naval Store Officer, +whose cabin near by is a maze of similar forms of +all colours.</p> + +<p>Then a worried-looking man hurries by and the +O.O.D. smiles. "He's the coaling officer, and +there's some twenty ships waiting to get alongside<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +to take the beastly stuff aboard," is the laconic +explanation.</p> + +<p>A cabin marked I.O. is entered—every room is +a cabin in a naval base. Here the walls are +decorated with innumerable charts with mysterious +red lines. A curious device, with the names of all +the ships belonging to the base painted on wooden +slides, reaches across one side. It is the indicator +which shows at a glance the ships at sea and those +in harbour, the names of those under repair, the +unit to which each vessel belongs and when she +goes out or comes in for "stand-off."</p> + +<p>This is the Intelligence Office, and signals and +wireless messages from the patrols and battle fleets +are being almost continuously brought in and +carried out by messengers. The Commanding +Officer (C.O.) of a minesweeper is making inquiries +about tides and the exact position on the chart +of a newly located mine-field. Another officer is +locking a black patent-leather dispatch-case—he +is the King's Messenger or, more correctly, the +"Admiralty Dispatch Bearer," who carries to and +from London and the fleets all the secret correspondence +and memoranda of the Naval War Staff and +other important departments. A big safe in the +corner of the cabin contains the secret codes and +ciphers used when transmitting messages, and two +overworked officers are busy at near-by desks +translating signals to and from "plain English."</p> + +<p>The next cabin contains the admiral's secretary +and his staff of writers. Here a flotilla commander +is receiving his "sailing orders," without which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +no ship proceeds on a voyage. Adjoining this is +the Pay Office, in which, with the exception of a +newly joined recruit mortgaging his pay for two +weeks ahead—he knows that he will be at sea for +that time—there is a decided air of quietude. +The rush in this abode of paymasters comes at the +end of each month, when all the officers arrive in a +body to demand the meagre fruits of their labours.</p> + +<p>Sandwiched between the clean and varnished +cabin of the Base Commander, who is "taking" +defaulters, and the camp-bedded apartment of +the O.O.W. is a most interesting little combined +cabin and store, presided over by the Chaplain. +Here are piles of woollen socks, cardigans, balaclavas, +mitts and other clothes knitted by the +thoughtful women of the Empire for their sailor +sons. Here seamen are estimating the cold-resisting +qualities of different garments—for winter +in the North Sea is the next thing to Arctic exploration. +Officers are popping in and out to borrow +a pile of books—thrice blessed were the senders +of these donations. The corner of the cabin is +piled with fresh vegetables, but alas! the cry is +apples! No exhortations to righteousness adorn +the walls, and the chaplain is joking with a big +stoker who is distractedly turning over the +cardigans in search for one large enough to encompass +his massive frame. A signal boy slips in, +gets chocolate, gives a breathless thanks and slips +out just in time to avoid the playfully raised hand +of the P.O. of his ship. Two deck hands, covered +in coal dust, put their heads round the door to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +ask if they can have a bath, and the indefatigable +chaplain hands them the keys of the room provided +for the purpose by the generous.</p> + +<p>Religion here is more practical than theoretical. +If a man swears when the "Padre" is present he +pays a small fine, which goes to the recreation or +other needy fund. The Commander is not immune +from this law at the base under review, and has +more than once been "heavily fined" for giving +his true opinion of German sailors and winter +weather.</p> + +<p>The next cabin is that of the O.O.W., a seething +mass of officers demanding "duty boats" and +pinnaces to convey them to and from their ships +lying out in the fair-way. Others are expostulating +about being ordered to sea during their "stand-off," +informing everyone what a rotten service the +navy is, crossing-sweeping is a sinecure compared +with it. Then a few pass on to the cabin near the +men's quarters. Here the "Drafting Officer" is +trying to palm off a deck hand on the C.O. of a +trawler, who is vainly explaining that he must +have a signalman. A telephone rings and news +comes from the "Sick Bay" that an engineer has +been badly burned and will be unable to go to sea +with his ship. The distracted drafting officer +searches through his lists of reserves for some +competent man to take the place of the casualty.</p> + +<p>Peace reigns in the adjoining department, where +a grey-haired veteran is issuing charts, "Sailing +Directions," "Tide Tables" and "Warnings to +Mariners." In the near-by engineer-commander's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +office worried experts are wrestling with innumerable +problems relating to M.L. motors, steam +capstans, steam steering gear, electric dynamos, +damaged propellers, broken shafts, boiler cleaning +and the numerous imperfections of overworked +ships' engines.</p> + +<p>The Boom Defence staff is placidly serene. +The turn of this department comes after a heavy +gale has damaged the submarine nets, chains and +buoys. The torpedo officers and their "parties" +are discussing the best way of moving four of these +steel monsters from a neighbouring depôt ship to +a new "Q" boat with only a rowing-boat at their +disposal—soon the O.O.W. will be called upon to +supply a drifter for the purpose.</p> + +<p>In the ordnance store a veteran P.O. is trying to +make his list of returned brass shell-cases correspond +with the number of shells supplied to various +ships six months before. He knows the sailors' +fondness for shell-cases as ornaments in their little +far-away homes, and, failing to make all the figures +agree, decides that some <i>must</i> have been "washed +overboard."</p> + +<p>The Port Minesweeping Officer is discussing with +his sea commanders the clearing of a new mine-field +laid by U-C-boats within the past few days, when +a sudden stir is caused by the arrival of a signal +from the wireless room to the effect that one of his +vessels has struck a mine in lat. —— long. —— and +is sinking. He appeals by telephone to the M.L. +commander and in less than ten minutes a flotilla +of fast launches is racing at 19 knots to the rescue.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> +<img src="images/i-132a.jpg" width="425" height="301" alt="Mock-wheel and Compass-pedestal of the "Hyderabad"" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>Thornycroft & Co., Ltd.</i></div> +<span class="caption">Mock-wheel and Compass-pedestal of the "Hyderabad"</span> +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> +<img src="images/i-132b.jpg" width="425" height="301" alt="which collapse and leave a clear range for the guns" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>Thornycroft & Co., Ltd.</i></div> +<span class="caption">which collapse and leave a clear range for the guns</span> +</div> + + +<p>In the Admiral's cabin there is to be a conference +of senior officers later in the day to decide +on the best means of ridding the seas within that +area—and each base has its own area of sea—of a +hostile submarine which has been inflicting undue +loss upon shipping, its latest victim being a +Danish barque.</p> + +<p>The combined wardroom and gunroom has +some twenty occupants, reading the newspapers +and magazines, warming themselves before the +two big fires, or talking in little groups. This base +has suffered some heavy losses lately, but reference +to those "gone aloft" is seldom made, except +quietly and a little awkwardly. The talk is of +theatres in neighbouring towns, the respective +merits of certain types of ships and weapons, the +prospects of early leave, the dirty warfare of +"Fritz" or the "beauties" of the North Sea in +winter.</p> + +<p>In this room all questions of rank and precedence +are more or less waived. There are, of course, +differences, especially when the wardroom, or abode +of senior officers, does duty also as a gunroom for +the juniors. But here there is camaraderie and an +absence of iron discipline, although a sub-lieutenant +would be extremely ill advised either to drop the +prefix "Sir" or to slap the Commander on the +back in an excess of joviality, relying on "neutral +territory" to save him from rebuke. It is, however, +no uncommon event to see all ranks of officers +engaged in a heated debate, or groups of juniors +laughing round the fire while their elders are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +vainly trying to concentrate their minds on the +latest Press dispatches. Games are played and +glasses clink merrily, but in a gunroom there is a +very strict limit as to both time and quantity, +though none regarding volume or discordance of +sound.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>Passing on to the organisation of the flotillas +for sea, we find in this large base six minesweeping +units, two being composed of fast paddle sweepers +and four of trawlers. The former are used for +distant operations and comprise nine vessels. +They work in pairs, but the extra ship is available +to sink mines cut up by the sweeps of the others, +and to be immediately ready to beat off submarine +attacks.</p> + +<p>The trawlers are engaged in sweeping <i>daily</i> the +approaches to the harbour and a recognised channel +up and down the coast. Their work overlaps with +that done by the ships belonging to the neighbouring +bases. In this way the "war channel," about +which more will be said later, was kept free of mines, +and afforded a safe route for ships from the Thames +to the Tyne, and in reality to the northernmost +limit of Scotland.</p> + +<p>This important duty was seldom left unperformed +even for a day, except during fierce +gales. Often the discovery of a distant mine-field +caused many ships to be concentrated on +clearing it, and the number available for the +"routine sweeps" was consequently reduced, but +longer hours of this arduous and dangerous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +work made up the difference, and the work went +on in summer fog and winter snow for over four +years.</p> + +<p>The anti-submarine patrols were composed of +five ships each, under the command of the senior +officer of the unit—frequently a lieutenant with +the responsibility of a captain. Their work lay +out on the wastes of sea lying between England +and Germany. It was seldom that the whole five +vessels of each unit cruised together, the usual +method being to scatter over the different "beats" +and rendezvous in a given latitude and longitude +at a specified time and date. They were usually +able to communicate with each other and with +the base on important matters by wireless. Their +periods at sea varied from ten days to three weeks, +with a four days' "stand off" when they came +into harbour. But of this time one day at least +was spent in coaling and provisioning the ship +ready for the next patrol. This ceaseless vigilance +on the grey-green seas of England's frontier was +seldom interrupted for more than a few days in +the year by impossible gales. Anything short of +literally mountainous seas did not prevent the +trawler patrols from riding out the storm carefully +battened down and with just sufficient speed to +keep head to sea.</p> + +<p>The drifters were divided into patrol units, boom +defence flotillas and under-water or mine-net units. +Their work was thus more varied but equally as +arduous and risky, as the loss of 30 per cent. of the +entire fleet of over 1000 ships affords undeniable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +proof. The periods of sea duty were similar to +those of the trawlers.</p> + +<p>The motor launches at each base had some +hundred square miles of sea to guard, and hunted +in fives. The rough weather these plucky little +ships endured in the open sea in mid-winter, the +intense cold—for there was no proper heating +appliance—and the state of perpetual wetness +made their duties among the most arduous in the +sea war. Later pages of true narrative will show +to the full the work of these gnats of the sea.</p> + +<p>In addition to all these flotillas there were convoy +ships, whaler patrols, "Q" boats and a number of +special duty ships. The work of the former was +of the most exacting character, and left the crews +of these vessels but little time ashore. In the base +under review so arduous were the duties of the +convoy ships that it became a matter of self-congratulation +for patrol and sweeper officers and +men that their ships were not so employed, and +this by men who sailed submarine and mine infested +seas for an average of 270 days in each year!</p> + +<p>It must not be assumed that when in harbour +there were no duties to be performed by either +officers or men of sea-going ships. They had, on the +contrary, to furnish anchor watches, shore sentries, +duty crews for emergency pickets, prisoner guards, +working and church parties, to attend drills, rifle +practice, gun practice and instructional parades. +The officers had similar shore duties to perform, +which left them little time to rest from the strain of +keeping watch and ward on the death-strewn seas.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>THE CONVOY SYSTEM</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">Although</span> the convoy system was employed at +the beginning of the war for the transport of the +Imperial armies to France, and subsequently for +all the Allied troop movements overseas, it was +some three years later before it was extended to +the entire British Mercantile navy, on which the +United Kingdom depended for too many of the +necessities of civilised life.</div> + +<p>The rapid development of submarine piracy, +however, compelled the Admiralty, early in the +year 1917, to resort to what was merely a new +form of the old system of protecting sea-borne +trade. This comprised the collection of all +merchant ships passing through the danger zones +into nondescript fleets, and the provision of light +cruisers, destroyers, torpedo-boats, trawlers and +occasionally (for coastal convoys) of patrol launches +to escort them. Certain types of aircraft were also +frequently used for observation and scouting +purposes.</p> + +<p>Previous to the adoption of the convoy system +a merchantman, whether it was a fast-moving +liner or a sturdy but slow ocean tramp, <i>zigzagged</i> +through the danger zones with lights out and life-boats +ready. Many were the exciting runs made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +in this way, with shells ploughing up the water +around and torpedoes avoided only by the quick +use of the helm; but the courage of our merchant +seamen was of that indomitable character exhibited +now for over three centuries, since the days +of Drake, Hawkins, Raleigh and the other sea-dogs +of old.</p> + +<p>But the danger zones grew wider as the radius +of action of newer and larger German submarines +increased. At last no waters were immune, from +the Arctic circle to the Equator, or from Heligoland +to New York.</p> + +<p>The hour was one of extreme peril for the sea-divided +Empire. To lose several hundred ships, +with many thousands of lives and much-needed +cargoes of food and munitions, when the valiant +armies of civilisation were battling with the +Teuton hordes, was bad enough; but if the enemy +had been able, by casting aside the laws of humanity +and sea war, to compel British ships to remain in +harbour or meet certain destruction on the high +seas, the result could only have been the complete +failure of the Allied cause, the conquest of Europe +and the fall of the greatest political edifice since +Imperial Rome.</p> + +<p>Between the world and these catastrophes, +however, stood the undefeated Mercantile Marine +and the Allied navies. Councils were held in the +historic rooms of Whitehall and the old convoy +system emerged from the archives of Nelson's day. +The commerce raiders were no longer the canvas-pressed +privateers of the sixteenth, seventeenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +and early eighteenth centuries, who fought a clean +fight, often against great odds, but were submarine +pirates of the mechanical age, who only appeared +from the sea depths when their victims had been +placed <i>hors de combat</i>.</p> + +<p>It is an old axiom of war that new weapons +of attack are invariably met by new methods of +defence. So it was with the convoy system which +gave the death-blow to German hopes of a submarine +victory. In order to understand this <i>new</i> +method it is necessary to study the accompanying +diagram, which, however simple it may appear on +paper, is extremely difficult to carry out in practice.</p> + +<p>At each great port there was a convoy officer, +who assembled the merchant ships when they had +been loaded and explained to their captains the +exact position each ship was to occupy when the +fleet was at sea. Printed instructions were handed +round urging each vessel to keep its correct station, +stating the procedure to be adopted in the event +of an engine breakdown, giving the man[oe]uvres +which were instantly to be carried into effect when +an attack was threatened, and finally the special +signals arranged for communication between the +merchantmen and their escort by day and by +night.</p> + +<p>The number of vessels composing a convoy +varied, but often exceeded twenty big cargo ships, +carrying some 120,000 tons of merchandise, or six +liners, with 20,000 troops on board, while the escorting +flotilla consisted of a light cruiser, acting as +flag-ship, six destroyers, two special vessels ("P"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +boats) towing observation airships, and some eight +or ten trawlers, with possibly one or more seaplanes +and several M.L.'s for the first few miles of the +voyage. The destroyers were spread out ahead +and on the flanks of the fleet, and by using their +greatly superior speed were able to zigzag and +circle round the whole convoy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;"> +<a href="images/i-140-big.jpg"><img src="images/i-140.jpg" width="378" height="400" alt="Fig. 18.—Diagram showing the disposition of a convoy of troops, munitions or food." title="" /></a> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 18.—Diagram showing the disposition of a convoy of troops, +munitions or food.</b></div> + +<p>In the event of an attack the whole fleet turned +off from the course they were steering at a sharp<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +angle, showing only their sterns to the U-boat. A +destroyer acted as rearguard to prevent any of the +convoyed ships from straggling. When the fleet +had arrived at a rendezvous far out in the open sea, +where the danger of a submarine attack was much +less, the escort handed over their charges to one or +two ocean-going cruisers, which stayed with the +merchant ships throughout the remainder of their +voyage.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/i-142.jpg" width="600" height="422" alt="A Motor Launch Cleared for Action" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>Yachting Monthly</i></div> +<span class="caption">A Motor Launch Cleared for Action</span> +</div> + + +<p>The escorting flotilla then cruised about in the +vicinity of the rendezvous until an incoming convoy +appeared. These ships were then taken over +from their mid-ocean cruiser guard and escorted +back through the danger zone to port, and so the +game of war continued until months became years.</p> + +<p>All this may sound straightforward and quite +simple, but there were difficulties, to say nothing of +dangers, which made it a most arduous operation. +First came the speed problem. Every merchant +ship differed in this important respect, so the speed +of the slowest unit became the speed of the entire +fleet, and this reduction made an attack by under-water +craft much easier of accomplishment. Hence +the call for "standard ships," which is a point that +should be borne in mind by future generations +as a safeguard against blockade. Then came +the question of destination, which increased the +number of escorting flotillas, and especially ocean +cruiser guards, required for a given number of cargo +ships. Next there was the loading and unloading +to be considered, involving long hours and hard +work by the men on the quaysides. This great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +difficulty was one of the reasons for the formation +of docker battalions. Coaling such big fleets by +given times caused many grey hairs to appear +where otherwise they would not have been. +Finally there was the danger of mines having been +laid in the fair-ways leading to the port, which +necessitated every convoy being met by special +vessels to sweep the seas in front of each incoming +and outgoing fleet.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<a href="images/i-144-big.jpg"><img src="images/i-144.jpg" width="450" height="350" alt="Fig. 19.—Diagram showing the convoy system." title="" /></a> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 19.—Diagram showing the convoy system.</b></div> + +<p>All this and more had to be contended with and +overcome before each convoy was able to sail. +Then danger and difficulty came hand-in-hand. +On a bright morning, with probably a fresh breeze +blowing and a choppy sea, the work of the escorting +flotilla was easy, but with such climatic conditions +the risk of attack was so great in the waters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +around the coasts that troopships usually left +harbour under cover of night. No lights were +then allowed, and it will not be difficult for readers +to imagine what it meant to be pounding through +a black void in a fast-moving destroyer, against, +possibly, a heavy head sea, with some twenty or +thirty big ships in the darkness and spray around. +Thick sea-mists were the cause of endless trouble, +for the safety of an invisible fleet depended on +the vigilance of a half-blind escort. Winter gales +scattered the ships and rendered signals invisible. +Attacks came from the most unexpected quarters +and often from more than one point of the compass +at the same time. However, relief came at last, +on that never-to-be-forgotten morning when Sir +David Beatty and his admirals accepted the +unconditional surrender of the German fleet and +its unsunk submarines.</p> + +<p>Were this chapter to end with the foregoing +description of the convoy system the reader would +not be in possession of the full facts from which to +gauge the importance of the work. Something +must be said of what was accomplished. First in +order of importance came the transport of many +millions of soldiers not only from England to +France, but also to and from every colony and +dominion of the world-wide Empire. By August, +1915, the British navy had transported, across seas +infested with submarines and mines, a million men +without the loss of a single life or a single troopship.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +The first Canadian army of 33,000 men crossed the +Atlantic in one big fleet of forty liners, under the +escort of four cruisers and a battleship, in October, +1914, without accident. Transports to the number +of 60 were required to convey the first Australian +army over the 14,000 miles of sea to Europe, and it +was while convoying this huge fleet that the cruiser +<i>Sydney</i> chased and destroyed the German raider +<i>Emden</i>. The Russian force which rendered valuable +service in France was safely convoyed over +the 9000 miles of sea from Dalny to Marseilles. +Never once during the four and a half years of war +was the supply of food, munitions and reinforcements, +or the return of the wounded—to and from +the many theatres of land operations—seriously +hindered by the German, Austrian or Turkish +navies.</p> + +<p>Turning to the gigantic task of guarding +England's food supply, we find, in one notable case, +an example of the good work performed almost +daily for nearly five years. Over 4500 merchant +ships had been escorted across the North Sea to +Scandinavian ports alone before the disaster of +14th October 1917 befell the convoy on that route. +On that occasion the anti-submarine escort of +three destroyers were intercepted, midway between +the Shetland Islands and Norway, by two heavily +armed German cruisers. The destroyers fought +to the last to save their charges, but unfortunately +only three merchant ships succeeded in getting +safely away. Five Norwegian ships, three Swedish +and one Danish ship were sunk. From this it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +will be observed that not only British merchantmen +were protected by escorts.</p> + +<p>The second attack on the Scandinavian convoy +occurred on 12th December. The escort consisted +of two destroyers, the <i>Partridge</i> and <i>Pellew</i>, with +four armed trawlers. Fortunately the convoy +was comparatively a small one, for it was attacked +and almost totally destroyed in the North Sea by +four of the largest German destroyers. H.M.S. +<i>Pellew</i>, although badly damaged, succeeded in +returning to England.</p> + +<p>It may be rightly thought that in both these +cases the escorting flotilla was not strong enough, +but it should be remembered that if heavier ships +had been employed they would have been much +less able to cope with a submarine attack. The +escort in both cases was purely an anti-submarine +defence, and only on the Scandinavian and Netherlands +routes was a surface attack at all possible, +because all exits from the North Sea were securely +closed by the strategic positions occupied by the +Grand Fleet and the battle cruiser squadrons, in +conjunction with subsidiary fleets at Harwich and +extensive mine-fields.</p> + +<p>When it became apparent that surface as well +as submarine attacks on the North Sea convoys had +to be provided against, other means were promptly +adopted, and no further disasters occurred.</p> + +<p>The strong escort accompanying the transports +bringing to Europe the first American army were +attacked at night by a submarine, but succeeded in +avoiding the torpedoes fired. This was due to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +smartness with which the United States warships +were man[oe]uvred. Three subsequent attacks on +the same convoy route also failed.</p> + +<p>The Report of the War Cabinet for the year 1917 +gives some remarkable figures in support of the +convoy system. On the Atlantic routes about +90 per cent. of the ships were formed into fleets and +escorted. From the inauguration of this system +the loss on these routes from all causes was 0<sup><big>.</big></sup>82 +per cent., and if all the trade routes to and from +the United Kingdom are included, the loss was +only 0<sup>.</sup>58 per cent. With these figures in mind, +who will deny that the navy is the surest form of +national as well as Imperial insurance?</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER X</h2> + +<h3>THE MYSTERIES OF SUBMARINE HUNTING +EXPLAINED</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">When</span> all is said and done, anti-submarine warfare +is very like big-game hunting. Success depends +entirely on the initiative, skill and resource of the +individual hunter. Contrary to general belief, +there is, at present, no sovereign remedy for the +depredations of under-water craft with their +torpedoes and mines. There are, however, several +recognised methods of attack and defence employed +by surface ships in this newest form of +naval warfare.</div> + +<p>When the new navy took the seas in 1914-1915, +bases were established not only round the coasts +of the British Isles, but also in the more distant +seas. The principal danger zones were, however, +the North Sea, the English Channel, the Irish Sea, +the Mediterranean and the eastern portion of the +North Atlantic. It was through these waters that +every hostile submarine must pass on its voyage +out and home.</p> + +<p>This geographical factor restricted the theatre of +major operations to some 180,000 square miles of +sea. Minor offensive measures might have to be +adopted against individual U-boats cruising at +long distances from their bases, as actually occurred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +off the United States coast, but the fact of Germany +possessing large submarine bases only along her +own North Sea coast, and temporary ones on the +Flanders littoral, enabled a concentration of Allied +anti-submarine craft to be made in the narrow seas +which afforded the only means of entry and exit to +and from those bases.</p> + +<p>The same may be said of Austria in the Adriatic +and of Turkey behind the Dardanelles.</p> + +<p>This favourable combination of circumstances +would not occur if (however unthinkable) England, +France or the United States were ever to wage a +rigorous war against shipping. The large number +of oversea naval bases possessed by these Powers +would cause every sea to become a danger zone +within a few hours of the commencement of +hostilities. No effective concentration of hostile +surface craft would be possible with the zone of +operations spread over the water surface of the +entire globe, and if the bases themselves were +secured by predominant battle fleets, or numbers +of heavily armed monitors, the seas would quickly +become impossible for purposes of hostile transport.</p> + +<p>This geographical restriction of the German and +Austrian danger zones made effective concentration +of the Allied anti-submarine fleets and their +devices possible. The 180,000 square miles of sea, +forming the theatre of major operations, was, on +special charts, divided into areas, comprising a few +hundred square miles of sea. Each area was given +a distinctive number, and a base was established +for its own patrol and minesweeping fleet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> + +<p>The areas themselves were again subdivided on +special charts into squares or sections. Each +square covered a few leagues of sea and was +known by an alphabetical sign. In this way the +waters of the submarine danger zone were divided +into areas, with their bases and protective fleets, and +squares with their respective squadrons or ships.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;"> +<a href="images/i-151-big.jpg"><img src="images/i-151.jpg" width="425" height="395" alt="Fig. 20.—Diagram showing division of sea into anti-submarine patrol areas." title="" /></a> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 20.—Diagram showing division of sea into anti-submarine patrol areas.</b></div> + +<p>Each square of sea was covered once or twice +daily by its own patrol ship or flotilla. Where the +danger was less the patrol was not so frequent +and the squares were almost indefinite in size, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +where the chances of successful operations were +exceptional, as in the Straits of Dover, additional +offensive measures were employed (see under <i><a href="#Mine_Barrage">Mine +Barrages</a></i>).</p> + +<p>This, then, was the chess-board on which the +game of submarine warfare was played. To +facilitate communication between the different +patrols spread over the squares of sea, wireless +was fitted in many ships, and war signal stations +were erected on prominent points of land. Each +base was able to communicate by wireless with +any of its ships out on patrol duty, and was also +connected by land-line telegraph, telephone and +wireless with <i>naval centres</i>.</p> + +<p>These latter were head intelligence offices, +usually situated at the great bases of the battle +fleets. In this way any concentration of hostile +surface warships noticed by the patrols (sometimes +submarines were employed, especially in the +Heligoland Bight) could be communicated in a few +minutes to the admirals commanding the Grand +Fleet, the Battle Cruiser Squadron or other large +fighting organisations.</p> + +<p>At the naval centres the movements of hostile +submarines were recorded on charts. If, for +example, it was reported from a patrol boat that +the U16 had torpedoed a ship in square "C," +area 41, at 10 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> (G.M.T.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>) on 4th August, and +the patrol had arrived on the scene too late to be +of any service, a warning could be wirelessed to +hundreds of vessels on the seas surrounding the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +scene of outrage to keep a careful look-out for the +U16.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-153.jpg" width="450" height="392" alt="Fig. 21.—Diagram showing how an area is covered by patrols." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 21.—Diagram showing how an area is covered by patrols. +<i>A</i>. Unit or flotilla of ships may proceed out from the base +on course indicated by arrows <i>B</i>, which would be called the +"Northern Inner Beat," and return to harbour on course <i>A</i>, +"Northern Outer Beat." Other units of ships would simultaneously +follow the course <i>E</i>. These and adjacent squares of +sea would be covered daily by one or more ships of each unit. +The southern half of the area would be patrolled in the same +way. The "Outer Beat" is shown by the arrows <i>C</i>, and the +"Inner Beat" by the arrows <i>D</i>. The points <i>+F</i> show the +possible positions of armed patrols acting independently of any +unit or flotilla.</b></div> + +<p>Subsequently a further message might come to +the naval centre that the same submarine had been +chasing a merchantman in square "D," "E" or +"F" in the adjoining area. A concentration<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +of fast ships, such as destroyers, M.L.'s or coastal +motor boats, could then be made so as to intercept +the raider or enclose her in a circle while other +vessels hunted her down.</p> + +<p>In a like manner important convoys coming +down the coast, or entering a danger zone from +the open sea, could be met by a local flotilla and +escorted to a <i>rendezvous</i> with a flotilla from the +adjoining area. In this way they were passed +through the submarine and mine infested seas to +and from their harbour terminus.</p> + +<p>Almost the same methods were employed in +dealing with the thousands of German mines. +But to describe that part of anti-submarine warfare +here would be to encroach on the subject of a +succeeding chapter.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Patrols</span></div> + +<p>The <i>method</i> of patrolling the areas and squares +of sea was comparatively simple, though the same +cannot be said of the actual work. The lines of +patrol were called "beats," and there was usually +an "inner" and an "outer" beat for each unit or +flotilla of ships. If when a ship (or a unit) reached +her allotted square, from which the line of patrol +extended, she elected to proceed on the <i>inner beat</i>, +she would generally accomplish the return journey +to the point of departure on the <i>outer beat</i>, thus +covering her respective zone of patrol, but leaving +the exact route to the discretion of the commanding +officer. In this way no hostile submarine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +with a knowledge of the system could be sure of +when or where a patrol ship would be met. In the +same way it was left to the commander of a flotilla +to either divide his ships into pairs, single units, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +to maintain them as a homogeneous fleet, so that +any combination of hostile submarines could not +be made which would be sure of being able to +attack a <i>single</i> patrol. Such an enemy combination +might encounter a single ship, but it might also +walk into the arms of a whole flotilla; or it might +attack a single ship only to find itself surrounded +by a following fleet.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i-155.jpg" width="500" height="406" alt="Fig. 22.—Diagram illustrating the operations of a hydrophone flotilla composed of armed motor launches." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap"><a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a>Fig. 22.</span>—Diagram illustrating the operations of a hydrophone +flotilla composed of armed motor launches. Each vessel is given +a number, and the flotilla proceeds in line-abreast along the +course shown by the dotted lines. Each vessel is one mile +from the other, and the whole line stops by signal at the point +marked with a cross. Hydrophones are put in operation, and +after a period of listening the flotilla continues on its course, as +no submarine sounds are heard. The flotilla turns to head +south, and a stop is again made to listen on the hydrophones. +This time the sound of a hostile submarine is heard by vessel +No. 1, bearing S.W. This report is confirmed by vessel +No. 2 hearing the same sound, bearing a few degrees farther +W. The two bearings <i>A</i> and <i>B</i> are then drawn on a chart, and +the point where the two lines cross is the approximate position +of the invisible submarine. The attack with depth charges +is then ordered.</b></div> + +<p>The beats which were most distant from the base +were given to the largest ships. This was done +because it was often impossible for the more +distant patrols to reach a place of shelter before +one of the fierce gales which swept the northern +seas was upon them. Trawlers, large steam +yachts and converted merchantmen were usually +employed on squares more than one hundred miles +distant from a harbour of refuge, while motor +launches kept watch and ward on the seas closer +inshore.</p> + +<p>The duration of patrols varied according to their +position. Some lasted three weeks and others +only a few days or hours. When the ships returned +to their base after a spell at sea they were +given a corresponding "rest" in harbour. A +three weeks' patrol meant several days' "stand-off," +while a two or three days' patrol entitled the +ship to twenty-four hours in the comparative +comfort of a harbour.</p> + +<p>It must not be imagined, however, that a stand-off +meant entire idleness or thorough rest. There +were duties to perform which robbed it of much +that it was intended to give. Ships had to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +coaled, provisioned, painted or repaired. Engines +had to be overhauled, sentries posted ashore, +a guard to be furnished, and every day one ship in +each unit that was in harbour had to be manned +and in readiness for emergencies.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Hydrophone Flotillas</span></div> + +<p>We now come to the actual methods employed +by surface craft when attacking submarines. +Although, as previously stated, much was left to +individual initiative, there were, nevertheless, +certain recognised methods.</p> + +<p>Taking as an example the operations of a hydrophone +flotilla of armed motor launches, the number +of vessels forming the unit was usually five. When +out scouting for the enemy they proceeded in line-abreast +for about one sea mile, then stopped their +engines and listened on their hydrophones for the +noise of a submarine cruising in the vicinity. If +nothing was heard the mile-long line of miniature +warships advanced another mile and again stopped +to listen. This man[oe]uvre was repeated until one +or other of the ships heard the familiar sound of a +U-boat. Nothing might be visible on the surface +of the sea, but if this was the case and the noise +came up from the ocean depths over the electrified +wires of the detector, it was conclusive proof that +a submarine was in the near vicinity.