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+ } + + .total { + padding-left: 2em; + padding-right: 10em; + } + + #vine_period td { + padding: 0em 0.2em; + } + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Manual of American Grape-Growing, by U. P. Hedrick + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Manual of American Grape-Growing + +Author: U. P. Hedrick + +Release Date: August 10, 2009 [EBook #29659] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Chris Logan and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<div id="header_page"> +<p><span class="rural">The Rural Manuals</span><br /> +<span class="edited">Edited by L. H. BAILEY</span></p> + +<h1>MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING</h1> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div id="manuals_list"> +<p><span class="rural">The Rural Manuals</span><br /> +<span class="edited">Edited by L. H. BAILEY</span></p> + +<ul> +<li><span class="title">Manual of Gardening</span>—<em>Bailey</em></li> +<li><span class="title">Manual of Farm Animals</span>—<em>Harper</em></li> +<li><span class="title">Farm and Garden Rule-Book</span>—<em>Bailey</em></li> +<li><span class="title">Manual of Fruit Insects</span>—<em>Slingerland and Crosby</em></li> +<li><span class="title">Manual of Weeds</span>—<em>Georgia</em></li> +<li><span class="title">The Pruning-Manual</span>—<em>Bailey</em></li> +<li><span class="title">Manual of Fruit Diseases</span>—<em>Hesler and Whetzel</em></li> +<li><span class="title">Manual of Milk Products</span>—<em>Stocking</em></li> +<li><span class="title">Manual of Vegetable-Garden Insects</span>—<em>Crosby and Leonard</em></li> +<li><span class="title">Manual of Tree Diseases</span>—<em>Rankin</em></li> +<li><span class="title">Manual of Home-Making</span>—<em>Van Rensselaer, Rose, and Canon</em></li> +<li><span class="title">Manual of American Grape-Growing</span>—<em>Hedrick</em></li> +</ul> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div id="title_page"> +<p class="manual">MANUAL OF</p> + +<p class="american">AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING</p> + +<p class="by">BY</p> + +<p class="hedrick">U. P. HEDRICK</p> + +<p class="horticulturist">HORTICULTURIST OF THE NEW YORK AGRICULTURAL<br /> +EXPERIMENT STATION</p> + +<p class="publisher"><span class="new_york">New York</span><br /> +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> +1919</p> + +<p><em>All rights reserved</em></p> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div id="copyright"> +<p class="copyright_1919">Copyright, 1919,<br /> +By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.</p> + +<div class="thought_break"></div> + +<p>Setup and electrotyped. Published June, 1919.</p> + +<p class="press"><span class="norwood">Norwood Press</span><br /> +J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.<br /> +Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</p> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div id="preface"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>Seventy-nine books on grapes enrich the pomology of North America, not +counting numerous state and national publications. Pomological writers +in America have been partial to the grape, for other fruits do not +fare nearly so well. Twenty-two books are devoted to the strawberry, +fourteen to the apple, to the peach nine, cranberry eight, plum five, +pear nine, quince two, loganberry one, while the cherry, raspberry, +and blackberry are not once separated from other fruits in special +books. Thus, though a comparative newcomer among the fruits of the +country, the grape has been singled out for a treatise more times than +all other fruits of temperate climates combined—seventy-nine books on +the grape, seventy on all other fruits.</p> + +<p>This statement of partiality does not lead to an apology for a new +book on the grape. There is urgent need for a new book. But three of +the seventy-nine treatises on this fruit are contemporary, and all but +one, a handbook on training, are records from vanished minds. Methods +change so rapidly and varieties multiply so fast, that to keep pace +there must be new books on fruits every few years. Besides, the types +of grapes are so diverse, and different soils, climates, and +treatments produce such widely dissimilar results, that many books are +required to do justice to this fruit—the vineyard should be seen +through many eyes.</p> + +<p>Commercial grape-growing is now a great industry in America, and +deserves a treatise or its own. But there are also many demands for +information on grape-growing by those who grow fruits for pleasure, +especially by those who are escaping from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> cities to suburban homes, +for the grape is a favorite fruit of the amateur. And so, though +Pleasure and Profit are a hard team to drive together, this manual is +written for both commercial and amateur grape-growers.</p> + +<p>In particular, the needs of the amateur are recognized in the <a href="#Page_330">chapter +on varieties</a>, where many sorts are described which have little or no +commercial value. No other fruit offers the enchantment of novelty to +be found in the grape. Alluring flavors, sizes, and colors abound, of +which the amateur wants samples. The commercial grower who plants but +one variety often finds himself dissatisfied with the humdrum of the +business. He should emulate the amateur and plant more kinds, if only +for pleasure, remembering the adage, "No profit grows where is no +pleasure ta'en." Greater pleasure in grape-growing, then, is offered +as the justification of the long chapter on varieties.</p> + +<p>At the risk of too broad spreading, the author discusses, in a book +mainly devoted to native grapes, the culture of European grapes in the +far West. The chief aim is, of course, to set forth information that +will be helpful to growers of these grapes in the western states, +there being no treatises to which western growers can refer, other +than bulletins from state and national agricultural institutions. +There is, however, another reason for attempting to cover the whole +field of grape-growing in America. It is certain that eastern +grape-growers will sometime grow European grapes. Western vineyards +might well be enlarged with plantings of native grapes. On the +supposition, then, that the culture of both European and native grapes +is to become less and less restricted in America, the author has +ventured to discuss the culture of all grapes for all parts of North +America.</p> + +<p>In the preparation of this manual, the author's "The Grapes of New +York," a book long out of print and never widely distributed, has been +laid under heavy contribution, especially<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> in the description of +varieties. Acknowledgments are due to F. Z. Hartzell for reading the +<a href="#Page_204">chapter on Grape Pests and their Control</a> and for furnishing most of +the photographs used in making illustrations of insects and fungi; to +F. E. Gladwin for similar help in preparing the two chapters on +<a href="#Page_108">pruning</a> and <a href="#Page_123">training</a> the grape in eastern America; to Frederic T. +Bioletti for permission to republish from a bulletin written by him +from the Agricultural Experiment Station of California almost the +whole <a href="#Page_150">chapter on Grape Pruning on the Pacific Slope</a>; and to O. M. +Taylor and to R. D. Anthony for very material assistance in reading +the manuscript and proofs.</p> + +<p class="signed">U. P. Hedrick.</p> + +<p><span class="geneva">Geneva, N. Y.</span>,<br /> +<span class="date">Jan. 1, 1919.</span></p> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div id="toc"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> +<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h2> + + +<table summary="Table of contents"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th>CHAPTER</th> + <th> </th> + <th>PAGE</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">I</td> + <td>The Domestication of the Grape</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">II</td> + <td>Grape Regions and their Determinants</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">III</td> + <td>Propagation</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">IV</td> + <td>Stocks and Resistant Vines</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">V</td> + <td>The Vineyard and its Management</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VI</td> + <td>Fertilizers for Grapes</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VII</td> + <td>Pruning the Grape in Eastern America</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VIII</td> + <td>Training the Grape in Eastern America</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">IX</td> + <td>Grape-pruning on the Pacific Coast</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">X</td> + <td>European Grapes in Eastern America</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XI</td> + <td>Grapes under Glass</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XII</td> + <td>Grape Pests and their Control</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XIII</td> + <td>Marketing Grapes</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XIV</td> + <td>Grape Products</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XV</td> + <td>Grape Breeding</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVI</td> + <td>Miscellanies</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVII</td> + <td>Grape Botany</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVIII</td> + <td>Varieties of Grapes</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></p> +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<h3>PLATES</h3> + +<table summary="List of illustrations: plates"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th>PLATE</th> + <th> </th> + <th>PAGE</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">I.</td> + <td>Two views of vineyards in California; a vineyard in the orchard region of central California, and a vineyard in southern California</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_I">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">II.</td> + <td>Fitting the land for planting</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_II">34</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">III.</td> + <td>Cover-crop; cow-horn turnips, and rye</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_III">48</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">IV.</td> + <td>A well-tilled vineyard of Concords</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_IV">60</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">V.</td> + <td>Vinifera grapes grown out of doors in New York; Malvasia and Chasselas Golden</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_V">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VI.</td> + <td>Black Hamburg</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_VI">82</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VII.</td> + <td>Barry. Delaware</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_VII">96</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VIII.</td> + <td>Brighton</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_VIII">106</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">IX.</td> + <td>Campbell Early</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_IX">114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">X.</td> + <td>Clinton</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_X">122</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XI.</td> + <td>Concord</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XI">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XII.</td> + <td>Diana</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XII">148</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XIII.</td> + <td>Dutchess</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XIII">164</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XIV.</td> + <td>Eaton</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XIV">182</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XV.</td> + <td>Eclipse</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XV">190</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVI.</td> + <td>Elvira</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XVI">202</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVII.</td> + <td>Empire State</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XVII">218</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVIII.</td> + <td>Herbert</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XVIII">228</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XIX.</td> + <td>Iona</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XIX">248</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XX.</td> + <td>Isabella</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XX">272</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XXI.</td> + <td>Jefferson</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXI">282</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XXII.</td> + <td>Lindley. Lucile</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXII">298</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XXIII.</td> + <td>Lutie. Pocklington</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXIII">328</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XXIV.</td> + <td>Moore Early</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXIV">340</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span>XXV.</td> + <td>Muscat Hamburg</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXV">350</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XXVI.</td> + <td>Niagara</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXVI">360</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XXVII.</td> + <td>Salem</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXVII">370</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XXVIII.</td> + <td>Triumph</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXVIII">380</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XXIX.</td> + <td>Vergennes</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXIX">390</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XXX.</td> + <td>Winchell</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXX">400</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XXXI.</td> + <td>Worden</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXXI">416</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XXXII.</td> + <td>Wyoming</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Plate_XXXII">432</a></td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + +<h3>FIGURES IN THE TEXT</h3> + +<table summary="List of illustrations: figures"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th>FIGURE</th> + <th> </th> + <th>PAGE</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">1.</td> + <td>A shoot of <em>Vitis vinifera</em></td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_1">3</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">2.</td> + <td>A shoot of <em>Vitis Labrusca</em></td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_2">6</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">3.</td> + <td>A shoot of <em>Vitis rotundifolia</em></td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_3">10</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">4.</td> + <td>A shoot of <em>Vitis æstivalis</em></td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_4">12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">5.</td> + <td>A shoot of <em>Vitis vulpina</em></td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_5">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">6.</td> + <td>Planting cuttings</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_6">40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">7.</td> + <td>A cutting beginning growth</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_7">40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">8.</td> + <td>Cutting off the trunk</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_8">46</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">9.</td> + <td>Cutting the cleft</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_9">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">10.</td> + <td>Inserting the cion</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_10">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">11.</td> + <td>The completed graft</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_11">47</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">12.</td> + <td>Bench-grafted cuttings of grape, showing the cleft-graft and the whip-graft. (Adapted from Husmann)</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_12">51</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">13.</td> + <td>Vine ready for pruning</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_13">113</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">14.</td> + <td>A "go-devil" for collecting prunings</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_14">119</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">15.</td> + <td>A trellis and a common method of bracing end posts</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_15">120</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">16.</td> + <td>Chautauqua training; vine ready to prune</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_16">127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">17.</td> + <td>Keuka method of training</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_17">130</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">18.</td> + <td>Single-stem four-cane Kniffin training</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_18">133</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">19.</td> + <td>Umbrella method of training</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_19">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">20.</td> + <td>Two-trunk Kniffin training</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_20">135</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">21.</td> + <td>Rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead method</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_21">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">22.</td> + <td>A Rotundifolia vine trained by the 6-arm renewal method</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_22">145</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">23.</td> + <td>Forms of head pruning</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_23">154</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">24.</td> + <td>Forms of head pruning</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_24">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span>25.</td> + <td>Head pruning: fan-shaped head; fruit canes tied to horizontal trellis</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_25">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">26.</td> + <td>Single vertical cordon with fruit-spurs</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_26">157</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">27.</td> + <td>Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit-spurs</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_27">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">28.</td> + <td>Three-year-old vine ready for pruning</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_28">169</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">29.</td> + <td>Vine of <a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a> after pruning for vase-formed head</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_29">169</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">30.</td> + <td>Three-year-old vines: A, pruned for a vase-formed, and B, for a fan-shaped head</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_30">170</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">31.</td> + <td>Four-year-old vine pruned for vase-formed head</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_31">171</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">32.</td> + <td>Four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed head</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_32">172</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">33.</td> + <td>Fan-shaped vines: A, before pruning; B, after pruning</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_33">173</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">34.</td> + <td>Vertical cordon, young vine pruned</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_34">176</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">35.</td> + <td>Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long pruning</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_35">177</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">36.</td> + <td>Leaf-galls of the phylloxera</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_36">205</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">37.</td> + <td>The grape root-worm</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_37">207</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">38.</td> + <td>Root-worm beetle</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_38">207</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">39.</td> + <td>Injuries caused by beetles of the grape root-worm</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_39">207</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">40.</td> + <td>Eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_40">209</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">41.</td> + <td>First four stages of the grape leaf-hopper</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_41">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">42.</td> + <td>The fifth and the mature stages of the grape leaf-hopper</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_42">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">43.</td> + <td>A bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry moth</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_43">214</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">44.</td> + <td>Work of black-rot of the grape</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_44">219</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">45.</td> + <td>Grapes attacked by downy-mildew</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_45">221</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">46.</td> + <td>Packing grapes on a packing-table</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_46">234</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">47.</td> + <td>Climax baskets in two sizes</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_47">236</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">48.</td> + <td>William Robert Prince</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_48">274</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">49.</td> + <td>E. S. Rogers</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_49">275</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">50.</td> + <td>T. V. Munson</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_50">277</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">51.</td> + <td>Staminate and perfect flower clusters on one vine</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_51">285</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">52.</td> + <td>Ringing grape-vines; showing tools for ringing and ringed + vines</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_52">292</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">53.</td> + <td>A grape flower; showing the opening cap and stamens</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_53">305</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td class="table_right">54.</td> + <td>Grape flowers; showing upright and depressed stamens</td> + <td class="table_right"><a href="#Fig_54">306</a></td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h2>MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING</h2> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<h3>CHAPTER I</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE</p> + + +<p>The domestication of an animal or a plant is a milestone in the +advance of agriculture and so becomes of interest to every human +being. But, more particularly, the materials, the events and the men +who direct the work of domestication are of interest to those who +breed and care for animals and plants; the grape-grower should find +much profit in the story of the domestication of the grape. What was +the raw material of a fruit known since the beginning of agriculture +and wherever temperate fruits are grown? How has this material been +fashioned into use? Who were the originative and who the directive +agents? These are fundamental questions in the improvement of the +grape, answers to which will also throw much light on the culture of +it.</p> + +<p>Botanists number from forty to sixty species of grapes in the world. +These are widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, all but a few +being found in temperate countries. Thus, more than half of the named +species come from the United States and Canada, while nearly all of +the others are from China and Japan, with but one species certainly +growing wild in southwestern Asia and bordering parts of Europe. All +true grapes have more or less edible fruits, and of the twenty or more +species grown in the New World more than half have been or are being +domesticated. Of the Old World grapes, only one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> species is cultivated +for fruit, but this, of all grapes, is of greatest economic importance +and, therefore, deserves first consideration.</p> + + +<h4>The European Grape</h4> + +<p>The European grape, <em>Vitis vinifera</em> (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>), is the grape of ancient +and modern agriculture. It is the vine which Noah planted after the +Deluge; the vine of Israel and of the Promised Land; the vine of the +parables in the New Testament. It is the grape and the vine of the +myths, fables, poetry and prose of all peoples. It is the grape from +which the wines of the world are made. From it come the raisins of the +world. It is the chief agricultural crop of southern Europe and +northern Africa and of vast regions in other parts of the world, +having followed civilized man from place to place in all temperate +climates. The European grape has so impressed itself on the human mind +that when one thinks or speaks of the grape, or of the vine, it is +this Old World species, the vine of antiquity, that presents itself.</p> + +<p>The written records of the cultivation of the European grape go back +five or six thousand years. The ancient Egyptians, Phœnicians, +Greeks and Romans grew the vine and made wine from its fruit. Grape +seeds have been found in the remains of European peoples of +prehistoric times, showing that primitive men enlivened their scanty +fare with wild grapes. Cultivation of the grape in the Old World +probably began in the region about the Caspian Sea where the vine has +always run wild. We have proof of the great antiquity of the grape in +Egypt, for its seeds are found entombed with the oldest mummies. +Probably the Phœnicians, the earliest navigators on the +Mediterranean, carried the grape from Egypt and Syria to Greece, Rome +and other countries bordering on this sea. The domestication of the +grape was far advanced in Christ's time, for Pliny, writing then, +describes ninety-one kinds of grapes and fifty kinds of wine.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"> +<a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a> +<img src="images/fig01.jpg" width="415" height="500" alt="Fig. 1. A shoot of Vitis vinifera." title="Fig. 1. A shoot of Vitis vinifera." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 1.</span> A shoot of <em>Vitis vinifera</em>.</span> +</div> + +<p>It can never be known exactly when the European grape came under +cultivation. There is no word as to what were the methods and +processes of domestication, and whose the minds and hands that +remodeled the wild grape of Europe into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> grape of the vineyards. +The Old World grape was domesticated long before the faint traditions +which have been transmitted to our day could possibly have arisen. For +knowledge of how wild species of this fruit have been and may be +brought under cultivation, we must turn to New World records.</p> + + +<h4>American Grapes</h4> + +<p>Few other plants in the New World grow wild under such varied +conditions and over such extended areas as the grape. Wild grapes are +found in the warmer parts of New Brunswick; on the shores of the Great +Lakes; everywhere in the woodlands of the North and Middle Atlantic +states; on the limestone soils of Kentucky, Tennessee and the +Virginias; and they thrive in the sandy woods, sea plains and +reef-keys of the South Atlantic and Gulf states. While not so common +west of the Mississippi, yet some kind of wild grape is found from +North Dakota to Texas; grapes grow on the mountains and in the cañons +of all the Rocky Mountain states; and several species thrive on the +Mexican borders and in the far Southwest.</p> + +<p>While it is possible that all American grapes have descended from an +original species, the types are now as diverse as the regions they +inhabit. The wild grapes of the forests have long slender trunks and +branches, whereby their leaves are better exposed to the sunlight. Two +shrubby species do not attain a greater height than four or five feet; +these grow in sandy soils, or among rocks exposed to sun and air. +Another runs on the ground and bears foliage almost evergreen. The +stem of one species attains a diameter of a foot, bearing its foliage +in a great canopy. From this giant form the species vary to slender, +graceful, climbing vines. Wild grapes are as varied in climatic +adaptations as in structure of vine and grow luxuriantly in every +condition of heat or cold, wetness or dryness, capable of supporting +fruit-culture in America. So<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> many of the kinds have horticultural +possibilities that it seems certain that some grape can be +domesticated in all of the agricultural regions of the country, their +natural plasticity indicating, even if it were not known from +experience, that all can be domesticated.</p> + +<p>Leif the Lucky, the first European to visit America, if the Icelandic +records are true, christened the new land Wineland. It has been +supposed that this designation was given for the grapes, but recent +investigations show that the fruits were probably mountain +cranberries. Captain John Hawkins, who visited the Spanish settlements +in Florida in 1565, mentions wild grapes among the resources of the +New World. Amadas and Barlowe, sent out by Raleigh in 1584, describe +the coasts of the Carolinas as, "so full of grapes that in all the +world like abundance cannot be found." Captain John Smith, writing in +1606, describes the grapes of Virginia and recommends the culture of +the vine as an industry for the newly founded colony. Few, indeed, are +the explorers of the Atlantic seaboard who do not mention grapes among +the plants of the country. Yet none saw intrinsic value in these wild +vines. To the Europeans, the grapes of the Old World alone were worth +cultivating, and the vines growing everywhere in America only +suggested that the grape they had known across the sea might be grown +in the new home.</p> + +<p>That American viticulture must depend on the native species for its +varieties began to be recognized at the beginning of the nineteenth +century, when several large companies engaged in growing foreign +grapes failed, and a meritorious native grape made its appearance. The +vine of promise was a variety known as the Alexander. Thomas +Jefferson, ever alert for the agricultural welfare of the nation, +writing in 1809 to John Adlum, one of the first experimenters with an +American species, voiced the sentiment of grape experimenters in +speaking of the Alexander: "I think it will be well to push the +culture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> of this grape without losing time and efforts in the search +of foreign vines, which it will take centuries to adapt to our soil +and climate."</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a> +<img src="images/fig02.jpg" width="500" height="487" alt="Fig. 2. A shoot of Vitis Labrusca." title="Fig. 2. A shoot of Vitis Labrusca." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 2.</span> A shoot of <em>Vitis Labrusca</em>.</span> +</div> + +<p>Alexander is an offshoot of the common fox-grape, <em>Vitis Labrusca</em> +(<a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>), found in the woods on the Atlantic coast from Maine to +Georgia and occasionally in the Mississippi Valley. The history of the +variety dates back to before the Revolutionary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> War, when, according +to William Bartram, the Quaker botanist, it was found growing in the +vicinity of Philadelphia, by John Alexander, gardener to Governor Penn +of Pennsylvania. Curiously enough, it came into general cultivation +through the deception of a nurseryman. Peter Legaux, a French-American +grape-grower, in 1801 sold the Kentucky Vineyard Society fifteen +hundred grape cuttings which he said had been taken from an European +grape introduced from the Cape of Good Hope, therefore called the +"Cape" grape. Legaux's grape turned out to be the Alexander. In the +new home the spurious Cape grew wonderfully well and as the knowledge +of its fruitfulness in Kentucky, Ohio and Indiana spread, demand for +it increased, and with remarkable rapidity, considering the time, it +came into general cultivation in the parts of the United States then +settled.</p> + +<h6><em>The Labrusca or fox-grapes.</em></h6> + +<p>Of the several species of American grapes now under cultivation, the +Labrusca, first represented by the Alexander, has furnished more +cultivated varieties than all the other American species together, no +less than five hundred of its varieties having been grown in the +vineyards of the country. There are several reasons why it is the most +generally cultivated species. It is native to the parts of the United +States in which agriculture soonest advanced to a state where fruits +were desired. In the wild, the Labruscas are the most attractive, +being largest and handsomest in color; among all grapes it alone shows +black-, white- and red-fruited forms on wild vines. There is a +northern and a southern form of the species, and its varieties are, +therefore, widely adapted to climates and to soils. The flavor of the +fruits of this species, all things considered, is rather better than +that of any other of our wild grapes, though the skins in most of its +varieties have a peculiar aroma, somewhat pronounced in the well-known +Concord, Niagara and Worden,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> which is disagreeable to tastes +accustomed to the pure flavors of the European grapes. All Labruscas +submit well to vineyard operations and are vigorous, hardy and +productive, though they are more subject to the dreaded phylloxera +than are most of the other cultivated native species. Of the many +grapes of this type, at least two deserve brief historical mention.</p> + +<p>Catawba, probably a pure-bred Labrusca, the first American grape of +commercial importance, is the most interesting variety of its species. +The origin of the variety is not certainly known, but all evidence +points to its having been found about the year 1800 on the banks of +the Catawba River, North Carolina. It was introduced into general +cultivation by Major John Adlum, soldier of the Revolution, judge, +surveyor and author of the first American book on grapes. Adlum +maintained an experimental vineyard in the District of Columbia, +whence in 1823 he began the distribution of the Catawba. At that time +the center of American grape culture was about Cincinnati, and an +early shipment of Adlum's Catawbas went to Nicholas Longworth of that +city and was by him distributed throughout the grape-growing centers +of the country. As one of the first to test new varieties of American +grapes, to grow them largely and to make wine commercially from them, +Nicholas Longworth is known as the "father of American grape culture."</p> + +<p>Catawba is still one of the four leading varieties in the vineyards of +eastern America. The characters whereby its high place is maintained +among grapes are: Great elasticity of constitution, by reason of which +the vine is adapted to many environments; rich flavor, long-keeping +quality, and handsome appearance of fruit, qualities which make it a +very good dessert grape; high sugar-content and a rich flavor of +juice, so that from its fruit is made a very good wine and a very good +grape-juice; and vigor, hardiness and productiveness of vine. The +characters of Catawba are readily transmissible, and it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> has many +pure-bred or hybrid offspring which more or less resemble it.</p> + +<p>The second commercial grape of importance in American viticulture is +Concord, which came from the seed of a wild grape planted in the fall +of 1843 by Ephraim W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts. The new variety +was disseminated in the spring of 1854, and from the time of its +introduction the spread of its culture was phenomenal. By 1860 it was +the leading grape in America and it so remains. Concord furnishes, +with the varieties that have sprung from it, seventy-five per cent of +the grapes grown in eastern America. The characters which distinguish +the vine are: Adaptability to various soils, fruitfulness, hardiness +and resistance to diseases and insects. The fruits are distinguished +by certainty of maturity, attractive appearance, good but not high +flavor, and by the fact that they may be produced so cheaply that no +other grape can compete with this variety in the markets. Concord is, +as Horace Greeley well denominated it in awarding the Greeley prize +for the best American grape, "the grape for the millions."</p> + +<p>The histories of these two grapes are typical of those of five hundred +or more other Labruscas. Out of a prodigious number of native +seedlings, an occasional one is found greatly to excel its fellows and +is brought under cultivation.</p> + +<h6><em>The Rotundifolia or Muscadine grapes.</em></h6> + +<p>Long before the northern Labruscas had attained prominence in the +vineyards of the North, a grape had been domesticated partially in the +South. It is <em>Vitis rotundifolia</em> (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>), a species which runs riot +from the Potomac to the Gulf, thriving in many diverse soils, but +growing only in the southern climate and preferring the seacoast. +Rotundifolia grapes have been cultivated somewhat for fruit or +ornament from the earliest colonial times. It is certain that wine was +made from this species by the English settlers at Jamestown. Vines of +it are now to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> found on arbors, in gardens or half wild on fences +in nearly every farm in the South Atlantic states. That the +Rotundifolias have not been more generally brought under cultivation +is due to the bountifulness of the wild vines, which has obviated the +necessity of domesticating them. The fruit of its varieties, to a +palate unaccustomed to them, is not very acceptable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> having a musky +flavor and odor and a sweet, juicy pulp, which is lacking in +sprightliness. Many, however, acquire a taste for these grapes and +find them pleasant eating. The great defect of this grape is that the +berries part from the pedicels as they ripen and perfect bunches +cannot be secured. In fact, the crop is often harvested by shaking the +vines so that the berries drop on sheets beneath. Despite these +defects, a score or more varieties of this species are now under +general cultivation in the cotton-belt, and interest in their +domestication is now greater than in any other species, with great +promise for the future.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 439px;"> +<a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a> +<img src="images/fig03.jpg" width="439" height="500" alt="Fig. 3. A shoot of Vitis rotundifolia." title="Fig. 3. A shoot of Vitis rotundifolia." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 3.</span> A shoot of <em>Vitis rotundifolia</em>.</span> +</div> + +<h6><em>The Æstivalis or summer-grapes.</em></h6> + +<p>The South has another grape of remarkable horticultural possibilities. +This is <em>Vitis æstivalis</em> (<a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>), the summer-grape or, to +distinguish it from the Rotundifolias, the bunch-grape of southern +forests. There are now a score or more well-known varieties of this +species, the best known being Norton, which probably originated with +Dr. D. N. Norton, Richmond, Virginia, in the early part of the +nineteenth century. The berries of the true Æstivalis grapes are too +small, too destitute of pulp and too tart to make good dessert fruits, +but from them are made our best native red wines. Domestication of +this species has been greatly retarded by a peculiarity of the species +which hinders its propagation. Grapes are best propagated from +cuttings, but this species is not easily reproduced by this means and +the difficulty of securing good young vines has been a serious +handicap in its culture.</p> + +<p>There are two subspecies of <em>Vitis æstivalis</em> which promise much for +American viticulture. <em>Vitis æstivalis Bourquiniana</em>, known only under +cultivation and of very doubtful botanical standing, furnishes +American viticulture several valuable varieties. Chief of these is the +Delaware, the introduction of which sixty years ago from the town of +Delaware, Ohio,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> raised the standard in quality of New World grapes to +that of Old World. No European grape has a richer or more delicate +flavor, or a more pleasing aroma, than Delaware. While a northern +grape, it can be grown in the South, and thrives under so many +different climatic and soil conditions and under all is so fruitful, +that, next to the Concord, it is the most popular American grape for +garden and vineyard. Without question, however, Delaware contains a +trace of European blood.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a> +<img src="images/fig04.jpg" width="500" height="456" alt="Fig. 4. A shoot of Vitis æstivalis." title="Fig. 4. A shoot of Vitis æstivalis." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 4.</span> A shoot of <em>Vitis æstivalis</em>.</span> +</div> + +<p>Another offshoot of this subspecies is Herbemont, which, in the South, +holds the same rank that Concord holds in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> North. The variety is +grown only south of the Ohio, and in this great region it is esteemed +by all for a dessert grape and for its light red wine. It is one of +the few American varieties which finds favor in France, being +cultivated in southwest France as a wine-grape. Its history goes back +to a colony of French Huguenots in Georgia before the Revolutionary +War. Very similar to Herbemont is Lenoir, also with a history tracing +back to the French in the Carolinas or Georgia in the eighteenth +century.</p> + +<p>The other subspecies of <em>Vitis æstivalis</em> is <em>Vitis æstivalis +Lincecumii</em>, the post-oak grape of Texas and of the southern part of +the Mississippi Valley. Recently this wild grape has been brought +under domestication, and from it has been bred a number of most +promising varieties for hot and dry regions.</p> + +<h6><em>The Vulpina or river-bank grapes.</em></h6> + +<p>The North, too, has a wine-grape from which wines nearly equaling +those of the southern Æstivalis are made. This is <em>Vitis vulpina</em> (<em>V. +riparia</em>), the river-bank grape, a shoot of which is shown in <a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>, +the most widely distributed of any of the native species. It grows as +far north as Quebec, south to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlantic +to the Rocky Mountains. Fully a century ago, a wine-grape of this +species was cultivated under the name Worthington, but the attention +of vineyardists was not turned to the Vulpinas until after the middle +of the last century, when the qualities of its vines attracted the +attention of French viticulturists. Phylloxera had been introduced +from America into France and threatened the existence of French +vineyards. After trying all possible remedies for the scourge, it was +discovered that the insect could be overcome by grafting European +grapes on American vines resistant to phylloxera. A trial of the +promising species of New World grapes showed that vines of this +species were best suited for the reconstruction of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> French vineyards, +the vines being not only resistant to the phylloxera but also vigorous +and hardy. At present, a large proportion of the vines of Europe, +California and other grape-growing regions are grafted on the roots of +this or of other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> American species, and the viticulture of the world +is thus largely dependent on these grapes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;"> +<a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a> +<img src="images/fig05.jpg" width="430" height="500" alt="Fig. 5. A shoot of Vitis vulpina." title="Fig. 5. A shoot of Vitis vulpina." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 5.</span> A shoot of <em>Vitis vulpina</em>.</span> +</div> + +<p>The French found that a number of the Vulpina (Riparia) grapes +introduced for their roots were valuable as direct producers for +wines. The fruits of this species are too small and too sour for +dessert, but they are free from the disagreeable tastes and aromas of +some of our native grapes and, therefore, make very good wines. The +best known of the varieties of this species is the Clinton, which is +generally thought to have originated in the yard of Dr. Noyes, of +Hamilton College, Clinton, New York, about 1820. It is, however, +probably the Worthington, of which the origin is unknown, renamed. +There are possibly a hundred or more grapes now under cultivation +wholly or in part from Vulpina, most of them hybrids with the American +Labrusca and the European Vinifera, with both of which it hybridizes +freely.</p> + +<h6><em>Domesticated species of minor importance.</em></h6> + +<p>In the preceding paragraphs we have seen that four species of grapes +constitute the foundation of American viticulture. Nine other species +furnish pure-bred varieties and many hybrids with the four chief +species or among themselves. These are <em>V. rupestris</em>, <em>V. Longii</em>, +<em>V. Champinii</em>, <em>V. Munsoniana</em>, <em>V. cordifolia</em>, <em>V. candicans</em>, <em>V. +bicolor</em>, <em>V. monticola</em> and <em>V. Berlandieri</em>. Several of these nine +species are of value in the vineyard or for stocks upon which to graft +other grapes. The domestication of all of these is just begun, and +each year sees them more and more in use in the vineyards of the +country.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Plate_I" id="Plate_I"></a> +<img src="images/plate01.jpg" width="500" height="332" alt="Plate I." title="Plate I." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate I.</span>—Two views of vineyards in California. <em>Top</em>, +a vineyard in the orchard region of central California; <em>bottom</em>, a +vineyard in southern California.</span> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER II</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS</p> + + +<p>Happily, the grape in its great diversity of forms accommodates itself +to many conditions, so that some variety of the several cultivated +species will produce fruit for home use, if not as a market commodity, +in every part of America adapted to general agriculture. But +commercial grape-growing on this continent is confined to a few +regions, in each of which it is profitable only in ideal situations. +In fact, few other agricultural industries are more definitely +determined by environment than the grape-industry. Where are the grape +regions of America? What determines the suitability of a region for +grape-growing? Answers to these questions furnish clews to the culture +of this fruit and help in estimating the potentialities of a new +region or of a location for grape-growing.</p> + + +<h4>The Grape Regions of America</h4> + +<p>There are four chief grape-growing regions in North America, with +possibly twice as many more subsidiary ones. These several regions, +each of which has its distinct varieties and to less extent distinct +species, and in each of which grapes are grown for somewhat widely +different purposes, give a great variety of industrial conditions to +the grape-growing of the continent. Nevertheless, the regions have +much in common in their environment. It is from their differences and +similarities that most can be learned in the brief discussions of the +regions that follow.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>The Pacific slope.</em></h6> + +<p>The Pacific slope takes precedence among the grape regions of the +continent, exceeding all others combined in the production of grapes +and grape products. California is the viticultural center of this +great region, grapes being grown within her bounds from the foot of +Mount Shasta on the north to Mexico on the south and from the +foothills of the Sierras on the east to the forest that borders the +coast on the west. So outlined, California might appear to be one vast +vineyard, but it is only in favored valleys, plains and low hills in +the territory bounded that the vine is sufficiently well suited to be +productive. Outliers of this main region of the Pacific slope run +north into Oregon, Washington, Idaho and even into British Columbia, +forced more and more eastward the farther north to escape humidity +from the ocean which northward passes farther and farther inland. +Other outliers of the main region are found eastward in Nevada, +Arizona, New Mexico and even Utah and Colorado, though for the most +part in these states grape-growing is still insignificant. <a href="#Plate_I">Plate I</a> +shows typical vineyards in California.</p> + +<p>The grapes grown on the Pacific slope are almost exclusively Vinifera +varieties, though a few American grapes are planted in the Pacific +Northwest. This is not because American varieties cannot be grown, +although they succeed rather less well here than on the eastern +seaboard, but because the Viniferas are liked better, and climate and +soil seem exactly to suit them. Viticulture on the Pacific slope is +divided into three interdependent industries which are almost never +quite independent of each other—the wine industry, raisin industry +and table-grape industry. Each of these industries depends on grapes +more or less specially adapted to the product, the special +characteristics being secured chiefly through somewhat distinct types +of grapes but depending partly on soil and climatic con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>ditions. The +manufacture of unfermented grape-juice is not yet a success in this +region for the reasons that Vinifera grapes do not make a good +unfermented juice, and American grapes are not grown in sufficient +quantities to warrant the establishment of grape-juice plants.</p> + +<p>Bioletti gives the extent of the grape-growing industry in California +as follows:<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<p>"The vineyards of California covered in 1912 about 385,000 acres. Of +this total, about 180,000 acres were producing wine-grapes. Roughly, +50 per cent of the wine was produced in the great interior valleys, +including most of the sweet wines; 35 per cent was produced by the +valleys and hillsides of the Coast ranges, including most of the dry +wines; the remaining 15 per cent was produced in Southern California +and included both sweet and dry.</p> + +<p>"The raisin-grape vineyards covered about 130,000 acres, of which +about 90 per cent were in the San Joaquin Valley, 7 per cent in the +Sacramento, and 3 per cent in Southern California.</p> + +<p>"The shipping-grape vineyards are reckoned at 75,000 acres, +distributed about as follows: 50 per cent in the Sacramento Valley, 40 +per cent in San Joaquin, 6 per cent in Southern California, and 4 per +cent in the Coast ranges."</p> + +<h6><em>The Chautauqua grape-belt.</em></h6> + +<p>The Chautauqua grape-belt, lying along the northeastern shore of Lake +Erie in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, is the second most important +grape region in America. The "belt" is a narrow strip of lowland +averaging about three miles in width, lying between Lake Erie and a +high escarpment which bounds the belt on the south throughout its +entire length of a hundred or more miles. Here climate and soil seem +to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> exceptionally favorable for grape-growing. Climate is the chief +determinant of the boundaries of this belt, since there are several +types of soil upon which grapes do equally well in the region, and +when the climate changes at the two extremities of the belt where the +escarpment becomes low, or when the distance between the lake and the +escarpment is great, grape-growing ceases to be profitable.</p> + +<p>The growers of this region are organized into selling associations so +that estimates of acreage and yields are obtainable. At present +writing, 1918, there are in this belt in New York about 35,000 acres +of grapes; in Pennsylvania and Ohio, about 15,000 acres, much the +greater part of which is in Pennsylvania. The average yield of grapes +to the acre for the region is about two tons. The average total +production for the past five years has been about 100,000 tons, of +which 65,000 tons are shipped as table-grapes, and 35,000 tons are +used in the manufacture of wine and grape-juice. Among varieties, +Concord reigns supreme in the Chautauqua belt. The writer, in 1906, +made a canvass of the region, vineyard by vineyard, and found that 90 +per cent of the acreage of the belt was set to Concord, 3 per cent to +Niagara, 2 per cent to Worden and the remaining 5 per cent to a dozen +or more varieties of which Moore Early and Delaware led.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of grape-juice on a commercial scale began in the +Chautauqua belt and most of this product is still produced in the +region. Here, only Concord grapes of the best quality are used for +grape-juice. The growth of this industry is most significant for the +future of grape-growing in the region. Twenty years ago grape-juice +was a negligible factor in the grape industry of this region; at +present, the annual output is in the neighborhood of 4,000,000 +gallons. Grape-juice-makers now determine the price of grapes for the +region, and while the quantity used is less than that for +table-grapes, the time is not distant when it will be greater.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>The Niagara region.</em></h6> + +<p>Fifty miles due north of the Chautauqua belt, across the end of Lake +Erie and the narrow isthmus of Niagara, is a smaller belt on the +southern shore of Lake Ontario so similar in soil, climate and +topography that in these respects the two regions might be considered +as identical. This is the Niagara region, Canada's chief +grape-producing area. It is bounded on the north by Lake Ontario; on +the south, at a distance of one to three miles by the high Niagara +escarpment; to the east it crosses the Niagara River into New York; +and in the west tapers to a point at Hamilton on the westward +extremity of Lake Ontario. Here, again, is the influence of climate +distinctly manifested. As this belt passes into New York, it widens +and the influence of Lake Ontario is less and less felt to the +eastward, and in consequence grape-growing becomes less and less +profitable.</p> + +<p>There were, according to the Ontario Bureau of Industries, in 1914, +about 10,850 acres of grapes in the Niagara region in Canada, and +possibly 4,000 acres more near the Niagara River and along the shore +of Lake Ontario in New York. The Niagara grape originated on the +American side of the Niagara region and is here planted more +extensively than elsewhere. Grape-growing in this region is similar in +all respects to that of the Chautauqua belt, the same varieties and +nearly identical methods of pruning, cultivation, spraying and +harvesting being employed. The crop is chiefly used as table-grapes +but the grape-juice industry is growing.</p> + +<h6><em>The Central Lakes region of New York.</em></h6> + +<p>In the central part of western New York are several remarkable bodies +of water known as the Central Lakes. Three of these are large and deep +enough to give ideal climatic conditions for grapes, and about these +lakes are grouped several im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>portant areas of vineyards, making this +the third most important grape region in America. The region assumes +further importance because most of the champagne made in America is +produced here, and it is the chief center of still wines in eastern +America as well. It is further distinguished by its distinctive types +of grapes, Catawba and Delaware taking the place of Concord and +Niagara, the sorts that usually predominate in eastern grape regions.</p> + +<p>The main body of this region lies on the steep slopes of the high +lands surrounding Keuka Lake. On the shores of this lake there are, +approximately, 15,000 acres of grapes. Adjacent to this main body are +several smaller bodies about the neighboring lakes. Thus, at the head +of Canandaigua Lake and on its shores are about 2500 acres; near +Seneca and between Seneca and Cayuga Lakes there are probably 1500 +acres more. In a few specially favored places on other of these +Central Lakes, there are possibly 1000 acres, making all told for this +region, about 20,000 acres. Again it is climate that sets the seal of +approval on the region for viticulture. In addition to the benefits of +deep bodies of water, high and sloping lands cause the frosts to cease +early in the spring and hold them in abeyance in the autumn, giving an +exceptionally long season.</p> + +<p>Champagne-making began here about 1860; at present there are a score +or more manufacturers of champagne, wine and brandy, the output being +annually about 3,000,000 gallons of wine and 2,000,000 bottles of +champagne. Recently the manufacture of grape-juice has begun and the +industry is now flourishing.</p> + +<h6><em>Minor grape regions.</em></h6> + +<p>Viticulture is commercially important in several other regions than +those outlined. Thus, in the valley of the Hudson River, grapes have +been grown commercially for nearly a hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> years, the industry +reaching its height between 1880 and 1890, when there were 13,000 +acres under cultivation. For some years, however, grape-growing along +the Hudson has been on the decline. Another region in which +viticulture reaches considerable magnitude is in several islands in +Lake Erie near Sandusky, Ohio, the product going largely for the +manufacture of wine. At one time grapes were grown commercially on the +banks of the Ohio River about Cincinnati and westward into Indiana. +The industry here, however, is a thing of the past. Another region in +which grape-growing was once of prime importance but now lags has its +center at Hermann, Missouri. The newest grape-producing area worthy of +note is in southwestern Michigan about the towns of Lawton and Paw +Paw. A small but very prosperous grape-growing region has its center +at Egg Harbor, New Jersey. Ives is the mainstay among varieties in +this region. In the southern states, Muscadine grapes are grown in a +small way in every part of the cotton-belt and varieties of other +native species are to be found in home vineyards in the upland +regions, but nowhere in the South can it be said that grape-growing is +a commercial industry.</p> + + +<h4>The Determinants of Grape Regions</h4> + +<p>Climate, soil, site, the surface features of the land, insects, fungi +and commercial geography are the chief factors that determine regions +for money-making in grape-growing. This has been made plain in the +foregoing discussion of grape regions, but the several factors must be +taken up in greater detail. To bound the regions is of less importance +than to understand why they exist—less needful to remember, more +needful to understand. From what has been said, the reader has no +doubt already concluded that successful grape-growing is in largest +measure due to kindliness in climate.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> +<h5><em>Climate</em></h5> + +<p>Under the assumption, then, that climate, of all factors, is chief in +playing providence to the grape, let us examine somewhat critically +the relations of climate to grape-growing. When analyzed, the +essentials of climate, as it governs grape-growing, are found to be +six: first, length of season; second, seasonal sum of heat; third, +amount of humidity in summer weather; fourth, dates of spring and +autumn frosts; fifth, winter temperature; sixth, air currents.</p> + +<h6><em>Length of season.</em></h6> + +<p>To reach true perfection, each grape variety has a length of season of +its own. With each, if it is grown in too low a latitude, the vine is +uninterrupted in growth; its leaves tend to become evergreen; and not +infrequently it produces at the same time blossoms, green fruits and +ripe fruits. This is, of course, the extreme to which grapes pass in +the far South. Again, many northern varieties fail where southern +grapes succeed because the fruits pass too rapidly from maturity to +decay. On the other hand, very often southern grapes are hardy in vine +in the North, but the season is not sufficiently long for the fruit to +mature and to acquire sufficient sugar to give them good keeping +quality, properly to pass through vinous fermentation, or even to make +a good unfermented grape-juice. In the uneven topography of this +continent, it is not possible to state the range in latitude in which +grapes can be cultivated to advantage, for latitude is often set aside +by altitude. Thus, isothermal lines, or lines of equal temperature, +are much curved in America and do not at all coincide with the +parallels of latitude.</p> + +<p>Other factors, of course, than length of season enter into the +ripening of grapes. The daily range in temperature, not always +dependent on latitude, affects ripening. Cool nights may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> offset warm +days and delay ripening. Certainly rains, fogs and humid air delay +maturity. The bottom heat of loose, warm, dry gravelly or stony soils +hastens maturity. Sunshine secured by a sunny aspect or shelter +hastens maturity.</p> + +<h6><em>The seasonal sum of heat.</em></h6> + +<p>Successful cultivation of the grape depends on a sufficient amount of +heat during the summer season. The theory is that buds of the grape +commence to start when the mean daily temperature reaches a certain +height, and that the sum of the mean daily temperature must reach a +certain amount before grapes ripen. Manifestly, this sum must vary +much with different varieties, low for the earliest sorts, high for +the latest. There have been many observations as to the temperatures +at which buds of the grape start growth, so that it is now known that +the temperature varies in accordance with locality and degree of +maturity. Roughly speaking, grape buds start at temperatures from 50° +to 60° F. The seasonal sum of heat for ripening is probably 1600 to +2400 units. A variety ought not to be planted, therefore, in a region +in which the average seasonal sum of heat is not sufficiently high. +The seasonal sum of heat can be determined for a locality from data +published by the United States Weather Bureau; and by comparing with +the sum of heat units in localities where a variety is known to +thrive, the grape-grower can determine whether there is sufficient +heat for any particular variety.</p> + +<p>The grape seldom suffers from hot weather in a grape region. The fruit +is sometimes scalded in the full blaze of a hot sun, but the ample +foliage of the vine usually furnishes protection against a burning +sun. At maturing time, the heat of an unclouded sun, if the air +circulates freely, insures a finely finished product. Deep planting +helps to offset the harmful influences of warm climates.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Humidity of summer weather.</em></h6> + +<p>The grape is very sensitive to moisture conditions, and grows best in +regions where the summer rainfall is comparatively light. A damp and +cloudy summer brings disaster to the vineyard in several ways; as +small growth of vine, small set of fruit, a crop of poor quality, and +the development of the several fungous diseases. Although the grape +stands drought, a superfluity of moisture in the soil may do little +harm, as is shown in irrigated vineyards, but a humid air is fatal to +success especially if the air is both warm and wet. Moist weather +during the time of maturity is particularly disastrous to the grape, +as are frequent fogs. Cold wet weather in blooming time is the +grape-grower's vernal bane, since it most effectually prevents the +setting of fruit. It may be laid down as a rule that the grape lives +by sunlight, warmth and air—it often thrives on the desert's edge. +These considerations make it manifest that the monthly and seasonal +means of precipitation must be considered in selecting a locality to +grow grapes.</p> + +<h6><em>Spring and autumn frosts.</em></h6> + +<p>The average date at which the last killing frost occurs in the spring +often determines the limit in latitude at which the grape can be +grown. Even in the most favored grape region of the continent, killing +frosts occasionally destroy the grape crop, and there are few seasons +in which frost does not take some toll. Thus on May 7, 1916, frost all +but ruined the crop of wine- and table-grapes in the great grape +region of northern California where frosts are seldom expected in May. +Little or nothing can be done to protect grapes from frost. Windbreaks +as often favor the frost as the vine, and smudging or heating the +vineyards is too expensive to be practical. In growing grapes, +therefore, the commonly recognized precaution of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> selecting a site +near water, on slopes or in a warm thermal belt must be exercised.</p> + +<p>The limits of grape culture are also determined by early autumn +frosts. The grape stands two or three degrees of frost, but anything +lower usually destroys the crop. Here, again, the only precaution is +to take pains in selecting the site.</p> + +<h6><em>The use of weather data and dates of life events of the grape.</em></h6> + +<p>These considerations of length of season, humidity and spring and fall +frosts make it plain that the grape-grower must synchronize these +phases of climate with the life events of the grape. In particular, he +must study weather data in relation to the blooming and ripening of +grapes. Usually, the necessary weather data may be secured from the +nearest local weather bureau, while the date of blooming and ripening +may be obtained from the state experiment stations in the states where +the grape is an important crop.</p> + +<h6><em>Winter temperature.</em></h6> + +<p>Varieties of native grapes are seldom injured in America by +winter-killing, since they are usually planted in climates in which +wild grapes withstand winter conditions. Native varieties follow the +rule that plant and climate are truly congenial in regions in which +the plant thrives without the aid of man. A few varieties of native +grapes fare badly in the winter's cold of northern grape regions, and +the tender Vinifera vine is at the mercy of the winter wherever the +mercury goes below zero. In cold climates, therefore, care must be +exercised in selecting hardy varieties and in following careful +cultural methods with the tender sorts. If other climatic conditions +are favorable, however, winter-killing is not an unsurmountable +difficulty, since the grape is easily protected from cold, so easily +that the tender Viniferas may be grown in the cold North with winter +protection.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Air currents.</em></h6> + +<p>Currents of air are of but local importance in growing tree-fruits, +but are of general and vital importance in growing the grape. The +direction, force and frequency of prevailing winds are often +controlling factors in the suppression of fungous diseases of the +grape, and the presence of fungi often means success or failure in +regions in which the grape is planted. Winds are beneficial, too, when +they bring warm air or dry air, and when they keep frosty air in +motion. The air must move in all grape regions, whether from cañon, +mountain, lake or sea. Sunlight, warmth, and air in motion are life to +the grape. Sometimes winds may be detrimental; as when too cold, too +blustering, or when they bring hail, the latter being about the most +disastrous of all natural calamities. Windbreaks are of small value +and are often worse than useless. Having planted his vineyard, the +grape-grower must take the winds as they blow.</p> + + +<h5><em>Soils for grapes</em></h5> + +<p>A prime requisite for a vineyard being earth in which vines will grow, +successful grape-growing is eminently dependent on the selection of +soil. Many mistakes are made in the great grape regions in planting on +unsuitable soils, the planter going on the assumption that any soil in +a grape region should be good enough for the grape. But the crust of +the earth in grape regions is not all grape soil. In New York, for +example, much of the land in the three grape regions is better fitted +for producing crops for the mason or road-mender than for the +grape-grower. Other soils in these regions are fit for vineyards only +when tiled, and tiling does not make all wet land fit for tilling. +Heavy, clammy clays, light sands, soils parched with thirst, thin or +hungry soils—on all of these the grower may plant but will seldom +harvest.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>The ideal soil.</em></h6> + +<p>Grapes may be well grown in a wide range of soils if the land is well +drained, open to air and if it holds heat. But without these +essentials, whatever the soil, all subsequent treatment fails to +produce a good vineyard. Generally speaking, the grape grows best in a +light, free-working, gravelly loam, but there are many good vineyards +in gravelly or stony clays, gravel or stone to furnish drainage, let +in the air and to hold heat. Contrary to general belief, the grape +seldom thrives in very sandy soils unless there is a fair admixture of +clay, considerable decomposing vegetable matter and a clay subsoil. +The latter, however, must not come too close to the surface. Some of +the best vineyard lands in the country are very stony, the stones +hindering only in making the land difficult to till. Nearly all grapes +require a friable soil, compactness being a serious defect. Virgil, +writing in Christ's time, gave good advice as to soil for the vine:</p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">"A free loose earth is what the vines demand,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Where wind and frost have help'd the lab'rer's hand,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And sturdy peasants deep have stirr'd the land."<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p>Cold, churlish, sticky or clammy clays are never to the liking of the +grape.</p> + +<p>Great fertility is not necessary in grape lands. Indeed, the grape is +conspicuous among cultivated plants for ability to nourish itself +where the food supply is scant. Soils naturally too rich produce an +overgrowth of vine, the season's wood does not mature, the crop does +not set, and the grapes lack sugar, size, color and flavor. Good +physical condition and warmth in a well-watered, well-aired soil +enable the grape to search far and wide for its food.</p> + +<h6><em>Drainage.</em></h6> + +<p>No cultivated grape endures a wet soil; all demand drainage. A few +sorts may thrive for a time in moist, heavy land, but more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> often they +do not live though they may linger. The water-table should be at least +two feet from the surface. If by chance this comes naturally, so much +the better, but otherwise the land must be tile-drained. Sloping land +is by no means always well drained, many hillsides having a subsoil so +impervious or so retentive of moisture that under-drainage is a +necessity. The texture of the land is usually improved so greatly by +good drainage that the grower has little need to rely on the clemency +of the season in carrying on vineyard cultivation in well-drained +land.</p> + +<h6><em>Soil adaptations.</em></h6> + +<p>In the refinement of viticulture, grape-growers find that particular +varieties grow best in a particular soil, the likes and dislikes being +determined only by trial, for the peculiarities which adapt a soil to +a variety are not analyzable. Some varieties, on the other hand, the +Concord being a good example, grow fruitfully in a great variety of +soils. Each of the several species with their varieties has quite +distinct adaptations to soils. This is taken advantage of in planting +varieties on uncongenial soils after they have been grafted on a vine +which finds itself at home in the particular soil. Much has been +accomplished in growing varieties on uncongenial soils by consorting +them with other stocks, an operation which has brought forth volumes +of discussion as to the adaptabilities of cions to stocks and stocks +to soils, subjects to receive attention on a later page.</p> + + +<h5><em>Insects and fungi</em></h5> + +<p>The profitable grape regions of the country have all been established +in regions comparatively free from grape insects and fungi. If pests +came later in considerable numbers, the industry, in the old days, +perished. Here and there in the agricultural regions of the country +may be found a sorry company of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> halt and maimed vines, remnants of +once flourishing vineyards, brought to their miserable condition by +some scourge of insects or fungi. The advent of spraying and of better +knowledge of the habits of the pests has greatly lessened the +importance of parasites as a factor in determining the value of a +region for grape-growing; but even in the light of the new knowledge, +it is not wise to go against Nature in regions where pests are +strongly intrenched.</p> + + +<h5><em>Commercial factors</em></h5> + +<p>The dominant factors that lead to the planting of large areas to any +one fruit are often economic ones; as transportation, markets, labor, +facilities for making by-products, and opportunity to join in buying +and selling organizations. All of these factors play an important part +in determining the bounds of grape regions, but a lesser part than in +the establishment of large areas of other fruits, for the reason that +the grape is so largely grown for raisins, wine, champagne and +grape-juice, products condensed in form, made with little labor, +easily transported, which keep long and find ready market at any time. +Again, where natural conditions are favorable for grape-growing, the +crop comes almost as a gift from Nature; whereas, if the grower must +breast the blows of unfavorable natural circumstances, no matter how +favorable the economic factors may be, the vineyard is seldom +profitable. Natural factors, therefore, outweigh economic ones in +grape-growing, but the latter must be considered in seeking a site for +a vineyard, a task discussed under several heads to follow.</p> + +<h6><em>Accessibility to markets.</em></h6> + +<p>Markets ought to be accessible in commercial grape-growing. A location +in which there is a good local market, and at the same time ample +facilities for shipping to distant markets, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> desirable. If there +are also opportunities to dispose of any surplus to makers of raisins, +wine or grape-juice, the grower has well-nigh attained the ideal. +Further to be desired are good roads, short hauls, quick +transportation, reasonable freight rates, refrigerator service and +coöperative agencies. The more of these advantages a grower has at his +disposal, the less likely he is to fail in commercial competition.</p> + +<h6><em>General</em> versus <em>local markets.</em></h6> + +<p>The grower must be reminded rather than informed that he must decide +in locating his vineyard whether he will grow for distant markets, for +manufacturing into grape products, or for local markets. Determination +to grow grapes once made, subsequent procedure at every step depends +on the disposition to be made of the product. Summarized, the +differences in growing grapes for the two markets are: For the general +market: the acreage should be large; the market may be distant; the +varieties few; the cost of production low; sales large and prices low; +the dealings are with middlemen; and extensive culture is practiced. +For the local market: the acreage may be small; the market must be +near and prices must be high; the sales are direct to the consumer; +there must be succession in ripening; and intensive culture is +practiced. For the general market, the vineyard is the unit; for the +local market, the variety should be the unit. In this discussion, +however, "large acreage" and "extensive culture" set against "small +acreage" and "intensive culture" may mislead. This is a case in which +a large endeavor may be a small endeavor, and a small endeavor a large +one; or, in which it may be well to take the advice of Virgil, who +advised Roman vineyardists, "Praise great estates; farm a small one."</p> + +<p>The grape-growing of the times tends more and more to growing for +general markets. The grower plants to skim a comparatively small +return from a large area. This division<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> of grape-growing is now well +developed in America. Intensive grape-growing for local markets is not +well developed. There are, however, many opportunities in America for +easy triumphs in fruit-growing in the planting of vineyards for local +markets. No other fruit responds to fine art in culture so well as the +grape. Given choicely good varieties and a finely finished product, +and the grower may have almost what he desires for the produce of his +skill. With the grape, too, palm of merit goes with skill in culture; +among all who grow plants, only the florist can rival the +viticulturist in guiding the development of a plant to a special end. +In cultivating, fertilizing, training, grafting, pruning, spraying, in +every cultural operation, the grape-grower has opportunities to sell +his skill not given in so high degree to the grower of other fruits.</p> + +<h6><em>Labor.</em></h6> + +<p>A great advantage in the congregation of vineyardists in grape regions +is found when labor must be obtained. Skilled labor is required to +cultivate the vine, and such labor can be freely secured only in +centers of viticulture. Grape-growing is a specialists' business, and +it takes more than a day or a season to make a vine-dresser out of a +farmer, gardener or an orchardist. Expert labor is most easily +obtained and is of best quality where grapes abound. Common labor must +be somewhat abundant, also, in good vineyard locations, for such rush +tasks as tying and picking. In these two operations, women, children +or other unskilled labor may be employed to advantage. The grape +harvest must often be hurried, and to keep it in full swing a near-by +city from which to draw pickers is a great asset.</p> + +<h6><em>Vineyard sites.</em></h6> + +<p>Within a grape region, the site is important in determining where to +plant. The site is the local position of the vineyard.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> Sites cannot +be standardized, and therefore no two are alike. The cardinal natural +factors to be secured in a site are warmth, sun, air and freedom from +frost. These factors have been discussed in a general way under the +climate of grape regions, but one needs to particularize a little more +closely to ascertain how they affect individual vineyards. Warmth, +sun, air and frostlessness are best secured by proximity to water, +high land and proper exposure.</p> + +<h6><em>Proximity to water.</em></h6> + +<p>The favorable influences of water are well illustrated in the grape +regions of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Canada. All of the grape +districts in these regions are bounded on one or more sides by water. +The equalizing effects of large bodies of water on temperature, warmer +winter and cooler summer, are so well known as scarcely to need +comment. Hardly less important than the effects of water on +temperature are the off-shore breezes of night and the in-shore +breezes of day which blow on large bodies of water. These keep the air +of the vineyard in constant motion and so prevent frosts in spring and +autumn, and also dry foliage and fruit so that spores of fungi have +difficulty in finding foothold. But if water brings fogs, dews and +humidity, as does the Pacific, grapes must be planted inland; +otherwise leaf, bloom and fruit are born in the blight of fungi. The +benign influences of water are felt in the eastern grape regions at +distances of one to four miles, seldom farther. These narrow belts +about the eastern waters are bounded on the landward side by high +bluffs over which many showers fail to pass and which protect the +belts below from heavy dews. Where the background of bluffs in these +regions sinks to level land, vineyards cease.</p> + +<p>Vineyards are usually some distance above the water, the range in +altitude running from fifty to five hundred feet. Where the altitude +is much higher, immunity to frosts and winter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> freezing ceases, for +the reason that the atmosphere is rarer and drier so that heat +radiates rapidly from the land. As the height increases, also, the +revels of the wind play havoc with the vines. Yet, one is often +surprised to find good vineyards at the level of the lakes or, on the +other hand, crowning high hills. Altitude in grape-growing must, +therefore, be determined by experiment. We know very little of the +formation of the thermal belts on high land so favorable to the grape.</p> + +<h6><em>The lay of the land.</em></h6> + +<p>We associate the grape with rugged land; as the vines on the banks of +the Rhine, the rolling lands of Burgundy, the slopes of Vesuvius and +Olympus, the high hills of Madeira, the cloud-capped mountains of +Teneriffe, mountain slopes in California and the escarpments of grape +regions in eastern America. These examples prove how well adapted +rolling lands, inclined plains and even steep and rocky hillsides are +to the culture of the vine. Virgil long ago wrote, "Bacchus is partial +to broad, sunny hills." Yet rolling lands are not essential to the +culture of the grape, for in Europe and America very good grapes are +grown on unsheltered plains, provided the land has an elevation on one +or more boundaries above the surrounding country. If the conditions of +soil and climate which the grape requires can be found on level land +or moderate slopes, such situations are much better than steep +declivities, since on these the cost of all vineyard operations is +greater and heavy rains erode the soil. The soil on hills, too, is +often scant and niggardly. Level land, however, must not be shut in on +all sides by higher land as untimely frost will often lay waste vines +in such a situation.</p> + +<h6><em>Exposures.</em></h6> + +<p>The exposure, or the slope of the land toward a point of the compass, +is important in choosing a site for the vineyard, although<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> the value +of particular exposures is often exaggerated. Let it be remembered +that good grapes may be grown in vineyards exposed to any point of the +compass, but that slight advantages may sometimes come, depending on +the particular environment of the plantation, and then solve the +problem according to conditions. The following are theories as to +exposure: A southern exposure is warmer and hence earlier than a +northern, and is, therefore, the best slope for early grapes as well +as for very late ones liable to be caught by frost. Northward and +westward slopes retard the leafing and blooming period, thus often +enabling the grape to escape untimely spring frosts; though to plant +on such slopes may be robbing Peter to pay Paul, as what is gained in +retardation in spring may be lost in the fall with the result that the +vines may be caught by frost and may fail to ripen their crop. Frost +damage is usually greatest on a bold eastern slope, and vines suffer +most in winter freezes on this exposure, since the direct rays of the +rising sun strike the frozen plants so that they are more injured than +otherwise by rapid thawing. In locations near bodies of water, the +best slope is toward the water, regardless of direction. The exposure +may sometimes be selected to advantage with reference to the +prevailing winds.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Plate_II" id="Plate_II"></a> +<img src="images/plate02.jpg" width="500" height="349" alt="Plate II." title="Plate II." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate II.</span>—Fitting the land for planting.</span> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER III</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">PROPAGATION</p> + + +<p>The grape commends itself to commercial and amateur growers alike by +its ease of propagation. The vines of all species may be propagated +from seed, and all but one of the several cultivated species may be +grown readily from cuttings or layers. All yield to grafting of one +kind or another. Seeds are planted only to produce new varieties. At +one time stocks were grown from seed, but this practice has fallen +into disrepute because of the great variations in the seedlings. +Varieties on their own roots and stocks are for most part propagated +from cuttings. In the production of stocks, the viticulturist sets the +orchardist a good example, for there can be no question that all +tree-fruits suffer from being grown on seedling stocks. The grape is a +vigorous, self-assertive plant and once it is started, whether from +seeds, cuttings or layers, seldom fails to grow.</p> + + +<h4>Seedlings</h4> + +<p>Growing seedling grapes is the simplest of operations. The seeds are +taken from the grapes at harvest time, after which they must pass +through a resting period of a few months. At once or in a month or +two, the seeds should be stratified in moist sand and stored in a cold +place until spring, when they may be sown in flats or in the open +ground; or seed may be sown in a well-prepared piece of garden land in +the autumn. When planted in the open, autumn or spring, the seeds are +put in at the depth of an inch, an inch or two apart and in rows +convenient for cultivation. Subsequent care consists of cultivation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +if the seed are sown in garden rows, and in pricking out when true +leaves appear if planted in flats. In ground that crusts, an expedient +is to mix grape seed with apple seed; the apple seedlings, being more +vigorous, break the crust and act as nurse plants to the more tender +grapes. Sometimes it is helpful to the young plants to mulch the +ground lightly with lawn clippings or moss. Grape seedlings grow +rapidly, often making from two to three feet of wood in a season.</p> + +<p>The young plants are thinned or set to stand four or five inches apart +in the nursery row. At the end of the first season, all plants are cut +back severely and almost entirely covered with earth by plowing up to +the row on both sides. This earth, of course, is leveled the following +spring. If the seasons are propitious and all goes well, the seedlings +are ready for the vineyard at the end of the second season, but if for +any reason they have fared badly during their first two years, it is +much better to give them a third season in the nursery. Seedling vines +are seldom as vigorous as those from cuttings, and unusual care must +be taken in setting in the vineyard, though the operation is +essentially the same as that to be described for vines from cuttings. +The third season the vines are kept to a single shoot and are pinched +back when the canes reach a length of five or six feet. In the autumn, +they are pruned back to two or three feet. In the spring of the fourth +season, the trellis is put up and a few fruits may be allowed to +ripen.</p> + +<p>The vines of promise may now be selected. The plants, however, must +fruit twice or oftener before it can be told whether hopes are +consummated or must be deferred. Growing seedlings for new varieties +is a game full of chances in which, while there may be little +immediate or individual gain, there is much pleasure. It is hardly too +much to say that the grape industry of eastern America, with its +300,000 acres and 1500 varieties, betokens the good that has come from +growing seedling grapes.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p> +<h4>Dormant Cuttings</h4> + +<p>Vines for vineyards, with the exception of varieties of Rotundifolia, +are propagated from cuttings of hard wood taken from the season's +canes when the vines are pruned. The inactive buds in these cuttings +may be brought into active growth, and roots induced to grow from the +cut surfaces by various means. By this miracle of Nature, an infinite +number of plants, in an endless procession, may be propagated from the +product of a single seed, each plant complete in its heredity and +differing from its fellows only in accordance with environment.</p> + +<h6><em>Time to make cuttings.</em></h6> + +<p>A good cutting should have a protective callus over the cut and this +requires time, so that the sooner cuttings are made after the wood +becomes thoroughly dormant the better. Besides, the cutting should use +its stored food material for the formation of adventitious roots +rather than have it pass into buds, as it quickly does late in the +dormant season when buds are about to open. If cuttings must be made +late in the season, transplanting must be delayed as long as possible, +and the cuttings be set in a northerly aspect to prevent the premature +development of the buds. However, the grape responds surprisingly well +to the call of Nature in forming roots, and great importance need not +be attached to the time at which the cuttings are made.</p> + +<h6><em>Selecting cutting wood.</em></h6> + +<p>Cuttings are made from one-year-old wood; that is, canes produced +during the summer are taken for cuttings in the fall. Immature canes +and those with soft, spongy wood ought not to be used. Strong vigorous +canes should be given preference over weak growth, but most nurserymen +maintain that very large canes do not make as good cuttings as do +those of medium<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> size, the objection to large size being that the +cuttings do not root as well. Short-jointed wood is better than +long-jointed. Cuttings from vines weakened by insects and fungi are +liable to be weak, soft, immature and poorly stored with food. The +wood should be smooth and straight.</p> + +<h6><em>Making the cutting.</em></h6> + +<p>Grape cuttings vary in length from four inches to two feet, the length +depending on the climate and the soil of the nursery and the species +and variety. The hotter and drier the climate and the lighter the +soil, the longer the cutting needs to be. Six to nine inches, however, +is the usual length in the climate of eastern America, while on the +Pacific slope the length varies from eight to fifteen inches. For +convenience in handling, all cuttings should be approximately of the +same length, to insure which some kind of simple gauge is needed. +Various gauges are used, as marks cut in the working table, a stick of +the required length, or a cutting-box.</p> + +<p>In making the cuttings, a slanting cut is made close below the lowest +bud, while about an inch of wood is left above the upper bud. When +possible, a heel of old wood is left at the lower end; or, still +better, a whorl of buds, as roots usually start from each bud. The +finished cuttings are tied in bundles, all butts one way, and are then +ready to be heeled-in. This is done by burying in trenches, butts up, +and covering with a few inches of soil. It is important to invert the +cuttings in trenching, since otherwise the tops often start to grow +before the butts are properly calloused, and it is very essential that +the tops remain dormant until roots appear to support the new growth.</p> + +<h6><em>Planting the cuttings.</em></h6> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a> +<img src="images/fig06.jpg" width="250" height="185" alt="Fig. 6. Planting cuttings." title="Fig. 6. Planting cuttings." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 6.</span> Planting cuttings.</span> +</div> + +<p>Cuttings are planted in the nursery in rows wide enough apart for +cultivation and two or three inches apart in the row. Trenches are +made with a plow; perpendicular if the cuttings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> are shorter, and a +little slanting if longer than six inches. The cuttings are set at a +depth which permits the upper buds to project above the ground, as +shown in <a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>. When the cuttings in a row are placed, two inches of +soil are put in and pressed firmly about the base of the cuttings. +Then the trench is evenly filled with earth and the cultivator +follows. Doing duty by the young plants consists in cultivating often +during the summer to keep the soil moist and mellow.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 144px;"> +<a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a> +<img src="images/fig07.jpg" width="144" height="250" alt="Fig. 7. A cutting beginning growth." title="Fig. 7. A cutting beginning growth." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 7.</span> A cutting beginning growth.</span> +</div> + +<p>The cuttings are planted as soon as the ground is warm and dry enough +to work. To delay planting too long invites injury from drought, which +almost annually parches the land in eastern America. Irrigation gives +more leeway to planting time in the West. When warm sunny weather, +accompanied by an occasional shower, predominates, the cuttings start +growth almost at once, as shown in <a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>, and by fall, all things +being propitious, make a growth from four to six feet. With the +cuttings three inches and the rows three feet apart, 58,080 vines may +be grown to the acre.</p> + +<h6><em>Single-eye cuttings.</em></h6> + +<p>New and rare varieties are propagated from single-eye cuttings, +thereby doubling the number of plants from the propa<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>gating wood. This +method gives an opportunity, also, to start the work of propagating +early in the season, since single-eye cuttings are nearly always +rooted by artificial heat. But the greatest value of the method is +that some varieties which cannot be propagated in any other way +readily grow under artificial heat from single-eyes. Well-grown vines +so propagated are as good as those grown by any other method, but the +great disadvantage is that unless much care and skill are used, vines +from these cuttings are poor and quite worthless. It is also a more +expensive method than growing from long cuttings out of doors.</p> + +<p>There are several ways of making single-eye cuttings. The most common +form of the cutting is the single bud with an inch of wood above and +below, the ends being cut with a slant. Some modify this form by +cutting away the wood on the side opposite the bud, exposing the pith +the whole length of the cutting. In another form, a square cut is made +directly under the bud, leaving an inch and a half of wood above. Or +this last form is modified by making a long sloping cut from the bud +to the upper end, thereby exposing the maximum amount of cambium. +Advantages are claimed for each form, but these are mostly imaginary, +and the cutting may be made to suit the fancy of the propagator if a +few essentials are observed.</p> + +<p>Single-eye cuttings are made in the fall and are stored in sand until +late winter, about February in New York. At this time the cuttings are +planted horizontally an inch deep in a sand propagating bench in a +cool greenhouse. If the cuttings are not well calloused, they remain +one or two weeks in a temperature of 40° to 50° without bottom heat, +but well-made cuttings are calloused and ready to strike root so that +brisk bottom heat can be applied at once. After six weeks or two +months, the young plants are ready to pot off or to transplant in a +cold-frame or cool greenhouse. If but a few plants are to be grown, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>they may be started in two- or three-inch pots, shifting into larger +pots once or twice as growth progresses. In early summer, the young +plants are set in nursery rows out of doors and by fall the young +vines should be strong and vigorous.</p> + +<p>Single-eyes are also started in hot-beds, cold-frames and even in the +open air without the aid of artificial heat. In hot-beds and +cold-frames, the method is only a modification of that described for +greenhouses. Out of doors the cuttings are given the same conditions +under which long cuttings are rooted, except that the whole of the +short cutting is buried an inch deep in the nursery row.</p> + + +<h4>Herbaceous Cuttings</h4> + +<p>Grapes are easily propagated from herbaceous cuttings, although since +the vines are weak and the method expensive, they are seldom used. +Green cuttings are usually taken from plants forced in greenhouses, +but may be taken in summer from vineyard vines. A green cutting is +usually cut with two buds with the leaf at the upper one left on. The +cuttings are set in propagating beds of sand, or pots of sand, in +close frames under which there is brisk bottom heat. To prevent +excessive evaporation, the frames are kept closed and the atmosphere +warm and moist. As growth progresses, or if mildew appears, the frames +are more and more ventilated. In two to four weeks, the cuttings +should have rooted sufficiently well to be transplanted to pots. +Herbaceous cuttings made in the summer must be kept under glass until +the following spring.</p> + + +<h4>Layering</h4> + +<p>The grape is readily propagated from layers of either green or mature +wood, the method being certain, convenient and producing extra +vigorous plants. The drawback is that fewer plants can be obtained by +layering than from cuttings with a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> given amount of wood. Varieties of +some species, however, cannot be propagated by cuttings, and with +these layering becomes of supreme importance to the propagator. Nearly +all varieties of Rotundifolia and some of Æstivalis are best grown +from layers. So far as is known, all varieties of cultivated species +may be grown by layering, and since the method is simple and certain +and the vines vigorous and easily handled, this method is commended to +small growers of grapes.</p> + +<h6><em>Dormant wood layering.</em></h6> + +<p>The work of layering mature wood usually begins in the spring, but the +vines from which the layers are to be taken should have received +preliminary treatment the preceding season. The vines to be layered +are severely cut back a year or more before the layering is to be done +to induce a vigorous growth of canes. Strong vigorous canes are laid +in a shallow trench, two to five inches deep, in which they are +fastened with wood or wire pegs or staples. The trench is then partly +filled with fine, moist, mellow earth which is firmly packed about the +cane. Roots strike and shoots spring from each joint. When the young +plants are well above ground, the trench is completely filled, and +then, or a little later, the young plants are staked to keep them out +of the way of the cultivator. The following fall the young vines are +ready to transplant.</p> + +<p>The essentials of layering have been given, but a number of +non-essentials may be helpful under some conditions. Thus, dormant +wood may be layered in the fall, in which case the cane is usually +notched or ringed at the joint to induce the formation of roots. The +less the number of joints covered, the stronger the young vines, so +that while the number is usually five, six or more extra vigorous +plants may be obtained by covering only one or two joints. In +propagating Rotundifolia grapes, it is expected that lateral branches +will make the tops of the new plants. These, at the time of layering, +are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> cut back to eight or ten inches, all on the same side of the +vine, and are not left closer together than twelve inches. In nursery +practice, Rotundifolia vines are trained along the ground for +layering. Vines on arbors, in greenhouses, or on sides of buildings +are easily layered in boxes or pots of soil. Plants grown from layers +are not as conveniently handled as those from cuttings.</p> + +<h6><em>Green wood layering.</em></h6> + +<p>Layered plants from green wood are sometimes grown to multiply quickly +new or rare varieties. The work is accomplished in midsummer by +bending down and covering shoots of the present season's growth. +Strong plants are seldom obtained from summer-layering and it is never +safe to attempt to grow more than one or two plants from a shoot. The +most forceful culture possible must be given summer-layered plants +after the separation from the parent vine. It is very generally agreed +that plants from summer-layers not only do not give good plants, but +that the parent vine is injured in taking an offspring from it in this +way.</p> + +<h6><em>Layering to fill vacancies in the vineyard.</em></h6> + +<p>There is sure to be an occasional gap even in the best vineyard. Young +plants set in vacancies must compete with neighboring full-grown +vines, and often in a bit of land so unfavorable that it may have been +the cause of the demise of the original occupant. Under these +circumstances, the newcomer stands a poor chance for life. A plant +introduced by layering a strong cane from a near-by vine has little +difficulty in establishing itself on its own roots, after which it can +be separated from the parent. Such layering is best done by taking in +early spring a strong, unpruned cane from an adjoining plant in the +same row and covering an end joint six inches deep in the vacant +place, but leaving sufficient wood on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> the end of the cane to turn up +perpendicularly out of the soil. This free end becomes the new plant +and by the following fall or spring may be separated from its parent. +Not infrequently the young plant bears fruit the second season on its +own roots. This method is of especial value in small plantations, +whereby the trouble of ordering one or two plants is avoided and the +advantage of early fruiting is obtained.</p> + + +<h4>Grafting</h4> + +<p>Since grafting grapes is intimately connected with stocks, the growing +of which is a modern practice, grafting is thought of as a new process +in growing this fruit. Quite to the contrary, it is an old practice. +Cato, the sturdy old Roman grape-grower who lived nearly two hundred +years before Christ, speaks of grafting grapes, although Theophrastus, +the Greek philosopher, wrote a hundred years before "the vine cannot +be grafted upon itself." However, until it became necessary to grow +Vinifera grapes on resistant stocks to avoid the ravages of +phylloxera, grafting the grape was not at all common among +vineyardists and is not now except where vines susceptible to +phylloxera must be grown in consort with roots resistant to this +insect, or to modify the vigor of the top by a stock more vigorous or +less vigorous. For these two purposes, grafting is now in some grape +regions one of the most important vineyard operations.</p> + +<p>In grafting the grape, there is a time and a way, not so particular as +many believe, but rather more particular than in grafting most other +fruits. If the essentials of grafting are kept in mind, one has +considerable choice of details. Grafting consists in detaching and +inserting one or several buds of a mother plant on another plant of +the same or a similar kind; the bud stock is the cion, the rooted +plant is the stock. The essentials may be set forth in three +statements: First, the prime essential is that the cambium layers, the +healing tissue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> lying between the bark and wood, meet in the cion and +stock; second, that method of grafting is best in which the cut +tissues heal most rapidly and most completely; third, the greater the +amount of cambium contact, as compared with the whole cut surface, the +more rapidly and completely the wounds will heal. Out of a great many, +the following are a few of the simplest methods in use in grafting the +grape, any one of which may be modified more or less as occasion +calls.</p> + +<h6><em>Vineyard grafting in eastern America.</em></h6> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a> +<img src="images/fig08.jpg" width="250" height="129" alt="Fig. 8. Cutting off the trunk." title="Fig. 8. Cutting off the trunk." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 8.</span> Cutting off the trunk.</span> +</div> + +<p>In eastern America, the growing vine is usually grafted. At the New +York Agricultural Experiment Station, the operation is very +successfully performed on old vines as follows: Preparatory to +grafting, the earth is removed from around the stock to a depth of two +or three inches. The vines are then decapitated at the surface of the +ground and at right angles with the axis of the stock. If the grain is +straight, the cleft can be made by splitting with a chisel, but more +often it will have to be done with a thin-bladed saw through the +center of the stock for at least two inches. The cion is cut with two +buds, the wedge being started at the lower bud. The cleft in the stock +is then opened, and the cion inserted so that the cambium of stock and +cion are in intimate contact. If the stock is large, two cions are +used. The several operations in grafting are shown in Figs. <a href="#Fig_8">8</a>, <a href="#Fig_9">9</a>, <a href="#Fig_10">10</a> +and <a href="#Fig_11">11</a>. Grafting wax is unnecessary, in fact is often worse than +useless, and if the stock is large the graft is not even tied. Raffia +is used to tie the graft in young vines. It suffices to mound the +graft to the top of the cion with earth, for the purposes of +protec<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>tion and to keep the graft moist. Two or three times during the +summer, sprouts coming from the stock or roots from the cion should be +removed.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a> +<img src="images/fig09.jpg" width="250" height="175" alt="Fig. 9. Cutting the cleft." title="Fig. 9. Cutting the cleft." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 9.</span> Cutting the cleft.</span> +</div> + +<p>A method used with fair success at the New York Agricultural +Experiment Station with young vines is to plant one-year-old stocks in +the nursery row as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring. +Just as the vines start in growth, these are cut off at the surface of +the ground and whip- or cleft-grafted with a two-eye cion. The graft +is tied with raffia, after which it is all but covered with a mound of +soil. This is a case in which the work must be done at the accepted +time, as it is fatal to delay.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a> +<img src="images/fig10.jpg" width="250" height="231" alt="Fig. 10. Inserting the cion." title="Fig. 10. Inserting the cion." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 10.</span> Inserting the cion.</span> +</div> + +<p>R. D. Anthony describes another method as follows:<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> "A method which +a Pennsylvania grower of Viniferas has found very satisfactory is to +root the Vinifera cuttings, and grow them one year on their own roots; +then the vine which is to be used as a stock is planted in the +vineyard and the rooted cutting planted beside it so that the shoots +from the two may be brought in contact with each other. In June when +the plants are in full growth, two vigorous shoots (one from each +vine) are brought together and a cut two or three inches long made in +each parallel to the length of the cane removing from one-third to +one-half of the thickness of the shoot. These flat surfaces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> exposed +by the cuts are then brought into contact with the cambium tissues +touching and are tied in place. The tops are checked somewhat by +breaking off some of the growth. The following spring the Vinifera +roots are cut off below the graft and the top of the stock above the +graft is removed."</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 202px;"> +<a name="Fig_11" id="Fig_11"></a> +<img src="images/fig11.jpg" width="202" height="250" alt="Fig. 11. The completed graft." title="Fig. 11. The completed graft." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 11.</span> The completed graft.</span> +</div> + +<p>In the subsequent care of these young vines, the grower must take time +by the forelock and tie the grafts to suitable stakes; otherwise they +are liable to be broken off at the union by wind or careless workmen. +Grafted vineyards must have extra good care in all cultural +operations, and even with the best of care from 5 to 50 per cent of +the grafts will fail or grow so poorly as to make regrafting +necessary, this being the most unfavorable circumstance of field +grafting. Regrafting is done one joint lower than the first operation +to avoid dead wood; this brings the union below the surface of the +ground, and the vineyardist must expect many cion roots to try his +patience.</p> + +<h6><em>Vineyard grafting on the Pacific slope.</em></h6> + +<p>Vineyard grafting, according to Bioletti,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> was formerly the +commonest method of starting resistant vineyards in California. After +stating that it is best whenever possible to plant good cuttings +rather than roots, and that the grafting should usually be done the +year after planting, Bioletti gives the following directions for +grafting:<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>"Wherever possible the vines should be grafted at or above the surface +of the ground. In many cases, however, it will be necessary to go +below the surface to find a smooth, suitable part of the stock where +grafting is possible.</p> + +<p>"The kind of graft to use will depend on the size of the stock. For +stocks up to <span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span> inch in diameter the methods of tongue and wire +grafting already described are the best. For larger vines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> up to <span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">4</span> +inch a modification of the ordinary tongue graft is the best. If the +tongue graft were made in the usual way with stocks of this size, it +would be necessary to use excessively large scions, which is +undesirable, or to have the barks unite only on one side. By cutting +the bevel of the stock only part way through the vines, it is possible +to make a smaller scion unite on both sides. For still larger vines, +those over <span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">4</span> inch in diameter, the best graft is the ordinary cleft.</p> + +<p>"No wax or clay should be used on the graft. Anything which completely +excludes the air prevents the knitting of the tissues. A little clay, +cloth, or a leaf may be placed over the split in the stock when the +cleft graft is used, simply to keep out the soil. Otherwise there is +nothing more suitable or more favorable to the formation of a good +union that can be put around the graft than loose, moist soil. If the +soil is clayey, stiff or lumpy, it is necessary to surround the union +with loose soil or sand brought from outside the vineyard.</p> + +<p>"It will usually be necessary to tie the grafts. A well-made cleft +graft often holds the scion with sufficient force to prevent its +displacement and no tying is necessary. Wherever there is any danger +of the graft moving, however, it should be tied. There is nothing +better for this purpose than ordinary raffia. The raffia should not be +bluestoned, as it will last long enough without and will be sure to +rot in a few weeks, and the trouble of cutting it will be avoided. +Cotton string or anything which will keep the graft in place for a few +weeks may also be used.</p> + +<p>"As soon as the graft is made and tied, a stake should be driven and +the union covered with a little earth. The hilling up of the graft may +be left for a few hours, except in very hot, dry weather. Finally, the +whole graft should be covered with a broad hill of loose soil 2 inches +above the top of the scion.</p> + +<p>"Field grafting should not be commenced as a rule, except in the +hottest and driest localities, before the middle of March.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> Before +that there is too much danger that heavy rains may keep the soil +soaked for several weeks—a condition very unfavorable to the +formation of good unions. In any case the grafting should not be done +while the soil is wet. Grafting may continue as long as the cuttings +can be kept dormant. It is difficult to graft successfully, however, +when the bark of the stock becomes loose, as it does soon after the +middle of April in most localities."</p> + +<p>As in the East, it is necessary in California to remove suckers from +the roots and roots from the cions once or twice during the summer. +Suckers should not be allowed to overshade the graft, though it is +best not to remove them until danger of disturbing the graft is past. +The grafts should be staked and the vines looked after as recommended +for eastern conditions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;"> +<a name="Plate_III" id="Plate_III"></a> +<img src="images/plate03.jpg" width="324" height="500" alt="Plate III." title="Plate III." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate III.</span>—Cover-crops. <em>Top</em>, cow-horn turnips; +<em>bottom</em>, rye.</span> +</div> + +<h6><em>Bench grafting.</em></h6> + +<p>The resistant vineyards of France and California are now started +almost entirely with bench-grafted vines. It has been learned in these +regions that a grafted vine, to be a permanent success, must have the +consorting parts perfectly united, and that the sooner the grafting is +done in the life of stock and cion the better the union. Cions of the +variety wanted are, therefore, grafted on resistant roots or resistant +cuttings in the workshop and then planted in the nursery. Bench +grafting has the advantage over field grafting in time gained and in +securing a fuller stand of vines.</p> + +<p>Bench grafting really begins with the selection of cuttings, since +success largely depends on good cuttings of both stock and cion. +Cuttings are taken from strong healthy vines and are of medium size, +with short to medium joints. The best size is one-third of an inch in +diameter, that of stock and cion being the same since the two must +match exactly. The cutting-wood may be taken from the mother vines at +any time during the dormant season up to two weeks before buds swell +in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> spring, and the cuttings can then be made as convenience +dictates, though meanwhile the wood must be kept cool and moist, which +is best done by covering them with moist but not wet soil or sand in a +cellar or cool shed. In California, the best results are obtained when +the grafting is done in February or March, though it may be begun +earlier and continued a month later.</p> + +<h6><em>Preparation of cuttings.</em></h6> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 197px;"> +<a name="Fig_12" id="Fig_12"></a> +<img src="images/fig12.jpg" width="197" height="250" alt="Fig. 12. Bench-grafted cuttings of grape, showing both +the cleft-graft and the whip-graft." title="Fig. 12. Bench-grafted cuttings of grape, showing both +the cleft-graft and the whip-graft." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 12.</span> Bench-grafted cuttings of grape, showing both +the cleft-graft and the whip-graft.</span> +</div> + +<p>The stocks are cut into lengths of about ten inches, a gauge being +used to secure uniform length. The cut at the bottom is made through a +bud in such a way as to leave the diaphragm. The top cut is made as +near ten inches from the bottom as possible, leaving about one and +one-half inches above the top bud for convenience in grafting. The +stock is then disbudded, taking both visible and adventitious buds, +the latter indicated by woody enlargements, to keep down the number of +suckers.</p> + +<p>The cion should be made with but one bud, thereby gaining the +advantage of having every cion the same length so that all unions are +at the same distance below the surface of the ground in the nursery. +The cion is made with about two and one-half inches of internode below +the bud and one-half inch above, a sharp knife being the best tool for +making the cuts.</p> + +<p>Stock and cion cuttings are now graded to exactly the same diameters, +this being necessary to secure perfection in the unions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> Three +methods of uniting stock and cion are illustrated in <a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>. It +suffices to grade by the eye into three lots—large, small and +medium—but some nurserymen prefer to secure even greater accuracy by +the use of any one of several mechanical gauges. The methods of +uniting stock and cion may be described best by quoting Bioletti, from +whom most of the details already given have been summarized:<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> + +<h6><em>Tongue grafting.</em></h6> + +<p>"When the stocks and scions are prepared and graded the grafter takes +a box of stocks and a box of the corresponding size of scions and +unites them. Each is cut at the same angle in such a way that when +placed together the cut surface of one exactly fits and covers the +whole of the cut surface of the other. The length of cut surface +should be from three to four times the diameter of the cutting, the +shorter cut for the larger sizes and the longer for the thinner. This +will correspond to an angle of from 14.5 to 19.5 degrees. The cut +should be made with a sliding movement of the knife. This will make +the cut more easily and more smoothly.</p> + +<p>"The cut should be made with a single quick motion of the knife. If +the first cut is not satisfactory, a completely new one should be +made. There should be no paring of the cut, as this will make an +irregular or wavy surface and prevent the cuttings coming together +closely in all parts.</p> + +<p>"The tongues are made with a slow, sliding motion of the knife. They +are commenced slightly above one-third of the distance from the sharp +end of the bevel and cut down until the tongue is just a trifle more +than one-third the length of the cut surface. The tongue should be +<em>cut</em>, not <em>split</em>. The knife should not follow the grain of the wood, +but should be slanted in such a way that the tongue will be about +one-half as thick as it would be if made by splitting. Before +withdraw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>ing the knife it is bent over in order to open out the +tongue. This very much facilitates the placing together of stock and +scion.</p> + +<p>"The stock and scion are now placed together and, if everything has +been done properly, there will be no cut surface visible and the +extremity of neither stock nor scion will project over the cut surface +of the other. It is much better that the points should not quite reach +the bottom of the cut surface than that they should overlap, as the +union will be more complete and the scions will be less liable to +throw out roots. If the points do overlap, the overlapping portion +should be cut off, as in the Champin grafts.</p> + +<p>"A skillful grafter, by following the above-described method, will +make grafts most of which will hold together very firmly. Many of them +would be displaced, however, in subsequent operations, so that it is +necessary to tie them. This is done with raffia or waxed string. The +only object of the tying is to keep the stock and scion together until +they unite by the growth of their own tissues, so that the less +material used the better, provided this object is attained. For the +formation of healing tissue air is necessary, so that clay, wax, +tinfoil or anything that would exclude the air should not be used. The +tying material is passed twice around the point of the scion to hold +it down firmly, and then with one or two wide spirals it is carried to +the point of the stock, which is fastened firmly with two more turns +and the end of the string passed under the last turn. The less string +is used the more easily it is removed later in the nursery.</p> + +<p>"Untreated raffia should be used for late grafts which are to be +planted directly out in the nursery, but if the grafts are to be +placed first in a callusing bed it is best to bluestone the raffia in +order to prevent rotting before the grafts are planted. This is done +by steeping the bundles of raffia in a three per cent solution of +bluestone for a few hours and then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> hanging them up to dry. Before +using, the raffia should be washed quickly in a stream of water in +order to remove the bluestone which has crystallized on the outside +and which might corrode the graft.</p> + +<p>"Some grafters prefer waxed string for grafting. The string should be +strong enough to hold the graft, but thin enough to be broken by hand. +No. 18 knitting cotton is a good size. It is waxed by soaking the +balls in melted grafting wax for several hours. The string will absorb +the wax, and may then be placed on one side until needed. A good wax +for this purpose is made by melting together one part of tallow, two +parts of beeswax, and three parts of rosin."</p> + +<h6><em>Wire grafting.</em></h6> + +<p>"The merits claimed for this method are that it is more rapid, +requires less skill, and does away with the troublesome tying and +still more troublesome removal of the tying material. Practiced +grafters can obtain as large a percentage of No. 1 unions by this +method as by any other, and unpracticed grafters can do almost as well +as practiced. Another advantage of the method is that the scions have +less tendency to make roots than with the tongue graft.</p> + +<p>"It consists essentially of the use of a short piece of galvanized +iron wire inserted in the pith of stock and scion for the purpose of +holding them together, thus replacing both tongues and raffia. It has +been objected that the iron would have a deleterious effect on the +tissues of the graft, corroding them, or causing them to decay. There +seems, however, no reason to expect any such result, and vines grafted +in this way have been bearing for years without showing any such +effect.</p> + +<p>"The preparation and grading of stocks and scions are exactly the same +for this method as for the tongue graft.</p> + +<p>"Stock and scion are cut at an angle of 45 degrees. A piece of +galvanized iron wire two inches long is then pushed one inch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> into the +firmest pith. This will usually be the pith of the stock, but it will +depend on the varieties being grafted. The scion is then pushed on to +the wire and pressed down until it is in contact with the stock. If +the cuttings have large pith it is better to use two pieces of wire, +one placed in the stock first and the other in the scion.</p> + +<p>"The length of wire to use will vary with the size and firmness of the +cuttings, but 2 inches will usually be found most satisfactory. Wire +of No. 17 gauge is the most useful size."</p> + +<h6><em>Making bundles.</em></h6> + +<p>"If the grafts are to be planted out directly in the nursery, they may +be simply laid in boxes or trays, covered with damp sacks, and carried +out to be planted as soon as made. It is usually better, however, to +place them for several weeks in a callusing bed before planting. In +this case it is necessary for convenience of handling to tie them up +into bundles. No more than twenty grafts should be placed in a bundle, +and ten is better. If the bundles are too large there is danger of the +grafts in the middle becoming moldy or dry.</p> + +<p>"A stand is very convenient. It consists of a piece of board 12 +inches, on one end of which is nailed a cleat 6 inches by 4 inches and +under the other end a support of the same size. Two 4-inch wire nails +are driven through the board from below, 4 inches apart and 5 inches +from the cleat. Two other 4-inch nails are driven similarly at 1<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> +inches from the other end. The grafts are laid on this stand with the +scions resting against the cleat, and are then tied with the two +pieces of bluestoned raffia that have previously been placed above +each pair of nails. This arrangement insures all the scions, and +therefore the unions, being at the same level, and puts both ties +below the union where they will not strain the graft. The tying is +more expeditious and less liable to disturb the unions than if the +bundles are made without a guide.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>"A skillful grafter will make about one hundred tongue grafts on +cuttings per hour, or from sixty-five to seventy-five per hour if he +does the tying as well. Wire grafts can be made at the rate of two +hundred and fifty or more per hour, and by proper division of labor +where several grafters are employed this number can be easily +exceeded. These estimates do not include the preparation and grading +of the cuttings."</p> + +<h6><em>Grafting rooted cuttings.</em></h6> + +<p>The cion may be grafted on a stock rooted in the nursery the previous +season, much the same methods being used as with cuttings. This method +is employed to utilize cuttings too small to graft, the added sizes +attained in the nursery making them large enough, and in grafting on +stocks which root with difficulty, thus saving the making of grafts +which never grow. The stocks, in this method, are cut so that the +cions may be inserted as the original cutting and not as the new +growth. The roots, for convenience in handling, are cut back to an +inch or thereabouts in length.</p> + +<h6><em>The callusing bed.</em></h6> + +<p>If bench grafts are planted at once in the nursery, most of them fail. +They are, therefore, stratified in a callusing bed where moisture and +temperature can be controlled. Bioletti describes a callusing bed and +its use as follows:<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>"This callusing bed is usually a pile of clean sand placed on the +south side of a wall or building and surrounded by a board partition +where there is no possibility of its becoming too wet by the flow of +water from a higher level or from an overhanging roof. It should be +protected, if necessary, by a surrounding ditch. It should be +furnished with a removable cover of canvas or boards to protect it +from rain and to enable the temperature to be controlled by the +admission or exclusion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> of the sun's rays. A water-proof wagon-cover, +black on one side and white on the other, is excellent for this +purpose.</p> + +<p>"The bottom of the callusing bed is first covered with 2 or 3 inches +of sand. The bundles of grafts are then placed in a row along one end +of the bed, and sand well filled in around them. The bundles should be +placed in a slightly inclined position with the scions uppermost, and +the sand should be dry enough so that it sifts in between the grafts +in the bundle. The bundles of grafts are then covered up completely +with sand, leaving it at least 2 inches deep above the top of the +scion. Another row is then placed in the same manner until the bed is +full. Finally a layer of 2 or 3 inches of moss or straw is placed over +all.</p> + +<p>"In the callusing bed we should endeavor to hasten and perfect the +union of stock and scion as much as possible while delaying the +starting of the buds and the emission of the roots. The latter +processes require more moisture than the formation of healing tissue, +therefore the sand should be kept comparatively dry. Between 5 and 10 +per cent of water in the sand is sufficient. The purer the sand the +less water is necessary. There should be a little more moisture +present than in the sand used for keeping the cuttings over winter. +Too much moisture will stimulate the emission of roots and starting of +buds without aiding the callus formation.</p> + +<p>"All the vital processes progress more rapidly when the cuttings are +kept warm. To delay them, therefore, we keep the sand cool, and to +hasten them we make it warm. In the beginning of the season and up to +the middle of March we keep the sand cool. This is done by keeping the +bed covered during the day when the sun is shining, and uncovering +occasionally at night when there is no fear of rain. If the +black-and-white wagon-cover is used, the white side should be placed +outward to reflect the heat. The temperature should be kept about 60° +F. or lower.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>"About the middle of March the temperature of the bed should be +raised. This is done by removing the cover during warm days and +carefully covering at night. If necessary the layer of moss or straw +should be removed on sunny days and then replaced. The temperature of +the sand at the level of the unions should be about 75° F. during this +period. If the temperature rises higher than this, there will be a +more abundant production of callus, but it will be soft, easily +injured, and liable to decay.</p> + +<p>"At the end of four weeks after warming the bed, the union should be +well cemented. The callus should not only have formed copiously around +the whole circumference of the wound, but it should have acquired a +certain amount of toughness due to the formation of fibrous tissue. It +should require a pull of several pounds to break the callus and +separate stock and scion. When the callus has acquired this quality +the grafts are in condition to be planted in the nursery, and may be +handled without danger. If taken from the bed while the callus is +still soft, many unions will be injured and the grafts will fail, or +unite only on one side.</p> + +<p>"If left as long as this in the callusing bed most of the scion buds +will have started and formed white shoots. These shoots, however, +should not be more than <span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> to 1 inch long. If they are longer the bed +has been kept too wet or too warm. Roots will also have started from +the stock, but these also should not be over <span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> inch long. The grafts +should be handled as carefully as is practicable, but there is no +objection to breaking off any scion shoots or stock roots which have +grown too long. It is almost impossible to save them, and new ones +will start after the grafts are planted, and make a perfectly +satisfactory growth."</p> + +<h6><em>Care in the nursery.</em></h6> + +<p>The grafts are planted in the nursery, and are given much the same +care recommended for cuttings. They may be set<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> in trenches made with +plow or spade; or they may be planted in very shallow trenches with a +dibble. After planting, the grafts are covered with an inch or two of +soil, thus forming a wide ridge in the nursery row with the union of +the grafts at the original level of the soil. Cultivation should begin +at once and be frequent enough to prevent the formation of a crust, in +order that the young shoots may not have difficulty in forcing their +way through the soil. Roots start on the cions sooner than on the +stock, the soil being warmer at the surface, and help sustain the +cions until the stocks are well rooted, at which time all roots +started on the cion are removed, and at the same time the tying +material is cut if it has not rotted. Suckers are removed as soon as +they show above ground. The grafts are dug as soon as the leaves fall +and the young vines become dormant, after which they are sorted in +three lots, according to size of top and root, and heeled-in in a cool +moist place until they are to be planted.</p> + +<h6><em>Nursery</em> versus <em>home-grown vines.</em></h6> + +<p>The verdict of all vineyardists is that it is better to buy +nursery-grown vines than to attempt to grow them. The high quality of +the vines which can be purchased and the reasonable purchase price +make it hardly worth while to try home-grown vines, especially since +considerable investment, experience and skill are required to grow +good vines.</p> + + +<h4>"Pedigreed" Grape Vines</h4> + +<p>Many viticulturists, in common with orchardists, believe that their +plants should be propagated only from parents which have good +characters, that is, are vigorous, healthy, productive, and bear fruit +of large size, perfect form, good color and good quality. They +believe, in short, that varieties can be improved by bud selection. +There is, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> but little in either theory or fact to +substantiate the belief of those who say that varieties once +established can be improved; or, on the other hand, that they +degenerate. Present knowledge and experience indicate that heredity is +all but complete in varieties propagated from parts of plants. The +multitude of grapes in any variety, all from one seed, are +morphologically one individual. A few kinds of grapes go back to +Christ's time, and these seem to agree almost perfectly with the +descriptions of them made by Roman writers 2000 years ago. How, then, +can the differences between vines of a variety in every vineyard in +the land be explained?</p> + +<p>Ample explanation is found in "nurture" to account for the variation +in vines without involving a change in "Nature." Soil, sunlight, +moisture, insects, disease, plant-food, and the stock in the case of +grafted vines, give every vine a distinct environment and hence a +distinct individuality of its own. Peculiarities in a vine appear and +disappear with the individual. A variety can be changed temporarily by +its environment, but remove the incidental forces and it snaps back +into its same old self.</p> + +<p>Heredity is not quite complete in the grape, however; for, now and +then, sports or mutations appear which are permanent and, if +sufficiently different, become a strain of the parent variety or +possibly a new variety. There are several such sports of the Concord +under cultivation. The grape-grower can tell these sports from the +modifications brought about by environment only by propagation. If a +variation is transmitted unchanged through successive generations of +the grape, as occasionally happens, it may be looked on as a new form. +"Pedigreed" vines, then, should be subject to a test of several +generations in an experimental vineyard before the grape-grower pays +the price demanded for the supposed improvement.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Plate_IV" id="Plate_IV"></a> +<img src="images/plate04.jpg" width="500" height="328" alt="Plate IV." title="Plate IV." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate IV.</span>—A well-tilled vineyard of Concords.</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER IV</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES</p> + + +<p>Phylloxera, a tiny root-louse, made its appearance in France in 1861 +and began multiplying with a fury unparalleled in the insect world. By +1874, the pest had become so widespread in Europe that it threatened +the very existence of the great vineyard industry of that continent. +All attempts to bring the pest under control failed, although the +French government offered a reward of 300,000 francs for a +satisfactory remedy. Numerous methods of treating the soil to check +the ravages of the insect were tried, also, but none was efficacious. +Finally, it dawned on European vineyardists that phylloxera is not a +scourge in America, its habitat, and that European vineyards might be +saved by grafting Vinifera vines on the roots of immune American +grapes. At once the reconstruction of vineyards in Europe was begun by +grafting the grapes on phylloxera-resistant roots. Meanwhile, +consternation spread to California when it was discovered that +phylloxera was running riot in some of the vineyards of the Pacific +slope; however, with the knowledge derived from viticulturists in +Europe, they too began reconstructing vineyards on immune roots, +without the same success as the Europeans, it is true, but with such +measure of success that it soon became the approved method of growing +grapes in this great region.</p> + +<p>Through the use of resistant stocks, phylloxera is now defied in +Vinifera regions. Millions of American stocks are annually struck at +home, in Europe and wherever Vinifera grapes are grown, to be +top-worked with varieties susceptible to phylloxera. Seldom has +mastery over a pest been so complete; but, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> triumph over the tiny +insect, the industry has had to be revolutionized. Resistant stocks, +in their turn, brought innumerable new problems, many of which are +still unsolved. Investigations and experiences in rehabilitating +vineyards have been carried on for forty years, the results set forth +in books and bulletins and yet there are many problems to be solved. +The grape-grower in regions infested with phylloxera is always under +the necessity of taking advantage of the latest demonstration of +practices in the use of resistant stocks. These practices are best +studied in the experiments of state experiment stations and the United +States Department of Agriculture, and in the vineyards of leading +grape-growers, since even those most needing elucidation can be but +briefly discussed in the following paragraphs.</p> + +<p>The wild vines of a species are always seedlings and are hence +exceedingly variable. The first vineyards of resistant stocks were +vines grafted on stocks of wild vines, and the results were very +unsatisfactory; for, naturally, there was divergence in many +characters and especially in the vigor of the vines. Also, there was +difficulty in grafting, since some wild vines are stout and others +slender; some bear grafts well, while others do not. It soon became +apparent that to succeed, varieties must be selected from the +different species for vineyard work. The great task of the +experimenter and grape-grower, therefore, has been to select varieties +of the several species sufficiently resistant, vigorous and otherwise +possessed of characters fitting them to become good stocks. Out of +vast numbers tested, a few are now generally recognized as best for +the several groups of Vinifera grapes and the several distinct regions +in which these grapes are grown.</p> + +<h6><em>Resistant species and varieties.</em></h6> + +<p>The reconstruction of phylloxera-ridden vineyards by the use of +resistant stocks is possible only because some species<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> and varieties +are, as has been said, more resistant to the root-louse than others. +All degrees of resistance exist, as would be suspected, from immunity +to great susceptibility. It is obvious that the foundation of the art +of growing resistant vineyards is exact knowledge of the immunities +and susceptibilities of the many varieties and species of grapes. From +the first use of resistant vines, experimenters everywhere have set +themselves at work to determine not only what the most resistant vines +are, but what the causes and conditions of immunity. In spite of a +wealth of empirical discoveries as to what grapes can best resist the +root-louse, causes and most of the conditions of immunity are still +little understood. Definite, useful knowledge, so far, goes little +further than the establishment of lists of species and varieties, the +latter subject to change, that are most useful in setting resistant +vineyards.</p> + +<p>Phylloxera does little damage to species of Vitis native to the same +general region in which the pest has its habitat, but nevertheless +there are some differences in resistance in American grapes. Munson, +one of the best American authorities on the resistance of species to +phylloxera, says:<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> "Rotundifolia is entirely immune, then Rupestris, +Vulpina, Cinerea, Berlandieri, Champini, Candicans, Doaniana, +Æstivalis and Lincecumii are so high in resistance as to be +practically uninjured, though they may be attacked, while Labrusca is +low in resistance and is much weakened in clay soils, if infested, and +Vinifera is entirely non-resistant." Some of these species are hard to +propagate and difficult to suit in soil and climate so that but two of +them are much used for resistant stocks. The two most used are +Rupestris and Vulpina (Riparia), of both of which there are varieties +which give satisfaction. Bioletti, a leading authority on resistant +stocks in California, says:<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>"Varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability be used +in California are Rupestris St. George (du Lot), Riparia × Rupestris +3306, Riparia × Rupestris 3309, Riparia Solonis 1616, Mourvèdre × +Rupestris 1202, Aramon × Rupestris 2, Riparia gloire, and Riparia +grande glabre. These are all varieties which have given excellent +varieties for years in Europe, and have all been tested successfully +in California. Among them are varieties suitable for nearly all the +vineyard soils of California, with perhaps the exception of some of +the heavier clays.</p> + +<p>"The only one of these varieties which has been planted extensively in +California is the Rupestris St. George. There can be little doubt, +however, that it will fail to give satisfaction in many soils, and +though we may not find something better for all our soils it is +probable that we will repeat the experience of Southern France and +find that in most soils there is some other variety that gives better +results. Without attempting to describe these varieties, but to give +some idea of their merits and defects and of the soils most suited to +each, the following indications are given, based principally on the +opinions of L. Ravaz and Prosper Gervais, and on a still limited +experience in California:</p> + +<p>"The Rupestris St. George is remarkably vigorous and grows very large, +supporting the graft well even without stakes. It roots easily and +makes excellent unions with most vinifera varieties. It is well suited +to deep soils where its roots can penetrate. Its defects are that it +is very subject to root-rot, especially in moist soils; it suckers +badly and it suffers from drought in shallow soils. Its great vigor +produces coulure with some varieties and often necessitates long +pruning.</p> + +<p>"In moist or wet soils 1616 or 3306 had given better results in France +and gives indications of doing equally well here. In drier soils 3309 +will probably be found preferable.</p> + +<p>"Aramon Rupestris No. 2 is suited to the same soils as Rupestris St. +George, and does particularly well in extremely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> gravelly soils. It +has some of the defects of the St. George and is moreover more +difficult to graft, and its only advantage in California is that it is +rather less susceptible to root-rot.</p> + +<p>"There are no better resistant stocks than Riparia gloire and Riparia +grande glabre, wherever they are put in soils that suit them. They do +well, however, only in deep, rich, alluvial soils which are neither +too wet nor too dry. Their grafts are the most productive of all, and +ripen their grapes from one to two weeks earlier than the grafts on +St. George. Their principal defect is that they are very particular as +to the soil, and they never grow quite as large as the cion. The +gloire is the most vigorous, and the difference of diameter is less +with this variety than with any other Riparia.</p> + +<p>"The Mourvèdre × Rupestris 1202 is extremely vigorous, roots and +grafts easily, and is well adapted to rich, sandy and moist soils. In +drier and poorer soils its resistance is perhaps not sufficient.</p> + +<p>"The most promising varieties for general use at present seem to be +the two hybrids of Riparia and Rupestris, 3306 and 3309. They have +great resistance to the phylloxera, root and graft almost as easily as +St. George, and are quite sufficiently vigorous to support any variety +of vinifera. The former is more suited to the moister soils and +wherever there is danger of root-rot, and the latter to the drier +soils. In general, they are suited to a larger variety of soils and +condition than perhaps any other varieties.</p> + +<p>"Riparia gloire should be planted only on rich, deep alluvial soil +containing an abundance of plant food and humus, what would be called +good garden land, such as river bank soil not liable to overflow.</p> + +<p>"In most other soils Riparia × Rupestris 3306 is to be recommended, +except those that are rather dry, where 3309 is to be preferred, or +those which are very wet, where Solonis × Riparia 1616 is surer to +give good results."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>The value of a species or variety for a resistant stock may be judged +somewhat by the visible effect of the phylloxera on the roots of the +vines. On susceptible species, the punctures of the insects rapidly +produce swellings which vary in size and number in accordance with +resistance of the species. Technically, the first swelling on the +young tender rootlets of the vine is called a nodosity. The presence +of a few nodosities on the root system does not indicate that a vine +is not a valuable resistant stock. When the nodosity begins to decay +and becomes of a cancerous nature, it is called a tuberosity. These +tuberosities decay more or less rapidly and deeply, and when they rot +deeply cause enfeeblement or death to the vine. Thus, on Vinifera +varieties the tuberosities are several times larger and decay sets in +much more quickly than on American species which show these +tuberosities. Ratings as to resistance of species are usually made +from the size and number of the tuberosities, though when these are +found producing a scab-like wound which scales off, there may be high +resisting power.</p> + +<p>In order to convey with some degree of definiteness the power of +resistance to phylloxera, an arbitrary scale has been agreed on by +viticulturists. In this scale, maximum resistance is indicated by 20 +and minimum by 0. Thus, the resisting power of a good Vulpina is put +as 19.5 and that of a poor Vinifera variety as 0.</p> + + +<h4>Adaptations of Resistant Stocks to Soils and Climates</h4> + +<p>Resistance, of course, counts for naught in a stock which comes from a +species unsuited to the soil and climate or other circumstances of the +locality in which the vineyard is to be planted. The several species +used for stocks differ widely in the requirements affecting growth so +that the grower must make certain that the resistant stock he selects +will find congenial surroundings. Stocks in congenial circumstances +are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> frequently more resistant than others inherently more resistant, +but which are not otherwise adapted to the particular conditions of +the vineyard. Species of grapes vary greatly in their root systems, +some having thick, others slender roots; the roots of some are soft, +of others hard; some have roots going down deeply, others are almost +at the surface of the ground. Manifestly these various root-forms are +but adaptations to loose and heavy, dry and moist, deep and shallow +soils, or to some circumstance of climate. A vine bruised by adversity +is in no condition to withstand phylloxera. Therefore, since the +adaptability of a variety to a soil or climate may be changed by the +stock, the adaptations of stocks to soils and climates must have +attention.</p> + +<h6><em>Affinity of stock and cion.</em></h6> + +<p>Different varieties of grapes do not behave alike on the same stocks, +and different stocks may affect varieties differently. Even when the +kinship is close, some grapes resist all the appliances of art to make +a successful union; while, on the other hand, quite distinct species +often seem foreordained to be joined. For example, Rotundifolia, which +has the highest resistance to phylloxera of any species, is useless as +a stock because it is impossible to graft any other grape on it, while +Vulpina and Rupestris unite readily with varieties of Vinifera, the +slight decrease in the vigor of the grafted vines serving oftentimes +to increase fruitfulness. Something more is necessary, then, than +botanical kinship. Just what is necessary, no one knows, beyond: that +there must be conformity in habit between stock and cion; that the two +must start in growth at approximately the same time; and that the +tissues must be sufficiently alike that there be proper contact in the +union. Yet these facts do not sufficiently explain all of the +affinities and antipathies which species and varieties of grapes show +to each other. Unfortunately, the grape-grower has had but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> little to +guide him in selecting stocks and has had to learn by making repeated +trials.</p> + + +<h4>Proper Planting of Grafted Vines</h4> + +<p>Europeans and Californians long ago learned that failures with grafted +vines often came from setting the vines too deep in the soil, the +result being that the cions struck root and became independent, +whereupon the stock dies or becomes so moribund that the beneficial +effects are lost. There are grape-growers who argue that it is +beneficial to the vine to have roots from both stock and cion, but +experience and experiments very generally teach the contrary, it being +found that in most grafts the cion roots grow more vigorously than +stock roots and eventually starve out the latter. The disastrous +effects of cion-rooting are often to be found, also, when grafting has +been done on old vines in the vineyard; and, again, when the graft is +too close to the root system.</p> + +<p>Another cause of failure is that different stocks require that the +vineyard soil be treated differently, especially at planting time. +Vulpina stocks require that the soil be much more deeply plowed than +for Viniferas on their own roots, since Vulpinas are deep-rooted and +are exacting in the depth of root-run required. Those who have had +most experience with resistant stocks maintain that all American +grapes require rather deeper plowing than European grapes on their own +roots.</p> + + +<h4>Influence of the Stocks on the Cion</h4> + +<p>Up to the present, the growing of grafted grapes has been carried on +with little thought of the mutual influence of stock and cion; grapes +have been grafted only to secure vines resistant to phylloxera. Yet +there can be no doubt that stock and cion react on one another, and +that any variety of grapes is influenced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> for better or worse in +characters of vine and fruit by the stock upon which it is grafted. A +plant is a delicate mechanism, easily thrown out of gear, and all +plants, the grape not the least, are more or less changed in the +adjustments of stock and cion. One could fill a large volume on the +supposed reciprocal influence of stock and cion in fruits. Space +suffices, here, however, to mention only those proved and those having +to do with the influence of the stock on the cion when the grape is +grafted.</p> + +<h6><em>Influence of stocks on European grapes summarized.</em></h6> + +<p>Common experience in Europe and California indicates that varieties of +Vinifera grapes grafted on resistant stocks which are perfectly +adapted to soil and climate produce not only larger crops but sweeter +or sourer grapes; that the crop ripens earlier or later; that the vine +is often more vigorous; and that there are some minor differences +depending on the stock used. Wine-makers assert that the character of +their product may be affected for better or worse by the stock. Often +vines are so improved by grafting that the extra expense of the +operation and of the stock is paid for; although, to be sure, about as +often the effects are deleterious. The successes and failures of +vineyards on resistant stocks make plain that the vine-grower must +study the many problems which stocks present and exercise utmost +intelligence in the selection of the proper stock.</p> + +<h6><em>Influence of stocks on American grapes.</em></h6> + +<p>No doubt American species of grapes may be as profoundly modified by +stocks as the European species, but there is but little evidence on +this phase of grape-growing to be drawn from the experience of +vineyardists. One rather conclusive experiment, however, shows that +American grapes may be improved by growing them on stocks which give +them better adaptations to their environment. The experiment was tried +in the Chau<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>tauqua grape-belt in western New York by the New York +Agricultural Experiment Station. The test was carried on for eleven +years, during which time many interesting possibilities in grafting +grapes in this region came to light. It was proved that the stock +materially affects the vigor and productiveness of the vine and the +quality of the grapes. The following brief account is taken from +Bulletin No. 355 of the New York Station:</p> + +<p>In this experiment a number of varieties were grafted on St. George, +Riparia Gloire and Clevener stocks, and a fourth group on their own +roots. The varieties grafted were: Agawam, Barry, Brighton, Brilliant, +Campbell Early, Catawba, Concord, Delaware, Goff, Herbert, Iona, +Jefferson, Lindley, Mills, Niagara, Regal, Vergennes, Winchell and +Worden. The planting plan and all of the vineyard operations were +those common in commercial vineyards.</p> + +<p>Yearly accounts of the vineyard show that the vines passed through +many vicissitudes. The experiment was started in 1902 when St. George +and Riparia Gloire stocks from California were set and grafted in the +field. Many of these died the first year. The winter of 1903–04 was +unusually severe, and many more vines were either killed or so +severely injured that they died during the next two years. The vines +on St. George, a very deep-rooting grape, withstood the cold best. +Fidia, the grape root-worm, was found in the vineyards early in the +life of the vines and did much damage in some years. In the years of +1907 and 1909 the crops were ruined by hail.</p> + +<p>But despite these serious setbacks it was evident throughout the +experiment that the grafted grapes made better vines and were more +productive than those on their own roots. As an example of the +differences in yield, a summary of the data for 1911 may be given. In +this year, an average of all the varieties on own roots yielded at the +rate of 4.39 tons to the acre; on St. George, 5.36 tons; on Gloire, +5.32 tons; on Clevener, 5.62<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> tons. The crops on the grafted vines +were increased through the setting of more bunches and the development +of larger bunches and berries.</p> + +<p>The grapes on the vines grafted on Gloire and Clevener ripened a few +days earlier than those on their own roots, while with St. George a +few varieties were retarded in ripening. Changing the time of maturity +may be very important in grape regions where there is danger of early +frost to late-ripening sorts, and where it is often desirable to +retard the harvest time of early grapes.