</p> + +<p>The M.L. first detecting the noise hoisted a +signal (flag by day and coloured electric light by +night), giving the direction from which the sound<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +came (see <a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>). The next ship in the line to +receive the sound on its instruments then hoisted +a signal, also giving the bearing—<i>i.e.</i> N.N.W., +E.S.E., etc. If the two coincided in regard to +direction, the attack commenced. If, however, +they did not agree in this important respect, the +line of patrol ships advanced another mile and +listened again.</p> + +<p>The flag-ship of the unit on receiving the direction +from one or more ships marked the lines of +sound on a chart (as in Fig. 22), and when this was +substantiated by another ship the point where the +two lines crossed was known to be the position of +the hostile submarine, and the attack was ordered.</p> + +<p>As to the exact method of an anti-submarine +attack little need be said here beyond the fact that +the ships advanced at full speed, man[oe]uvring +into a special formation which enabled them to +cover about half a square mile of sea with the +explosive force of their collective depth charges.</p> + +<p>When the attack had been completed all vessels +engaged resumed their stations and waited with +quick-firing guns ready in case the monster should +rise from the deep to make a dying effort to destroy +her pursuers.</p> + +<p>The tactical methods of anti-submarine attack +were, of course, numerous, and they varied according +to the speed of the surface ships engaged. +What was possible of accomplishment by fast-moving +coastal motor boats or the larger-sized +M.L.'s proved impracticable for the more heavily +armed but slow-moving trawlers and drifters. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +tactics of these latter craft were often of the +simplest character, and consisted principally of +either independent attacks with the aid of hydrophones +and depth charges, or, more frequently, the +assumption of an innocent air in order to induce +the submarine to open the attack at close range.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/i-160-big.jpg"><img src="images/i-160.jpg" width="600" height="366" alt="The Result of a Direct Hit" title="" /></a> +<div class='attrib'><i>Thornycroft & Co., Ltd.</i></div> +<span class="caption">The Result of a Direct Hit</span><br />A photograph left by the Germans in Ostend showing a coastal motor boat washed ashore after the great raid. +</div> + + + +<p>In many respects this proved the most effective +method of anti-submarine warfare. Not only did +it frequently cause the under-water craft to rise to +the surface and commence the attack by gun-fire, +in order not to expend a valuable torpedo on what +appeared to be an unarmed and helpless ship, but +it also produced a <i>moral</i> effect throughout the +German submarine flotillas.</p> + +<p>When a few U-boats had been either sunk or +damaged in this way the news that every Allied +ship was heavily armed circulated among the +enemy personnel, and they became very nervous +of attacking in any position except totally submerged. +This meant the loss of at least one +torpedo, out of from five to ten carried, for every +attack made, whether successful or unsuccessful, +and the latter were predominant.</p> + +<p>It soon became apparent that either they must +risk surface attacks and so save their torpedoes, +or else curtail their cruises to meet the rapid expenditure +of their only submarine weapon. This +does not, of course, cover the activities of under-water +mine-layers, whose nefarious purpose consisted +simply of laying their mines wherever they +appeared most likely to catch Allied shipping. +These craft were usually armed with torpedoes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +as well as mines, to enable them to continue the +work of destruction when the cargo of the latter had +been safely laid. In this way the problem of combating +the German submarine offensive resolved +itself into two parts, one being to checkmate the +commerce raider and the other the mine-layer. +With the second of these difficulties we shall deal +in a later chapter.</p> + +<p>Many merchantmen, both Allied and neutral, +owed their escape to this camouflage warfare, +which was brought to a high pitch of perfection +and daring in the now famous mystery ships.</p> + +<p>What may be said to form the second method of +anti-submarine warfare was the decoy or camouflage +system. Of primary importance in this +category were the mystery ships already described, +but there were also innumerable other <i>ruses de +guerre</i> which increased its efficiency.</p> + +<p>To describe one of these will enable the reader to +draw on his own imagination for the remainder. A +vessel was steaming in from the Atlantic and was +about a hundred miles from the Cornish coast when +she was attacked by a submarine above water. +The surface ship was heavily armed, but instead of +using her weapons at once she sent out frantic +wireless signals for assistance. Every few minutes +the call went far and wide in plain Morse.</p> + +<p>The shells from the submarine splashed into the +sea around, but none struck the target for some +minutes. Had the surface ship desired, she could +in all probability have avoided the under-water +craft by using her superior speed, but instead she<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +dropped back, allowing the submarine to catch up +to her, and the shells began to burst unpleasantly +close.</p> + +<p>Still the frantic wireless calls went forth. First +the simple message: "I am being attacked by a +large German submarine." Then the vehemence +increased to: "I am being heavily shelled." +A few minutes elapsed and then the call: +"Help. Submarine gaining on me." And finally: +"Abandoning ship."</p> + +<p>At this point the submarine was close astern and +the liner slowing down preparatory to lowering her +life-boats. The shells were damaging her superstructure, +but a heavy swell interfered with the +German marksmanship. Then came the surprise. +A life-boat on the liner's poop was hoisted clear of +the deck and from under its cover there appeared +the lean grey muzzle of a 4<sup>.</sup>7-inch gun. A few +sharp blasts of cordite and the submarine sagged +and disappeared.</p> + +<p>The captain of the liner had noticed when first +attacked that the submarine was fitted with wireless +and the calls sent out by him were in <i>plain +Morse code</i>. On the strength of these the German +commander had saved his torpedoes but lost his +ship.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>Another form of anti-submarine tactics was the +employment of indicator and mined nets around +an apparently disabled ship, or in lines across +narrow channels known to be used by German submarines +on their way to and from their bases. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +method has, however, received full mention in other +chapters.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>What may be termed the third system of anti-submarine +warfare was the use of extensive mine +barriers, specially laid to catch submarines +attempting to pass through them under water. +The surface of the sea was patrolled by shallow-draft +vessels and the under-seas guarded by mines. +If a submarine was sighted in the vicinity of one +of the mine barriers already described she was +attacked and forced to submerge herself in order +to escape destruction from the guns of the pursuing +surface flotilla. From that moment her fate was +sealed. By cautious man[oe]uvring and using to +full advantage their great superiority of speed +(20-40 knots against 6-10 knots) the surface ships +were able to head their quarry into the mine-field. +Usually the submarine dived deep in order to +throw her pursuers off the track, and all unconscious +of the deep-laid mines in thousands she +plunged to her doom—a heavy rumble, followed by +an upheaval of the surface, and the chase was over.</p> + +<p>This method, when carried out on the vast and +scientifically sound principle described in a previous +chapter, offers the best possible antidote +to the submarine. Its employment in the Great +European War placed the seal of complete success +on the Allied anti-submarine offensive. It should, +however, be remembered that comparatively +narrow seas and a restricted zone of major operations +made possible of accomplishment with some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +hundreds of thousands of mines (average cost, +£400) what would in many cases and in many +seas have been quite impracticable with as many +millions of these difficult weapons.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The employment of submarines against submarines +also forms a method of under-sea warfare +which gives considerable scope for both daring +and resource. It is of course quite impossible for +one of these vessels when totally submerged to +fight another in the same blind condition. But +with just the small periscopic tube—or eye of +the submarine—projecting above the surface, one +craft can scout and watch for another to rise to +the surface, thinking no enemy is near, in order +to replenish her air supply for breathing or for +recharging the electric storage batteries which +supply the current for submerged propulsion.</p> + +<p>When such a position obtains the submarine +which comes unknowingly to the surface stands a +grave danger of being torpedoed by her opponent. +This actually occurred to at least one German +U-boat during the Great War.</p> + +<p>One or more submarines can also be employed +around a slow-moving decoy ship. In this case +they would have the advantage of being invisible +until the actual moment of attack. The result of +such a man[oe]uvre would be either a gun duel on +the surface or the torpedoing of the attacking +submarine by one or other vessel of the decoy's +submerged escort.</p> + +<p>It was a ruse of this kind which achieved success<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +in the North Sea during the early stages of the war. +A trawler was employed to tow a submarine by a +submerged hawser. This mode of progress was +adopted to enable the submarine to economise the +strictly limited supply of electricity carried for +under-water propulsion.</p> + +<p>The trawler then cruised very slowly about, +dragging the submarine under the surface behind +her. In order to divert any suspicion which might +have been aroused by her slow speed she was rigged +so as to give the impression that a net was being +towed, and the area of operations chosen was +well-known fishing-ground.</p> + +<p>In this curious way days were spent before the +desired consummation was reached. Then a large +U-boat came boldly to the surface and opened fire. +Instantly the submarine astern of the trawler +was released from the tow rope and forged ahead +under her own electric engines. The commander +of the surface decoy stopped his ship and commenced +lowering the small life-boat carried. This +was done in order to distract the attention of +the Germans from the tiny periscope which was +planing through the water to the attack.</p> + +<p>A shell struck the trawler, carrying away her +funnel, but did no other damage, and a few seconds +later the water around the U-boat rose up in a vast +upheaval of white. The plan had succeeded, and +when the air cleared of the smoke from the trawler's +damaged stack there was nothing afloat on the +surface of the sea around—except an ever-widening +patch of oil and bubbles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p> + +<p>A few minutes later the thin grey line of the +British submarine rose above the swell some +five hundred yards distant from the scene of her +triumph.</p> + +<p>Another means by which one subaqueous fleet +can attack another is by laying mines in the seas +around the enemy base.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>These simple methods formed what may be +termed the backbone of the widespread anti-submarine +operations during the Great War, but with +the experience gained and the brains of almost +every nation focussed on the problem of providing +an effective counterblast to the under-water warship, +there can be little doubt that in the next +great naval conflict new and more scientific means +of attacking these pests of the sea will have been +perfected, though what degree of success they +will attain in the stern trial of war the future +alone can tell.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3>THE MYSTERIES OF GERMAN MINE-LAYING +EXPLAINED</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">To</span> those unversed in modern war it may have +appeared strange that, although the Allied navies +held command of the sea from the opening of the +Great War in 1914 to the signature of Peace in +1919, the Germans were nevertheless able to lay +several thousand mines every year off the coasts +of England, France and even the most distant +colonies and dominions. It often occurred that +harbour entrances and narrow fair-ways were repeatedly +mined, notwithstanding a vigilant day-and-night +watch from the bridges, look-outs and +decks of many patrol ships cruising or listening in +the vicinity.</div> + +<p>The explanation is that the mines were laid by +large submarines capable of approaching the coast, +laying their deadly cargo from specially constructed +stern tubes and retreating to comparative +safety far out in the broad ocean, without +rising more than momentarily to the surface for +the purpose of observation.</p> + + + + +<p>This, it may be said, did not absolve the ships +listening on their hydrophones, who should have +been able to detect the approach of a submarine +from the sound of her engines. During the first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +year of war the hydrophone was a very imperfect +instrument, and although the sound might be +heard it was quite impossible to tell from what +direction it was coming. Later on, when the +listening appliances had been greatly improved, +there still remained two detrimental factors. The +noise of breakers beating against rocks, sands or +other obstructions destroyed much of the value of +these instruments when used close inshore. On +dark and rough nights the roar of wind and sea +and the lurching of the vessel rendered subaqueous +sounds extremely difficult to detect; and in a fair-way +or channel used by surface shipping it was +frequently impossible, even in fine but dark +weather, to tell if the sound coming up from the +sea emanated from a surface ship or a submarine.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 387px;"> +<a href="images/i-170-big.jpg"><img src="images/i-170.jpg" width="387" height="600" alt="A Captive Mine-laying Submarine" title="" /></a> +<div class='attrib'><i>Sport and General</i></div><span class="caption">A Captive Mine-laying Submarine</span><br />U.C. 5 off Temple Pier, London. +</div> +<p>If, in the latter case, the patrol ship started her +own engines and moved forward in the darkness to +ascertain from whence the noise came, she gave +away her presence to the hostile submarine, <i>also +fitted with listening appliances</i>. Whereas if she remained +still and waited for the enemy to approach, +mines might be laid in the meantime across important +fair-ways which it was her duty to guard.</p> + +<p>German mine-laying submarines were designated +U-C boats, and often these vessels would employ +a ruse in order to lay their mines in safety. Sometimes +a decoy would draw the patrols away on a +fruitless chase while the mines were being launched +from the tubes of another U-C boat. In one case +a big armed steamer was attacked with torpedoes +while mines were being laid across the line of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +advance by which a flotilla of warships would be +likely to come out to her aid from a near-by base.</p> + +<p>In these and other ways over 3000 mines were +laid off the British coast in one year. There +were also several raids by surface mine-layers, +which succeeded in eluding the network of patrols +in the fogs and snows which prevail in the +North Sea during several months out of every +twelve. The two most important of these were the +cruises of the <i>Wolfe</i> and the <i>Moewe</i>. The former +vessel left Germany during the November fogs of +1916, and, by skirting the Norwegian coast, succeeded +in passing the British patrol flotillas. She +carried 500 mines, and after crossing the North Sea +in high latitudes, proceeded down the mid-Atlantic +until off the Cape of Good Hope, where the first +mine-field was laid. She then crossed the Indian +Ocean, laying fields off Bombay and Colombo.</p> + +<p>It was in these seas that she succeeded in capturing +a British merchantman. Placing a German +crew and a cargo of mines aboard, she sent the +prize to lay a field off Aden, while she herself +proceeded to New Zealand. In these far-distant +waters another field was laid, and a few months +later the last of her cargo was discharged off +Singapore. From this time onward she became a +commerce raider.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 448px;"> +<img src="images/i-173.jpg" width="448" height="450" alt="Fig. 23.—A typical German mine and sinker." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—A typical German mine and sinker. <i>A.</i> The mine-casing +containing about 300 lb. of high explosive, and the electric +firing device which is put in force when the horns <i>B</i> are struck +and bent by a passing ship. <i>B.</i> Horns, made of lead and easily +bent if touched by a surface ship, but sufficiently rigid to resist +blows by sea-water. <i>C.</i> Hydrostatic device, operated by the +pressure of the water at a given depth, rendering the mine +safe until submerged. <i>D.</i> Slings holding mine to mooring +rope <i>F</i>. <i>F.</i> Mooring rope to reel in sinker. <i>G.</i> Reel of mooring +wire, which unwinds when the mine floats to the surface. <i>H.</i> +Iron supports held together (as in small left-hand diagram) by +a band round the mine-casing. The mine goes overboard and +sinks like this to the bottom. The band is then released by a +special device, and the supports drop away, leaving the mine +free to float to the surface (as in small right-hand diagram). +<i>I.</i> A heavy iron sinker which acts as an anchor, holding the +mine in one position.</b></div> + +<p>The <i>Moewe</i> left Germany in December, 1916, and +crossed the North Sea amid heavy snow squalls. +Proceeding into the North Atlantic, she awaited +a favourable opportunity to approach the British +coast. This came one wild January night with a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +rising gale and a haze of snow. All her mines, +about 400 in number, were laid off the Scottish +coast in the teeth of a nor'wester. Then, with the +"jolly Roger at the fore," she steamed out on to +the wastes of sea lying between the New World +and the Old.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-174.jpg" width="450" height="250" alt="Fig. 24.—Diagram illustrating the effect of tide on a moored mine." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap"><a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a>Fig. 24.</span>—Diagram illustrating the effect of tide on a moored mine. +A vessel is approaching a mine <i>D</i>, moored to the bottom by a +sinker <i>H</i>. The distance from the top of the horns of the mine +to the surface of the sea is approximately 5 feet at low tide, and +as the vessel's draught is 7 feet she would strike the mine. If, +however, the same vessel passed over the same mine a few hours +later, at high tide, the level of the sea would have risen 5 feet, +and the mine would then be 10 feet below the surface; in +which case the ship would just pass over in safety. This is +known as the "tide difficulty." There is, in addition, the +"dip" of the mine due to the strength of the tidal current. +<i>E</i> and <i>F</i> show what is meant by the dip of a mine. It is the deflection +from the vertical caused by the ebb and flow of the tide. +It frequently causes a mine-field to be quite harmless to passing +surface craft except during the period of slack water between +tides.</b></div> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>We now come to the mines themselves and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +method of laying them both above and below the +surface.</p> + +<p>A good idea of the shape, size and general +characteristics of these weapons will be obtained +from the accompanying diagrams. On being discharged +into the sea they automatically adjust +themselves to float about ten feet below the surface +(according to tide) and are anchored to the bottom +by means of a wire mooring rope attached to a +heavy sinker. To describe here the mechanical +details of all the different types of German submarine +mines would occupy many pages with uninteresting +technical formulæ. It is sufficient to +say that they carried an explosive charge (200 to +400 lb. of T.N.T.) sufficient to blow to pieces +vessels of several hundred tons and to seriously +damage the largest warship. They were intended +to float a few feet below the surface—being held +down by the mooring rope—but, as there was no +means of compensating for the rise and fall of the +tide, many of them often showed their horns above +the surface at low water and were immersed too +deep to be of much use against any but the deepest +draught ships at high tide. A reference to Fig. 24 +will make this difficulty clear.</p> + +<p>There was scarcely a ship afloat in the zone of +operations which did not, during those years of +storm, sight one or more of these hateful weapons +with their horns showing above the surface. Motor +launches were employed to scout for them during +the hour before and the hour after low water. In +this way many hundreds were discovered and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +destroyed almost as soon as they had been laid. +One badly laid mine, which shows on the surface +when the tide ebbs, will often give away a whole +field of these otherwise invisible weapons, and the +work of sweeping them up and destroying them is +then rendered comparatively easy.</p> + +<p>The effect of strong tides on a moored mine is considerable, +and will render a field quite harmless for +several hours out of every twenty-four. The reason +for this is best described with the aid of a diagram.</p> + +<p>It will be seen from the above that the mine will +not remain vertically above its sinker when there +is a tide, but will incline at an angle determined by +the strength of the current, which, if considerable, +will press the weapon down much deeper than the +keel of any ship (see <a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>). When the tide +turns the mine will first regain its true perpendicular +position and then incline in the opposite +direction, accommodating itself to the ebb and +flow. From this it will be apparent that in places +where there is a strong current or tide a mine-field +is only dangerous to passing ships of shallow or +medium draft for a few hours (during slack water) +out of the twenty-four. Between the ebb and +the flow of a tide there is a short period when the +water is almost still. Then the movement begins +to set in from the opposite direction and gradually +gains in speed until about one hour before high or +low tide. This period of what is known as "slack +water" varies considerably in different places and +different weather conditions, but plays an important +part in all minesweeping operations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> + +<p>In this way many a ship has passed over a mine-field +all unconscious of the fate which would have +befallen her had she traversed the same area of sea +an hour or so earlier or later.</p> + +<p>Mines which break adrift, or are laid without +moorings of any kind, are called <i>floating mines</i>. +The latter are a direct violation of International +Law, as they cannot be recovered when once they +have been laid, and become a danger to neutral as +well as to enemy shipping. The laws of civilised +warfare also require even a moored mine to be +fitted with some mechanical device which renders +it safe when once it has broken adrift from the +wire and heavy sinker which holds it in a stated +position. The reason for this humanitarian rule is +that neutrals can be warned not to approach a +given area of sea in which there are moored mines, +but if these weapons break adrift—as they frequently +do in heavy weather—and float all over +the oceans, they would seriously endanger the +lives and property of neutral states unless something +were done to render them innocuous.</p> + +<p>The total disregard of all the laws and customs +of civilised warfare by the Germans in 1914-1919 +has now been so well established that it seems +almost unnecessary to give yet another instance +of this callousness. In the case about to be quoted, +however, there is, as the reader will observe, an +almost superlative cunning.</p> + +<p>Any cursory examination of a German moored +mine will show that there is a device fitted +ostensibly to ensure the weapon becoming safe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +when it breaks adrift from its moorings and thus +complying with The Hague Convention. For +several months after the outbreak of war it puzzled +many minesweeping officers and men why, with +this device fitted, every German <i>floating</i> or <i>drifting</i> +mine was dangerous. A few, relying on these +weapons being safe when adrift, had endeavoured +to salve one and had paid for the experiment with +the lives of themselves and their comrades. This +caused every mine, whether moored or adrift, to be +regarded by seamen as dangerous, notwithstanding +the oft-repeated assurances that German mines +fulfilled all International requirements in this +respect. Then a mine which had broken away +from its moorings was successfully salved, in face +of the great danger involved, and the truth came +out.</p> + +<p>A device <i>was</i> fitted to render it safe, but, with +truly Hunnish ingenuity, the metal out of which +an essential part of this appliance was made was +quite unable to bear the strain imposed by its +work, and, to make doubly sure, another part was +half filed through. The result was that, instead of +rendering the mine safe when torn from its moorings +by rough seas, the essential parts broke and +left the mine fully <i>alive</i>.</p> + +<p>Any discovery such as this—<i>only made at the +great risk of salving a live mine</i>—could be easily +explained away by German diplomacy as faulty +workmanship in a particular weapon, reliance +being placed on the fact that not many mines could +be salved in this way without heavy loss of life; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +numbers were recovered in spite of the dangers and +extraordinary difficulties of such operations, and +the guilt was for ever established in the minds of +those who sail the seas.</p> + +<p>Little need be said here regarding the method of +laying mines from surface ships like the <i>Wolfe</i> and +<i>Moewe</i>. The weapons were arranged to run along +the decks on railway lines and roll off the stern, or +through a large port-hole, into the sea as the vessel +steamed along.</p> + +<p>With submarine mine-layers or U-C boats the +method was, however, much more complicated +and needs full description. Each vessel was +fitted with large expulsion tubes in the stern +and carried some eighteen to twenty mines. +These weapons, although similar in their internal +mechanism to <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'he'">the</ins> ordinary mine, were specially +designed for expulsion from submerged tubes or +chambers.</p> + +<p>The mines were stored in the stern compartment +of the submarine, between guide-rails fitted with +rollers. They were in two rows and moved easily +on the well-greased wheels. The loading was +accomplished through water-tight hatchways in +the deck above. In order to expel these mines +from the interior of the submarine when travelling +under the surface each weapon had to be moved +into a short expulsion tube or chamber, the inner +cap of which was closed when a mine was inside, +and the outer or sea-cap opened. A supply +of compressed air was then admitted into the +back of the tube and the mine forced out into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +the open sea, in the same way as a torpedo is now +expelled from a submerged tube.</p> + +<p>Before another mine could be launched the sea-cap +had to be closed, the water blown from the +tube, the inner cap opened and a second mine +placed ready in the chamber. This, however, did +not end the difficulty of laying mines from submarines. +The increase in the buoyancy of the +boat, due to the loss of weight as each mine was +discharged into the sea, had to be instantly and +automatically compensated by the admission of +quantities of sea-water of equal weight into special +tanks, hitherto empty, situated below the mine-tubes. +If this had been neglected the submarine +would have come quickly to the surface, stern +uppermost, owing to the lightening of the hull by +the expulsion therefrom of some fifteen weapons +weighing many hundreds of pounds each.</p> + +<p>When the mine was clear of the submarine it +sank to the bottom, owing to the weight of the +sinker or anchor. After a short immersion, however, +a special device enabled the top half, containing +the charge of explosive and the contact firing +horns, to part company with the heavy lower half, +composed of the iron sinker and the reel of mooring +wire. The explosive section then floated up towards +the surface, unwinding the wire from the +sinker.</p> + +<p>Each mine being set, before discharge, to a certain +prearranged depth (obtained by the captain +of the U-C boat either by sounding wires or from +special charts showing the depth of water in feet),<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +the weapon could not rise quite up to the surface, +being checked in its ascent, when ten feet from +the top, by the mooring wire refusing to unwind +farther.</p> + +<p>This may sound a little involved, but a careful +study of the accompanying diagrams will make +the various movements of the mine and its sinker, +after leaving the submarine, quite clear to the lay +reader.</p> + +<p>There were also other types of mines employed. +Some were fitted with an automatic device which +was actuated by the pressure of the water at a set +depth. These weapons could be expelled from +submarines without the necessity of knowing and +adjusting the depth at which they were to float +below the surface. A mine of this pattern rose up, +after discharge from the tube, until the pressure of +water on its casing was reduced to 4½ lb. per +square inch (the pressure which obtains at a depth +of ten feet below the surface<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>), and there the +weapon stopped, waiting patiently for its prey.</p> + +<p>Another kind of mine was of the floating variety—tabooed +by The Hague Convention—which +drifted along under the surface with no moorings +to hold it in one position.</p> + +<p>Now that the reader is familiar with the mines +themselves and the actual methods of laying them, +we can pass on to a brief review of the German +mine-laying policy during the Great War.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p> +<p>The submarine offensive reached its maximum +intensity in 1916-1917, during which period no less +than 7000 mines were destroyed by the British +navy alone.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Of this number about 2000 were drifting +when discovered. There was, with one small +exception, no portion of the coast of the United +Kingdom which was not mined at least once +during those eventful <i>two</i> years, the unmined area +being undoubtedly left clear to facilitate a raid or +invasion. About 200 minesweeping vessels were +blown up or seriously damaged, but the losses +among the Mercantile Marine were kept down to +less than 300 ships out of the 5000 sailings which, +on an average, took place weekly.</p> + +<p>The heavy losses inflicted on the enemy's submarine +fleets in 1917 marked the turning of the +tide, and from that date onwards there was a +steady but sure reduction in the number of mines +laid.</p> + +<p>During the first twelve months of the intensified +submarine war the Germans concentrated their +mine-laying on the food routes from the United +States, the sea communications of the Grand Fleet +off the east coast of Scotland and the line of supply +to France. Then, when they commenced to +realise the impossibility of starving the sea-girt +island, and the weight of the ever-increasing +British armies began to tell in the land war, the +submarine policy changed to conform with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +general strategy of the High Command, and the +troop convoy bases and routes were the objects of +special attack.</p> + +<p>The arrival in Europe of the advance guard of the +United States army caused another change in the +submarine strategy. From that time onwards +the Atlantic routes assumed a fresh importance +and became the major zone of operations.</p> + +<p>In the first year of the war the U-C boats discharged +their cargoes of mines as soon as they could +reach their respective areas of operation. The +mines were usually laid close together in one field, +frequently situated off some prominent headland, +or at a point where trade routes converged. Then +the enemy learned to respect the British minesweeping +and patrol organisation, and endeavoured +to lay their "sea-gulls' eggs" in waters which had +been recently swept, or where sweeping forces +appeared to be weak in numbers.</p> + +<p>When this failed they played their last card, +scattering the mines in twos and threes over wide +areas of sea. To meet this new mode of attack +large numbers of shallow-draught M.L.'s were employed +to scout for the mines at low water.</p> + +<p>It was about this time that the great Allied mine +barriers across the entrances and exits to and from +the North Sea were completed and the losses among +the U and U-C boats became heavy. A rapid +abatement in the submarine offensive soon became +apparent, and utter failure was only a matter of +time.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h3>THE MYSTERIES OF MINESWEEPING +EXPLAINED</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">The</span> task which confronted the naval minesweeping +organisations in the years succeeding 4th August +1914 was an appalling one. Any square yard of +sea around the 1500 miles of coast-line of the British +Isles might be mined at any moment of any day +or night. There were, in addition, the widely +scattered fields laid by surface raiders like the +<i>Wolfe</i> and the <i>Moewe</i>, which, as described in a +previous chapter, extended their operations to +the uttermost ends of the earth. A wonderfully +efficient patrol of the danger zones had its effect +in reducing the number of submarine mine-layers +available to the enemy and in rendering both difficult +and hazardous the successful execution of their +work, but neither a predominant and subsequently +victorious fleet, nor an equally skilful and +alert patrol, could guarantee the immunity of any +considerable area of sea from mines.</div> + +<p>The Germans laid many thousands of these +deadly and invisible weapons in the 140,000 square +miles of sea around the British Isles <i>alone</i> in the +face of over 2000 warships. To search for these +patches of death in the wastes of water may well +be likened to exploring for the proverbial "needle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +in a haystack." Yet the sweepers, whose sole +duty it was to fill this breach in the gigantic system +of Allied naval defence, explored daily and almost +hourly, for over four years, the vast ocean depths, +discovering and destroying some 7000 German +mines, with a loss of 200 vessels of their number. +The result of this silent victory over one of the +greatest perils that ever threatened the Sea Empire +was that some 5000 food, munition and troop ships +were able to enter and leave the ports of the United +Kingdom <i>weekly</i> with a remarkably small percentage +of loss from a peril which might easily have +proved disastrous to the entire Allied cause.</p> + +<p>This, then, in broad outline, was the task which +confronted this section of the naval service, and its +successful accomplishment forged a big link in the +steel chain encompassing the glorious victory.</p> + +<p>Before passing on to describe the ships and the +appliances used it is first necessary to give a more +detailed account of the operations generally included +under the heading of minesweeping. As it +was impossible to tell exactly where mines would +be laid from day to day, an immense area of sea +had to be covered by what was known as <i>exploratory +sweeping</i>. This consisted of many units of +ships emerging from the different anti-submarine +bases almost every day throughout the year and +proceeding to allotted areas of water, where they +commenced sweeping north, south, east or west, in +an endeavour to discover if the areas in question +were safe for mercantile traffic. If no mines were +discovered that particular area would be reported<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +safe, but if only one of these weapons was cut from +its mooring by a sweep-wire the area would be +closed to merchant ships until the sea around was +definitely cleared of the hidden danger. This +system of open and closed areas entailed an +enormous amount of efficient administrative staff +work apart from the actual sweeping, and its +success was partly dependent upon the vigilance +of the patrols employed to divert shipping from +dangerous patches of sea.</p> + +<p>When a mine-field was discovered which interfered +with the free movement of a large number of +ships a big concentration of sweepers from all the +adjacent bases was ordered by telegraph and wireless. +The area was isolated by patrols and the +mines swept up. In one field no less than 300-400 +mines were known to have been laid. Finally a +further exploratory sweep was made, and if nothing +further was discovered the area was again opened +to traffic, and the sweepers turned their attention +either to routine duties or to the clearance of +another field.</p> + +<p>The entrance to every important harbour was +swept once or twice a day, and all convoys had +sweepers ahead of them when they left or entered +such confined waters. The seas adjacent to +harbours and naval bases were searched at low +water for mines which might be showing above the +surface. Around the anchorage of the Grand Fleet +in Scapa Flow a wide belt of sea was kept clear of +mines so that at any moment the fleet could +reach blue water without risk from these weapons.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +The same precautions were taken off the Firth +of Forth for the benefit of the battle cruisers, +and outside Harwich for Admiral Tyrwhitt's light +forces.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/i-188-big.jpg"><img src="images/i-188.jpg" width="600" height="325" alt="Model of a Coastal Motor Boat (55 ft.) with Torpedo and four Depth Charges" title="" /></a> +<div class='attrib'><i>Thornycroft & Co., Ltd.</i></div> +<span class="caption">Model of a Coastal Motor Boat (55 ft.) with Torpedo and four Depth Charges</span> +</div> + + +<p>A passage known as the "war channel"—about +which more will be said later—extending +from the Downs to Newcastle, was swept daily +by relays of sweepers operating from the anti-submarine +bases along this 320 miles of coast-line. +This buoyed and guarded channel formed a line of +supply for the great fleets in the north.