</p> + +<p>In the behavior of the vines, the results correspond closely with +those given for yields. In the growth ratings of varieties on +different stocks, the varieties on their own roots were rated in vigor +at 40; on St. George, at 63.2; on Gloire, at 65.2; on Clevener, at +67.9. There is no way of deciding how much the thrift of the vines +depends on adaptability to soil, and how much on other factors. Since +all of the varieties were more productive and vigorous on grafted +vines than on their own roots it may be said that a high degree of +congeniality exists between the stocks and varieties under test.</p> + +<p>The experiment suggests that it would be profitable to grow fancy +grapes of American species on grafted vines, and that it is well +within the bounds of possibility that main-crop grapes can be grafted +profitably. In the general tuning-up of agriculture now in progress, +it may be expected that soon American as well as European varieties of +grapes will be grown under some conditions and for some purposes on +roots other than their own.</p> + + +<h4>Direct Producers</h4> + +<p>Attempts innumerable have been and are still being made to secure, by +hybridizing <em>V. vinifera</em> and American species of grapes, varieties +that will resist phylloxera, the mildew and black-rot. The grapes of +this continent are relatively immune<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> to all of these troubles, and if +hybrids could be obtained to produce directly, without grafting, +grapes with the good qualities of the Viniferas—in short, European +grapes on American vines—the cultivated grape flora of the whole +world might be changed. So far, a "direct producer" that is wholly +satisfactory in either Europe or California has not been found for the +wine or raisin industries, although a number of varieties are rated as +very good table grapes, and a few are used in wine-making. The best of +the direct producers are Lenoir, Taylor, Noah, Norton's Virginia, +Autuchon, Othello, Catawba, and Delaware.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 345px;"> +<a name="Plate_V" id="Plate_V"></a> +<img src="images/plate05.jpg" width="345" height="500" alt="Plate V." title="Plate V." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate V.</span>—Vinifera grapes grown out of doors in New +York. <em>Top</em>, Malvasia; <em>bottom</em>, Chasselas Golden.</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER V</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT</p> + + +<p>A vineyard is more artificial than other plantations of fruits, since +the vine requires greater discipline under cultivation than tree or +bush. Yet greater art is required only when the attempt is made to +grow the grape to perfection, for the vine bears fruit if left to +indulge in riotous growth wheresoever it can strike root. Vineyard +management, therefore, may represent the consummate art of three +thousand or more years of cultural subserviency; or it may be so +primeval in simplicity as to approach neglect. The grape is so +wonderfully responsive to good care, however, that no true lover of +fruit will profane it with neglect, but will seek, rather, to give it +a favorable situation, its choice of soils and such generous care as +will insure strong, vigorous, productive vineyards of choicely good +fruit.</p> + +<p>Grape-growing is a specialists' business, for the culture of the grape +is unlike that of any other fruit. The essentials of vineyard +management, however, are easily learned. Indeed, care of the vine +comes almost instinctively; for the grape has been cultivated since +prehistoric times and the races of the world are so familiar with it +through sacred literatures, myths, fables, stories and poetry, that +its care is prompted by natural impulse. The grape has followed +civilized man so closely from place to place through the temperate +climates of the world, that rules and methods of culture have been +developed for almost every condition under which it will grow, so that +every grape-grower may profit by the successes and failures of the +generations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> that preceded him. Grape-growing is not, however, an art +wholly governed by rules of the past to be carried on by common +laborers who use hands only, but is one in which its followers may +make use of science and may put thought, skill and taste into their +work.</p> + + +<h4>Laying Out the Vineyard</h4> + +<p>Vineyards are laid out for the most part after accepted patterns for +each of the great grape regions of America. The vines are always +planted in rectangles, usually at a less distance apart in the rows +than the rows are from each other, but sometimes in squares. Pride in +appearance and convenience in vineyard operations make perfect +alignment imperative. Many varieties of grapes, especially of American +species, are partially self-sterile, so that some varieties must have +others interplanted with them for cross-pollination. This is usually +done by setting alternate rows of the variety to be pollinated and the +cross-pollinator. All self-fertile varieties are set in solid blocks +because of convenience in harvesting.</p> + +<h6><em>Direction of rows.</em></h6> + +<p>Some grape-growers attach considerable importance to the direction in +which rows run, holding either that the full blaze of the sun at +mid-day is desirable for vine, soil and fruit, or that it is +detrimental. Those who desire to provide fullest exposure to the sun +plant rows east and west when the distance between vines is less than +the distance between rows; north and south when vines are farther +apart in the row than the rows are from each other. When shade seems +more desirable, these directions are reversed. Most often, however, +the rows are laid out in accordance with the shape of the vineyard; +or, if the land is hilly, the rows follow the contour of the +declivities to prevent soil erosion by heavy rains.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Alleys.</em></h6> + +<p>For convenience in vineyard operations, especially spraying and +harvesting, there should always be alleys through a vineyard. On hilly +lands, the alleys are located to secure ease in hauling; on level +lands they are usually arranged to cut the vineyards into blocks twice +as long as wide. An alley is usually made by leaving out a row of +vines. Many vineyards are laid out with rows far enough apart so that +alleys are not needed.</p> + +<h6><em>Distances between rows and plants.</em></h6> + +<p>There are great variations in the distances between rows and plants in +different regions, and distances vary somewhat in any one region. +Distances are influenced by the following considerations: Rich soils +and large vigorous varieties require greater distances than poor soils +and less vigorous varieties; sometimes, however, it is necessary to +crowd a variety in the vineyard so that by reducing its vigor +fruitfulness may be promoted. Usually the warmer the climate, or the +exposure, the greater should be the distance between vines. Very often +the topography of the land dictates planting distances. But while +taking in account the preceding considerations, which rightly suggest +the distances between plants in the row, convenience in vineyard +operations is the factor that most often fixes the distance between +rows. The rows must be far enough apart in commercial vineyards to +permit the use of two horses in plowing, spraying and harvesting.</p> + +<p>Planted in squares, the distance varies from seven feet in garden +culture to nine feet in commercial vineyards for eastern America. More +often, however, the rows are eight or nine feet apart, with the vines +six, seven or eight and in the South ten or twelve feet apart in the +rows. Planting distances are less, as a rule, on the Pacific slope +than in eastern regions; that is, the distances between the rows are +the same, to permit work<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> with teams, but the distance between plants +in the rows is less, sometimes being no greater than three and a half +or four feet. The rank-growing Rotundifolias of the southern states +need much room, nine by sixteen feet being none too much. Sunshine +must govern the distance apart somewhat. Grapes picked in the pleached +alleys of closely set vineyards of the North and East are few, small +and poor; farther south, shade from the vines may be a requisite for a +good crop.</p> + +<p>The number of vines to the acre must be determined before growing or +buying plants. This is done by multiplying the distance in feet +between the rows by the distance the plants are apart in the row, and +dividing 43,560, the number of square feet in an acre, by the product.</p> + + +<h4>Preparation for Planting</h4> + +<p>It is impossible to put too much emphasis on the necessity of thorough +preparation of the land before planting the grape. Extra expenditure +to secure good tilth is amply repaid by increased growth in the grape, +and all subsequent care may fail to start the vines in vigorous growth +if the land is not in good tilth preparatory to planting. The vineyard +is to stand a generation or more, and its soil is virtually immortal, +two facts to suggest perfect preparation. The land should be +thoroughly well plowed, harrowed, mixed and smoothed. The better this +work is done, the greater the potentialities of the vineyard. Here, +indeed, is a time to be mindful of the adage which comes from Cato, a +sturdy old Roman grape-grower of 2000 years ago: "The face of the +master is good for the land."</p> + +<p>Preparation is a series of operations in which it is wise to take +advantage of time and begin a year before the vines are to be set. The +land must be put in training to fit it for the long service it is to +render. The two great essentials of preparation are provision for +drainage and thorough cultivation. Both,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> to be performed as the +well-being of the grape require, take time, and a year is none too +short a period in which to do the work. Moreover, newly drained and +deeply plowed land requires time for frost, air, sunshine and rain to +sweeten and enliven the soil after the mixture by these operations of +live topsoil with inert subsoil.</p> + +<h6><em>Drainage.</em></h6> + +<p>The ideal soil, as we are often told, resembles a sponge, and is +capable of retaining the greatest possible amount of plant-food +dissolved in water, and at the same time is permeable for air. This +ideal, sponge-like condition is particularly desirable for the grape, +especially native species, because the vines of all are exceedingly +deep-rooted. Moreover, grapes thrive best in a warm soil. While, +therefore, the roots may make good use of nutritious solutions, if not +too diluted, in an undrained soil, they suffocate and do not receive +sufficient bottom heat. It must be made emphatic that the grape will +not thrive in water-logged land.</p> + +<p>Unless the land is naturally well drained, under-drainage must be +provided as the first step in the preparation of land for the +vineyard. Tile-draining is usually best done by those who make +land-draining their business, but information as to every requirement +of land and detail of work may be secured from many texts, so that +grape-growers may perform the work for themselves. In concluding the +topic, the reader must be reminded that high and hill lands are not +necessarily well drained, and low lands are not necessarily wet even +if the surface is level. Often hilltops and hillsides need artificial +draining; much less often valley lands and level lands may not need +it. To assume, too, that gravelly and shaley soils are always well +drained often leads directly contrary to the truth. Sandy and gravelly +soils need drainage nearly as often as loamy and clayey ones.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>Following tiling, if the land has had to be under-drained, the +vineyard should be graded to fill depressions and to make the surface +uniform. Usually this can be done with cutaway, tooth or some other +harrow, but sometimes the grader or road-scraper must be put in use.</p> + +<h6><em>Fitting the land.</em></h6> + +<p>Preparatory cultivation should begin the spring preceding planting by +deep plowing. If the land has been used long for general farming so +that a hard plow-sole has been formed by years of shallow plowing, a +subsoil-plow should follow in the furrow of the surface plow, although +it is seldom advisable to go deeply into the true hardpan. Fitting the +land must not stop here but should continue through the summer with +harrow and cultivator to pulverize the soil almost to its ultimate +particles. Such cultivation can be sufficiently thorough, and be made +at the same time profitable, by growing some hoed crop which requires +intensive culture. If the soil lacks humus, a cover-crop of clover or +other legume might well be sown in early summer to be plowed under in +late fall. Or, if stable manure is available, this generally should be +applied the fall before planting. Stable manure applied at this time +to a soil inclined to be niggardly puts an atmosphere in the +forthcoming vineyard wholly denied the grower who must rely on +commercial fertilizers.</p> + +<p>The land should be plowed again, deeply and as early in the fall as +possible, harrowed thoroughly, or possibly cross-plowed and then +harrowed. The land must go into the winter ready for early spring +planting and the fall work must be done promptly and with a sturdy +team and sharp, bright tools. The grower must keep in mind that no +opportunity will offer during the life of the vineyard to even up for +slackness in the start and that a vineyard of dingy, unhappy vines may +be the result of neglect at this critical time. Good tilth should +proceed until<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> the earth is fairly animated with growth when the vines +are planted. <a href="#Plate_II">Plate II</a> shows a piece of land well fitted for planting.</p> + +<h6><em>Marking for planting.</em></h6> + +<p>Given level land, a well-made marker, a gentle team and a careful +driver with a surveyor's eye, and a vineyard may be marked for +planting with a sled-marker, a modified corn-marker or even a plow. +Some such marker method is commonest in use in laying out vineyard +rows, but it is patent to the eye of every passer-by in grape regions +that the commonest method is not the best to secure perfect alignment +of row and vine. The combination named for good work with any of the +marker methods is found too seldom. If the marker method is used, it +is put in practice as follows: The rows being marked at the distance +decided on, a deep furrow is plowed along the row by going both ways +with the plow; this done, small stakes are set in the furrow at the +proper distances for the vines, taking care to line them both ways. +Planting holes are thus dug in the furrow with the stakes as a center.</p> + +<p>Marking by means of a measuring wire or chain is the best method of +locating vines accurately in a vineyard. The measuring wire varies +according to the wishes of the user from two to three hundred feet or +may be even longer. The best wires are made of annealed steel wire +about an eighth of an inch in diameter. At each end of the wire is a +strong iron ring to be slipped over stakes. The wire is marked +throughout its length by patches of solder at the distances desired +between rows of vines; to make these places more easily seen, pieces +of red cloth are fastened to them. Sometimes this measuring wire is +made of several strands of small wire, giving more flexibility and +making marking easier, since by separating the strands at the desired +points, pieces of cloth may be tied to mark distances.</p> + +<p>In using the wire, the side of the vineyard which is to serve as the +base of the square is selected and the wire is stretched,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> leaving at +least one rod from road or fence for a headland. With the wire thus +stretched, a stake is placed at each of the distance tags to represent +the first row of vines. Beginning at the starting point, sixty feet +are measured off in the base line and a temporary stake is set; eighty +feet at a right angle with the first line are then measured off at the +corner stake, judging the angle with the eye; then run diagonally from +the eighty-foot stake to the sixty-foot stake. If the distance between +the two stakes is one hundred feet, the corner is a right angle. With +the base lines thus started at right angles to each other, one can +measure off with the measuring wire as large an area as he desires by +taking care to have the line each time drawn parallel with the last, +and the stakes accurately placed at the marking points on the wire.</p> + +<p>Still another method which may be put to good use in laying out a +vineyard, especially if the vineyard is small, is to combine measure +and sight. The distances about the vineyard are measured and stakes +set to mark the ends of the rows around the area. Good stakes can be +made from laths pointed at one end and whitewashed at the other. A +line of stakes is then set across the field each way through the +center, in places, of course, which the two central rows of vines will +fill. When these are in place, if the area is not too large or too +hilly, all measurements can be dispensed with and the vines can be set +by sighting. A man at the end of the row has three laths to sight by +in each row and a second man should drive stakes as directed by the +sighter. Accurate work can be done by this method, but it requires +time, a good eye and much patience in the man who is sighting.</p> + + +<h4>Selecting and Preparing the Vines</h4> + +<p>Young grape vines covet life, for they are usually vigorous and not +easily injured. Hence, the plants may be brought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> from a distance +without fear of loss. The local nurseryman is, however, a good adviser +as to varieties if he is honest and intelligent, and, other things +equal, he should be patronized. But if the grower's needs cannot be +met at home, he should not hesitate to seek a nurseryman at a +distance. This is more necessary with the grape than other fruits +because young grapes are well and cheaply grown in certain localities +only. With the grape, as with all fruit plants, it is much better to +buy from the grower than from tree peddlers.</p> + +<h6><em>Selecting vines.</em></h6> + +<p>Unless the buyer knows what he wants, selecting vines is gambling pure +and simple. Fortunately, there are several marks of good vines very +helpful to those who know them. One should first make sure that the +roots and tops are alive to the remotest parts. The vines should have +a good clean, healthy look with trunk diameter large enough to +indicate vigorous growth, and an ample spread of roots. Large size is +not as desirable as firm, well-matured wood and an abundance of roots. +Vines with internodes of medium length for the variety are better than +those with great length or very short internodes. Such precautions as +are possible should be taken to insure varieties true to name, +although here the reputation of the nurseryman must be depended on +except for the few varieties which may be known at sight in the +nursery.</p> + +<p>First-grade one-year-old vines are usually better than two-year-olds. +Stunted vines are not worth planting and two-year-old vines are often +stunted one-year-olds. A few weak-growing varieties gain in vigor if +allowed to remain in the nursery two years—three years, never.</p> + +<h6><em>Handling and preparing the vines.</em></h6> + +<p>The better vines are packed, transported and cared for in the field, +the quicker will the roots take hold and the vines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> make the vigorous +start on which so much depends. The nurseryman should be requested not +to prune much before packing and to pack the vines well for shipping. +The vines should be heeled-in as soon as they reach their destination. +If the vines are dry on arrival, they should be drenched well before +heeling-in. It sometimes happens that the vines are shriveled and +shrunken from excessive drying, in which case the plants often may be +brought back to plumpness by burying them root and branch in damp +earth, to remain a week or possibly two. To heel-in, a trench should +be double furrowed in light, moist soil, the vines spread out in the +trench two or three deep, and then earth shoveled over the roots and +half the tops, sifting it in the roots, after which the soil is +firmed. The vines may thus be kept in good condition for several weeks +if need arises.</p> + +<p>The vines are prepared for planting by cutting away all dead or +injured roots and shortening-in the healthy roots. Grape roots can be +cut severely if healthy stubs remain, the removal of small roots and +fibers doing no harm, since fibers are of value only as indicating +that the vine is strong and vigorous. Fresh fibers come quickly from +stout, healthy roots. Most of the fibers of a transplanted vine die, +and laying them out in the hole to preserve them, as is so often +recommended, is but a useless burial rite. On good healthy vines, the +stubs of the roots, when cut back, will be four to eight inches in +length. The root system having been considerably pruned, the +reciprocity between roots and tops must be taken into account and the +top pruned accordingly. To reduce the work of the leaves to harmonize +with the activities of the roots, the top should be pruned to a single +cane and two, never more than three, buds. The vine is now ready for +planting and, the soil being in readiness, planting should proceed +apace.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 332px;"> +<a name="Plate_VI" id="Plate_VI"></a> +<img src="images/plate06.jpg" width="332" height="500" alt="Plate VI." title="Plate VI." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate VI.</span>—Black Hamburg (×<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span>).</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> +<h4>Planting</h4> + +<p>The dangers and difficulties of planting hardwooded plants are greatly +exaggerated. The tyro, in particular, is impressed with his +responsibilities at this time, and often sends a hurry-up call to +experiment station or nurseryman to "send him a man to plant." If the +land is properly prepared and the plants in good condition, the +operation of planting is easily, quickly and safely accomplished. +There is no need, in planting the vine, of such puttering overniceties +as laying out the roots to preserve the fibers, watering each vine as +it is set, inserting the vine in a gingerly fashion to make sure that +it stands in its new abode as it stood in the old, or puddling the +roots in pail or tub of water. On the other hand, the slap-dash method +of a Stringfellow who cuts off all small roots and uses a crowbar in +place of a spade is not doing duty by the plant, and burying the roots +deep in the earth or covering them close to the surface is courting +failure.</p> + +<h6><em>Digging the holes.</em></h6> + +<p>This is a simple task in land in good tilth. The holes need only be +large and deep enough to hold the roots without undue cramping. Herein +is again manifested the wisdom of thoroughly preparing the land; for, +in well-prepared land, the hole is really as large as the vineyard. +Even in the condition of poor tilth, deep holes are often a menace to +the life of the plant, especially if drainage is not provided, for the +deep hole becomes a tub into which water pours and stands to soak the +roots of dying vines. An extra spurt in digging holes cannot take the +place of perfect fitting of the land.</p> + +<p>There is nothing to commend the practice of digging holes in a leisure +time that all may be ready when the time to plant arrives. The vines +will strike root best in the freshly turned, moist soil of newly dug +earth, which can be firmly set about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> the roots when the vine is +planted. Neither is time saved in digging beforehand, for the +sun-baked and rain-washed sides of holes long dug would surely have to +be pared afresh. It is, however, quite worth while to throw the +surface soil to one side and that lower to the other, that a spadeful +of moist, virile, surface soil may be put next to the roots.</p> + +<p>There are, no doubt, some soils in which the holes might be blasted +out with dynamite, as, for instance, in a shallow soil with the +hardpan near the surface and good subsoil beneath. It is very +questionable, however, whether these defective soils should be used +for commercial plantings as long as there still remain unplanted many +acres in all grape regions of good deep land for the grape. To such as +are attracted by "dynamite farming," minute descriptions of methods of +use of dynamite and even demonstrations may be secured from +manufacturers of the explosive.</p> + +<h6><em>Time to plant.</em></h6> + +<p>The best time to plant the vine in cold climates is early spring, when +sun and showers arouse the spirit of growth in plants, and nutritive +solutions proceed quickly and unerringly to their preappointed places. +At this time, the much mutilated vine can undertake best the double +task of making fresh roots and opening the dormant leaves. Fall +planting puts forward the work, thus diminishing the rush of early +spring when vineyard operations crowd, and, no doubt, when all is +favorable, enables the vines to start a little more quickly. However, +there are frequently serious losses from planting in the fall. In cold +winters the grip of frost is sufficient to wrench the young vine from +its place and sometimes all but heaves it out of the soil. There is, +also, great liability of winter-killing in vines transplanted in the +autumn, not because of greater tenderness of the plant, but because of +greater porosity of the loosened soil which enables the cold to strike +to a greater depth. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> two objections to fall planting can be +overcome largely by mounding up the earth so as practically to cover +the vines, leveling the mound in early spring; but this extra work +more than offsets the labor saving in fall planting.</p> + +<p>In climates in which the soil does not freeze in the winter, the vines +may be set in the autumn if all is favorable. Often, however, +conditions are not favorable to fall planting in warm climates, since +autumn rains frequently soak the soil so that it cannot be placed +properly about the roots; and, moreover, in a cold, water-logged soil +the inactive roots begin to decay; or the soil may be too dry for fall +planting. Under such conditions, it is often better to delay planting +in warm climates until spring when better soil conditions can be +secured. Fall or spring, the soil should be reasonably dry, warm and +mellow when the work is done. The best time to plant must necessarily +vary from year to year, and the vineyardist must decide exactly when +to undertake planting in accordance with the conditions of soil and +weather, mindful that the Psalmist's injunction that there is "a time +to plant, and a time to pluck up that which is planted" is subject to +several conditions requiring judgment. The grape puts out its leaves +late in the spring, making the temptation great to delay planting; +late-set plants, however, need special care lest they suffer from the +summer droughts which annually parch the lands of this continent.</p> + +<h6><em>The operation of planting.</em></h6> + +<p>All being in readiness, planting proceeds rapidly. A gang of four men +work to advantage. Two dig holes, a third holds the vines and tramps +the earth as the remaining man shovels in earth. Except in large +vineyards, four men are seldom available, and gangs of two or three +must divide the work among its members as best suits conditions. A +tree-setting board is not needed in planting grapes, although some +growers use it. The man who holds the vines in the hole and tramps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> as +the shoveler fills, must align the plant after the stake is removed +and see that it stands perpendicularly in the hole. The stake, a lath, +is set in its old place in the hole to serve as a support for the +growing vine and to mark it so that the cultivator does not pull up +the young plant. The soil must be set firm about the roots of the +plant, but zeal in tramping should diminish as the hole is filled, +leaving the topsoil untramped, smooth, loose and pulverized, a dust +mulch—the best of all mulches—to prevent evaporation.</p> + +<p>The depth to which vines should be set is a matter of controversy. +This should be governed by the soil more than by any other factor, +although some varieties need a deeper root-run than others. The rule +to plant to the depth the vine stood in the nursery row is safe under +most conditions, although in light, hungry or thirsty soils the roots +should go deeper; and, on the other hand, in heavy soils, not so deep. +Deep planting is a more common mistake than shallow planting, for +roots under most conditions stand exposure better than internment, +going down being more natural than coming up for a root seeking a +place to its liking.</p> + +<p>Watering at planting is necessary only when the land is parched with +drought or in regions in which irrigation is practiced. When +necessary, water should be used liberally, at least a gallon or two to +a vine. After the earth has been firmed about the roots and the hole +is nearly filled, the water should be poured in and the hole filled +without more firming. Under dry weather conditions, some prefer to +puddle the roots; that is, to dip them in thin mud and plant with the +mud adhering. In making the puddle, loose loam and not sticky clay is +used, as clay may bake so hard as to injure the roots. With puddling, +as with watering, the surface soil should be left loose and soft +without traces of the puddling below.</p> + +<p>Manure or fertilizer about the roots or even in the hole are not +necessary or even desirable. If the soil is to be enriched<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> at all at +planting time, the fertilizer should be spread on the surface to be +cultivated in or to have its food elements leak down as rains fall. In +land in which the providential design for grapes is plainly +manifested, the vine at no time responds heartily to fertilizers, the +good of stable manure probably coming for the most part from its +effects on the texture and water-holding capacity of the soil. The +newly set plant is not in need of outside nourishment; to put rank +manure or strong commercial fertilizers about the roots of a young +newly set vine is plant infanticide.</p> + + +<h4>Care of Young Vines</h4> + +<p>Virgil calls the period in the life of the vine between the setting +and the first vintage, the "tender nonage," and tells us that at this +time the vines need careful rearing; so they do, now as then, American +grapes as well as the grapes of ancient Rome. Fortunately, any +departure from normal well-being is easily told in the grape, for the +color of the leaf is as accurate an index to the health and vigor of +the vine as the color of the tongue or the beat of the pulse in man. A +change of color from the luxuriant green of thrifty grape foliage, +especially the yellow hue indicating that the leaf-green is not +functioning properly, suggests that the vines are sick or need nursing +in some detail of care. When all goes well, however, the amazing +energy of Nature is nowhere better seen among plants than in the +growth of the grape, so that much of the care is in the use of the +knife; in fact, as we shall see, the grape almost lives by the knife +the first two years out.</p> + +<h6><em>The first year.</em></h6> + +<p>The vines having been pruned and staked at planting, these operations +need no attention in the first summer. Many varieties send up several +shoots as growth starts, and, except<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> in the case of grafted plants +and in the event of the suckers coming from the stock, these should be +left to feed the vine and help to establish a good root system. Vines +making a strong growth should be tied to the stake, at least the +strongest shoot, to keep the wind from whipping it about and to keep +the plants out of the way of the cultivator. The only knack in tying +is to keep the vine on the windward side of the stake, thus saving the +breaking of tying material.</p> + +<p>The first year's pruning, though severe, is easily done. All but the +strongest cane are cut out and this is pruned back to two buds, nearly +to the ground, so that the vines are much as when set in the vineyard. +This pruning, and that of the next two years, has as the object the +establishment of a good root system and the production of a sturdy +trunk at the height at which the vine is to be headed. It is important +that the cane from which the trunk is to come be healthy and the wood +well ripened. Pruning may be done at any time after the leaves fall, +though most growers give preference to late winter. In cold climates +it is a good practice to plow up to the young vines for winter +protection, in which case the pruning should be done before plowing.</p> + +<p>Every detail of vineyard management should be performed with care and +at the accepted time in this critical first year. Cultivation must be +intensive, insects and fungi must be warded off, mechanical injuries +avoided, vines that have refused to grow must be marked for discard, +and the vineyard be put down to a cover-crop in early August if it was +not earlier planted to some hoed catch-crop.</p> + +<h6><em>The second year.</em></h6> + +<p>Work begins in the spring of the second year with the setting of +trellis posts on which one wire is put up. The vine is not yet ready +to train but the slender lath of the first season is not sufficient +support, and the one wire on the future trellis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> saves the expense of +staking. Tying requires some care and is usually done with string or +bast. As the summer proceeds, suckers from the roots are removed and +some growers thin the shoots on the young vine; some think it +necessary also to top the growth if it becomes too luxuriant and so +keep the cane within bounds. Suckers must be cut or broken off at the +points where they originate, otherwise several new ones may start from +the base of the old. If the vines are topped, it must be kept in mind +that summer pruning is weakening, and the tips of shoots should, +therefore, be taken when small, the object being to direct the growth +into those parts of the vine which are to become permanent.</p> + +<p>Pruning, the second winter the vine is out, depends on the vigor of +the plant. If a strong, healthy, well-matured cane over-tops the lower +wire of the trellis, it should be cut back so that the cane may be +tied to the wire; otherwise the vine should again be cut almost to the +ground, leaving but three or four buds. If the cane be left, in +addition to sturdiness and maturity, it should be straight, for it is +to become the trunk of the mature vine. The training of the young vine +is now at an end, for the next season the vine must be started toward +its permanent form, instructions for which are given in the <a href="#Page_108">chapter on +pruning</a>.</p> + +<p>The summer care of the vineyard does not differ materially in the +second year from that of the first. Intensive cultivation continues, +the vines are treated for pests and the annual cover-crop follows +cultivation. Many varieties, if vigorous, will set some fruit in this +second summer, but the crop should not be allowed to mature, the +sooner removed the better, as fruiting at this stage of growth +seriously weakens the young vines.</p> + + +<h4>Catch-crops and Cover-crops</h4> + +<p>A catch-crop is one grown between the rows of another crop for profit +from the produce. A cover-crop is a temporary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> crop grown, as the term +was first used, to protect the soil, but the word is now used to +include green-manuring crops as well. Catch-crops seldom have a place +in most vineyards, but cover-crops are often grown.</p> + +<h6><em>Catch-crops.</em></h6> + +<p>Catch-crops are not, as a rule, profitable in commercial vineyards; +they may bring temporary profit but in the long run they are usually +detrimental to the vines. It may pay and the grape may not be injured +in some localities, if such truck crops as potatoes, beans, tomatoes +and cabbage are grown between the rows or even in the rows for the +first year and possibly the second. Land, to do duty by the two crops, +however, must be excellent and the care of both crops must be of the +best. Growing gooseberries, currants, any of the brambles, or even +strawberries, is a poor procedure unless the vineyard is small, the +land very valuable or other conditions prevail which make intensive +culture possible or necessary. The objections to catch-crops in the +vineyard are two: they rob the vines of food and moisture and endanger +them to injury from tools in caring for the catch-crop.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the grape itself is planted as a catch-crop in the vineyard. +That is, twice the number of vines required in a row for the permanent +vineyard are set with the expectation of cutting out alternate vines +when two or three crops have been harvested and the vines begin to +crowd. This practice is preferable to inter-planting with bush-fruits, +yet there is not much to commend it if the experience of those who +have tried it is taken as a guide. Too often the filler vines are left +a year too long with the result that the permanent vines are checked +in growth for several years following. The profits from the fillers +are never large, scarcely pay for the extra work, and if the permanent +vines are stunted, the filler must be put down as a liability rather +than as an asset.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Cover-crops.</em></h6> + +<p>In an experiment being conducted by the New York Agricultural +Experiment Station, grapes do not give a very appreciable response to +cover-crops in yield of fruit or growth of vine.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> There seem to be +no other experiments to confirm the results at the New York Station, +and grape-growers nowhere have used cover-crops very generally for the +betterment of their vineyards. There is doubt, therefore, as to +whether grapes will respond profitably to the annual use of +cover-crops in yield of fruit, which, of course, is the ultimate test +of the value of cover-crops, but a test hard to apply unless the +experiment runs a great number of years.</p> + +<p>Leaving out the doubtful value of cover-crops in increasing the supply +of plant-food and thereby producing an increase in yield, there are at +least three ways in which cover-crops are valuable in the vineyard. +Thus, it is patent to all who have tried cover-crops in the vineyard +that the land is in much better tilth and more easily worked when some +green crop is turned under in fall or spring; it is not unreasonable +to assume, though it is impossible to secure reliable experimental +data to confirm the belief, that cover-crops protect the roots of +grapes from winter-killing; certainly it may be expected that a +cover-crop sowed in midsummer will cause grapes to mature their wood +earlier and more thoroughly so that the vines go into the winter in +better condition. The only objection to be raised against cover-crops +in the vineyard is that pickers, mostly women, object to the +cover-crop when wet with rain or dew and usually choose to pick in +vineyards having no such crop. This seemingly insignificant factor +often gives the grape-grower who sows cover-crops much trouble in +harvest time.</p> + +<p>Several cover-crops may be planted in vineyards as clover,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> vetch, +oats, barley, cow-horn turnip, rape, rye and buckwheat. Combinations +of these usually make the seed too costly or the trouble of sowing too +great. Yet some combinations of a leguminous and non-leguminous crop +would seem to make the best green crop for the grape. Thus, a bushel +of oats or barley plus ten pounds of clover or twenty pounds of winter +vetch, a combination often used in orchards, should prove satisfactory +in the vineyard. Or, doubling the amount of seed for each, these crops +could be alternated, with a change in the rotation every four or six +years, with cow-horn turnip or rape. Turnip and rape require at least +three pounds of seed to the acre.</p> + +<p>The cover-crop is sown in midsummer, about the first of August in +northern latitudes, and should be plowed under in the fall or early +spring. Under no circumstances should the green crop be permitted to +stand in the vineyard late in the spring to rob the vines of food and +moisture. The weather map must be watched at sowing time to make sure +of a moist seed-bed. <a href="#Plate_III">Plate III</a> illustrates two vineyards with +well-grown cover-crops.</p> + + +<h4>Tillage</h4> + +<p>Grape-growers are not in the fog that befuddles growers of tree-fruits +in regard to tillage. He is a sloven, indeed, who permits his vines to +stand a season in unbroken ground, and there are no growers who +recommend sod or any of the modified sod-mulches for the grape. +Tillage is difficult in hilly regions and the operation is often +neglected in hillside vineyards, as in the Central Lakes region of New +York, but even here some sort of tillage is universal. The skip of a +single season in tilling stunts the vines, and two or three skips in +successive seasons ruin a vineyard. No one complains that grapes +suffer from over-tilling as one frequently hears of tree-fruits. There +is no tonic for the grape that compares with cultivation when the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +leaves lack color and hang limp and the vine has an indefinable air of +depression; and there is nothing better than cultivation to rouse +latent vigor in a scorching summer, or when drought lays heavy on the +land.</p> + +<h6><em>Tillage tools.</em></h6> + +<p>The tools to be used in tilling grapes vary with the topography of the +vineyard, the kind of soil and the preferences of the vineyardist. The +best tool is the one with which the ground can be well fitted at least +expense. Good work in the vineyard requires at least two plows, a +single-horse and a two-horse plow. The latter, except on very hilly +land, should be a gang-plow. For commercial vineyards of any +considerable size, several cultivators are necessary for different +seasons and conditions of the soil. Thus, every vineyard should have a +spring-tooth and a disc harrow, one of the several types of weeders, a +one-horse and a sulky cultivator. If weeds abound, it is necessary to +have some cutting tool, or an attachment to one of the cultivators, to +slide over the ground and cut off large weeds. Another indispensable +tool in a large vineyard is a one-horse grape-hoe, to supplement the +work of which there must be heavy hand-hoes. Very often the surface +soil must be pulverized, and a clod-crusher, roller or a float becomes +a necessity. A full complement of bright, sharp tools at the command +of the grape-grower goes far toward success in his business.</p> + +<h6><em>Tillage methods.</em></h6> + +<p>There are several reliable guides indicating when the vineyard needs +to be tilled. The vineyardist who is but a casual observer of the +relation of vineyard operations to the life events and the welfare of +his vines will take the crop of weeds as his guide. It is, of course, +necessary to keep down the weeds, but the man who waits until weeds +force him to till will make a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> poor showing in his vineyard. The +amount of moisture in the soil is a better guide. The chief function +of tillage is to save moisture by checking evaporation and to put the +soil in such condition that its water-holding capacity is increased. +The physical condition of the land is another guide. Tilling when the +soil needs pulverizing furnishes a greater feeding surface for the +roots.</p> + +<p>Tillage begins with plowing in early spring. Whether provided with a +cover-crop to be turned under or hard and bare, the land must be +broken each spring with the plow. Plowing is best done by running a +single furrow with a one-horse plow up to or away from the vines as +occasion calls and then following with a two-horse or a gang-plow. +Some growers use a disc harrow instead of the plow to break the land +in the spring, but this is a doubtful procedure in most vineyards and +is impossible when a heavy green-crop covers the land. Tillage with +harrow, cultivator, weeder or roller then proceeds at such intervals +as conditions demand, seldom less than once a fortnight, until time to +sow the cover-crop in midsummer. About the time grapes blossom, the +grape-hoe should be used to level down the furrow turned up to the +vines in the spring plowing. Tillage should always follow a heavy rain +to prevent the formation of a soil crust, this being a time when he +who tills quickly tills twice. The number of times a vineyard should +be tilled depends on the soil and the season. Ten times over with the +cultivator in one vineyard or season may not be as effective as <em>five</em> +times in another vineyard or another season. In some regions, as in +New York, the grower is so often at the mercy of wet weather in early +spring that the plowing is best done in the fall, and spring +operations must then open with harrowing with some tool that will +break the land thoroughly.</p> + +<p>The depth to till is governed by the nature of the soil and the +season. Heavy soils need deep tilling; light soils, shallow tilling; +in wet weather, till deeply; in dry weather, lightly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> Grape roots are +well down in the soil and there is little danger of injuring them in +deep tillage. The depth of plowing and cultivating should be varied +somewhat from season to season to avoid the formation of a plow-sole. +In some regions plowing and cultivating may be made a means of +combating insects and fungi, and this regulates the depth of tillage. +Thus, in the Chautauqua grape-belt of western New York, the pupa of +the root-worm, a scourge of the grape in this region, is thrown out +and destroyed by the grape-hoe just as it is about ready to emerge as +an adult to lay its eggs on the vines. In all regions, leaves and +mummied grapes bearing countless myriads of spores of the mildews, +black-rot and other fungi are interned by the plow and cannot scatter +disease.</p> + +<p>The time in the season to stop tillage depends on the locality, the +season and the variety. It is a good rule to cease cultivation a few +weeks before the grapes attain full size and begin to color, for by +this time they will have weighted down the vines so that fruit and +foliage will be in the way of the cultivator. In the North, +cultivation ceases in the ordinary season about the first of August, +earlier the farther south. Rank-growing sorts, as Concord or Clinton, +do not need to be cultivated as late as those of smaller growth and +scantier foliage, as Delaware or Diamond. The cover-crop seed is +covered the last time over with the cultivator. <a href="#Plate_IV">Plate IV</a> shows a +well-tilled vineyard of Concords.</p> + + +<h4>Irrigation</h4> + +<p>The grape, as a rule, withstands drought very well, several species +growing wild on the desert's edge. Even in the semi-arid regions of +the far West, where other fruits must always be irrigated, the grape +often grows well without artificial watering. Irrigation is practiced +in vineyards in the United States only on the Pacific slope and here +the practice is not as general as with other fruit crops. Whether the +grape shall be grown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> under irrigation or not is a local and often an +individual question answered with regard to several conditions; as the +local rainfall, the depth and character of the soil, the cost of water +and ease of irrigation. These conditions are all correlated and make +about the most complex and difficult problem the growers of grapes in +semi-arid regions have to solve. As long, however, as the grape-grower +can grow fairly vigorous vines and harvest a fairly bountiful crop by +natural rainfall, he should not irrigate; for, even though the crop +offsets the cost, there are several objections to growing grapes under +irrigation. The vines are subject to more diseases and physiological +troubles; the fruit is said to lack aroma and flavor; grapes grown on +irrigated land do not stand shipment well, the unduly inflated grapes +often bursting; wine-makers do not like irrigated grapes as well as +those from non-irrigated lands; and watery grapes from irrigated lands +make inferior raisins. It is maintained, however, with a show of +reason, that grapes suffer in irrigated vineyards in the ways set +forth only when the vines are over-or improperly irrigated.</p> + +<table summary="Plate VII"> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="figcenter" style="width: 232px;"> +<a name="Plate_VII" id="Plate_VII"></a> +<img src="images/plate07a.jpg" width="232" height="307" alt="Plate VII." title="Plate VII." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate VII.</span>—Barry (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">5</span>).</span> +</td> + +<td class="figcenter" style="width: 232px;"> +<img src="images/plate07b.jpg" width="232" height="307" alt="Plate VII." title="Plate VII." /> +<span class="caption">Delaware (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">5</span>).</span> +</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER VI</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES</p> + + +<p>As regards fertilizers, the grape-grower has much to learn and in +learning he must approach the problem with humility of mind. For in +his experimenting, which is the best way to learn, he will no sooner +arrive at what seems to be a certain conclusion, than another season's +results or the yields in an adjoining vineyard will upset the findings +of past seasons and those obtained in other places. Unfortunately, +there is little real knowledge to be obtained on the subject, for +grape-growers have not yet broken away from time-worn dictums in +regard to fertilizers and still follow recommendations drawn from work +with truck and field crops. This is excused by the fact that there +have been almost no comprehensive experiments in the country with +fertilizers for grapes.</p> + +<p>No fallacies die harder than the pronouncements of chemists a +generation ago that fertilizing consists in putting in the soil +approximately that which the plants take out; and that the chemical +composition of the crop affords the necessary guide to fertilizing. +These two theories are the basis of nearly every recommendation that +can be found for the use of fertilizers in growing crops. The facts +applied to the grape, however, are that the average tillable soil +contains a hundred or a thousand times more of the chemical +constituents of plants than the grape can possibly take from the soil; +and many experiments in supplying food to plants show that the +chemical composition of the plant is not a safe guide to their +fertilizer require<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>ments. Later teachings in regard to the use of +fertilizers are: That the quantity of mineral food in a soil may be of +far less importance than the quantity of water, and that the +cultivator should make certain that there is sufficient moisture in +his land so that the mineral salts may be readily dissolved and so +become available as plant-food; that far too much importance has been +attached to putting chemicals in the soil and too little to the +physical condition of the soil, whereby the work of bacteria and the +solvent action of organic acids may make available plant-food that +without these agencies is unavailable.</p> + +<p>These brief and simple statements introduce to grape-growers some of +the problems with which they must deal in fertilizing grapes, and show +what a complex problem of chemistry, physics and biology fertilizing +the soil is; how difficult experimental work in this field is; and how +cautious workers must be in interpreting results of either experiment +or experience. An account of an experiment in fertilizing a vineyard +may make even more plain the difficulties in carrying on experiments +in fertilizing fruits and the caution that must be observed in drawing +conclusions.</p> + + +<h4>An Experiment in Fertilizing Grapes</h4> + +<p>The New York Agricultural Experiment Station is experimenting with +fertilizers for grapes at Fredonia, Chautauqua County, the chief grape +region in eastern America. The experiment should be of interest to +every grape-grower from several points of view. It not only shows that +there are many and difficult problems in fertilizing grapes, but also +the results of the use of manure, commercial fertilizers and +cover-crops in a particular vineyard; it suggests the fertilizers to +be used and the methods of use; and it furnishes a plan for an +experiment by grape-growers who want to try such an experiment and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +draw their own conclusions. An account of the experiment and the +results for the first five years follows:<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> + +<h6><em>Tests at Fredonia.</em></h6> + +<p>"In the vineyard at Fredonia eleven plats were laid out in a section +of the vineyard where inequalities of soil and other conditions were +slight or were neutralized. Each plat included three rows (about +one-sixth of an acre) and was separated from the adjoining plats by a +'buffer' row not under test. One plat in the center of the section +served as a check, and five different fertilizer combinations were +used on duplicate plats at either side of the check. Plats 1 and 7 +received lime and a complete fertilizer with quick-acting and +slow-acting nitrogen; Plats 2 and 8 received the complete fertilizer +but no lime; on Plats 3 and 9 potash was omitted from the complete +fertilizer combination; Plats 4 and 10 received no phosphorus; Plats 5 +and 11, no nitrogen; and Plat 6 was the check. The materials were +applied at such rates that they provided for the first year 72 pounds +of nitrogen per acre, 25 pounds of phosphorus and 59 pounds of +potassium; and for each of the last four years two-thirds as much +nitrogen and phosphorus and eight-ninths as much potassium. The lime +was applied the first and fourth years in quantity to make a ton to +the acre annually. Cover-crops were sown on all plats alike and were +plowed under in late April or early May of each year. These differed +in successive years, but included no legumes. The crops used were rye, +wheat, barley and cow-horn turnips separately and the last two in +combination.</p> + +<p>"The cultivation differed only in thoroughness from that generally +used in the Belt, the aim being to maintain a good dust mulch during +the whole growing season. Pruning by the Chautauqua System was done +throughout by one man, who pruned solely according to the vigor of the +individual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> vines and left four, two or three, or no fruiting canes as +appeared best. The vineyard was thoroughly sprayed, all plats alike.</p> + +<p>"Low winter temperatures, affecting immature wood and buds caused by +unfavorable weather of the previous season, reduced yields materially +during two of the five years, and practically neutralized any +anticipated benefit from fertilizers. Following the first of these +low-crop years, came a season, 1911, in which favorable conditions, +acting upon vines left undiminished in vigor by the light crop of the +previous year resulted in heavy and quite uniform yields on all the +plats.</p> + +<p>"The yields for the five years are shown in <a href="#Table_I">Table I</a>; and a summary +showing the average gains from each treatment is given in <a href="#Table_II">Table II</a>, +with the average financial balance after deducting the cost of +fertilizer application from the increased returns from the plats +receiving them.</p> + +<p class="table_caption"><a name="Table_I" id="Table_I"></a>Table I.—Yield of Grapes (Tons per Acre) in Fertilizer Experiments</p> + +<table summary="Table I"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th class="table_cell_3110">Plat. No.</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111"> </th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">1909</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">1910</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">1911</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">1912</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">1913</th> + <th class="table_cell_3011">5-year average</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_1100"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_1101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center"><em>Tons</em></td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center"><em>Tons</em></td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center"><em>Tons</em></td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center"><em>Tons</em></td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center"><em>Tons</em></td> + <td class="table_cell_1001 table_center"><em>Tons</em></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100 table_right">1</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Complete fertilizer; lime</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.48</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5.37</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">3.46</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.14</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">3.51</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100 table_right">2</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Complete fertilizer</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.76</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.21</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5.71</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.30</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.83</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">3.96</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100 table_right">3</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Nitrogen and phosphorus</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5.17</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.14</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5.61</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.00</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.25</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">3.83</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100 table_right">4</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Nitrogen and potash</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.25</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.55</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5.64</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.85</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">3.87</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100 table_right">5</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Phosphorus and potash</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">3.41</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.00</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5.44</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.35</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">1.78</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">3.39</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100 table_right">6</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Check</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">3.38</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5.32</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">3.60</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">1.24</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">3.12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100 table_right">7</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Complete fertilizer; lime</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.69</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.38</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5.62</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.80</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">3.04</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">4.10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100 table_right">8</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Complete fertilizer</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.66</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.07</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5.71</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.98</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.72</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">4.02</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100 table_right">9</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Nitrogen and phosphorus</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.99</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.04</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5.35</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.89</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.61</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">3.97</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100 table_right">10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Nitrogen and potash</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.79</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">2.26</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5.91</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4.89</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">3.07</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">4.18</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0130 table_right">11</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131">Phosphorus and potash</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_center">4.99</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_center">1.87</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_center">5.03</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_center">4.21</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_center">1.97</td> + <td class="table_cell_0031 table_center">3.61</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p> +<p class="table_caption"><a name="Table_II" id="Table_II"></a>Table II.—Average Increase in Grape Yields and Average Financial Gain +from Fertilizer Applications</p> + +<p class="table_key">N = nitrogen, P = phosphorus, K = potassium, Ca = lime.<br /> +Gains in tons per acre.</p> + +<table summary="Table II"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th class="table_cell_3110"> </th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">N, P, K, Ca.</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">N, P, K.</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">N, P.</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">N, K.</th> + <th class="table_cell_3011">P, K.</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_1100"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center"><em>Tons</em></td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center"><em>Tons</em></td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center"><em>Tons</em></td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center"><em>Tons</em></td> + <td class="table_cell_1001 table_center"><em>Tons</em></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">First plat of pair</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">3.51</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">3.96</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">3.83</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">3.87</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_right">3.39</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Second plat of pair</td> + <td class="table_cell_0111 table_right">4.10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0111 table_right">4.02</td> + <td class="table_cell_0111 table_right">3.97</td> + <td class="table_cell_0111 table_right">4.18</td> + <td class="table_cell_0011 table_right">3.61</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Average</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_right">3.80</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_right">3.97</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_right">3.90</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_right">4.02</td> + <td class="table_cell_1001 table_right">3.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Check plat</td> + <td class="table_cell_0111 table_right">3.12</td> + <td class="table_cell_0111 table_right">3.12</td> + <td class="table_cell_0111 table_right">3.12</td> + <td class="table_cell_0111 table_right">3.12</td> + <td class="table_cell_0011 table_right">3.12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Average gain</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_right">.68</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_right">.85</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_right">.78</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_right">.90</td> + <td class="table_cell_1001 table_right">.38</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0130">Average financial gain</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_right">$5.82</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_right">$13.84</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_right">$14.05</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_right">$18.54</td> + <td class="table_cell_0031 table_right">$6.99</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p> </p> + +<p>From this last table the benefit from nitrogen appears quite evident +since every combination in which it appears gives a substantial gain +over the one from which it is absent. Phosphorus and potassium without +the nitrogen, lead to only a slight increase over the check; and lime +appears to be of no benefit. Financially, the complete fertilizer and +lime combination, the nitrogen and phosphorus combination and the +phosphorus and potassium combination failed to pay their cost in five +of the ten comparisons; the complete fertilizer was used at a loss +four times out of ten; and the nitrogen and potassium combination +three times out of ten. Lime had no appreciable effect on either vines +or fruit.</p> + +<p>"No effect of the fertilizers on the fruit itself, aside from yield, +was shown for the first three years; but in 1912, and even more +markedly in 1913, the fruit from the plats on which nitrogen had been +used was superior in compactness of cluster, size of cluster and size +of berry. In 1912 also, when early ripening was a decided advantage, +the fruit on the nitrogen plats <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>matured earlier than that on the +check plats. In 1913 the favorable ripening season and the smaller +crop tended to equalize the time of ripening on all plats. The grapes +on the phosphorus-potassium plats were better in quality than those in +the check plats but not as good as those on the plats where nitrogen +was used.</p> + +<p>"Other indexes also show plainly the benefit from nitrogen in this +vineyard; for size and weight of leaf, weight of wood produced and +number of fruiting canes left on the vines were all greater where +fertilizers, and particularly nitrogen, had been used. The three-year +averages (1911–1913) of the measurements for these characteristics are +shown in <a href="#Table_III">Table III</a>:</p> + +<p class="table_caption"><a name="Table_III" id="Table_III"></a>Table III.—Comparative Production of Leaves, Wood and Fruiting Canes +on Grape Vines Differently Fertilized</p> + +<p class="table_key">(Averages for three years.)</p> + +<div id="table_iii_actual"> +<table summary="Table III"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th class="table_cell_3110">Fertilizer Application</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">Leaf Weight<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">Wood Pruned<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></th> + <th class="table_cell_3011">Fruiting Canes Left<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_1100"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center"><em>Grams.</em></td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center"><em>Lbs.</em></td> + <td class="table_cell_1001 table_center"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Complete fertilizer; lime</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">1,033</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">1,295</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_right">2,468</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Complete fertilizer</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">1,010</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">1,367</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_right">2,609</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Nitrogen and phosphorus</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">1,047</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">1,272</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_right">2,585</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Nitrogen and potassium</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">1,069</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">1,401</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_right">2,646</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Phosphorus and potassium</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">964</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_right">1,086</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_right">2,326</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0130">Check</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_right">930</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_right">915</td> + <td class="table_cell_0031 table_right">2,110</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> + +<h6><em>Coöperative experiments.</em></h6> + +<p>"In order to secure information as to the behavior of fertilizers on +the different soils of the Grape Belt, coöperative tests were carried +on in six vineyards owned, respectively, by S. S. Grandin, Westfield; +Hon. C. M. Hamilton, State Line; James Lee, Brocton; H. S. Miner, +Dunkirk; Miss Frances Jennings, Sil<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>ver Creek; and J. T. Barnes, +Prospect Station. The soil in these vineyards included gravelly loam, +shale loam and clay loam, all in the Dunkirk series, and the +experiments covered from two to two and a half acres in three cases +and about five acres in each of the other vineyards. The work +continued four years in all but one of the experiments, which it was +necessary to end after the second year.</p> + +<p>"The general plan of the tests was much like that at Fredonia in most +of the vineyards, with the additions of plats for stable manure and +for leguminous and non-leguminous cover crops with and without lime. +From two to six check plats were left for comparison in each vineyard. +As already stated the results were often inconsistent in duplicate +plats in the same vineyard, and if one test appeared to point +definitely in a certain direction, the indication would be negatived +by results in other vineyards. In these experiments the yield of fruit +was the only index to the effect of treatments as it was not possible +to weigh leaves or pruned wood, or to count the canes left.</p> + +<p>"Nitrogen and potassium in combination, which gave the largest gains +and greatest profit in the Station vineyard at Fredonia, showed a 13 +per ct. increase in yield on one plat in the Jennings vineyard and a 9 +per ct. decrease on the other; in the Miner vineyard this combination +apparently resulted in a 25 per ct. increase; in the Lee vineyard in a +2<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> per ct. loss; in the Hamilton vineyard a 17 per ct. gain; and in +the Grandin vineyard neither gain nor loss. In only two of the five +vineyards in which this combination was tested was the gain great +enough to pay the cost of the fertilizer applied. Similar +discrepancies, or absence of profitable gain, mark the use of the +other fertilizer combinations.</p> + +<p>"Even stable manure, the standby of the farmer and fruit-grower, when +applied at the rate of five tons per acre each spring, and plowed in, +did not, on the average, pay for itself. Indeed, there were few +instances among the 60 comparisons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> possible, in which more than a +very moderate profit could be credited to manure. The average increase +in yield following the application of manure alone was less than a +quarter of a ton of grapes to the acre; while the use of lime with the +manure increased the gain to one-third of a ton per acre. The ton of +lime to the acre annually would not be paid for by the gain of 175 +pounds of grapes. Cover-crops were used in five of the six coöperative +experiments and proved even less adapted to increasing crop yields +than did the manure. There was no appreciable gain, on the average, +from the use of mammoth clover; indeed, a slight loss must be recorded +for the clover except upon the plats which were also limed, and even +with the lime the average yields on check plats and mammoth clover +plats differed by only one one-hundredth of a ton. Wheat or barley +with cow-horn turnips made a slightly better showing, as the plats on +which these crops were turned under, without lime, averaged about +one-twentieth of a ton to the acre better than the checks. With these +non-legumes, lime was apparently a detriment, as the plants with the +lime yielded a tenth of a ton less, on the average, than those without +it."</p> + +<h6><em>Practical lessons from the Fredonia experiment.</em></h6> + +<p>From this experiment it becomes clear that the use of fertilizers in a +vineyard is a local problem. General advice is of little value. It is +evident also that the fertilization of vineyards is so involved with +other factors that only carefully planned and long continued work will +give reliable information as to the needs of vines. Indeed, field +experiments even in carefully selected vineyards, as the coöperative +experiments show, may be so contradictory and misleading as to be +worse than useless, if deductions are made from the results of a few +seasons. The experiment, however, has brought forth information about +fertilizing vineyards that ought to be most helpful to grape-growers. +Thus, the results suggest:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Only vineyards in good condition respond to fertilizers.</em></h6> + +<p>It is usually waste to make applications of fertilizers in poorly +drained vineyards, in such as suffer from winter cold or spring +frosts, where insect pests are epidemic and uncontrolled or where good +care is lacking. The experiments furnish several examples of +inertness, ineffectiveness or failure to produce profit when the +fertilizers were applied under any of the conditions named. They +emphasize the importance of paying attention to all of the factors on +which plant growth is dependent. Moisture, soil temperature, aëration, +the texture of the soil, freedom from pests, cold and frosts, as well +as the supply of food may limit the yield of grapes.</p> + +<h6><em>A vineyard soil may have a one-sided wear.</em></h6> + +<p>It is certain in some of the experiments and strongly indicated in +others that the soil is having a one-sided wear—that only one or a +very few of the elements of fertility are lacking. The element most +frequently lacking is nitrogen. Exception will probably be found in +very light sands or gravels which are often deficient in potash and +the phosphates; or on soils so shallow or of such mechanical texture +that the root range of the vine is limited; or in soils so wet or so +dry as to limit the root range or prevent biological activities. These +exceptions mean, as a rule, that the soils possessing the unfavorable +qualities are unfitted for grape-growing. The grape-grower should try +to discover which of the fertilizing elements his soil lacks and not +waste by using elements not needed.</p> + +<h6><em>Grape soils are often uneven.</em></h6> + +<p>The marked unevenness of the soil in the seven vineyards in which +these experiments were carried on, as indicated by the crops and the +effects of the fertilizers, furnishes food for thought to +grape-growers. Maximum profits cannot be approached<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> in vineyards in +which the soil is as uneven as in these, which were in every case +selected because there was an appearance of uniformity. A problem +before grape-growers is to make uniform all conditions in their +vineyards, and the vines must be kept free from pests if fertilizers +are to be profitably used.</p> + +<h6><em>How a grape-grower may know when his vines need fertilizers.</em></h6> + +<p>A grape-grower may assume that his vines do not need fertilizers if +they are vigorous and making a fair annual growth. When the vineyard +is found to be failing in vigor, the first step to be taken is to make +sure that the drainage is good; the second step, to control insect and +fungous pests; the third, to give tillage and good care; and the +fourth step is to apply fertilizers if they be found necessary. Few +vineyards will be found to require a complete fertilizer. What the +special requirements of a vineyard are can be ascertained only by +experiment and are probably not ascertainable by analyses of the soil. +This experiment furnishes suggestions as to how the grape-grower may +test the value of fertilizers in his own vineyard.</p> + +<h6><em>Applying fertilizers.</em></h6> + +<p>When it is certain that vines need fertilization, and what is wanted +is known, the fertilizers should be put on in the spring and be worked +in by the spring cultivation. Stable manure should be plowed under. +Grape roots forage throughout the whole top layer of soil so that the +land should be covered with the fertilizer, whether chemical or +barnyard manure. Applications of commercial fertilizers are generally +spread broadcast, though it is better to drill them in if the foliage +is out on the vines and thus avoid possible injury to tender foliage. +Commercial fertilizers should be mixed thoroughly and in a finely +divided state. In leachy soils, nitrate of soda ought not to be +applied too early in the season, as it will quickly wash down out of +reach of the grape roots.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;"> +<a name="Plate_VIII" id="Plate_VIII"></a> +<img src="images/plate08.jpg" width="330" height="500" alt="Plate VIII." title="Plate VIII." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate VIII.</span>—Brighton (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Over-rich soils.</em></h6> + +<p>Some soils are too rich for the grape. On these the growth is +over-luxuriant, the wood does not mature in the autumn, fruit-buds do +not form and the fruit is poor in quality. Certain varieties can stand +a richer soil than others. Over-richness is a trouble that may cure +itself as the vines come in full bearing and make greater demands on +the soil for food. It is well, however, on a soil that is suspected of +being too rich or so proved by the behavior of the vines, to provide +an extra wire on the trellis, to prune little and thus take care of +the rampant growth. Some soils, however, and this is often the case, +are so rich that the grape cannot be made to thrive in them; the vines +waste their substance in riotous living, producing luxuriant foliage +and lusty wood but little or no fruit.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER VII</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA</p> + + +<p>The inexperienced look on pruning as a difficult operation in +grape-growing. But once a few fundamentals are grasped, grape-pruning +is not difficult. There is much less perplexity in pruning the grape +than in pruning tree-fruits. Pruning follows accepted patterns in +every grape region, and when the pattern is learned the difficulties +are easily overcome. The inexperienced are confused by the array of +"principles," "types," "methods," "systems" and the many technical +terms that enter into discussions of grape-pruning. Some of the +technicalities come from European practices, and others originated in +the infancy of grape-growing in this country when there was great +diversity in pruning. Divested of much that is but jargon, an +inexperienced man can easily learn in a few lessons, from word of +mouth or printed page, how to prune grapes.</p> + +<p>The simplicity of pruning has led to slighting the work in commercial +vineyards, by too often trusting it to unskilled hands. Then, too, in +this age of power-propelled tools, pride in hand labor has been left +behind, and few grape-growers now take time and trouble to become +expert in pruning. Simple as the work may seem to those long +accustomed to it, he who wants to put into his pruning painstaking +intelligence and to taste the joy of a task well done finds in this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +vineyard operation an ample field for pleasure and for the development +of greater profits. The price to be paid by those who would thus +attempt perfection in pruning the vine is forward vision, the +mechanic's eye, the gardener's touch, patience, and pride in +handicraft.</p> + +<p>Simple as pruning is, the pruner soon learns that it is an art in +which perfection is better known in mind than followed in deed. The +theory is easy but there are some stumbling blocks to make its +consummation difficult. It is an art in which rules do not suffice, +for no two vineyards can be pruned alike in amount or method, and +every grape-grower finds his vineyard a proper field for the +gratification of his taste in pruning. Happily, however, enlightened +theory and sound practice are in perfect accord in grape-pruning, so +that specific advice is well founded on governing principles.</p> + +<p>One cannot, of course, learn to prune unless he understands the habit +of the grape-vine and is familiar with the terms applied to the +different parts of the vine. As a preliminary to this chapter, +therefore, knowledge of <a href="#Page_300">Chapter XVII</a>, in which the structure of the +grape-vine is discussed, is necessary. The next step is to distinguish +between pruning and training.</p> + + +<h4>Pruning and Training Distinguished</h4> + +<p>The grape is pruned to increase in various ways the economic value of +the plant by increasing the quantity and value of the crop. This is +pruning proper. Or grapes are pruned to make well-proportioned plants +with the parts so disposed that the vines are to the highest degree +manageable in the vineyard. This is training. To repeat, the +grape-plant is pruned to regulate the crop; it is trained to regulate +the vine. Grape-growers usually speak of both operations as "pruning," +but it is better to keep in mind the two conceptions. The distinctions +between pruning and training must be made more apparent by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> setting +forth in greater detail the results attained by the two operations.</p> + +<h6><em>Results attained in pruning to regulate the crop.</em></h6> + +<p>Proper pruning of vines in their first year in the vineyard, which, as +we have seen, consists of cutting the young plants back severely, +brings the vines in productive bearing a year or two years earlier +than they would have borne had the pruning been neglected. This early +pruning, since it is done with an eye to the vigor of each vine, +insures greater uniformity in the growth and productiveness of the +vineyard. Uniformity thus brought about is important not only for the +time being, but for the future development of the vines, since weak +vines, if unpruned, are stunted and may require years to overtake more +vigorous vines in the vineyard.</p> + +<p>The quality of the crop may be regulated by pruning. When vines bear +too heavily, the grapes are small, and wine-makers have found that +they seldom develop sugar and flavor as do grapes on vines not +over-bearing. Grapes on vines too heavily laden seldom ripen or color +well. Not only are the grapes on poorly pruned and unpruned vines poor +in quality but the grapes on such vines are usually not well +distributed and therefore ripen and color unevenly. The results just +mentioned follow because the bunches in a poorly distributed crop +receive varying amounts of light and heat depending on the distance +from the ground, the distance from the trunk and on the amount of +shade.</p> + +<p>Pruning may be used to regulate the quantity of grapes borne in a +vineyard and so be made somewhat helpful in preventing alternate +bearing. Abnormally large crops are usually followed by partial crop +failure and biennial bearing sometimes sets in, but the large crop may +be reduced by pruning and the evil consequences wholly or partly +avoided. It follows that pruning must depend much on the vigor of the +vine;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> for a weak vine may be so pruned as to cause it to overbear; +and, on the other hand, a vigorous vine pruned in the same way might +not bear at all.</p> + +<h6><em>Results attained in pruning to regulate the vine.</em></h6> + +<p>It is necessary to regulate the shape of the vine by training so that +tilling, spraying, pruning and harvesting can be easily performed and +the crop be kept off the ground. The cost of production is always less +in a well-pruned vineyard because all vineyard operations are more +easily carried out.</p> + +<p>The life of a vineyard is lengthened when the vines are well trained, +because when the parts of a vine are properly disposed on trellis or +stake the plants are less often injured in vineyard operations. +Moreover, not infrequently vines die from over-production and +consequent breaking of canes or trunks which might have been prevented +by pruning to shape the vine. Suckers and water-sprouts are less +common on well-trained vines. It is necessary, too, by training to +keep the bunches away from trunk, canes and other bunches and so +prevent injury to the grapes.</p> + +<p>Lastly, fashion, taste or a more or less abnormal use of the grapes, +may prescribe the form in which a vine is trained. Fashion and taste +run from very simple or natural styles to exceedingly complex, formal +ones, depending, often, on the variety, the environment or other +condition, but just as often on the whim of the grape-grower. The +grape is a favorite ornamental for fences, arbors and to cover +buildings; for all of these purposes the vines must be trained as +occasion calls.</p> + + +<h4>Some Principles of Pruning</h4> + +<p>Leaving the shaping of the plant out of consideration and having in +mind pruning proper, all efforts in pruning are directed toward two +objects: (1) The production of leafy shoots<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> to increase the vigor of +the plant. (2) The promotion of the formation of fruit-buds. The +first, in common parlance, is pruning for wood; the second, pruning +for fruit.</p> + +<h6><em>Pruning for wood.</em></h6> + +<p>Some grapes, in common with varieties of all fruits, produce excessive +crops of fruit so that the plants exhaust themselves, to their +permanent injury and to the detriment of the crop. Something must be +done to restore and increase vegetative vigor. The most natural +procedure is to lessen the struggle for existence among the parts of +the plant. The richer and the more abundant the supply of the food +solution, the greater the vegetative activity, the larger the leaves +and the larger and stouter the internodes. Obviously, the supply of +food solution for each bud may be increased by decreasing the number +of buds. The weaker the plants, therefore, the more the vine should be +cut. The severe pruning in the first two years of the vine's existence +is an example of pruning for wood. The vine is pruned for wood in the +resting period between the fall of leaf and the swelling of buds the +following spring.</p> + +<h6><em>Pruning for fruit.</em></h6> + +<p>Growers of all fruits soon learn that excessive vegetative vigor is +not usually accompanied by fruitfulness. Too great vigor is indicated +by long, leafy, unbranching shoots. Some fruit-growers go so far as to +say that fruitfulness is inversely proportionate to vegetative vigor. +There are several methods of diminishing the vigor of the vine; as, +withholding water and fertilizers, stopping tillage, the method of +training and by pruning. Pruning is used to decrease the vigor of the +vine, in theory at least, for the practice is not always so +successful, by pruning the roots or by summer-pruning the shoots.</p> + +<p>Root-pruning the grape at intervals of several years is a regular +practice with some varieties in warm countries, Eu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>rope more +especially, but is seldom or never practiced in America except when +planting and when roots arise from the cion above the union of stock +and cion.</p> + +<p>Summer-pruning to induce fruitfulness consists in removing new shoots +with newly developed leaves. These young shoots have been developed +from reserve material stored up the preceding season, and until they +are so far developed that they can perform the functions of leaves +they are to be counted as parasites. When, therefore, these shoots are +pruned or pinched away, the plant is robbed of the material used by +the lusty shoot which up to this time has given nothing in return. The +vigor of the plant is thus checked and fruitfulness increased. +Summer-pruning may become harmful if delayed too long. The time to +prune is past with the grape when the leaves have passed from the +light green color of new growth to the dark green of mature leaves.</p> + +<p>Fruit-bearing may be augmented by bending, twisting or ringing the +canes, since all of these operations diminish vegetative vigor. +Ringing is the only one of these methods in general use, and this only +for some special variety or special purpose, and usually with the +result that the vigor of the vine is diminished too much for the good +of the plant. Ringing is discussed more fully in <a href="#Page_284">Chapter XVI</a>.</p> + +<h6><em>The manner of fruit-bearing in the grape.</em></h6> + +<p>Before attempting to prune, the pruner must understand precisely how +the grape bears its crop. The fruit is borne near the base of the +shoots of the current season, and the shoots are borne on the wood of +the previous year's growth coming from a dormant bud. Here is +manifested one of Nature's energy-saving devices, shoot, leaves, +flowers and fruit spring in a short season from a single bud. In the +light of this fact, pruning should be looked on as a simple problem to +be solved mathematically and not as a puzzle to be untangled, as so +many re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>gard it. For an example, a problem in pruning is here stated +and solved.</p> + +<p>A thrifty grape-vine should yield, let us say, fifteen pounds of +grapes, a fair average for the mainstay varieties. Each bunch will +weigh from a quarter to a half pound. To produce fifteen pounds on a +vine, therefore, will require from thirty to sixty bunches. As each +shoot will bear two or three bunches, from fifteen to thirty buds must +be left on the canes of the preceding year. These buds are selected in +pruning on one or more canes distributed on one or two main stems in +such manner as the pruner may choose, but usually in accordance with +one or another of several well-developed methods of training. Pruning, +then, consists in calculating the number of bunches and buds necessary +and removing the remainder. In essence pruning is thinning.</p> + +<h6><em>Horizontal</em> versus <em>perpendicular canes.</em></h6> + +<p>An old dictum of viticulture is that the nearer the growing parts of +the vine approach the perpendicular, the more vigorous the parts. The +terminal buds, as every grape-grower knows, grow very rapidly and +probably absorb, unless checked, more than their share of the energy +of the vine. This tendency can be checked somewhat by removing the +terminal buds, which also helps to keep the plants within manageable +limits, but is better controlled by training the canes to horizontal +positions. Grape canes are tied horizontally to wires to make the +vines more manageable and to reduce their vigor and so induce +fruitfulness; they are trained vertically to increase the vigor of the +vine.</p> + +<h6><em>Winter-pruning.</em></h6> + +<p>Winter-pruning of the vineyard may be done at any time from the +dropping of the leaves in the autumn to the swelling of the buds in +the spring. The sap begins to circulate actively in the grape early in +the spring, even to the extremities of the vine,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> and most +grape-growers believe this sap to be a "vital stream" and that, if the +vine is pruned during its flow, the plant will bleed to death. The +vine, however, is at this season of so dropsical a constitution that +the loss of sap is better denominated "weeping" than "bleeding." It is +doubtful whether serious injury results from pruning after the sap +begins to flow, but it is a safe practice to prune earlier and the +work is certainly pleasanter. The vine should not be pruned when the +wood is frozen, since at this time the canes are brittle and easily +broken in handling. On the other hand, it is well to delay pruning in +northern climates until after a heavy freeze in the autumn, to +winterkill and wither immature wood so that it can be removed in +pruning.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;"> +<a name="Plate_IX" id="Plate_IX"></a> +<img src="images/plate09.jpg" width="321" height="500" alt="Plate IX." title="Plate IX." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate IX.</span>—Campbell Early (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + +<h6><em>Summer-pruning.</em></h6> + +<p>There are three kinds of summer-pruning, the removal of superfluous +shoots, heading-in canes to keep the vines in manageable limits and +the pruning to induce fruitfulness discussed on a foregoing page, +which need not have further consideration. It is very essential that +the grower keep these three purposes in mind, especially as there is +much dispute as to the necessity of two of these operations.</p> + +<p>All agree that the vine usually bears superfluous shoots that should +be removed. These are such as spring from small, weak buds or from +buds on the arms and trunk of the vine. These shoots are useless, +devitalize the vine, and hinder vineyard operations. A good practice +is to rub off the buds from which these shoots grow as they are +detected, but in most vineyards the vines must be gone over from time +to time as the shoots appear. Still another kind of superfluous +shoots, which ought to be removed as they appear, are those which grow +from the base of the season's shoots, the so-called secondary or +axillary shoots. These are usually "broken out" at the time the shoots +from weak buds are removed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>While there is doubt as to the value of heading-back the vine in the +summer for the sole purpose of inducing fruitfulness, there can be no +doubt that it is desirable for the purpose of keeping some varieties +within bounds. Heading-back is not now the major operation it once +was, the need of severe cutting being obviated by putting the vines +farther apart, by training high on three or even four wires and by +adopting one of the drooping systems of training. The objections to +heading-back in the summer are that it often unduly weakens the vines, +that it may induce a growth of laterals which thicken the vines too +much, and that it delays the maturing of the wood. These bad effects, +however, can be overcome by pruning lightly and doing the work so late +in the season that lateral growths will not start. Most vineyardists +who keep their plantations up find it necessary to head back more or +less, depending on the season and the variety. The work is usually +done when the over-luxuriant shoots begin to touch the ground. The +shoots are then topped off with a sickle, corn-cutter or similar tool.</p> + + +<h4>Renewing Fruiting Wood</h4> + +<p>There are two ways of renewing the fruiting wood on a grape-vine, by +canes and from spurs. The manner of renewing refers to pruning and not +to training, for either can be used in any method of training.</p> + +<h6><em>Cane renewals.</em></h6> + +<p>Renewal by canes is made each year by taking one or more canes, cut to +the desired number of buds, to supply bearing shoots. By this method +the most of the bearing wood is removed each year, new canes taking +the place of the old. These renewal canes may be taken either from the +head of the vine or from the ground, though the latter is little used +except where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> vines must be laid down for winter protection. Canes may +be renewed indefinitely, if care is exercised in keeping the stubs +short, without enlarging the head from which the canes are taken out +of proportion to the size of the trunk. Renewing by canes is a more +common method than renewal by spurs, as will be found in the +discussion of methods of training.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_13" id="Fig_13"></a> +<img src="images/fig13.jpg" width="500" height="307" alt="Fig. 13. Vine ready for pruning." title="Fig. 13. Vine ready for pruning." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 13.</span> Vine ready for pruning; <em>i</em>, the stem; <em>g</em>, +arms; <em>d</em>, canes; <em>s</em>, shoots; <em>b</em>, spurs. The faint lines near the +bases of the canes indicate the points where they should be pruned off +in the winter, leaving spurs for the production of shoots the +following season.</span> +</div> + +<h6><em>Spur renewal.</em></h6> + +<p>In renewing by spurs, a permanent arm is established to right and left +on the canes. Shoots on this arm are not permitted to remain as canes +but are cut back to spurs in the dormant pruning. Two buds are left at +this pruning, both of which will produce bearing shoots; the lower +one, however, is not suffered to do so but is kept to furnish the spur +for the next season. The shoot from the upper bud is cut away +entirely. When this process is carried on from year to year, the spurs +become longer and longer until they become unwieldy. Occasionally, +however, happy chance permits the selection of a shoot on the old wood +for a new spur. Failing in this, a new arm must be laid down and the +spurring goes on as before. The objections to renewing by spurs are: +it is often difficult to replace spurs with new wood, and the bearing +portion of the vine gets farther and farther from the trunk. For these +reasons, spur-renewing is generally in disfavor with commercial +grape-growers, though it is still used<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> in one or two prominent +methods of training, as will be discovered in this discussion. <a href="#Fig_13">Figure +13</a> shows a vine ready for pruning.</p> + + +<h4>The Work of Pruning</h4> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_14" id="Fig_14"></a> +<img src="images/fig14.jpg" width="250" height="96" alt="Fig. 14. A "go-devil" for collecting prunings." title="Fig. 14. A "go-devil" for collecting prunings." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 14.</span> A "go-devil" for collecting prunings.</span> +</div> + +<p>The pruner may take his choice between several styles of hand +pruning-shears with which to do his work. The knife is seldom used +except in summer-pruning, and here, more often, the shoots are broken +out or pinched out. In winter-pruning, the cane is cut an inch or +thereabout beyond the last bud it is desired to leave; otherwise the +bud may die from the drying out of the cane. The canes are usually +allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is done, though +growers who use the Kniffin method of training may cut them loose +before they prune. Two men working together do the work of pruning +best. The more skilled of the two severs the wood from the bearing +vine, leaving just the number of buds desired for the next season's +crop. The less skilled man cuts tendrils and severs the cut canes from +each other so that the prunings may be moved from the vineyard without +trouble by the "stripper."</p> + +<p>Not the least of the tasks of pruning is "stripping" the brush and +getting it out of the vineyard. The prunings cling to the trellis with +considerable tenacity and must be pulled loose with a peculiar jerk, +learned by practice, and placed on the ground between the rows. +Stripping is done, usually by cheap labor, at any time after the +pruning until spring, but must not be delayed until growth starts or +the young buds may suffer as the cut wood is torn from the trellis. +The brush is hauled to the end of the row by hand or by horse-power +applied to any one of a dozen devices used in the several grape +regions. One of the best is the device in common use in the Chautauqua +vineyards of western New York. A pole, twelve feet long, four inches +in diameter at the butt and two at the top, is bored with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> an inch +hole four feet from the butt. A horse is hitched to this pole by a +rope drawn through the hole, and the pole, butt to the ground, is then +pulled between rows, the small end being held in the right hand. The +pole, when skillfully used, collects the brush, which is dumped at the +end of the row by letting the small end fly over towards the horse. +The "go-devil," shown in <a href="#Fig_14">Fig. 14</a>, is another common device for +collecting prunings.</p> + + +<h4>The Trellis</h4> + +<p>The trellis is a considerable item in the grape-grower's budget, since +it must be renewed every fifteen years or thereabouts. Wires are +strung in the North at the end of the second season after planting, +but in the South the growth is often so great that the wires must be +put up at the end of the first season. Trellises are of the same +general style for commercial vineyards; namely, two or three wires +tautly stretched on firmly set posts. Occasionally slat trellises are +put up in gardens but these are not to be recommended for any but +ornamental purposes.</p> + +<h6><em>Posts.</em></h6> + +<p>Strong, durable posts of chestnut, locust, cedar, oak or reënforced +cement are placed at such distance apart that two or three vines can +be set between each two posts. The distance apart depends on the +distance between vines, although the tendency now is to have three +vines between two posts. The posts are from six to eight feet in +length, the heaviest being used as end posts. In hard stony soils it +may be necessary to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> set the end posts with a spade, but usually +sharpened posts can be driven into holes made with a crowbar. In +driving, the operator stands on a wagon hauled by a horse and uses a +ten- or twelve-pound maul. The posts are driven to a depth of eighteen +or twenty-four inches for the end posts. However set, the posts must +stand firm to hold the load of vines and fruit. The end posts must be +braced. As good a brace as any is made from a four-by-four timber, +notched to fit the post halfway up from the ground, and extending +obliquely to the ground, where it is held by a four-by-four stake. A +two-wire trellis and a common method of bracing end posts are shown in +<a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a>. The posts on hillsides must lean slightly up-hill, otherwise +they will almost certainly sooner or later tilt down the slope. The +posts are usually permitted to stand a little higher at first than +necessary so that they may be driven down should occasion call; +driving is usually done in the early spring.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_15" id="Fig_15"></a> +<img src="images/fig15.jpg" width="500" height="292" alt="Fig. 15. A trellis and a common method of bracing end +posts." title="Fig. 15. A trellis and a common method of bracing end +posts." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 15.</span> A trellis and a common method of bracing end +posts.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Wire for the trellis.</em></h6> + +<p>Four sizes of wire are in common use for vineyard trellises; nos. 9, +10, 11 and 12. Number 9, the heaviest, is often used for the top wire +with lighter wires lower. The following figures show the length of +wire in a ton:</p> + +<ul> +<li>No. 9, 34,483 ft.</li> +<li>No. 10, 41,408 ft.</li> +<li>No. 11, 52,352 ft.</li> +<li>No. 12, 68,493 ft.</li> +</ul> + +<p>From these figures the number of pounds required to the acre is easily +calculated. Common annealed wire makes a durable trellis, but many +growers prefer the more durable galvanized wire, the cost of which is +slightly greater. The wires are fastened to the end posts by winding +once around the post, and then each wire is firmly looped about +itself; they are secured to the intervening posts by ordinary fence +staples so driven that the wire cannot pull through of its own weight +but with space enough to permit tightening from season to season. The +size and length of the staples depend on whether the posts are hard or +soft wood. The longest and largest staples are used with soft woods, +as cedar or chestnut. An acre requires from nine to twelve pounds of +staples. The wires should be placed on the windward sides of posts and +on the up-hill side in hillside vineyards. The distance between wires +depends on the method of pruning.</p> + +<p>The wires must be stretched taut on the posts, for which purpose any +one of a half-dozen good wire stretchers may be purchased at hardware +stores. Some growers loosen the wires after harvest to allow for the +contraction in cold weather and others use some one of several devices +to relieve the strain. Most growers, however, find it necessary to go +over the vineyard each spring to drive down loosened posts and stretch +sagging wires, and so take no precautions to release wires in the +fall. All agree that the wires must be kept tight during<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> the growing +season to protect buds, foliage and fruit from being injured from +whipping.</p> + +<h6><em>Tying.</em></h6> + +<p>The canes are tied to the trellis in early spring, and under most +systems of pruning the growing shoots are tied in the summer. This +work is done by cheap men, women, boys and girls. A great variety of +material is used to make the tie, as raffia, wooltwine, willow, inner +bark of the linden or basswood, green rye straw, corn husks, +carpet-rags and wire. The same materials are not usually employed for +both canes and shoots, since the canes are tied firmly to hold them +steady and the work is done early before there is danger of breaking +swelling buds, while the summer shoots are tied to hold for a shorter +time and more loosely to permit growth in diameter. Tying usually +follows accepted patterns in one region but varies greatly in +different regions. There is a knack to be learned in the use of each +one of the materials named, but with none is it difficult, and an +ingenious person can easily contrive a tie of his own to suit fancy or +conditions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 331px;"> +<a name="Plate_X" id="Plate_X"></a> +<img src="images/plate10.jpg" width="331" height="500" alt="Plate X." title="Plate X." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate X.</span>—Clinton (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER VIII</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">METHODS OF TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA</p> + + +<p>The grape-grower takes great liberties with Nature in training his +plants. No other fruit is so completely transformed by the grower's +art from its natural habit of growth. Happily, the grape endures +cutting well, and the pruner may rest assured that he may work his +will in pruning his vines, following to his heart's desire a favorite +method with little fear of seriously injuring his vines. Because of +its accommodation to the desires of man in the disposition of the +vine, there are many methods of training the grape; there being in the +commercial vineyards of eastern America a dozen or more. However, the +differences and similarities are so marked that the several methods +fall into a simple classification which makes conspicuous their chief +features. Thus, all of the methods fall under two chief heads: (1) The +disposition of shoots; (2) the disposition of canes.</p> + +<h6><em>The disposition of shoots.</em></h6> + +<p>Bearing shoots are disposed of in three ways in training grapes; +shoots upright, shoots drooping, and shoots horizontal. The terms +explain themselves, but the three methods need amplification since +their adoption is not optional with growers but depends on several +circumstances.</p> + +<p>Shoots are trained upright in several methods in which two or more +arms or canes are laid to right and left, sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> horizontally, +sometimes obliquely along or across horizontal wires. As the shoots +grow upward, they are tied to wires above. The upright methods are +supposed to distribute the bearing wood more evenly on the vines and +to insure greater uniformity in the fruit. In the upright methods, +also, the canes and arms are left nearer the ground, which is thought +to be an advantage in small, weak or slow-growing varieties. Delaware, +Catawba, Iona and Diana are examples of varieties thought to grow best +when trained to one of the upright methods.</p> + +<p>In the several methods in which the shoots droop, however the canes +may be disposed, the shoots are not tied but are allowed to droop at +will. These methods are comparatively new but are being rapidly +adopted because of several marked advantages. Usually one less wire +can be used in a drooping method than in an upright one; since the +shoots are not tied, much labor is saved in summer tying; the ground +can be tilled with less danger to the vines; and there is less +sun-scalding of the fruit, since the pendant foliage protects the +clusters. Grape-growers generally agree that strong-growing varieties +like Concord, Niagara, Brighton, Diamond and most of the hybrids +between European grapes and native species grow best when the shoots +droop.</p> + +<p>Shoots are trained horizontally in but one recognized method, the +Hudson Horizontal, to be described in detail later. Since this method +is all but obsolete, there is still less reason for discussing it +here, the expressive name sufficing for present purposes.</p> + +<h6><em>Disposition of canes.</em></h6> + +<p>There are many recognized methods of disposing of the canes in +training the grape. The chief of these are discussed in the pages that +follow, their names being set down for the present in the +classification that follows.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p> +<h4>CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF TRAINING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA</h4> + +<p>I. Shoots upright:</p> + +<ul> +<li>1. Chautauqua Arm.</li> +<li>2. Keuka High Renewal.</li> +<li>3. Fan.</li> +</ul> + +<p>II. Shoots drooping:</p> + +<ul> +<li>1. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin.</li> +<li>2. Two-stem, Four-cane Kniffin.</li> +<li>3. Umbrella Kniffin.</li> +<li>4. Y-stem Kniffin.</li> +<li>5. Munson.</li> +</ul> + +<p>III. Shoots horizontal:</p> + +<ul> +<li>1. Hudson Horizontal.</li> +</ul> + + +<h5><em>I. Shoots upright</em></h5> + +<p>Systematic training of the grape in America began toward the middle of +the nineteenth century with a method in which the shoots were trained +upright from two permanent horizontal arms. These arms are laid to +right and left on a low wire and bear more or less permanent spurs, +from each of which two shoots are produced each season to bear the +crop. The number of spurs left on each arm depends on the vigor of the +vine and the space between vines. As the shoots grow upward, they are +tied to upper wires, there being three wires on the trellis for this +method. This method is now known as the Horizontal Arm Spur. It has a +serious fault in its troublesome spurs and has almost entirely given +way to a modification called the Chautauqua Arm method, much used in +the great Chautauqua grape-belt. As one of the chief methods of +training the grape in eastern America, this must be described in +detail.</p> + +<h6><em>The Chautauqua Arm method.</em></h6> + +<p>The trellis for this method has two wires, although occasionally three +are used. The lower wire is eighteen or twenty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> inches above the +ground and the second thirty-four inches above the lower. If three are +used, the wires are twenty inches apart. F. E. Gladwin, in charge of +the vineyard laboratory of the New York Agricultural Experiment +Station at Fredonia, in the heart of the Chautauqua belt, describes +this method of training as follows:</p> + +<p>"The vines are cut back to two buds at each pruning the first two +years. If the vines are vigorous two canes are tied up at the +beginning of the third year; if scant, but one is left and this, if +the growth is extremely unfavorable, is cut back to two buds. The +canes are carried up obliquely to the upper wire when the growth +permits and are there firmly tied either with twine or fine wire, the +latter being more commonly used. The canes are also loosely tied to +the lower wire. The pruning for the fourth year consists in cutting +away all but two or three canes and a number of spurs from the arms +formed by tying up the two canes the previous year. The vine now +consists of two arms, arising from near the ground, with two or three +canes of the previous year, and several two-bud spurs at intervals +along the arms. As far as possible such canes as have arisen but a +short distance above the lower wire are selected. All the old wood +projecting beyond the last cane retained on each of the arms is cut +away. The arms of the third year are bent down from their oblique +position and are tied firmly to the lower wire, to the right and left +of the center of the vine. These are now permanent arms. The vine at +this time consists of two arms, arising from near the ground, tied to +the lower wire to the right and left of the center, and on these are +two or three canes, pruned long enough to reach to the middle wire at +least, and if possible to the upper. They are tied so that they stand +in a vertical or oblique position. Along the arms at intervals of a +few inches are spurs, consisting of two buds. If the vineyardist +maintains the arms permanently, these spurs furnish the fruiting wood +for the succeeding year.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_16" id="Fig_16"></a> +<img src="images/fig16.jpg" width="500" height="305" alt="Fig. 16. Chautauqua training; vine ready to prune." title="Fig. 16. Chautauqua training; vine ready to prune." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 16.</span> Chautauqua training; vine ready to prune.</span> +</div> + +<p>"At the pruning for the fifth year one of the arms is cut away +entirely, close to the point of its origin. The remaining arm, +reaching from the ground to a point a few inches below the level of +the lower wire, now becomes the permanent stem. The vineyardist must +now provide for the arm cut away. This is done by the selection of a +cane, arising from the remaining arm at a point below the lower wire, +either directly, or from a spur left for the purpose. This is pruned +to reach the top wire and is tied obliquely to it. This cane at the +next pruning is tied down to the lower wire and becomes the second +arm. Then the same selection of canes and spurs is made from it as was +made at the previous pruning, and the canes are tied up as before. +However, if the grower desires to retain both arms of the preceding +year for a few years, canes that have grown from the spurs may be tied +up and provision made for the following year through further spurring. +If but a single<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> arm is retained, it is pruned in the same way. Spurs +may be obtained from canes that have arisen from dormant buds on the +arm, or by spurring in the basal canes of the fruiting wood of the +year previous. A combination of both methods of renewal will in the +long run work out the better, as the repeated spurring in of the basal +canes will result in greatly lengthened spurs that will require +frequent cutting out. While the canes that arise directly from dormant +buds on wood two years and over are not necessarily the best fruiting +ones, they can, however, be utilized for renewal purposes.</p> + +<p>"The ideal vine pruned to this system now consists of a stem reaching +from sixteen or eighteen inches above the ground level or a few inches +below the level of the lower wire. Such a vine is shown in <a href="#Fig_16">Figure 16</a>. +From the head two arms arise, one extending to the right, the other to +the left and tied along the lower wire, each arm not extending for +more than two feet and a half to either side of the head. From the +arms two canes on each are tied vertically or obliquely to the top +wire. In addition there are left two or three spurs, growing from the +upper side of each arm, located at well-spaced intervals starting +close to the head; these may be used for the renewal of the arms. The +shoots are not tied.</p> + +<p>"One of the chief faults of the Chautauqua Arm method is the tendency +of the best matured, and most desirable canes to develop at or near +the upper wire, while those lower down are often too short, or so +poorly matured as to be unfitted for fruiting purposes. When the wood, +bearing the well-developed upper canes, is brought down for arms, a +considerable interval of the arm from the head to the point where the +canes arise is without fruiting wood. Under such conditions the growth +will be again thrown to the extremities. If spurring on the arms has +been practiced, this undesirable condition is eliminated. With either +type of renewal, spurring should be practiced. The fruit from vines +trained by this method reaches its highest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> development at or near the +level of the upper wire, that on the lower shoots is, as a rule, quite +inferior. This comes from the fact that the sap flow is more vigorous +at these upper points, resulting in more and healthier leaves, which, +in turn, influence the fruit for the better."</p> + +<h6><em>Keuka High Renewal.</em></h6> + +<p>Several methods of training pass under the general term "High +Renewal," the significance of which becomes apparent in the discussion +of the Keuka High Renewal method which is probably now the most common +of the several types. In most of these methods the trellis is put up +with three wires, but occasionally only two wires are used and still +less often four. The lowest wire on the three-wire trellis is eighteen +or twenty inches from the ground with twenty-inch intervals between +wires. Gladwin, who has direct charge of vineyard experimental work +about Keuka Lake for the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, +describes current practices in pruning according to this method as +follows:</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_17" id="Fig_17"></a> +<img src="images/fig17.jpg" width="250" height="115" alt="Fig. 17. Keuka method of training." title="Fig. 17. Keuka method of training." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 17.</span> Keuka method of training.</span> +</div> + +<p>"At each pruning for the first two years the vines are cut back to two +buds. However, with strong-growing varieties like Concord, Niagara and +Isabella, and under good soil conditions, the stem may be formed the +second year. With moderate-growing varieties and under average +conditions, the formation of the stem is left until the third year. +The straightest and best-matured cane is left for the purpose. This is +carried to the lower wire and there firmly tied with willow. As soon +as the shoots have made sufficient growth they are loosely tied to the +wires that they may be kept away from the tillage tools. The fourth +year the head of the vine is formed. This should stand a few inches +below the lower wire. Two canes growing from the stem near this +position are selected, one being tied to the right and the other to +the left along the lower wire. In the Keuka Lake District, the canes +are tied with willows.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> In addition, at least two spurs of two buds +each are retained near the head. With Concord, the canes may carry +about ten buds each, but with Catawba, as grown on the hillsides of +the Central Lakes Region of New York, the canes should not carry above +six buds each. As the shoots develop from the horizontal canes, they +are tied with rye straw to the middle and upper wires. This summer +tying is almost continuous after the shoots are long enough to reach +the middle wire.</p> + +<p>"The following year all the wood is cut away except two or three canes +that have developed from the basal buds of the canes put up the +previous year, or that have grown from the spurs. In the event of a +third cane being retained, it is tied along the middle wire. Spurs are +again maintained close to the head for renewal purposes. The other two +canes are tied along the lower wire as before. If the same spurs are +used for a few years they become so long that the canes arising from +them reach above the wire and cannot be well managed in the +'willowing.' It is desirable to provide new spurs annually, selecting +those canes for the purpose that arise from the head of the vine or +near it. It is possible by careful pruning to so cut away the old wood +that practically all that remains after each pruning is the stem. Thus +the vine is renewed almost to the ground. When the stem approaches the +end of its usefulness, a shoot is allowed to grow from the ground, and +the old one is cut away. <a href="#Fig_17">Figure 17</a> shows a vine pruned by the Keuka +method.</p> + +<p>"This method of training is especially well adapted to slow<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> growing +varieties, or those situated on poor soils, where but little wood +growth is made. It is ideally adapted for the growing of Catawba on +the hillsides of Keuka Lake. It is well adapted to late-maturing +varieties planted out of their zone. Concord, growing under average +conditions, is too vigorous to be trained by this method. It makes a +tremendous growth of wood out of all proportion to the quantity of +fruit, which is inclined to be very inferior. The chief objection to +this method is the amount of summer tying involved which comes at a +time when attention to tillage should be given. It might prove +profitable in the growing of dessert varieties that have been +discarded because of lack of vigor. On thin hillside soils, Catawba +requires training modelled after this method but on the heavier upland +ones, with shorter pruning, it can be grown on the Chautauqua Arm +plan. Delaware, Iona, Dutchess, Campbell, Eumelan, Jessica, Vergennes +and Regal are, as a rule, grown to better advantage when trained by +the High Renewal method."</p> + +<h6><em>Fan-training.</em></h6> + +<p>The only other method now in use in which the shoots may be trained +upright is that in which the canes are disposed of in fan-shape. This +method was much used a generation ago but is rapidly becoming +obsolete. In fan-training the renewals are made yearly from spurs near +the ground, and the fruiting canes are carried up obliquely and so +form a fan. The great advantage in fan-training is that a trunk is +almost dispensed with, which greatly facilitates laying down the vine +in winter where winter-protection is needed. There are several +objections to this method in commercial plantations. The chief one is +that the spurs become long, crooked and almost unmanageable so that +renewals from the root must be made frequently. Another is that the +fruit is borne close to the ground and becomes soiled with mud in +dashing rains. The vines,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> also, are inconvenient in shape for tying. +There are two or three modifications of fan-training which may be +described as mongrel methods between this and the High Renewal and +Horizontal Arm methods, none of which, however, is now in general +favor.</p> + + +<h5><em>II. Shoots drooping</em></h5> + +<p>Quite by accident, William Kniffin, a stone mason living at +Clintondale, New York, in the Hudson River grape region, discovered +that grapes of large size and handsome appearance could be grown on +vines in which the canes were trained horizontally with the shoots +drooping. He put his discovery in practice and from it have come the +several methods of training grapes which bear his name. Kniffin's +discovery was made about 1850 and the merits of his methods spread so +rapidly over eastern America that by the end of the century the +various Kniffin methods were more generally used than any others. +Grape-growers now agree that strong-growing vines like Concord, +Niagara and Clinton are best trained to one or another of the Kniffin +methods. There are several modifications of Kniffin's method, three of +which are now in common use, the most popular being the Single-stem, +Four-cane Kniffin.</p> + +<p>The trellis for the three methods carries two wires, the lower placed +at the height of three to three and a half feet and the upper from two +to two and a half feet above it. To permit this height of wires, the +posts must be from eight to eight and a half feet in length, and must +be firmly set with the end posts well braced.</p> + +<h6><em>Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin.</em></h6> + +<p>As practiced at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, the +vines are trained as follows:</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_18" id="Fig_18"></a> +<img src="images/fig18.jpg" width="250" height="196" alt="Fig. 18. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin training." title="Fig. 18. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin training." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 18.</span> Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin training.</span> +</div> + +<p>One trunk is carried to the top wire the third year after planting, or +if the growth is not long enough at this time, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> is carried to the +lower wire and there tied. In this case, the following year a cane is +extended to the top wire. This trunk is permanent. If the stem reaches +the upper wire the third year, growers break out many of the +developing shoots and allow only the strongest to grow, choosing those +that arise close to the wires. The stem should be tied tightly to the +top wire and somewhat loosely to the lower. If girdling results at the +top, it is not objectionable as the head of the vine should be below +rather than above the wire. When the shoots are sufficiently hardened, +those growing close to the wires should be loosely tied to prevent +injury during cultivation. At the beginning of the fourth year, as +shown in <a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>, the vine should consist of a stem extending from the +ground to a point below the top wire. From this, all but two canes and +two spurs of two buds each have been cut away below each wire level. +As growth is most vigorous at the top of the stem, four to six more +buds are left on the upper than on the lower canes. A vine of which +the stem reaches the upper wire the third year should support the next +season canes, aggregating twenty-two buds with eight additional buds +on the spurs. If the growth is weak, only half this number should be +left.</p> + +<p>The tying at this time consists of fastening the stem loosely, with +ordinary grape twine, to the lower wire, and with the same material +the canes are tied along the two wires to right and left of the stem. +The canes should be tied tightly toward<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> the trunk so that they cannot +slip out of the twine. Ordinarily tying at this time is sufficient for +the year, but if conditions for growth are unfavorable, the twine may +rot before the tendrils take hold of the wires, and a partial second +tying may be necessary.</p> + +<p>After the fourth season, the pruner has greater choice of +fruiting-wood for the following year. It may be chosen from the basal +canes of the preceding year's wood or the canes that develop from the +spurs may be used. The choice should depend on the accessibility and +maturity of the wood. At each pruning, the possibilities for obtaining +fruiting wood for the following year must receive consideration. It is +possible to use the same spurs for two or three years, but after this +they should be cut away and new ones retained. After the first +spurring, spurs should be selected from wood older than two years. The +shoots from such wood bear but little fruit and hence make good +fruiting canes for the next year.</p> + +<h6><em>Umbrella Kniffin.</em></h6> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_19" id="Fig_19"></a> +<img src="images/fig19.jpg" width="250" height="142" alt="Fig. 19. Umbrella method of training." title="Fig. 19. Umbrella method of training." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 19.</span> Umbrella method of training.</span> +</div> + +<p>Since most of the fruit on vines trained by the Four-cane Kniffin +method is borne on the two upper canes, some growers in the Hudson +River Valley dispense with the lower canes and cut the upper ones long +enough to bear the crop. In this method the trunk is brought to the +top wire and the head formed as in the Four-cane Kniffin. When the +vines are pruned at the close of the third year, two long canes are +left at the head of the vine with two renewal spurs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> These long canes +are drooped over the upper wire obliquely down to the lower wire to +which they are tied just above the last bud, forming an +umbrella-shaped top as shown in <a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>. The renewals are made as in +the Four-cane Kniffin. This method reduces the amount of leaf surface +to the minimum, so that care must be taken to insure healthy leaf +growth. The amount of fruiting-wood put up is also reduced to the +minimum, so that the yield is low unless good cultivation is provided, +in which case, with some varieties and on some soils, the yield is up +to the average and the crop is first-class as regards size of bunch +and berry, compactness of bunch and maturity.</p> + +<h6><em>The Two-trunk Kniffin.</em></h6> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_20" id="Fig_20"></a> +<img src="images/fig20.jpg" width="250" height="139" alt="Fig. 20. Two-trunk Kniffin training." title="Fig. 20. Two-trunk Kniffin training." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 20.</span> Two-trunk Kniffin training.</span> +</div> + +<p>The Two-trunk Kniffin, illustrated in <a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>, is another modification +with the aim of securing greater fruitfulness. This method also +provides an equal number of buds on both wires. Two trunks are brought +from the root, one to the upper, the other to the lower wire. The +fruiting canes are taken off and are disposed of as in the Four-cane +Kniffin. The trunks are usually tied together to hold them in place. +This method is in restricted use in the Hudson River Valley where it +is known under the name given here and as "Double Kniffin" and +"Improved Kniffin." In experiments in training grapes at Fredonia, New +York, under the direction of the New York Experiment Station, this +method proves to be one of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>poorest in growing Concords. The +grapes fall short in size of bunch and berry and do not mature as well +as under the other drooping methods of training.</p> + +<h6><em>The Y-trunk Kniffin.</em></h6> + +<p>Still another modification of the Kniffin method is one in which a +crotch or Y is made in the trunk midway between the ground and the +lower wire. The theory on which this method is founded is that sap for +the lower canes is better supplied than in a straight or continuous +trunk and that the lower canes thus become as productive as those on +the upper wire. The theory is probably wrong but is accepted by many +notwithstanding. The methods of pruning, renewing fruiting-wood and +tying are the same as in the Single-stem Kniffin, except, of course, +that each stem supports two canes and two spurs. This method was in +somewhat common use some years ago in parts of western New York but is +now disappearing.</p> + +<h6><em>The Munson method.</em></h6> + +<p>An ingenious modification of the Kniffin principle was devised by +Elbert Wakeman, Oyster Bay, Long Island, and afterwards improved and +brought into prominence by the late T. V. Munson of Denison, Texas; it +is now much used in southern vineyards. The method is described as +follows by Munson:<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> + +<p>"The posts should be of some durable strong wood, such as Bois d'Arc +(Osage), Cedar, heartwood of Catalpa, Black Locust or White Oak. The +end posts of every row should be large and strong and be set three and +one-half or four feet in the ground and well tamped. The intermediate +posts, which may be much lighter than the end posts, should be six and +one-half or seven feet long and set two to two and one-half feet in +the ground, with twenty-four feet spaces between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> posts, which will +take three vines, eight feet apart, or two vines twelve feet apart. +After the posts are set, a three-eighths-inch hole should be bored +through each post, four feet from the surface of the ground, in the +direction in which the row runs, leaving six inches or more of post +above the hole. These holes are for the admittance of the middle, +lower wire of the trellis.</p> + +<p>"For each end post prepare for cross-arm, a piece of two by four hard +pine or oak, two feet long, and at one inch from either end, and one +inch from the upper side, bore a three-eighths of an inch bit-hole, or +saw into upper side half an inch, which will take less time and do as +well, to pass the lateral wires through, and in the middle of the +lower side, saw a notch one-half inch deep. For each intermediate +post, prepare a board of similar wood, two feet long, one inch thick +by four broad, and likewise bore or notch.</p> + +<p>"Through the holes in the posts run a No. 11 galvanized wire, fasten +at one end, tighten at the other end by a wire stretcher and fasten. +This will be the middle and lower wire of the trellis, and all that +will be needed the first year, when the young vines are trained up a +string, tied from the vine (when set) to the wire, and along it. The +arms, and the two lateral wires which they bear, need not be put on +the trellis until after the vines are pruned and tied the next winter. +To put on the cross-arms, use no bolts or nails, only No. 11 +galvanized wire.</p> + +<p>"Each end cross-arm is placed inside the post, and against it on top +of the wire, already through the posts, notch-side downward, +straddling the wire, to keep it from sliding. Then take a piece of +same size wire, about seven feet long, pass one end through the +bit-hole or saw-notch, in one end of arm and fasten it by looping and +twisting about six inches of the end back upon itself, then while one +person holds the cross-arm in place, the operator carries the wire +down around the post<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> once near the ground, staples it on each side +and brings the other end up to the opposite end of arm, puts it +through the bit-hole, or saw-notch, draws it tightly, keeping the arm +level, and fastens the end of the wire as was done the other. Wire +nippers and pliers will be needed for this work. Then take another +piece of wire about two feet long, and put it twice around the +cross-arm and the post where they come together, above the middle +wire, and firmly tie them together, crossing the wire as it goes +around. This will hold the arm in place and not weaken or split the +arm as do nails and bolts, and will be longer-lasting, quicker and +cheaper, and more elastic, so that when struck by the hames or collar +in cultivation, it gives a little, receiving no damage.</p> + +<p>"Likewise place the cross-arms on the intermediate posts, leaving the +ends of the wire projecting about six inches after fastening, for a +purpose soon to be mentioned. Then draw the two lateral wires through +the bit-holes in the ends of the arms, or drop into the saw-notches, +if such are made, throughout the row, tighten with the wire stretcher +and fasten. Then return along each lateral wire, wrapping ends of wire +at the ends of the arms very closely and tightly around the +through-going lateral wires, as telegraph and telephone wires are +wrapped in splicing. This is quickly done with the proper pliers, and +prevents the arms from slipping out of proper position. Now the +trellis is complete, and will need little or no repairs, and looks +very neat, especially if painted.</p> + +<p>"Pruning and training on the Munson trellis is very simple and easy +with a little instruction for a few minutes with a vine or two pruned +for example. The vine the first season is allowed to grow up on to the +middle wire by a string around which it is coiled by hand, by going +over the vineyard once or twice until the selected shoot of each vine +is upon the wire, after which it is allowed to ramble at freedom over +the wires. By getting on to the trellis the first year, one strong +shoot,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> and allowing no other to grow, a partial crop can be had the +second year, without damage, on all but weak growers, like Delaware, +that should not be allowed to bear until the third year. At the first +regular pruning (all prunings should be done in November or December, +after leaf fall, and never so late as to cause the vines to bleed), +the vine should be cut back to two or three buds that have reached the +middle wire, if weak growers, if strong, with heavy growth, six or +eight buds each, to two arms, one going each way along the lower wire +from where the ascending vine first touches the wire. After the vines +are thus pruned, the outer end of each arm is firmly tied to the lower +wire, along which it is gently coiled. These two ties hold the vine +firmly in place. The buds on the arms push and ascend, passing over +the lateral wires, clinging thereto with their tendrils, and hang over +like a beautiful green drapery shading the fruit and body of the vine +according to its natural habit.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 327px;"> +<a name="Plate_XI" id="Plate_XI"></a> +<img src="images/plate11.jpg" width="327" height="500" alt="Plate XI." title="Plate XI." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XI.</span>—Concord (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + +<p>"On the canopy trellis, all the summer pruning required is, to go +through the vineyard at or a few days before blooming time, and with a +light sharp butcher knife, clip off the tips of all advanced shoots to +be left for bearing, leaving two or three leaves beyond the outer +flower cluster. From the shoots near the crotch, selected for bearing +arms the next year, pick the flower clusters, and strip off or rub off +all shoots and buds that start on trunk of vine below crotch. This +latter is very important, as such shoots, if left, eat up the +nourishment of the land with no return but added work at pruning time.</p> + +<p>"It will be found that the shoots at the ends of the arms usually +start first and strongest, and if not clipped back, will not allow the +buds back toward the crotch to start well, but if clipped, all other +desirable buds then push.</p> + +<p>"In about six to ten days after the first clipping, a second one is +usually necessary, especially if the weather is moist and warm, and +the land rich. The first clipped shoots, as well as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> those not clipped +the first time, will need clipping back this time, the end buds on the +first clipped having pushed vigorously.</p> + +<p>"At a second year's pruning and others following, the old arms with +all the bearing shoots on them are cut off down to the new arms and +the new arms cut back to lengths they can fill with fruit and well +mature. In this, critical judgment and knowledge of capabilities of +different varieties are more required in the pruner than in any other +of the training work. Some varieties, such as the Delaware, cannot +carry more than three to four arms, two feet long, while Herbemont can +more easily carry four arms each eight feet long, hence such as +Delaware should be planted eight feet or less apart, while Herbemont +and most of the Post-Oak grape hybrids, should be twelve to sixteen +feet apart. In other words, each variety should be set that distance +apart that it will fill the trellis with fruit from end to end, and +mature it well, so as to better economize space.</p> + +<p>"By the third year, the vine should come to full bearing, and be +pruned with four bearing arms, two to go each way along the lower wire +of trellis, gently coiling around the wire, one arm in one direction, +the other in opposite direction, and should be in about equal lengths, +so that one firm tie with jute yarn, near the ends, will be all the +tying the vines will need—that is, two ties to each vine—the least +required by any trellis system, and the pruning is also simplest and +the results every way the best.</p> + +<p>"Some of the advantages of this trellis are its cheapness, its +simplicity, bringing the work up breast-high so that pruning, tying, +harvesting, spraying, can be done in an erect position, saving back +strain; perfect distribution of light, heat and air to foliage and +fruit; shielding from sunscald and birds; giving free ventilation and +easy passage of wind through the vineyard without blowing down the +trellis or tender shoots from the vines, and allowing ready passage +from row to row,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> without going around, thus getting larger and better +crops at less expense and increasing length of life of vineyard and +the pleasure of taking care of it."</p> + +<p>This method does not seem to be adapted to the needs of grapes in +northern vineyards, and in the South such weak-growing sorts as +Delaware do not thrive when so trained. Several "modified Munson +methods" are in use in the southern states, but those most commonly +employed do not depart greatly from the method here described.</p> + + +<h5><em>III. Shoots horizontal</em></h5> + +<h6><em>Hudson horizontal.</em></h6> + +<p>There is now in use but one method of training shoots horizontally. In +this method the trellis is made by setting posts eight or ten feet +apart and connecting them by two slats, one at the top of the posts, +the other about eighteen inches from the ground. Strands of wire are +stretched perpendicularly between the slats at ten- or twelve-inch +intervals. One cane is trained from a trunk from one to two feet high +on the trellis; it rises perpendicularly from the ground and is tied +to the top slat. The shoots push out right and left and are tied +horizontally to each wire as they reach it. The cane is usually +allowed to bear about six shoots on each side. The grapes set at the +base of the shoots so that the bunches hang one over the other, making +a pretty sight. This method is too expensive for a commercial vineyard +but is often used in gardens and for ornamental plantings. Only +weak-growing sorts, as Delaware, Iona or Diana are adapted for this +method. Delaware does remarkably well under horizontal training. The +use of slats and wires in horizontal training are often reversed. The +alternative from the method just described is to set posts sixteen or +eighteen feet apart upon which are strung two wires as for the +ordinary trellis. Perpendicular<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> slats are then fastened to these +wires to which the shoots are tied. Two slats, fifteen inches apart, +are provided on each side of a fruiting cane, which, with the slat for +the support of the cane, give five to a vine. Or the vine may be +supported by a stake driven in the ground.</p> + +<p>In both of these methods, a shoot must be taken out from the head of +the vine each season for the next season's fruiting-wood. This shoot +is tied to the central wire or slat and is now allowed to fruit. Thus +the vine starts each spring with a single cane. Grapes are grown under +these horizontal methods chiefly, if not only, in the Hudson River +Valley and even here they are going out of use.</p> + + +<h4>Training on Arbors, Pergolas and as Ornamentals</h4> + +<p>The grape is much used to cover arbors, pergolas, lattices and to +screen the sides of buildings, few climbing plants being more +ornamental. Leaf, fruit and vine have been favorite subjects for +reproduction by ornamentalists of all ages. As yet, however, it is +seldom seen in cultivated landscapes except to secure shade and +seclusion.</p> + +<p>Grown for æsthetic purposes, the grape is seldom fruitful, for the +vines can rarely be cultivated or deprived of their luxuriant growth +as in the vineyard. Nevertheless, grapes grown as ornamentals can be +trained so as to serve the double purpose of ornamental and +fruit-bearing plant. Grown on the sides of a building, the grape often +can be made to bear large crops of choicely fine fruit. The ancients +had learned this, for the Psalmist says: "Thy wife shall be like the +fruitful vine by the sides of thine house."</p> + +<p>In all ornamental plantings on arbors or pergolas, if fruit is to be +considered, the permanent trunk is carried to the top of the +structure. Along this trunk, at intervals of eighteen inches, spurs +are left from which to renew the wood from year to year.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> The vines +should stand six or eight feet apart, depending on the variety, and +one cane is left, three or four feet long, on each spur when the +pruning is done. Shoots springing from these cover intermediate spaces +soon after growth begins. Provision, of course, must be made for a new +cane each season, and this is done by saving a shoot springing from +spur or trunk at pruning time.</p> + +<p>The same method of training, with modifications to suit the case, may +be employed on sides of buildings, walls, fences and lattices. If the +object to be covered is low, however, and especially if fruit as well +as a covering is wanted, perhaps a better plan is annually to renew +from a low trunk or even back to the root. In this low renewal, a new +cane, or two or three if desired, should be brought out each season, +thus securing greater vigor for the vine, but greatly delaying, +especially in the case of high walls, the production of a screen of +foliage.</p> + + +<h4>Pruning and Training Muscadine Grapes</h4> + +<p>The Muscadine grapes of the South are so distinct in characters of +growth and fruit-bearing that their requirements as to pruning and +training are quite different from the methods so far given. Until +recent years when these grapes have become of commercial importance, +it was thought by southern vineyardists that the Muscadines needed +little or no pruning and some held that pruning injured the vines. Now +it is found that Muscadines respond quite as readily as other types of +grapes to pruning and training. Husmann and Dearing<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> give following +directions for pruning Muscadines:</p> + +<p>"Two systems of training are employed with Muscadine grapes: (1) The +horizontal or overhead system, by which the growth is spread as an +overhead canopy about 7 feet above the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> ground and supported by posts; +and (2) the upright or vertical system, in which the growth is spread +over a trellis.</p> + +<p>"In the overhead system a single trunk is caused to grow erect from +the ground alongside a permanent post. When the vine has reached the +top of the post it is pinched in or cut back, so as to make it throw +out shoots to grow and spread out from the head of the vine as the +spokes of a wheel radiate from the hub. (The overhead training of +Muscadines is shown in <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>; upright training, in Fig. 22.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_21" id="Fig_21"></a> +<img src="images/fig21.jpg" width="500" height="336" alt="Fig. 21. Rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead +method." title="Fig. 21. Rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead +method." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 21.</span> Rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead +method.</span> +</div> + +<p>"In the upright systems the fruiting arms are either radiated from a +low vine head, like the ribs of a fan, or they are taken off as +horizontal arms from a central vertical trunk.</p> + +<p>"Where the vineyard is not given close personal attention and pruning +and other vineyard practices are neglected the best results will be +obtained with the overhead trellis. Moreover, such a trellis permits +cross-plowing and cultivation and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> is better adapted for grazing hogs, +sheep, or cattle on cover crops grown in the vineyard. On the other +hand, the careful vineyardist can expect the best and earliest results +from vines on the upright or vertical supports. The upright trellis +facilitates pruning, harvesting, spraying, and intercropping +throughout the life of the vineyard; it is also easier to repair and +can be erected from $10 to $20 an acre cheaper than the overhead +trellis. The use of both the upright system and the overhead trellis +has netted the growers profitable returns. Each has its advantages and +disadvantages. The prospective grower, knowing his own conditions, +must determine which training system is best suited to his conditions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_22" id="Fig_22"></a> +<img src="images/fig22.jpg" width="500" height="404" alt="Fig. 22. A Rotundifolia vine trained by the 6-arm +renewal method." title="Fig. 22. A Rotundifolia vine trained by the 6-arm +renewal method." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 22.</span> A Rotundifolia vine trained by the 6-arm +renewal method.</span> +</div> + +<p>"During the first year after planting, a strong stake reaching 4 feet +above the ground at each vine is sufficient support.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> A trellis should +be erected the second season, though the upper wires of an upright +trellis and the secondary wires of an overhead trellis may be added +later, as the vines need them. In erecting an upright trellis the +posts should be set midway between the vines, the distances apart +varying with the distances between the plants. The end posts of the +rows should be firmly braced. Three wires are generally used, placed +24, 42, and from 56 to 60 inches from the ground.</p> + +<p>"In erecting an overhead trellis, the usual method is to place a +substantial, durable post reaching 7 feet above the ground at each of +the permanent vines. Rows of extra heavy, well-braced posts, running +parallel with and also at the ends of the rows of vines, are set at +the boundaries of the vineyard. There are a number of different ways +of arranging the wires. Usually No. 10 galvanized wires are securely +fastened to the tops of the boundary posts on the four sides of a +vineyard and then are run along and securely fastened on the tops of +the inside post down each row in both directions as governor wires. As +needed, No. 14 wires 2 feet apart are run parallel with the governor +wires until in this manner the entire area has been covered.</p> + +<p>"A cheaper but less durable overhead trellis is made by running No. 9 +governor wires in only one direction and the secondary wires only at +right angles to the governor wires, the secondary wires being fastened +to the governor wires wherever they cross.</p> + +<p>"Some growers construct arbors entirely of wood, using slats or poles +instead of wires.</p> + +<p>"The pruning of Muscadine grapes during the first three years is +mainly for the purpose of establishing the permanent parts and +adjusting the other parts of the vine to the desired training system +for future usefulness. After that the pruning is primarily a matter of +renewing the bearing surface and keeping the vines healthy, vigorous, +and productive.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>"During the first season the trunk of the vine should be established. +From this the main fruiting branches are started the second season. +These, under favorable circumstances, will bear a small crop of fruit +the third season. After that the purpose of pruning should be to renew +growth, to increase or decrease the bearing surface, and to maintain +the shape of the vine.</p> + +<p>"Severe pruning usually removes most of the fruit-bearing wood and +throws the vine into vigorous wood growth. No pruning, on the other +hand, causes a growth which is too much distributed, weak, and +incapable of bearing good crops. Therefore, the grape grower should +study the vines sufficiently to enable him to judge each year the +proper severity of pruning for the best results. This will depend on +the variety, the age of the vines, the fertility of the soil, etc. +Muscadine grapes bear their fruit in small clusters. It is therefore +necessary to maintain a large fruiting surface in order to secure a +proper tonnage of fruit. This is accomplished by developing a series +of fruiting arms, spurring along these, and lengthening them as the +vines become stronger. Such fruiting arms can be maintained for a +number of years, but after a time it is desirable to renew them. This +is done by cutting out the arm and starting a new one from a cane that +has been previously grown for such purposes. It is preferable to renew +systematically only one or, at most, two arms on a vine each year. +This gradual renewal does not disturb the vigor of the vine, but keeps +it productive, healthy, and strong. The pruning can be quickly and +easily done if systematically practiced from the time the vines are +started."</p> + + +<h4>Rejuvenating Old Vines</h4> + +<p>When pruning and training are neglected, a vineyard soon becomes a +sorry company of halt and maimed vines. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> neglected vines can +rarely be reshaped and restored to their pristine vigor. If the old +vines seem capable of throwing out a strong new growth, it is almost +always better to grow a new top by taking out canes from the roots and +so rejuvenate. The energy and activity of Nature are seldom seen to +better advantage than in these new tops, if the old tops are cut back +severely and the vineyard given good care. The new canes grow with the +gusto of the biblical bay tree, making it difficult oftentimes to keep +them within bounds.</p> + +<p>Usually this new top can be treated essentially as if it were a new +vine. Not infrequently the cane will make sufficient growth and mature +well enough so that it may be left as a permanent trunk at the end of +the first season. If, however, the wood is short, weak and soft, it +should be cut back in the autumn to two or three buds from one of +which a permanent trunk can be trained the next season from which a +good top can be formed in another season. The old top is discarded as +soon as the new trunk is tied to the trellis. Old vineyards are often +rejuvenated in this way to advantage and return profits to their +owners for years; but if the soil is poor and the vines weak, attempts +to renew the tops seldom pay.</p> + +<p>Occasionally rejuvenating old vines by pruning is worth while. When +such an attempt is made, it is best to cut back severely at the +winter-pruning, leaving two, three or four canes, depending on the +method of training, of six, eight or ten buds. The amount of wood left +must depend on the vigor of the plant and the variety. The success of +such rejuvenation depends much on selecting suitable places on the old +vine from which to renew the bearing wood. It requires good judgment, +considerable skill and much experience to rejuvenate successfully an +old vineyard by remodeling the existing top, and if the vines are far +gone with neglect it is seldom worth while.