</p> + +<p>Each big fighting formation was provided with +a special flotilla of fast fleet sweepers, which were +capable of clearing the seas ahead of the battleships +and cruisers moving at 20 knots. This was +a separate organisation to what may be described +as the routine sweeping of the trade routes. These +vessels were always within call of the fleets they +served.</p> + +<p>It has been estimated that over 1000 square +miles of sea were swept daily by the anti-mine +fleets of the British navy during the four years of +war. This may not sound a very stupendous +figure compared with the area of the danger zone, +but in practice it necessitated terribly hard work +from dawn to dusk by several thousand ships and +many thousands of men in summer heat and winter +snow.</p> + +<p>There was in addition to all this the clearing of +British mine-fields no longer required in the positions +in which they had been originally laid. This +was not entirely an after-the-war problem, for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +although the great mine barriers were left until +peace was assured, there were fields of minor importance +which had to be cleared to meet new +situations as the years of war passed swiftly by. +A notable instance of this was the destruction of a +big field of some 400 mines off the Moray Firth.</p> + +<p>The foregoing refers only to the minesweeping +in the principal danger zones in British waters, no +account being taken of the work carried out by +Allied vessels in the Mediterranean, off the coasts +of France, Italy, Greece, Gallipoli, and in such +distant seas as those washing the shores of New +Zealand, Australia, Hong-Kong, Japan, Singapore, +Bombay, Aden, the Cape of Good Hope, the United +States, Eastern Canada, West Africa and Arctic +Russia, in all of which mines were laid by surface +raiders like the <i>Wolfe</i>, and afterwards located and +cleared by Allied warships.</p> + +<p>From the foregoing some idea of the gigantic +nature of the task will be obtained, and we can pass +on to a more detailed account of the actual work. +Minesweeping may be divided into eight well-defined +sections, as follows:—</p> + +<div class='hang1'>(1) <i>Fleet Sweeping.</i>—Keeping clear the sea routes of the battle fleet.</div> + +<div class='hang1'>(2) <i>Exploratory Sweeping.</i>—Searching the sea for isolated groups or fields.</div> + +<div class='hang1'>(3) <i>Routine Sweeping.</i>—The daily or weekly sweeping of areas, channels and coastal trade routes, largely used by shipping.</div> + +<div class='hang1'>(4) <i>Clearing Large Mine-fields.</i>—Big concentrations of ships to rapidly clear important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +routes temporarily blocked by large mine-fields.</div> + +<div class='hang1'>(5) <i>Special Shallow-Water Sweeping.</i>—Such as that carried out off the Belgian coast by specially constructed shallow-draught ships, frequently with single-ship sweeps.</div> + +<div class='hang1'>(6) <i>Convoy Sweeping.</i>—Precautionary sweeping in front of incoming and outgoing convoys. This was regularly done even if the fair-way was covered by routine sweeping.</div> + +<div class='hang1'>(7) <i>Harbour Sweeping.</i>—Precautionary sweeping usually carried out by small craft at big naval bases such as Portsmouth (Spithead) and Rosyth (Firth of Forth) inside the submerged defences.</div> + +<div class='hang1'>(8) <i>Searching at Low Tide.</i>—This was done by shallow-draught vessels of the M.L. type in order to locate badly laid mines which might project above the surface at low water. Several hundred were discovered in this way.</div> + +<p>In order to carry out these duties efficiently the +heterogeneous fleet of minesweepers was divided +into small fleets stationed at the numerous anti-submarine +bases, and these were again subdivided +into units of ships especially adapted for the different +classes of work. Each <i>pair</i> of vessels had to +be more or less alike in size, draught, speed and +man[oe]uvring ability to enable them to work +efficiently in dual harness. Consequently there were +complete units of vessels specially constructed for +dealing rapidly with discovered mine-fields and for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +use with the battle fleets. Shallow-draught vessels +of the motor launch type for work in the shallow +water off the Belgian coast. Converted pleasure +steamers of the usual Thames, Mersey and Clyde +type for convoy sweeping. Motor launches for +clearing fair-ways and for searching at low water. +Flotillas of trawlers and drifters for the hard and +monotonous routine sweeping on the important +coastal trade routes. They comprised in all several +thousand ships engaged solely on this work.</p> + +<p>At each important base there was a Port Minesweeping +Officer (P.M.S.O.), with one or more assistants, +whose duty it was to administer, under the +command of the S.N.O., the fleets in the attached +area, and to furnish preliminary telegraphic and +detailed reports to the Minesweeping Staff at the +Admiralty, who issued a confidential bi-monthly +publication to all commanding officers which was +a veritable encyclopædia of valuable information +regarding current operations, events and enemy +tactics. Attached to this department was a section +of the Naval School of Submarine Mining, +Portsmouth, where all knotty problems were unravelled +and appliances devised to meet all kinds +of emergencies.</p> + +<p>Each unit of ships was under the command of +a senior officer, responsible for the operations of +these vessels, and where big fleets were engaged a +special minesweeping officer was placed in supreme +command. Only by close co-ordination of effort +from the staff at Whitehall and elsewhere to +the units at sea could this gigantic work have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +been expeditiously accomplished. It frequently +happened that any delay due to very severe +weather in clearing a field or area meant complete +stoppage or chaotic dislocation of the almost continuous +stream of merchant shipping entering and +leaving a big harbour, which, in turn, disorganised +the adjacent harbours to which ships had often to +be diverted. It disturbed the railway facilities for +the rapid transport of the food or raw materials +from the coast to the manufacturing centres, from +the sugar on the breakfast-table to the shells for +the batteries in France. One hour's delay in unloading +a ship may mean three hours' additional +delay on the railways, the loss of a shift at a munition +works and a day's delay in a great offensive. +It is a curious anomaly, made vividly apparent to +those in administrative command during the past +years of stress, that the more perfect the organisation +the greater the delay in the event of a breakdown +in the system.</p> + +<p>There were various methods of minesweeping, +but in all of them the object was to cut the mooring +wire of any mine that came within the area of the +sweep and so cause the mine itself to bob up to the +surface, where it could be seen and destroyed by +gun-fire. In order to encompass this many kinds +of minesweeping gear were devised and given +practical trial during the war. The one most +generally used, however, was the original but +vastly improved sweep. This consisted of a special +wire extended between two ships and held submerged +by a device known as a kite. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +apparatus is best described diagrammatically +(<a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>).</p> + +<p>There was, however, another type of sweep used +for exploratory work and also for sweeping in +shallow water. It was a one-ship sweep (<i>i.e.</i> required +only one vessel to drag it), and this can +also be best described by a diagram (<a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a>).</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i-194.jpg" width="500" height="205" alt="Fig. 25.—Diagram showing the form of apparatus principally used by British minesweepers." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap"><a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a>Fig. 25.</span>—Diagram showing the form of apparatus principally used +by British minesweepers. <i>AA.</i> Sweeping vessels. <i>BB.</i> +Sweep-wire. <i>CC.</i> Wires holding kites. <i>DD.</i> Kites which +hold sweep-wire at correct depth below the surface by their +"kite-like" action when being towed through the water. +<i>E.</i> Mine and mooring. <i>F.</i> Surface of the sea. <i>G.</i> Sea-bed.</b></div> + +<p>It will be observed that in all cases the object is +to drag a submerged wire through the water at an +angle from the ship's course until it encounters the +mooring wire of a mine. When this takes place it is +the purpose of the sweep-wire to cut the mooring +wire and allow the buoyant mine to float up to the +surface free of its sinker (see <a href="#Fig_27">Fig. 27</a>). In order to +effect this various kinds of hard wire with a cutting +capacity were used as sweep-wires, and also numerous +mechanical devices, all of which are more or +less of a secret character; but the object remained +the same—to find and cut the mooring wire.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/i-195.jpg" width="500" height="423" alt="Fig. 26.—Diagrammatic sketch showing principal parts of a single-ship sweep." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap"><a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a>Fig. 26.</span>—Diagrammatic sketch showing principal parts of a single-ship +sweep. <i>A.</i> Towing vessel. <i>B.</i> Tail wire. <i>C.</i> Kite holding +sweep-wires <i>D</i> at correct depth below the surface. <i>D.</i> Light +sweep-wires held at an angle by spars <i>E</i> and surface hydroplane +floats <i>F</i>. The dotted lines show how either arm of the +sweep swing towards the centre line when exposed to the pull +of a mine. This movement of the hydroplane floats indicates +to those on board the sweeping vessel that a mine has been +caught. The mine <i>H</i> slides down the sweep-wire until the +mooring is cut at <i>G</i>, and the mine floats freely to the surface.</b></div> + +<p>The introduction of what became known as +"delayed action mines"—weapons held down on +the sea-bed, after being launched, for varying +periods of time, so that sweeping operations might +take place above them without their being discovered; +then, when the time for which the delay +was set had expired, they rose to within ten feet of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +the surface and became a great danger to shipping +in places recently swept and reported clear—caused +a new form of sweep to be devised and used +in waters where these mines were likely to be sown.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-196.jpg" width="450" height="173" alt="Fig. 27.—Diagram showing mine mooring being cut by sweep-wire." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap"><a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a>Fig. 27.</span>—Diagram showing mine mooring being cut by sweep-wire. +<i>A.</i> Mine-mooring wire. <i>B.</i> Hard and cutting face of +sweep-wire. The dotted lines <i>C</i> show how the mine floats to the +surface by its own buoyancy when the mooring wire holding it +down has been cut.</b></div> + +<p>This type of sweep was known as a "bottom +sweep," and generally consisted of a chain fitted +into the bight of a sweep-wire and dragged along +the sea-bed, the idea being to overturn the delayed +mine and so upset its mechanism that it would +either rise immediately to the surface or else remain +for ever harmless at the bottom of the sea. In +many cases the heavy chain passing over the horns +of the mine would bend and make them useless, so +destroying the efficiency of the mine even if it did +eventually rise to the correct firing depth.</p> + +<p>Into almost every operation carried out on or +under the sea there enters the tide difficulty, and +in all mining and minesweeping operations it is +one of the most important factors to be considered. +The effect of the tide on mine-laying has been dealt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> +with in a previous chapter, and the same difficulties +in reverse order are experienced when sweeping the +sea for these invisible and dangerous weapons. +It has already been shown that a vessel may sometimes +pass safely over a mine at high water which +would touch her sides or keel and explode if she +passed over it at low water when the mine was +nearer to the surface. All minesweeping vessels, +therefore, need to be of comparatively shallow +draught in order to reduce the risk of touching +mines, but against this is the fact that shallow-draught +ships, even if powerfully engined, have but +little grip on the water and experience an undue +loss of speed when towing a heavy sweep-wire. +Such vessels can seldom operate in even moderately +heavy weather owing to their rolling and +pitching propensities. Therefore a vessel of +medium—bordering on shallow—draught, with a +fairly broad beam, is the best type. Here, again, +is a difficulty. Minesweeping is a type of defensive +warfare requiring a vast number of ships successfully +to carry on against an enemy well provided +with surface and submarine mine-layers, and not +even the greatest naval power in the world could +seriously contemplate maintaining a peace fleet +of, say, 2000 such vessels in constant readiness. +Therefore recourse has to be made, when war +comes, to mercantile craft, which seldom possess +all the desired qualities.</p> + +<p>This is what actually occurred in every maritime +country at war during the years succeeding August, +1914, and in order to meet the danger attending<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +the use of passenger ships, trawlers and drifters, +often with a considerable draught, minesweeping +operations were, whenever possible, confined to +the three hours before and the three hours after +high water. Shallow-draught M.L.'s carried out +the scouting for mines at low tide. It is difficult +to see what would be the fate of a nation hemmed +in by mines and devoid of a mercantile fleet sufficiently +numerous to provide powerful sweeping +units. The trawlers and pleasure steamers were +a godsend to England in those years of intensive +submarine warfare. This undeniable fact incidentally +provides another example—if such is now +needed—of naval power resting not entirely on +fleets and dockyards, but on every branch and +twig of maritime activity.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to describe in small compass and +non-technical language the various tactical formations +employed in minesweeping operations. They +were many and various. The Germans used their +vessels in long lines, the ships being connected +together by a light wire-sweep plentifully supplied +with cutting devices, into which the mooring wire +of the mine was expected to obligingly slip. This +method suffered from the serious drawback that if +any part of the sweep-wire caught on a submerged +obstacle, such as a projection of rock, the whole +line of ships became disorganised. There were also +many other objections to this system, some of +which will doubtless be apparent to the thoughtful +reader.</p> + +<p>The formation usually adopted by British minesweepers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +was that shown in Fig. 28, in which it will +be observed that each pair of ships is actually independent +of the others, but is acting in company +with them, and that the pathway swept by one +pair is slightly overlapped by the following pair. +In the event of an accident to one ship the next +astern can immediately let go its own end of sweep-wire +and go to the rescue of any survivors. It +may be apropos to say here that the smaller class +of minesweeper is usually blown to pieces if she +touches a mine.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-199.jpg" width="450" height="320" alt="Fig. 28.—Plan showing the usual formation adopted by British minesweeping vessels." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Plan showing the usual formation adopted by British minesweeping +vessels. <i>A.</i> Three pairs of sweepers. <i>B.</i> Sweep-wires. +<i>C.</i> A mine entering the sweep of the second pair. <i>D.</i> A vessel +following the sweepers for the purpose of sinking by gun-fire the +mines cut up.</b></div> + +<p>The set of the tide is another important factor +which has to be taken into serious consideration +when plotting a sweep. This complication enters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +into every operation, and its salient points will be +made quite clear by referring to Fig. 29.</p> + +<p>The actual speed at which minesweeping operations +are carried out depends greatly upon the +engine-power of the sweepers themselves. In the +case of trawlers and drifters it is seldom possible to +drag the 300-600 feet of heavy wire through the +water at a greater rate than 4 to 6 knots. M.L.'s +can accomplish 8 knots with a lighter wire, while +big fleet sweepers with engines of several thousand +horse-power can clear the seas at 18-23 knots.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-200.jpg" width="450" height="236" alt="Fig. 29.—Diagram illustrating the effect of tide on minesweeping operations." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Diagram illustrating the effect of tide on minesweeping +operations. <i>A.</i> The vessels sweeping along the coast-line <i>B.</i> +A fast ebb-tide is coming down the estuary <i>C.</i> Unless an allowance +was made for this tide and mark-buoys or ships were +placed along the dotted course <i>D</i>, the sweepers would unknowingly +drift seawards along course <i>E</i>, leaving a space <i>F</i> unswept +and possibly dangerous to ships entering and leaving +the estuary <i>C</i>.</b></div> + +<p>Sufficient has now been said to enable the reader +to realise fully the arduous, exciting and often very +hazardous nature of the work. Veteran sweepers +listen for the loud hum of the wire which proclaims<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +that a mine has been caught. Then comes an +interval of a few seconds of suspense. Sometimes +the mine bobs up within a few feet of the ship; at +other times it is in the middle or bight of the wire, +far astern, and half-way between the two sweeping +vessels. When a mine is cut up a few shots from +a 3-pounder, a shattering roar and the mine is +destroyed. All that remains is a column of smoke +reaching from sea to sky.</p> + +<p>It frequently happened that the mine became +entangled in the sweeping gear and was unknowingly +hauled on board with the sweep. When this +occurred the position was fraught with extreme +peril. Any roll of the ship might cause an explosion +which would shatter to fragments everything +and everyone within range. Safety lay in +lowering the sweep gently back into the sea—an +extremely difficult operation on a rough day.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The War Channel</span></div> + +<p>This carefully guarded fair-way consisted of a +320-mile stretch of sea, extending along the east +coast of England from the Downs to Newcastle, +which was marked on the seaward side by a continuous +line of gigantic buoys, two miles apart. +It was patrolled day and night by hundreds of +small warships, and swept from end to end by +relays of sweepers acting in conjunction with each +other from the different anti-submarine bases +along the coast.</p> + +<p>The war channel formed a comparatively safe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +highway for all coastal shipping passing north or +south through the danger zone, and vessels from +Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden were able +to cross the North Sea at any point under escort +and proceed independently and safely along the +British coast to whichever port could most conveniently +accommodate them at the time of their +arrival. It also relieved the terrible congestion +on the railway lines between the north and south +of England by enabling a coast-wise traffic to be +carried on between the ports of London, Grimsby, +Hull and Newcastle, as well as enabling the numerous +Iceland fishing fleet to pass up and down the +coast in comparative safety on their frequent +voyages to and from the fishing grounds of the +far north. From the naval or strategic point of +view it more or less secured a line of supply for the +Grand Fleet assembled in the misty north. Colliers, +oilers, ammunition and food ships were able to proceed +through the comparatively narrow section of +the danger zone with a minimum of risk; and, had +it been required, there was available a cleared +passage for any squadron from the big fighting +formations to come south at high speed to checkmate +a bombardment or attempted landing on +anything like a grand scale.</p> + +<p>It may perhaps be wondered why <i>this</i> channel +was not extended up the east coast of Scotland as +far as Scapa Flow. In the first place, the North +Sea widens considerably as the higher latitudes are +approached, the coast of Scotland does not lend +itself to a clearly defined channel and the heavy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +weather which prevails for so many months in the +year made the maintenance of gigantic buoys and +their moorings almost impossible. Secondly, there +were various systems of mine defences in this area, +and, although not defined by a chain of buoys, the +passage north from Newcastle to the Scottish +islands was, in actual fact, maintained by a vast +organisation of patrols and sweepers, but over this +section of sea supply ships for the Grand Fleet +were nearly always under escort. The area from +the Scotch to the German coast was looked upon +more as a possible battle-ground for the fleets at +war than as a route for merchant shipping, owing +to the comparatively few big commercial harbours +along the eastern shore.</p> + +<p>Laying the moorings of over 150 gigantic buoys +in fairly deep water, exceptionally prone to sudden +and violent storms, was in itself a noteworthy feat +of submarine engineering. The chains and anchors +had to be of great strength, and the whole work, +which occupied many weeks, was carried out in +waters infested with submarines and mines.</p> + +<p>The task of sweeping this vast stretch of sea +almost continuously for four years was by no +means either straightforward or without risk. The +Germans, when they discovered the existence and +purpose of this channel, sought to turn it to their +own advantage by systematically laying mines +around the moorings of the mark-buoys, where +they could only be swept up with great difficulty, +owing to the sweep-wires fouling the moorings of +the buoys. This strategem had to be answered by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +the creation of "switch lines," or small sections of +false channel marked by buoys, while the real +channel was only outlined on secret charts. In +this way the preservation of the war channel and +its use for misleading and entrapping U and U-C +boats became a semi-independent campaign, in the +same way as that which surrounded the great mine +barrages and other activities of the anti-submarine +service.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Mine Protection Devices</span></div> + +<p>It is an axiom of war that new weapons of attack +are invariably met by new methods of defence. +The mine was no exception to this rule, although +up to the present time the various antidotes are in +all cases only partial remedies. During the years +of war, with the brains of a maritime nation +focused on the subject, there were naturally many +devices suggested and tried for protecting ships +from mines. The great majority of these suggestions +may be classified in two groups: (1) Those +which sought to deflect the mine from the pathway +of the ship; and (2) those which sought to minimise +the result of the explosion. One method +from each of these groups was adopted with various +modifications to suit different classes of ships.</p> + +<p>In the first group came the <i>Paravane</i>, which had +as its basis the suspension of a submerged wire +around the bow of a ship, which caught and deflected +the mine-mooring wire before the horns of +the mine itself could reach the sides of the ship.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +It also cut the mooring and enabled the mine to +rise to the surface and be destroyed by gun-fire.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/i-206.jpg" width="600" height="378" alt="A Paravane" title="" /> +<div class='attrib'><i>Topical Press</i></div> +<span class="caption">A Paravane</span><br />Hoisting in the starboard paravane of the P.V. mine-defence gear. +</div> + + + +<p>In order to understand this appliance it is first +necessary to know what is the action of the majority +of moored mines on coming in contact with a ship. +It seldom happens that a vessel strikes a mine dead +on the bow or stem-post. The cushion and dislocation +of water formed by a big and fast ship +around its bows is usually sufficient to cause the +mine to swing a few inches away from the bow and +to return and strike the ship several feet back on +the port or starboard side. A careful study of +Fig. 30 will show how this is prevented by the +deflecting wires of the paravane.</p> + +<p>The paravanes themselves are submerged +torpedo-shaped bodies which hold the wires under +the surface and away from the ship's side, deriving +their ability to do this from the speed at which +they are being towed, submerged, by the ship +itself. A piece of string through the axle hole of a +small wheel, which is then placed on the ground +and pulled along, will give a good idea of the action +of the paravane against the passing water.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a> +<img src="images/i-208.jpg" width="450" height="497" alt="Fig. 30.—Plan showing the chief characteristics of the paravane mine defence gear." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Plan showing the chief characteristics of the paravane +mine defence gear. <i>A.</i> The bow of the ship. <i>B.</i> The paravanes +being towed submerged at an outward angle. These appliances +maintain a fixed depth below the surface and hold the ends of +the deflecting wires <i>C</i> well away from the ship's sides. <i>C.</i> The +submerged deflecting wires, held at one end by a short projection +from the ship's stem-post below the water-line, and at +the outer end by the submerged paravanes. <i>D.</i> A mine and its +mooring caught by the deflecting wires and held away from the +ship. In such a case it would slide down the deflecting wire +towards the paravane, where the mooring would be cut and the +mine would float to the surface.</b></div> + +<p>It is not possible to give here the exact details of +this highly ingenious device upon which so much +scientific and practical attention was wisely bestowed, +but sufficient has been said to enable the +reader to form a clear conception of how the mine +was caught and held away from the ship's side by +the deflecting wire of the paravane.</p> + +<p>This device, in one of its many forms, was fitted +not only to warships, but also to many hundreds of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +merchantmen, and was known to have saved +thousands of tons of valuable shipping and cargo.</p> + +<p>Among those devices which had for their object +the minimising of the result of a mine explosion +may be mentioned the "Blister System" so +successfully employed in the construction of +monitors and other big ships, the idea being to +surround the inner hull with an outer casing which +received the effect of the explosion of either a mine +or torpedo and left the inner or real hull of the +ship water-tight. Its one weak feature was that +it reduced the speed of the ship and the ease with +which she could be man[oe]uvred. In future types +of large and heavily armed ships this drawback +will undoubtedly be largely overcome by an +increase in engine-power made possible by the +development of engineering science.</p> + +<p>The "blister," although outwardly forming a +continuous structure round the entire vessel, +extending well above and below the water-line, +tapered off towards the bows and stern, and was +subdivided into different compartments. In this +way an explosion against one section did not +necessarily damage any other part. The British +monitors which so successfully bombarded the +Belgian coast and the fortifications of the Dardanelles +were fitted with blisters, and more than +one of them owed their salvation to this means.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h3>THE MINE BARRAGE</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">What</span> undoubtedly forms the most effective +counter to unrestricted submarine warfare is the +explosive mine barrage, as employed against the +German U-boats in the North Sea and the Straits +of Dover.</div> + +<p>The practicability of these barrage systems +depends, however, very largely upon the following +factors:—(1) the geographical features of the area +of operations; (2) the hydrographical peculiarities +of the seas in which the mines have to be laid; +(3) the number of properly equipped mine-laying +vessels available; (4) an adequate and highly +trained personnel; and (5) the mechanical skill +and manufacturing power of the nation employing +the system.</p> + +<p>There are several forms of mine barrage. One +is simply an elongated mine-field laid across a +narrow sea to prevent the safe passage of hostile +surface craft. In this case the mines are laid in +the ordinary manner and at the ordinary depth +below the surface. The anti-submarine barrage, +however, consists of an enormous number of mines, +laid <i>at a considerable depth below the surface</i> and in +such formation as to ensure that a submarine +attempting to pass through the cordon <i>while<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +submerged</i> would inevitably collide with one or +more of them.</p> + +<p>With this latter form of barrage the surface of +the sea is quite clear of mines and is comparatively +safe for the unrestricted movement of a numerous +patrol flotilla, which forms part of the system, the +under-seas alone being made dangerous by the mines.</p> + +<p>It will be apparent that if a hostile submarine +base is enclosed by one or more of these barrages +the under-water craft entering and leaving that +base have the choice of travelling <i>submerged</i> across +the danger zone and thereby risking contact with +the mines, or of performing the passage <i>on the +surface</i> and encountering the patrolling ships. In +either case, the result is more likely than not to be +the destruction of the submarine.</p> + +<p>In most cases the exact position of the barrage +would be unknown to the hostile submarines, +which, even if running on the surface, would dive +immediately on the approach of a patrol ship. +The few lucky ones succeeding in getting safely +through the cordon of deep-laid mines, or passing +unnoticed the patrol of surface ships on their outward +journey—as might be the case in fog—would +have the same peril to face on the return to their +base, and probably without the aid of thick weather. +This double risk would probably have to be taken +by every submarine in the active flotilla at least +once a month, this being approximately the period +they can remain at sea without replenishing +supplies of fuel, torpedoes and food.</p> + +<p>The object of the flotillas of shallow-draught<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +patrol vessels operating in the vicinity of the deep +mine barrier is twofold. Primarily their duty is to +prevent the hostile submarines from running the +blockade on the surface and, secondly, to prevent +enemy surface craft from emerging from the base +and sweeping clear a passage through the mine-field, +or of laying counter-mines, which, on being +exploded, would detonate some of the blockading +deep-laid mines and so destroy a section of the +barrier.</p> + +<p>From this it will be apparent that a force of +hostile submarines hemmed in in this way would +run a double risk of losing a number of vessels on +every occasion on which a sortie was made. This +is what actually occurred to the German under-water +flotillas in the years 1917-1919, and, in combination +with the other methods employed by the +Allied navies, was mainly responsible for the failure +of the great under-sea offensive.</p> + +<p>The only bases of the German navy being situated +on the North Sea littoral, it was possible for +the Allies to lay a vast mine barrier, stretching +from the coast of Norway to the Scottish islands, +and another smaller one across the Straits of Dover; +also to concentrate in the vicinity of these two submarine +"trench systems" a very numerous surface +patrolling force, thus enclosing the thousands of +square miles of sea forming what was sometimes +boastfully referred to as the "German Ocean" in +an almost impenetrable ring of steel and T.N.T.</p> + +<p>Here let us consider the gigantic nature of the +task that was successfully accomplished. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +distance from the Norwegian coast to the Orkney +Islands is approximately 600 miles. It was over +this vast expanse of sea, bent at the eastern end so +as to rest on the Heligoland Bight, that the system +known as the "Northern Barrages" extended. No +exact statistics of the actual number of mines used +is at present available, but reckoning at the low +rate of one mine to every 750 feet of sea, with five +lines stretching from shore to shore, the number +required would be 21,000 of these costly and difficult +weapons. The number required annually to +maintain such a barrage would also be very heavy, +and it is safe to assume that <i>considerably</i> over 50,000 +mines were employed on the northern barrages +alone. From this rough estimate some idea of the +work of designing, manufacturing, testing, laying, +renewing and watching this one field will be +obtained.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-213.jpg" width="450" height="192" alt="Fig. 31.—Diagram illustrating a mine barrage, or deep-laid mine-field." title="" /> +</div> +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Diagram illustrating a mine barrage, or deep-laid mine-field. +The submarine <i>A</i>, diving to avoid a surface warship, has +become entangled in the mooring of a deep-laid mine which is +being dragged down on top of her. These mines are often +moored at a depth of 60 feet below the surface, which can then +be patrolled by surface warships.</b></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p> + +<p>There were, of course, in the actual barrage +several mine-fields placed strategically, and probably +a far greater number of weapons than that +given in the above estimate was needed. There +were also the smaller fields lying between the +northern barrage and the one across the Straits of +Dover. These were so placed as to catch hostile +submarines operating off the east coast of England, +or a surface raiding squadron, such as those which +in the earlier years of the war bombarded certain +British ports.</p> + +<p>Finally, when victory had been achieved, there +came the cold-blooded task of clearing these immense +areas of sea, not only of German mines, laid +haphazardly, but also of the thousands of British +mines laid methodically and away from neutral +traffic.</p> + +<p>The English Channel barrage differed from the +northern line in several important respects. Being +so much shorter (31 miles against 680), it could +more easily be made perfect. The swift-running +tide, however, greatly increased the difficulty of +laying effective mine-fields.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The Lighted Barrage</span></div> + +<p>This southern system consisted, on the surface, +of a number of vessels specially built to ride out +the heaviest gale at anchor. These were moored +at intervals across the Straits of Dover, forming +two lines from the English to the French coast. +The first line extended from Folkestone to Cape<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +Gris Nez, and the second line about seven miles to +the westward of these points (see <a href="#Fig_32">Fig. 32</a>). Each +vessel was fitted with powerful searchlights for use +at night, and the dark spaces of sea between were +patrolled by large numbers of armed craft.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/i-216-big.jpg"><img src="images/i-216.jpg" width="600" height="378" alt="Minesweeping Gear on a Trawler" title="" /></a> +<div class='attrib'><i>From a photo by Stephen Cribb, Southsea</i></div><span class="caption">Minesweeping Gear on a Trawler</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"> +<img src="images/i-215.jpg" width="450" height="350" alt="Fig. 32.—Diagram illustrating the Dover lighted barrage." title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='hang1'><b><span class="smcap"><a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a>Fig. 32.</span>—Diagram illustrating the Dover lighted barrage. This +barrage consisted of two lines of lightships, <i>E</i> and <i>F</i>, from England +<i>A</i> to France <i>B</i>. The first line extended from Folkestone <i>C</i> +to Cape Gris Nez <i>D</i>. The second line <i>F</i> was situated seven +miles westwards of the first line. The small top diagram shows +how the two pathways of light, with a numerous patrol between, +compelled the U-boats to dive in order to avoid observation and +destruction by gun-fire. The lower diagram shows the deep-laid +mines arranged to receive the U-boats when they attempted to +run the blockade in a submerged condition.</b></div> + +<p>By this means the only avenues by which hostile +submarines could hope to pass on the surface +through the barrage at night were the dark lanes +of water between the lightships. It was these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +points which were closely guarded by strong patrol +flotillas, whose duty it was to attack submarines +attempting to get through and, with the aid of +guns and depth charges, to force them to dive +below the surface.</p> + +<p>Here certain destruction awaited them on the +submerged mine-fields. If, however, one line of +defence was safely passed by a hostile submarine, +there was another to be negotiated seven miles +farther on, and once a submarine got <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'bteween'">between</ins> the +two lines her chances of escape were indeed small, +for whichever way she turned the surface would be +covered with fast patrol craft and at night lighted +by the rays of many searchlights, while the under-seas +were almost impassable with mines.</p> + +<p>If, however, notwithstanding these defensive +systems, a submarine succeeded in passing through +and getting to work on the lines of communication +with the armies in France, there were hydrophone +organisations and patrols all down the Channel +from the lighted barrage to the Scilly Islands. By +this means a U-boat would be seldom out of the +hearing of these instruments for more than an hour +or so at a time.</p> + +<p>The success which attended the perfecting of this +vast system was such that German submarines +based on the Flanders coast gave up attempting +to pass down the English Channel. They tried to +go to and from their hunting grounds on the +Atlantic trade routes round the north coast of +Scotland. Here the great northern systems took +their toll.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p> + +<p>During the first nine months of the year 1918 +the German submarine flotillas at Zeebrugge and +Ostend lost thirty vessels, and no less than fifteen +of these had, at the time of the signing of the +Armistice, been discovered lying wrecked under +the lighted barrage.