</p> + +<p>Sometimes old vines or even a whole vineyard can be rejuvenated most +easily by grafting. This is particularly true<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> when the vines are not +of the kind wanted, and when the vineyard contains an occasional stray +vine from the variety to which it is planted. Directions for grafting +are given on <a href="#Page_45">pages 45 to 50</a>. The grafted vine is readily brought into +shape, under any of the several methods of training, by treating it as +a young vine.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;"> +<a name="Plate_XII" id="Plate_XII"></a> +<img src="images/plate12.jpg" width="323" height="500" alt="Plate XII." title="Plate XII." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XII.</span>—Diana (×<span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">5</span>).</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER IX</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE</p> + + +<p>The methods of pruning and training native grapes, discussed in the +last two chapters, do not apply to the Vinifera grapes grown in the +favored valleys of the Rocky Mountains and on the Pacific slope. As we +have already seen, the Vinifera or Old World grape differs markedly in +habits of growth from the American species so that it would not be +expected that pruning which applies to the one would apply to the +other types. The fundamentals, to be sure, are much the same and the +different species of grapes are about equally subservient to the +shears of the pruner, but while pruning to regulate fruit-bearing +finds many similarities in Old and New World grapes, the training of +the vines is radically different.</p> + +<p>European practices in pruning and training Vinifera grapes are so many +and so diverse that the first growers of this fruit in America were at +a loss to know how to prune their vines. But, out of a half century of +experience, American growers of Old World grapes have adapted from +European practices and have devised to meet new conditions, methods +which serve very well in the new home for this old grape. Since the +culture of the Old World grape is centered in California, almost +confined to that state, California practice may be taken as a pattern +in pruning and training the vines of this species.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> +<h4>Vine Pruning in California<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></h4> + +<p>The systems of pruning in use in California may be divided into two +classes according to the arrangement of the arms on the trunk of the +vine. In the commonest systems, there is a definite head to the trunk, +from which all the arms arise symmetrically at nearly the same level. +The vines of these systems may be called "headed vines." In the other +systems, the trunk is elongated four to eight feet and the arms are +distributed regularly along the whole or the greater portion of its +length. The vines of these systems, owing to the rope-like form of the +trunks, are called "cordons."</p> + +<p>The headed vines are divided according to the length of the vertical +trunk into high, 2–3 feet, medium, 1–1<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> feet, and low, 0–6 inches. +The cordons may be vertical or horizontal, according to the direction +of the trunk, which is from four to eight feet long. The horizontal +cordons may be single (unilateral) or composed of two branches +extending in opposite directions (bilateral). Double and even multiple +vertical cordons occur, but they are very inadvisable and have no +advantages.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of the arms of a headed vine may be symmetrical in all +directions at an angle of about 45 degrees. Such a vine is said to be +"vase-formed," though the hollow center which this term implies is not +essential. This is the form used in the great majority of our +vineyards whether of wine, raisin, or shipping grapes. It is suitable +for the "square" system of planting and cross cultivation. Where vines +are planted in the avenue system, particularly when trellised and +where cross cultivation is impossible, the arms are given a +"fan-shaped"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> arrangement in a vertical plane. This arrangement is +considered to be essential for the economical and easy working of +trellised vines.</p> + +<p>On the vertical or upright cordon, the arms are arranged at as regular +intervals as possible on all sides of the trunk from the top to within +twelve or fifteen inches of the bottom. On the horizontal cordon the +arms are arranged similarly, but as nearly as possible on the upper +side of the trunk only.</p> + +<p>Each of these systems may again be divided into two subsystems, +according to the management of the annual growth or canes. In one, +spurs of one, two, or three eyes are left for fruit production. This +system is called short or spur pruning. In the other, long canes are +left for fruit production. This is called long or cane pruning. In +rare cases an intermediate form is adopted in which long spurs or +short canes of five or six eyes are left. In cane pruning, each fruit +cane is accompanied by one or two short renewal spurs. These must also +accompany half-long pruning. Systems of pruning, when only long canes +are left without renewal-spurs, are not in use in California. In all +systems, replacing-spurs are left wherever and whenever needed.</p> + +<p>Other modifications are introduced by the manner of disposal of the +fruit canes. These may be tied up vertically to a stake driven at the +foot of each vine or bowed in a circle and tied to this same stake, or +they may be tied laterally to wires stretching along the rows in a +horizontal, ascending or descending direction.</p> + +<p>The different systems differ therefore in: (1) the shape, length, and +direction of the trunk; (2) the arrangement of the arms; (3) the use +of fruit spurs or fruit canes with renewal spurs; (4) the disposal of +the fruit canes.</p> + +<p>The principal possibilities of the pruning are shown in the following +table:</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p> +<p class="table_caption">A. Head Pruning: Vase-form</p> + +<table summary="Head Pruning: Vase-form"> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_width_10">1. High trunk:<br /><br />2. Medium trunk:<br /><br />3. Low trunk:</td> + <td class="table_cell_1110 table_cell_empty"> </td> + <td class="table_center">with</td> + <td class="table_cell_1011 table_cell_empty"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_width_10">(<em>a</em>) Fruit spurs or<br /><br />(<em>b</em>) Half-long canes and renewal spurs or<br /><br /> (<em>c</em>) Fruit canes and renewal spurs; canes vertical or bowed.</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p class="table_caption">B. Head Pruning: Fan-shaped; Trellised</p> + +<ul> +<li>1. High trunk: Fruit canes and renewal spurs; canes descending.</li> + +<li>2. Medium trunk: Fruit canes and renewal spurs; canes horizontal or +ascending.</li> +</ul> + + +<p class="table_caption">C. Cordon Pruning</p> + +<ul> +<li>1. Vertical: Spur; half-long; cane.</li> + +<li>2. Horizontal-unilateral: Spur; half-long; cane.</li> + +<li>3. Horizontal-bilateral: Spur; half-long; cane.</li> +</ul> + +<p>All possible combinations indicated by this table represent 24 +variations. Some of these combinations, however, are not used and some +are rare. The most common are shown in Figs. <a href="#Fig_23">23</a>, <a href="#Fig_24">24</a>, <a href="#Fig_25">25</a>, <a href="#Fig_26">26</a> and <a href="#Fig_27">27</a>.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_23">Figure 23</a> B represents a headed, vase-formed vine, with a medium trunk +and short fruit spurs. This is the most common system used in all +parts of California and is suited for all small growing vines which +bear on the lower buds, for most wine grapes and for Muscats. The unit +of pruning in this case is a fruit spur of 1, 2, or 3 internodes, +according to the vigor of the variety and of the individual cane.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_23">Figure 23</a> A differs from <a href="#Fig_23">23</a> B only in the higher trunk and longer +arms. It is commonly used for Tokay and other large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> growing +varieties, especially when growing in rich soil and when planted far +apart.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_23" id="Fig_23"></a> +<img src="images/fig23.jpg" width="500" height="257" alt="Fig. 23. Forms of head pruning." title="Fig. 23. Forms of head pruning." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 23.</span> Forms of head pruning: <em>A</em>, spur pruning with +high trunk; <em>B</em>, spur pruning with medium trunk; <em>C</em>, half-long with +medium trunk.</span> +</div> + +<p><a href="#Fig_23">Figure 23</a> C has the same form of body as A and B, except that the arms +are somewhat less numerous. The unit of pruning is a short fruit cane +of four to five internodes, accompanied by a renewal spur of one +internode. It is suited for vigorous table grapes, which do not bear +well on short spurs. It is used especially for the Cornichon and +Malaga in rich soil. This is a difficult system to keep in good shape +owing to the tendency for all the vigor to go to the growth on the +ends of the fruit canes. It is difficult to obtain vigorous canes on +the renewal spurs. Occasional short pruning is usually necessary to +keep the vines in proper shape.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_24">Figure 24</a> A is similar to <a href="#Fig_23">23</a> C in form, but the number of arms is +still further reduced to 2, 3, or at most 4. The unit of pruning is a +fruit cane of 2<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> to 3<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> feet with its renewal spur. Owing to the +length of the fruit canes they require support and are tied to a high +stake.</p> + +<p>This method is used in a large number of vineyards with Sultanina, +Sultana and certain wine grapes, especially Semillon and Cabernet. It +is not to be recommended in any case, as it has several very serious +defects.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>The difficulty of obtaining new wood from the renewal spurs is even +greater than in the system shown in <a href="#Fig_23">Fig. 23</a> C. The length and vertical +position of the fruit canes cause the main growth and vigor of the +vine to be expended on the highest shoots. The renewal spurs are thus +so shaded that, even though their buds start, the shoots make but a +weak growth. The result is that at the following pruning all the good +new wood is at the top of the fruit canes of the previous year, where +it cannot be utilized. The pruner has to choose then between reverting +to spur pruning and getting no crop or using the weak growth from the +renewal spurs for fruit canes, in which case he may get blossoms but +little or no fruit of any value.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"> +<a name="Fig_24" id="Fig_24"></a> +<img src="images/fig24.jpg" width="370" height="500" alt="Fig. 24. Forms of head pruning." title="Fig. 24. Forms of head pruning." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 24.</span> Forms of head pruning: <em>A</em>, vertical fruit +canes and renewal spurs; <em>B</em>, bowed fruit canes and renewal spurs.</span> +</div> + +<p>Other defects of this method are that the fruiting shoots are +excessively vigorous and therefore often tend to drop their blossoms +without setting and the fruit when produced is massed together so that +it ripens unevenly and is difficult to gather. It also requires a tall +and expensive stake.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_24">Figure 24</a> B represents an improvement on the last system. It differs +only in the method of treating the fruit canes. These<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> are bent over +in the form of a circle and tied by their middle part to a stake which +may be smaller and lower than that needed for the vertical canes.</p> + +<p>This bowing of the canes has several useful effects. The change of +direction moderates the tendency of the vigor of the vine to expend +itself only on the terminal shoots. More shoots therefore are formed +on the fruit canes and as their vigor is somewhat decreased they tend +to be more fruitful. The slight mechanical injury caused by the +bending operates in the same direction.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_25" id="Fig_25"></a> +<img src="images/fig25.jpg" width="500" height="236" alt="Fig. 25. Head pruning: fan-shaped head; fruit canes +tied to horizontal trellis." title="Fig. 25. Head pruning: fan-shaped head; fruit canes +tied to horizontal trellis." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 25.</span> Head pruning: fan-shaped head; fruit canes +tied to horizontal trellis.</span> +</div> + +<p>The excess of vigor thus being diverted from the fruit canes causes +the renewal spurs to form vigorous shoots, which soon grow above the +fruit shoots and obtain the light and air they need for their proper +development. This method is used successfully for certain wine grapes +such as Riesling, Cabernet, and Semillon. It is unsuited to large +vigorous varieties or for vines on rich soil planted wide apart. In +these cases two fruit canes are usually insufficient and, if more are +used, the grapes and leaves are so massed together that they are +subject to mil<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>dew and do not ripen evenly or well. The bowing and +tying of the canes requires considerable skill and care on the part of +the workmen.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 94px;"> +<a name="Fig_26" id="Fig_26"></a> +<img src="images/fig26.jpg" width="94" height="250" alt="Fig. 26. Single vertical cordon with fruit spurs." title="Fig. 26. Single vertical cordon with fruit spurs." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 26.</span> Single vertical cordon with fruit spurs.</span> +</div> + +<p>The body, arms, and annual pruning of the system shown in <a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a> are +similar to those of <a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>, with the exception that the arms are +given a fan-shaped arrangement in one plane. It differs in the +disposal of the fruit canes, which are supported by a trellis +stretching along the row from vine to vine.</p> + +<p>This method is largely used for the Sultanina (Thompson's Seedless), +and is the best system for vigorous vines which require long pruning, +wherever it is possible to dispense with cross cultivation. It is also +suitable for any long-pruned varieties when growing in very fertile +soil.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_26">Figure 26</a> is a photograph of a four-year-old Emperor vine, +illustrating the vertical cordon system. It consists of an upright +trunk 4<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> feet high with short arms and fruit spurs scattered evenly +and symmetrically from the top to within fifteen inches of the bottom. +This system is used in many Emperor vineyards in the San Joaquin +Valley.</p> + +<p>Its advantages are that it allows the large development of the vine +and the large number of spurs which the vigor of the Emperor demands, +without, on the one hand, crowding the fruit by the proximity of the +spurs or, on the other hand, spreading the vine so much that +cultivation is interfered with. It also permits cross cultivation.</p> + + +<p>One of its defects is that the fruit is subjected to various degrees +of temperature and shading in different parts of the vine and the +ripening and coloring are often uneven. A more vital defect is that it +cannot be maintained permanently. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> arms and spurs at the top of +the trunk tend to absorb the energies of the vine and the lower arms +and spurs become weaker each year until finally no growth at all is +obtained below. After several years, most of the vines therefore lose +their character of cordons and become simply headed-vines with +abnormally long trunks.</p> + +<p>The cordon can be reëstablished in this case by allowing a vigorous +sucker to develop one year from which to form a new trunk the next. +The following year the old trunk is removed entirely. An objection to +this method is that it makes very large wounds in the most vital part +of the vine—the base of the trunk.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_27">Figure 27</a> is a photograph of a four-year-old Colombar vine, +illustrating the unilateral, horizontal cordon system. It consists of +a trunk about seven feet long, supported horizontally by a wire two +feet from the ground. Arms and spurs are arranged along the whole +horizontal part of the trunk.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_27" id="Fig_27"></a> +<img src="images/fig27.jpg" width="500" height="137" alt="Fig. 27. Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit +spurs." title="Fig. 27. Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit +spurs." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 27.</span> Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit +spurs.</span> +</div> + +<p>This system accomplishes the same objects as the vertical cordon. It +allows a large development of the vine and numerous fruit spurs +without crowding. It is superior to the vertical cordon in the +distribution of the fruit, which is all exposed to approximately the +same conditions owing to the uniform distance from the ground of the +fruit spurs. All parts of the trunk producing an annual growth of wood +and fruit are equally exposed to light and the tendency of the growth +to occur prin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>cipally at the part of the trunk farthest removed from +the root is counteracted by the horizontal position. There is not the +same difficulty therefore in maintaining this form of vine permanently +that there is with the vertical cordon.</p> + +<p>This system should not be used for small weak vines, whether the +weakness is a characteristic of the variety or due to the nature of +the soil. It is suited only to very vigorous varieties such as +Emperor, Almeria, and the Persian grapes when growing far apart in +rich, moist soil.</p> + +<h6><em>Periods of development.</em></h6> + +<p>The first year in the life of a vine is devoted to developing a +vigorous root system; the next two or three years to building up a +shapely trunk and head, and a like period to forming the full +complement of arms. At the end of from five to nine years the +framework of the vine is complete and should undergo no particular +change of shape except a gradual thickening of trunk and arms.</p> + +<p>There are, therefore, several periods in the life of the vine with +varying objects, and the methods of pruning must vary accordingly. +These periods do not correspond exactly to periods of time, so it may +be misleading to speak of pruning a two-year-old or a three-year-old +vine. One vine under certain conditions will reach the same stage of +development in two years that another will reach only in three or four +years under other conditions. The range of time of these periods is +about as follows:</p> + +<div id="vine_period"> +<table summary="Vine life periods"> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td>First period—Formation of a strong root system</td> + <td class="table_right">1</td> + <td>to</td> + <td>2 years</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Second period—Formation of stem or trunk</td> + <td class="table_right"> </td> + <td> </td> + <td>1 year</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Third period—Formation of head</td> + <td class="table_right">2</td> + <td>to</td> + <td>3 years</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Fourth period—Complete development of the arms</td> + <td class="table_right">2</td> + <td>to</td> + <td>3 years</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="total">Total time of formation of framework</td> + <td class="table_right">6</td> + <td>to</td> + <td>9 years</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Under exceptionally favorable conditions the first and second periods +may be included in the first year and a completely formed vine may be +obtained in five years.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Before planting.</em></h6> + +<p>For planting, cuttings, one-year-old rooted vines, or bench grafts are +used. In all cases, they need some attention from the pruner.</p> + +<p>The usual way to prune a good rooted vine of average size having a +single cane at the top and several good roots at the bottom is to +shorten the cane to one or two buds and the roots to two or four +inches, according to their size. Shortening the cane makes the vine +less liable to dry out before rooting and forces the growth from the +lower buds which produce more vigorous shoots. The roots are shortened +so that there will be no danger of the ends being turned upwards when +planted. If they are to be planted in a large hole, they may be left +as long as five or six inches; if to be planted with a crowbar or +dibble, they must be cut back to half an inch.</p> + +<p>If the rooted vine has several canes, all but one should be removed +entirely, and this one shortened to one or two eyes. The one left +should be that which is strongest, has the best buds, and is the best +placed. Where a horizontal cane is left, it should be cut back to the +base bud. Otherwise the main growth may occur at a higher bud and the +vine will have a crook which will result in a badly formed trunk.</p> + +<p>If canes are growing from different joints, it is usually best to +leave the lower cane if they are equally vigorous. This brings the +buds from which growth will come nearer to the roots, and leaves less +of the original cutting, which are advantages. The upper joint between +the canes is, moreover, often more or less decayed or imperfect.</p> + +<h6><em>First growing season.</em></h6> + +<p>The treatment during the first spring and summer will depend on what +growth the vines are expected to make and on whether the vines are +staked the first year.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>With cuttings and with both rooted vines and grafts where the growth +will be moderate, staking the first year is unnecessary, though it has +some slight advantages. In these cases, no pruning of any kind is +necessary until the winter following the planting, except in the case +of bench grafts. The pruning in the last case is confined to the +removal of the suckers from the stock and roots from the cion. If the +stocks have been well disbudded by the nurseryman, few suckers will +develop. In moist soil, the cion roots may develop vigorously and must +be removed before they grow too large, or they may prevent the proper +development of the resistant roots.</p> + +<p>The removal of roots should usually be done some time in July. For +this purpose the hill of soil is scraped away from the union and after +the cion roots and suckers are removed it is replaced. In this second +hilling up, the union should be just barely covered so that the soil +round the union will be dry and unfavorable to a second growth of +roots. Later in the season, about September, the soil should be +removed entirely from around the union and any new roots that may have +formed removed. The union is then left exposed to harden and mature, +so that it will pass the winter without injury.</p> + +<h6><em>First winter pruning.</em></h6> + +<p>At the end of the first growing season, an average good vine will have +produced from three to five canes, the longest of which will be from +two to three feet long.</p> + +<p>Soon after the leaves have fallen in December or early in January the +vines should be pruned. The method is precisely similar to that used +for rooted vines before planting except that the main roots are not +touched. All the canes are removed entirely except one. This one +should be well matured, at least at the base, and should have +well-formed eyes. It is shortened to two eyes. It is well also to cut +off all shallow roots within three or four inches of the surface. This +is neces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>sary in the case of grafted vines if any have escaped the +summer root-cutting.</p> + +<p>Some of the vines may have made an exceptionally large growth. Such +vines may sometimes possess a cane large enough from which to start +the trunk in the way described later for the second winter pruning.</p> + +<h6><em>Staking.</em></h6> + +<p>If the vines have not been staked before, the stakes should be driven +soon after pruning and before the starting of the buds.</p> + +<p>In order to preserve the alignment of the vineyard, the stakes should +be driven on the same side of every vine at a uniform distance. The +best distance is about two inches. If driven closer they may injure +large roots or even the main underground stem if the vines have not +been carefully planted vertically or slanting towards the side on +which the stake is to be placed.</p> + +<p>The side on which the stake should be placed depends on the direction +of the prevailing winds during the growing season. This side is the +leeward. That is, the stake should be so placed that the wind will +press the vine towards the stake instead of away from it. This will +much facilitate the work of keeping the vine upright and attached to +the stake. If the vine is on the other side the pressure of the wind +will stretch the string tight and the swaying of the vine will +gradually wear the string until it breaks, necessitating retying. By +carefully observing this rule, very few vines will require retying +even if weak material like binding twine is used.</p> + +<h6><em>Second summer pruning.</em></h6> + +<p>Before the starting of the buds, in the spring following the planting, +most of the vines appear about the same as when they were planted. +There is, however, a very notable difference, in that they have +well-developed root systems in the soil where they were formed. The +result is that they make a much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> more prompt and early start and will +produce a much larger growth than they did the first season. For this +reason they require very careful attention from the pruner during the +spring and summer of the second season. Vines neglected at this time, +in this respect, may make as large a growth, but a large part of it +will be wasted, the vines will be misformed and it will require from +one to two years longer to develop a suitable framework and to bring +them into bearing, even though they are properly handled during +subsequent years. The more vigorous the vines, the more necessary it +is to handle them properly during this period.</p> + +<p>The main object during this second growing season is to develop a +single, strong, vigorous and well-ripened cane from which to form the +permanent trunk of the vine.</p> + +<p>This is done by concentrating all the energies of the vine into the +growth of a single shoot. As soon as the buds start, or when the most +precocious has developed a shoot of a few inches in length, the vines +should be disbudded. This consists in rubbing off with the hand all +buds and shoots except the two largest and best placed. The lowest, +upright shoots are usually the best. Leave only those which will make +a straight vine. It is better to leave less developed buds than a +shoot which, when it grows, will make an awkward crook with the +underground stem.</p> + +<p>After this disbudding, the two shoots left will grow rapidly, as they +receive all the energies of the root system. When the longest have +grown from ten to fifteen inches, they should be tied to the stake. +Unless this is done, they are liable to be broken off by any heavy +wind, owing to their soft, succulent texture. Only the best placed and +most vigorous of the two shoots should be tied up. If this shoot is +growing upright and near the stake, this can be done without any +danger of injuring it. In this case the second shoot should be +removed. If the shoot has to be bent over in tying it to the stake it +may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> be injured. In such a case the second shoot should be allowed to +grow until it is known whether the first has been injured. In case of +injury the second shoot can be tied up the next time the vines are +visited and the injured shoot removed.</p> + +<p>At the tying up of the reserved shoots, all new shoots which have +developed since the first disbudding should be removed. The shoots +should be tied up loosely, as they are soft and easily injured, and +they should be brought around carefully to the windward side of the +stake.</p> + +<p>The shoots will require tying once more when they have grown another +foot or eighteen inches. There will then be two ties, one at two or +three inches from the top of the stake and the other at about the +middle. If the vines have a tall stake and are to be headed very high, +another tying higher up may be needed later.</p> + +<p>With vines making only a moderate growth, no other pruning will be +needed until the winter. Exceptionally vigorous vines, however, may +make a cane eight, ten or more feet long. Such a cane is heavy and is +very likely to break the ropes by which it is attached to the stake. +In this case it may break off at the bottom, or at least will form an +awkward crook near the ground when it matures. In either case it is +difficult to form a good trunk the following year. Even when the ties +do not break, the cane will not be well suited for the commencement of +a trunk, as the joints will be so long that it will be impossible to +leave enough well-placed buds at the winter pruning.</p> + +<p>Both these difficulties are avoided by timely topping. When such +vigorously growing canes have grown twelve or eighteen inches above +the top of the stake they are cut back about level with the stake. +This is most conveniently done with a long-bladed knife or piece of +split bamboo. After topping, the cane ceases to grow in length and +laterals start at most of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>joints. It is less exposed to the +action of the wind, and the laterals supply the buds needed for +forming the vine at the winter pruning.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;"> +<a name="Plate_XIII" id="Plate_XIII"></a> +<img src="images/plate13.jpg" width="321" height="500" alt="Plate XIII." title="Plate XIII." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XIII.</span>—Dutchess (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + +<p>The result of the second season's growth, then, has been to produce a +single vigorous cane with or without laterals. This is the cane which +is to develop into the final and permanent trunk of the vine. It must +not only be large and vigorous, but must be properly matured. If the +vine is allowed to grow too late in the season, an early frost may +destroy the unmatured cane, and much of the results of the year's +growth will be wasted. Such a frost may indeed kill the entire vine. +Grafted vines are particularly liable to injury from this cause, as if +they are killed down to the union they are completely ruined. +Ungrafted vines when killed to the ground may be renewed from a sucker +next year. This sucker, however, is likely to grow with such vigor +that it is even more liable to injury from an autumn frost than the +original shoot.</p> + +<p>This late growth is much more likely to occur with young vines than +with old. The old vines stop growing earlier because their energies +are directed into the crop, and as they produce a larger amount of +foliage they draw more upon the moisture of the soil, which therefore +dries out earlier.</p> + +<p>Late growth of the young vines must be prevented and the wood matured +before frost if possible. This is accomplished by means which promote +the drying of the soil in autumn. Late irrigations should be avoided. +Cultivation should usually stop by midsummer. In very moist, rich +soils, it is often an advantage to grow corn, sunflowers or similar +crops between the rows of vines to take off the surplus moisture. In +some cases it is good practice to let the summer weeds grow for the +same purpose.</p> + +<h6><em>Second winter pruning.</em></h6> + +<p>With vines which have been treated as described and to which no +accident has happened, the second winter pruning is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> very simple. It +consists simply in cutting back the single cane which has been allowed +to grow to the height at which it is desired to head the vine.</p> + +<p>The vine so pruned consists of a single cane which with the older wood +at the base reaches nearly to the top of the stake, or fifteen inches. +This if properly treated will develop into a vine with a trunk of +about twelve inches, though this length can be modified slightly, as +will be explained later.</p> + +<p>This cane consists of about seven or eight joints or internodes, with +an equal number of well-formed eyes and an indefinite number of +dormant buds, principally near the base of the cane or junction of the +one- and two-year-old wood. Only the buds on the upper half of this +cane will be allowed to grow. These buds—about four—should give six +to eight bunches of grapes and four, six, or eight shoots from which +to form the spurs at the following winter pruning.</p> + +<p>With a vine which has been cut back to form a high head, the cane is +about twenty-four inches long and can be used to form a trunk eighteen +inches high, though this height can be modified as in the last case. +As with the shorter cane, only the buds on the upper half will be +allowed to produce shoots. These—about six—should give ten to twelve +bunches and the shoots necessary for the formation of spurs.</p> + +<p>In all cases a full internode has been left above the top bud. This is +done by cutting through the first bud above the highest which it is +desired to have grow. This cut is made in such a way as to destroy the +bud but to leave the diaphragm intact and part of the swelling of the +node. This upper internode is left partly to protect the upper bud, +but principally to facilitate tying. By making a half-hitch around +this internode, the vine is held very firmly. If the swelling at the +node of the destroyed bud is not left, many vines will be pulled out +of the hitch when they become heavy with leaves and supple with the +flow of sap in the spring.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>In tying the vines, no turns or hitches must be made around any part +except this upper internode. A hitch below the top bud will result in +a crook-necked vine, as the top will bend over in the summer under the +weight of the foliage. A hitch lower down is even more harmful, as it +will girdle and strangle the vine.</p> + +<p>A second tie about half way from the upper to the ground is always +necessary to straighten the cane. Even if the cane is straight when +pruned, a second tie is needed to keep it from curving under the +pressure of leaves and wind in the spring. For high-headed vines three +ties are usually necessary.</p> + +<p>For the top tie, wire is particularly suitable. It holds better than +twine and does not wear. Even though it is not removed, it does no +harm, as the part around which it is wound does not grow. The lower +ties should be of softer material, as wire has a tendency to cut into +the wood. They should be placed so that the cane is able to expand as +it grows. With thin and especially with round stakes this means that +the tie must be loose. With large, square stakes there is usually +sufficient room for expansion, even when the twine is tied tight.</p> + +<h6><em>Third summer pruning.</em></h6> + +<p>During the third season, average well-grown vines will produce their +first considerable crop and develop the canes from which will be +formed the first arms.</p> + +<p>Such a vine, soon after the starting of the buds in spring, will have +one vigorous shoot about three inches long grown from the old wood and +five fruit buds started above on the cane. All the buds and shoots +below the middle of the cane should be removed.</p> + +<p>This will leave the four or five fruit buds and will give the vine the +opportunity to produce eight or ten bunches of grapes. These buds will +produce also at least four or five shoots. If the vine is very +vigorous and the season favorable, they may produce eight, ten or +more.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>When the five shoots grow, the height of the head will be determined +at the next winter pruning by which of the corresponding canes are +left as spurs. If the highest two canes are cut back to spurs and all +others removed, the vine will be headed as high as possible, as these +two spurs form the two first arms which determine the length of the +trunk. If the lowest two canes are chosen and all of the vine above +them removed, the trunk will be made as low as possible. Intermediate +heights can be obtained by using some other two adjacent canes and +removing the rest. It is often advisable to leave some extra spurs +lower than it is desired to head the vine and to remove these lower +spurs the following winter after they have borne a crop. For example, +the three or four upper canes might be left, if the vine is vigorous +enough, and the lowest one or two of these removed at the next +pruning. This, however, is not often necessary with properly handled +vines and is objectionable because it makes large wounds in the trunk.</p> + +<h6><em>Third winter pruning.</em></h6> + +<p>At the end of the third season's growth the vine should have a +straight, well-developed trunk with a number of vigorous canes near +the top from which to form the arms.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_28">Figure 28</a> represents a well-grown vine at this period. No shoots have +been allowed to grow on the lower part of the trunk and the five buds +allowed to grow above have produced nine vigorous canes. The pruner +should leave enough spurs to supply all the fruit buds that the vine +can utilize. The number, size and thickness of the canes show that the +vine is very vigorous and can support a large crop. It will depend +somewhat on the variety how many buds should be left. For a variety +whose bunches average one pound, and which produces two bunches to the +shoot, twelve fruit buds should give about twenty-four pounds, or +about seven tons per acre, if the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> vines are planted 12 by 6 feet, as +these were. The number of spurs will depend on their length. Six spurs +of two buds each will give the required number, but as some of these +canes are exceptionally vigorous they should be left a little longer, +in which case a smaller number of spurs will suffice.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_28" id="Fig_28"></a> +<img src="images/fig28.jpg" width="500" height="232" alt="Fig. 28. Three-year-old vine ready for pruning." title="Fig. 28. Three-year-old vine ready for pruning." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 28.</span> Three-year-old vine ready for pruning.</span> +</div> + +<p>When the number and length of the spurs are decided on, the canes +should be chosen which will leave these spurs in the most suitable +position for forming arms. This position will depend on whether we +want a vase-form or fan-shaped vine. In the first case, we choose +those which will distribute the spurs most evenly and symmetrically on +all sides, avoiding any which cross or point downwards.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 202px;"> +<a name="Fig_29" id="Fig_29"></a> +<img src="images/fig29.jpg" width="202" height="250" alt="Fig. 29. Vine of Fig. 28 after pruning for vase-formed +head." title="Fig. 29. Vine of Fig. 28 after pruning for vase-formed +head." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 29.</span> Vine of <a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a> after pruning for vase-formed +head.</span> +</div> + +<p>In the second case, we choose only those canes which run in the +direction of the trellis, avoiding canes which stick out between the +rows. Downward pointing canes may be used in this case.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 244px;"> +<a name="Fig_30" id="Fig_30"></a> +<img src="images/fig30.jpg" width="244" height="250" alt="Fig. 30. Three-year-old vines." title="Fig. 30. Three-year-old vines." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 30.</span> Three-year-old vines: <em>A</em>, pruned for a +vase-formed, and <em>B</em>, for a fan-shaped head.</span> +</div> + +<p><a href="#Fig_29">Figure 29</a> shows the vine after pruning for a vase-formed head. The +pruner has used two of the strongest canes to form<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> two three-bud +spurs and three of medium vigor to form three two-bud spurs. The head +is of good shape, though some of the spurs are a little too low. One, +two, or three of these can be removed at the following winter pruning, +and the permanent arms and head of the vine formed from canes which +develop on the two highest spurs. If the vine were too high, the head +could be developed the next year from the three lowest spurs and the +upper part removed.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_30">Figure 30</a> shows vines of the same age of practically perfect shape. +Less spurs have been left because the vines were less vigorous. It is +easier to properly shape vines which make only a moderate growth +during the first three seasons. On the other hand, very vigorous vines +can finally be brought into practically perfect shape and the somewhat +larger and more numerous wounds necessary are more easily healed by a +vigorous vine.</p> + +<h6><em>Pruning after the third winter.</em></h6> + +<p>For the pruner who understands the pruning of young vines and has +brought them to approximately the form represented in Figs. <a href="#Fig_29">29</a> and <a href="#Fig_30">30</a>, +the subsequent winter pruning is very simple. It involves, however, +one new idea—the distinction between fruit and sterile wood.</p> + +<p>Up to the third winter pruning, this distinction is not necessary; +first, because practically all the wood is fruit wood, and second, +because the necessity of forming the vine controls the choice of wood. +From this time on, however, this distinction<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> must be carefully made. +At each winter pruning a number of spurs of fruit wood must be left to +produce the crop to be expected from the size and vigor of the vine. +Besides these fruit spurs, it may be necessary to leave spurs of +sterile wood to permit of increasing the number of fruit spurs the +following year.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 179px;"> +<a name="Fig_31" id="Fig_31"></a> +<img src="images/fig31.jpg" width="179" height="250" alt="Fig. 31. Four-year-old vine pruned for vase-formed +head." title="Fig. 31. Four-year-old vine pruned for vase-formed +head." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 31.</span> Four-year-old vine pruned for vase-formed +head.</span> +</div> + +<p>This will be made clear by comparing Figs. <a href="#Fig_30">30</a> A and <a href="#Fig_31">31</a>. Figure <a href="#Fig_30">30</a> A +shows a vine at the third winter pruning with two fruit spurs of two +buds each and one fruit spur of one bud—five fruit buds in all.</p> + +<p>If these five fruit buds all produce vigorous shoots during the +following summer, they will supply five canes of fruit wood which can +be used to form five fruit spurs at the following winter pruning, +which will be about the normal increase necessary. Some of these fruit +buds, however, may produce weak shoots or shoots so badly placed that +they would spoil the shape of the head if used for spurs. Other +shoots, however, will be produced from base, secondary and +adventitious buds which, while less fruitful, can be used to form +spurs for the starting of new arms.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="Fig_32" id="Fig_32"></a> +<img src="images/fig32.jpg" width="150" height="250" alt="Fig. 32. Four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed +head." title="Fig. 32. Four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed +head." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 32.</span> Four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed +head.</span> +</div> + +<p><a href="#Fig_31">Figure 31</a> shows a vine after the fourth winter pruning which had +developed from a vine similar to that shown in <a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a> A. From the +three fruit spurs left the previous year four canes have been chosen +for the fruit spurs of this year. The old spur on the left has +furnished two new spurs and the two old spurs at the right each one +new spur. The pruner, judging that the vine is sufficiently vigorous +to stand more wood, has formed two spurs from water sprouts which, +while not likely to produce much fruit the first season,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> will supply +fruit wood for the following year. The result is a very well-shaped +vine with six almost perfectly balanced spurs. These spurs will +develop into permanent arms, some of them furnishing finally two or +three.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_32">Figure 32</a> shows a high-headed vine of the same age. It has five spurs, +of which four are fruit spurs and one a spur of sterile wood left to +shape the vine. The two more or less horizontal spurs on the right +will bear fruit the following autumn and will be removed entirely at +the following winter pruning, as they are badly placed. The arms of +the vine will then be developed from the three upright spurs, which +are excellently placed.</p> + +<p>Each year thereafter the same process must be followed. First, enough +fruit spurs, as well placed as possible, must be left to produce the +crop. Second, on most vines supplementary spurs of sterile wood must +be left to supply more arms where they are needed, and finally, when +the full complement of arms has developed, to supply new arms to +replace those which have become too long or are otherwise defective.</p> + +<h6><em>Fan-shaped vines.</em></h6> + +<p>With headed vines, the treatment up to the third winter is the same +except for the variations in the height of the head. At the third +winter pruning, however, the formation of the head commences, and the +pruner determines whether it shall be vase-formed or fan-shaped. The +production of a vase-formed head has already been described.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 240px;"> +<a name="Fig_33" id="Fig_33"></a> +<img src="images/fig33.jpg" width="240" height="250" alt="Fig. 33." title="Fig. 33." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 33.</span> <em>A</em>, before pruning; <em>B</em>, after pruning.</span> +</div> + +<p>At the third winter pruning, the vine should be pruned to two spurs, +as shown in <a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a> B. More vigorous vines should <em>not</em> be given more +spurs, as in Figs. <a href="#Fig_29">29</a> and <a href="#Fig_30">30</a> A, but the spurs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> should be made longer, +with four, five, or even six eyes in some cases. This is in order to +obtain some fruit, which might not be obtained from long pruning +varieties by leaving many spurs. With extremely vigorous vines one +fruit cane may be left at this pruning. The wires of the trellis +should be put up this year, if this has not already been done.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_33">Fig. 33</a> A and <a href="#Fig_33">33</a> B illustrates the second step in the production of a +fan-shaped head. This form of head is used only for trellised vines +and long-pruned varieties. The formation of the head and the +management of the fruit canes are therefore conveniently discussed +together.</p> + +<p>By comparing the pruned vine, <a href="#Fig_33">Fig. 33</a> B, with the unpruned, <a href="#Fig_33">Fig. 33</a> A, +the method of pruning will be made clear. The unpruned vine shows two +arms, the spurs of the previous year, from one of which have grown +three vigorous canes and from the other two somewhat less vigorous. +The pruned vine shows a complete unit, that is, a fruit cane with its +accompanying renewal spur on the vigorous side and a spur for the +production of fruit wood for the following year on the other side. If +the vine had been more vigorous two complete units would have been +left and one or two extra spurs.</p> + +<p>As the form of the vine is determined by the renewal spurs, special +attention should be paid to their position. In this case, the middle +cane on one arm and the lower cane on the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> have been used for +renewal spurs. This brings them both to the same height above the +ground and determines the place of the permanent arms. The next year +each of these spurs will furnish a fruit cane and one or two renewal +spurs. The arms will thus in two or three years be increased to four, +or, with very large vines, to six. These spurs should be chosen as +nearly as possible in the plane of the trellis, that is, they should +not project out sideways. <a href="#Fig_25">Figure 25</a> shows vines of this kind of full +size and in full bearing.</p> + +<p>The fruit canes also should be as nearly as possible in the direction +of the trellis, though this is not so important, as they can be bent +over to the wire when tied up, and in any case they are removed the +next year.</p> + +<h6><em>Double-headed vines.</em></h6> + +<p>Some growers attempt to arrange the arms of their vines in two stages, +one above the other, forming double-headed or two-crowned vines. The +method is applied to both vase-formed and trellised vines. It is open +to the same criticisms as the vertical cordon, the chief of which is +that it cannot be maintained permanently. The lower head or ring of +arms finally becomes weak and fails to produce wood.</p> + +<p>It is easier to maintain in trellised vineyards and has some +advantages, the chief of which is that it makes it easier to keep the +vine in the single plane and to prevent arms getting into the +inter-rows. The double trunk is not necessary and is, in fact, a +disadvantage, as one trunk has a tendency to grow at the expense of +the other.</p> + +<h6><em>Vertical and bowed canes.</em></h6> + +<p><a href="#Fig_24">Figure 24</a> A shows a long-pruned vine in which the fruit canes have +been tied vertically to a tall stake. This is a method used commonly +in many vineyards. The unit of pruning is the same as in the method +just described, consisting of a fruit cane and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> a renewal spur. The +framework of the vine consists of a trunk of medium height, with a +vase-formed head consisting of three or four arms. The defects of this +system have been pointed out on <a href="#Page_155">page 155</a>.</p> + +<p>It is used with fair success with seedless Sultanas and with some wine +grapes such as Colombar, Semillon, Cabernet, and Riesling, in the +hands of skillful pruners. The results with Sultanina are very +unsatisfactory.</p> + +<p>By this method, on most of the vines, the fruit canes start from high +up near the middle of the stake, and are therefore too short for the +best results. The canes which start from low down are in most cases +suckers, and therefore of little value for fruit bearing.</p> + +<p><a href="#Fig_24">Figure 24</a> B shows a vine with bowed canes. The method of pruning is +exactly the same as in the method just described. The bowing of the +canes, however, overcomes some of the defects of that method. It is +used regularly in many wine grape vineyards of the cooler regions. It +is unsuited for very vigorous vines in rich soil.</p> + +<h6><em>Vertical cordons.</em></h6> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 110px;"> +<a name="Fig_34" id="Fig_34"></a> +<img src="images/fig34.jpg" width="110" height="250" alt="Fig. 34. Vertical cordon, young vine pruned." title="Fig. 34. Vertical cordon, young vine pruned." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 34.</span> Vertical cordon, young vine pruned.</span> +</div> + +<p>In head pruning, the treatment of young vines up to the second or +third winter pruning is identical for all systems. In cordon pruning +the treatment for the first and second is also the same. That is, the +vine is cut back to two buds near the level of the ground until a cane +sufficiently long to serve for the formation of the trunk is obtained.</p> + +<p>In the vertical cordon the trunk is three to four feet long instead of +one to two, as in head pruning. This makes it necessary to have a +longer and more vigorous cane to start with. It may require a year +longer to obtain this. That is to say, at the end of the second +season's growth many vines will not have a single cane sufficiently +developed to give the necessary three and one-half feet of +well-ripened wood and properly developed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> buds. At the second winter +pruning, therefore, it will often be necessary to cut the vine back to +two buds, as at the first winter pruning.</p> + +<p>Finally, a cane of the required length will be obtained. The vine is +then formed as already described for the second winter pruning of +headed vines, except that the cane is left longer. When such a vine is +pruned, spurs are left at intervals along the trunk, as shown in <a href="#Fig_34">Fig. +34</a>. Each of these spurs is a fruit spur and is also the commencement +of an arm. The future treatment of these arms is the same as that of +the arms in head pruning.</p> + +<h6><em>Horizontal cordons.</em></h6> + +<p>During the first two or three years, vines which are to be given the +form of horizontal cordons are treated exactly as for vertical +cordons, that is, they are pruned back to two buds each winter and the +growth forced by disbudding into a single cane during the summer.</p> + +<p>As soon as a well-ripened cane of the required length is obtained, it +is tied to a wire stretched horizontally along the row at from fifteen +to twenty-four inches from the ground.</p> + +<p>For this system of pruning, the rows should be twelve to fourteen feet +apart and the vines six, seven, or eight feet apart in the rows. As +the cordon or trunk of each vine should reach the next vine, it will +have to be six to eight feet long. The best shape is obtained when the +trunk is all formed one year from a single cane. It is necessary, +however, sometimes to take two years for the formation of the trunk. +In any case, the cane first tied down should reach at least half way +to the next vine. The following year a new cane from the end of this +should be used to complete the full length of the trunk.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>In attaching the cane to the wire, it must be bent over in a gentle +curve and care taken not to break or injure it. The proper form of the +bend is shown in Figs. <a href="#Fig_27">27</a> and <a href="#Fig_35">35</a>. Sharp bends should be avoided.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_35" id="Fig_35"></a> +<img src="images/fig35.jpg" width="500" height="377" alt="Fig. 35. Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long +pruning." title="Fig. 35. Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long +pruning." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 35.</span> Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long +pruning.</span> +</div> + +<p>The cane should be placed on top of the wire, but should not be +twisted around it. The end should be tied firmly and the rest of the +cane supported by strings tied loosely in order to avoid girdling when +the cane grows.</p> + +<p>In the following spring, most of the buds on a good cane will start. +If the cane is short jointed, some of the shoots should be removed and +only those shoots allowed to develop which are conveniently situated +for permanent arms. If the vines are to be short pruned, the arms +should be developed every eight to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> twelve inches from a few inches +beyond the bend to the extreme end. For long pruning, the arms should +be farther apart, twelve to twenty inches. Shoots starting from the +top of the cane and growing vertically upwards are to be preferred.</p> + +<p>As the shoots develop, the strongest should be pinched repeatedly, if +necessary. This will tend to force the growth of the weaker shoots and +to equalize the vigor of all. At the end of the season, there should +be from five to ten canes growing on each cordon of full length. These +canes are then pruned back to two or three buds, or a little longer +for long-pruned varieties.</p> + +<p>During the following spring and summer, the vines should be carefully +suckered and unnecessary water sprouts removed. Any shoots coming from +the lower side of the cordon should be removed early to strengthen the +growth in the shoots on the upper side. Such vines are apt to become +dry or decayed on the upper side. At the end of this year, which +should be the fourth or fifth from planting at the latest, the cordon +will be fully formed and the final style of pruning can be applied. A +short-pruned cordon vine is shown in <a href="#Fig_27">Fig. 27</a>. The arms and spurs are a +little too numerous and too close together. If this vine required the +number of buds shown it would have been better to have left the fruit +spurs longer and to have left fewer and shorter wood spurs.</p> + +<p>The upper vine of <a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a> shows a cordon pruned half long. This is an +excellent system for Malaga, Emperor, and Cornichon when growing in +very fertile soil. It gives the half-long fruit canes, which these +varieties need to produce good crops. The fruit canes may be attached +to a wire twelve or fifteen inches above the cordon or bent down and +tied to the cordon itself, as in the lower vine of the figure. The +first method is the more convenient, but the second is necessary where +there is difficulty in obtaining satisfactory growth from the renewal +spurs. When the fruit canes are tied down, as indicated in the lower +vine, renewal spurs may not be needed, as vigorous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> shoots will +usually be obtained from the lower buds of the fruit canes.</p> + +<h6><em>Choice of a system.</em></h6> + +<p>In choosing a system, we must consider carefully the characteristics +of the particular variety we are growing. A variety which bears only +on the upper buds must be pruned "long," that is, must be given fruit +canes. It should be noted that many varieties, such as Petite Sirah, +which will bear with short pruning when grafted on resistant roots +require fruit canes when growing on their own roots. In general, +grafted vines require shorter pruning than ungrafted. If pruned the +same, the grafted vines may overbear and quickly exhaust themselves. +This seems to be the principal reason for the frequent failure of +Muscat vines grafted on resistant stock. The cultural conditions also +affect the vine in this respect. Vines made vigorous by rich soil, +abundant moisture, and thorough cultivation require longer pruning +than weaker vines of the same variety.</p> + +<p>The normal size of the bunch is also of importance. This size will +vary from one-quarter of a pound to 2 or 3 pounds. It is difficult to +obtain a full crop from a variety whose bunches are very small without +the use of fruit canes. Spurs will not furnish enough fruit buds +without crowding them inconveniently. On the other hand, some shipping +grapes may bear larger crops when pruned long, but the bunches and +berries may be too small for the best quality.</p> + +<p>The possibilities of development vary much with different varieties. A +Mission or Flame Tokay may be made to cover a quarter of an acre and +develop a trunk four or five feet in circumference. A Zinfandel vine +under the same conditions would not reach a tenth of this size in the +same time. Vines in a rich valley soil will grow much larger than on a +poor hillside. The size and shape of the trunk must be modified +accordingly and adapted to the available room or number of vines to +the acre.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>The shape of the vine must be such as to protect it as much as +possible from various unfavorable conditions. A variety susceptible to +oïdium, like the Carignane, must be pruned so that the fruit and +foliage are not unduly massed together. Free exposure to light and air +are a great protection in this respect. The same is true for varieties +like the Muscat, which have a tendency to "coulure" if the blossoms +are too moist or shaded. In frosty locations, a high trunk will be a +protection, as the air is always colder close to the ground.</p> + +<p>The qualities required in the crop also influence our choice of a +pruning system. With wine grapes, even, perfect ripening and full +flavor are desirable. These are obtained best by having the grapes at +a uniform height from the ground and as near to it as possible. The +same qualities are desirable in raisin grapes, with the addition of +large size of the berries. With shipping grapes, the size and +perfection of the berries and bunches are the most essential +characteristics. The vine, therefore, should be so formed that each +bunch hangs clear, free from injurious contact with canes or soil and +equally exposed to light and air.</p> + +<p>The maximum returns in crop depend on the early bearing of young +vines, the regularity of bearing of mature vines and the longevity of +the vineyard. These are insured by careful attention to all the +details of pruning, but are possible only when the vines are given a +suitable form.</p> + +<p>The running expenses of a vineyard depend in a great measure on the +style of pruning adopted. Vines of suitable form are cultivated, +pruned and the crop gathered easily and cheaply. This depends also +both on the form of vine adopted and on care in details.</p> + +<p>It is impossible, therefore, to state for any particular variety or +any particular location the best style of pruning to be adopted. All +that can be done is to give the general characteristics of the variety +and to indicate how these may be modified by grafting, soil or +climatic or other conditions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>The most important characteristic of the variety in making a choice of +a pruning system is whether it normally or usually requires short, +half-long, or long pruning. With this idea, the principal grapes grown +in California, together with all those grown at the Experiment Station +on which data exist, have been divided into five groups in the +following list:</p> + +<ul> +<li>1. <em>Varieties which require long pruning under all +conditions.</em>—Clairette blanche, Corinth white and black, Seedless +Sultana, Sultanina white (Thompson's Seedless) and rose.</li> + +<li>2. <em>Varieties which usually require long pruning.</em>—Bastardo, Boal de +Madeira, Chardonay, Chauché gris and noir, Colombar, Crabbe's Black +Burgundy, Durif, Gamais, Kleinberger, Luglienga, Marsanne, Marzemino, +Merlot, Meunier, Muscadelle de Bordelais, Nebbiolo, Pagadebito, +Peverella, Pinots, Rieslings, Robin noir, Ruländer, Sauvignon blanc, +Semillon, Serine, Petite Sirah, Slancamenca, Steinschiller, Tinta Cao, +Tinta Madeira, Trousseau, Verdelho, Petit Verdot, Wälcherisling.</li> + +<li>3. <em>Varieties which usually require short pruning.</em>—Aleatico, +Aligoté, Aspiran, Bakator, Bouschets, Blaue Elbe, Beba, Bonarda, +Barbarossa, Catarattu, Charbono, Chasselas, Freisa, Frontignan, +Furmint, Grand noir, Grosseblaue, Green Hungarian, Malmsey, Mantuo, +Monica, Mission, Moscatello fino, Mourisco branco, Mourisco preto, +Negro amaro, Palomino, Pedro Zumbon, Perruno, Pizzutello di Roma, +Black Prince, West's White Prolific, Quagliano, Rodites, Rozaki, Tinta +Amarella, Vernaccia bianca, Vernaccia Sarda.</li> + +<li>4. <em>Varieties which require short pruning under all +conditions.</em>—Aramon, Burger, Chardonay, Chauché gris and noir, +Colombar, Crabbe's Black Burgundy, Durif, Black Morocco, Mourastel, +Muscat of Alexander, Napoleon, Picpoule blanc and noir, Flame Tokay, +Ugni blanc, Verdal, Zinfandel.</li> + +<li>5. <em>Varieties of table grapes which usually require half-long or +cordon pruning.</em>—Almeria (Ohanez), Bellino, Bermestia bianca<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> and +violacea, Cipro nero, Dattier de Beirut, Cornichon, Emperor, Black +Ferrara, Malaga, Olivette de Cadenet, Pis-de-Chevre blanc, +Schiradzouli, Zabalkanski.</li> +</ul> + +<p>These lists must not be taken as indicating absolutely for all cases +how these varieties are to be pruned. They simply indicate their +natural tendencies. Certain methods and conditions tend to make vines +more fruitful. Where these occur, shorter pruning than is indicated +may be advisable. On the other hand, other methods and conditions tend +to make the vines vigorous at the expense of fruitfulness. Where these +occur, longer pruning may be advisable.</p> + +<p>The more usual factors which tend towards <em>fruitfulness</em> are:</p> + +<ul> +<li>Grafting on resistant vines, especially on certain varieties such as +those of Riparia and Berlandieri;</li> + +<li>Old age of the vines;</li> + +<li>Mechanical or other injuries to any part of the vine;</li> + +<li>Large development of the trunk, as in the cordon systems.</li> +</ul> + +<p>The more usual factors which tend towards <em>vigor</em> at the expense of +fruitfulness are:</p> + +<ul> +<li>Rich soil, especially large amounts of humus and nitrogen;</li> + +<li>Youth of the vines;</li> + +<li>Excessive irrigation or rainfall (within limits).</li> +</ul> + +<p>In deciding what system of pruning to adopt, all these factors, +together with the nature of the vine and the uses to which the fruit +is to be put, must be considered. It is best when the vineyard is +started to err on the side of short pruning. While this may diminish +slightly the first one or two crops, the vines will gain in vigor and +the loss will be made up in subsequent crops. If the style of pruning +adopted results in excessive vigor of the vines, it should be +gradually changed in the direction of longer pruning with the object +of utilizing this vigor in the production of crop.</p> + +<p>This change should be gradual, or the risk is run of injuring the +vitality of the vines by one or two excessively heavy crops.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +Finally, each year the condition of the individual vine should +determine the kind of pruning to be adopted. If the vine appears weak, +from whatever cause, it should be pruned shorter or given less spurs +or fruit canes than the year before. On the contrary, if it appears +unnecessarily vigorous, more or longer spurs or fruit canes should be +left. Every vine should be judged by itself. It is not possible to +give more than general directions for the pruning of the whole +vineyard. It cannot be well pruned unless the men who do the actual +pruning are capable of using sufficient judgment to properly modify +their methods for each individual vine.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 328px;"> +<a name="Plate_XIV" id="Plate_XIV"></a> +<img src="images/plate14.jpg" width="328" height="500" alt="Plate XIV." title="Plate XIV." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XIV.</span>—Eaton (×<span class="frac_top">4</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">5</span>).</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER X</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA</p> + + +<p>As we have seen, there were many efforts to grow European grapes in +America during the first two centuries in the settlement of the +country. The various attempts, some involving individuals, others +corporations and in early days even colonies, form about the most +instructive and dramatic episodes in the history of American +agriculture. All endeavors, it will be remembered, were failures, so +dismally and pathetically complete that we are wont to think of the +two hundred years from the first settlements in America to the +introduction of the Isabella, a native grape, as time wasted in futile +culture of a foreign fruit. The early efforts were far from wasted, +however, for out of the tribulations of two centuries of grape-growing +came the domestication of our native grapes, one of the most +remarkable achievements of agriculture.</p> + +<p>The advent of Isabella and Catawba wholly turned the thoughts of +vineyardists from Old World to New World grapes. So completely, +indeed, were viticulturists won by the thousand and more native +grapes, that for the century which followed no one has planted Old +World grapes east of the Rockies, while vineyards of native species +may be found North and South from the Atlantic to the Pacific.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, much new knowledge has come to agriculture, old fallacies +have received many hard knocks and chains of tradition in which the +culture of plants was bound, have been broken. In no field of +agriculture have workers received greater aid from science than in +viticulture. Particularly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> is this true of the diseases of the vine. +The reports of the old experimenters were much the same, "a sickness +takes hold of the vines and they die." What the sickness was and +whether there were preventatives or remedies, no one knew a hundred +years ago. But in the last half century we have learned much about the +ills of grapes and now know preventatives or remedies for most of +them. We know also that the early vine-growers failed, in part at +least, because they followed empirical European practices. Is it not +possible that with the new knowledge we can now grow European grapes +in eastern America? The New York Agricultural Experiment Station has +put this question to test, with results indicating that European +grapes may now be grown successfully in eastern America. The following +is an account of the work with this fruit at the New York Station.</p> + + +<h4>European Grapes at the New York Experiment Station<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></h4> + +<p>In the spring of 1911, the Station obtained cuttings of 101 varieties +of European grapes from the United States Department of Agriculture +and the University of California. The cuttings obtained were grafted +on the roots of a heterogeneous collection of seedlings, five years +set, representing a half dozen species of Vitis. These stocks had +little to recommend them except that all were vigorous, well +established and all were more immune to phylloxera than the Old World +varieties. From four to six grafts of each of the hundred varieties +were made and a stand of 380 vines resulted, the percentage of loss +being exceedingly small. The success in grafting was probably due to +the method used, the value of which had been proved in previous work +on the Station grounds. The method of grafting and details of care +follow: </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Details of care.</em></h6> + +<p>In grafting, the earth was removed from the plants to a depth of two +or three inches. The vines were sawed squarely off below the surface +of the ground. The stock was then split for a cleft graft. Two cions, +made as described on <a href="#Page_46">page 46</a>, were inserted in each cleft and tied in +place with waxed string. Wax was not used as it does not stick in +grafting grapes, because of the bleeding of the stock. After setting +the cion, the earth was replaced and enough more of it used to cover +stock and cion to prevent evaporation. This method of grafting is +available to those who have old vineyards. It is so simple that the +veriest tyro can thus graft grapes. Were young plants or cuttings used +as stocks, some method of bench grafting would, of course, be resorted +to.</p> + +<p>The cultivation and spraying were precisely that given native grapes. +There has been no coddling of vines. The fungous diseases which helped +to destroy the vineyards and vexed the souls of the old experimenters +were kept in check by two sprayings with bordeaux mixture; the first +application was made just after the fruit set, the second when the +grapes were two-thirds grown. Some years a third spraying with a +tobacco concoction was used to keep thrips in check. Phylloxera was +present in the vineyard but none of the varieties seemed to suffer +from this pest. The stocks used were not those best suited either to +the vines grafted on them or to resist phylloxera. Unquestionably some +of the standard sorts used in France and California from <em>Vitis +rupestris</em> or <em>Vitis vulpina</em>, or hybrids of these species, would give +better results. From theoretical consideration, it would seem that the +<em>Vitis vulpina</em> stocks should be best suited to the needs of eastern +America.</p> + +<p>It was thought by the old experimenters that European grapes failed in +New York because of unfavorable climatic conditions. It was said that +the winters were too cold and the sum<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>mers too hot and dry for this +grape. During the years the Station vineyard of Viniferas has been in +existence, there have been stresses of all kinds of weather to which +the variable climate of New York is subject. Two winters have been +exceedingly cold, killing peach and pear trees; one summer gave the +hottest weather and hottest day in twenty-five years; the vines have +withstood two severe summer droughts and three cold, wet summers. +These test seasons have proved that European grapes will stand the +climate of New York as well as the native varieties except in the +matter of cold; they must have winter protection.</p> + +<p>To growers of American grapes, the extra work of winter protection +seems to be an insuperable obstacle. The experience of several seasons +in New York shows that winter protection is a cheap and simple matter. +Two methods have been used; vines have been covered with earth and +others have been wrapped with straw. The earth covering is cheaper and +more efficient. The vines are pruned and placed full length on the +ground and covered with a few inches of earth. The cost of winter +protection will run from two to three cents a vine. Since European +vines are much more productive than those of American grapes, the +added cost of winter protection is more than offset by the greater +yield of grapes. Trellising, also, is simpler and less expensive for +the European grapes, helping further to offset the cost of winter +protection.</p> + +<h6><em>Pruning.</em></h6> + +<p>It is apparent at once that European grapes must have special +treatment in pruning if they are to be laid on the ground annually. +Several modifications of European and California practices can be +employed in the East to bring the plants in condition for winter +laying-down. All methods of pruning must have this in common; new wood +must be brought up from the base of the plant every year to permit +bending the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> plant. This can be done by leaving a replacing spur at +the base of the trunk. If two-eye cions are used when the plants are +grafted and both buds grow, the shoot from the upper can be used to +form the main trunk, while that from the lower bud will supply the +replacing spur. Each year all but one of the canes coming from this +spur are removed and the remaining one is cut back to one or two buds +until the main trunk begins to be too stiff to bend down readily, then +one cane from the spur is left for a new trunk and another is pruned +for a new renewal spur.</p> + +<p>The main trunk is carried up only to the lower wire of the trellis. At +the winter pruning, two one-year canes are selected to be tied along +this wire, one on each side, and the two renewal spurs chosen for +tying up and new renewal spurs left. For the best production, +different varieties require different lengths of fruit canes, but the +work at Geneva has not progressed far enough so that recommendations +can be made for particular varieties. It has been found best, however, +to prune weak vines heavily and vigorous ones lightly. Under normal +conditions, from four to eight buds are left on each cane, depending +on the vigor of the vine. With some of the older seedlings used for +stocks in 1911 which were so large that two cions were used, and in +many of those where the roots seemed to have sufficient vigor to +support the larger top, two trunks were formed, one from each graft. +By spreading these into a V and making the inner arms shorter, very +satisfactory results were secured.</p> + +<p>The type of growth in Vinifera is different from that of native +grapes. The young shoots which spring from the one-year canes, instead +of trailing to the ground or running out along the trellis wires, grow +erect. Advantage must be taken of this in the pruning system adopted +in the East. The canes and the renewal spurs as described above are +tied along the lower wire; then the young shoots which come from these +grow upward to the second wire. When the shoots are four to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> six +inches above this wire, they are pinched off just above the wire and +any which have not already fastened themselves are tied to prevent the +wind breaking them off. At the same time, if any of the axial buds on +the shoots have begun to form secondary shoots, they are rubbed off, +beginning with the node next above the upper cluster and going down to +the old cane. This gives the cluster more room and better light. Soon +after the first heading-back, the upper buds of the young shoot start +lateral growth. The secondary branches usually grow upright and when +they are several inches high they are topped with a sickle. This +heading-back results in stockier and more mature canes for the +following year, and if properly done adds to the fruitfulness of the +vine and the fruit matures better.</p> + +<h6><em>General considerations.