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<h3>OFF TO THE ZONES OF WAR</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">Hitherto</span> I have dealt with the scientific training +of the personnel, the armament and the general +organisation of the anti-submarine fleets, leaving +it to the imagination of readers to invest the bare +recital of facts with the due amount of romance. +If, however, a true understanding of this most +modern form of naval war is to be obtained, the +human aspect must loom large in future pages.</div> + +<p>War, whether it be <i>on</i> the sea, <i>under</i> the sea, on +the land or in the air, is a science in which the +human element is of at least equal importance +with that of the purely mechanical. It is a science +of both "blood and iron."</p> + +<p>The armed motor launches described in earlier +pages, after being built in Canada to the number +of over 500, and engined by the United States, +were transported across the Atlantic on the +decks of big ocean-going steamships—more than +one of which was torpedoed on the voyage. On +their arrival in Portsmouth dockyard the guns and +depth charges were placed aboard and the vessels +thoroughly equipped and fitted out for active +service.</p> + +<p>Officers and men were drafted from the training +establishments of the new navy at Southampton,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +Portsmouth, Chatham, Greenwich and elsewhere. +Each little vessel was given a number, and within +a few weeks of their arrival from the building yards +on the St Lawrence they sailed in flotillas out past +the fortifications of Spithead, <i>en route</i> for their +respective war bases.</p> + +<p>Great secrecy had surrounded the construction +of these small but powerful craft, and but few naval +men, except those directly engaged in the anti-submarine +service, had either seen or heard much of +them until they commenced arriving at the +different rendezvous.</p> + +<p>Among the early flotillas to leave Portsmouth +dockyard was one of four ships destined for a base +on the east coast of Scotland, and as these speedy +little craft raced away north the expectations of +both officers and men ran high.</p> + +<p>It was in the early summer of 1916, and although +the air was crisp, the sea sparkled in the bright +sunlight and the sky was a cloudless blue. Only a +heavy-beam sea off Flamborough Head had marred +the maiden voyage, and they were now on the last +hundred miles, with the low-lying Farne Islands +fading into the mist astern. By nightfall, if the +wind remained light, they would make the Scottish +port which was to form their base of operations.</p> + +<p>Hitherto these four brand-new little warships, +all white wood, grey paint and polished metal, had +been plodding over the 600 miles of sea from Portsmouth +at what was termed "cruising speed"—a +mere 10 knots. The engines had not been opened +out to "full ahead" because these delicate pieces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +of mechanism needed time to settle down to their +work before it was safe to drive them to the utmost +limit of speed and power, but now that pistons and +bearings had been given time to "run in" it was +considered safe for the flotilla to increase speed in +order to make harbour by nightfall.</p> + +<p>A hoist of new, bright-coloured flags fluttered +from the squat mast of the leading ship. The +steady throbbing of the engines grew suddenly to a +low staccato roar. The white waves astern rose up +almost level with the counters and clouds of fine +spray blew across the decks. This rapid movement +through the sun-lit water, with the breeze of +passage and the tang of the salt sea in every +breath, was exhilarating, and the spirits of those +aboard rose with the speed.</p> + +<p>Running at nearly half-a-mile a minute, the +flotilla forged northwards through clouds of fine, +stinging spray, until at a late hour, when the sun +was dipping below the horizon and the sea was a +sheet of golden light, a smoky line appeared far +away to the westward. It was that section of the +Scottish coast which in future it would be the duty +of these boats to patrol, and as the distance +lessened those on board gazed in silence at the +gigantic cliffs and black rocks, now tinged with the +rays of the dying sun and encircled by the endless +ripples which alone broke the peaceful surface of +the sea, but one and all were picturing this forbidding +coast on the stormy winter nights to come.</p> + +<p>Slowly the light faded from the western sky. +The cliffs rose up black and sombre, and when the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +little flotilla turned westwards up the broad waterway +leading to the base darkness had closed over +land and sea. For some time they picked their +way up this sheltered loch. No lights were visible, +but more than once a destroyer appeared out of the +blackness to make sure of their identity, and each +time they were inspected very closely before the +guard-ships were satisfied. An armed trawler +guided them past dangerous obstructions and then +faded into the night. Mile after mile of water was +then traversed on courses laid down in confidential +orders.</p> + +<p>Suddenly a searchlight flashed out from close +ahead, followed almost instantly by other blinding +rays, which swept the sea for a few seconds, and +then all the beams concentrated on the little +flotilla, showing up with the clearness of daylight +the four low-lying submarine-like hulls gliding +speedily through the water. There was a moment's +silence, during which the Morse signalling lamps of +the M.L.'s were being prepared to flash out their +message. A searchlight blinked and there followed +another brief interval of silence, then, without +warning, a tongue of livid flame stabbed the darkness +and a shell whistled overhead. It was +followed by other flashes and the sharp reports of +quick-firing guns. Columns of water spouted into +the air close to the M.L.'s, whose engines had, +luckily, ceased to throb. The firing stopped as +suddenly as it had commenced. Signals began +flashing angrily in many directions. Destroyers +tore out of the darkness around into the broad<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +circle of light. Armed trawlers nosed their way +in and wicked grey tubes were trained on the now +stationary flotilla. Presently the angry flashing +of mast head-lights subsided into the regular dot +and dash of respectable communication. Several +destroyers seemed to be having nasty things said +to them, which they answered with a feeble wink, +and an armed trawler made futile flashes of +explanation.</p> + +<p>A little twinkling star, more lofty and dignified +than the rest, called up the leading M.L. and was +answered with an alacrity that evidently unnerved +it, for it flickered and died out. Suddenly it came +to life again and winked away at an alarming rate, +but all to no purpose, for, true to the old axiom +that more haste means less speed, it had to stop +and go over the message again, this time sufficiently +slow for novices to understand. What it said is +a State secret. It is rumoured, however, that +several officers were "mentioned in dispatches" +for the part they played in this local action, caused +by mistaken identity, but alas! their skill and +bravery remained unrewarded by an unsympathetic +Government.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h3>A MEMORABLE CHRISTMAS</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">No</span> calling tempers the human steel in so short a +period as that of the sea. At all times and in +every part of the world the sailorman wages a +never-ending fight with Nature in her wildest and +most dreaded modes. When to this is added a +conflict of nations and their ships, with all the +ingenious death-traps of modern naval science, it +merely increases the odds against him and serves +to steady his hand and brain in order to overcome +them.</div> + +<p>In a few short weeks the sea had set its stamp +on the men of the new navy. Faces became +bronzed by the sun, wind and spindrift. Muscles +grew hard and eyes and nerves more steady. +Each time a vessel went forth on patrol or other +duty new difficulties or dangers were met and +overcome without advice or assistance, and the +confidence of men in themselves and in the ships +they worked grew apace.</p> + +<p>In many of the principal zones of war, such as the +North Sea and the Atlantic, the wind grew colder +and the seas more fierce as the short summer +passed. Duffel or Arctic clothing was served out +to both officers and men. Sea-boots and oilskins +became necessary. Balaclava helmets, mufflers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +and other woollen gear appeared, and men became +almost unrecognisable bundles of clothing. The +ascent at 4 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> from the cabin to the cold, wet +deck can be likened only to the first plunge of a +cold bathing season. Casualties became more +frequent as the enemy intensified his submarine +and mining campaign. The news and sight of +sudden death no longer blanched the faces of men +who knew that it might be their turn at any +moment of every day and night. The stir of +suppressed excitement when danger threatened +no longer manifested itself in every movement, but +rather in the cool, deliberate action of self-confidence. +In a word, the raw material was being +tempered in the furnace of war.</p> + +<p>To those in northern seas came the blinding +sleet, the slate-grey combers and the innumerable +hardships and dangers of winter patrol. A better +idea of what these really were will be obtained +from the following account of a Christmas spent +on a German mine-field.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>A bitter wind swept the grey wastes of the +North Sea and a fine haze of snow, driven by stinging +gusts, obscured all except the long hillocks +of water which rose and fell around the tiny M.L.—a +lonely thirty tons of nautical humanity in as +many square leagues of sub-Arctic sea.</p> + +<p>Nineteen degrees of frost during the long winter +night had flattened the boisterous, foam-capped +waves, and now, in the early December dawn, all +within vision was of that colourless grey so familiar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +to those who kept the North Sea on the winter +patrol.</p> + +<p>It was one bell in the first watch and three +shapeless figures clad in duffel coats with big hoods +and wearing heavy sea-boots stood silent in the +draughty, canvas-screened wheel-house as M.L.822 +wallowed northwards through the seas which came +in endless succession out of the snowy mist. It +was just the ordinary everyday patrol duty, when +nothing was expected but anything might happen, +so eyes were strained seawards in a vain endeavour +to penetrate the icy curtain blowing down from the +Pole. Twelve hours more of half-frozen existence +stretched in front of these silent watchers, as they +clung with stiffened limbs to ropes stretched +purposely handy to keep them upright when the +little ship lurched more fiercely in a steeper sea.</p> + +<p>Of the three figures in the meagre shelter of the +wheel-house there was little to distinguish who or +what they were, except, perhaps, a cleaner and +more yellowish duffel coat and a big white muffler +in which the lieutenant-in-command tried, without +success, to keep his teeth from chattering and the +icy draught from finding its way into the seemingly +endless openings of his woollen clothing. What he +had been before the Great War and the North Sea +claimed him was a mystery to those on board, but +the people of more than one capital knew his name. +Near by stood a younger man—a boy before the +war—who, although pale and dark-eyed, did not +appear to feel the intense cold so much, although +the dampness of the long-past summer fogs had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +chilled him to the bone. He was the sub-lieutenant, +and hailed from the Great North-West, where +Canadian winters had hardened his skin to the +stinging dry cold.</p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 188px;"> +<img src="images/i-228.jpg" width="188" height="400" alt="Fig. 33.—Duffel or Arctic clothing." title="" /> +</div> + +<div class='center'><b><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Duffel or Arctic clothing.</b></div> + +<p>The immense bundle of nondescript clothing +at the wheel was "Mac," the coxswain, whose +voyages in Arctic seas with the Iceland fishing fleet +numbered more than his years of life, and whose +deep-voiced Gaelic roar could bring the "watch +below" on to the cold, wet deck to their action +stations in less time than it would take a new +recruit to tumble out of his hammock.</p> + +<p>Although the silence of the sea seems to settle on +its watchers in those northern marches, there was +an unduly long absence of comment on the nature +of the weather and the prospects of "something<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +exciting" turning up out of the icy mist. The +reason lay in the subconscious mind of all on deck, +for it was Christmas morning, 1916, and the +thoughts of all were dwelling on past years in the +cheery surroundings of English and Colonial homes—in +vivid contrast to the dismal grey of the North +Sea. To break the spell of memory both officers +felt would be blasphemy, and yet a feeble attempt +at conversation was made every now and then for +the sake of appearances.</p> + +<p>To Mac, from the Orkneys, no such sentiment +held sway, for Christmas to him meant little compared +with New Year's Day; but this was a special +Christmas, for a big plum pudding was being boiled +on the petrol stove below, and each roll of the little +vessel threatened its useful existence. Eventually +he could keep silent no longer and tentatively suggested +a change of course to ease the violent lurching. +The wheel was spun round with alacrity as +the telegraph rang out below and the engines +slowed down to a slow pulsating throb. The +sharp bows of the patrol boat rose dripping from +each green-grey mass of sea as it rolled up out of the +white haze ahead and then fell gently back into the +trough. The violent pitching gave place to a more +easy see-saw movement, and in spite of the cold, +which seemed to grow keener every minute to the +half-numbed figures on deck, a grunt of satisfaction +escaped the helmsman, and visions of steaming +plum duff—a present from the Admiral's wife—supplanted +the more anxious thoughts of war and +the dangers of mine and submarine which lay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +hidden in the white snow-mists and grey seas +around.</p> + +<p>The four hands in the forecastle, who formed +the watch below, were lying on their bunks, for +sitting meant holding on, and were discussing +orgies on past Christmas days and planning future +ones with a nonchalance bred of daily rubbing +shoulders with danger and death. Snatches of +popular music hall songs penetrated the closed +hatchways, but were drowned by the splash of the +sea against the ship's side.</p> + +<p>This silent battle with monotony, bitter cold +and drenching showers of spray, with several +numbing hours on deck, followed by an equal +time lying on the bunks below—still cold and +wet, for fires and dry clothes were almost unknown +in the patrol boats during the long winter +months in the cruel northern seas—might have +lasted all day, until darkness and increasing +cold added their quota to the sum of misery, +and the day patrol crept silently into harbour, +to be relieved by their brethren of the night +guard.</p> + +<p>But such was not to be, for it was a Christmas +Day that will live for ever in the memory of the +men on Patrol Launch No. 822, to be recalled in +the peaceful years ahead to eager listeners at +many a fireside.</p> + +<p>Two bells in the afternoon watch had barely +struck when from out of the haze ahead came a +low reverberating boom! The three figures on +the bridge stiffened to alertness and the chilled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +blood went coursing more warmly through their +veins. A few seconds of strained listening, rewarded +only by the noise of the sea, then the telegraph +was moved forward, a sharp jangle of bells +came from the engine-room and forecastle and the +slow pulsating of the motors grew to a loud roar. +The watch below came tumbling on to the wet +deck, to be lashed with clouds of blinding, stinging +spray, which now flew high over the little ship as +the 400-horse-power engines drove her at 18 knots +through the grey, misty seas.</p> + +<p>Experience had made that dull roar familiar to +all on board, and it needed no order from the now +hard-faced C.O. to cause every man to don his +"capuc" life-belt in readiness for the hidden +dangers which they knew to be strewn in the +pathways of the sea ahead.</p> + +<p>Mines are moored at a given depth below the +surface, usually from six to ten feet. The rise and +fall of the tide, therefore, either increases or decreases +the stratum of free water above them. +This causes these invisible submarine weapons to +be more dangerous to shallow-draught vessels, such +as motor patrol launches, at low tide, when there is +little water between the tops of their horns and the +surface, than at high tide. More will, however, be +said in a later chapter about mines and the difficulties +of laying them.</p> + +<p>It so happened that on this occasion the tide was +low and the mines consequently extremely dangerous +to even the shallowest draught type of warship. +The speed of the M.L. was increased until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +the twin engines were revolving at the rate of 490 +a minute.</p> + +<p>The snow haze seemed suddenly to grow thicker +and all around the flurries of white blotted out the +distant view. The minutes of pounding through +the slate-grey seas seemed interminably long, and +the flying clouds of icy spray stung every exposed +part of the human frame.</p> + +<p>When about three sea miles had been traversed +the engines were stopped and all on board listened +for a cry from the sea ahead. The C.O. pulled the +peak of his drenched cap farther over his eyes and +gazed out into the opaque greyness ahead.</p> + +<p>Minutes passed; but little ships cannot rest +quietly on the open sea. The lash of the water +and the slapping of the meagre rigging drowned any +faint sound there might have been, and once more +the engines throbbed to the order "Slow ahead!"</p> + +<p>Barely had the ship gathered way before a dark +object appeared momentarily in the trough of the +sea about two degrees on the starboard bow and +the next instant seemed swallowed up.</p> + +<p>A warning cry from the look-out on the tiny +sea-washed fo'c'sle head, a sharp order from the +bridge, and, within its own length, the patrol boat +swung rapidly to port. At the same moment a +dan-buoy splashed overboard to mark the position +of the floating mine. A few yards more to the +eastward and No. 822 would have appeared in +the list of the missing.</p> + +<p>Minutes of tense nerve strain followed, for all +knew that the ship was in the midst of a mine-field,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +and the deadly horns which had been momentarily +visible on the surface were but a single example +of the many which lurked around. Eyes were +strained into the grey-green depths, and yet all +knew the impossibility of seeing. Again the look-out's +warning cry and the engines were reversed, +but this time it was not a mine, but the victim of +one, holding on to a piece of wreckage.</p> + +<p>Willing hands hauled the half-frozen form on +board and stanched the blood that still oozed +from cuts on the face and neck. Blankets and +hot-water bottles were soon forthcoming, and the +battered remnant—for both a leg and thigh bone +were broken—was placed as carefully as the lurching +of the ship would allow in the aft-cabin bunk. +Before this could be accomplished, however, a cry +again rang out from the watch on the fo'c'sle head +and yet another body was hauled aboard, but the +shock or the cold had here taken its toll.</p> + +<p>The sea around was searched in vain for further +survivors. A few planks, a signal locker, a broken +life-raft and a meat-safe were all that was left of +the trawler <i>Mayflower</i>, homeward bound from +Iceland to Grimsby.</p> + +<p>A silence seemed to brood over the patrol boat +as she slowly picked her way out of the mine-field. +The crew went about their tasks without the usual +jests and snatches of song, and the pudding, which +but a few short hours before had seemed the most +important event of the day, lay unheeded on the +floor of the galley, where it had been thrown by +the cook in the haste for hot water.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the failing light of the December afternoon +the bow of the patrol boat was turned shorewards, +and, with a rising sea curling up astern, she raced +through the slate-grey water with her burden of +living and dead. It was one of those moments +which call for a rapid decision on a difficult point, +when the order had to be given for the course to be +laid for harbour, and the C.O., cold and miserably +wet after seven hours on the bridge, wore an +anxious look. He knew not which had the greater +claim, the desperately wounded man in the cabin +or other ships which might bear down on the mine-field +during the long bitter night. It was a point +on which the rules of war and the dictates of +humanity clashed.</p> + +<p>Again the ship was turned into the rapidly +darkening east, and all through that bitter night +the field of death was guarded. Stiffened fingers +flashed out the warning signal when black hulls +loomed out of the darkness. Numbed limbs clung +for dear life when green seas washed the tiny decks, +and when dawn broke over the waste of tumbling +sea the men on M.L.822 knew that Christmas +Day, 1916, would live for ever in their memory.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<h3>THE DERELICT</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">There</span> are few things more heart-breaking than +sea patrol, which forms the principal duty of anti-submarine +fleets. Hours, days and even months +may pass with nothing to relieve the monotony of +grey sea and sky, with occasional glimpses of wave-tossed +ships.</div> + +<p>There are, of course, intervening periods in +harbour, when fierce gales howl overhead, and +guard duty on rain-swept quaysides, or sentry-go +in blinding snowstorms, comes almost as a relief +from the sameness of winter days on northern seas.</p> + +<p>It is, however, the unexpected which generally +occurs in war, and during those terrible winters +from 1914-1918 it was the ever-present hope of +action that kept the spirits of many a sailorman +from sinking below the Plimsoll line of health.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the happenings were grave and at +other times gay, but always they were welcomed +eagerly, as providing excitement or change, with +something to talk about in the unknown number +of dreary weeks ahead.</p> + +<p>An episode of this kind occurred one snowy +January night in 1917 on the quayside of a northern +seaport. The commanding officer of one of the +patrol boats in the harbour was going ashore to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +stay for the night with some friends. Knowing +that his ship was due to proceed to sea early the +following morning, he took the precaution to place +a small alarm clock in the big pocket of his bridge-coat. +Groping his way in the darkness and blinding +snow across the gangway leading from the ship +to the quay, he succeeded in reaching the dock wall. +Almost instantly he was challenged by a military +sentry on duty and was about to reply when a loud +buzzing noise came from his pocket. He had not +thought of ascertaining at what time the alarm +clock had been set for and the consequences were +distinctly unpleasant.</p> + +<p>The sentry, hearing the curious buzzing sound +coming from the darkness directly he had given +the challenge, and thinking it came from some +form of bomb, lunged smartly with his bayonet at +the spot from which the sound emanated.</p> + +<p>Fortunately the officer was near the edge of the +dock wall and did not receive the full effect of the +thrust. The bayonet tore his coat and pushed +him violently over the edge into the icy water of +the harbour. His lusty shouts caused searchlights +to be turned on and he was rescued promptly, but +the episode, small and unimportant as it was, +caused considerable merriment—except to the +principal actor—for many days afterwards.</p> + +<p>All this may sound much like heresy to those +who think that naval war means constant fighting, +with all the pomp and circumstance of old-time +battles. There are, it is true, never-to-be-forgotten +moments when the blood surges and pulses beat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +rapidly, when the months of weary waiting are +atoned for in as many minutes of swift action. +Such were Jutland, Zeebrugge, Heligoland, the +Falklands and many an unrecorded fight on +England's sea frontier in the years just past. Such +times pass rapidly, however; they are the milestones +of war, leaving the weary leagues between, +in which there is so much that is sordid and even +ghastly, as will be seen from the following.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The sea offers but few sights more melancholy +than the wave-washed derelict—the now desolate, +helpless and forlorn thing that was once a <i>ship</i>, the +home of men—seen in the half-light of a winter +dawn, rising and falling sluggishly on the dirty grey +swell—the aftermath of storm—with white water +washing through its broken bulwarks, yards and +sails adrift, a thing without life on the sad sea waves.</p> + +<p>A wireless message from a ship passing the +derelict on the previous day had brought an M.L. +from the nearest naval base to search the area, +and after a night of wandering over shadowy grey +slopes of water the dawn had revealed it less than +two miles distant.</p> + +<p>There could be no doubt as to its nationality, for +the white cross of Denmark, on the red ground, was +painted on the weather-beaten sides, now showing +just above the sea. Deserted and half-waterlogged, +it was being kept afloat by a cargo of timber, +some of which could be seen in chaos on the deck.</p> + +<p>The M.L. approached cautiously, with thick rope +fenders over her rubbing-streak to prevent the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +frail hull from being damaged. This coming +alongside other ships in the open sea, except in the +very calmest of weather, is a ticklish man[oe]uvre, +and requires considerable skill in the handling of +these small and very fragile craft. What would +be considered quite a light blow on the stout hull +of any ordinary ship would crush in the thin +timbers of a patrol launch, for in the construction +of these boats speed and shallow draught were the +predominant factors considered.</p> + +<p>When the M.L. had been made fast on the lee-side +of the derelict a boarding party scrambled +over the damaged bulwarks on to the sea-washed +deck. Here was a scene of chaos—rigging +tangled and swinging loosely from masts and +yards; sails torn and shreds still clinging to +ropes and spars; loose planks of her deck cargo +lying all over the place, and a general air of +abandon and desolation difficult to describe.</p> + +<p>A mass of broken woodwork in the well of the +ship was soon discovered to be the remains of a +deck-house, and this gave the first clue to the +reason for her sorry plight. Pieces of shrapnel +were found sticking in the timbers, and further +search revealed shell-holes through the hull and +cut rigging. A signal was flying from the mizen +halyards, and the name on the counter, although +spattered with shot, was still, in part, decipherable—<i>Rickivik</i>, +Copenhafen.</p> + +<p>So the officer in charge of the boarding party +commenced his report with the name of the ship +and the port from which she hailed, adding thereto<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +the evident fact that she had been heavily shelled—just +a brief statement which left to the imagination +all the incidents and, alas! tragedies of an +unequal fight.</p> + +<p>A high-explosive shell had struck the little raised +poop, demolishing the hatchway leading to the +cabins beneath, and some heavy work with axe +and saw would have been necessary to obtain an +entry had an easier way not been available through +the shattered skylight. In the low-roofed cabin +all was disorder. Tables and lockers were +smashed, and the shell which had burst overhead +had filled the place with heavy broken timbers +from the deck above.</p> + +<p>So low was the cabin roof of this small three-masted +barque, and so dark the interior, that it +was difficult to see about. A lantern was procured +and a careful search commenced. The yellow +light fell on drawers pulled out and their contents—when +worthless—flung on the floor; glasses +and bottles smashed and a quaint old China figure +lying intact on the broken timbers. But of the +ship's papers there was no trace, with the single +exception of an old Bill of Health, issued six years +previously in Baltimore. Then the area of search +moved from the cupboards and drawers to the +floor—broken by a shell which had evidently penetrated +the ship's stern and passed longitudinally +through the cabin, exploding near the base of the +companion-hatch.</p> + +<p>Presently a startled exclamation, followed by a +call for the light, came from the gloom around the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +stairway. Two of the boarding party searching +among the debris had stumbled across something +which, instinctively, sent a cold shiver through +them. The light, when moved in that direction, +dimly revealed the body of a man lying face downwards +on the floor. Only the lower half of the +figure was, however, visible, a mass of shattered +timbers having collapsed on the head and shoulders. +That life had been extinct for some considerable +time was evidenced by the sickly odour which hung +heavily in the less ventilated parts of the cabin, +and the work of extricating the body was not commenced +before the whole ship had been searched +for possible survivors.</p> + +<p>This work occupied a considerable time, but +nothing of importance was discovered until a slight +noise, not unlike the feeble, inarticulate cry of a +child in pain, came through the timbers from +some distant part of the hold. It was repeated +several times, and the sailors, without waiting +for orders, set hastily to work to find out the +cause.</p> + +<p>The hatches were carefully removed, but only +floating timber could be seen. Then the sound +came again. This time it was unmistakable and +relieved the tension. A little grim laugh from the +searchers was followed by much poking about with +a long piece of wood on the surface of the flooded +hold under the decking, and some minutes later a +large pile of timber floated into the light from the +open hatchway, supporting a big tortoiseshell cat, +looking very wet and emaciated. "Ricky"—for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +such is her name now—proved to be the only living +thing on that ill-fated ship.</p> + +<p>The boarding party returned to the cabin and +commenced the objectionable task of extricating +the dead body from the mass of wreckage. The +work proceeded slowly, for the heavy broken +timbers pressed mercilessly on the object beneath, +and when at last it lay revealed in the dim lantern +light its ghastly appearance caused all to step back +in horror. It was a headless corpse!</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<h3>MINED-IN</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">How</span> many people realise that, with a single unimportant +exception, there was no part of the +English or Scottish coast which was not mined-in +at least once by German submarines during 1914-1918? +Harbour entrances, often less than two +miles from the shore, were repeatedly blocked by +lines of hostile mines, laid by U-C boats through +their stern tubes, in which they seldom carried less +than fifteen to twenty of these deadly weapons, +without the vessels rising to the surface either +when approaching the coast, laying the mines or +effecting their escape.</div> + +<p>Many important waterways, such as the Straits +of Dover, the mouth of the Thames, the approaches +to Liverpool, the Firth of Forth, Aberdeen, Lowestoft +and Portsmouth, were repeatedly chosen for +this form of submarine attack. At one base alone +no less than 400 mines were destroyed by the +attached anti-submarine flotillas in one year, and +round the coasts of the United Kingdom an average +of about 3000 of these invisible weapons were +located and destroyed annually.</p> + +<p>What this meant to the 24,000,000 tons of +mercantile shipping passing to and fro through the +danger zone <i>every month</i> will be better realised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +when it is stated that less than 400 merchant ships +were blown up by mines during the three years of +intensive submarine warfare.</p> + +<p>The losses among the minesweeping and patrol +flotillas, which were mainly responsible for the +crushing defeat of this piratical campaign, were, +however, very heavy. They amounted to over +200 ships and several thousand men. Few +will therefore deny to those who lived and to +those who died a share in the glory of the great +victory.</p> + +<p>Statistics make but uninteresting reading, and +from the following account of what happened off +a big Scottish seaport while the inhabitants +ashore slept in peace and safety a better idea +will be obtained of the arduous nature of the +work of minesweeping and patrol in time of +war than could possibly be imparted by pages +of figures.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The early dusk of a winter evening was settling +over a white land and a leaden sea. A mist of +sliding snow increased the gloom and blotted out +the vessels ahead and astern as the line of patrol +boats left the comparative warmth and security of +one of the largest northern harbours for twelve +hours in the bitter frost on night patrol.</p> + +<p>The cold was intense and of that penetrating +nature which causes men to shiver even in the +thickest of clothing. Although some eighteen +degrees of frost had flattened the sea, a freezing +spray still blew in showers over the narrow deck<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +and, for just a few minutes, the lead-grey sky +gleamed dully red as the sun dipped below the +snow-covered land.</p> + +<p>The crew of the M.L. moved about the cramped +deck stiffly, for they were clad in duffel suits, oilskins +and sea-boots, and little but their eyes and +hands were visible. The officer on the small +canvas-screened bridge was likewise an almost +unrecognisable bundle of yellow and white wool +and black leather. As a contrast, however, to the +whitening deck and snow-clad men, the reflection +of a warm yellow light came up through the wardroom +hatchway, and more than one longing glance +was cast down into the snug interior.</p> + +<p>These men were not all hardened by long and +severe sea training; many of them formed part of +the new navy, gaining experience amid the bitter +cold and dangers of the grey North Sea. A call +for the signalman came from the bridge, and a +boy, who had been swinging his arms to warm +his numbed fingers, responded smartly. The +lieutenant-in-command wiped the snow from his +eyes as he peered round the canvas side-screen and +asked tersely what the next ship ahead was trying +to signal.</p> + +<p>The boy seized his semaphore flags and went out +on to the spray-swept fore-deck, steadying himself +against the fo'c'sle hatch cover. He flinched at +first when the spray stung the exposed parts of his +body, and then, with straining eyes and dripping +oilskins, he managed, after the words had been repeated +several times, to read the signal which was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +being sent down the line from the leading ship +somewhere in the white haze ahead.</p> + +<p>"Proceed independently to allotted stations for +night patrol" was the order then conveyed to the +bridge and afterwards passed on by flag to the next +astern. When the last ship had received the signal +each unit of the flotilla swung out of line and disappeared +in the sliding snow.</p> + +<p>As the darkness increased the cold strengthened +and a little bitter wind began to moan through +the scanty rigging. Men stamped their feet and +swung their arms to increase the circulation in +numbed limbs, and every now and then during the +next three hours one member of the watch on deck +would disappear for a few minutes down the galley +hatchway to drink a cup of hot cocoa, which, so far, +the cook had succeeded in keeping warm on the ill-natured +petrol stove.</p> + +<p>At 9 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span> the first watch was over and half-frozen +men climbed stiffly down the iron ladder into the +tiny fo'c'sle, where the heat and fugg of oil stoves +caused their thawing limbs to throb painfully. +The starboard watch, fresh from the heat of the +tiny cabin, whose four hours on deck now commenced, +were shivering in the icy wind and showers +of spray.</p> + +<p>Glancing at the dimly lit chart on the small +table cunningly fitted into the front of the wheel-house, +the commander noted the approximate +position of the ship in the 140,000 square miles of +sea and snow around, and then turning to the +coxswain, whose "trick" it was at the wheel, he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +gave the necessary orders for the course and speed. +The duty of this vessel was to patrol certain +approaches to the great harbour on which the +flotilla was based until relieved at daybreak by +another unit, and, as merchant ships had many +times been attacked in these waters, a sharp look-out +was necessary. To carry this out effectively +in the darkness and driving snow was a task calling +for all the qualities of dogged endurance inherent +in the British sailor.</p> + +<p>For over two hours nothing was seen or heard +except the moaning of the wind and the lash of the +sea, but shortly after midnight one of the look-outs +reported the sound of engines away to the starboard.</p> + +<p>The M.L.'s propellers were stopped and the watch +on deck listened intently. The splash of the sea +and the many noises of a rolling ship drowned any +other sound there might have been, and the patrol +was then continued. Less than half-an-hour later, +however, the clank! clank! clank! of engines +again became suddenly audible, and the vessel was +turned in the direction of the sound.</p> + +<p>The engines were put to full speed ahead, and +as each comber struck the bows the little ship +trembled from stem to stern, and clouds of icy +spray swept high over the mast. The big steel +hull of some man-o'-war or merchantman might +suddenly loom up out of the darkness so close +ahead that no skill could avoid a collision, and the +eyes of all aboard were gazing alertly into the +blackness of the night.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p> + +<p>Five minutes' dash through the blinding, stinging +spray and the engines were once more shut off +to listen. The curious clanking noise had, however, +ceased, and although hydrophones were used +to again locate the sound, there was no result, only +the ceaseless wash of the sea and the low moaning +of the wind. Another mile or so of pounding +through the waves, followed by an interval of +listening, brought the same discouraging result, +and the slow, monotonous routine of patrol was +continued.