</em></h6> + +<p>The grower of European grapes grafted on American vines may be +prepared to be surprised at the growth the vines make. At the end of +the first season, the grafts attain the magnitude of full-sized vines; +the second season they begin to fruit more or less abundantly, and the +third year they produce approximately the same number of bunches as a +Concord or Niagara vine; and, as the bunches of most varieties are +larger than those of the American grapes, the yield, therefore, is +greater. The European varieties, also, may be set more closely than +the American sorts, since they are seldom such rampant growers.</p> + +<p>It is too early to reason from this short experiment that we are to +grow varieties of European grapes commonly in the East, but the +behavior of the vines under discussion seems to indicate that we may +do so. At the New York Station, the European varieties are as vigorous +and thrifty as American vines and quite as easily managed. Why may we +not grow these grapes if we protect them from phylloxera, fungi and +cold? In Europe, there are varieties of grapes for nearly every soil +and condition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> in the southern half of the continent. In eastern +Europe and western Asia, the vines must be protected just as they must +be protected here. It seems almost certain that from the many sorts +selected to meet the various conditions of Europe, we shall be able to +find kinds to meet the diverse soils and climates of this continent. +And here we have one of the chief reasons for wishing to grow these +grapes that American grape-growing may not be so localized as at +present. Probably we shall find that European grapes can be grown +under a greater diversity of conditions than native varieties.</p> + +<p>The culture of European grapes in the East gives this region +essentially a new fruit. If any considerable degree of success attends +their culture, wine-making in eastern America will be revolutionized, +for the European grapes are far superior to the native sorts for this +purpose. Varieties of these grapes have a higher sugar- and +solid-content than do those of the American species and for this +reason, as a rule, keep longer. We may thus expect that through these +grapes the season for this fruit will be extended. The European +varieties are better flavored, possessing a more delicate and a richer +vinous flavor, a more agreeable aroma, and are lacking in the acidity +and the obnoxious foxy taste of many American grapes. Many consumers +of fruit will like them better and the demand for grapes thus will be +increased.</p> + +<p>The advent of the European grape in the vineyards of eastern America +ought to greatly increase the production of hybrids between this +species and the American species of grapes. As we have seen, there are +many such hybrids, but curiously enough scarcely more than a half +dozen varieties of European grapes have been used in crossing. Most of +these have been greenhouse grapes and not those that could be expected +to give best results for vineyard culture. As we come to know the +varieties best adapted to American conditions, we ought to be able to +select European parents to better advantage<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> than we have done in the +past and by using them produce better hybrid sorts.</p> + +<h6><em>Varieties.</em></h6> + +<p>From the eighty-five varieties of European grapes now fruiting on the +grounds of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, the following +are named as worth trying in the East for table grapes: Actoni, +Bakator, Chasselas Golden, Chasselas Rose, Feher Szagos, Gray Pinot, +Lignan Blanc, Malvasia, Muscat Hamburg, Palomino and Rosaki. These and +other European grapes are described in <a href="#Page_330">Chapter XVIII</a>; Chasselas Golden +and Malvasia are illustrated in <a href="#Plate_V">Plate V</a>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 327px;"> +<a name="Plate_XV" id="Plate_XV"></a> +<img src="images/plate15.jpg" width="327" height="500" alt="Plate XV." title="Plate XV." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XV.</span>—Eclipse (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER XI</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">GRAPES UNDER GLASS</p> + + +<p>Grape-growing under glass is on the decline in America. Forty or fifty +years ago the industry was a considerable one, grapes being rather +commonly grown near all large cities for the market, and nearly every +large estate possessing a range of glass had a grapery. But grapes are +better and more cheaply grown in Europe than in America, and the +advent of quick transportation permits English, French and Belgian +grape-growers to send their wares to American markets more cheaply +than they can be grown at home. For the present, the world war has +stopped the importation of luxuries from Europe, and American +gardeners ought to find the culture of grapes under glass profitable; +they may expect also to be able to hold the markets for many years to +come because of the destruction of Belgian houses and the shortage of +labor in Europe resulting from the war.</p> + +<p>Amateur gardeners ought never to let the culture of grapes under glass +wane, since the hot-house grape is the consummation of the gardener's +skill. Certainly the forcing of no other fruit yields such generous +rewards. Grapes grown under glass are handsomer in appearance and +better in quality than those grown out-of-doors. The clusters often +attain enormous size, a weight of twenty to thirty pounds being not +uncommon. The impression prevails that to grow grapes under glass, one +must have expensive houses; this is not necessary, and "hot-house +grapes" is a misnomer, the fruit really being grown in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> cold or +relatively cool houses which need not be expensive. Grapes are grown +under glass with greater ease and certainty than is imagined by those +who form the opinion from buying the fruit at high prices in +delicatessen stores. A grapery need not be an expensive luxury, and +the culture of grapes under glass can be recommended to persons of +moderate means who are looking for a horticultural hobby.</p> + + +<h4>The Grapery</h4> + +<p>Almost any of the various modifications of greenhouses can be adapted +to growing grapes. Firms constructing greenhouses usually have had +experience in building graperies, and, as a rule, it will pay to have +these professional builders put up the house. If the actual work is +not done by a builder, it is possible to purchase plans and estimates, +from which, if sufficiently detailed, local builders can work. On +small places there is no doubt that the lean-to houses are most +suitable, being inexpensive and furnishing protection from prevailing +winds. These lean-tos should face the south and may be built against +the stable, garage or other building; or better, a brick or stone wall +to the north may be erected. It is possible to build a small grapery +as a lean-to out of hot-house sash.</p> + +<p>In commercial establishments and for large estates, where the grapery +must be more or less ornamental, a span-roof house is rather better +adapted to the grapery than a lean-to, especially if the house is not +to be used for the production of grapes early in the season. On +account of the exposure of the span-roof house on all sides, however, +rather more skill must be exercised in growing grapes in them than in +the better protected lean-to grapery. Whatever the house, it must be +so constructed as to furnish an abundance of light, a requisite in +which much is gained by having large-size glasses for the glazing. The +glass must be of the best quality, otherwise the foliage and fruit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +may be blistered by the sun's rays being focused through defective +spots.</p> + +<p>Light, heat, moisture and good ventilation are all required in the +grapery. Brick or stone are preferable to woodwork, as heat and +moisture in the grapery are quickly destructive to wood foundations. +If wood is used, only the most durable kinds should enter into the +construction of the house. The under structure of masonry or of wood +should be low, not higher than 18 inches or 2 feet before the +superstructure of glass begins. The grapery must be well ventilated. +There must be large ventilators at the peak of the house and small +ones just above the foundation walls or in the foundation walls +themselves. The ventilation should be such that the house can be kept +free from draughts or sudden changes of temperature, as the grape +under glass is a sensitive plant, and subject to mildew. Plenty of +air, therefore, is an absolute necessity to the grapes, especially +during the ripening of the fruit. The lower ventilators in graperies +are seldom much used until the grapes begin to color, at which time +the new growth, foliage and fruit are hardened, but from this time on +upper and lower ventilators must be so manipulated that the houses are +always generously aired.</p> + +<p>Grapes can be forced in cold houses without the aid of artificial heat +and formerly these cold graperies were very popular; but in the modern +houses for growing this fruit, artificial heat is now considered a +necessity, even though the heating apparatus may seldom be in use. For +a finely finished product, a little heat to warm the room and dry the +atmosphere may be absolutely necessary at a critical time, this often +saving a house of grapes. Of heating apparatus, little need be said. +Standard boilers for heating greenhouses with either steam or hot +water are now to be purchased of many designs for almost every style +and condition of house. Since the grapery seldom requires high heat, +hot water is rather to be preferred to steam,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> although there is no +objection to steam, especially if the grapery is a part of a large +range of glass.</p> + +<h6><em>The border.</em></h6> + +<p>The border in which the vines are to be planted is the most important +part of the grapery. All subsequent efforts fail if the border lacks +in two imperatives, good drainage and a soil that is rich but not too +rich. The grapery must be built on well-drained land or elevated above +the ground to permit the construction of a properly drained border. +"Border," in the sense of its being a strip or a narrow bed just +inside the house, is now a misnomer, though the name undoubtedly comes +from the fact that narrow beds inside the house were at one time used +in which to plant vines. The border in a modern grapery now occupies +all of the ground surface inside the house and may extend several feet +outside the house.</p> + +<p>Much skill is required in building the border. A good formula is: Six +parts loamy turf from an old pasture; one part of well-rotted cow +manure; one part of old plaster and one part of ground bone. These +ingredients are composted and if the work is well done will meet very +well the soil and food requirements of the grape. This formula can be +varied according to soil conditions and somewhat in accordance with +the variety planted. Unless natural drainage is well-nigh perfect, the +border must be under-drained with tile and in any case a layer of old +brick or stone is needful to make certain that the drainage is +perfect. At least two feet, better three feet, of the border compost +should be placed above the drainage material. In a border made as +described, the grape finds ample root-run, but not too much, as in a +surprisingly short time roots are found throughout all parts of this +extensive border.</p> + +<p>The care of the border is a matter of considerable moment and varies, +of course, with those in charge. The usual procedure is to spade the +outside border, if the border extends outside,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> before winter, after +which it is covered with a coating of well-rotted manure, without any +particular attempt having been made to keep out the frost, as a +certain amount of freezing outside of the house is held to be +beneficial. The inside border must be spaded just before the vines are +started in the spring, having been covered previously with well-rotted +manure. The time at which the vines are to be started in growth is +determined by whether an early or a late crop of grapes is wanted. For +an early crop, the vines must be started early in February; for a late +crop, a month or even two months later suffices. So started, the first +crop of grapes comes on in June or July, the later ones following in +August or September.</p> + +<p>It is related that Napoleon I, to secure saltpetre for making +gunpowder, composted "filth, dead animals, urine and offal with +alternate layers of turf and lime mortar," and asserted that "a +nitre-bed is the very pattern of a vine-border" and that "when the +materials have been turned over and over again for a year or two they +are in exactly the proper state to yield either gunpowder or grapes." +Napoleon's niter-bed is not now considered a good model for a +grape-border, as the fruit produced in so rich a soil, though +abundant, is coarse and poorly flavored, and the vines complete their +own destruction by over-bearing. Gardeners hold that a grape-border +may be too rich in plant-food, especially too rich in nitrogen.</p> + + +<h4>Varieties</h4> + +<p>Out of the 2000 or more Vinifera grapes, probably not more than a +score are grown under glass, and of these but a half dozen are +commonly grown. Black varieties have the preference for indoors, +especially if grown for the market, where they bring the highest +prices. They are also as a rule more easily handled indoors than the +white sorts. However, as we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> shall see, one or two white kinds are +indispensable in a house of any considerable size.</p> + +<p>Of black grapes, Black Hamburg carries the palm of merit because it is +most easily grown, best stands neglect, is a heavy producer, sets its +fruit well, the grapes mature early; and, in particular, it meets the +requirements of the unskilled gardener better than any other grape. +The clusters are not as large and the flavor not as good as that of +some other sorts.</p> + +<p>Muscat of Alexandria is the best of the white varieties. It is, +however, a hard grape to handle since it requires a high temperature +to bring it to perfection, is a little shy in setting fruit and the +grapes are not very certain in coming to maturity; it also requires a +long season. A good quality is that it may be kept long after cutting, +much longer than Black Hamburg.</p> + +<p>For an earlier white grape, Buckland Sweetwater has much to recommend +it; it ripens from two to three weeks earlier than Muscat of +Alexandria and is much more easily grown. It is good in quality but +not of high quality. Buckland Sweetwater may be well grown in the +house with Black Hamburg, whereas it is almost impossible to grow +Muscat of Alexandria in the same house with Black Hamburg.</p> + +<p>Muscat Hamburg is a cross between Black Hamburg and Muscat of +Alexandria, and is an intermediate in most fruit characters between +these two standard sorts. It is not, however, very generally grown, +although it well deserves to be because of its large, beautiful, +tapering clusters of black grapes of finest quality.</p> + +<p>Grizzly Frontignan adds novelty to luxury in the list of indoor +grapes. The fruits are mottled pink in color, deepening sometimes to a +dark shade of pink, and are borne in long, slender clusters. The +grapes ripen early and are unsurpassed in quality but are, all in all, +rather difficult to grow.</p> + +<p>Barbarossa and Gros Colman are the two best late black grapes, +especially for those who are ambitious to grow clusters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> of large size +with large berries. Both are very good in quality. Neither of the two +is particularly easy to grow, since they require a long time to ripen; +but, to offset this, both keep longer than any other sorts after +ripening. Because of the large size of the berries, thinning must +begin early and must be rather more severe than with other grapes. +This variety is now largely grown in England for exportation to this +country in early spring.</p> + +<p>White Nice and Syrian are two white sorts which attain largest size in +clusters, specimens weighing thirty pounds being not infrequent, but +are coarse and poor in quality and are, therefore, hardly worth +growing.</p> + +<p>Alicante is a black sort often grown for the sake of variety, since it +departs from the Vinifera type rather markedly in flavor. The grapes +have very thick skins and may be kept longer than those of any other +variety.</p> + +<p>Lady Downs is another late-keeping black grape of highest quality, but +difficult to grow. The bunches and berries are small in comparison +with other standard sorts, characters that do not commend the variety +to most gardeners.</p> + +<p>Perhaps a dozen more sorts might be named worthy of trial in American +graperies, but the list given covers the needs of commercial +establishments and will meet the wants of most amateur growers.</p> + + +<h4>Planting and Training</h4> + +<p>Two-year-old vines are most commonly planted. The vines are set inside +the house at least a foot from the walls and four feet apart. The +grapery must be built on piers with spaces of at least two feet +between, and the vines are placed opposite these openings in the +foundation. When planted, the vines are cut back to two or three buds, +and when these start the strongest are selected for training, the +others being rubbed off.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> The grapery must be strung with wires +running lengthwise of the house at about fifteen inches from the +glass. Greenhouse supply merchants furnish at a low price cast iron +brackets to be fastened to the rafters to hold these wires. As the +growing vines reach one wire after another, they are tied with raffia +to hold them in place. Usually, young vines will reach the peak of the +house by midsummer, and as soon as this goal is attained must be +pinched so that the cane may thicken up and store food in the lateral +buds for the coming season. When the wood is well matured, the vine is +cut back to half or one-third its length, depending on the variety, +laid on the ground and covered for the winter. An item of no small +importance in winter care is to keep out mice, this pest being +inordinately fond of grape buds, and once the buds are destroyed the +vines are ruined for the coming season.</p> + +<p>The second year's work is largely a repetition of that of the first. +The vines are permitted to reach the peak of the house and are again +stopped by pinching. A considerable number of laterals spring up on +each side of the main vine, and these must be thinned as they develop +to stand at the distance apart of the wires to which they are +fastened. This is pre-supposing that the gardener has chosen the spur +method of pruning, the method generally used in America and the one, +all things considered, which gives best results. The selection of the +laterals the second year, therefore, is a matter of much importance +since spurs are to be developed from them. Care should be taken to +have these spurs regularly distributed over the length of the vine. +This second year, grapes must not be permitted to develop on the +terminal shoots, but a few clusters may be taken from the laterals in +which case the laterals are pinched two buds beyond the cluster, the +pinching continuing throughout the season if the laterals persist in +breaking, as they will do in most cases. At the end of the season, the +terminal is shortened at least one-half, and the laterals are pinched +back<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> to a bud as close as possible to the main stem. The vines are +then put down for the winter as at the close of the first season.</p> + +<p>The work of the third season is a repetition of that of the second, +with the exception that the vine is permitted to fruit throughout its +whole length, although not more than one pound of fruit to a foot of +main vine is permitted. The plants are now established and the only +pruning in this and succeeding years is to cut the laterals at the +close of each season close to the main stem, leaving strong healthy +buds of which at least one, usually more, will be found close to the +stem. If more than one bud starts, only the strongest is chosen, +although often an extra one is needed to fill a vacancy on the +opposite side. After the third or fourth season, depending somewhat on +the variety, two pounds of fruit or more to the foot of the main stem +can be permitted. The novice, however, is likely to permit his vines +to overbear with the result that the crop is cast, or the berries +rattle, or the fruit turns sour before ripening. From the beginning to +the finish of the season, in this method of pruning, much pinching of +laterals is required. No hard and fast rule can be laid down for this +pinching, but, roughly speaking, all new growth beyond the second +joint from the cluster should be pinched out as fast as it shows. With +most varieties, this means that the lateral is kept about eighteen +inches from the main stem. After a few years, well-developed spurs +form at the base of the original laterals, and from these spurs the +new wood comes year after year.</p> + +<p>An alternative method of pruning is to permit the new canes to grow up +from a bud near the ground each season. When the vine is well +established, this new cane is fruited throughout its entire length, +the laterals being pinched as described under the spur method. This +method of pruning is known as "the long cane method." Gardeners hold +that they can grow better fruit with this than with the spur method, +but the difficulties are greater and the crop is not as large.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p> +<h4>Care of the Vines</h4> + +<p>With the cultivation of all varieties indoors, more clusters set than +the vines can carry. This means that a part of the clusters must be +removed, an operation that depends on the variety and one that +requires experience and judgment on the part of the gardener. Roughly +speaking, half the clusters are taken, leaving the other half as +evenly distributed on each side of the vine as possible. The time to +take these clusters is also a delicate matter, since some sorts are +shy in setting and the clusters must not be taken until the berries +are formed and it can be seen how large the crop will be. As a rule, +however, this thinning of clusters may be begun as soon as the form of +the cluster can be seen.</p> + +<p>It is very necessary also, especially with all sorts bearing large +berries, that grapes be thinned in the cluster. The time to thin the +cluster varies with the variety. Sorts which set fruit freely can be +thinned sooner than those which are shy in setting. On the one hand, +the thinning must not be done too soon as it cannot be told until the +berries are of fair size which have set seed and which have not; +however, if thinning is neglected too long, the berries become +over-crowded and the task becomes difficult. The thinning is performed +with slender scissors, and the bunches must not be touched with the +hand, as touching impairs the bloom and disfigures the fruit. The +clusters are turned and steadied by a small piece of pencil-shaped +wood. Thinning is practiced not only to permit the berries to attain +their full size but also to permit the bunches to attain as great size +as possible. If too severely thinned, the clusters flatten out after +maturity. This is especially the case when too many berries are taken +from the center of the bunch. A large cluster of grapes is made up of +several small clusters, making it necessary to tie up the upper +clusters or shoulders of the bunch to permit the berries to swell +without<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> being thinned too severely. Grapes intended for long keeping +require more thinning than those to be used at once after picking, +since, in keeping, the berries mold or damp-off in the center of the +bunch if it is too compact.</p> + +<p>The vines in the grapery must be watered with considerable care. The +amount of water to be used depends on the composition of the borders +and the season of growth. If the border is loose and well-drained, the +supply of water must be large; if close and retentive, but a small +amount of moisture is required. Watering must not be done during the +period of blossoming, since dry air is necessary for proper +pollination. When the grapes begin to show color, the vines are +heavily watered, after which little if any water is applied. Some +gardeners mulch the vines with hay to retain the moisture in the house +and keep the atmosphere dry.</p> + +<p>Ventilating the grapery is another important detail of the season's +work. Proper ventilation is difficult to secure in the early spring +months when the dryness of the sun on the one hand, and cold air on +the other, make it difficult to avoid draughts and regulate the +temperature. Another troublesome time is when the grapes begin to +color, as it is then necessary for the grapery to have air at night; +but when too much air enters, there is danger from mildew. Towards the +end of the season, all parts of the plant become harder in texture and +the grapery may then be more generously aired. After the fruit is cut, +the houses are ventilated in full so that the wood may ripen properly.</p> + + +<h4>Pests</h4> + +<p>Several pests vex the gardener in growing grapes indoors. Of these, +mealy-bug, red-spider, thrips and mildew are most troublesome. In a +well-conducted grapery, there is never an intermission in the warfare +against these pests.</p> + +<p>Mealy-bug is usually a sign of sloth on the part of the gardener.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> In +a grapery devoted exclusively to grape-growing, it should never be +seen, but, since gardeners must often grow other plants in the +grapery, mealy-bug sooner or later appears and is often hard to +dislodge. It is best repelled by removing the loose bark on the trunks +which harbor the pest and then washing with kerosene emulsion. When +this becomes necessary, not only the vines but the rafters and all +parts of the house should be sprayed with the emulsion.</p> + +<p>Red-spider is another pest usually found in the grapery, but it +thrives only in a dry atmosphere and is easily gotten rid of by +syringing. As soon as red-spider appears in a house its appearance is +usually known by the reddish tinge on the foliage; syringing should be +kept up until the pest is disposed of, keeping the house damp in all +except dull weather. Syringing is done only when plenty of air can be +given and when it can be followed by sunlight so that the water +remains on the vines as short a time as possible.</p> + +<p>Thrips, another small insect, is sometimes troublesome but not often +and is now easily controlled by applications of nicotine. Much care +must be taken in the application of nicotine late in the season, +otherwise the fruit will be injured.</p> + +<p>The only fungous disease of the grape troublesome in the greenhouse is +mildew. Mildew is usually brought on by a sudden change of temperature +or by draughts in the grapery. Gardeners are of the opinion that east +winds, in particular, give unfavorable conditions for mildew and +prefer to open the ventilators to the west. If taken in time, mildew +is easily kept in check by preventing the conditions which favor it, +and by dusting the vines in dry sunshine with sulfur.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;"> +<a name="Plate_XVI" id="Plate_XVI"></a> +<img src="images/plate16.jpg" width="326" height="500" alt="Plate XVI." title="Plate XVI." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XVI.</span>—Elvira (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER XII</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL</p> + + +<p>In common with other cultivated fruits, grapes are at the mercy of +numerous insect and fungous pests unless man intervenes with remedial +or preventive treatment. Happily for viticulture, knowledge of the +pests of the vine has made such advancement in recent years that +practically all are now controlled by remedial or preventive measures. +Possibly no field of agriculture has had greater need, or received +greater aid from science in the study and control of insects and +diseases than grape-growing. A separate treatise would be required to +treat the pathological troubles of the grape fully; only such details +of the life histories of the several pests to be discussed as are +essential to a proper understanding of the control of the parasites +can be given here.</p> + + +<h4>Insect Pests</h4> + +<p>Insects troubling the grapes are numerous, at least 200 having been +described in America, most of which have their habitat on the wild +prototypes of the cultivated vines of this continent. For this reason, +with a few exceptions, the insect pests of the grape in America are +widely distributed, abundant, and, therefore, often very destructive +to vineyards unless vigorously combated. The many pestiferous species +vary greatly in importance, depending on locality, weather and the +variety. Phylloxera, however, the country over, is most common and +deserves first attention.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Phylloxera.</em></h6> + +<p>This minute sucking insect (<em>Phylloxera vastatrix</em>), injures the grape +by feeding on its roots. Decay usually follows its work on the roots +and is often more injurious than the harm done directly by the +parasite. This decay is always much more serious on European vines +than on those of our native species. The phylloxera is a native of the +United States east of the Rocky Mountains, from whence it was +introduced into France and from France into California, where it +causes much greater damage than elsewhere in the United States. +Wherever the pest is found, it is more injurious in heavy than in +sandy soils. In fact, in very sandy soils the vines are often +sufficiently resistant to be practically immune.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_36" id="Fig_36"></a> +<img src="images/fig36.jpg" width="250" height="247" alt="Fig. 36. Leaf-galls of the phylloxera." title="Fig. 36. Leaf-galls of the phylloxera." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 36.</span> Leaf-galls of the phylloxera.</span> +</div> + +<p>The life history of the phylloxera is very complex where the different +forms of the insect appear and need not be entered into in detail +here. East of the Rockies, the most evident indication of the presence +of the pest is great numbers of leaf-galls on the under side of the +leaves of the grape as shown in <a href="#Fig_36">Fig. 36</a>. These galls, however, are +seldom to be seen in California and are not present on Concords and +some other varieties in the East. The winter egg may be taken as the +beginning of the life cycle of the phylloxera. From a single winter +egg a colony may arise, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> first insect after hatching making its +way to the leaves where it becomes a gall-maker and gives rise to a +new generation of egg-laying root-feeders. On varieties and in regions +where the gall form is not found, the insect probably goes directly +from the winter egg to the roots. Once the pest is established on the +roots, generation follows generation throughout the growing period of +the vines, as many as seven or eight occurring in one season.</p> + +<p>From midsummer until the close of the growing season, some of the eggs +deposited by the root-feeders develop into nymphs which acquire wings +and emerge from the soil to form new colonies from eggs deposited on +the under side of the leaf. An individual insect deposits from three +to six eggs of two sizes, from the larger of which come the females +and these, after fertilization, move to the rough bark of the vine and +deposit the winter egg for the renewal of the cycle.</p> + +<p>Several methods of control have been employed in Europe and +California, as treatment by carbon bisulfide injected in the soil; +flooding in vineyards that can be irrigated; confining the vines to +sandy soils; and, most important, planting vines grafted on resistant +stocks, there being great variation in immunity of species of American +grapes to phylloxera. The subject of stocks resistant to this pest has +been discussed in <a href="#Page_61">Chapter IV</a> and need not be taken up again. East of +the Rockies, treatment is not necessary with American grapes.</p> + +<h6><em>The grape root-worm.</em></h6> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 78px;"> +<a name="Fig_37" id="Fig_37"></a> +<img src="images/fig37.jpg" width="78" height="100" alt="Fig. 37. The grape root-worm." title="Fig. 37. The grape root-worm." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 37.</span> The grape root-worm.</span> +</div> + +<p>The grape root-worm is the most harmful of the insect pests of grapes +in the grape-belt along the shores of Lake Erie in Ohio, Pennsylvania +and New York. This root-worm (<a href="#Fig_37">Fig. 37</a>) is the larva of a grayish-brown +beetle (<em>Fidia viticida</em>), shown in <a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a>. The worms feed at first +on the rootlets and later on the bark of the larger roots of the vines +so that the injured plants show roots de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>void of rootlets and bark +channeled by the pest. So plain is the work of the root-worm that the +grower never need be at a loss as to the cause of vines injured by +this pest. The worms feed during the latter part of the growing +season, reaching full growth at this time. The next June they +transform into pupæ and in late June or early July emerge as adult +beetles.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 81px;"> +<a name="Fig_38" id="Fig_38"></a> +<img src="images/fig38.jpg" width="81" height="100" alt="Fig. 38. Root-worm beetle." title="Fig. 38. Root-worm beetle." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 38.</span> Root-worm beetle.</span> +</div> + +<p>The presence of the adult beetles is more easily detected on the +foliage than is that of the larvæ on the roots, for the feeding +beetles ravenously devour the upper sides of the leaves, leaving +chain-like markings, shown in <a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39</a>, their destructiveness +decreasing somewhat after a few days from their first appearance. A +fortnight after the beetles begin their attack on the foliage the +female begins laying her eggs, to the number of 200, placing them +under the rough bark of trunk and cane. These hatch in late July or +August and the young grubs at once seek the roots.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 236px;"> +<a name="Fig_39" id="Fig_39"></a> +<img src="images/fig39.jpg" width="236" height="250" alt="Fig. 39. Injuries caused by beetles of the grape +root-worm." title="Fig. 39. Injuries caused by beetles of the grape +root-worm." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 39.</span> Injuries caused by beetles of the grape +root-worm.</span> +</div> + +<p>Two methods of control have been devised: destruction of the beetles +before they lay their eggs; and de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>struction of the pupæ while in the +ground. When the beetles are present in large numbers, many of them +may be destroyed by spraying with a mixture of cheap molasses and +arsenate of lead, using molasses at the rate of two gallons to a +hundred gallons of water and the arsenate of lead at the rate of six +pounds. This should be followed by a second spraying a week later, +using bordeaux mixture (4–4–50) and three pounds of arsenate of lead. +This second spray serves to repel migrating beetles from the vines. +The molasses spray is ineffective unless several days of fair weather +follow the spraying, as rain washes the material from the foliage. +Bordeaux mixture is not easily affected by rain. In moderately +infested vineyards, bordeaux mixture and arsenate are used instead of +molasses and arsenate of lead, followed in about ten days with a +second application of the same material.</p> + +<p>An effective method of reducing the number of beetles is the +destruction of the pupæ. This is best done by leaving a low ridge of +earth under the vines at the last seasonal cultivation to remain until +most of the larvæ have pupated, and then be leveled with a horse-hoe +and later with a harrow. The horse-hoe and harrow crush many of the +pupæ and break the cells of others to the great destruction of the +pest. This latter method of control is not adequate in itself and in +bad infestations both should be used. When the infestation is only +moderate, this latter method is not advised, owing to the lateness of +the time of horse-hoeing. It is good horticultural practice to +horse-hoe the latter part of May or early June. To wait for the pupal +stage of the root-worm delays the work until numerous small roots +start which would be destroyed by the horse-hoe. Spraying will control +a moderate infestation.</p> + +<h6><em>The grape-vine flea-beetle.</em></h6> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 114px;"> +<a name="Fig_40" id="Fig_40"></a> +<img src="images/fig40.jpg" width="114" height="250" alt="Fig. 40. Eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle." title="Fig. 40. Eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 40.</span> Eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle.</span> +</div> + +<p>In the warm days of May and June when the buds of grapes are swelling, +a shining steel-blue beetle may often be found in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> the vineyards of +eastern America feeding on the tender buds of the grape. From its +color the insect is often called the steely-beetle, and from its +activity and habit of jumping it is known as the flea-beetle (<em>Haltica +chalybea</em>). The vine is seldom seriously injured by this pest but many +buds are destroyed, causing the loss of the fruit that should have +developed from the buds. It is true that new buds often develop after +the injury, but these, as a rule, produce only foliage.</p> + +<p>The life history of the flea-beetle is such that the pest is not hard +to control, the chief steps in its development being as follows: The +beetles deposit small orange-colored eggs, cylindrical in form, +illustrated in <a href="#Fig_40">Fig. 40</a>, about the buds and in crevices of the bark of +the canes in May or June. Most of these eggs are hatched by the middle +of June. The larvæ feed upon the foliage until about July first and +then crawl to the ground in which they form cells and pupate. The +latter part of July the adults emerge and seek wild vines upon which +they feed, entering hibernation rather early in the fall. The beetles +hibernate under leaves, in rubbish and in the shelter of the bark of +trees and vines, but emerge in the warm days the following spring to +seek vineyards.</p> + +<p>Two methods of control have been developed to keep this pest under. +The vines should be sprayed with three pounds of arsenate of lead in +fifty gallons of water when the larvæ are feeding on the foliage; or +the beetles when feeding may be knocked into a pan containing a +shallow layer of kerosene. The former is the cheaper and more +effective method provided the grape-grower has the foresight to +discover the larvæ, since the larvæ of this summer produce the beetles +that will destroy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> the buds next spring. When the adults migrate from +wild vines, or the larvæ were not destroyed in the vineyard, +collecting the adults is the only practical method. The destruction of +wild vines near a vineyard helps to give immunity from this pest.</p> + +<h6><em>The rose-chafer.</em></h6> + +<p>The rose-chafer (<em>Macrodactylus subspinosus</em>), a long-legged beetle of +a yellowish-brown color, about a third of an inch in length, often +appears in vineyards in vast swarms toward the middle of June in +northern states and about two weeks earlier in southern states east of +the Rocky Mountains. Often they overrun gardens, orchards, vineyards +and nurseries, and usually, after having done a vast amount of damage +in the month of their devastating presence, the beetles disappear as +suddenly as they came. Vineyards on or near sandy soils are most often +infested, the larvæ of the beetle seeming to live in considerable +numbers only in these light soils. The chief damage to the grape is +done to the blossom; in fact the insects, after feeding on the +blossoms during the blossoming period, usually migrate to blossoms of +any one of several shrubs. The larvæ feed on the roots of grasses, +having particular liking for the roots of foxtail, timothy and +blue-grass.</p> + +<p>Some knowledge of the life history of these beetles is essential to +effective control. The beetles emerge as adults in June and after +feeding a short time begin to mate, although egg-laying does not take +place until the insects have been out for a fortnight or more. The +females burrow into the soil and deposit their eggs, seldom more than +twenty-five in number, which begin to hatch in about ten days. The +young larvæ feed during the remainder of the summer on roots of +grasses. They are seldom found deeper than six inches while feeding, +but as cold weather approaches they burrow deeper to avoid sudden +changes of temperature. The following spring they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> again come near the +surface to feed. The grubs form cells from which the pupæ emerge, as +we have seen, about the middle of June, timing their appearance very +closely to the blossoming of Concord grapes.</p> + +<p>The methods of control are three, namely: destruction of the larvæ; +cultivation to kill the pupæ; and spraying to kill the beetles. Since +the larvæ feed on the roots of grasses in sandy soils, it is easy to +locate the feeding ground of the pest and plant it to cultivated crops +which destroy the grasses and therefore the larvæ. The second method +of destruction is similar, consisting of cultivation to kill the pupæ. +This is accomplished by thorough cultivation during the pupating stage +to break the cells and crush the pupæ, thus preventing the emergence +of the beetles. The third method, however, is the most effective and +consists of spraying the vineyard with a sweetened arsenical spray. +The spraying should be done as soon as the beetles appear, using +arsenate of lead six pounds, molasses one gallon and water one hundred +gallons. It is often necessary to make a second application a week +later. If rain occurs within thirty-six hours after spraying, the +application should be repeated as soon as the weather clears.</p> + +<h6><em>The grape leaf-hopper.</em></h6> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_41" id="Fig_41"></a> +<img src="images/fig41.jpg" width="250" height="242" alt="Fig. 41. First four stages of the grape leaf-hopper. +(Enlarged.)" title="Fig. 41. First four stages of the grape leaf-hopper. +(Enlarged.)" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 41.</span> First four stages of the grape leaf-hopper. +(Enlarged.)</span> +</div> + +<p>From Canada to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, wherever +the grape is grown, the small leaf-hopper (<em>Typhlocyba comes</em>) infests +the grape in greater or less numbers, feeding on the lower surface of +the leaf. Grape-growers commonly call these insects "thrips," a name, +however, which really belongs to a very different class of insects. +The injury done by this pest varies greatly with the season and the +locality, in some regions it being comparatively harmless and in +others exceedingly destructive in seasons when it occurs in abundance. +There is great variation also in individual vineyards, those near +favorable hibernating places and early spring food plants<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> often being +injured seriously season after season in succession. These +leaf-hoppers obtain their food by piercing the epidermis on the under +side of the leaf surface and sucking the sap, and add further injury +by inserting their eggs underneath the skin of the leaf. The punctures +greatly decrease the starch-producing area of the leaf with the result +that the vigor of the plant is lowered, and the quality of the fruit +decreased.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_42" id="Fig_42"></a> +<img src="images/fig42.jpg" width="250" height="221" alt="Fig. 42. The fifth and the mature stages of the grape +leaf-hopper. (Enlarged.)" title="Fig. 42. The fifth and the mature stages of the grape +leaf-hopper. (Enlarged.)" /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 42.</span> The fifth and the mature stages of the grape +leaf-hopper. (Enlarged.)</span> +</div> + +<p>The life history of the leaf-hopper is very well known. The eggs are +deposited in June or early July, and hatch from June 15 to July 10 in +New York, the season being earlier or later as one goes south or +north. The young leaf-hoppers are wingless, the nymph stage, but reach +the adult stage in late July and August, at which time many of them +mate, and eggs are laid from which a second brood may develop, +although usually only one full brood is produced in a season in the +northern states. Figures <a href="#Fig_41">41</a> and <a href="#Fig_42">42</a> show the several life stages of the +leaf-hopper. Insects which become adults in the latter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> part of July +feed on the foliage until autumn and then seek winter quarters, +passing the winter in the adult stage under fallen leaves, in dead +grass or other similar protection. The hibernating place must be dry +and for this reason sandy knolls are most favored by the insects. The +adults emerge in the warm days of spring and then seek food first on +the strawberry, then migrate to red and black raspberries or +blackberries, if raspberries are not present. They remain upon these +hosts until the grape leaves expand and then migrate to these to feed, +lay their eggs and die.</p> + +<p>Three methods of control are in use to prevent the ravages of the +leaf-hopper: avoiding the planting of raspberries near grapes; +spraying with contact insecticides; and the destruction of hibernating +places. Since the leaf-hoppers feed especially on the raspberry before +the leaves of the grape have expanded in the spring, avoiding planting +these two plants near each other is a very effective method of +control. The contact spray must touch the body of the insect and must, +therefore, be applied before the nymphs develop wings. The best spray +is a half pint of Black Leaf 40 to a hundred gallons of water or +bordeaux mixture. It is applied to the under side of the foliage by a +trailing hose or by an automatic grape leaf-hopper spray devised by F. +Z. Hartzell and described in bulletin 344 of the New York Experiment +Station. The destruction of hibernating places is almost as effective +a method of control as spraying. All weeds and strong-stalked grasses +which die in the fall and all rubbish in the vineyard should be +destroyed. It is quite worth while, also, to burn leaves and rubbish +in fence rows and waste places near infested vineyards in the autumn +or early winter. Cover-crops which remain green during the winter do +not harbor the leaf-hoppers.</p> + +<h6><em>The grape-berry moth.</em></h6> + +<p>This pest is widely distributed, attacking the grape wherever grown in +North America. The insect feeds on all varieties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> but is especially +destructive to grapes with tender skins and such as grow in compact +bunches. Its work is detected usually in compact grape clusters where +a number of berries are injured by a "worm." The "worm" is a +dark-colored caterpillar, the larva of the grape-berry moth +(<em>Polychrosis viteana</em>.) There are two broods of this caterpillar, the +first of which feeds on the stems and external portions of the young +berries, while the second attacks the berries. The loss to the +fruit-grower is of two kinds, the loss of the fruit and the marring of +clusters which entails the cost of picking out worthless berries. +<a href="#Fig_43">Figure 43</a> shows the work of the grape-berry moth. The damage is +usually greatest near woodlands since the trees cause more snow to +lodge in the adjoining vineyards, this protection permitting a greater +percentage of pupæ to survive.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 138px;"> +<a name="Fig_43" id="Fig_43"></a> +<img src="images/fig43.jpg" width="138" height="250" alt="Fig. 43. A bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry +moth." title="Fig. 43. A bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry +moth." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 43.</span> A bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry +moth.</span> +</div> + +<p>The moth passes the winter in the pupal state on leaves underneath the +vine, emerging about the time grapes are blossoming. The sexes then +mate and the eggs are laid on the stems, blossom clusters and newly +set fruit. After reaching full growth, the caterpillars cut out a +portion of the leaf from which they make a pupal case by means of +silken threads, and here pupate for the second brood which emerges in +late July and August. Eggs are laid at once and from these come the +caterpillars which live entirely in the berry. The larvæ leave the +berries about the time the fruit is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> ripe, form cocoons on the leaves +and hibernate. The moths are small, brown in color, mottled with gray +and so much the color of the grape cane that they can hardly be +detected when resting on the wood.</p> + +<p>The grape-berry moth is difficult to control but much can be done to +curtail its ravages. Spraying after the fruit sets is the most +effective preventive. Bordeaux mixture should be used (4–4–50) to +which has been added one and one-half pounds of resin-fish-oil soap +and three pounds arsenate of lead. A second application of the same +spray is advisable in early August. In a small vineyard or with a +slight infestation, it often pays to pick and destroy the berries +infested by the spring brood. Plowing infested vineyards in late fall +or early spring to bury all leaves prevents the emergence of many of +the moths. To be effective, this practice must cover the leaves deeply +directly under the vines and this earth must remain until after the +time for the adults to emerge. Plowing under leaves is not as +effective on sandy as on heavy soils, since sandy soils do not become +sufficiently compact to prevent the escape of moths.</p> + +<h6><em>Insect pests of minor importance.</em></h6> + +<p>Of the 200 species of insects that feed more or less on the grape, +entomologists mention several others than those described that in +occasional years or localities become abundant and cause serious +injury. Thus, there are several species of cut-worms which sometimes +feed on the expanding buds of the young leaves of grapes. The damage +of these cut-worms to the grape is greater in California than in other +parts of the United States, but nevertheless they occasionally feed on +the vines in eastern regions to the detriment of the crop. The most +satisfactory control measure for cut-worms is the application of +poisoned bait placed on the ground at the base of the vines.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>In California there is a grape root-worm (<em>Adoxus obscurus</em>) quite +distinct from the grape root-worm of eastern America which injures +both the roots and the parts of the vine above ground. As in the +eastern species, the best evidence of infestation of this pest is the +narrow chain-like strips eaten out of the leaves, though the insect +also gouges out part of the petioles, pedicels, berries and shoots and +works under ground, eating the rootlets and bark of the larger roots. +Infested vines show a stunted condition, the canes fail to attain a +normal growth and often the vines are killed outright. As in the case +of the eastern species, this root-worm is the larva of a beetle, the +life history of the insect not being greatly different from that of +the eastern beetle. Two methods of control are fairly effective: the +adult beetles may be jarred from the vine and captured on a screen +when the infestation is restricted to small areas; or the beetles may +be poisoned with the arsenical spray recommended for the eastern +species. Both jarring and spraying often have to be repeated as new +infestations appear.</p> + +<p>The grape leaf-folder (<em>Desmia funeralis</em>) is another insect pest of +vineyards in California, and occasionally in the East, which works, +however, only in restricted localities and in occasional years. In +California, the insects are detected in a vineyard by the +characteristic rolling of the leaves in which a tube rather less than +the diameter of a lead pencil is formed for the home of the larvæ. The +larvæ feed on the free edge of the leaf in the interior of the roll +and are thus protected by the outer layers. In the East the +caterpillar merely folds the edges of the leaves together. This +leaf-folder hibernates as a chrysalis, coming forth in early spring to +lay eggs on the vine shortly after the foliage has appeared. There are +two broods in California and the northern states and three broods in +the southern states. The leaf-folder is easily disposed of by spraying +with an arsenical spray just after the eggs hatch and before the larva +is protected by its roll of leaves.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>Still another pest found throughout the United States and especially +destructive in California is the hawk-moth (<em>Pholus achemon</em>), the +larvæ of which occasionally do serious damage to small areas of vines. +These larvæ are very similar to the large worms, familiar to all, +which attack the tomato and tobacco. The insect hibernates in the +pupal state in the ground where it may be distinguished as a large +cylindrical object of dark brown color. The moths emerge about the +middle of May and deposit their eggs on the leaves of the grape, upon +which the larvæ when hatched immediately begin to feed. There are +several species of these hawk-moths, all of which have essentially the +same life history. It is not a difficult pest to control since the +larvæ are easily killed with arsenical sprays; or if there are but +occasional specimens they may be picked by hand. There are several +species of the hawk-moth which attack the grape but this is the common +one.</p> + +<p>In eastern grape-growing regions, there are two other destructive +grape insects widely distributed, but each noteworthy as pests only in +the Appalachian region of West Virginia and neighboring states. One is +the grape-curculio (<em>Craponius inæqualis</em>), not essentially different +from the familiar curculio of the plum and cherry. This snout-beetle +feeds freely on the upper surface of the leaves and the bark of fruit +stems, and the female in laying eggs devours the tissues of the grapes +in excavating her egg chamber. The grape-curculio is effectively +destroyed by spraying with an arsenical spray in the spring as the +beetles appear on the vines and before egg-laying begins.</p> + +<p>Another insect pest of this region is the grape-vine root-borer +(<em>Memythrus polistiformis</em>) closely allied to the peach-borer, known +by all fruit-growers and the squash-vine borer known to the growers of +vegetables. This borer is the larva of a moth and is a whitish grub +with a brown head which, when fully grown, is about one and +three-quarters inches in length. The body is slender, distinctly +segmented and has a sparse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> covering of short, stiff hairs. These +larvæ burrow into the grape-root, at first confining themselves to the +softer portions of the bark, often encircling the root several times, +but later bore with the grain of the wood and by the end of the season +so destroy the roots as to leave only the thin membrane of the outer +bark intact. This pest is difficult to deal with. The borers cannot be +removed by "worming" as in the peach, and neither can the roots be +protected by sprays or washes. No one variety of the grape seems more +immune than another. Thorough cultivation in the months of June and +July to destroy the insects while in their cocoons at the surface of +the ground seems to be the only method of stopping their ravages, and +this is not always effective.</p> + + +<h4>Fungous Diseases of the Grape</h4> + +<p>The grape is ravaged by four or five fungous diseases in America, +unless the utmost vigilance is exercised to keep the parasites in +check. Happily for commercial viticulture, there are regions, as we +have seen in the description of grape regions in <a href="#Page_1">Chapter I</a>, so +fortunate in their freedom from fungous diseases that there is little +uncertainty in grape-growing and but small expense in controlling +diseases. Also modern science has discovered the life history of all +the important diseases and devised fairly effective means of combating +them.</p> + +<p>All of the fungous parasites of the grape in America are indigenous, +having long subsisted on wild vines. They are, therefore, all widely +distributed, and as cultivation has presented to them great numbers of +grape plants in continuous areas, the diseases have increased rapidly +in intensity, at times have swept like wildfire through grape regions +devastating and utterly ruining great areas of vines. Means, however, +are now at hand in remedial and preventive treatment, which, while +because of cost may not permit the grapes to be grown profitably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> in +all parts of America, do permit their culture for home use in +practically all agricultural districts in the country.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 331px;"> +<a name="Plate_XVII" id="Plate_XVII"></a> +<img src="images/plate17.jpg" width="331" height="500" alt="Plate XVII." title="Plate XVII." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XVII.</span>—Empire State (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + +<h6><em>Black-rot.</em></h6> + +<p>This is the most widely distributed and the most destructive fungous +disease of the grape in the region east of the Rocky Mountains. +Fortunately, it is unknown on the Pacific coast. The disease is caused +by a parasitic fungus (<em>Guignardia Bidwellii</em>) which gains entrance to +the grape plant by means of minute spores distributed chiefly by wind +and rain. Black-rot passes the winter in mummied grapes, on dead +tendrils or on small, dead areas on the canes. In the spring, the +fungus spreads from these spots to the leaves and forms brown leaf +spots about a fourth of an inch in diameter, or oblong, black spots on +the shoots, leaves, petioles and tendrils. Later the disease spreads +to the fruits, not usually attracting attention<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> until the berries are +at least half grown. Soon after the ravages of the fungus become +apparent on the berries, the fruits turn black, shrivel and become +covered with minute black pustules which contain the summer-spores. +<a href="#Fig_44">Figure 44</a> shows the work of black-rot. In the winter and spring, +another form called the winter- or resting-spore is produced upon +these old, shriveled, mummied berries, and these carry the disease +over from one season to another.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_44" id="Fig_44"></a> +<img src="images/fig44.jpg" width="500" height="315" alt="Fig. 44. Work of black-rot of the grape." title="Fig. 44. Work of black-rot of the grape." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 44.</span> Work of black-rot of the grape.</span> +</div> + +<p>Since the disease is carried through the winter in mummied fruits and +diseased wood, the desirability of destroying these mummied grapes and +the leaves and prunings of infected vines as soon as possible is +apparent. This treatment, however, is not sufficient, and the disease +can be effectually controlled only by thorough spraying with bordeaux +mixture (4–4–50). The first application should be made just before the +grape blossoms; the second, shortly after blossoming. The amount of +material applied matters less than evenness in distribution and +fineness of the spray as applied. In rainy seasons, perhaps a third or +a fourth application should be made in regions where the disease is +serious; the third is made when the berries are the size of a pea; the +fourth, as the berries become large enough to touch each other.</p> + +<h6><em>Downy-mildew.</em></h6> + +<p>Downy-mildew (<em>Plasmopara viticola</em>) rivals black-rot for first place +among fungous diseases of the grape. It is found in all grape regions +east of the Rocky Mountains but does most harm in northern localities. +Like black-rot, downy-mildew attacks all the tender growing parts of +the vine, but is chiefly found on the foliage and is usually less +destructive than black-rot. As first seen on the foliage, the work of +the fungus appears as greenish-yellow, irregular spots upon the upper +surface which later become reddish-brown. At the same time on the +under surface of the leaf, a thin, white downy growth puts forth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> The +spores of the fungus are produced on this downy growth, and under +favorable conditions are distributed by wind and water to all tender +parts of the vine, where they germinate and begin their work of +destruction. The fruit is attacked when partly grown, as shown in <a href="#Fig_45">Fig. +45</a>, becoming covered with the gray down of the fungus, the "gray-rot" +of the grape-grower. If the berries escape the disease until half +grown, the fungus causes a brownish-purple spot that soon covers the +whole grape, giving the disease at this stage the name of "brown-rot." +Besides the summer-spores, another form of reproductive bodies is +produced in the winter to carry the fungus through the resting period.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_45" id="Fig_45"></a> +<img src="images/fig45.jpg" width="500" height="385" alt="Fig. 45. Grapes attacked by downy-mildew." title="Fig. 45. Grapes attacked by downy-mildew." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 45.</span> Grapes attacked by downy-mildew.</span> +</div> + +<p>Downy-mildew, like black-rot, spreads most rapidly and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> does most +injury in hot, wet weather. As with practically all diseases of the +grape, much can be accomplished in the way of control of the disease +by destroying infested leaves, shoots and berries which contain the +winter spores, but these sanitary measures are not sufficiently +effective and vineyards must be sprayed as recommended for black-rot, +except that the first application should be made before the +blossom-buds appear.</p> + +<h6><em>Powdery-mildew.</em></h6> + +<p>Less troublesome than downy-mildew in the East, powdery-mildew +(<em>Uncinula necator</em>), unless checked, is capable of destroying the +entire crop of European grapes on the Pacific slope. In the East it +sometimes causes great loss on the several varieties known as "Rogers +hybrids" and, curiously enough, is often a rather serious disease of +the Concord. The disease is caused by a superficial fungus which +passes the winter on fallen leaves and also on the canes. The spores +begin to germinate a few weeks after the grape blossoms, but the +disease is not often found until the grapes are nearly half grown. The +fine white filaments of the fungus, which constitute the vegetative +portion of the parasite, then attack the leaves, shoots and fruit, +sending up short irregular branches on which great numbers of spores +are borne. These give the upper surface of the leaf a gray, powdery +appearance, hence the name. Eventually the diseased leaves become +light brown and if the disease is severe, soon fall. Infected berries +take on a gray, scurfy appearance, speckled with brown, are checked in +growth and often burst on one side, exposing the seeds. The berries, +however, do not become soft and shrunken as when attacked by the +downy-mildew. The disease passes the winter in resting-spores produced +late in the growing season. Powdery-mildew differs from other fungous +diseases of the grape in being more prevalent in hot, dry seasons than +in cold, wet ones.</p> + +<p>In eastern America powdery-mildew is controlled by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> treatment +recommended for black-rot. When black-rot is not prevalent, two sprays +with bordeaux mixture are recommended; the first in early July and the +second about two weeks later. On the Pacific coast, however, +powdery-mildew or "oïdium" as it is often called there, the name +coming from Europe, is more cheaply and more successfully combated by +dusting with flowers of sulfur. Dusting is often done by hand or with +perforated cans but this is wasteful and uncertain, and any one of +several sulfur-sprayers may be used which does the work better.</p> + +<h6><em>Anthracnose.</em></h6> + +<p>Another widespread disease is anthracnose (<em>Sphaceloma ampelinum</em>), +called "birds-eye-rot" because of the peculiar spots produced on the +affected fruits, which attacks leaves, shoots and fruits of the vine. +It first appears on the leaves in small, irregular, dark brown sunken +spots with a dark margin. Later it appears on the fruits, having much +the same appearance though the spots are usually larger and more +sunken, the disease being most characteristic on the fruit, however. +Frequently two or more spots unite and so cover the greater part of +the berry. The fruits become hard, more or less wrinkled, and the +diseased area often ruptures, exposing the seed, much as with +powdery-mildew. The spores of the fungus are produced in great numbers +on diseased areas during the growing season and are borne on +thread-like filaments which live throughout the winter in the tissues +of the vine and are ready for new growth in the spring. Winter-spores +have not yet been discovered.</p> + +<p>Anthracnose is widely distributed in eastern America but seldom causes +great or general loss, most of the commercial grapes being relatively +immune to the disease. A few sorts rather commonly grown in home +vineyards, as Diamond, Brighton and Agawam, suffer most from +anthracnose. Spray<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>ing with bordeaux mixture, as recommended for +black-rot, is usually sufficient to keep the disease in check.</p> + +<h6><em>Dead-arm disease.</em></h6> + +<p>A troublesome disease of recent appearance is now doing considerable +damage in the Chautauqua grape-belt along the shores of Lake Erie, +being most common on the Concord. From the fact that it is usually +found on one arm of the vine it is called "dead-arm disease" +(<em>Cryptosporella viticola</em>.) The disease is caused by a fungus which +passes the winter in small, black fruiting bodies in the dead parts of +the vine. Early in the spring the fungus spreads by means of spores to +the young shoots and later in the season attacks mature berries, +producing small, black, oblong spots of black-rot. Sooner or later, if +the diseased shoot is not cut off, the fungus spreads to the arms or +trunk of the vine, producing a slow, dry rot which eventually kills +the affected part. Fortunately, the presence of the disease is quickly +detected by small yellowish leaves, much crimped about the margin.</p> + +<p>The fungus is easily controlled by marking the diseased arms when the +first symptoms appear and cutting these off at pruning time. If the +vine is much mutilated by such pruning, usually suckers can be brought +up from beneath the surface of the ground to renew the vine. The +applications of bordeaux mixture recommended for black-rot are +valuable in preventing the dead-arm disease. The disease is largely +prevented by renewing the old wood of the vine as soon as the trunk +begins to show a gnarled appearance.</p> + +<h6><em>Shelling.</em></h6> + +<p>In eastern America, especially in the Chautauqua grape-belt, +grape-growers not infrequently lose a large part of the crop by the +premature falling of the grapes from the stems. The trouble is an +ancient one and is designated as "shelling"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> or "rattling." This +premature dropping usually begins at the end of a cluster, and +clusters farthest from the trunk are earliest affected. When vineyards +suffer badly from this shelling, the vines often take on a sickly +appearance, the foliage falling off in color and the outer margins of +the leaves drying up more or less. The fallen fruit has an insipid +taste and is, of course, worthless even if it could be harvested.</p> + +<p>The cause of the trouble is not known. Grapes may "rattle" on high +land or low land, on poor soil or rich soil, on heavy or light soil. A +vineyard may be affected one year and not the next. Grape-growers +usually attribute the trouble to faulty nutrition, but applications of +fertilizers have not proved a preventive. Old and well-established +vineyards seem freer from the trouble than new and poorly established +plantings. The most reasonable theory as to the cause of shelling is +that it comes from faulty nutrition of the vine, but the conditions so +affecting the nutrition are not yet satisfactorily determined.</p> + +<h6><em>Diseases of minor importance.</em></h6> + +<p>Ripe-rot or bitter-rot (<em>Glomerella rufomaculans</em>) is a disease due to +the same fungus causing the bitter-rot of the apple. As the name +indicates, the disease usually appears on the fruit at ripening time +and under favorable conditions continues after the grapes are picked. +It may also attack the leaves and stems. The first indication of the +fungus is the appearance of reddish-brown spots which spread and +eventually cover the whole fruit. The berries do not shrivel, but the +rotted surface becomes dotted with pustules in which the spores are +borne. It is hard to tell how much damage this disease does, but it is +not usually great and the late applications of bordeaux mixture for +black-rot or powdery-mildew are very effective in controlling it.</p> + +<p>Crown-gall, now known to be a bacterial disease which causes knots or +galls on the roots of various wild and cultivated plants,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> sometimes +attacks grape roots or even the vines above ground. Occasionally, the +disease is rather serious, but it is not often to be reckoned with in +the vineyard regions of America. Fungicides are useless in combating +the disease and all that can be done is to exercise great care in +planting infected stock. It is doubtful whether crown-gall ever +seriously injures vines in northern regions, although it may +occasionally do so in the South.</p> + +<p>In California there is a somewhat mysterious disease known as "Anaheim +disease," because of its having first made its appearance in the +vicinity of Anaheim. As near as can be learned, the disease first +appeared in 1884 and then spread rapidly from forty to fifty miles +from the point where it began its ravages, causing direct and indirect +loss of many millions of dollars, and leading to the abandonment of +grape-growing in some parts of southern California. Fortunately, in +recent years the Anaheim disease is less aggressive but still does +more or less damage. The nature and the treatment of this disease are +not as yet fully determined, although several experimenters are +studying the trouble. Californians whose vineyards suffer from this +disease should apply to the experiment station at Berkeley for the +latest information in regard to it.</p> + +<p>Coulure is another trouble of the vine in California of which little +is yet known, either as to cause or treatment. The term signifies the +failure of the fruit to set or to remain on the clusters. The trouble +occurs in varying degrees from the loss of a few berries to the +complete shelling of the fruit from the stem. It is worse in some +localities than others and in some varieties than others. Various +causes have been assigned to the disease, chief of which, and most +probable, are unfavorable climatic conditions.</p> + + +<h4>Control of Insects and Diseases</h4> + +<p>From the number of insects and diseases found on the grape, it would +seem that, literally, "pestilence walketh in darkness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> and destruction +wasteth at noonday" in the vineyards of the country. But not many of +the ills that grape-flesh is heir to are ever found in one region, and +the vineyard is seldom attacked by many diseases or insects in a +single season. There was a time, as we have said before, when +grape-growers were so beset by pests which they could not control, +that viticulture was one of the most uncertain fields in agriculture. +But one brilliant discovery after another has brought the pests of the +grape under the hand of man until now there are but few that need +cause much expense in treatment or worry as to the outcome.</p> + +<p>Plants cannot be attacked by diseases unless infection is permitted. +It follows that by proper sanitation most of the insect pests of the +vine can be kept out of the vineyard.</p> + +<h6><em>Vineyard sanitation.</em></h6> + +<p>By changing or modifying environment, immunity can be secured from +many of the pests of the grape and damage may be reduced with most if +not all. Cultivation, as has been noted under several insect pests and +one or two of the diseases of the grape, is an effective method of +eliminating grape pests. In the case of insects, it destroys the +insects themselves and the hibernating places as well. The vineyard +should never be kept in sod, but always under thorough and frequent +cultivation. Vineyard sanitation is greatly improved, also, if +cover-crops which remain green during the winter are planted after the +last cultivation. Cultivation should usually be preceded by deep +plowing in the fall or spring to turn under fallen leaves and weeds or +grass in which hibernating insects may pass the winter.</p> + +<p>The surroundings of the vineyard should be looked after. Fence-rows +and waste lands which cannot be cultivated may often be burned over to +destroy the hibernating places of grape insects. As a rule, it is +unwise to plant the bramble berries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> or even strawberries in +vineyards, or adjoining vineyards, since these plants afford +hibernating places and food plants for some of the grape insects, +especially the destructive leaf-hopper. Lastly, precaution should be +taken by destroying all wild grape-vines near vineyards, as these +frequently harbor insects and diseases, the flea-beetle finding the +wild grape-vine almost a necessity to its existence.</p> + +<h6><em>Spraying.</em></h6> + +<p>Definite rules cannot be laid down for spraying vineyards the country +over. The literature on this subject is plentiful in any state in +which grapes are largely grown, within the reach of the grape-grower, +and is not difficult to understand once it is in hand. Every +grape-grower should secure and study the publications of the state +experiment stations having to do with the control of insects and +diseases.</p> + +<p>The number of applications and the sprays to be used vary greatly in +different parts of America. On the Pacific slope the only application +yearly required in most vineyard regions is dusting with flowers of +sulfur for powdery-mildew. Several other pests may, however, from year +to year, or in one locality or another, require special treatment. In +the grape regions of New York, many grape-growers do not spray at all, +but these are usually slovens or procrastinators whose profits are +small and uncertain. In the grape regions of the northeastern states, +orderly vineyardists spray at least once with bordeaux mixture +(4–4–50) in which is put three pounds of arsenate of lead, no matter +how few insects and fungi are present. This treatment is given soon +after the blossoms fall. In more southern regions it may be necessary +to make a similar treatment soon after the first leaves appear, again +after the blossoms fall and every two weeks thereafter until the +grapes begin to turn in color, making as many as four, five or even +six applications in all. To these regular applications of bordeaux<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> +mixture and arsenate of lead, contact insecticides, as some of the +nicotine preparations, may have to be added; or, for special purposes +as specified in discussing the several pests, cheap molasses is added. +It is doubtful, however, whether the grape can be grown with +commercial success where insects and fungi prevail and are so +pestiferous as to require annually more than two or three applications +of spraying mixtures.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 334px;"> +<a name="Plate_XVIII" id="Plate_XVIII"></a> +<img src="images/plate18.jpg" width="334" height="500" alt="Plate XVIII." title="Plate XVIII." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XVIII.</span>—Herbert (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER XIII</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">MARKETING THE CROPS AND VINEYARD RETURNS</p> + + +<p>Viticulture, as all divisions of agriculture, is made up of two quite +distinct phases of activity: growing the crop and marketing the crop. +The subjects to be treated in this and the next chapter belong rather +more to marketing than to cultural activities. Treated in detail, +these operations constitute matter sufficient for a separate treatise, +and only an outline of present practices is in place in a text such as +this devoted to the culture of the fruit. The several operations to be +discussed are picking, packing, storing, shipping and marketing.</p> + + +<h4>Harvesting in the East and North</h4> + +<p>As the consummation of the care of the vine, the in-gathering of the +crop is celebrated in all European countries with rejoicings in song, +dance and mirth. In America the vintage is less of an event than in +Europe, but it is more picturesque and diverting than the harvest of +most other crops. It is work in which youth and old age, as well as +those in the prime of life in both sexes, can take part and is reputed +as a most healthful occupation. For these reasons, the grape harvest +in America, as in Europe, has somewhat the air of a holiday, so that +workers are usually readily found for the several operations of +harvesting. Laborers come as grapes begin to ripen from near-by cities +and towns and neighboring country-sides in such numbers that the care +of the crop is speedily accomplished.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Pickers.</em></h6> + +<p>As a rule, pickers are hired by the piece rather than by the day, +experience having demonstrated that so paid they do more and better +work. There is usually much diversity in race, age and condition of +life of pickers so that harmonious and efficient work is scarcely +possible without a competent foreman in charge who must often be +assisted by a sub-foreman. Efficient supervision doubles the picking +capacity of a gang of workers, and, moreover, is necessary to see that +the fruit is picked and packed with proper care. In hiring pickers, it +is usually stipulated that a part of the pay is to be reserved until +the close of the season; otherwise those disposed to have a holiday +leave when the weather becomes unpleasant or seek greener pastures +when the grapes become scarce.</p> + +<h6><em>Time to pick.</em></h6> + +<p>Unlike some fruits, grapes must not be picked until they are fully +ripe, as unripe grapes do not mature after picking. Grapes not matured +lack the necessary percentage of sugar and solids to keep well and +have not developed their full flavor. Many growers make the mistake of +sending grapes to the market before fully ripe, a mistake easily made +with some varieties because they acquire full color before full +maturity. Color, therefore, is not a good guide as to the time to +pick. In the northern and eastern states, late varieties of grapes may +be allowed to hang on the vines for some little time after maturity, +the late autumn suns giving them a higher degree of sweetness and +perfection. Some growers run the risks of light frosts to further +maturity and to secure the added advantage of the removal of many +leaves from the vines. Ripeness is indicated by a combination of signs +difficult to describe but easily learned by experience. These signs +are: first, a characteristic color; second, full development of flavor +and aroma; third, a softer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> texture of the pulp and a slight +thickening of the juice so that it is more or less sticky; fourth, the +ends of the stems turn from green to brown; fifth, the berries pull +more readily from their stems; sixth, the seeds are free or more +nearly free from the pulp and usually turn from green to brown.</p> + +<h6><em>Picking appliances.</em></h6> + +<p>But few appliances are needed in picking grapes. Shears are a +necessity. These are of special make and can be bought from dealers in +horticultural supplies, costing from 75 cents to $1. Some growers, +after picking, pack the fruit in the field in the receptacles in which +it is to go to market. The greater number, however, pick in trays +which are taken to the packing-house and allowed to stand until the +fruit is wilted before packing for shipment. Trays may be of several +sizes and shapes, but are usually shallow flats holding from +twenty-five to thirty-five pounds. The picked fruit is taken from the +vineyard to the packing-shed in a wagon with flexible springs to +prevent jarring and jolting. Large growers usually have specially +built one-horse platform wagons, the front wheels of which pass under +the platform.</p> + +<h6><em>Picking accounts.</em></h6> + +<p>It is no small matter to keep a picking account with pickers. +Business-like growers use one of several kinds of tickets or tags in +keeping accounts. Probably the most common method is to give a ticket +to the picker when the receptacle of grapes is delivered, the grower +either keeping half of the original or a duplicate of it. Objections +to ticket systems are that the pickers often lose the tickets, are +irregular in returning them, or exchange them with other pickers. To +obviate the disadvantages of tickets, some growers use tags which bear +the picker's name and are attached to his person. These tags have +marginal numbers or divisions which are canceled by a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> punch as +pickers deliver the grapes. Still another method is to keep book +accounts with each picker in which case payment is made by the pound, +each receptacle being put on the scales as brought in from the field, +credit being given for the number of pounds. It is the duty of those +in charge to see that each picker finishes the row or the part of the +row to which he is assigned, and that he does not wander over the +vineyard in search of the best picking.</p> + +<h6><em>Packing-houses and their appliances.</em></h6> + +<p>The commercial grape-grower must have a house for packing and storing. +Houses differ in design and fitting for almost every vineyard. +Sometimes the house is a combination one for packing and storing. +Often the packing-house is a halfway place between the vineyard and +the shipping station, in which case it is an open shed or a lightly +constructed building. In these field packing-houses there are usually +no provisions for storing. The better types of combined houses are +provided with a cellar for the storage of grapes, the first floor is +used for packing, and the attic provides a place for the storage of +baskets and crates. In all such houses provision must be made for +thorough ventilation, especially for the storage cellar if the grapes +are to be kept for any length of time. Properly ventilated, the +temperature of the grape cellar can be kept as low as 50° F. during +September and October. The cellar floor in these houses is usually of +dirt better to regulate the moisture-content of the room. Often the +first floor is divided into two rooms, one to be used for packing and +the other as a shipping room. A good combination +packing-and-storage-house of this type can be built for $1000 to +$2000. Now that cold storage facilities can be secured in most +grape-growing regions, and the rates of storage are becoming more +reasonable, there is less need of storage-houses.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_46" id="Fig_46"></a> +<img src="images/fig46.jpg" width="250" height="190" alt="Fig. 46. Packing grapes on a packing-table." title="Fig. 46. Packing grapes on a packing-table." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 46.</span> Packing grapes on a packing-table.</span> +</div> + +<p>Packing-houses are so simple in construction and may be so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> different +in design that it is neither possible nor necessary to describe them +in detail. A building that protects the workers from the elements and +affords conveniences in packing serves the purpose. Such a +packing-house, which is often located in the vineyard, should be well +lighted, should be connected with the storage-room for baskets and +should have advantages for delivering the packages from the +storage-room to the packing-room and from the packing-room to the +shipping-room. Its size will depend on the quantities of grapes to be +packed. The house must be built so that it can be kept clean and +sweet.</p> + +<p>Every packing-house, whatever the design, must be furnished with +tables for holding the trays while the fruit is being packed. Usually +these tables are so made that the picking trays are set before the +packers on an inclined table. The packer transfers the grapes from the +trays into the baskets in which the fruit is to be sold. The trays of +grapes as they come from the field are set before the worker, who then +packs the fruit into the basket from the left. As the baskets are +filled, they are placed on a flat ledge or shelf in front of the +packer and are then taken off by an attendant. Empty baskets are +usually held in store on a higher shelf convenient to the packer and +from time to time are replenished by the attendant. <a href="#Fig_46">Figure 46</a> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>shows a +packing-table of the kind just described. Sometimes the packing-table +is circular and revolves, the packers sitting about the table. The +baskets are held on the lap and the packer takes the grapes off the +table which is turned as fresh fruit is brought in. This circular +table is not in general use; its only advantage is that it permits the +packer to select from a larger quantity of fruit.</p> + +<h6><em>Grading grapes.</em></h6> + +<p>Grapes are more easily graded than most other fruits; for usually +there are but two grades, firsts and culls. It is difficult to specify +exactly what firsts are, since a number of factors must be considered +which bring in play the judgment of the grader. At least, firsts must +have the following qualities: The bunches must be approximately +uniform in size; there must be few or no berries missing from the +stems; the grapes must be fully ripe, of a uniform degree of ripeness +and uniformly colored; and the fruit must be free from insect and +fungous injuries. It is easier to give specifications for culls, since +all grapes not firsts are culls.</p> + +<p>In large vineyards, only good fruit or the best fruit is worth +grading. It is more advisable to sell poor fruit by the ton with +little or no grading. It follows, also, that the higher the price, the +more special the market, and the more carefully the crop is picked, +the more profitable it is to grade. The work of grading is done in the +packing-shed when the fruit is transferred from the trays into the +selling receptacles. A pair of slender scissors made for the purpose, +to be purchased from dealers in horticultural supplies, is used to +trim out diseased and crushed berries. The fruit must be permitted to +wilt for a few hours, a half day or overnight, before it can be graded +to advantage. In this work of grading, the greatest care should be +taken to keep the fruit clean and fresh, to sort out broken bunches +and to preserve the bloom. The less handling, the more finely finished +is the product.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Grape packages in eastern grape regions.</em></h6> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_47" id="Fig_47"></a> +<img src="images/fig47.jpg" width="250" height="216" alt="Fig. 47. Climax baskets in two sizes." title="Fig. 47. Climax baskets in two sizes." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 47.</span> Climax baskets in two sizes.</span> +</div> + +<p>Packages for grapes are less varied than those for any other fruit, +selling receptacles in the states east of the Rocky Mountains being +much the same for all regions. Dessert grapes are universally packed +in gift packages—that is, packages which are given away when the +fruit is sold—and this insures a clean dainty package. It seems +imperative that a uniform style of package should be used the country +over for the general market, but up until this time, although there +have been both national and state laws passed, uniformity has not been +secured. A national law is needed establishing standard commercial +packages so that the grower may safely ship from one state to another +without being a law-breaker. Such a package should be based on +cubic-measure and not on weight as is often advocated; for grapes +cannot be shipped without some loss from sampling in transit; and +there are also losses in weight by evaporation so that the grower, +although trying to comply with the law, may become technically a +law-breaker if the standard is based on weight.</p> + +<p>The most popular package for the grape in eastern grape regions is the +Climax basket made in various styles and sizes. These are cheap, +easily packed and handled, nest well in shipment and are durable. +Three sizes are commonest in use, the five-pound, the ten-pound and +the twenty-pound basket. The five-pound basket usually holds only a +little over four pounds; the ten-pound about eight pounds; and the +twenty-pound rather less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> than twenty pounds. Two sizes of Climax +baskets are shown in <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a>. It is commonly understood, however, that +the packages are short in weight, and as grapes are retailed by the +basket and not by the pound, short weight does not really deceive.</p> + +<p>These baskets are made of thin wood veneer with a light wood binding +at the top and bottom. The cover is of wood and is usually fastened on +with staples. The handle is either of wood or of wire. When well made, +the baskets are firm and symmetrical, without splinters and are clean +and white. Packages carried over from year to year become dingy in +color, but the wood may be whitened by fumigating in the storage-room +with sulfur. The baskets also become yellow and discolored if left in +the sun and must, therefore, be stored in clean, dark, dry rooms.</p> + +<p>When grapes are sold by weight to manufacturers of wine or +grape-juice, they are usually delivered in the picking trays which, if +the market is near at hand, are always returned. If they are to be +shipped far, they go to market in twenty-pound baskets or bushel +baskets, although the latter are not regarded with favor by consumers.</p> + +<h6><em>Packing.</em></h6> + +<p>Grapes packed indoors, as has been said, are allowed to stand from a +few to twenty-four hours after being picked to permit them to wilt. +When thus wilted they are much more easily packed and do not shrink in +transportation, so that the basket usually reaches the market well +filled with fruit. Each bunch of grapes is placed separately in the +basket after all unmarketable berries have been removed. The bunches +are arranged in concentric tiers, the top layer being placed with +special care. When the basket is filled, the grapes rise a little +above the level of the basket, care being taken not to have the fruit +project too much so that the grapes will be crushed when<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> putting on +the cover. In all this work, the berries are handled as little as +possible, so as not to destroy the bloom. Care is taken, also, that +the fruit is free from spraying material and is otherwise clean and +fresh. Much less pains need be taken when the grapes are packed in +trays to be sold by weight, but even in this there must be method in +filling the trays, otherwise there will be many open spaces and +corners between bunches.</p> + +<p>Practically all commercial grape-growers now use labels on their +packages. These not only add to the attractiveness of the packages, +but are a guarantee of the contents, both as to name of the variety +and the quality of the fruit. These labels are, also, a sign by which +a grower's fruit may be distinguished and are, therefore, a valuable +advertising medium. Some growers have registered their labels in the +United States Patent Office in order to prevent others from using +them. Obviously, it is not desirable or worth while to label a poor +grade of grapes.</p> + +<h6><em>Storing grapes.</em></h6> + +<p>The commercial grape-grower now stores his grapes in cold storage +warehouses if he keeps them any length of time after harvesting. There +is no question but that keeping a part of the crop in artificially +cooled houses is a great benefit to the grape-grower, since it +prolongs the season for selling by some three or four months. +Formerly, native grapes could be secured in general markets only until +Thanksgiving time or thereabouts, but now American grapes are very +generally offered for sale in January and February, while the European +grapes from California are in the market nearly the year around. The +grape-grower need make little or no preparation of his product in +putting it in cold storage except to make sure that the product is +first class in every respect. It would be a waste of money and effort +to attempt to store any but clean, sound, well-matured, well-packed +grapes. The grape-grower, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> seldom need concern himself with +storing, since the crop is usually stored by the buyers.</p> + +<p>Few small growers seem to have learned the art of keeping grapes in +common storage, There are but few difficulties in keeping European +grapes for several months after picking if they are stored under +favorable conditions. Not all, but several of the native grapes may +also be kept practically throughout the winter if proper precautions +are taken. Among these varieties Catawba is the standard winter sort, +but Diana, Iona, Isabella, Rogers' hybrids and Vergennes, all rather +commonly grown, may be kept by the small grower.</p> + +<p>To insure keeping, these native grapes must be handled most carefully. +The fruit is picked a few days before it is dead ripe and the bunches +placed in trays holding forty or fifty pounds. It is important that +the temperature be reduced gradually so that there are no sudden +changes. If the nights are cool, a valuable aid is to leave the grapes +out-of-doors in crates the night after they are picked, placing them +in a cool building or dry cellar early the next morning. The cellar or +store-room should be well ventilated and should be such that the +temperature is not variable, care being taken that the air in every +part of the storage room is changed. Draughts, however, should be +avoided or stems and berries will shrivel. If a temperature from 40° +to 50° can be maintained, the varieties named may be kept until March +or April. An expensive store-room is not necessary and ice to cool the +room is not only unnecessary but undesirable.</p> + +<p>If the storage-room is too dry, the grapes wilt and lose flavor; if, +on the other hand, the atmosphere is too damp, the grapes mold. It is +essential, therefore, to strike a medium between an atmosphere too dry +and one too wet. It is possible that a light fumigation with sulfur or +formaldehyde might help to keep down molds in these common storage +grape-rooms, but as to the value of fumigation there seems to be no +experimental evidence.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>Grapes grown on clay lands are said to be firmer and to keep better +than those grown on gravel or lighter soils. Some years ago there was +an association in Ohio known as The Clay-Growers Association which +handled only grapes grown on clay lands. The members of this +association believed that their grapes were much more desirable for +storage than grapes from regions where the soil was lighter.</p> + + +<h4>Harvesting and Handling Muscadine Grapes</h4> + +<p>The Muscadine grapes of the South Atlantic and Gulf states are unique +in vine and fruit, are used for different purposes and go to different +markets from the grapes of the North, so that they may be considered +almost a distinct fruit. Not only are cultural requirements peculiar +to this fruit, as we have seen, but the methods of harvesting and +marketing are quite distinct. These are well set forth by Husmann and +Dearing<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> as follows:</p> + +<p>"Rotundifolia vines have been almost entirely grown on overhead arbors +in the past, the fruit being made into wine, and under such conditions +the general practice of jarring the grapes from the vines is perhaps +the most practical method of harvesting. If the vines are trained to +upright trellises or if the fruit is intended for shipping or table +use the grapes should be picked by hand in order to be sound and +clean. On account of the presence of leaves, twigs, etc., mixed with +the grapes jarred from the vines, wine and grape-juice manufacturers +will pay 5 to 15 cents a bushel more for hand-picked grapes. The +growers who make a practice of hand picking claim that the work can be +done at practically no greater expense than is necessary to shake off +and clean a crop, and the increased price obtained for the fruit will +more than pay the difference.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>"A description of the harvesting of the Rotundifolia grapes by the +jarring method will be interesting to those not familiar with it. +Poles are attached to sheets of canvas measuring 6 by 12 feet and +having leather handles. A man is placed at each end of the sheets and +four men with two sheets work together. The wide sides of the two +sheets are brought close together under each vine, with the trunk of +the vine in the middle. The vines are then jarred, the berries falling +into the sheets. Those not caught by the sheets or that have fallen to +the ground by the shaking of the trellis when the fruit of the +adjoining vines was harvested, etc., and which are usually of the best +quality, are picked by hand. The writers are informed that it costs +approximately 15 cents a bushel to harvest the fruit on the ground and +12 cents to harvest that which falls on the sheets.</p> + +<p>"The fruit is put in boxes or barrels, and if the quantity is not +large the leaves, sticks, etc., which become mixed with the fruit are +removed by hand. If there is a considerable quantity of fruit some +mechanical means, such as ordinary grain fan mills, are used to clean +it. After cleaning, the fruit is hauled or shipped to the winery. In +wineries with modern equipment there are blowers which thoroughly +clean the fruit. These are located near the end of the elevators that +carry the fruit to the crusher.</p> + +<p>"A common and very objectionable practice followed in harvesting +Rotundifolia grapes, especially by the jarring method, is that of +gathering the fruit all at once, whereas there should be at least +three periods of harvesting. When harvested at one time the best +quality of fruit ripens, falls to the ground, and is lost before the +harvest is commenced and the last part of the crop is thrashed from +the vines in a half-ripe condition along with the ripe fruit. In this +manner not only is the first and best fruit entirely lost, but the +harvested fruit is inferior in quality, which necessarily results in a +poor product from the entire yield."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Returns from Muscadine grapes.</em></h6> + +<p>"Great variations occur in the yields from Rotundifolia vines. At +times there are record-breaking yields and, again, small yields are +reported, the small yields resulting from black-rot, coulure, wet +weather, self-sterility, lack of cultivation, fertilization, lack of +pruning, age of vines, and various other causes. In spite of this, +Rotundifolia vines are said to be among the safest and most prolific +of fruit-bearing plants. While in one of the largest Rotundifolia +vineyards there has been only a partial crop during the last three +years, owing to various causes, another grower reports a yield of 177 +bushels of grapes from 4-year-old James vines, in addition to a bale +of cotton to the acre. A Florida grower estimated his crop of white +Rotundifolia and Thomas grapes for the season of 1911 at 280 bushels +to the acre. An average yield of 27 bushels an acre from 4-year-old +vines, 100 bushels from 5-year-old vines, and 150 bushels to the acre +when the vines are in full bearing should be obtained.</p> + +<p>"The prices paid for Rotundifolia grapes depend on the season, the +quality of fruit, and the market. In years when the crop is short +better prices are usually paid than when there is a heavy crop. Aside +from the grapes sold and shipped to wineries, grapes as a rule sell +for more in the cities and larger towns than in smaller places, the +local demand being somewhat in proportion to the population. In such +localities fruit of good quality will bring a much better price than +inferior fruit. Hand-picked fruit in half-bushel peach baskets or in +berry boxes usually brings from $1 to $2 per bushel. Grapes harvested +by jarring are usually sent to the wineries and bring an average of 75 +cents per bushel of 60 pounds. The highest price paid for this quality +of fruit was reached in 1910, when $2.25 per bushel (f.o.b. shipping +point) was paid for white Rotundifolia.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>"In many localities certain growers have built up quite a reputation +for themselves in choice, hand-picked fruit, which they ship to +special customers in distant markets. For this purpose the James +variety is usually grown because the berries adhere well and are of +good size and flavor. Several growers ship as far north as New York +and Boston, getting from $2.00 to $2.50 gross per bushel crate. In +shipping, three styles of carriers are used—the 24-box strawberry +crate, the 6-basket peach crate, and the 8-pound basket. More +attention should be given to this phase of the industry. The varieties +best suited for shipping are the James, Memory, Flowers, and Mish.</p> + +<p>"In the fall of 1910 shipments of the James, Thomas, and Eden +varieties were sent from the Rotundifolia experiment vineyard at +Willard, N. C., to Washington D. C., part of the consignment being in +strawberry boxes and the remainder in bushel baskets. No important +difference could be noted in the two lots on their arrival in +Washington. The James variety arrived in perfect condition in both +packages; of the Eden 30 per cent and of the Thomas 35 per cent had +shelled. More extensive experiments along this line are contemplated."</p> + + +<h4>Handling the Grape in California</h4> + +<p>Grapes are grown in California for three purposes, wine, raisins and +the table. The handling of the crop for raisins and wine is best taken +up in a discussion of these products in the <a href="#Page_250">chapter on by-products of +the grape</a>, leaving only table grapes to be discussed at this place.</p> + +<p>The table-grape industry of the Pacific slope is dependent on the wide +distribution of the product in eastern markets for a profitable sale +of the crop, since production is so great that but a small part of the +crop is consumed in the markets of the Pacific slope. The growers in +this region, therefore, have special problems, chief of which are +those of successful shipment over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> long distances. California annually +ships in the neighborhood of 10,000 carloads of table grapes, all of +which must be handled within a period of about two months. As +competition increases, it becomes more and more necessary to extend +the area over which the fruit is to be sold; to lengthen the marketing +season through cold storage; and for both of these purposes to devise +new or to improve present methods of handling the fruit. The two +requisites for the successful shipment of this great bulk of grapes +are: The fruit must reach the markets in sound condition; and it must +have sufficient market-holding quality to remain sound for a +considerable length of time after it arrives in the markets. +Experience has thoroughly demonstrated to grape-growers in California +that decay in grapes is largely dependent on the presence of injuries +to the grape berries, to the pedicels or to the stems of the bunches. +Methods of handling grapes, therefore, and the type of package used, +must be such that the product is injured as little as possible.</p> + +<h6><em>Careful handling.</em></h6> + +<p>In the shipment of European grapes from California, it has been found +that it pays to go to much extra trouble in handling the crop. The +bunches are picked with care to avoid bruising or crushing berries, +and as far as possible they are lifted only by the main stems. They +are then laid with care in the picking trays which are filled only one +layer deep. In moving the trays to the packing-house, they are handled +carefully, the trays being moved only on wagons with springs. In +sorting, special care is taken to remove all injured and unsound +berries and not to injure others in the bunch, here again handling the +clusters by the stems. In packing, the bunches are placed firmly in +the baskets with care not to crush or bruise the stems or to injure +the pedicels of the berries. A slight injury of either berry or +pedicel permits the spores of the fungus causing decay to gain +entrance into the fruit.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Shipping packages.</em></h6> + +<p>The most common package for table-grapes in California is a square +basket holding about five pounds. These baskets are placed for +shipment in fours in crates. The bunches of some varieties may be too +large for these small baskets, and these extra large-clustered grapes +are packed in oblong baskets holding in the neighborhood of eight +pounds, two baskets filling a crate. No good filler seems yet to have +been devised for packing grapes in California. The cork dust in which +grapes from the Mediterranean are received is not available and a good +substitute has not yet been found. Sawdust is sometimes used but has +not proved satisfactory in holding the decay and the fruit absorbs +disagreeable flavors from the wood. Occasionally, however, grapes from +California are sent to eastern markets packed in dry redwood sawdust +and these seem to come through in good condition and not to have +absorbed a disagreeable flavor. Reports seem to indicate that this +specially selected redwood sawdust is proving much better than the +ordinary sawdust experimented with some years ago.</p> + +<h6><em>Shipping.</em></h6> + +<p>Considerable work has been done by the United States Department of +Agriculture to determine how table-grapes could best be shipped from +the far West and reach the eastern markets in good condition. The crop +is, of course, shipped in refrigerator cars and much depends on the +cooling of these cars and especially on the temperature at which the +grapes are kept while in transit. To carry well over the 3000 miles of +mountain and desert, heat and cold, the best type of refrigerator car +must be used. It does not appear that the pre-cooling so advantageous +to citrous and other tree-fruits is worth the trouble and expense with +table-grapes, as it does not seem to prevent decay. Cooling cannot be +substituted for careful handling,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> which seems as yet the most +necessary precaution to be taken in the preparation of these grapes +for eastern shipment.</p> + + +<h4>Marketing</h4> + +<p>Table-grapes from both eastern and western grape regions are now +almost entirely shipped in carload lots. Since few grape-growers are +prepared to load a car quickly with grapes, some kind of coöperation +is required, or the crop must be handled by large buyers. Coöperative +methods are becoming more and more popular, although a large part of +the grape crop, both East and West, is now handled by buyers.</p> + +<p>There are several important advantages in selling through a +coöperative organization. Thus, in selling coöperatively, the grapes +are graded and packed in accordance with one standard; more favorable +transportation rates can be secured by a coöperative association; and, +most important of all, the output can be distributed to the grape +markets of the country without the disastrous competition that attends +individual marketing. In some of these organizations, also, supplies +needed by the grape-grower in producing a crop are purchased more +economically than by individuals; in particular, grape packages can be +purchased better by an organization than by an individual.</p> + +<p>As the grape industry and competition grow in the different regions of +the country, the necessity of forming marketing organizations becomes +greater. Such organizations must be founded on the principles which +many experiments have shown best govern fruit-marketing associations. +It is not possible to discuss these principles at length, but the +following fundamentals will suffice:</p> + +<p>An ideal coöperative association is one in which there are no profits +nor dividends. Every member of the whole organized association is a +producer. All of the product grown by a member is sold through the +association. The association is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> democratic, all members having an +equal voice in its management and all sharing alike in its successes +and failures. When profits arise of necessity, they are distributed to +the members of the association in proportion to the amount of business +each has done. The work of the organization is conducted at as near +cost as possible and profits are declared only after expenses, +depreciation, interest on capital for future operations are deducted. +Thus it is seen that the plan of the organization is to give each +member as nearly as possible the exact price his fruit has brought in +the markets.</p> + + +<h4>Vineyard Returns</h4> + +<p>Grape-growing as a business is a comparatively new industry in +America. It is true that the first attempts at growing this fruit were +made to found an industry, but these were complete and dismal +failures, and the start in growing grapes in America eventually came +as a pleasing hobby. In evolving from a hobby into vineyard culture on +a large scale, the business side of the industry long lagged. At +present, with increasing competition, manifold uncertainties in +vineyard conditions, and much unbusinesslike administration, interest +in cultural operations, with which pioneers in the industry were +chiefly concerned, is eclipsed by the conception that grape-growing is +a highly developed commercial enterprise requiring for success careful +business management.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately there is nowhere a substantial body of figures from +which growers can obtain a fair conception of what the outgo and +income of average vineyards in grape regions are. The value of such +data to investors or to those making an effort to keep track of the +finances of their business is obvious, and an attempt is made here to +put the reader in possession of figures that ought to be helpful. The +data given, although scant and fragmentary, show fairly accurately the +cost of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> producing grapes, selling prices and profits in the culture +of this fruit in one of the great grape regions.</p> + +<p>The New York Agricultural Experiment Station is carrying on +experiments to determine the outgo and income from vineyards in the +Chautauqua grape-belt. The work is not yet finished, nor could the +findings be published in detail before being sent out by the Station, +but F. E. Gladwin, in charge of the work, has consented to set down +summaries of costs and returns taken from vineyards at Fredonia, which +will serve as a guide to planters of grapes in this region at least:</p> + +<table summary="Costs and returns from Fredonia vineyards"> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_center table_title" colspan="3"><em>First Year</em></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Interest on value of land @ $200 per acre</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">$12.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Preparation of land</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">8.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cost of vines per acre</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">12.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Planting</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">4.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cultivating</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0010 table_right">6.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="total">Total expenditure for first year</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">$42.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_center table_title" colspan="3"><em>Second Year</em></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Interest on value of vineyard @ $225 per acre</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">$13.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cultivating, hand hoeing, etc.</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">9.25</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pruning</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0010 table_right">1.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="total">Total expenditure for second year</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">$23.75</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_center table_title" colspan="3"><em>Third Year</em></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Interest on value of vineyard @ $250 per acre</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">$15.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pruning</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">2.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Posts (cost of) @ .10 240</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">24.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Setting and driving</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">6.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Wire and wiring, staples, etc.</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">11.65</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Tying and twine</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">1.45</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cultivating, plowing, harrowing</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">9.25</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Spraying</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">4.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>No. baskets sold @ .16 per basket 500</td> + <td class="table_right">$80.00</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cost of baskets @ $20 per thousand</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">10.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Picking @ .01 per basket</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">5.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>Packing @ .01 per basket</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">5.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Hauling .003</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0010 table_right">1.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="total">Outgo for third year</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">$95.85</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Income</td> + <td class="table_cell_1000 table_right">$80.00</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_center table_title" colspan="3"><em>Fourth Year</em></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Interest on value of vineyard @ $300 per acre</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">$18.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pruning</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">2.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Tying</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">2.90</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Spraying and materials</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">4.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cultivating, plowing, harrowing, hand-hoeing and plowing back one furrow</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">9.25</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Trellis upkeep, driving posts, tightening wires, etc.</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">2.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pulling and poling out brush</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">1.69</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>No. baskets sold @ .16 per basket 1000</td> + <td class="table_right">$160.00</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Cost of baskets @ $20 per thousand</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">20.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Picking @ .01 per basket</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">10.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Packing @ .01 per basket</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">10.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Hauling .003</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0010 table_right">3.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="total">Outgo for fourth year</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="table_right">$83.84</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Income</td> + <td class="table_cell_1000 table_right">$160.00</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Outgo for four years</td> + <td class="table_right">$245.44</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Income for four years</td> + <td class="table_right">240.00</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_center table_title" colspan="3"><em>Estimates for Succeeding Years</em></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Gross income</td> + <td class="table_right">$125–200</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Outgo</td> + <td class="table_right">75– 85</td> + <td> </td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + +<p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 328px;"> +<a name="Plate_XIX" id="Plate_XIX"></a> +<img src="images/plate19.jpg" width="328" height="500" alt="Plate XIX." title="Plate XIX." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XIX.</span>—Iona (×<span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">5</span>).</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER XIV</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">GRAPE PRODUCTS</p> + + +<p>Over-production, with the attendant losses caused by glutted markets, +is a factor which, like frosts and freezes, is ever in the mind of the +grape-grower. No season passes but that some of the grape regions of +the country suffer from over-production. Not uncommonly the grape +industry in a region is better off in a season when the crop is small +and prices high, than when the crop is large and prices low. In every +part of the country where grapes are grown, over-production has been a +great deterrent to viticulture; this, in spite of the fact that +grape-growers have availed themselves of the opportunity to +manufacture products from this fruit. Thus, wine and raisins are made +from the grape in California, and a large part of the harvest in the +East goes into wine, champagne and grape-juice. But the growth of +prohibition now threatens the wine and champagne industries of the +country, in fact may be said to have driven them to the wall, making +the need of new outlets in manufactured products a greater necessity.</p> + +<p>Under these conditions, grape-growers must seek in every way to +enlarge the sale of the crop to manufacturers with the hope that thus, +together with more perfect distribution of his commodities, the +inroads made by prohibition on the industry may be offset and the +over-production of table-grapes be better prevented. With this brief +emphasis on the importance of manufactured products of the grape, we +approach the dis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>cussion of the several possible outlets to +over-production in this fruit.</p> + + +<h4>Wine</h4> + +<p>The manufacture and use of wine in America, as has been intimated, is +likely to cease through prohibition. Therefore, whatever may be said +of this product of the grape is of less and less interest to +grape-growers. However, a few years of grace probably remain for the +making of wines in America, and since wine-making yet offers the +greatest outlet for the grape crop, next to table-grapes, wine must be +considered as a factor in the grape industry.</p> + +<p>Since the demand and price for grapes depend very largely on the kind +of wine to be made, it is necessary to characterize the wines made in +America. Wine, it should be said, is the product of alcoholic +fermentation of the grape. Alcoholic fermentations made from other +fruits are not, strictly speaking, wines. Natural wines are divided +into three broad groups; dry, sweet and sparkling wines. Dry wines are +those in which sugar has been eliminated by fermentation; sweet wines +those in which sufficient sugar remains to give a sweet taste; and +sparkling wines are those which contain sufficient carbonic acid gas +to give a pressure of several atmospheres in the bottle. The carbonic +acid gas is produced in sparkling wines by fermentation in the bottle +of a dry wine.</p> + +<p>The color in these three classes of wine may be red or white, +depending on whether or not the color is extracted from the skins in +the process of fermentation. To make red wine, of course, the grapes +to be fermented must have red coloring matter in skin or juice or +both. Each of these groups of wine includes a very large number of +kinds distinguished by the name of the region, the locality or the +name of the vineyard in which a wine is made. Wines are still further +distinguished according to the year of the vintage.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Wine-making.</em></h6> + +<p>There are four distinct stages in the making of wine after the grapes +are grown. The first is the harvesting of the grapes when they have +reached the proper stage of maturity, which is known as "wine-making +ripeness." This stage of ripeness is determined by means of a +must-scale or saccharometer. The wine-maker squeezes the juice from a +number of bunches of grapes into a receptacle into which he drops the +must-scale, whereupon the sugar-content of the juice is indicated on +the scale, determining whether the proper stage of ripeness has been +reached. Suitable varieties of grapes having been grown, it is +necessary that they be permitted to hang on the vine until the proper +degree of ripeness is developed, after which they are delivered at the +winery as free as possible from injury or decay.</p> + +<p>The second stage is the preparation of the grapes for fermentation. +The grapes are weighed on arriving at the winery and are then conveyed +either by hand or more often by a mechanical conveyor to the hopper or +crusher. The ancient method of crushing, which still prevails in some +parts of Europe, was to tramp the grapes with bare feet or wooden +shoes. Tramping has been superseded by mechanical crushers which break +the skin but do not crush the seeds. The best mechanical crushers +consist of two-grooved revolving cylinders. As the grapes pass through +the crusher, they fall into the stemmer, a machine which tears off the +stems, discharging them at one end, while the seeds, skins, pulp and +juice pass through the bottom to the presses usually on the floor +below. There are several types of wine-presses, all of which, however, +are modifications of screw, hydraulic or knuckle-joint power. In large +wineries, the hydraulic press has almost driven out the other two +forms of power and when great quantities of grapes must be handled a +number of hydraulic presses are usually in operation. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> grape +pomace is built up into a "cheese" by the use of cloths and racks +variously arranged. The "cheese" is then put under heavy pressure from +which the juice or "must" is quickly extracted.</p> + +<p>The third stage is fermentation. The "must" is carried from the press +into open tanks or vats which hold from 500 to 5000 gallons or even +more. The yeast cells which cause fermentation may be introduced +naturally on the skins of the grapes; or in many modern wineries the +"must" is sterilized to rid it of undesirable micro-organisms and a +"starter" of "wine-yeast" is added to start the fermentation. Yeast +organisms attack the sugar and must, breaking it up into alcohol and +carbonic acid gas, the latter passing off as it is formed. When active +fermentation ceases, the new wine is drawn from the pomace and is put +into closed casks or tanks where it undergoes a secondary +fermentation, much sediment settling at the bottom of the cask. To rid +the new wine of this sediment, it must be drawn off into clean casks, +an operation called "racking." The first racking usually takes place +within a month or six weeks. A second racking is necessary at the end +of the winter and a third is desirable in the summer or fall.</p> + +<p>The fourth stage is the aging of the wine. Before aging begins, +however, the wine usually must be rendered perfectly clear and bright +by "fining." The materials used in fining are isinglass, white of egg +or gelatine. These, introduced into the wine, cause undissolved +matters to precipitate. The wine is now ready for bottling or +consumption. Most wines acquire a more desirable flavor through +"aging," a slow oxidation in the bottles.</p> + +<h6><em>Champagne.</em></h6> + +<p>When champagne wines have gone through their first fermentation, they +are racked off into casks to age until their quality can be +ascertained, after which a blend of several different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> wines is made. +This blend is called the "cuvée." The cuvée is bottled and a second +fermentation starts. The bottles are now put in cool cellars, corded +in horizontal layers with thin strips of wood between each layer of +bottles. The champagne in this stage is said to be in "tirage." The +carbonic acid gas generated at this second fermentation is confined in +the bottles and absorbed by the wine. When the bottle is uncorked, the +gas, seeking to escape, produces the sparkling effect desirable in +sparkling wines. After the wine has been in tirage for one or two +years, the bottles are placed in A-shaped racks, the neck of the +bottle pointing downward so that the sediment formed during +fermentation drops to the cork. To further the settling of the +sediment, workmen turn or shake each bottle daily for a period of one +to three months. The bottles are then taken to the finishing room, +cork down and the wine is "disgorged." Disgorging is accomplished by +freezing a small quantity of wine in the neck of the bottle containing +the sediment, after which the cork is removed and with it the frozen +sediment. The bottle is refilled, recorked, wired, capped, and the +champagne is ready for shipment.</p> + +<h6><em>The vintage.</em></h6> + +<p>The wine-making season the world over is known as the "vintage." The +time at which the vintage begins depends, of course, on the region, +the variety of grapes, the growing season and the location of the +vineyard. Its duration, also, depends on these same factors. The +season is usually lengthened by the fact that wine-makers require for +their purposes a number of varieties of grapes which ripen at +different times. Before or during the vintage, representatives of wine +cellars usually make contracts for the number of tons of grapes +required at a certain price a ton.</p> + +<p>The notion prevails that grapes for wine and grape-juice need not be +first-class. This is far from the truth. To make<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> good wine the grapes +must be carefully harvested, transported with as little injury as +possible and must be protected from dirt, mold and fermentation before +reaching the winery. European vintagers maintain that grapes picked at +sunrise produce the lightest and most limped wines and yield more +juice. They say, also, that the grapes should not be gathered in the +heat of the day because fermentation sets in at once. These niceties +are not observed in America.</p> + +<h6><em>Prices paid for wine grapes.</em></h6> + +<p>Supply and demand regulate the price paid for wine grapes. There is +always demand for good wine grapes, although a poor product often goes +begging for market. In the East, the highest prices are paid for the +grapes used in making champagne. The champagne region of the East is +confined to a few localities along Lake Erie and to western New York +about Keuka Lake, where the industry is most largely developed. The +varieties used in champagne-making in the East are Delaware, Catawba, +Elvira, Dutchess, Iona, Diamond and a few other sorts. Prices differ +with the many conditions affecting the grape and champagne industries, +perhaps the average price for Catawba, the grape chiefly used in +making champagne in this region, being from $40 to $50 a ton. Choicer +grapes, as Delaware, Iona and Dutchess, often sell from $75 to $100 a +ton. Concords are sometimes utilized in making dry wines in the +eastern states, $30 or $40 a ton being the average price. Ives and +Norton are much used for red wines and sell for top prices.</p> + +<p>Wine-makers in the East are at a disadvantage in producing wines other +than champagne, since the price paid on the Pacific slope for wine +grapes is much lower; Grapes for sweet wine in California often sell +as low as $6 or $7 a ton, the average price being $10 or $12. Grapes +for dry wines, such as Zinfandel and Burger, bring on the Pacific +coast from $10 to $12 a ton. Choice varieties of grapes in this +region, such as Cabernet, Sauvignon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> Petite Sirah and Riesling, bring +from $22 to $24. The eastern wine-makers, however, have the advantage +of being close to the largest and best markets in the country. Wines +made in the East are very different from those made in California and +supply a different market.</p> + +<p>A few years ago most of the Muscadine grapes grown in the South were +used for wine-making. From these grapes wine has been made since +colonial times, and for a century there have been some large vineyards +of Muscadine grapes in the South from which wine was made in a +commercial way. Since Muscadine grapes do not sell well in the markets +in competition with the grapes of the North or the Pacific slope, the +Muscadine grape industry has been dependent on the wine industry of +the section in which the fruit is produced. The growth of prohibition +in the South, however, has driven the wine industry to the North and +West and there is now little wine manufactured from Muscadine grapes +in the South, although some grapes are shipped North for wine-making. +The wine made from these grapes is very distinct in flavor and on that +account a special trade has been developed for it. It is possible that +this special trade will keep up the demand for Muscadine wine so that +some part of the crop may be shipped to wine-making states to supply +this demand.</p> + + +<h4>Grape-juice</h4> + +<p>When properly made, grape-juice is the undiluted, unsweetened, +unfermented juice of the grape and contains no preservatives, +fermentation being prevented by sterilization with heat. The product +is as ancient as wine, and, therefore, as the cultivation of the vine, +for all wine-making peoples have used new wine or grape-juice as a +beverage. For centuries physicians in wine-making countries have +prescribed grape-juice as it comes from the wine-press for certain +maladies, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span> treatment constituting an essential part of the +grape-cures of European countries. The process of making an +unfermented grape-juice that will keep from season to season as an +article of commerce is, however, a modern invention, and is the +outcome of the discoveries of the last half century regarding the +control of the agents of fermentation.</p> + +<p>The manufacture of commercial grape-juice in America, to which country +the industry is confined, began as a home practice following the +fundamental processes of canning fruit. Toward the close of the last +century, several inventive minds discovered methods of making a +commercial product and began developing markets for their wares. The +beginning of the present century found the new industry in full swing, +since which time its growth has been truly marvelous. In 1900 the +amount of grape-juice made in the United States was so small as to be +negligible in the census report of that year. By 1910, the annual +output had reached for the whole country over 1,500,000 gallons and at +present writing, 1918, it is well above 3,500,000 gallons per annum. +The manufacture of grape-juice is no longer a home industry but a +great commercial enterprise. It is an industry closely associated with +grape-growing, however, and as such needs further consideration here.</p> + +<h6><em>Grape-juice regions.</em></h6> + +<p>The manufacture of grape-juice is centered in the Chautauqua +grape-belt in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio. So far, the demand +seems to be almost wholly for juices made from native grapes, the +juice of European grapes grown on the Pacific slope being so sweet as +to be insipid. Possibly 80 per cent of the grape-juice now +manufactured in America comes from a single variety, the Concord. +There can be no question, however, but that sooner or later +grape-juices of distinct qualities will be made from many varieties of +grapes, thus giving wider sale and greater variation for the product. +A very good spark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span>ling grape-juice is now on the market and its +reception seems to promise a great increase in the production of an +article that closely simulates champagne in color and sparkling +vivacity, but not, of course, in taste, since it contains no alcohol. +The grape-juice industry has been started and is in a flourishing +condition in several other grape regions than the Chautauqua belt +which is now its center. There are factories at Sandusky, Ohio, using +grapes grown in the Kelly Island district; in southwestern Michigan +there are several factories; and the industry still survives at +Vineland, New Jersey, which probably should be called the original +home of the manufacture of grape-juice. In the South, some grape-juice +is made from Muscadine grapes, but this product seems not as yet to +have been well received in the markets.</p> + +<h6><em>Commercial methods of making grape-juice.</em></h6> + +<p>There is at present a great diversity of methods and of apparatus +employed in the grape-juice manufacturing plants throughout the +country. Since the industry is in its infancy, and the attempt has +been made to hold some of the methods as trade secrets, the diversity +of methods and appliances is not to be wondered at. No doubt there +will be greater uniformity of method and machinery and, therefore, +greater efficiency, as the industry develops.</p> + +<p>Husmann<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> gives the following account of the manufacture of +grape-juice in the eastern states and in California:</p> + +<p>"Sound, ripe, but not over-ripe, grapes are used. These are first +crushed or, in case the stems are to be removed, are run through a +combined stemmer and crusher. If the machinery is stationed high +enough, the crushed fruit can be run through chutes directly into the +presses or kettles; otherwise, it must be pumped into them by means of +a pomace or must pump or carried in pomace carts or tubs. </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>"If a white or light colored juice is desired, the crushed grapes are +first pressed, the juice which comes from the press being heated to +about 165° F., skimmed, run through a pasteurizer at a temperature of +between 175° and 200° F. into well-sterilized containers, and then +placed in storage.</p> + +<p>"If a colored juice is desired, the crushed grapes are heated +immediately, usually in aluminum kettles having double bottoms, which +prevent the steam from coming in contact with the contents. These +kettles usually contain revolving cylinders, the arms of which keep +the crushed grapes thoroughly stirred while they are being heated to +about 140° F. The simultaneous heating and stirring help to extract +the coloring matter from the skins, tear the cells of the berries, +increase the quantity of juice obtained per ton of fruit, and give to +the must many ingredients of red wine, with the substitution of grape +sugar for alcohol of the wine.</p> + +<p>"The aluminum kettles are filled and emptied in rotation, thereby +making continuous manipulation possible. The presses should be +situated below the kettles, so that the hot juice can be drained +directly into them. The expressed juice is then reheated to about 165° +F., skimmed, and run through the pasteurizer in the same manner in +which the white juice is handled. The juice passes from the +pasteurizer while still hot (about 160° F.) into the container, which +should be sealed immediately. The lower the temperature (above the +freezing point) at which these containers are then stored, the less is +the danger of fermentation and the more rapidly the juice will clear +and deposit its sediment.</p> + +<p>"The ordinary receptacles in which the juice is stored are 5-gallon +demijohns, 20-gallon carboys, or clean, new barrels or puncheons, well +washed and drained. All containers should be thoroughly sterilized +before they are filled, and the covers, corks, bungs, cloths, etc., +used in sealing them should be scrupulously clean and carefully +sterilized. If barrels or puncheons are used<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> as containers, they are +placed on skids and firmly wedged to prevent movement. As the juice +cools, air laden with fermentation germs is apt to be drawn into the +barrels by the decrease in the volume of the liquid. In order to +prevent this, tight air-filtering plugs of sterilized cotton are +sometimes used instead of the ordinary bungs of solid wood.</p> + +<p>"The type of pasteurizer differs in almost every establishment. As the +industry is of comparatively recent development commercially, there +are few models on the market and each manufacturer has constructed the +model best suited to his particular ideas or requirements. There are +two general types, however, (1) open, double-bottomed kettles in which +the juice is heated to the required temperature and then drawn off, +and (2) continuous pasteurizers in which the juice is heated to the +required temperature as it passes through the water bath.</p> + +<p>"The presses also show great variation in different establishments, +either hydraulic, screw or lever power being used, and there is a +marked difference between the types of pomace containers. Sometimes +the crushed grapes are heaped on burlap cloths the sides of which are +folded in, and these burlaps are placed one on top of the other in the +press; sometimes press baskets take the place of these burlaps.</p> + +<p>"The manufacturers in California and those in the grape-growing +regions of the Rocky Mountains seem to have adopted entirely different +methods of handling the juice after it is first pasteurized and +stored. Most of the eastern juices are red and are obtained from the +Labrusca varieties, generally the Concord. When the juice comes from +the presses, some manufacturers strain it to remove the coarse +particles and then pour it directly into well-sterilized bottles; +others siphon it off the sediment in the containers in which it is +stored after the first pasteurization and pour it into pasteurized +bottles. In either case, the bottles are securely corked and then +repasteurized. The California juices, however, both red and white, are +made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> exclusively from Vinifera varieties. They are allowed to settle +in the original containers and are siphoned out of these and carefully +filtered to make them clear and bright.</p> + +<p>"The clearing of the juice is sometimes facilitated by fining or +adding a small quantity of a substance which coagulates and when +settling carries down with it the solid matters causing cloudiness in +the liquid. Such finings may be applied at the time of the first +pasteurization or just before the final filtration and bottling. In +the latter case the juice is drawn off the settlings in containers, +the finings are added, and the juice again pasteurized into other +receptacles. When it clears, it is either bottled directly or first +passed through a filter, drawn into carefully sterilized bottles, +securely corked, and then repasteurized. Care must be taken that the +final sterilization is not at a higher temperature than the previous +one; otherwise, solid matter may be precipitated and the must clouded +again.</p> + +<p>"A simple and efficient form of sterilizer consists of a wooden trough +provided with a wooden grating which is raised 2 inches from the +bottom and on which rest the filled bottles in wire baskets. The +trough contains enough water to submerge the bottles and is kept at a +temperature of 185° F. by means of a steam coil beneath the grating. +It requires about 15 minutes for the must at the bottom of the bottles +to reach that temperature; for packages of other sizes it is necessary +to make a test with a thermometer in order to determine how long it +takes for the entire contents to reach 185°.</p> + +<p>"To prevent the corks from being expelled during sterilization, they +are either tied down with a strong twine or with some contrivance such +as the cork holder. In order that mold germs may not enter the must +through the corks, especially if a poor quality of cork is used, the +necks of the corked bottles are dipped in heated paraffin before +putting on the caps, or the corks are sealed down with sealing wax. It +is also well to keep the bottles on their rider to prevent the corks +drying out."</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Home methods of making grape-juice.</em></h6> + +<p>The principles involved in making grape-juice in the home are the same +as those used in canning. The grapes may be crushed by hand or in +mills similar or identical with the small cider-mills owned by many +farmers. In making a light-colored juice, the crushed grapes are put +in a cloth sack and hung up to drain, or the filled sack may be +twisted by two persons until the greater part of the juice is +expressed. The juice is then sterilized in a double-boiler by heating +it at a temperature of 180° to 200° F., care being taken that the +thermometer never goes above 200°. The sterilized juice is now poured +into a glass or enameled vessel to stand for twenty-four hours, after +which it is drained from the sediment and strained through several +thicknesses of clean flannel. The juice is now put in clean bottles +preparatory to a second sterilization, care being taken that at least +an inch of space is left at the top for the liquid to expand when +heated. The second sterilization may be conducted in a wash-boiler or +similar receptacle. The filled bottles must not rest on the bottom of +the boiler but should be separated from it with a thin board. The +boiler is filled with water up to within an inch of the tops of the +bottles and heated until the water begins to boil. The bottles should +then be taken out and corked immediately, using only new corks. After +corking, the bottles are further sealed by dipping the corks in melted +paraffin. A cheap corking machine is a great convenience in this work, +and in any case the corks should be soaked for at least a half hour in +warm but not boiling water.</p> + +<p>The process varies somewhat in the making of red grape-juice. The +crushed grapes are heated to a temperature of 200° F., and are then +strained through a drip bag without pressure, after which the liquid +is set away in glass or enamel vessels to settle for twenty-four +hours. Except for this difference in the pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>liminary treatment of the +juice, the methods are the same in making the red or the light-colored +product. For proper keeping it is not necessary to let the juice +settle after it is strained, but a clearer and brighter product is +obtained if the juice is permitted to settle. In either case the +grape-juice should keep indefinitely if the work has been well done. +As soon as bottles are opened, fermentation begins with the formation +of alcohol.</p> + + +<h4>Raisins</h4> + +<p>The grape is best conserved as a raisin. Canning is seldom practiced +with this fruit. A raisin is a dried grape. Tree-fruits are evaporated +as by-products, but the raisin is a primary product. This is a +difference worth noting; for with tree-fruits the cream of the crop +goes to the fresh fruit market, while with the grape the entire crop +of raisin varieties may go into the cured product. The raisin industry +is dependent on a sunny and rainless climate and hence in America is +confined to the grape regions of certain parts of California. In this +state, raisin-making is a rich resource of the grape-grower, the +annual output now averaging well above 200,000 pounds, grown on +120,000 acres of land, and having a market value of $10,000,000. +Fresno County, California, produces nearly 60 per cent of the output +of the state and the city of Fresno is the center of the industry. The +raisin industry does not stand alone in California, as some raisin +grapes, notably Muscat of Alexandria, are good dessert sorts and are +also much used for wine and brandy. Only the first crop of the variety +named is used for raisins, while practically all of the second crop +each season is made into wine and brandy.</p> + +<p>Raisins proper are mostly made from the Muscat of Alexandria, although +other large, white, sweet grapes are sometimes used. Sultana raisins, +naturally seedless, are made from Sultanina and the Sultana. The dried +currants of commerce<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> are made from grapes, and of these California +produces small quantities from White Corinth.</p> + +<p>The following account of raisin-making is given by Husmann:<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p>"In the raisin districts grapes are ripe by the middle of August, the +season often lasting into November. The average time necessary for +drying and curing a tray of raisins is about three weeks, depending on +the weather, the earliest picked grapes drying in ten days and the +later ones often taking four weeks or more.</p> + +<p>"The method of drying is very simple. The bunches are cut from the +vines and placed in shallow trays 2 feet wide, 3 feet long, and 1 inch +high on which the grapes are allowed to sun-dry, being turned from +time to time by simply placing an empty tray upside down on the full +one and then turning both over and taking off the top tray. After the +raisins are dried they are stored away until they are packed and +prepared for shipment. Some of the larger growers, in order not to run +so much risk in drying on account of rain, and also to enable them to +handle the crop fast enough, have curing houses, where the curing is +finished after having been partially done outside."</p> + +<h6><em>Dipping and scalding raisins.</em></h6> + +<p>"The operation of dipping and scalding is designed to accomplish +several purposes, namely, to cleanse the fruit, to hasten its drying, +and to give the dried fruit a lighter color. In dipping and drying, +the fruit, immediately after being cut from the vines, is either +dipped in clear water to first rinse it of particles of dust and other +foreign matter, or it is taken direct to the scalder and immersed in a +boiling alkaline mixture called 'legia' (lye) until the grapes show an +almost imperceptible cracking of the skin, the operation consuming +perhaps from one-fourth to one-half of a minute. This dipping calls +for skill on the part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> operator, the duration of the emersion +depending on the strength and temperature of the mixture and the +condition of the fruit. Desiccation follows the scalding process, +which is accomplished on trays in the sun, the same as undipped +raisins cured entirely by solar heat. On account of the scald they +cure rapidly, and the fruit is also often of lighter color when cured.</p> + +<p>"The following formula has been used for Sultana and Sultanina grapes +at Fresno:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Fifteen pounds of 'Greenbank's 98-per cent lye' are boiled in 100 +gallons of water. This mixture is for grapes containing 25 per +cent of sugar. Should their sugar content be less, enough lye is +added to remove the bloom and open the pores of the skin of the +grapes. After dipping, the grapes are spread on trays and +sulphured for 1 to 1<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> hours. Observation will show whether it +may be necessary to vary this formula a trifle to suit conditions +of ripeness and influence of temperature. The length of time +required for dipping is ascertained by experience, and differs +with the strength of the lye, the heat of the solution, and the +thickness of the skins of the grapes." </p></div> + +<h6><em>Packing raisins.</em></h6> + +<p>"The raisins as received at the packing house are weighed and the +loose raisins and those that are to be shipped as dried grapes are +immediately run through a stemmer and grader which stems, cleans, and +assorts the raisins into three or four different grades, after which +they are packed and shipped to various parts of the country, some also +being exported. Those producing cluster or layer raisins (if they have +not already been equalized) are first stored in the equalizing rooms. +In these rooms the sweat boxes, filled with layers of new raisins, are +stacked and left usually from 10 to 30 days, or long enough for the +overdried berries to absorb moisture from the under-dried ones. This +sweating also properly softens and toughens the stems, which prevents +their breaking and enables them to hold the berries better. In +California, where the climate is so dry, no first class pack could be +made without thus first equalizing the raisins. After having been +equalized the raisins are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> taken out, assorted into the different +grades, and placed in trays holding 5 pounds each. The trays of the +same grades are then pressed and stacked away in piles ready for +packing.</p> + +<p>"Pressing the raisins so that they look well and so none are burst +open is work requiring experience and good judgment. It takes four +pressed trays to fill a 20-pound box. The loose raisins that have +dropped from the cluster through handling before they were equalized +are also graded, the largest, of course, making the choicest pack."</p> + +<h6><em>Classes of raisins.</em></h6> + +<p>"Previous to the consolidated organization of the packers the three +best grades of raisins on the stems were known as 'Imperial,' +'Dehesia,' and 'Fancy Clusters,' respectively. The California Raisin +Growers Association established classification and grades similar to +those of the Spanish raisin packers, on which the French trade names +are also based. The original Spanish, as well as English terms with +which they correspond, and the different grades in descending order of +quality are shown in the following table:</p> + +<div id="raisin_grade_table"> +<table summary="Grades of raisins"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th class="table_cell_3110">Spanish Terms</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">French Terms</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">English Terms</th> + <th class="table_cell_3011">California Terms</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_1100">Imperial</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101">Imperiaux Extra</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101">Extra Imperial Cluster</td> + <td class="table_cell_1001">Six-Crown Cluster</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Imperial Bajo</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Imperiaux</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Imperial Cluster</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001">Five-Crown Cluster</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Royan Bajo</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Royaux</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Royal Cluster</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001">Four-Crown Cluster</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Cuarta (4a)</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Surchoix Extra</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101">Choicest</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001">Three-Crown Cluster</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0130">Quinta (5a)</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131">Choix Extra</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131">Choice Cluster</td> + <td class="table_cell_0031">Two-Crown Cluster</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> + +<p>"The grading is optical, as a result of experience, there being no +linear or cubic measurement standard. Thus, a nice cluster<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> with all +berries of large size, would be a 'Six-Crown Cluster,' such being the +very finest raisins on the stem. 'Five-Crown Clusters' were formerly +the 'Dehesia' cluster, and 'Four-Crown Clusters' were formerly 'Fancy +Clusters.' Grades less than 'Four-Crown' on the stems (the +'Three-Crown' and 'Two-Crown') are known as 'Layers,' or 'London +Layers.' These are placed in boxes containing 20 pounds net; in half +boxes of 10 pounds; and quarter boxes of 5 pounds; and in fancy boxes +containing 2<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span> pounds. Loose raisins, or raisins off the stem, are +graded into Two-Crown, Three-Crown, and Four-Crown raisins by being +run through screens the meshes of which are thirteen thirty-seconds, +seventeen thirty-seconds, and twenty-two thirty-seconds of an inch in +size, respectively. The Sultanina (erroneously called Thompson +Seedless), and the Sultana are packed in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to the +case."</p> + +<h6><em>Seeded raisins.</em></h6> + +<p>"The invention of a raisin-seeding machine by George E. Pettit in the +early seventies, and its use, has had a wonderful effect on the +industry.</p> + +<p>"Seeded raisins were first put on the market by the late Col. William +Forsythe, of Fresno, Cal., who at first found it very difficult to +dispose of 20 tons. The output in the last 15 years has increased from +700 tons to 50,000 tons per annum, and their popularity is constantly +increasing. In 1900 about 14,000 tons were placed on the market, in +1905 about 21,000 tons, in 1910 about 31,000 tons, and in 1913 about +49,000 tons. The seeding machines in present use can turn out 300 tons +per day. Seeded raisins are now the most important branch of the +raisin industry.</p> + +<p>"A brief outline of how seeded raisins are prepared will prove +interesting. The raisins are first exposed to a dry temperature of +140° F. for three to five hours, after which they are put through a +chilling process so that the pedicels can be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> easily removed, and are +then thoroughly cleansed by being passed through cleaning machines. +They are then taken by automatic carriers to another room, spread out +on trays, and exposed to a moist temperature of 130° F. to bring them +back to their normal condition. The raisins pass to the seeding +machine, where they are carried between rubber-faced rollers and the +impaling device of the seeding machine which catches the seeds and +removes them from the fruits as they are flattened between the +surfaces of the rollers. The impaled seeds are removed from the roller +by a whisking device in such a way as to be caught in a separate +receptacle. The seeded raisins pass through chutes to the packing +tables on the floor below.