</p> + +<p>The stinging frost of the night became the numbing +cold of early morning, and the long hours in the +snow and icy spray had left their mark on all. +Limbs were stiff and sore. The edges of wet and +half-frozen sleeves rasped swollen wrists. Faces +smarted and eyes ached, but little was said in the +way of complaint, for men grow hard on northern +seas or else succumb to the hardships.</p> + +<p>When the first dim light of a winter dawn broke +reluctantly over the grey tumbling sea and whirling +snow another night patrol was over, and the +cheering thought came to all that soon the welcome +warmth and shelter of club and recreation room +would embrace them for the brief hours of daylight, +while others kept watch upon the seas.</p> + +<p>It had been snowing hard for the past twenty-four +hours, but as the light of a new day +strengthened it eased somewhat, and away to the +westward the blue outline of the land became +visible. The fitful wind of the night rose to a stiff +breeze, but no one paid much attention to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +increasing volume of bitter spray which swept the +deck as the grey-green rollers put on their white +caps of foam, for the ship was heading towards the +harbour and their vigil was over until darkness +again closed down.</p> + +<p>Few things are more trying to the temper than +to be kept waiting for relief after a bad spell at sea, +and but few crimes are more heinous than to leave +the watched area before another patrol takes up +the never-ceasing duties. Therefore, if peace and +quietness and an absence of insulting signals +counted for anything, it ill behove any ship in the +day patrol to keep her opposite member of the +night guard waiting.</p> + +<p>This time the relief was late and the M.L. steamed +angrily up and down, with all eyes strained shorewards. +Then the first of the line of armed trawlers +and motor launches crawled out of the harbour in +a smother of black smoke. When barely half-a-mile +of sea separated the incoming and outgoing +ships a loud reverberating boom rolled over the +sea. So great was the explosion that the shock of +it was felt rather than heard, and a gigantic column +of black smoke, rising over 100 feet into the air, +appeared to engulf the leading unit of the trawler +patrol.</p> + +<p>Regardless of the danger, the C.O. of the +motor launch sent his swift shallow-draught +boat flying over the mine-field into the floating +debris. The only two mangled survivors had, +however, been picked up by the trawler astern +of the ill-fated vessel, which had been literally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> +blown to pieces, nothing remaining afloat when +the smoke cleared away except a signal locker +and a few timbers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/i-250-big.jpg"><img src="images/i-250.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="A Motor Launch of the Naval Patrol" title="" /></a> +<div class='attrib2'><i>Yachting Monthly</i></div><div class='attrib'><i>Photo by Com. Sir A. Lee Guinness</i></div> + +<span class="caption">A Motor Launch of the Naval Patrol</span> +</div> + + +<p>More than one of the other vessels, whose engines +had been stopped immediately the explosion occurred, +narrowly escaped drifting down with the +tide on to the field of hidden mines, but with the +skill and presence of mind gained by similar experiences +in the past both the trawler unit and +the M.L. flotilla were extricated without further +loss.</p> + +<p>It was evident from the fact that several of the +mines were barely submerged and could be dimly +seen from the decks that the work of laying them +had been done hastily under the cover of night, +and a sense of keen sorrow and disappointment +pervaded the vessels of the night guard. Once +again climatic conditions had favoured the enemy. +In those long winter hours of impenetrable blackness +and driving snow no watch, however efficient, +could be relied upon to prevent such operations +from being occasionally carried out. It was merely +the chance of war, but nevertheless it was felt +keenly, and the sense of responsibility was not +dispelled until some weeks later.</p> + +<p>When the <i>sweepers</i> arrived it was soon discovered +that the harbour was temporarily mined-in. +Signals were exchanged with the "Senior +Naval Officer" of the base, and the night guard +was ordered to assist in preventing shipping from +attempting to enter the harbour before the +approaches had been swept clear and the mines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +destroyed. Weary ships with disappointed crews +once more turned seawards, but the physical discomforts +of stinging spray and frequent snowstorms +passed almost unnoticed in the efforts of +the flotilla to prevent the ceaseless stream of +ocean traffic from approaching the danger zone +unnoticed in the blinding white haze.</p> + +<p>Tired limbs were forced to continued efforts and +numbed faculties were goaded afresh. Big ships +loomed out of the mists around and were informed +of the dangers and directed into the pathways +of safety. Trawlers returning from the fishing-grounds +of the far north had to be intercepted, +local craft piloted round the mine-field in the +shallow water close inshore, signals flashed to +the outer patrols, and the hours of daylight and +activity passed quickly by.</p> + +<p>By seven bells in the afternoon watch the dusk +of the long winter night began again to settle over +the sea, blotting out one patrol from another. On +this as on many other similar nights spent in the +bitter frost, thick sea fog or flying spume, in waters +infested with mines and hostile submarines, certain +senses became dulled, though the brain remained +alert and the limbs as active as cramp and cold +would allow. But the little incidents of those long +hours are lost in blurred memories of cries from the +look-out, hulls towering out of the blackness, the +flashing of Morse lamps, the ceaseless and violent +pitching and rolling of a small ship, moments of +tense excitement, followed by hours of cold and +an utter weariness of the soul.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p> + +<p>When the first pale streaks of returning daylight +had turned to the fiery red of a frosty sunrise, dirty +and unshaven men moved painfully about the +slippery decks. The sea had flattened in the night +and the snowing had ceased, but twenty degrees of +frost had gripped the wet decks and the soaked +clothing. As the vessels stood towards the shore +weary eyes were turned anxiously on the signal +station, but not yet was the recall to be hoisted, +for although the seas around had been swept clear +of mines, there was still a careful inspection to be +made before the area could be reported clear, so +that ships might come and go.</p> + +<p>When at last a line of flags fluttered to the +distant mast-head away on the hill ashore, and the +signal-boy read out, "M.L.'s to return to harbour," +there was a feeble cheer.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>. . . . . . . .</b></div> + +<p>On a calm, frosty morning some three weeks +later the boats of the old night guard, now doing +their spell of day duty, discovered a long trail of +thick greenish-black oil on the surface leading seawards. +It was evident that a hostile submarine +had rested during the previous night on the sandy +bottom in the shallow water close inshore and, +rising to the surface, had made off at daybreak. +The trail was followed and information was quickly +received from an Iceland trawler, which had passed +the submarine on the surface some two hours +previous. Ships were concentrated by wireless, +and although it did not fall to the lot of the M.L.'s<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +to give the <i>coup de grâce</i>, they had the satisfaction +of returning to harbour with the knowledge that +their honour had been retrieved, and yet another +German submarine would never again commit +outrage on the high seas.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<h3>THE CASUALTY</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">There</span> were duties performed by the new navy +which bore no relationship to anti-submarine +fighting, or, in fact, to warfare at all, unless it was +to the ceaseless battle waged between all who go +down to the sea in ships and the elements they seek +to master.</div> + +<p>One such as this occurred at a little northern seaport +in the late winter of 1917, unimportant and +scarcely worth relating except as an illustration of +the diverse services rendered by men of this great +force during the years of national peril.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The gale was at the height of its fury when the +March day drew to a close. The whole east coast +of Scotland, from John o' Groats to the mouth of +the Tweed, was a study in black and white—the +white of foam and the black of rocks. All the +minesweepers and smaller patrol ships had been +confined to their respective bases for several days, +and in a certain small harbour many of the officers +and crews of the imprisoned ships were spending +their time ashore, in the warmth and cheery comfort +of hospitable firesides.</p> + +<p>The boisterous day became a wild night. The +wind howled and whistled over the barren moors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +and through the streets of the small fishing town. +Houses trembled and chimneys rocked under the +blasts. Although a watch on the signal tower and +elsewhere was religiously maintained, it was of +little value, as all that could be seen in the darkness +to seawards was a hazy mist of flying spray which +the wind whisked from the surface and carried +several miles inland.</p> + +<p>Standing back from the sea, and some half-mile +from the centre of the little fishing town, stood a +substantially built house, more commodious and +better furnished than many of its neighbours, +which had providentially fallen into the temporary +grasp of one of the married officers of the patrol +flotilla, who generously kept open house for his +less fortunate brothers-in-arms.</p> + +<p>On this wild winter night the interior looked +excessively cosy and inviting. Before a big blazing +fire of logs sat three officers, talking between +copious sips of whisky and soda. Their conversation +was subdued and their inhalations of cigar +smoke long. By their side were the faithful +women who had followed them from the comforts +of home and the gaieties of the great southern +cities to this remote corner of northern Scotland. +They too were talking among themselves and +knitting for the crews of their husbands' ships.</p> + +<p>This quiet domestic scene would have gone on +uninterruptedly until a late hour, for it was seldom +that such precious moments of rest and contentment +could be snatched amid the ever-recurring +duties and the turmoil of war, had it not been for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +one of the officers who glanced ruefully at his +wrist watch and then apologetically informed his +host that it was his turn for night duty on the +signal tower.</p> + +<p>Scarcely had he risen from the fire and moved +towards the door of the room, however, before the +dull boom of a gun was borne on the howling wind. +All stood still and listened. The women ceased +their knitting and looked up apprehensively. +Then a minute or so later the boom came again, +this time in a lull of the storm, and it sounded +nearer.</p> + +<p>The three officers hurried into the hall to get +on oilskins and sea-boots, but almost before this +could be done there came a report which echoed +sharply through the little town. They knew the +sound only too well, for the coast was a dangerous +one. It was the reply of the life-boat crew to the +call of distress, and with one accord they moved +towards the door. Almost instantly it was thrown +violently open and the rush of wind and rain extinguished +the hall light. For the next few minutes +they were struggling against the gale, battling their +way to the lofty little signal station, impeded in +every movement by driving rain, flying scud, intense +blackness and flapping oilskins.</p> + +<p>When they had reached the coast and mounted +the rough stone steps leading to the elevated look-out +tower, a clear sweep of the dark, foam-crested +surface was obtained, and the news was shouted +above the roar of the gale that somewhere out in +the night, amid the tormented waters, a ship was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +in distress, though the flying spray made it impossible +to locate the exact direction.</p> + +<p>Below the signal tower, and built on a mass of +rock projecting into the half-sheltered water inside +the concrete pier, was the life-boat house. From +this point the white rays of a chemical flare lighted +up the surface of the sea as far as the harbour bar, +which, with its flanking rocks, resembled a seething +cauldron. Into this the life-boat plunged from +its inclined slipway, and was almost instantly +swallowed up in the outer ring of darkness and +spray. The flare died out suddenly and the night +seemed even blacker than before.</p> + +<p>After a brief struggle with the wind, now blowing +at a speed of over seventy miles an hour, the men +who had assembled around the signal station made +their way out on to the spray-swept breakwater, +and there waited for the coloured rocket from the +life-boat which would signify that she had found +the wreck.</p> + +<p>Nearly an hour passed but no sign came from +the darkness and boiling sea. Then a light appeared +momentarily on the harbour bar and was +lost in the smother of white. A few minutes later +a grinding crash came from the rocks less than a +hundred yards distant from the end of the breakwater.</p> + +<p>The groups of sailors standing under the lee of +the wall, chafing at their apparent helplessness +and gazing anxiously out to sea, were suddenly +electrified into action by a few sharp orders from +the oilskinned commander. A minute or two of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +seemingly inextricable confusion resulted in the +beams of a portable searchlight flashing out from +the spray-swept breakwater and lighting up rocks, +foam, and a big three-masted Norwegian sailing +ship, with sails torn, her fore-mast broken off short +and every sea lifting high her stern and driving +her farther on to the half-hidden tongues of stone. +Even as the light played on her she heeled over +to starboard at an angle of about forty-five degrees +with an ominous rending of timbers which sounded +above the roar of wind and surf.</p> + +<p>Orders were bellowed through a megaphone, and +again men moved quickly in all directions. This +time a fiery rocket, bearing a life-line, soared from +its tube with a loud hiss and sped across the +hundred yards of boiling sea. It straddled the +wreck. The thin line it carried was soon exchanged +for a stout hawser—hauled from the breakwater—and +this was made fast to the stump of the mainmast, +which had followed the other "sticks" +overboard when the vessel heeled over on the rocks. +It was now floating, wrestling and tugging at the +mass of confused rigging, and pounding dangerously +at the ship's side.</p> + +<p>One by one the unfortunate Norse crew were +hauled over the harbour bar in the breeches-buoy +by fifty willing British sailors, and the first to come +was the captain's wife and little daughter.</p> + +<p>There was but one casualty, and that among +the rescuers. The stretcher was lifted from the +ambulance at the door of the substantially built +house standing back from the little town. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +white-faced woman ran out into the storm. She +had spent a year of nights and days half expecting +such as this, and now that it had come the blood +seemed to ebb from her body, and at first she +scarcely heard a familiar voice assuring her that +it was only a cut on the head from a broken wire +rope.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<h3>HOW H.M. TRAWLER NO. 6 LOST HER REFIT</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">An</span> earlier chapter described the periodical overhauls +necessary to keep the ships of the hard-worked +auxiliary navy in proper fighting condition. +These "refits" were needed not only by the ships +but also by the men who worked them. They +came about once a year and lasted for two or three +weeks, during which time the crews were able to +go home for at least a few days of much-needed +rest.</div> + +<p>To describe how everyone, from commander to +signal-boy, looked forward to these spells of leave +is unnecessary. Let the reader imagine how he +himself would feel after nine or ten months of the +monotony and danger, to say nothing of the hardships, +of life at sea in time of war.</p> + +<p>There was, however, another consideration, one +seldom referred to but nevertheless unavoidably +present in the minds of all. Each time a refit +came round there were ships which would never +be docked again, and comrades who had missed +their leave. Men told themselves that the luck +they had enjoyed for so long could not last, and +it is about one of these, in a fight against +overwhelming odds, that the following story +deals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p> + +<p>Three of his Majesty's armed trawlers were +plunging through the sea on their lonely beat in +the Western Ocean. The Hebrides lay far to the +southward, and less than two days' steam ahead +lay the Arctic Circle. These cheerless surroundings, +however, found no echo in the hearts of the +watch below on the leading ship of the unit, who +were lounging on the settees in the oil-smelling +fo'c'sle discussing their prospects of long leave, +for their ship was to "blow-down" for a thorough +refit when they returned to harbour in less than +three weeks' time.</p> + +<p>On the deck of the same vessel two officers, standing +in the shelter of the wheel-house, were sweating +and shivering in patches, but also happy with the +thought of the forthcoming reunion with their +families and the brief enjoyment of the comforts +of home after seven long winter months' wandering, +with soul-destroying monotony, over the windswept +wastes of England's frontier. The watch +on deck, with the exception of the helmsman and +look-out, crouched under the lee of the iron superstructure, +alternately swinging their arms and +stamping their heavily booted feet, but they too +were mentally impervious to the dismal surroundings.</p> + +<p>Of the second ship in the line the same cheery +story cannot be told. She was jealous of the first. +It would be another two months at least before she +would go in dock for refit; and among the watch +below there were three new hands on their first +voyage, two of whom would, just then, have preferred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +the peace and stillness of the sea bottom to +the friskiness of the surface.</p> + +<p>The third trawler was a happy little ship, for +although the junior of the unit she had been very +fortunate in securing a "Fritz" all to her own +cheek less than three months before.</p> + +<p>This, then, was one of the units on the Outer +Hebrides and Iceland patrol during the winter of +1915, and they seemed to be the sole occupants of +the leagues of water around.</p> + +<p>It was barely eleven o'clock, Greenwich time, +when they reached the last ten miles of their beat, +and speed was reduced so that they would not have +to turn about and begin steaming back over the +course they had come until the morning watch +went below at midday. This was an artful though +harmless arrangement to enable those going off +duty to have a meal and at least an hour's rest in +peace, as on the voyage back both wind and sea +would be astern and the vicious lurching of the +small ship reduced to a minimum.</p> + +<p>The time passed slowly, as it generally did on +patrol when nothing exciting was afoot, but a few +minutes before the awaited eight bells the officer +on duty snatched up the binoculars, and almost +simultaneously the look-out gave a warning shout +which caused the attention of everyone on deck to +suddenly become strained.</p> + +<p>Away to port, less than half-a-mile distant, the +thin grey tube of a periscope could be seen planing +through the waves, with a fringe of white foam +blowing from its base. There was a hoarse cry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +down the fo'c'sle hatch for "All hands on deck!" +The telegraph tinkled for "Full ahead!" A signal +was made to the ships astern for concerted action. +The gun was manned, and the leading trawler, +now cleared for action, headed towards her under-water +opponent.</p> + +<p>The other two vessels of the unit put on speed +and spread out until all three were line-abreast +and about two cables apart. In this formation the +chase was maintained for some twenty minutes, +when a second submarine appeared above the +surface away to starboard. She appeared to be a +large vessel and would probably have turned the +scale at 1000 tons.</p> + +<p>It was at this early stage in the action that the +mistake was made. The leading trawler immediately +opened fire, but the range was considerable +and the shells fell short. Signalling to the other +two trawlers to continue the chase of the first +submarine sighted, she headed straight for the +largest of the two hostile craft to engage her at +close range.</p> + +<p>While this was in progress the first submarine +came to the surface and proved to be also a larger +craft than had been anticipated. The two trawlers +chasing her immediately opened fire, but her +superior surface speed soon placed her out of range +of the comparatively small guns then carried by +the trawler patrols.</p> + +<p>Now came the surprise. Almost simultaneously +the two submarines opened fire from heavy guns. +The shells at first fell wide, but in a moment the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +British officers realised that they were outranged, +for whereas their shells were falling short, those +from the enemy whistled over their heads and +ploughed up columns of white water over a cable's +length astern.</p> + +<p>To increase speed and so reduce the range became +imperative, and the steam-pressure in the trawlers' +boilers was raised to bursting point by the simple +expedient of screwing down the safety valve. +For some minutes it looked as though the effort +would be successful, and then the range slowly +increased again and "short" after "short" was +registered by the gunners.</p> + +<p>At this psychological moment a German shell +carried away the funnel of the leading trawler +and smothered her decks with smoke. When a +temporary shield had been rigged it was observed +that one of the other patrol ships had been crippled +by a direct hit and was in a sinking condition.</p> + +<p>It now became evident that the superior speed +and gun-power of the submarines enabled them to +keep out of range of the trawlers' weapons and to +ply their long-range fire with telling effect.</p> + +<p>The officer in command of the patrol at once +realised the mistake he had made when opening +the action, in betraying the power of his own guns +before he was sufficiently close to the enemy to +ensure hits, and he cursed this want of foresight +which looked like costing the life of the flotilla. +Given one direct hit on each of his two powerful +opponents and they would in all probability have +been put out of action, but instead he had only the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +mortification of seeing every shell fired fall short, +while his own vessels were being battered to pieces +by the long-range guns of an enemy with whom he +could not close.</p> + +<p>The withholding of fire while hostile shells are +bursting around is one of the many severe strains +imposed on the human mind by modern war, and +in anti-submarine tactics it often means the difference +between victory and defeat, which, followed +to its logical conclusion, is generally life or death.</p> + +<p>One hope now remained—that by skilful man[oe]uvring +the trawlers could be kept afloat until help +arrived; but in those wastes of sea no vessel might +pass for many hours, and even then not a warship.</p> + +<p>Such is the working of Fate: the leading trawler +of the unit was to have been fitted with wireless +while under the approaching refit, and with its +aid patrol cruisers or fast destroyers could soon +have been brought to the scene of operations.</p> + +<p>Thirty minutes later the crippled ship, the junior +member, gave three defiant shrieks with her syren +and slid under the surface with her colours flying. +For over two hours the others man[oe]uvred to get +one on each side of the submarines to enable them +to get the few shells remaining in their magazines +home on the target, but so great was the disparity +of both range and speed that at five in the evening +nearly half their crews were dead or wounded, and +a little while later the ice-cold water closed over +the leading ship. Still the other fought on, but as +dusk closed over the sea she too went down in this +obscure fight.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span></p> + +<p>No search for possible survivors was made by +the submarines, which glided westwards into the +smoky red afterglow, leaving the bitter cold to +finish the work of death.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>. . . . . . . .</b></div> + +<p>A big armed liner of the Tenth Cruiser Squadron +had heard the distant firing and came upon the +scene just before darkness finally closed over. +Four bodies were still lashed to a raft, but in all +except one life was extinct.</p> + +<p>When the doctors bent over the half-frozen form +in which a flicker still lingered they shook their +heads. Death waged a stern battle even for this +last relic, but life triumphed, and when the agony +of returning animation had ceased the sole survivor +told the cruiser's mess how Trawler No. 1 had lost +her refit.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<h3>THE RAIDER</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">Everyone</span> familiar with English history knows +that it was a severe gale which destroyed the +scattered and defeated units of the Spanish +Armada in 1588, and that, in more modern times, +it was the coming of darkness which prevented +the British Grand Fleet from turning the victory +of Jutland into a decisive rout. Such historical +examples of the effect of the weather, and even +ordinary climatic changes, on the course of naval +operations could be multiplied almost indefinitely. +Not only are the movements of the barometer +important factors to be considered in the major +operations of naval war but also in minor sea +fights.</div> + +<p>Comparatively few people are, however, aware +that one of the largest and most destructive of +German mine-fields was laid off the British coast +during the Great War by a surface ship which +escaped detection through darkness and storm.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The barometer had fallen rapidly, and clouds +rolled up from the north-west in ragged grey banks +which scudded ominously over a cold steely blue +sky. For some days the sea had been moderately +calm, but it was mid-winter and quiescence of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +elements could not be expected to last. Slowly +the face of the Atlantic grew lined with white. It +began with a moaning wind which soon developed +into a stiff gale, accompanied by heavy storms of +sleet and snow.</p> + +<p>One of his Majesty's ships coming up the west +coast of Ireland found herself heading into the +teeth of the gale. As the afternoon wore on the +wind increased in violence and the ship rolled and +plunged heavily, smothering herself in clouds of +flying spume. The driving sleet made it difficult +to see more than a cable's length in any direction, +and when dusk closed over the storm-swept ocean +the ship was headed for a sheltered stretch of water +close inshore.</p> + +<p>Every stay and shroud whistled its own tune as +the gale roared past. Foam-crested waves hurled +themselves in a white fury against the plunging, +dripping sides, piling up on the port bow and racing +aft in cataracts of water which threatened instant +death to any luckless sailor caught in their embrace. +The lashings on the movable furniture of the decks, +although of stout rope, were snapped like spun-yarn, +and much-prized, newly painted ventilators, +boat-covers, fenders, deck-rails and other necessary +adornments were swept overboard by the ugly +rushes of green sea. The iron superstructure and +bridge-supports resounded to the heavy blows of +the water, and the ship trembled as she rose after +each ghastly plunge.</p> + +<p>The blasts of wind which struck the vessel with +increasing violence had swept unimpeded over<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +5000 miles of ocean and carried in their breath +the edge of the Arctic frost. The sleet felt warm +compared with it, and the flying spray lost its +sting.</p> + +<p>The forty-eight sea miles lying between the ship +and the sheltered strait seemed endless leagues, +for the speed had to be considerably reduced to +avoid serious damage from Neptune's guns. The +minutes of twilight grew rapidly less, and with +the coming of darkness a new danger threatened. +The ship was approaching a rock-strewn coast with +no friendly lights to guide her, and every now and +then lofty masses of black stone rose up, dimly, +from their beds of foam. It was an anxious half-hour, +and ears were strained for the warning +thunder from surf-beaten rocks which sounded at +intervals even above the roar of the gale.</p> + +<p>Fortunately the entrance to the sheltered waterway +was broad, and almost before it could be +realised the sea grew calm. Although the wind +still shrieked and moaned, the waves rose barely +three feet high. Great cliffs, invisible in the darkness +and driving sleet, protected the strait, and as +the vessel picked her way to a safe anchorage closer +under the lee of the land the wind lost its giant +strength and the howling receded into the upper +air.</p> + +<p>Throughout the night the comparatively small +warship rode safely at anchor, innocent of what +was taking place out in the blackness and the storm. +When morning broke the gale had lost some of its +force, and streams of pale watery sunlight shone<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +between the low-flying clouds on to a boisterous +sea.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>. . . . . . . .</b></div> + +<p>Running before the wind and sea the German +raider <i>Frederick</i>, carefully disguised and loaded +with several hundred mines, approached the +British coast. The gale was increasing in force +as darkness closed down, and heavy showers of +sleet shielded her from the view of any passing +craft. The weather was ideal for her dark purpose, +which was to lay a mine-field over a stretch of sea +where it was thought the Anglo-American trade +routes converged.</p> + +<p>For the first few days out from Wilhelmshaven +the weather had been misty with heavy snowfalls, +conditions enabling the mine-layer (and afterwards +raider) to run the blockade and elude the network +of patrols, not, however, without some very close +shaves. On one occasion a large auxiliary cruiser +passed in a snow squall, and during subsequent +movements the raider found herself in the midst +of a British fishing fleet, but passed unrecognised +in the darkness. And now that she was approaching +the British coast, and the scene of actual +operations, the barometer again obliged by falling +rapidly.</p> + +<p>It was a wild night and very dark when the first +mine splashed overboard. A snowstorm set in, +and as the work proceeded heavy seas broke over +the vessel, smothering her with spray, but she was +comparatively a large ship, built for ocean trade. +Although the darkness and the snow were conditions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +favourable to the laying of mines in secret, +and without their aid the danger of discovery +would have been great, the rising gale and the +heavy seas rendered the work both difficult and +dangerous, notwithstanding that these deadly +weapons were so arranged as to go automatically +overboard.</p> + +<p>Before the last of her cargo had been consigned +to the deep it was blowing great guns, and one +sea after another was breaking over the ship. +Although sheltered waters lay less than fifty miles +distant, to proceed there would mean certain discovery +and destruction, so all through that wild +night, and for many hours afterwards, the raider +sought by every means in her power to battle +seawards, away from the coast and danger, heading +into the teeth of the gale and out on to the +broad bosom of the North Atlantic, all unknowing +that but for the severity of the storm she must +have been observed, probably in the very act of +laying the mine-field, by the small warship riding +out the north-wester in the more sheltered waters +close inshore.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>It is interesting to note that it was on this mine-field +a few days later that one of the largest transatlantic +liners was sunk.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XXI</h2> + +<h3>THE S.O.S.</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">A great</span> work of rescue was carried on throughout +the war on all the seven seas by vessels of +both the old and the new navy. This service was +rendered to ally, neutral and enemy alike, but no +complete record of the gallant deeds performed nor +even of the numbers and nationalities of those +saved will, in all probability, ever be available, and +none is needed, for it was a duty which brought its +own reward.</div> + +<p>Typical of the way succour was brought by the +naval patrols to those unhappy victims of both +sexes left adrift in open boats in calm and rough, +sunshine and snow, all over the northern seas by +the cowardly <i>Unterseeboten</i> of the kultured race +was the rescue of the passengers and crew of a liner +off the wild west coast of Ireland in the winter of +1916.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>It was mid-December, and flurries of snow were +being driven before a stinging north-westerly wind. +The sea was moderate, but the heavy Atlantic +swell caused the lonely patrol ship to sink sluggishly +into the watery hollows, with only her +aerials showing above the surrounding slopes of +grey-green sea, and a minute or so later to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +poised giddily on the bosoms of acre-wide rollers +with nothing but the white mists obscuring the +broad horizon.</p> + +<p>It was a wild wintry scene, pregnant with cold +and hardship. The officer who had just come up +from the warmth of the wardroom to relieve his +"opposite number" on the bridge pulled the +thick wool muffler closer round his neck and dug +mittened hands deep into the pockets of his duffel +coat.</p> + +<p>In the Marconi cabin, situated on the deck of +the <i>sloop</i>, a young operator was sitting with the +receiving instrument fixed to his head and the +clean and bright apparatus all around. He was +city born and bred, and felt keenly the monotony +of life at sea, although to him came the many interesting +wireless signals from the vast network of +patrols which covered the Western Ocean—linking +the sea-divided units into a more or less homogeneous +fleet.</p> + +<p>Presently a message began to spell itself in +Morse. Taking a pencil, the operator scribbled +various hieroglyphics on the naval signal paper +lying on the desk in front of him; then after a +pause of a few seconds he pulled forward a tiny +lever and began a rhythmic tap on an ebonite +key.</p> + +<p>It was the "S.O.S." call and the reply that had +flashed through the ether. A minute or so later +the written signal, giving the appeal for help and +the position and name of the torpedoed liner, was +handed to the commander. A glance at the chart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +told that young but experienced officer that he +could not hope to bring his ship to the scene of the +disaster before dusk closed down, and a message +was sparked across the eighty miles of intervening +sea asking how long the crippled ship could be +kept afloat.</p> + +<p>To this, however, there came no reply, and the +engines of the sloop were put to full speed ahead. +A heavy spray now commenced to sweep across +the deck in drenching showers, and the snow haze +thickened. The pitching of the ship increased as +she raced over the ocean swell, driving her sharp +bows deep into the masses of sea. The limbs of +the watch grew stiff and numb, and a fine coating +of wet salt stung their faces. Eyes ached from +gazing into the bitter wind, and for over four hours +the race against approaching night continued. If +darkness closed down before that eighty miles of +sea was covered all on board realised that the +chances of finding any survivors would be greatly +diminished. Even the strongest vitality could not +long resist exposure to the intense cold, and there +might be women and children in the sea ahead.</p> + +<p>Many of the officers and crew of the sloop had +experienced the agonies of cold, wounds and salt +water when cast adrift on wintry seas, and the +memory acted like a whip. As the hours went by +the greenish tint of the sea slowly turned to leaden-grey, +and the pure white of the driving snow contrasted +sharply with the quickening dusk of the +December night.</p> + +<p>It was in the last half-hour of the dog watch that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +the sloop reached the scene of the disaster and the +speed was reduced. Scattered over the sea around, +and floating southwards in grim procession, was a +mass of wreckage—a broken raft, a number of +deck-chairs, spars and cordage, a life-belt and some +oars—but of boats with living freights there was +not a sign.</p> + +<p>Steaming slowly round in widening circles, the +sloop searched while the light lasted, but the +whirling haze of fine snow blotted out the distance, +and soon the early darkness of a winter night settled +over the sea. The cold became intense. The +white beam of a searchlight now flashed out over +the black waters. There was a grave risk in this +betraying light, one not sanctioned by the theory +of war. It made the warship a target for any +hostile submarine lurking around, but it seemed +impossible to believe that a 6000-ton liner, with +probably several hundred human beings on board, +could have been so completely obliterated, and +to the commander of the sloop the risk seemed +justified.</p> + +<p>Other ships might have intercepted the S.O.S. +call and reached the scene of the disaster earlier, +but the sloop's wireless, although put into action, +could not confirm this, and so the search was +continued.</p> + +<p>On and off during the bitter night the white +beam of light flashed out through the snow. For +a few seconds it swept the sea close around +and was then shut off. In the pall-like blackness +which followed ears listened intently, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +could distinguish nothing except the lash of +the sea.</p> + +<p>The sound-deadening qualities of falling snow +would have cut short the range of any cry, for the +human voice at its strongest, and with the atmospheric +conditions favourable, can seldom be heard +more than 1000 yards distant. So hour after hour +of numbing cold went by with nothing to show +except the occasional pathway of light on the grey +slopes of sea and the low moaning wind.</p> + +<p>The snowing ceased, and in the cold stillness +which so often precedes daybreak in the north a +faint cry came from the sea, at first so indistinct +and mingled with water noises that it would never +have been heard at all if the engines of the sloop +had not been shut off, as they had been at frequent +intervals during the night, to enable those on +board to listen. The cry was quickly followed by +the "snore" of a boat's fog-horn. A few turns of +the sloop's propellers and in the grey light of the +December dawn a large ship's life-boat could be +dimly seen, away to starboard, when it rose on +the bosom of the swell.</p> + +<p>Careful man[oe]uvring placed the warship alongside +the boat-load of half-frozen castaways and +the work of rescue commenced. It was a sad task. +Amongst the thirty-two survivors there were twelve +women and children, seven of whom had died of +cold and exposure during that bitter night. One, +a young Canadian wife coming home to her +wounded soldier husband, had been crushed by the +explosion of the first torpedo and suffered agonies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +in the open boat before sinking into the peace of +death.</p> + +<p>To dwell here on the suffering caused by intense +cold, exposure, hunger, thirst, untended wounds, +and the mental agony of suspense, often to delicate +women and children, when cast adrift on the open +sea, would be merely to repeat what has so often +been written, and which will live for ever in the +memory of sailormen.</p> + +<p>When the survivors had all been lifted on board—and +many had suffered badly from frost-bite—the +search for two other life-boats which it was +learned had succeeded in getting away from the +wrecked liner was commenced.</p> + +<p>Shortly before midday the snowing began again +and the wind moaned dismally through the rigging. +Spurts of icy spray shot upwards from the bows +and were blown back across the fore-deck of the +ship, searing the skin of the tired men on watch. +For several hours the sea around was searched in +vain. Flurries of snow obscured everything more +than a few hundred yards distant. Then towards +four bells the storm passed and the air cleared of +its white fog, but nothing was visible except the +wide sweep of colourless heaving sea and leaden sky.</p> + +<p>It came suddenly—an indescribable explosion +with a violent uprush of water, followed by the +hoarse shouting of orders, the low groans of +wounded men and the sharp crack of cordite. +The bows of the sloop had been blown off by a +torpedo, and the vessel commenced to rapidly +settle down.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p> + +<p>The two undamaged boats were lowered and the +survivors from the liner once again cast adrift to +face the horrors of the previous night. Rafts +floated free with all that were left of the crew of +the sloop—two officers and thirty men. Their +condition was pitiable. There had been no time +to get either food or extra clothing, and so heavily +laden were the light structures of <i>capuc</i> and wood +that the occupants were continually awash.</p> + +<p>Barely had the boats and rafts got clear of the +ship before she took the final plunge, going down +in a cloud of steam. A few minutes later the U-boat +rose to the surface about 300 yards distant, and +after remaining there for some time, without making +any effort to render assistance, she steamed slowly +away.</p> + +<p>The boats took the rafts in tow, and the wounded, +who suffered terribly from the cold and the salt +water, were all transferred to the former. One of +the women survivors from the torpedoed liner +collapsed during the first hour, and although given +extra clothing cheerfully discarded by the men, +she died soon afterwards.</p> + +<p>Seas washed over the rafts and sent clouds of +stinging spray into the crowded life-boats. A +biting frost stiffened the wet garments, which +rasped the raw and bleeding wrists of the men who +tugged at the oars—partly to increase their circulation +and partly to keep the boats head-on to the +sea. The only hope of rescue lay in keeping afloat +until daylight, when the "S.O.S." call sent out +before the sloop foundered might bring them aid.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +The coast of Ireland lay 300 miles to the south-east, +and so intense was the cold that few expected +to live through the night.</p> + +<p>The gloom of a winter afternoon gave place to +darkness, and with the fading of daylight the cold +increased. Men became numb and were washed +unnoticed from the rafts. Others were dragged +unconscious into the already overcrowded life-boats, +which sank so deep in the water with the +additional weight that green seas now splashed +inboard and baling became necessary. Limbs +stiffened in the sharp frost and had to be pounded +back to life by unselfish comrades. Even under +cover of the sails the cold was so intense that only +five women and two children were left alive by +midnight.</p> + +<p>Through the long dark hours men struggled +under the drenching showers of bitter spray. +When dawn broke, throwing a pale mystic light +over the acre-wide Atlantic swell, each one knew +that life depended on the coming of a ship before +the light of day again faded in the west.</p> + +<p>The snowing had ceased some hours before darkness +lifted, and in the clear morning cold men stood +up painfully and searched the watery horizon for +the sign which would bring them life. Just before +three bells, as the boats rose on the bosom of the +swell, a thin blur of smoke could be seen low down +on the eastern horizon. Had there been strength +left in the worn-out bodies there would have been +a cheer, but now only a slight stir of suppressed +excitement and many a silent prayer.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span></p> + +<p>The limit of human suffering and endurance had, +however, not yet been reached. Some twenty +minutes later it became evident that the ship had +not received the wireless call and was passing too +far off to be reached by any sound signal short of a +big gun. Slowly the trail of smoke disappeared in +the haze of great distance without even a glimpse +of the ship itself.</p> + +<p>The spirits of all began to sink as hour after +hour went by without sight of the hoped-for sail. +Then, about eight bells, one of the men standing up +in the centre of the first officer's boat gave a little +inarticulate cry and some few minutes later the +dim outline of a big ship hove in sight. The suspense +was unbearable. Women to whom any +sign of religious emotion was alien knelt openly +and prayed, while men who had suffered similarly +before gazed fixedly at the distant object, knowing +how fickle is Fortune to sailormen in distress. But +the hull grew larger and hope shone on the faces +of all. Men pulled frantically at the oars, while +others waved pieces of sail or clothing to attract +attention.</p> + +<p>Now came a surprise. From the pocket of his +duffel coat the first officer produced what he had +hitherto kept hidden for just such an emergency—a +Very's pistol, with its small-sized single red +rocket. A hoarse cry of joy went up from all in +spite of their exhaustion when they saw the rocket +soar into the air and burst into a blood-red glow.</p> + +<p>A short time later keen eyes made out the string +of flags which fluttered from the halyards of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +oncoming warship, and although minutes seemed +like hours, none could quite remember what +happened after. Some say that the cruiser came +alongside them and others that she lowered her +boats and steamed round in a circle. But forty-eight +survivors were landed in Liverpool three +days later, leaving in the wastes of the Western +Ocean a murdered two hundred.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>It is interesting to note that survivors from +torpedoed ships frequently showed great reluctance +to leave their life-boats and go aboard the rescuing +vessel, especially when they were within easy +sailing distance of a harbour. After being torpedoed, +rescued and torpedoed again they often +preferred the comparative safety but hardship of +the small open boat to the risk and luxury of the +big ship. This applied more especially to Scandinavian +sailors, whose powers in small boats are well +known.</p> + +<p>It should, however, be stated that, so far as +British and American seamen were concerned, +men sailed again and again, after being torpedoed +or mined six, seven and even eight times. It +was this remarkable fortitude of the Mercantile +Marine which saved Europe from starvation.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XXII</h2> + +<h3>IN THE SHADOW OF A BIG SEA FIGHT</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">On</span> the evening of 30th May 1916 six of his Majesty's +drifters were lying alongside the quay of a Scottish +naval base having their few hours' "stand-off" +after weary days patrolling lines of submerged +nets. Their officers and crews, with the exception +of one sad-faced company on guard duty, were +enjoying either the comparative luxury of a +corrugated-iron wardroom, situated on a windy +stone pier, or a few the more complete relaxation +of a brief visit to a theatre in a neighbouring town. +There were also many other ships coaling, resting +and being repaired, for the base was a large and +important one.</div> + +<p>In the intelligence office an assistant paymaster, +weary of decoding cypher wireless messages from +flotillas, patrols and sweepers spread far out over +the leagues of sea lying between this port and the +German coast, sat talking to the executive officer +on night duty.</p> + +<p>About 8 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span> a messenger from the wireless cabin +entered with the familiar signal form and the A.P. +spread it out carelessly on the desk in front of him, +taking the sturdy little lead-covered decipher +book from the safe at his side. A few scratches of +the pen beneath the secret signal and the deciphering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +was complete. He looked up quickly and +with a gesture of keen satisfaction handed the +signal to the officer temporarily in command of +the base.</p> + +<p>The older man read it and paused for a moment +before replying. It was the brief and now historic +statement that an action between Sir David +Beatty's battle cruisers and the German High Seas +Fleet was imminent. A crowd of orders to be +executed in the event of all kinds of emergencies +were rapidly reviewed in his active brain. For a +brief space the scene of what was occurring out +in the blackness of the North Sea occupied his +thoughts, for he had fought in the battle of the +Dogger Bank and knew what those brief words +really meant. It was the evening of the battle of +Jutland.</p> + +<p>Rising quickly to his feet, the night duty officer +seized the telephone, rang up the Admiral Commanding, +who had gone home to dinner, and +hurriedly left the intelligence office to carry out +a host of prearranged orders.</p> + +<p>The "old man," as admirals are invariably +called, was evidently ready for the emergency, for +his large grey car tore past the sentries at the +approaches to the base, and in a few minutes he +was closeted with his commanders and other +officers in the small matchboarded cabin. +Charts were pinned down on the table in front +of him, and for the next half-hour officers and +messengers were kept busy with telephones and +other means of rapid concentration.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the neighbouring large town the police had +received the order for a "general naval recall" +and were active in the streets politely informing +officers and men on short leave that their services +were required immediately at the bases. In the +theatres and cinema halls the cryptic message, +"All naval officers and men to return at once to +their ships," was given out from the stage or +thrown on the screen, a replica of the night before +Waterloo.</p> + +<p>Men wondered and women grew anxious. Did +it mean an invasion or an air raid? Many were +the questions asked as silently seats were left and +files of blue and gold streamed out of the places of +amusement. Taxi-cabs full of officers raced each +other along the streets. Civilians had to give place +to sailors on the tram-cars, and then, in less than +thirty minutes, all was quiet again, except for +groups of people discussing possibilities in front of +the big public buildings. Even these soon dispersed +when reassuring messages were circulated +which hinted at the reason for the recall, and the +level-headed Scottish citizens went home wondering +what the great news would be on the morrow—for +the fate of empires might be decided during +the night.</p> + +<p>As each officer and man entered the base the +gates were closed. The sentries and the officer of +the guard knew nothing "officially," but in the +wardroom at the end of the stone quay the news +of the action was being discussed in imaginative +detail. At 11 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span> orders were received for certain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +small ships to get under way with sealed orders. +An hour later came the message that six drifters +were to be cleared of all their war appliances and +were to be given stretchers, cots, slings and other +appliances for the carriage of wounded. They +were to be ready to proceed to sea at 2 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span></p> + +<p>All was ordered hurry. Piles of anti-submarine +devices were taken from the holds of these ships. +Other vessels came alongside and unloaded +stretchers, cots and slings, which had been obtained +from local naval hospitals and hospital ships. The +officers were grouped round a commander in the +wardroom having typed orders, which had evidently +been prepared long beforehand, carefully +explained to them. Red Cross flags were served +out, and by 1.30 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> all were ready for sea.</p> + +<p>Other ships stole silently out into the blueness of +the night to strengthen patrols and prevent hostile +submarines from getting into position to attack +the main battle fleets on their return to harbour.</p> + +<p>Wireless messages indicating a concentration of +German submarines on the lines of communication +were received. Every armed ship was in great +demand, but over the dark waters, lashed by a +stiff easterly breeze, the gunners of many batteries +gazed steadily as the searchlights played around, +investigating everything that moved on the face of +the waters. Beams flashed heavenwards for hostile +aerial fleets.</p> + +<p>On the dark quaysides and on the decks of the +ships hundreds of sailors moved noiselessly about +getting ready for sea. Columns of smoke from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +short funnels of destroyers, trawlers and drifters +showed up black against the indigo void, and ever +and anon hoarse voices shouted orders, unintelligible +from the distance. It was quiet preparation +rather than noisy haste, and although an +air of suppressed excitement did prevail when the +men were mustered and extra hands told off to the +different ships by the light of battle lanterns, it +was more a feeling of hope than one of satisfaction.</p> + +<p>For nearly two years these men had quietly +fought the elusive submarine, the nerve-shattering +mine, and endured uncomplainingly the terrible +hardships, arduous work and monotony of patrol, +and now their one fervent hope was a glimpse at +least of the real thing.</p> + +<p>In the wardroom on the quay about sixty officers +of all ranks were discussing the possibilities of the +fight while waiting impatiently for the last command +before the relief of action—"Carry on as +ordered." Conversation centred on the Grand +Fleet, under Sir John Jellicoe, steaming down from +the north. Many had seen those miles of gigantic +warships, whose mere existence had preserved for +the Entente the command of the sea and all that it +implied. Others had served in ships whose names +have been familiar to Englishmen since the days of +Nelson, and now opined that when at last the "old +ship"—perhaps a brand-new super-dreadnought—was +going into action on the great day it was their +luck to be in command of a "one-horse" boat +miles from the field of glory.</p> + +<p>Four bells had struck when the signal came for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +all ships under orders to proceed to sea. Oilskins +were rapidly slipped on, for a fine rain had commenced +to fall and the damp wind was penetratingly +cold at this early hour. Almost silently the +small grey ships slid out of harbour and were lost +in the blueness of the night.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>When dawn broke over the choppy tumbling +sea the different flotillas were far apart, each +attending to its allotted task. Those engaged in +patrolling the route by which the battle cruisers +would return found themselves acting in conjunction +with a division of destroyers, some of whom +had been under refit but a few hours previously, +but when the tocsin of battle rang out had <i>made +themselves</i> ready for sea in an incredibly short time, +thereby earning the praise of the commander-in-chief.</p> + +<p>Information had been received, and later in the +day was confirmed, that no less than five hostile +submarines were known to be waiting in the +vicinity with the object of attacking any crippled +ships from the battle fleets, and it became the duty +of the patrols to clear them away from the lines of +communication. For over twenty hours the seas +around were churned by the keels of a heterogeneous +fleet of ships armed with equally heterogeneous +weapons. Guns' crews stayed by their +weapons until their limbs ached and look-outs +searched the sea with burning eyes. Through the +short dark hours of a May night in northern latitudes +searchlights swept the near approaches,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +while in the black void of sea and sky beyond +myriads of mosquito craft moved over the face of +the waters with all lights out and their narrow +decks cleared for action. Alarms were frequent, +and the occasional yellow flashes and sharp reports +of cordite, some too far distant to be visible, told +their own tale. In the treacherous light of early +dawn the fins of big porpoises were more than once +mistaken for the hunted periscope.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>With the Red Cross flotilla waiting behind the +screen of patrols and defences things had moved +rapidly. Each little ship had been told off to +attend on one or other of the great warships which +were hourly expected from the battle zone. +Stretchers, bedding, cots and slings were piled on +the decks, and extra hands had been lent for the +work of removing the wounded.</p> + +<p>Another flotilla was in readiness to replace the +casualties with reinforcements, which had been +concentrated by special trains, in order that the +battle fleets and squadrons might be again ready +for sea in the shortest possible time.</p> + +<p>At the base trains and big ships were waiting +with every known appliance to alleviate the suffering +which was coming in from the sea.</p> + +<p>It was a typical May morning, with a light +easterly breeze, when the first of the great line of +ships—H.M.S. <i>Lion</i>—came into view. A hurricane +of cheers greeted her from the deck of every +ship that passed. Then the gallant <i>Warspite</i>, low +by the stern and scarred and torn by tornadoes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +shell; the <i>New Zealand</i>, scarcely touched by the +fiery ordeal; the plucky little light cruiser <i>Southampton</i>, +holed and battered; followed by cruiser +after cruiser with attendant destroyers, some +with great bright steel splinters of shell still sticking +tight in the gouged armour-plate; others with +holes plugged with wood and broadsides stained +with the bright yellow of high explosives. Gun +shields caught by the gusts of shell were cut +out like fretwork; funnels were blotched with +blackened holes; but of them all not one was out +of action. Few, if any, of the heavy guns and +armoured barbettes were damaged, and all except +one—the <i>Warspite</i>—came in proudly under their +own steam. This was the return of the battle +cruiser and light cruiser squadrons, which, under +Sir David Beatty, had met and defeated practically +the entire German navy. Steaming back into +the northern mist was the Grand Fleet—the +largest assembly of warships ever known—which, +had it been given the opportunity so eagerly +sought, would undoubtedly have annihilated the +remains of Von Hipper's fleet.</p> + +<p>An observer from a distance would have found +it difficult to believe that this was the fleet which +had just fought the greatest sea fight in the history +of the world. Yet the decks of the seaplane carrier +<i>Engadine</i> were covered with men in motley +clothes, a grim reminder of the severity of the +ordeal, for they were the survivors from the +thousands who had manned the <i>Princess Royal</i> +and <i>Invincible</i>. On the high poop a fleet chaplain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> +was surrounded by figures in borrowed duffel suits +giving thanks to the God of Battles for their rescue.</p> + +<p>As the engines of each great ship came temporarily +to rest a vessel of the Red Cross flotilla ranged +alongside and the more sombre work of war began. +A shell through the sick-bay of H.M.S. <i>Lion</i> had +caused Sir David Beatty to have many of the +wounded on that ship placed in his own cabins. +The only casualty on the <i>New Zealand</i> was caused +by a gust of bursting steel over the signal bridge. +A big shell had passed longitudinally through the +line of officers' cabins in the battered little <i>Southampton</i>, +and many were the curious escapes from +death. In modern naval war a heavy casualty +list seems unavoidable, and the deadly nature of a +sea fight will perhaps be better realised when it is +stated that on one of the battle cruisers there were +just over three hundred casualties, of which number +very nearly two hundred were killed outright, and +this on a ship which still sailed proudly into port in +fighting condition. Where the shells had burst in +the steel flats the fierce heat generated had burnt +off the clothes and skin of many who were untouched +by the flying slivers of steel, and the crews +of the secondary batteries of smaller guns suffered +severely.</p> + +<p>Cot cases were the first to be lowered from the +decks of the warships to the waiting Red Cross +boats. The patience and care with which this +difficult operation was carried out may be gauged +from the fact that there were no casualties or +deaths during the work of transportation. Human<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> +forms, swathed from head to foot in yellow picric-acid +dressings, were lowered on to the decks or +carried down the gangways. By a curious ordinance +of fate, <i>picric acid</i>, one of the most deadly +explosives known, also provides a medical dressing +for the alleviation of the pain which in another +form it may have caused. The walking wounded, +with arms in slings or heads covered in lint, were +helped down the ship's sides by smoke-blackened +comrades in uniforms torn to shreds by the fierce +work of naval war.</p> + +<p>All serious cases of shell shock were conveyed +at the utmost speed by special units to the big +and lavishly equipped hospital ships. Those with +minor injuries were taken ashore and placed in +ambulance trains for distribution among the big +naval hospitals. So perfect was the organisation +that within three hours all the sick-bays +had been cleared and fresh crews placed on +board. The squadrons were again ready to give +battle.</p> + +<p>Twenty-four hours later the patrol flotillas +returned to their base to commence once again the +dangerous and monotonous but less spectacular +work of minesweeping and patrol. Their work in +preventing a concentration of German submarines +on the line of route of the returning fleets and in +the removal of the wounded received high praise +from the commander-in-chief. In the wardroom +on the little stone pier a silent toast was given that +night to those who had gone aloft in the greatest +sea fight since Trafalgar.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XXIII</h2> + +<h3>A NIGHT ATTACK</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">Two</span> drifters, about a mile apart, with no lights to +indicate their presence, were drifting idly with the +ebb tide. It was an oppressively hot night in mid-August. +Scarcely a ripple disturbed the surface of +the sea, but the intense darkness and the absence +of stars told of the heavy clouds above. The barometer +had been falling rapidly for some hours and +all the conditions seemed to indicate a coming +storm.</div> + +<p>The duty of these two vessels was to watch lines +of cunningly laid submerged nets (described in an +earlier chapter) and to guide the few merchant +ships which passed that way through the labyrinth +of these defences, laid temporarily as a trap for the +wily "Fritz" if he should chance to be cruising in +the vicinity.</p> + +<p>The drifters were adequately armed with guns +and depth charges to attack any such monster of +the deep which betrayed its presence by becoming +entangled in the fine wire mesh and so attaching to +itself a flaming tail, which would then be dragged +along the surface, marking it as a target for all the +pleasant surprises lying ready on the decks of the +patrols.</p> + +<p><i>Fishing for Fritz</i> was a popular sport in the anti-submarine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +service until the "fish" became shy +and its devotees <i>blasé</i>; then the primitive net was +changed for the more scientific devices already +described. It required infinite patience and meant +very hard work, with a <i>soupçon</i> of danger thrown +in. For when the tons of steel wire-netting, with its +heavy sinkers and floats, had been laid, days were +spent in watching and repairing, then endless resource +employed to induce a submarine to enter +the trap. Occasionally the voyage ended in an +exciting chase, with the flaming buoy as the guiding +light.</p> + +<p>It was in the early period of the war, when Paris +was still threatened by the Teutonic armies and +the Allies waited confidently for the clash of the +great battle fleets. Every dark night on the +northern sea eyes and ears were silently watching +and listening for the comings and goings which +would herald the storm. The strain was great +though the work was not spectacular, for all +knew that the safety of England, or at least +its freedom from invasion, might, for one brief +historical instant, depend on the vigilance and +nerve of that heterogeneous, irregular horse, +the sea patrols.</p> + +<p>The great cruiser squadrons were scouring the +North Sea. Battle seemed imminent, and that +vague wave of human electricity which passes along +the firing line before the attack at dawn, and even +extends to the lines of communication, was in the +air on this dark night in 1915.</p> + +<p>Six bells had just struck when a faint, cool breeze<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +swept across the surface, and a few minutes later +the first vivid flash of lightning forked the eastern +sky. There was a scramble for oilskins on Drifter +42 as the rain came hissing down like a flood released. +The storm was severe while it lasted. +The thunder rolled over the placid surface. +Lightning darted athwart the sky, illuminating the +black void beneath. For about thirty minutes the +sky blazed and roared, then the hiss of the rain +ceased and the storm moved slowly northwards, +but one of the final flashes revealed something +low down on the surface moving stealthily forward. +So brief was the glimpse obtained, however, +that it seemed merely a phantom—by no +means uncommon occurrences when men have +been watching for years. When the next flash +came the surface of the sea around was clear.</p> + +<p>As was usual in such cases, half the watch on +deck could swear they had seen it, while those who +were not looking ridiculed the idea, so the C.O. said +nothing and took precautions. The watch below +was called and the powerful little gun on the fore-deck +manned. Then all waited in silence, listening +intently for the curious, creaking noise of a +submarine under way.</p> + +<p>In those early days of hostilities there were no +elaborate hydrophones for detecting the approach +of submarines under the water, and the only hope +of a warning came from the possibility of the under-water +vessel breaking surface momentarily. The +uselessness of the periscope for navigation during +darkness, which at present forms the principal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +limitation of submarines, made it distinctly likely +that she would cruise on the surface at night, and if +forced to dive would be more or less compelled to +quickly rise again in order to ascertain the position +of her enemy before it would be possible to fire a +torpedo with any chance of success.</p> + +<p>For these reasons all eyes and ears on the drifter +were strained to catch the first glimpse or sound, +and dead silence was maintained. It is in times +like this that one discovers how acute the senses +become when danger lurks in the darkness around. +Things undetectable under normal conditions can +be seen or heard distinctly when life depends on +the intelligence so gained.</p> + +<p>Long minutes of silence slipped by and nothing +occurred; then came the distant and familiar +creaking noise, almost inaudible at first. The +gun's crew braced themselves for the stern work +ahead. On the rapidity and accuracy of their fire +not only their own lives, but also those of their +comrades, would probably depend. The gun-layer +bent his back and glanced along the grey +tube to the tiny blue glow of the electric night +sight. The shell was placed in the open breech. +Then came those interminable seconds before an +action begins.</p> + +<p>The tension would have been almost unsupportable +had nearly all of the crew not grown accustomed +to life hanging in the balance on the wastes +of sea.</p> + +<p>A flicker of light, at first almost spectral, appeared +from out of the darkness some 500 yards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> +to starboard. It grew almost instantly into a +bright white flare, illuminating the surface of the +black water as it moved along. The pungent +smell of burning calcium floated over the sea +and the drifter's engines began to throb heavily.</p> + +<p>The tension relaxed, a subdued cheer broke from +the crew of the drifter as she gathered speed, and +the Morse lamp winked its order for concerted +action to the other drifter somewhere in the darkness +around. An answering dot-dash-dot of light +appeared from away to starboard and the chase +commenced in earnest.</p> + +<p>A few minutes later the glare from the calcium +buoy, now being towed through the water at +several knots, shone on the faces of the crew as +they trained their gun ahead, but the submarine +was under the surface and, although probably +quite unaware of the flaming tail which was betraying +her movements, appeared to know that +she was being hunted by surface craft. After +running straight ahead for a few minutes she +turned eight points to the eastward in an attempt +to baffle pursuit.</p> + +<p>The chase was a fairly long one, as the speed of +the drifters was not sufficient to enable them to +gain rapidly on their quarry, but the flexibility of +the steam-engine gradually gave the surface ships +the advantage and they crept up level with the +light. Then, with their boilers almost bursting +and flames spouting from the funnels, they drew +ahead until over the submarine itself. Depth +charges were dropped from the stern of the drifters.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +The water boiled with the force of the explosions +and the light on the buoy went out. Still the +drifters held their course in the now pall-like blackness, +and other bombs splashed into the water +astern, to explode with a dull vibration a few +seconds after they had sunk from the surface.</p> + +<p>The engines of the two small surface ships were +shut off and every ear became alert, but no sound +broke the stillness of the summer night, except the +rumble of distant thunder and the gentle lap of the +sea against the sides. Morse signals winked from +one ship to the other and back again. When due +precautions had been taken against a further surprise +attack, the chivalry of the sea called for a +search to be made for possible survivors. This +was done with the aid of flares, but only oil and +some small debris were found. Dan-buoys were +dropped to mark the spot and soundings taken. +Twenty-four fathoms deep was added to the report +of the action, and a few days later a diver reported +having found the wreck of the U-C 00.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XXIV</h2> + +<h3>MYSTERIES OF THE GREAT SEA WASTES</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">The</span> piratical warfare of German submarines produced +many sea mysteries. Some were solved +after the lapse of months and even years, while +others will, in all probability, remain unknown +until the sea gives up its dead.</div> + +<p>Among the latter may be numbered the curious +discovery in the North Atlantic of a nameless +sailing ship, without cargo, identifying papers or +crew, but sound from truck to kelson, and with her +two life-boats stowed neatly inboard and a half-finished +meal on the cabin table. Experts examined +this vessel when brought into port, but so +far have been utterly unable to offer any solution +or discover any clue, beyond the fact that she was +built and fitted out in some American port and +carried an unusually large crew.</p> + +<p>Another similar mystery was the disappearance +of a French vessel while on a voyage to New Orleans +and the discovery eleven months afterwards that +she had called for water and food at a small port +on the Pacific coast of South America. No further +trace has so far come to light, nor the reason for her +changing course and rounding Cape Horn.</p> + +<p>A mystery which remains a mystery to the end +of the chapter is likely to be irritating to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> +imaginative mind, but to the following occurrence +there came a solution after the lapse of a few weeks.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The Spectre of the Goodwins</span></div> + +<p>It was a pitch-black night, with fine rain driving +up from the south-west. The summer gale which +had raged for the past twenty-four hours had +blown itself out, and although the steep seas still +retained their night-caps, the wind came only in +fitful gusts. Away to starboard an indistinct +blur of white foam stretched athwart the sea and +the dull roar from the maelstrom of the Goodwins +rolled across the miles of intervening water.</p> + +<p>The armed trawler <i>Curlew</i> bravely shouldered +her way through each green comber as it rose to +meet her, lurching over the seas in a smother of +spray. Oilskinned figures moved warily along the +life-lines, for when a wave struck her tons of water +swept across her slanting decks, submerging the +bulwarks and causing the sturdy ship to groan +and tremble from stem to stern.</p> + +<p>In the little bridge-house the dim light from the +binnacle shone on the hard wet face of the commanding +officer, who watched the seas as they rose +up ahead, giving directions to the man at the wheel, +and all the while keeping a watchful eye on the +distant blur of foam covering the treacherous +shoals.</p> + +<p>Few except sailormen can realise the dangers +and anxieties of navigation in times of war. The +absence not only of the warning lights which in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +days of peace flash their signals far out over the +seas, marking the innumerable dangers which lie +along treacherous coasts, but also of warships and +merchantmen rushing through the night with not +even the flicker from a port-hole to denote their +coming—perhaps at a speed of nearly three-quarters +of a mile a minute; a second's indecision on the +part of the brain and nerve directing each ship, a +momentary forgetfulness of that elusive "right +thing to do"—some second danger to attract a +flash of attention from the first—even a blinding +cloud of spray at the psychological moment and, +well, two more ships have gone, with perhaps +hundreds of lives. Yet these things but seldom +happened, and the reason was that all that +tireless energy, skill and nerve could do was +done on the sea in those years of storm and +stress.</p> + +<p>Some two hours later, and just before dawn broke +over the tumbling sea, an exceptionally heavy +wave struck the trawler full on the port-bow. The +hammer-like blows of the water as it poured on +board and struck the base of the wheel-house and +superstructure momentarily drowned all other +sound. When the air had cleared of flying spume +a big black hull loomed out of the darkness ahead +and seemed suddenly to grow to an immense size, +towering high above the trawler's forecastle-head. +A blast on the whistle, a sharp order and the +trawler swung off to starboard, with the great +black mass perilously near. It was a close shave, +and the watch held their breath while waiting for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +the crash and shock which for a brief second +seemed inevitable.</p> + +<p>There was no time for action or signal. The +great ship slid past like some black phantom +framed in the white of flying scud. It faded into +the misty darkness of sea and sky almost as quickly +as it had appeared, and, curiously, no sound of +throbbing engines accompanied its passage.</p> + +<p>It took the captain of the patrol but a minute to +make up his mind what to do. He gave a quick +order to the helmsman and a warning shout to the +watch below on deck. The little ship, as she came +about, lurched into the trough of a sea and rose +shivering from end to end. The next moment an +avalanche of white and green water poured over +her, flooding the decks and sending clouds of spray +high over the funnel and masts. Then commenced +an exciting chase, with the seas racing up +astern and all eyes trying to penetrate the darkness +ahead.</p> + +<p>The faint misty light of a new day had +brightened the eastern horizon before the mysterious +ship again loomed up ahead. The heavy sea +still running made it difficult, however, to distinguish +any national or local characteristics which +might give a clue to her identity or intentions, and +the suspense was keen.</p> + +<p>The two guns of the patrol vessel were manned, +and a three-flag signal fluttered from the jumper-stay +but received no immediate reply from the +ship ahead. Then, after a few minutes' pause, +during which time the trawler man[oe]uvred for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> +advantage of the light from the breaking dawn, a +yellow flash belched from her side and a shell +ricochetted off the water just ahead of the mysterious +steamer. Still there was no response; but it +could now be plainly seen that the engines were +not working and that she was drifting before the +wind and sea.</p> + +<p>Was it merely a <i>ruse de guerre</i> to gain the advantage +in the event of an attack, or was she a vessel +disabled by the storm which had raged during the +past forty-eight hours? Neither of these suppositions, +however, satisfactorily explained the total +disregard of signals and the warning shot which +had been fired across her bows.</p> + +<p>Again a line of flags were hoisted on the trawler's +halyards, this time a well-known signal from the +<i>International Code</i>, but still no notice was taken of +the peremptory order it conveyed.</p> + +<p>After the chase had been on for over an hour +another shot was fired from the trawler. The +report echoed across the still boisterous sea and +the splash of the shell just cleared the ship's bow. +Still there was no response, and the trawler's course +was altered so that she would soon close in on her +quarry. As the light increased it was seen that a +stout wire hawser was trailing in the water from +the starboard bow, and suspicion of some new +evidence of sea <i>kultur</i> increased. When the range +had closed to about 1000 yards she slowly swung +round until almost broadside-on to the trawler, +whose guns instantly opened fire in earnest. The +third shell struck the large wheel-house of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +mystery ship, demolishing it completely. When it +became evident that the fire was not going to be +returned, the guns of the trawler again ceased, and +the two vessels drew close to each other. A partly +defaced name, which was rendered indecipherable +by the splash of the seas as they struck the counter, +could be distinguished with the aid of binoculars in +the quickening light of early morning, but neither +officers nor crew could be seen, the bridge and decks +appearing deserted.</p> + +<p>Not to be misled by this ruse, however—for on +similar occasions ships had been blown to pieces +at close range by concealed batteries—the <i>Curlew</i> +approached cautiously, bows-on, offering the smallest +possible target, and with her guns trained on the +quarry. This sea-stalking is nervy work and must +be played slowly. Twice the trawler circled round +the mysterious ship, and the sun had mounted +high, penetrating the banks of cloud which scudded +across the summer sky and <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'tinging'">tingeing</ins> the still boisterous +sea with flecks of golden light, before it was +considered safe to relax all precautions. Even +then the sea prevented any attempt being made to +board the curious craft, and for six hours the +trawler clung to the heels of her quarry, which was +rapidly drifting far out into the North Sea.</p> + +<p>The danger of attack from hostile submarines +was great, and the gunners stood by their weapons +although drenched every few seconds by the floods +of heavy spray which still poured over the bows. +At last patience and endurance were rewarded. +The sea calmed sufficiently to enable a boat to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> +lowered and with difficulty brought up under the +lee of the mysterious ship.</p> + +<p>An armed guard, headed by the sub-lieutenant, +eagerly scrambled up the lofty rolling sides. They +had scarcely reached the deck before their only +means of retreat was cut off. The two men left in +the life-boat were unable to keep her off the iron +sides of the big ship. She rose like a cork on the +crest of a wave until almost level with the top line +of port-holes and then dropped back, catching the +edges of the rolling-stocks. There was a crash of +splintering wood and the next minute two half-drowned +men were being hauled up the sides by +their comrades on deck.</p> + +<p>It was an anxious moment, for although the +decks seemed deserted there was that curious, uncanny +feeling which is ever present when facing an +unknown peril. After all it <i>might</i> prove to be a +<i>ruse de guerre</i> or some new form of frightfulness. +There were only six men from the trawler—a small +enough party, however well armed, if it came to +a fight—and great caution was observed while +exploring the ship. A signal had been arranged +in the event of treachery, and the <i>Curlew</i>, with +her guns <i>and wireless</i>, would prove a dangerous +antagonist.</p> + +<p>All was well, however, for the ship was deserted. +A careful inspection of the cabins showed that the +departure of officers and crew had been a hasty +one, but all the ship's papers had been carefully +removed. The <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'fore-peak'">forepeak</ins> or bow water-tight compartment +was full of water, but the bulk-head had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +held and kept the vessel afloat. Beyond this no +damage was visible above the water-line and the +condition of both hull and engines was good. She +proved to be a Spanish ship, and to make the +mystery deeper her four life-boats were still on +the davits, although swung outboard ready for +lowering.</p> + +<p>In those troublous days the fact of the life-boats +being hoisted out in readiness for eventualities +conveyed little or nothing, but when a careful +search proved that many of the life-belts had gone +with the crew the problem became an interesting +one. Had they been taken on to the deck of a +German submarine which had subsequently dived +and left them to drown, as was the case with the +crew of a British fishing vessel, or had they been +conveyed as prisoners of war to Germany? +Against both of these surmises was the fact that +<i>all</i> the ship's boats remained, and a German submarine +would scarcely be likely to come close +alongside even a neutral ship, especially during the +bad weather that had prevailed for the past few +days. Would it remain one of the many mysteries +of the great sea war?</p> + +<p>Some few hours later the trawler, with her big +"prize"—under her own steam—entered an +eastern naval base and berthed her capture with +the aid of tugs.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>The explanation came from headquarters several +weeks later. The s.s. ——, of Barcelona, had +grounded on the Goodwins about three hours<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> +before she nearly ran down the trawler. Her crew, +thinking that she would rapidly break up in the +surf, had fired distress signals and been taken safely +ashore in a life-boat. The rising tide and south-westerly +wind had done the rest, freeing her from +the dangerous sands.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XXV</h2> + +<h3>FROM OUT THE CLOUDS AND UNDER-SEAS</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">It</span> has already been shown that the science of +aerial warfare is closely allied with that of under-sea +fighting. Airships and seaplanes play important +parts in all anti-submarine operations. They +make very efficient patrols and can detect the +presence of both submarines and mines under the +surface.</div> + +<p>During the Great War there were stations for +armed aircraft all round the British coast, and the +patrols of the sea and air acted in close co-operation. +It often happened that one was able to +render important service to the other. An occasion +such as this took place off an east coast base +in November, 1916.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Salving an Airship</span></div> + +<p>A big car dashed up the wooden pier of a small +seaport regardless of the violent jolting from the +uneven planking. It was pulled up with a jerk +when level with one of the little grey patrol boats +known by the generic name of M.L.'s, which was +lying in the calm water alongside with its air +compressor pumping vigorously.</p> + +<p>Two officers of the Royal Naval Air Service, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> +a P.O., carrying a powerful Morse signalling lamp, +jumped from the car and scrambled down the +wooden piles on to the deck of the M.L.</p> + +<p>A nod from the commanding officer and the +mooring ropes were cast off as the telegraph was +jammed over to "half ahead." Instantly the +powerful engines responded to the order and the +little ship began rapidly to gather way. When +the harbour bar had been crossed the order for full +speed was given and the engines settled down to a +low staccato roar as they drove the M.L. over the +heaving swell.</p> + +<p>No word had yet been spoken between the officers +of the sea and air. A brief telephone message to +the little hut on the quayside from the adjacent +naval base to the effect that M.L.A6 was to be +ready to embark two officers from the air station +and was to proceed in search of an airship which +was foundering about twenty miles seawards was +all that had been told, and yet not a single +second of time was lost in getting under way. +All recognised that it was a race to save the lives +of men.</p> + +<p>The little ship cleft the seas, smothering herself +with foam, and bluish fumes poured out of the +engine-room ventilators. The first half-hour +seemed interminably long, and the horizon was +continually searched with the aid of powerful +glasses for a sign of the wrecked airship. At last +a faint speck became visible away to the south-west, +and as the distance slowly lessened—terribly +slowly, notwithstanding the speed of nearly half-a-mile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> +a minute—the crumpled envelope settling on +the water could be distinguished.</p> + +<p>It was a question of minutes. Again the order +was shouted down the speaking-tube for more +speed, but this time there was no reply. The C.O. +rang the telegraph viciously, but without result. +The coxswain at the wheel looked up quickly and +then shouted an order to a deck hand, who lowered +himself down the tiny man-hole in the deck leading +to the engine-room. A few seconds later the second +engineer appeared at the top of the fo'c'sle hatch +and, ducking to avoid a heavy shower of spray, +scrambled aft and peered down the man-hole, from +which blue fumes, somewhat thicker and more +pungent than usual, were rising. The next instant +he too disappeared below.</p> + +<p>The air officers were trying to get into communication +with the rapidly sinking airship by +means of the powerful Morse lamp, but without +result, and one of them put his head into the +wheel-house and asked anxiously if more speed +was possible.</p> + +<p>Just then the second engineer and one of the +crew crawled out of the man-hole, pulling a limp +figure behind them. The C.O. turned to ascertain +what had happened, and the men, very white and +shaky, explained in a few gasps that they had +found the chief engineer senseless at the bottom of +the iron ladder leading up to the deck, and had +themselves been nearly gassed by the petrol fumes.</p> + +<p>Glancing at the blue vapour now pouring up the +hatchway and out of the ventilators, the C.O.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> +realised the risk of fire and explosion he ran by +carrying on at such high speed, but he also knew +that men were drowning in the sea some eight miles +ahead, and that the few extra knots might make +the difference between life and death for them.</p> + +<p>That the risk must be taken was a foregone +conclusion, but how to keep the engines running +at that high speed without attention—for it was +evident that no man could live for many minutes +in the poisonous fumes—was a more difficult +problem. This was solved, however, by the second +engineer volunteering to go below with a life-line +attached, so that he could be hauled up to the +deck when giddiness came on. More than once +this gallant petty officer had to be pulled up +choking and exhausted. He risked instant death +from the explosion of the gas from the leaking and +overheated pipes and engines, as well as suffocation +from the fumes, but he stuck to his post, returning +again and again into the poisonous atmosphere.</p> + +<p>Darkness was gradually settling over the sea, +and the flickering light of the Morse lamp—still +asking for a reply—made yellow streaks on the wet +fore-deck. Presently a faint speck of light blinked +amid the dark mass of the airship, but almost +instantly went out, and for some time nothing +further was seen.</p> + +<p>Barely three miles of heaving sea separated the +two ships when the bright glare of a Very's light, +fired from a pistol, soared into the air. A cheer +broke from the dark figures on the deck of the M.L., +and a message of hope was eagerly flashed back.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p> + +<p>The last knot seemed a voyage in itself, but +eventually the great dark mass of the still floating +envelope loomed up ahead, and almost instantly the +clang of the engine-room telegraph, shutting off the +leaky engine, gave relief to the plucky second +engineer, who had retained consciousness and control +through that dreadful twenty minutes by frequently +filling his aching lungs above the hatchway.</p> + +<p>The sea around was a mass of tangled wires, in +which the mast and rigging of the M.L. was the +first to become entangled. Near approach was +impossible, so orders were given to lower away +the boat. The sturdy little steel-built life-boat +splashed into the sea alongside, one minute rising +on a wave high above the deck-line and the next +disappearing into the dark void below. Figures +slid down the miniature falls to man her and the +next minute were pulling through the tangled +wreckage to where the beam of the M.L.'s searchlight +showed six airmen clinging to a floating but +upturned cupola.</p> + +<p>Numbed with the cold, they fell rather than +jumped into the boat as it was pulled alongside. +One was insensible and the others were too far +gone to utter a word. Nothing but the wonderful +vitality necessary to the airman as to the sailor +had enabled them to hold on in that bitter cold for +over two hours after eight hours in the air.</p> + +<p>The task of extricating the M.L. from the tangle +of wire stays and other wreckage was a difficult one. +A propeller had entwined itself and become useless +(afterwards freed by going astern), the little signal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> +topmast and yard had been broken off by a loop of +wire from the gigantic envelope and the ensign +staff carried away. After about twenty minutes +cutting and man[oe]uvring, however, she floated +free, and a question was raised as to the possibility +of salving the airship.</p> + +<p>By this time another M.L., sent out to assist in +the work of rescue, had arrived on the scene, and a +conference between the air and sea officers on the +senior ship resulted in the attempt at salving being +made. Wires that were hanging from the nose of +the airship were made fast to the stern of the M.L.'s, +and all wreckage was, where possible, cut adrift. +This, to the uninitiated, may sound a comparatively +quick and simple operation, but when it is +performed in the darkness, with the doubtful aid +of two small searchlights, on a sea rising and falling +under the influence of a heavy ground swell, it +is anything but an easy or rapid operation, and +occupied half the night.</p> + +<p>The huge mass of the modern airship towered +above the little patrol boats like some leviathan +of the deep. To attempt its towage over twenty +miles of sea seemed almost ludicrous for such small +craft, and yet so light and easy of passage was this +aerial monster that progress at the rate of three +knots an hour was made when once the wreckage +had been cut adrift, the weights released and the +envelope had risen off the surface of the water.</p> + +<p>Armed trawlers that passed in the night +wondered if it was a captive zeppelin and winked +out inquiries from their Morse lamps. A destroyer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> +came out of the darkness to offer assistance. The +cause of much anxiety had been the likelihood of +hostile submarines being attracted to the scene by +the helplessness of the airship, which had been +visible, before darkness closed over, for many miles +as she slowly settled down into the sea. This +danger, however, passed away with the arrival of +the destroyer and the armed trawlers, but another +arose which threatened to wreck the whole venture.</p> + +<p>About 5 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> the wind began to freshen from the +north-west and the M.L.'s towing the huge bag +were immediately dragged to leeward. The combined +power of their engines failed to head the airship +into the wind and urgent signals for assistance +were made to the destroyer and trawlers, who had, +fortunately, constituted themselves a rear-guard.</p> + +<p>A trawler came quickly to the rescue and got +hold of an additional wire hanging down from the +envelope. The destroyer, in the masterful way of +these craft, proceeded to take charge of the operations. +Her 9000-horse-power engines soon turned +the airship into the path of safety, and with this +big addition to the towing power it was less than +half-an-hour later when the great envelope was +safely landed on the quayside, much to the amazement +of the townspeople.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br />"<span class="smcap">Unlucky Smith</span>"</div> + +<p>There is, however, another side to this co-operation +between fleets of the sea and air. It has more +than once occurred that vessels equipped almost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> +exclusively for submarine hunting have been +engaged by zeppelins, and actions between seaplanes +and under-water craft have been frequent.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/i-316-big.jpg"><img src="images/i-316.jpg" width="600" height="384" alt="A Monitor" title="" /></a> +<div class='attrib'><i>British Official Photograph</i></div> +<span class="caption">A Monitor</span><br />The bulge of the "blister" will be seen on the water-line near the bow. +</div> + + + +<p>How a large fleet of unarmed fishing vessels were +saved and a zeppelin raid on the east coast of +England prevented by the timely action of an +armed auxiliary proves once again the truth of +the old military axiom that it is the unexpected +which always happens in war.</p> + +<p>It had been one of the few really hot summer +days granted by a grudging climate. The sea was +a sheet of glass, the sky a cloudless blue, except +where tinged with the golden glow of sunset. +Lieutenant Smith smiled somewhat grimly as +he mounted the little iron ladder and squeezed +through the narrow doorway into the wheel-house. +He nodded to the skipper—an old trawlerman +acting as a chief warrant officer for navigational +duties—as a signal for the mooring ropes to be cast +off, and mechanically rang the engine-room telegraph. +He had done all these things in the same +way and at the same time of day for nearly two +years. For a long while he had gone forth hopefully, +saying to himself each cruise, "It's bound +to come soon," but as the weeks grew into months, +and the months promised to extend into years, disappointment +gained the mastery and duty became +appallingly monotonous and uninteresting.</p> + +<p>This, however, did not cause him to work less +strenuously or to neglect to watch the large fishing +fleet which he guarded on four nights out of the +seven, but each letter he received from old friends<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> +in other branches of the King's service brought +tidings of excitement, rapid promotion, or at least +a little of the pomp and circumstance of war, and +he saw himself at the end of it all with nothing to +show for years of danger, hardship and impaired +health. The worry and the lonely monotony, +trivial as he knew them to be, were slowly sapping +his nerve and vitality.</p> + +<p>The trawler glided from the harbour on to the +broad expanse of tranquil sea, now aglow with the +lights of a summer sunset. Slowly the coast-line +faded into the blue haze of distance, and all around +the watery plain was mottled with the shadowy +patches made by the light evening breeze.</p> + +<p>Settling himself in an old deck-chair, which he +kept in the wheel-house, Smith lit his pipe and +allowed his thoughts to wander, but every now and +then his eyes would search the sea from slowly +darkening east to mellow west.</p> + +<p>Although the summer was well advanced, there +were but few hours of darkness out of the twenty-four +in these northern latitudes, and when the +armed trawler came in sight of the widely scattered +fishing fleet, which it was her duty to guard +throughout the night, a mystic half-light subdued +all colours to a shadowy grey, but a pale amber +afterglow still lingered in the sky and the stars +were pale.</p> + +<p>Smith lingered a few minutes on deck to finish a +cigar before going below for his evening meal. +Seldom during the past year had all the elements +been so long at peace, and the contrast appealed to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> +him as a luxury to be enjoyed at leisure. Even the +light breeze of sunset had died away, leaving an +unruffled calm, and the sails and stumpy funnels +of the little fishing craft appeared like "painted +ships on a painted ocean."</p> + +<p>For nearly an hour he sat inhaling the fragrant +and satisfying smoke from more than one cigar, +preferring the cool of the deck to the stuffy cabin. +Then a dark blot appeared from out of the luminous +blueness of the eastern sky and it travelled +rapidly downwards towards his flock.</p> + +<p>Smith watched it for several seconds, then it +suddenly dawned upon him that the hand of the +destroyer was coming even into this haven of +peace, and a fierce resentment entered his soul. +He heard the distant shouting of fishermen as they +cut adrift their nets and prepared to scatter before +the approaching zeppelin, and in a moment he +realised that the long-awaited chance had come. +It all seemed too unreal to be true, but he rose up +quickly and in a few terse sentences gave the +necessary orders for the guns' crews and engineers.</p> + +<p>The whir of the airship's propellers grew rapidly +louder and its bulk loomed black against the bright +sky. Determined, however, to take no risk of +failure, Lieutenant Smith withheld the fire of his +guns until the great aerial monster, now travelling +down to less than 1000 feet, was well within range.</p> + +<p>Attracted by the helplessness of a large number +of fishing craft congregated in a comparatively +small area of sea, the <i>destroyer</i> dived to the attack +like some giant bird of prey, unable in the gloom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +which shrouded the earth to distinguish the +presence of an armed escort.</p> + +<p>The suspense was painful. Then the muzzles of +two high-angle guns rose up from the well-deck +and superstructure of the armed patrol, and in +response to a low-toned order from the C.O., giving +the height, time and deflection, they quickly +covered the great black body of their objective. +Tongues of livid flame leapt from their mouths and +were followed by sharp reports. A few minutes of +heavy firing and the nose of the monster appeared +to sag.</p> + +<p>The men at the guns yelled exultantly, redoubling +their efforts, and shell after shell went +shrieking heavenwards. Suddenly the sea around +rose up in huge cascades of foam and a shattering +roar, which completely dwarfed the voice of the +guns, shook the small ship from stem to stern. +Everything movable was hurled across the deck. +Breaking glass flew in all directions, and the aerials +at the mast-heads snapped and came tumbling +down with a mass of other gear. The cries of +injured men arose from different parts of the ship, +but still the guns hurled their shells, and the +zeppelin, now well down by the head, rose high +into the upper air and made off eastwards. After +dropping all her bombs in close proximity to the +armed trawler she had lightened herself sufficiently +to rise out of range, but whether or not she would +be able to keep up sufficiently long to reach +her base, over 300 miles distant, was extremely +doubtful.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span></p> + +<p>Flames spurted from the short funnel of the +patrol as she steamed at full speed after the retreating +zeppelin, endeavouring to keep her within +range as long as possible. It was a question of +seconds. Before she finally disappeared in the +increasing darkness another long-range hit was +observed and the zeppelin receded from view, +drifting helplessly.</p> + +<p>The disappointment at not being able to give the +<i>coup de grâce</i> to the aerial destroyer was keenly +felt by all on board, for a half success is of little +account in the navy. The gunners had done +magnificently, the ship had been man[oe]uvred +correctly and four of the crew had been wounded +by fragments from the bombs dropped <i>en masse</i>, +but notwithstanding their exertions and the luck +which had brought the zeppelin down from the +security of the skies, they had failed to secure the +prize legitimately theirs. That the attack on +the fishing fleet had been successfully beaten off +appeared a minor detail, and the voyage back to +port in the quickening light of a beautiful summer +morning was a sad pilgrimage. Scarcely a word +unnecessary for the working of the ship was +spoken, except Lieutenant Smith's brief explanation +that it was just his luck.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>. . . . . . . .</b></div> + +<p>About two weeks later the proverbially "unlucky +Smith" was ordered to report at the office +of the Admiral Commanding, and he had a sharp +struggle to maintain a becoming composure when +he heard the terse compliment and the mention of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> +a recommendation from that austere officer, +coupled with the intelligence that the zeppelin had +dropped into the sea off the coast of Norway.</p> + +<p>The spell was broken, and the brisk step and +gleam in his dark eyes told their own tale as he +walked quickly back to his ship.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XXVI</h2> + +<h3>ON THE SEA FLANK OF THE ALLIED ARMIES</h3> + + +<div class='unindent'><span class="smcap">It</span> is a mere truism to say that the sea outflanks +all land operations in warfare. Yet how many +people fully realise that the left wing of the Allied +armies in Belgium and France depended for its +safety on the naval command of the North Sea and +English Channel? Had this sea flank been permanently +penetrated or forced back by the German +fleet, the result must have been disastrous to a +large section of the Allied military line, which +actually extended from the North Sea to the +Mediterranean.</div> + +<p>Although the security of the North Sea flank did +not entirely depend upon the naval forces based on +Dover, Dunkirk and Harwich—as all operations, +whether on land or sea, were overshadowed by the +unchallenged might of the Grand Fleet, which +hemmed in the entire German navy—it was upon +these light forces, largely composed of units of the +new navy, that the brunt of the intermittent flank +fighting and the repeated attempts by the enemy +to break through—with the aid of all kinds of +ruses and weapons—was borne for four and a half +historic years.</p> + +<p>The detailed story of their work on the Belgian +coast and in the Straits of Dover could only be told<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> +in a separate volume, but the following account of +a bombardment and its sequel may not be without +interest here. Its relevance to anti-submarine +warfare lies in the fact that the bombardment was +carried out with the object of destroying the nests +of these under-water craft established in and +around Zeebrugge. Much that has also been said +in former chapters bases its claim to inclusion in +this book almost entirely on the fact that although +it did not deal exclusively with submarine fighting +or minesweeping, it nevertheless formed part of the +daily operations of the <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'auti-submarine'">anti-submarine</ins> fleets, and +no account of their work would bear any resemblance +to the actual truth in which such seemingly +extraneous episodes were excluded as irrelevant.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">The Bombardment and its Sequel</span></div> + +<p>There was a flat calm, with the freshness of early +summer in the air. Zeebrugge lay away in the +darkness some fifteen miles to the south-east—awake, +watchful, but unsuspecting—when the +British bombarding squadron steamed in towards +the coast to take up its allotted position and wait +for daybreak.</p> + +<p>It was a heterogeneous fleet, screened by fast-moving +destroyers, torpedo-boats, trawlers, M.L.'s +and C.M.B.'s. The great hulls of monitors loomed +black against the paling east, and the long thin lines +of destroyers moved stealthily across the shadowy +sea. No lights were visible, and only the occasional +rhythmic thud of propellers and the call of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> +an awakened sea-bird broke the stillness of the +morning calm.</p> + +<p>The sky was not yet alive with the whir of seaplanes, +and the air remained undisturbed by the +shattering roar of guns and shells. It was that +brief space of time in which even Nature seems to +hold her breath and make ready for the coming +storm. The only movement other than the continued +circling of destroyers was towards the +shallow water close inshore, where powerful tugs +were towing large barges—flat-bottomed craft +carrying gigantic tripods made of railway metals. +At predetermined places these were dropped overboard +into the shallow sea and, with their legs embedded +in the sandy bottom and their apices +towering high above the surface, they formed +observation platforms from which, in conjunction +with aerial scouts, the fire of the big ships could be +accurately directed on to the fortifications ashore.</p> + +<p>These tripods were laid a distance apart and +quite away from the bombarding ships, but a +system of range-finding and signalling had been +organised and an officer chosen as a "spotter" in +each trestle.</p> + +<p>The post of honour was on one or other of these +observation towers, alone with the necessary +instruments. The big shells from the shore +batteries would scream overhead; some would +plough up the water close by, smothering the tripod +with spray, and the smaller guns would direct +their fire against these eyes of the bombarding +fleet. The chances were in favour of a hit, then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> +there would be nothing left of the tripod or the +spotter, simply a brief report to the Admiral +Commanding that No. —— observation post had +been destroyed and later a fresh name in the +casualty lists. It was, however, accepted as the +fortune of war, and many volunteered.</p> + +<p>The sky brightened until a pale yellow glow +suffused the east, while behind the bombarding +fleet the western horizon was still a cold, hazy +blue. A flight of seaplanes buzzed overhead and +a few minutes later the dull reports of anti-aircraft +guns echoed across the miles of still water. Tiny +bright flashes from white puffs of smoke appeared +in the central blue, and then having got the range +the great guns of the monitors roared away their +charges and the scream of shells filled the air. The +calm of the morning vanished, and with it the +oppressive silence which precedes a battle.</p> + +<p>It was some time before the German airmen +could rise from the ground and evade the British +fighting formations. In the meantime a rain of +heavy projectiles from the fleet was destroying all +that was destroyable of the harbour and works of +Zeebrugge. With the aid of glasses huge clouds +of smoke and sand could be seen rising into the +air almost every second. Objects discernible one +minute had disappeared when the smoke cloud of +bursting shells had moved to another point of concentration +a short time later. When at last the +enemy's planes, in isolated ones and twos, succeeded +in hovering over the fleet the surface of the sea was +almost instantly broken by great spouts of white<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> +water, at first far away, then nearer, and the battle +commenced in earnest.</p> + +<p>A vast cloud of smoke now hung like a black +curtain between the fleet and the shore. The +M.L.'s were emitting their smoke screen to cover +the bombarding ships. Shells splashed into the +sea all around. The noise and vibration of the air +seemed to bruise the senses, and lurid flashes came +from the smoking monitors.</p> + +<p>It was at this stage of the bombardment that the +curious and unexpected happened. A white wave +raced along the surface towards a monitor. It was +too big for the wake of a torpedo and quite unlike +the periscope of a submarine. The small, quick-firing +guns of all the ships within range were +trained on it and the sea around was ploughed up +with shell. The white wave swerved to avoid the +tornado of shot, but continued to make direct for +the hull of the great floating fort at a considerable +speed. Then, as it drew <i>very</i> near to its objective, +a shell went home and the sea was rent by the force +of a gigantic explosion, eclipsing that of any known +weapon of sea warfare.</p> + +<p>It was, however, soon discovered that the +mysterious wave came from a fast torpedo-shaped +boat which was evidently being controlled by electric +impulses from a shore wireless station some twelve +to fourteen miles distant, the necessary information +regarding direction of attack being transmitted by +means of wireless signals from a seaplane hovering +overhead, the abnormal force of the explosion +being due to the heavy charge of high explosive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> +which such a craft was able to carry in her bow, so +arranged as to fire on striking the object of attack.</p> + +<p>With the failure of this ingenious but costly +method of attack precautions were at once taken +against a repetition and the seaplane hovering inconveniently +overhead was driven off. The bombardment +was carried on for the allotted span, by +which time the shore batteries that still remained +in action had found the range, notwithstanding +the heavy smoke screen emitted by the M.L.'s. +"Heavies" were ploughing up the water unpleasantly +close to the monitors, one of which was +struck, though but little damaged.</p> + +<p>It was now considered time to draw off seawards, +and the spotting officers, perched on their tripods, +had to climb down the railway irons under a heavy +fire and swim to the ships sent to rescue them. +The tripods were then pulled over on to their sides +by ropes attached to their summits and left lying +in the shallow water.</p> + +<p>Under cover of the smoke screen the bombarding +fleet withdrew, after inflicting severe damage +on the submarine base of Zeebrugge.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>. . . . . . . .</b></div> + +<p>Some two weeks previous to this bombardment +a warship patrolling off the Belgian coast had reported +a curious explosion in the direction of Nieuport. +The night was dark and the stillness of +summer rested over the Pas-de-Calais. Waves +lapped gently the distant sand-dunes and war +seemed a thing far away, remote as the icy winds +which blow around the Poles.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the conning-tower and at the gun stations +both officers and men watched keenly, silently, for +the predatory Hun. At any moment the thin +blackish-brown hulls of a raiding flotilla from the +bases at Zeebrugge and Ostend might slide out of +the blueness of the night. The beams of searchlights +would momentarily cross and recross the +intervening sea and then the guns would mingle +their sharp reports with the groans of dying men.</p> + +<p>To the nerve-racking duties of night patrol in +the Straits of Dover they had grown accustomed—indifferent +with the contempt born of familiarity—but +this did not cause any relaxation of vigilance. +The element of surprise is too important a factor in +modern war to be treated lightly.</p> + +<p>So it happened that when, shortly after eight +bells in the middle watch, a momentary flash of +lurid flame stabbed the darkness away over the +Belgian coast, and was followed by the rumble of a +great but distant explosion, no one stood on his +head or lost his breath blowing up a patent waistcoat, +but all remained at the "still." Minutes +passed and nothing happened. Slowly the destroyer +crept closer inshore, but the night was +dark and no further sound broke its stillness.</p> + +<p>For two hours she scouted and listened. Little +more than five miles away lay the German lines, +and the theory was that somewhere in that maze of +trenches and batteries an explosion had occurred.</p> + +<p>Next day the mystery deepened, for it became +known that a large portion of Nieuport Pier had +been blown away during the night. As this little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> +seaport was, however, inside the German lines, +the mystery remained unexplained until after the +bombardment of Zeebrugge, when it became +known, in <i>divers</i> manner, that one of the electrically +controlled boats had been out on a night +man[oe]uvre and, owing to the difficulties of seaplane +observation in the dark, had accidentally +struck the breakwater of Nieuport.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<p>Many of the patrol boats guarding the Straits of +Dover or minesweeping under the fire of German +coast batteries off the Belgian sand-dunes spent +their days or nights of rest (!) in the French seaport +of Dunkirk, returning to Dover only after considerable +periods of work on the opposite coast.</p> + +<p>It may be thought that there was but little +difference between life in the British port and that +in the French town, considering the short stretch +of sea between them. The following account of a +night in Dunkirk will, however, give some idea of +the advantage gained by having even thirty miles +of blue water between an active enemy and a comfortable +bed.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">A Night in Dunkirk</span></div> + +<p>The night seemed uncannily quiet. In time of +peace it would have passed unnoticed as just +ideal summer weather, but when the human ear +had grown accustomed to the almost perpetual +thunder of the Flanders guns any cessation of the +noise gave a feeling of disquietude, only to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> +likened to the hush of great forests before a tropical +storm. The little town of Dunkirk, with its many +ruins, was bathed in shadow, unrelieved by any +artificial light, but the narrow, tortuous harbour +showed a silvery streak in the brilliant moonrays. +Above the sleeping town, with its Poilu sentries +and English sailors, was the deep indigo sky, +spangled with stars.</p> + +<p>Custom had taught the few civilian and the +many naval and military inhabitants of Dunkirk +to regard calm moonlight nights with very mixed +feelings. It was seldom indeed that the Boche +neglected such an opportunity for an air raid. Not +merely one brief bombardment from the skies, but +a succession of them, lasting from dusk until early +morning, and repeated night after night while the +weather remained favourable.</p> + +<p>Owing to adequate preparations for such attacks +the casualties were generally few, but the loss of +sleep was nearly always great, unless the individual +was so tired with the day's or week's minesweeping, +spell in the trenches, or sea patrol that the "popping" +of guns and the thud of bombs merely +caused a semi-return to consciousness, with a mild, +indefinable feeling of vexation at being momentarily +disturbed.</p> + +<p>To the majority, however, it meant not only the +loss of sorely needed sleep, but also hard work +under trying conditions. To realise fully what it +is to be deprived of rest when the brain is reeling +and the movement of every limb is an agony, it is +necessary to have worked, marched and fought for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> +days and nights incessantly, and then the <i>moral</i> +as distinct from the <i>material</i> effect of successive air +raids will be duly appreciated by those fortunate +ones who spent the years 1914 to 1918 remote from +the menace.</p> + +<p>Although Dunkirk on this particular August +night seemed uncannily quiet, the hour was not +late. By Greenwich time it was but a few minutes +past nine, and two bells had only just sounded +through the many and diverse ships lying in tiers +alongside the quays. So warm were the soft +summer zephyrs, which scarcely stirred the surface +of the water, that on the decks of many of these +war-worn sweepers and patrols men lay stretched +out under the sky in the sound sleep of exhaustion, +while on the quays and at other points in the half-wrecked +town steel-helmeted French sentries kept +watch.</p> + +<p>Of the British naval forces based on this little +French seaport few were ashore, as, without special +permission, both officers and men had to remain on +their ships after sunset, and those not playing cards +or reading in the cabins were lounging and smoking +on deck. Blot out of the view the ruined +houses, the shell-holes in the streets, the guns, the +dug-outs and the sentries, and few scenes more unlike +the popular conception of a big war base, with +the enemy only a few miles distant, can be imagined.</p> + +<p>But Dunkirk in that year of grace, 1917, did not +always wear so peaceful a garb. There were frequent +periods when the shells whistled over or on +to the town, when the earth trembled from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> +concussion of high explosives, when buildings +collapsed or went heavenwards in clouds of dust, +when the streets were illumined with the yellow +flash of picric acid, or were filled with clouds of +poisoned gas, when ambulances clattered over the +cobblestones, trains of wounded rolled in from the +firing line and the killed and maimed were landed +from the sea.</p> + +<p>The first indication of the change from calm to +storm came at the early hour of 10 <span class="smcap">p.m.</span>, when the +air raid warning sounded throughout the town. +On the quayside all was ordered haste. Mooring +ropes were cast off with a minimum of shouting, +and the larger ships moved slowly down the harbour +towards the open sea. The few small vessels left +seemed to crouch under the dock walls.</p> + +<p>Sentries left their posts to take shelter in the +great dug-outs, constructed of heavy timbers and +sand-bags. These were situated at convenient +points throughout the battered little town. In +the houses some people descended to the cellars, +but many remained wherever they happened to be, +while in the cabins of the few ships which remained +in harbour the games, the reading, the letter-writing +and, in a few cases, even the sleeping went on undisturbed.</p> + +<p>After a short interval of oppressive silence, +during which time no light or sound came from the +seemingly deserted town, a faint whir of propellers +became just audible in the stillness of the +summer night. Then it died away momentarily. +Suddenly a bright glare, like that of a star-shell, lit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> +up the roofs and streets, and almost simultaneously +came the dull vibrating report of a bomb. It +sounded from the direction of the cathedral. +Searchlights flashed out from various points, but +their powerful rays were lost in the luminous vault +above. Guns roared and bright flashes appeared +like summer lightning in the sky. Every few +seconds the town trembled from the shock of +exploding bombs, first at one point and then at +another, but nothing could be seen of the raiding +squadron. Pieces from the shells bursting overhead +and fragments of bombs and shattered +masonry fell like rain into the streets and into the +waters of the harbour.</p> + +<p>On the quayside a big aerial torpedo had +made a crater large enough to bury the horse which +it had killed in a near-by stable. A few seconds +later another bomb fell close to a minesweeper and +a fragment gashed the decks but did not penetrate +them. In the cabins the concussion of almost +every bomb which fell on shore was felt with +curious precision. The glass of wheel-houses and +deck cabins was shattered, and the rattle and thud +on the decks and iron sides denoted the storm of +falling metal.</p> + +<p>The din of the raid went on for some time and +then died away with a final long-range shot from +"Loose Lizzie" on the hills behind. When all +was clear heads appeared from hatchways, dug-outs +and cellars. People searched the sky +curiously in an endeavour to make sure that there +was "no deception," although from first to last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> +nothing had been seen of the raiders except by +those with the instruments, the searchlights and +the guns. The latest news of the damage caused—two +houses, a man and a horse—went from mouth +to mouth. Then the summer night regained its +tranquillity and Dunkirk slept.</p> + +<div class='center'><b>. . . . . . . .</b></div> + +<p>The familiar boom sounded its loudest in the +stillness of the night and the ground seemed to +tremble the more violently because of the darkness. +It was 1 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> The young moon had sunk beneath +the horizon and a light film of cloud had drifted +over the sky.</p> + +<p>The old French reservist doing sentry-go on the +quay glanced up with a shrug of indifference +and slowly shouldering his rifle walked leisurely +towards a dug-out. Searchlights became busy +exploring the sky. This time their rays were not +lost in the opaque blueness above, but went up in +well-defined columns of light until reflected on the +lofty clouds. Presently the beams concentrated +and, when the eyes had grown accustomed to the +glare, little white "butterflies" were seen circling +in the upper air. Then the guns opened fire and +white puffs, like tiny balls of cotton-wool, appeared +among the butterflies. The earth trembled with +the explosion of falling bombs and the recoil of +anti-aircraft batteries. A little flicker of yellow +light appeared in the circle of white. The guns +increased in violence. The yellow light grew in +size. It was falling. The burning machine +crashed to earth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span></p> + +<p>The bombs and the gun-fire lasted for some +twenty minutes and then ceased suddenly, as if +by prearranged signal. Allied squadrons were in +the air and the distant crackle of machine guns +sounded from the skies. It died away, however, +almost immediately, but the raiders were chased +back to within their own lines minus two of their +number.</p> + +<p>With the coming of dawn two solitary hostile +machines circling at a fairly low altitude could be +seen. They dropped no bombs, but the reason for +their presence was soon apparent. Shells from +the long-range guns behind the German lines +began to moan, whistle and burst in and around +the luckless town. A hit was signified by a cloud +of smoke, dust and debris, and ambulances again +became busy in the stone-paved streets.</p> + +<p>One shell, carrying sufficient explosive to blow +up an average-sized ship, ploughed up the water +of the harbour, but did no damage, and by 6 <span class="smcap">a.m.</span> +Allied squadrons had chased away the hostile +aerial observers. Once again the peace of an +ideal summer morning reigned over the historic +town.</p> + +<p>The few minesweeping and other ships which +had remained in the harbour through the night +now commenced to show signs of returning life +and activity. Heavy brown smoke poured from +the funnels of some, the staccato noise of oil engines +came from others, and men were busy on the decks +of all. The night's "rest" was over and the vital +work of sweeping, possibly under an irritating fire<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> +from shore batteries and the strain of a necessarily +ever-alert patrol, commenced afresh. The steady +barometer promised a fine day for the harvesting +of mines and, for the ships that returned, another +night's <i>rest</i> similar to the previous three!</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + + +<div> +<span class="smcap">Aberdeen</span> harbour mined, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> + +Aden, mine-field laid off, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +Admiralty dispatch bearers, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> + +Aerial attacks, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> + +— bombs, effect of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br /> + +— warfare and submarine fighting, <a href="#Page_273">273</a><br /> + +Aircraft and convoys, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> + +Airship, salving of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> + +Allied navies, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + +A memorable Christmas, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> + +American first army, transport of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> + +Arctic patrol, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a><br /> + +— seas, work in, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> + +Area of sea covered daily by sweepers, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> + +Areas, command of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> + +— patrol of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_131">131</a><br /> + +Armed liners, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> + +Armies, transport of, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> + +Atlantic patrol, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> + +Australian first army, transport of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> + +Auxiliary patrol office, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Bases</span> and their fleets, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> + +— war, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> + +Battle of Jutland, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>-<a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + +Beatty, Sir David, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + +Blister system on monitors, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> + +Blockade, naval, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + +Boarding parties, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> + +Bombardment of Zeebrugge, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> + +Bombay, mine-field laid off, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +Bombs, submarine, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> + +Boom-defence ships, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> + +— staff, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br /> + +<i>Brighton Queen</i>, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + +<i>Britannia</i>, H.M.S., torpedoed, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> + +British coast completely mined-in, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +— Empire, dangerous position of, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Call</span> of the White Ensign, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br /> + +Camouflaged ships, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> + +Canada, officers from, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> + +Canadian first army, transport of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> + +Case of mistaken identity, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a><br /> + +Castaways, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>-<a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> + +Casualties, naval, in Great War, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + +Casualty, a, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> + +Chaplains, naval, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> + +Christmas Day, 1916, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> + +Clearing large mine-fields, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> + +Coastal motor boats, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> + +— construction of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> + +— method of attack, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> + +— bases of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> + +— <i>v.</i> German destroyers, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br /> + +— in actions off Zeebrugge and Ostend, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br /> + +Colombo, mine-field laid off, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +Colonial officers, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-<a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> + +Colonies, aid from, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> + +Concentration of British fleet, August, 1914, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> + +Convoy, composition of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> + +Convoy ships, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> + +Convoy system, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>-<a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> + +Convoying, difficulties of, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> + +Convoys, minesweeping in front of, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> + +Co-operation between fleets of sea and air, <a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> + +Cruiser Squadron, the Tenth, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Dan-buoys</span>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br /> + +Danish derelict, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>-<a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> + +Decoy system of attack, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> + +Deluding patrols, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> + +Demobilisation, naval, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> + +Depth charge, construction of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /> + +— method of use, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /> + +— attacks with, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> + +Depth charges, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /> + +Derelict, a, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_208">208</a><br /> + +Destruction of a U-C boat, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> + +Division of sea into patrol areas, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_131">131</a><br /> + +Docker battalions, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> + +Dominions, aid from, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> + +Dover lighted barrage, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>-<a href="#Page_185">185</a><br /> + +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span>— naval base, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> + +Dover patrols, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>-<a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> + +Drafting officers, <a href="#Page_110">110</a><br /> + +Drifter units, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> + +Drifters, loss of in Adriatic, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> + +— — in Straits of Dover, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> + +Duffel clothing, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br /> + +Dunkirk, a night spent in, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> + +— patrols, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Effect</span> of danger on human senses, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br /> + +Effect of shell fire, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + +Electrically controlled boats off Zeebrugge, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>-<a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> + +<i>Engadine</i>, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> + +England's food supply, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> + +Evening quarters in warships, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> + +Examination ships, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> + +Excitement, suppressed, before an action, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> + +Exploratory minesweeping, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fight</span>, an epic, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> + +Finding the ships, guns and men, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> + +Firth of Forth, mines in, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> + +Fishing fleets, armed guards with, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_285">285</a><br /> + +Fleet sweeping, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> + +French ship, mysterious disappearance of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">German</span> High Sea Fleet, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> + +— naval position in 1914, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + +— submarine bases, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> + +— mine-laying, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> + +— raiders, <i>Wolfe</i> and <i>Moewe</i>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +— mines, description of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br /> + +— — and Hague Convention, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>-<a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> + +— mine-laying policy, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> + +— submarine offensive, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> + +— minesweeping, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br /> + +— submarines, loss of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> + +— mine-field, a Christmas spent on, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> + +Grand Fleet, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br /> + +— bases, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> + +Granton Naval Base, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> + +Guarding a mine-field, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br /> + +Gunboats patrol, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> + +Gunnery classes, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Harbour</span> duties, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> + +— mines at entrance to, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a><br /> + +— sweeping, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> + +Harwich patrols, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br /> + +<i>Hermione</i>, training ship for new navy, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> + +Hope of action, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br /> + +Hydrophone attack, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> + +— branch of naval service, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> + +— flotillas, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> + +Hydrophones, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /> + +— object of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> + +— portable, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> + +— — use of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> + +— construction of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_74">74</a><br /> + +— limitations in use of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> + +— directional, <a href="#Page_75">75</a><br /> + +— — use of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> + +— fitted in U and U-C boats, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>-<a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Iceland</span> fishing fleet, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> + +Indian Ocean, mine-fields in, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +Indicator nets, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> + +Intelligence offices in naval bases, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> + +Interpreter officers, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br /> + +<i>Invincible</i>, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> + +Isolation of mined areas, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Jellicoe</span>, Sir John, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">King's</span> Messengers, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Lance</span> bombs, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br /> + +Life-boat, work of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">223</a><br /> + +Lighted barrage, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> + +Lightning reveals U-boat, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br /> + +<i>Lion</i>, H.M.S., after Jutland, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> + +Liverpool harbour mined-in, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> + +Loss of ships, percentage of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> + +Lowestoft harbour mined-in, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> + +<i>Lusitania</i>, sinking of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Manning</span> of British ships in past, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> + +Mercantile fleets under convoy, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> + +— Marine, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br /> + +— shipping in danger zone, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> + +Merchant ships, loss of, due to mines, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br /> + +Methods of attacking submarines, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_142">142</a><br /> + +Mine barrages, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br /> + +Mine-field, Christmas on, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> + +Mine-fields, deep-laid, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_186">186</a><br /> + +Mine-layers, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-<a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> + +Mine nets, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> + +Mine-protection devices, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> + +Mined areas, isolation of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span><br /> +Minesweeping, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> + +Mine-laying from U-C boats, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br /> + +Mines destroyed by British Navy, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> + +Mines, floating, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br /> + +Mining School, Portsmouth, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> + +M.L.'s. See under <a href="#motor_launches">Motor Launches</a><br /> + +Modified sweeps, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> + +<i>Moewe</i>, German raider, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +Monotony, effect of, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> + +Moonlight, effect of on searchlights, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>-<a href="#Page_298">298</a><br /> + +Moral effect of air raids, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br /> + +Moray Firth, mine-field in, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> + +Morning divisions in warships, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> + +Motor launch flotillas, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> + +<a name="motor_launches" id="motor_launches"></a>Motor launches, Admiralty contract for, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> + +Motor launches, arrival of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> + +— construction of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>-<a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> + +— description of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> + +— area patrolled by, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> + +— loss of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br /> + +— in actions off Zeebrugge and Ostend, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a><br /> + +Mysteries of sea war, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>-<a href="#Page_272">272</a><br /> + +— of submarine hunting, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> + +— of German mine-laying, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> + +— of minesweeping, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_178">178</a><br /> + +Mystery ships, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> + +— numbers employed, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">National</span> Insurance, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> + +Naval bases, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> + +— centres, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> + +— College, Greenwich, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> + +— policy, British, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> + +— School of Submarine Mining, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> + +— situation in 1914, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + +Navigation, dangers of, in war time, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_266">266</a><br /> + +— training in, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> + +Navy, expansion of, in past wars, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> + +Nerve tension before action, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a><br /> + +Nets, submarine, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_89">89</a><br /> + +New fleets in being, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + +New navy, composition of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + +— formation into flotillas, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + +— growth of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a><br /> + +— officers and men of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> + +— <i>raison d'être</i>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + +<i>New Zealand</i>, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> + +New Zealand, officers from, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> + +— waters, mines in, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +Nieuport pier, destruction of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> + +Night attacks, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> + +— patrol, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br /> + +North Sea, area of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> + +— British naval blockade of, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> + +— gales, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br /> + +Northern mine barrage, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Officers</span>, training, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> + +Oil trails, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Paravanes</span>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_177">177</a><br /> + +Patrol areas, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_131">131</a><br /> + +— boats, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /> + +— — on lines of communication during Jutland, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> + +Personnel of new navy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> + +Petrol fumes, danger of, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>-<a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> + +Picric acid, for causing and alleviating pain, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> + +Port minesweeping officers, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> + +<i>Princess Royal</i>, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> + +Privateers, old and new, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">"Q" Boats</span>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a><br /> + +— description of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-<a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> + +— number employed, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> + +Q19, action of, in Straits of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> + +Queenstown naval base, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Raiders</span>, German, cruises of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +Red Cross work, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>-<a href="#Page_252">252</a><br /> + +Refits, <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> + +Rescue work, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>-<a href="#Page_279">279</a><br /> + +Rescued crews, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br /> + +<i>Resource II.</i>, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> + +Restriction of submarine danger zone, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br /> + +Return of fleet from Jutland, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>-<a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + +Rosyth Dockyard, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> + +Routine sweeping, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> + +Royal Naval Reserve, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br /> + +— — Volunteer Reserve, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> + +Royal Navy and Merchant Service, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> + +— — manning of, in past, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> + +Russian army, transport of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> + +— lines of communication, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> + +— War of 1854-1856, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Salving</span> live mines, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_152">152</a><br /> + +Scandinavian convoys, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-<a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> + +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span>— — attacks on, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br /> + +Scapa Flow, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> + +Scottish waters, mine-fields in, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br /> + +Sea fight, elements of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> + +— flanks of armies, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>-<a href="#Page_300">300</a><br /> + +— power, elements of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> + +— stalking, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> + +Seamanship classes, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a><br /> + +Searching for mines, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> + +Shallow-water sweeping, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br /> + +Shell-shock cases, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> + +Ships of the new navy, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> + +Sick bay, shells burst in, <a href="#Page_256">256</a><br /> + +Singapore mine-field, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +Sinking of last U-boat, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> + +Sloop flotillas, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> + +Smoke screens, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br /> + +S.O.S., <a href="#Page_238">238</a><br /> + +Sounds, submarine, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> + +South African mine-fields, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +<i>Southampton</i>, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> + +Southampton Water training ground, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> + +Spanish Armada, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> + +Spectre of the Goodwins, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br /> + +Spotting officers at Zeebrugge, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>-<a href="#Page_291">291</a><br /> + +Staff Headquarters, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> + +Standard ships, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> + +<i>Submarine Engineering of To-day</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br /> + +Submarine hide-and-seek, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> + +— nets, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> + +— phase of naval war, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> + +— sounds, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> + +— <i>v.</i> submarine, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br /> + +— <i>v.</i> merchantman, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> + +— warfare of the future, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br /> + +Sutphen, Henry R., <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> + +<i>Sydney</i>, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_123">123</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Tactical</span> methods, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> + +Task of Allied navies, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>-<a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> + +Tenth Cruiser Squadron, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> + +Theatre of war, principal, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> + +Thornycroft, Messrs John T., & Co. Ltd., <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> + +Tides, effect of, on moored mines, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br /> + +— — on minesweeping, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br /> + +Toast of the British Navy, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> + +Tracking U-boats, methods of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_131">131</a><br /> + +Training an anti-submarine force, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> + +Transport of Allied armies, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> + +Trawler units, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br /> + +Treachery, guarding against, <a href="#Page_270">270</a><br /> + +Tripods (for observation) at Zeebrugge, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">U-Boats</span>, fishing for, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> + +— sunk, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br /> + +— sunk by Q19, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-<a href="#Page_100">100</a><br /> + +U-C boats, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br /> + +United States, effect on German mine-laying, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> + +— help from, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> + +— navy, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br /> + +— warships attacked, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> + +University, a naval, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> + +Unrecorded sea fights, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Very's</span> pistols, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> + +<i>Victory</i>, H.M.S., at Trafalgar, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> + +Von Hipper's fleet, <a href="#Page_255">255</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">War</span> base, a typical, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br /> + +— bases, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> + +— — description of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> + +— Cabinet and convoys, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br /> + +— Channel, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>-<a href="#Page_175">175</a><br /> + +Wardrooms in naval bases, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br /> + +<i>Warspite</i>, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_254">254</a><br /> + +Waterloo, a replica of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> + +Weapons, curious, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_95">95</a><br /> + +Weather, effect of, on naval operations, <a href="#Page_233">233</a><br /> + +Whaler units, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /> + +William Whiteley's, a naval, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br /> + +Winter patrol, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br /> + +<i>Wolfe</i>, German raider, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br /> + +Wounded, transport of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>-<a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Yacht</span> clubs, officers from, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> + +Yacht, armed, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br /> + +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Zeebrugge</span>, bombardment of, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_293">293</a><br /> + +Zeppelin attacks fishing fleet, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a><br /> + +Zeppelin raids, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a><br /> + +Zigzagging to avoid U-boats, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> + +Zones of war, drafting to, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_51">51</a><br /> + +— vessels leaving for, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br /> +</div> + + + + +<div class='center'><br /><br /><br /> +<small><b>THE RIVERSIDE PRESS LIMITED, EDINBURGH</b></small><br /> +<small><b>1920</b></small><br /><br /><br /> +</div> + + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Extract from <i>Naval Demobilisation</i>—issued by the Ministry of +Reconstruction.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> The personnel of the new navy consisted of R.N., R.N.R. and +R.N.V.R. officers. The former came mostly from the retired list. +The R.N.R. needed training only in such subjects as gunnery, tactics, +etc. The training of the R.N.V.R. is here described.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Yachting Monthly</i> and <i>R.N.V.R. Magazine</i>, August, 1917.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> One of the remaining U-boats afterwards succeeded in torpedoing +the battleship <i>Britannia</i>.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> When writing of the navy in this connection due praise should +be given to the Mercantile Marine, which this war has proved to be +a very important part of the <i>true</i> sea power of Great Britain.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Greenwich mean time.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> For a careful study of the effect of the submarine on the old +theories of sea power see <i>Submarines and Sea Power</i>, by Charles +Domville-Fife (Messrs George Bell & Sons, Ltd., London, and +Messrs Lippincotts, New York.).</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The question of water pressures and many other problems of +submarine engineering relating to under-water fighting are fully treated +in <i>Submarine Engineering of To-day</i>, by the Author.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> A few of the 7000 were British mines no longer required in the +positions in which they had been laid.</p></div></div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<div class='tnote'><h3>Transcriber's Notes:</h3> +<p>Obvious punctuation errors repaired.</p> +<p>Page 4, number 5 was missing from the list.</p> +<p>On pages 37-51, the original uses "depot." On pages 103 and 104, it uses "depôt." This was retained.</p> + +<p>The remaining corrections made are indicated by dotted lines under the corrections. Scroll the mouse over the word and the original text will <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'apprear'">appear</ins>.</p></div> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Submarine Warfare of To-day, by +Charles W. 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