</p> + +<p>"The seeded or loose raisins are packed in 50-pound boxes; in 1-pound +cartons, 36 to the case; in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to the case; and some +in bulk in 25-pound boxes.</p> + +<p>"Information has recently been sent out to the effect that the +California Associated Raisin Co. is arranging to do away with the +grades in seeded raisins, so there will only be one grade. This +contemplates using all of the Three-Crown, the smallest of the +Four-Crown, and the best of the Two-Crown in one blended grade.</p> + +<p>"From the seeds, formerly used as a fuel, a number of by-products are +now made.</p> + +<p>"The seeds and pedicels removed from the raisins in seeding vary from +10 to 12 per cent of the original weight of the raisins according to +their conditions and quality.</p> + +<p>"The grading, seeding, facing, and packing have become separate +branches of the industry, and the work is nearly all done by +especially trained women, who have become experts at it. The +establishments in which this work is done furnish employment for over +5000 persons. The aggregate pay roll each month during the season is +between $200,000 and $350,000."</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p> +<h4>Grape-vinegar</h4> + +<p>A very good vinegar can be made from grapes, although as yet this +outlet for over-production is not largely utilized in America. Grapes +which are unsuitable for raisins, dessert, wine-making or grape-juice +can be used for vinegar-making. Under the most favorable conditions, +grape-vinegar cannot compete in cheapness with vinegar made from +numerous other products and must, therefore, always sell at a high +price. Indeed, it is doubtful whether a high-grade grape-vinegar can +be manufactured at a less price than good wine. The production of +grape-vinegar requires as much care, but possibly not as much expert +knowledge, as the making of wine. Unlike the latter, however, the +vinegar can be produced on a small scale for domestic purposes by any +one possessing a knowledge of wine-making or vinegar-making.</p> + +<p>Grape-vinegar may be manufactured from either white or red grapes, +although that from white grapes is generally preferred. It may be made +either directly from grapes or from wine, the acetifying process being +the same for both. There are, therefore, two distinct stages in the +manufacture of this product. First, there must be alcoholic +fermentation by which the sugar in the grape is changed into alcohol +with the escape of carbonic acid gas. Second, acetic fermentation must +follow the alcoholic fermentation by which the alcohol is changed into +acetic acid.</p> + + +<h4>By-products of Grape Industries</h4> + +<p>There are several valuable by-products in the wine-making and +grape-juice industries, and even raisin-making yields a by-product in +the seeds taken from the raisins. The utilization of these wastes has +been rendered profitable in Europe, and there is no reason why +by-products should not yield considerable profit in America, as a few +already do. Good authorities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> state that if all the wastes of the +grape crop could be utilized the value of the crop would be increased +over 10 per cent.</p> + +<h6><em>Pomace.</em></h6> + +<p>The pomace or marc, the residue left after grape pressing, is the most +valuable of the by-products of the wine and grape-juice manufacturers. +If the pomace is permitted to ferment, and afterwards is distilled, a +product called pomace-brandy is made. Unscrupulous wine-makers often +add water and sugar to pomace, after which it is refermented and the +resulting product is sold as wine. Notwithstanding the fact that the +word "wine" as applied to this product is a misnomer, the total amount +of such wine made and consumed in America is large. Piquette is +another product in which the pomace is put into fermenting vats, +sprinkled with water and the liquid after a time is drawn off, +carrying with it the wine contained in the pomace. This liquid is +re-used in other pomace, until it is high enough in alcoholic +strength, when it is distilled into "piquette" or "wash."</p> + +<p>In Europe, the pomace from stemmed grapes is said to make a sheep and +cattle food of more or less value when salted slightly and stored in +silos. The pomace is also oftentimes used as a manure, for which it +has considerable to recommend it, being rich in potash and nitrogen. +Acetic acid is made from pomace by drying it in vapor-tight rooms, +during which process 50 to 60 per cent of the weight of the pomace +becomes vapor, and this, condensed, yields considerable quantities of +acetic acid.</p> + +<h6><em>Cream-of-tartar.</em></h6> + +<p>The lees of wine, the sediment which settles in the casks in which new +wine or grape-juice is stored, form a grayish or reddish crust on the +inside of the receptacle. This is the argol or wine-stone of the +wine-maker, and from it is made cream-of-tartar, an article +considerably used in medicine, the arts and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> for culinary purposes. +From 20 to 70 per cent of the lees consist of either cream-of-tartar, +or of calcium tartrate, the latter also having commercial value. Red +wines are much richer in argol than white wines. A ton of grapes +yields from one to two pounds of argol. This product becomes a source +of considerable profit in large wineries and in grape-juice +manufacturing plants.</p> + +<h6><em>Seeds.</em></h6> + +<p>In Europe, the seeds are separated from the pomace and used in various +ways. They are also utilized to a smaller extent in America, +especially when separated from raisins. The seeds are used as food for +horses, cattle and poultry, for which they are said to have +considerable value. If crushed and ground, the seeds yield a clear +yellow oil which burns without smoke or smell and which may also be +employed as a substitute for olive oil. A ton of grapes yields from +forty to one hundred pounds of seeds from which may be made from three +to sixteen pounds of oil. This oil is also used as a substitute for +linseed oil and in soap-making. Besides oil, the seeds yield tannin. +After the oil and tannin have been taken from the seeds, there remains +a meal which may still be utilized as a stock food or as a fertilizer.</p> + + +<h4>Domestic Uses for Grapes</h4> + +<p>At present, when food conservation is being emphasized everywhere, +mention of the domestic use for grapes is particularly appropriate. +The country over, no fruit is more generally grown than the grape; yet +grape products are not as common for home use as those of several +other fruits, although many attractive and appetizing preserves can be +made from grapes without the use of large quantities of sugar, spices +or other ingredients. Few housekeepers realize the high quality and +the cheapness of the products that can be made from the grape. Thus, +grape-juice, jelly, jam, marmalade, grape-butter,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> catsup, spiced +grapes, canned grapes, conserves in which grapes are used, preserves +and mince-meat are among the desirable culinary products easily and +cheaply prepared from home-grown grapes or those bought in the market. +Only simple domestic utensils are needed in the preparation of any of +these products.</p> + +<p>Grape-sirup is less easily produced, yet can be made in any home +without the addition of sugar. It is not only a good table sirup, but +is a most useful sugar substitute for the preparation of other +culinary products. The Muscadine grapes in the South, to be purchased +by almost every householder in southeastern United States, in +particular, are useful for these domestic products. Recipes for all of +these products can be found in cook books, and one or two bulletins +and circulars from the United States Department of Agriculture give +recipes for preparing grapes for domestic purposes. Farmers' Bulletin +859 entitled <em>Home Uses for Muscadine Grapes</em> is a particularly +valuable publication on this subject.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to note that several large manufacturers of +grape-juice are putting on the market grape jams, jellies and +marmalades. It would seem that these delicious and wholesome products +would find a ready sale in the markets of the country, and that their +manufacture would prove profitable to the maker and to the +grape-grower. The greater the use of grapes for their products, the +better the grower can breast the blows of unfavorable markets and +over-production.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 331px;"> +<a name="Plate_XX" id="Plate_XX"></a> +<img src="images/plate20.jpg" width="331" height="500" alt="Plate XX." title="Plate XX." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XX.</span>—Isabella (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER XV</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">GRAPE-BREEDING</p> + + +<p>Chance, pure and simple, has been the greatest factor in the +production of varieties of American grapes. From the millions of wild +plants, an occasional grape of pre-eminent merit has caught the eye of +the cultivator and has been brought into the vineyard to be the +progenitor of a new variety. Or in the vineyards, more often in +near-by waste lands, from the prodigious number of seedlings that +spring up, pure or cross-bred, a plant of merit becomes the foundation +of a new variety. An interesting fact in the domestication of the four +chief species of American grapes is that none came under cultivation +until forms of them, striking in value, had been found. Catawba, +representing the Labrusca grapes; the Scuppernong, the Rotundifolias; +Norton, from <em>Vitis æstivalis</em>; Delaware and Herbemont from the +Bourquiniana grapes; and Clinton from <em>Vitis vulpina</em>, are, after a +century, scarcely excelled, although in each species there are now +many new varieties.</p> + +<p>That our best grapes have come from chance is not because of a lack of +human effort to produce superior varieties. Of all fruits, the grape +has received most attention in America from the generation of +plant-breeders just passing. Grape-breeders have produced 2000 or more +varieties, a medley of the heterogeneous characters of a dozen +species. That so many of this vast number are worthless is due more to +a lack of knowledge of plant-breeding than to a lack of effort, for +the order and system in plant-breeding that now prevail, disclosed by +recent brilliant discoveries, were unknown to grape-breeders of the +last century.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p> +<h4>Grape Hybrids</h4> + +<p>As early as 1822, Nuttall, a noted botanist, then at Harvard, +recommended "hybrids betwixt the European vine and those of the United +States which would better answer the variable climates of North +America." In 1830, William Robert Prince, <a href="#Fig_48">Fig. 48</a>, fourth proprietor +of the then famous Linnean Botanic Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, +grew 10,000 seedling grapes "from admixture under every variety of +circumstance." This was probably the first attempt on a large scale to +improve the native grapes by hybridizing, although little seems to +have come of it. Later, a Dr. Valk, also of Flushing, grew hybrids +from which he obtained Ada, the first named hybrid, the introduction +of which started hybridizers to work in all parts of the country where +grapes were grown.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 198px;"> +<a name="Fig_48" id="Fig_48"></a> +<img src="images/fig48.jpg" width="198" height="250" alt="Fig. 48. William Robert Prince." title="Fig. 48. William Robert Prince." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 48.</span> William Robert Prince.</span> +</div> + +<p>Soon after Valk's hybrid was sent out, E. S. Rogers, <a href="#Fig_49">Fig. 49</a>, Salem, +Massachusetts, and J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, began to give +viticulturists hybrids of the European Vinifera and the American +species which were so promising that enthusiasm and speculation in +grape-growing ran riot. Never before nor since has grape-growing +received the attention in America as given during the introduction of +Rogers' hybrids. It was the expectation of all that we were to grow in +America,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> in these hybrids, grapes but little inferior, if at all, to +those of Europe.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 214px;"> +<a name="Fig_49" id="Fig_49"></a> +<img src="images/fig49.jpg" width="214" height="250" alt="Fig. 49. E. S. Rogers." title="Fig. 49. E. S. Rogers." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 49.</span> E. S. Rogers.</span> +</div> + +<p>A statement of the difference between European and American grapes +shows why American viticulturists have been so eager to grow either +pure-breds from the foreign grape or hybrids with it.</p> + +<p>European grapes have a higher sugar-and-solid content than the +American species; they, therefore, make better wines and keep much +longer after harvesting and can be made into raisins. Also, they have +a greater variety of flavors, which are more delicate, yet richer, +with a pleasanter aroma, seldom so acid, and are always lacking the +disagreeable, rancid odor and taste, the "foxiness," of many American +varieties. There is, however, an unpleasant astringency in some of the +foreign grapes, and many varieties are without character of flavor. +American table-grapes, on the other hand, are more refreshing, the +unfermented juice makes a pleasanter drink, and lacking sweetness and +richness, they do not cloy the appetite so quickly. The bunches and +berries of the European grapes are larger, more attractive and are +borne in greater quantities. The pulp, seeds and skins are somewhat +objectionable in all of the native species and scarcely so at all in +the Old World sorts. The berries of the native grapes shell from the +stem so quickly that the bunches do not ship well. The vines of the +Old World grapes are more compact in habit and require less pruning +and training than do those of the native grapes; and, as a species,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> +probably through long cultivation, they are adapted to more kinds of +soil, to greater differences in environment and are more easily +propagated than the American species.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 198px;"> +<a name="Fig_50" id="Fig_50"></a> +<img src="images/fig50.jpg" width="198" height="250" alt="Fig. 50. T. V. Munson." title="Fig. 50. T. V. Munson." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 50.</span> T. V. Munson.</span> +</div> + +<p>Because of these points of superiority in the Old World grape, since +Valk, Allen and Rogers showed the way, American grape-breeders have +sought to unite by hybridization the good characters of the Old World +grape with those of the American. Nearly half of the 2000 grapes +cultivated in eastern America have more or less European blood in +them. Yet, despite the efforts of the breeders, few of these hybrids +have commercial value. Whether because they are naturally better +fixed, or long cultivation has more firmly established them, the vine +characters of <em>Vitis vinifera</em> more often appear in varieties arising +as primary hybrids between that and the native species, and the +weaknesses of the foreign grape, which prevent their cultivation in +America, crop out. Hybrids in which the vinifera blood is more +attenuated, as secondary or tertiary crosses, give better results.</p> + +<p>Several secondary hybrids now rank among the best of the cultivated +grapes. Examples are Brighton and Diamond. The first is a cross +between Diana-Hamburg, a hybrid of a Vinifera and a Labrusca, crossed +in its turn with Concord, a Labrusca; the second is a cross between +Iona, also a hybrid between a Vinifera and a Labrusca, crossed with +Concord. Both were grown from seed planted by Jacob Moore, Brighton, +New York, in 1870. Brighton was the first secondary hybrid to attract +the attention of grape-breeders, and its advent marked an important +step in breeding grapes.</p> + +<p>The signal success achieved by hybridizers of the European grape with +native species quickly led to similar amalgamations among American +species. Jacob Rommel, of Morrison, Missouri, beginning work about +1860, hybridized Labrusca and Vulpina grapes so successfully that a +dozen or more of his varieties are still cultivated. All are +characterized by great vigor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> and productiveness; and, although they +lack the qualities which make good table-grapes, they are among the +best for wine-making. Rommel has had many followers in hybridizing +native species, chief of whom was the late T. V. Munson, <a href="#Fig_50">Fig. 50</a>, +Denison, Texas, who literally made every combination of grapes +possible, grew thousands of seedlings and produced many valuable +varieties.</p> + +<h6><em>Improvement by selection.</em></h6> + +<p>Selection, continued through successive generations, so important in +the improvement of field and garden plants, has played but small part +in the domestication of the grape. The period between planting and +fruiting is so long that progress would be slow indeed were this +method relied on. Moreover, selection, as a method in breeding, is +possible only when plants are bred pure, and it is the experience of +grape-breeders that in pure breeding this fruit loses in vigor and +productiveness and that the variations are exceedingly slight and +unstable. Many pure-bred grapes have been raised on the grounds of the +New York Agricultural Experiment Station under the eyes of the writer, +of which very few have surpassed the parent or have shown promise for +the practice of selection.</p> + +<h6><em>New varieties from sports.</em></h6> + +<p>Bud-sports or mutations now and then arise in grapes. But not more +than two or three of the 2000 varieties now under cultivation are +suspected of having arisen in this way. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> true that mutations +seem to occur rather often in grapes, but they are easily confused +with variations due to environment and are usually too vague to lay +hands on. Until the causes of these mutations are known and until they +can be produced and controlled, but little can be hoped for in the +amelioration of grapes through mutations.</p> + + +<h4>Hybridizing the Grape</h4> + +<p>Hybridization has been the chief means of improving the grape. At +present, from what is being accomplished by many workers, it looks as +if it will long continue to be the best means of improving this fruit. +Since the grape-grower must depend on new varieties for progress, as +old varieties cannot be changed, it should be the ambition of growers +to produce varieties better than those we now have. Many amateur and +professional grape-growers in the past have found breeding grapes a +pleasing and profitable hobby, so that much knowledge has accumulated +in regard to manipulating the plants in hybridization, and the results +that follow in the offspring of hybridization.</p> + +<h6><em>How to hybridize.</em></h6> + +<p>It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the botany of flowers +and the essential principles in crossing plants. If he is not, he must +carefully study the structure of flowers, especially those of the +grape, so as to be able to distinguish the different organs and to +discover when the pollen and stigma are ready for the work of +pollination. He should, also, read any one of several current books on +plant-breeding.</p> + +<p>The first task in crossing grapes is to remove the anthers before the +flower opens, a process known as emasculation. This is necessary to +prevent self-pollination. This first operation having been performed, +the cluster of grape-flowers must be tied securely in a bag to protect +it from foreign pollen which otherwise would surely be carried to the +stigma by insects.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> As soon as the stigma is ready to receive the +pollen, the bag is removed and pollen from the male parent is applied, +after which the bag is again put on the flower to remain until the +grapes are well set. By examining the stigmas in the flowers of +uncovered grapes, the operator can tell approximately whether the +covered stigma is ready to receive pollen. The time required after +covering depends, of course, on the age of the bud when emasculation +takes place. It is, by the way, best to delay emasculation until just +before the flowers open, but one must be certain that the anthers have +not discharged their pollen before the flower has been emasculated.</p> + +<p>Emasculation is a simple operation. The essential organs of the +grape-flower are covered by a small cap; this in some grapes must be +removed before the anthers can be reached. In many native grapes, +however, the cap and the anthers may be removed at one stroke by the +operator. The best tool for this is a small pair of forceps. Each of +the blades of the forceps in working with native grapes should have a +sharp cutting surface, but with Vinifera sorts, where the cap must be +removed before the anthers can be reached, forcep blades with a flat +surface are best. There is, of course, some danger when the buds are +well developed that the pollen may be squeezed out and so reach the +stigma or adhere to the instrument and thus contaminate future +crosses. The first danger must be avoided carefully by the skill of +the operator, while the second is easily overcome by sterilizing the +forceps in alcohol. An effort should be made to fertilize as many of +the flowers in the cluster as possible, but success is not always +certain; when there is doubt, the uncertain flower should be removed +from the cluster.</p> + +<p>The flower from which the pollen is to be taken must be protected from +wind and insects; otherwise pollen from another flower may be left on +it. Protection should be given by tying the flowers in a bag while +still in bud. There are various ways of obtaining pollen from ripe +anthers and applying it to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> the stigma of the flowers to be crossed. +The simplest is to crush the anthers, thus squeezing out the pollen, +after which, with a brush, scalpel or other instrument, it may be +placed upon the stigma. A brush is very wasteful of pollen and often +becomes a source of contamination to future crosses, so that the +scalpel is the better implement of the two. When pollen is plentiful, +as will usually be the case when a man is working with vines in his +own vineyard, by far the best method is to take the cluster from the +male vine and apply the pollen directly to the stigma of the flower to +be crossed, thereby making certain of fresh pollen and an abundance of +it. The stigma, if pollen suffice, should be covered with pollen.</p> + +<p>Grape pollen does not keep well and an effort should be made to have +it as fresh as possible. The work of pollination is best performed in +bright, sunny weather when the pollen is very dry. As may be seen from +the foregoing statements, tools and methods are of less importance +than care in doing the work. The only tool absolutely necessary is a +pair of forceps, although a hand-lens is often helpful. Bags for +covering the flowers should be just large enough and no larger. A bag +to cover the pollen-producing flower may well be an ordinary manilla +bag sufficiently large to amply cover the flower-cluster. It is +helpful, however, to have a light transparent oiled bag through which +one can see the condition of the anthers. It is desirable that the bag +for the female flower be permitted to remain until the fruits ripen as +a protection against birds and fungi. It must, therefore, be of larger +size. While the bags are still flat, a hole is made near the opening +through which a string is passed which can be tied when the upper end +of the bag is squeezed about the cluster.</p> + +<h6><em>Choosing the parents.</em></h6> + +<p>Very much depends on the immediate parentage in hybridizing grapes. +Some varieties when crossed produce much<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> higher averages of worthy +offspring than others. There is so much difference in varieties in +this respect that to discover parents so endowed should be the first +task of the grape-breeder. Fortunately, considerable work has been +done by several experiment stations in breeding grapes, and their +accumulated knowledge, together with that from such workers as Rogers, +Ricketts, Campbell and Munson, furnishes beginners with good starting +points. There is no way possible of discovering what the best +progenitors are except by records of performance. Very often varieties +of high cultural value are worthless in breeding because their +characters seem not to be transmitted to their progeny and, to the +contrary, a good-for-nothing variety in the vineyard is often valuable +in breeding.</p> + +<p>From present knowledge it does not appear that new characters are +introduced in plants by hybridizing. A new variety originating from +hybridization is but a recombination of the characters of the parents; +the combination is new but the characters are not. Thus, one parent of +a hybridized grape may contribute color, size, flavor and practically +all the characters of the fruit, while the other parent may contribute +vigor, hardiness, resistance to disease and the characters of the +vine. Or these and other characters in the make-up of a new grape may +be intermingled in any mathematical way possible. The grape-breeder +must make certain that one or the other of the parents possesses the +particular characters he desires in his new grape.</p> + +<p>It is now known that the characters of the grape, in common with those +of other plants, are inherited in accordance with certain laws +discovered by Mendel. The early workers in grape-breeding did not know +of these laws and could not take aim in the work they were doing. +Consequently, hybridization was a maze in which these breeders often +lost themselves. Mendel's discoveries, however, assure a regularity of +averages and give a definiteness and constancy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> of action which enable +the grape-breeder to attain with fair certainty what he wants if he +keeps patiently at his task. The grape-breeder should inform himself +as to what Mendel's laws are, and on the work that has been done on +the inheritance of characters of the grape. A technical bulletin +published by the State Experiment Station at Geneva, New York, and +another from the North Carolina Station at Raleigh give much +information on the inheritance of characters in certain grapes, and +further information can be secured by applying to the United States +Department of Agriculture at Washington for literature on the subject.</p> + +<p>The grape-breeder can hope to progress only by making many +combinations between different varieties and growing large numbers of +seedlings. He should extend his work to all varieties which show +promise in the breeding of grapes for the particular purpose he has in +mind. The seed may be saved and planted as directed in the <a href="#Page_36">chapter on +propagation</a>. Unless he desires to make scientific interpretations of +his results, weak seedlings should be discarded the first year, and a +second discard may be made before the young plants go in the vineyard. +The breeder will soon discover that he can tell fairly well from the +character of the seedlings whether they are of sufficient promise to +keep. Thus, if the number of leaves is small or if the leaves +themselves are small, the vine is of doubtful value; if the internodes +are exceedingly long, the prospect is poor; slenderness of cane, if +accentuated, does not promise well; on the other hand, great stoutness +and very short internodes are not desirable indications. Through these +and other signs, the breeder will come quickly to know which vines +should eventually go to the vineyard.</p> + + +<h4>Results of Grape-breeding</h4> + +<p>There are now 2000 or more varieties of grapes of American origin, all +produced within approximately a century. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> doubtful whether any +other cultivated plant at any time in the history of the world has +attained such importance in so short a time from the wild state as +American grapes. It would seem that almost every possible combination +between species worth considering has been made. Through +hybridization, species and varieties have become so mixed that the +grape-breeder cannot now work intelligently with these gross forms and +must work with characters rather than with species and varieties which +are but combinations of characters. Great progress, it is true, has +been made in the past in breeding grapes in America, but the work has +been wholly empirical and extremely wasteful. Many varieties have been +called, but few have been chosen. With the new knowledge of breeding +and with the experience of past workers, progress should be made with +greater certainty. From what has been done and from work now under +way, it is not too much to say that we shall soon be growing grapes +everywhere in America, and kinds so diverse that they will meet not +only all purposes to which grapes are now put, but also the demand for +better grapes made by more critical consumers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXI" id="Plate_XXI"></a> +<img src="images/plate21.jpg" width="333" height="500" alt="Plate XXI." title="Plate XXI." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXI.</span>—Jefferson (×<span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">5</span>).</span> +</div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER XVI</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">MISCELLANIES</p> + + +<p>There yet remain several phases of grape-culture essential to success, +none of which quite deserves a chapter and none of which properly +falls into any of the foregoing chapters. The subjects are not closely +related, are by no means of equal importance, yet all are too +important to be relegated to the limbo of an appendix and are, +therefore, thrown into a chapter of miscellanies.</p> + + +<h4>Cross-pollination</h4> + +<p>The blooming of the vine had little significance to the grape-grower, +the blooming period being so late that grapes are seldom caught by +frost, until the discovery was made that many varieties of grapes are +unable to fertilize themselves, and that failure of crops of these +varieties was often due to the self-sterility of the variety. Until +this discovery, the uncertainty attending the setting of the grape in +these varieties was one of the discouragements of grape-growing. +Following investigations of the self-sterility of the tree-fruits, an +investigation of the grape showed that the vines of this fruit are +often self-sterile. This knowledge has in some degree modified the +planting of all home collections and has more or less affected the +plantings of commercial sorts.</p> + +<p>Varieties of American grapes show most remarkable differences in the +degree of self-fertility. Many sorts fruit perfectly without +cross-pollination. Others set no fruit whatsoever if cross-pollination +is not provided for. Most varieties, however, are found in groups +between the two extremes, neither<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> self-fertile nor self-sterile. +<a href="#Fig_51">Figure 51</a> shows staminate and perfect clusters on one vine. Some +varieties show no variation in the degree of self-sterility or +self-fertility; others behave differently in regard to these +characters under different environment. Now and then the widest +variations are to be found in a variety in respect to self-fertility.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_51" id="Fig_51"></a> +<img src="images/fig51.jpg" width="500" height="273" alt="Fig. 51. Staminate and perfect clusters on one vine." title="Fig. 51. Staminate and perfect clusters on one vine." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 51.</span> Staminate and perfect clusters on one vine; +<em>right</em>, staminate; <em>left</em>, perfect.</span> +</div> + +<p>Following the lead of Beach at the New York Agricultural Experiment +Station, several workers have made careful studies of the +self-fertility of the grape, and now the cultivated varieties of +native grapes are divided into four groups in accordance with the +degree of self-fertility. Class I includes self-fertile varieties +having perfect or nearly perfect clusters; Class II includes +self-fertile varieties having clusters loose but marketable; Class III +includes varieties which are so imperfectly self-fertile that the +clusters are generally too loose to be marketable; Class IV includes +self-sterile varieties. The following is a list of commonly cultivated +grapes classified according to the divisions just given:</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p> +<p class="table_caption">CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPES ACCORDING TO SELF-FERTILITY</p> + +<p><span class="class">Class I.</span> Clusters perfect or varying from perfect to somewhat loose.</p> + +<ul> +<li>Berckmans</li> +<li>Bertha</li> +<li>Cottage</li> +<li>Croton</li> +<li>Delaware</li> +<li>Diana</li> +<li>Etta</li> +<li>Janesville</li> +<li>Lady Washington</li> +<li>Lutie</li> +<li>Moore Early</li> +<li>Poughkeepsie</li> +<li>Pocklington</li> +<li>Prentiss</li> +<li>Rochester</li> +<li>Senasqua</li> +<li>Winchell</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="class">Class II.</span> Clusters marketable; moderately compact or loose.</p> + +<ul> +<li>Agawam</li> +<li>Brilliant</li> +<li>Brown</li> +<li>Catawba</li> +<li>Champion</li> +<li>Chautauqua</li> +<li>Clinton</li> +<li>Colerain</li> +<li>Concord</li> +<li>Dutchess</li> +<li>Early Victor</li> +<li>Elvira</li> +<li>Empire State</li> +<li>Fern Munson</li> +<li>Hartford</li> +<li>Iona</li> +<li>Isabella</li> +<li>Isabella Seedling</li> +<li>Jefferson</li> +<li>Jessica</li> +<li>Lady</li> +<li>Mills</li> +<li>Missouri Riesling</li> +<li>Perkins</li> +<li>Rommel</li> +<li>Triumph</li> +<li>Ulster</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="class">Class III.</span> Clusters unmarketable.</p> + +<ul> +<li>Brighton</li> +<li>Canada</li> +<li>Dracut Amber</li> +<li>Eumelan</li> +<li>Geneva</li> +<li>Hayes</li> +<li>Lindley</li> +<li>Noah</li> +<li>Northern Muscadine</li> +<li>Vergennes</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="class">Class IV.</span> Self-sterile. No fruit develops on covered clusters.</p> + +<ul> +<li>America</li> +<li>Aminia</li> +<li>Barry</li> +<li>Black Eagle</li> +<li>Clevener</li> +<li>Creveling</li> +<li>Eldorado</li> +<li>Faith (?)</li> +<li>Gaertner</li> +<li>Grein Golden</li> +<li>Hercules</li> +<li>Jewel</li> +<li>Massasoit</li> +<li>Maxatawney (?)</li> +<li>Merrimac</li> +<li>Montefiore</li> +<li>Requa</li> +<li>Salem</li> +<li>Wyoming</li> +</ul> + +<p>In the main, the cause of infertility, as with other fruits, is the +impotency of pollen on the pistils of the same variety.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> There are a +few cases in which pollen does not seem to be formed abundantly, but +these are very few. There are a few cases, also, in which the pistil +does not become receptive until after the pollen has lost its +vitality; these, however, are very few. In a greater number of cases +the pollen is found defective. However, dismissing all of these as the +exception, the rule is that self-sterility is due, as has been said, +to the lack of affinity between pollen and pistils produced on the +vines of some varieties.</p> + +<p>Nature is helpful to the grape-grower in giving a guide to +self-fertility. The length of stamens is a fairly safe indication of +self-fertility. All grapes which are self-fertile bear flowers with +long stamens, although the latter are not a sure sign of +self-fertility, as a few varieties with long stamens are self-sterile. +On the other hand, short or recurved stamens are always associated +with complete or nearly complete self-sterility.</p> + +<p>The remedy for self-sterility is inter-planting. Only the varieties +named in Classes I and II in the foregoing classification should be +planted alone. The sorts named in Classes III and IV must be planted +near other sorts which bloom at the same time in order that their +flowers may be cross-pollinated.</p> + +<p>It is evident that the grape-grower must have some knowledge of the +relative time that grapes bloom, if he is to plant intelligently to +secure cross-pollination. The following table, taken from Bulletin 407 +of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, shows the blooming +time of grapes at that Station. Variations due to location and season +must be expected, but within the bounds of the regions in which these +grapes are grown variations will be slight. When this table is used +for other regions than New York, it must be borne in mind that the +farther south, the longer the blooming season; the farther north, the +shorter the season.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>Blooming dates of grapes.</em></h6> + +<p>From three years' records, the average length of blooming season for +grapes was twenty days, nineteen days in 1912 and 1914 and twenty-two +days in 1913. The first date in the average year of 1912 was June 14, +while for 1914, it was June 7:</p> + +<p class="table_caption">Table IV.—Showing Blooming Time of Grapes</p> + +<div id="table_iv"> +<table summary="Table IV"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th class="table_cell_3110"> </th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">Very Early</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">Early</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">Midseason</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">Late</th> + <th class="table_cell_3011">Very Late</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_1100">Agawam</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_1101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_1001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">America</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">August Giant</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Bacchus</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Barry</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Beacon</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Bell</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Berckmans</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Black Eagle</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Brighton</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Brilliant</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Brown</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Campbell Early</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Canada</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Canandaigua</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Carman</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Catawba</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Champion</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Chautauqua</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Clevener</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Clinton</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Colerain</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Columbian Imperial</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Concord</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Cottage</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Creveling</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Croton</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Delago</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Delaware</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Diamond</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Diana</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Downing</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Dracut Amber</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Dutchess</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Early Victor</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Eaton</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Eclipse</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Eldorado</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Elvira</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Empire State</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Etta</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Eumedel</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Eumelan</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Faith</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Fern Munson</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Gaertner</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Geneva</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Goethe</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Gold Coin</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Grein Golden</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Hartford</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Headlight</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Helen Keller</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Herbert</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Hercules</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Hicks</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Hidalgo</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Hosford</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Iona</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Isabella</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Janesville</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span>Jefferson</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Jessica</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Jewel</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Kensington</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">King</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Lady Washington</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Lindley</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Lucile</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Lutie</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">McPike</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Manito</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Martha</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Massasoit</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Maxatawney</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Merrimac</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Mills</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Missouri Riesling</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Montefiore</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Moore Early</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Moyer</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Nectar</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Niagara</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Noah</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Northern Muscadine</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Norton</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Oporto</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Ozark</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Peabody</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Perfection</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Perkins</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Pierce</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Pocklington</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Poughkeepsie</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Prentiss</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Rebecca</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Regal</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Requa</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Rochester</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Rommel</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Salem</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Secretary</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Senasqua</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Stark-Star</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Triumph</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Ulster</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Vergennes</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Winchell</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Worden</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0130">Wyoming</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0131"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0031"> </td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> + +<h4>Ringing Grape Vines</h4> + +<p>The ringing of woody plants is a well-known horticultural practice. +Three objects may be attained by ringing: unproductive plants may be +brought into bearing by ringing; the size of the fruits may be +increased and thereby the plants be made more productive; and the +maturity of the fruit may be hastened. In European countries, ringing +has long been practiced with all tree-fruits and the grape, but in +America the operation is recommended only for the apple and the grape<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +and with neither fruit is ringing widely practiced. Experiments +carried on at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station by Paddock, +as reported in Bulletin 151 from this Station, show that ringing may +well be practiced by grape-growers under some conditions. Since +Paddock's experiments, and possibly to some extent before, the grape +has been ringed to produce exhibition fruits or a fancy product for +the market.</p> + +<p>Ringing consists in taking from the vine a layer of bark around the +vine through the cortex and bast of the plant. The width of the wound +varies from that of a simple cut made with a knife to a band of bark +an inch in diameter. The operation is performed during that period of +growth in which the bark peels most readily from the vine, the period +of greatest cambial activity. The term "ringing" is preferred to +"girdling," a word sometimes used, since the latter properly +designates a wound which extends into and usually kills the plant.</p> + +<p>The theory of ringing is simple. Unassimilated sap passes from the +roots of the plant to the leaves through the outer layer of the woody +cylinder. In the leaves this raw material is acted on by various +agents, after which it is distributed to the several organs of the +plant through vessels in the inner bark. When plants are ringed, the +upward flow of sap is continued as before the operation, but the newly +made food compounds cannot pass beyond the injury, and therefore the +top of the plant is supplied with an extra amount of food at the +expense of the parts below the ring. The extra food produces the +results noted.</p> + +<p>It turns out in practice that ringing is usually harmful to the plant, +as one might expect from so unnatural an operation. Injury to the +plant arises from the fact that parts of the vine are starved at the +expense of other parts; and because, when the bark is removed, the +outer layers of the woody cylinder dry out very quickly and thus check +to some extent the upward flow of sap through evaporation from the +exposed wood.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> Thus, not infrequently, the plant's vitality is +seriously drained. Nevertheless, vineyards may be found in which +ringing has been extensively practiced many seasons in succession and +which continue to yield profitable crops, the growers having learned +to perform the work of ringing so as to injure the vines but little.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="Fig_52" id="Fig_52"></a> +<img src="images/fig52.jpg" width="250" height="239" alt="Fig. 52. Tools used in ringing grape-vines." title="Fig. 52. Tools used in ringing grape-vines." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 52.</span> Tools used in ringing grape-vines are shown in +1 and 2; while 3 and 4 show ringed vines at the beginning and the +close of the season.</span> +</div> + +<p>Ringing without harm to the plant depends much on the way in which the +vines have been pruned. For instance, if the vines are pruned to the +two-arm Kniffin method, the ringing of bark should be done from both +arms just beyond the fifth bud. Thus, the ten buds left on the vine +produce enough leaf surface to supply the food necessary to keep the +vine in vigorous condition. When the four-arm Kniffin method is used, +the two top arms only are ringed, and even so three or four buds must +be left on each for renewals. Whatever the method of training, it will +be seen from these examples that some unringed wood must be left to +the vine with which to supply leafy shoots to support the vine. Some +growers ring their vines only every other year, thus giving them an +opportunity to recover from whatever loss of vigor they may have +sustained in the season of ringing.</p> + +<p>Several other considerations are important in ringing: First, the +vines must not be permitted to carry too large a crop. Again, the +amount of fruit on the ringed portion of the vine must depend on the +amount of leaf surface not only of the plant but of the ringed arms, +each ringed arm acting somewhat independently so far as its crop is +concerned. If too many clusters are left on the ringed arms, it always +follows that the fruit is inferior and often worthless. Lastly, all +fruit between the rings and the trunk must be removed, for it does not +mature properly and so adds only to the drain on the plant's vitality.</p> + +<p>As to the results, it is certain from the experiments that have been +conducted and from the experience of grape-growers, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> the maturity +of the fruit is hastened, and berries and bunches are larger when the +ringing has been done intelligently. Many growers hold that fruit +produced on ringed vines is never quite up to the mark in quality and +in firmness of fruit. There seems to be a difference in opinion about +this falling off in quality, however, although unquestionably, choice +sorts, as Delaware, Iona and Dutchess, suffer more or less in quality. +It is commonly agreed, also, that varieties, the fruits of which crack +badly, as the Worden, suffer more from cracking on ringed than on +unringed vines.</p> + +<p>Experiment and experience prove that the best results of ringing are +obtained if the work is done when the grapes are about one-third +grown. Of course the exact time depends on the season and on the +variety. The operation is variously performed and is easily done with +a sharp knife, but when large vineyards are to be ringed the grower +ought to provide himself with some simple tool. Paddock, in the +bulletin previously mentioned, pictures two of these tools and these +are reproduced in <a href="#Fig_52">Fig. 52</a>.</p> + +<p>In conclusion it must be said that it is doubtful whether the gains +attained by ringing offset the losses. The practice is chiefly of +value only when exhibition clusters of grapes are wanted or when it is +necessary to hasten the maturity of the crop. Always, however, the +work must be performed with intelligence and judgment or the losses +will offset the gains.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p> +<h4>Bagging Grapes</h4> + +<p>In some localities bagging is considered an essential to profitable +grape-growing. The bags serve to protect the grapes against birds. In +some grape regions vineyards suffer more from the depredations of +robins and other birds than from all other troubles. Grapes bearing +small berries and having tender pulp and those which shell most +readily from the stem suffer most. Of standard sorts, Delaware is +probably more enticing to robins than any other variety. There is only +one way of preventing damage to grapes from birds and that is by +bagging the clusters.</p> + +<p>Bagging is also an effective means of protecting the grape from +several fungi and insects. In home plantations or small commercial +vineyards, bagging the bunches often eliminates the necessity of +spraying for fungi and for most of the insects that trouble the grape. +Because of the warmth afforded by the bags, bagged grapes ripen a +little earlier and are of somewhat higher quality than those not +bagged. Grapes bagged are protected from early frost, thus prolonging +the season. Grapes that have been protected from the elements during +the summer are more attractive than those exposed to the weather, +since the fruits are free from weather marks and present a fresh, +bright appearance, which puts them in a grade above unbagged grapes. +Bagging often enables the grower to sell his crop as a fancy product.</p> + +<p>Grapes are bagged as soon as the fruits are well set, the sooner the +better if protection against fungi is one of the purposes. Under no +circumstances, however, should the clusters be bagged while in +blossom. A patent bag made for the purpose may be purchased or, +serving equally well, the common one and one-half and two-pound manila +bags used by grocers prove satisfactory. One of the patent bags which +is known as the Ideal Clasp Bag has a metal clasp attached to the top +for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> securing the bag in place over the cluster. In using the grocer's +bag, before it is put in place the corners of both the top and bottom +are cut off by placing several bags on a firm level surface and using +a broad-shaped chisel. Cutting off the corners of the top enables the +operator to close the bag neatly over the cluster, while cutting off +the corners of the bottom furnishes a means of escape for any water +that gets in the bag. In putting the bag in place, the top is pinned +above the lateral from which the bunch hangs, and must not be fastened +about the small stem of the cluster, as the wind blowing the bag +almost invariably breaks the cluster from the vine. The largest pins +to be purchased in dry-goods stores are used in pinning the bags. The +bags remain until the grapes are picked. Wet weather does not injure +bags and seemingly they grow stronger with exposure to sun and wind.</p> + +<p>The cost of the bags and the work of putting them on is no small item. +To secure the best results, the work must be done at the period +between the dropping of the blossoms and the formation of the seeds, +when the grapes are about the size of a small pea. This is a busy time +for the grape-grower, which adds to the cost. When the work is +conducted on a large scale, the cost is about two dollars a thousand +bags, this figure covering both the cost of bags and labor. Women do +the work more expeditiously than men and soon become very skillful in +putting on the bags. Despite the trouble and cost of bagging, growers +seeking to produce a fancy product find that the expenditure proves +profitable.</p> + + +<h4>Winter-protection of Grapes</h4> + +<p>With a little care as to winter-protection, grapes may be grown +profitably in northern regions where, without protection, the vines +are killed or injured by low temperatures. Indeed, it is little short +of amazing how well grapes can be grown in north<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>ern regions where +nature wears a most austere countenance in winter, if hardy early +sorts are planted in warm soils and situations, and the vines are +covered in the winter. Occasionally one finds grapes grown profitably +in commercial vineyards in the northern states in regions where +protection must be given to prevent winter-killing, the extra work of +giving protection being more than offset by the high price received in +local markets for the fruit.</p> + +<p>In all locations in which winter-protection must be given, several +other precautions are helpful or even necessary. Thus, cultivation +must cease early in the season, and a cover-crop be sown to help +harden and mature the vines. The grapes, also, must not be planted in +soils rich in nitrogen, and nitrogenous fertilizers must be applied +with care. The pruning should be such as does not induce great growth. +These simple precautions to hasten maturity often suffice in climates +where the danger of winter-killing is but slight, but where danger is +imminent the vines must be covered either by wrapping or by laying +down. Wrapping with straw may suffice for a few vines, but when many +vines are to be protected, laying them down is cheaper and much more +effectual.</p> + +<p>By laying down is meant that the vines must be placed on the ground +and there be protected by earth and snow or other covering. It is +obvious that to protect thus, the vines must receive special training; +otherwise the trunks may be too stiff for bending. Some method of +training must be chosen in which renewals may be made rather +frequently from the ground so that if the trunks become large, clumsy +and unpliable, a more manageable trunk can be trained. If the +provisions for renewal are kept in mind, any one of the several +methods of training grapes explained in <a href="#Page_123">Chapter VIII</a> on training may +be used.</p> + +<p>Laying down must be preceded by pruning, after which the arms and +trunk are loosened from the wires and bent to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> ground. Bending is +facilitated by removing a spade full of earth from the side of the +vine in the direction in which the vine is to be bent. The trunk is +then laid on the earth and sufficient soil placed on it to keep it in +place on the ground. If the danger of winter-killing is great because +of the tenderness of the variety or the austerity of the climate, it +often becomes necessary to cover the whole plant lightly with earth. +Small growers often make use of coarse manure, straw, corn-stalks or +similar covering, in which case the vines are held on the ground by +fence-rails or other timbers; but protecting with material that must +be brought into the vineyard is expensive and not more satisfactory +than earth.</p> + +<p>The vines can be put down at any time after the leaves drop and before +the earth begins to freeze. It is more important that the vines be +taken up at the proper time in the spring. If uncovered too early and +cold weather follows, injury may result and more harm be done than if +the vines had not been covered. On the other hand, if the earth is +permitted to remain too long, foliage and vine are tender both to +sunshine and frost. A grape-grower in New York who has had much +experience in laying down vines in a vineyard of some thirty or forty +acres says that the work may be done at a cost of $6 an acre at the +average wage paid for farm-labor. It must be expected in a large +plantation, no matter how well the work of covering is done, that +occasionally a trunk will be broken, making it necessary to graft the +vine if a shoot does not spring up from below the break.</p> + + +<h4>Ripening Dates and Length of Season for Grapes</h4> + +<p>Every grape-grower should know when his varieties may be expected to +ripen and the length of season that they will keep. The commercial +fruit-grower by all means should have this information. It is not +sufficient that he know only roughly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> at what season his varieties +ripen; for, to take the turn of the market, he must know exactly when +a variety will ripen and how long it will keep. He needs this +information, also, that he may distribute his labor better throughout +the picking season.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, the data as to ripening time given by originators and +introducers of varieties are not always reliable. This +untrustworthiness of data is readily accounted for in several ways: +First, growers do not generally agree as to when grapes are ripe nor +as to how long they are fit to eat. Again, much confusion as to when +varieties ripen and how long they will keep arises from the fact that +grapes ripen at different times in different places, and it is +difficult for the grape-grower in Maine to make allowance in season +for varieties, the time of ripening of which is given for Maryland. +There are also other causes than the seasonal differences in grape +regions for variability in ripening time; thus, some soils are warmer +and quicker than others, and on these grapes ripen earlier. +Application of nitrogenous fertilizers may delay the period of +ripening somewhat. Grapes ripen perceptibly earlier on old plants than +on young ones. Lastly, every vineyard in a particular region has its +own particular climate caused by the lay of land, nearness to water, +air currents and altitude which cause small differences in ripening.</p> + +<p>The following table taken from Bulletin No. 408 of the New York +Agricultural Experiment Station gives the ripening dates of grapes at +Geneva, New York. It is necessary that the reader know something about +the conditions affecting the ripening time at Geneva. The latitude is +42° 50' 46". The altitude is 525 feet above sea level. The vineyard +lies a mile west of a relatively large body of water. The soil is a +cold heavy clay which must delay ripening time somewhat. The land is +level. The data are given as an average for three seasons, 1913–1915.</p> + +<p>The figures given for "weeks in common storage" cover a variable +number of years, but for all varieties three or more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> years. The +grapes, after being picked, were at once placed in common storage in a +room on the second floor of a building. There conditions were not +ideal, and no doubt the season of storage would have been prolonged +somewhat had the fruit been kept in a better storage-room.</p> + +<p class="table_caption">Table V.—Showing the Ripening Time of Grapes</p> + +<div id="table_v"> +<table summary="Table V"> +<thead> +<tr> + <th class="table_cell_3110"> </th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">Weeks in Common Storage</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">Very Early</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">Early</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">Midseason</th> + <th class="table_cell_3111">Late</th> + <th class="table_cell_3011">Very Late</th> +</tr> +</thead> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_1100">Agawam</td> + <td class="table_cell_1101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_1101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_1101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_1101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_1101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_1001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">America</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Barry</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">28</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Beacon</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">7</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Bell</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">8</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Berckmans</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">21</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Black Eagle</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">18</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Brighton</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">20</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Brilliant</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">11</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Brown</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">6</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Campbell Early</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">12</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Canada</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">17</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Canandaigua</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">20</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Carman</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">17</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Catawba</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">21</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Champion</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">6</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Chautauqua</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Clevener</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">13</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Clinton</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">21</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Colerain</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">8</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Columbian Imperial</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">7</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Concord</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">8</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Cottage</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">5</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Creveling</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">16</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Croton</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">23</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Delago</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">25</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Delaware</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">15</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Diamond</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Diana</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">17</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Downing</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Dracut Amber</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">9</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Dutchess</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">23</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Early Ohio</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Early Victor</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">11</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Eaton</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">6</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Eclipse</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">7</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Eldorado</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">17</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Elvira</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">18</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Empire State</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">24</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Etta</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">15</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Eumelan</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">17</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Faith</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">11</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Fern Munson</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">11</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Gaertner</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">17</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Geneva</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">22</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Goethe</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">18</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Gold Coin</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Grein Golden</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">12</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Hartford</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">8</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Headlight</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">8</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Helen Keller</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">26</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Herbert</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">27</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Hercules</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">13</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Hicks</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>Hidalgo</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">12</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Hosford</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">6</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Iona</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">13</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Isabella</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">11</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Janesville</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">13</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Jefferson</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">18</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Jessica</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">12</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Jewel</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">12</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Kensington</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">19</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">King</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Lady Washington</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">16</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Lindley</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">27</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Lucile</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">9</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Lutie</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">4</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">McPike</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">7</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Manito</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">7</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Martha</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Massasoit</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">16</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Maxatawney</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">12</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Merrimac</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">31</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Mills</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">29</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Missouri Riesling</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">6</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Montefiore</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">9</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Moore Early</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">6</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Moyer</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">9</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Nectar</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Niagara</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Noah</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Northern Muscadine</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">9</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Norton</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">7</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Oporto</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">12</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Ozark</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">11</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Peabody</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Perfection</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">8</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Perkins</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Pierce</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Pocklington</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Poughkeepsie</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">15</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Prentiss</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">16</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Rebecca</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">18</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Regal</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">16</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Requa</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">30</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Rochester</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">7</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Rommel</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Salem</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">27</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Secretary</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">25</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Senasqua</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">13</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Stark-Star</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">10</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Triumph</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">15</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001 table_center">*</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Ulster</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">21</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Vergennes</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">28</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Wilder</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">11</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Winchell</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">6</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0100">Worden</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">6</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0101"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0001"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_cell_0130">Wyoming</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_center">9</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0131 table_center">*</td> + <td class="table_cell_0131"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0131"> </td> + <td class="table_cell_0031"> </td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> + +<p> </p> + +<table summary="Plate XXII"> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="figcenter" style="width: 228px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXII" id="Plate_XXII"></a> +<img src="images/plate22a.jpg" width="228" height="308" alt="Plate XXII." title="Plate XXII." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXII.</span>—Lindley (×<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span>).</span> +</td> + +<td class="figcenter" style="width: 228px;"> +<img src="images/plate22b.jpg" width="228" height="308" alt="Plate XXII." title="Plate XXII." /> +<span class="caption">Lucile (×<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span>).</span> +</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER XVII</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">GRAPE BOTANY</p> + + +<p>The grape-grower must know the gross structure and the habits of +growth of the plants properly to propagate, transplant, prune and +otherwise care for the grape. Certainly he must have knowledge of the +several species from which varieties come if he is to know the kinds +of grapes, understand their adaptations to soils and climates, their +relation to insects and fungi, and their value for table, wine, +grape-juice and other purposes. Fortunately, the botany of the grape +is comparatively simple. The organs of vine and fruit are distinctive +and easily discerned and there are no nearly related plants cultivated +for fruit with which the grape can possibly be confused. Botanists, it +is true, have dug pitfalls for those who seek exact knowledge as to +the names and characters of the many species, but, fortunately, each +of the cultivated species constitutes a natural group so distinct that +the grape-grower can hardly mistake one for another in either fruit or +vine.</p> + + +<h4>Plant Characters and Growth Habits of the Grape</h4> + +<p>A grape plant is a complex organism with its many separate parts +especially developed to do one or a few kinds of work. The part of a +plant devoted to one or a group of functions is called an organ. The +chief organs of the plant are the root, stem, bud, flower, leaf, fruit +and seed. Flowers and leaves, it is true, develop from buds and the +seeds are parts of the fruits,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> but for descriptive purposes the vine +may well be divided into the parts named. These chief organs are +further divided as follows:</p> + +<h6><em>The root.</em></h6> + +<ul> +<li><em>Root-crown</em>: The region of the plant in which root and stem unite.</li> +<li><em>Tap-root</em>: The prolongation of the stem plunging vertically downward.</li> +<li><em>Rootlets</em>: The ultimate divisions of the root; usually of one season's growth.</li> +<li><em>Root-tips</em>: The extreme ends of the rootlets.</li> +</ul> + +<p>The roots of some species of the grape are soft and succulent as those +of <em>V. vinifera</em>, while the same organs in other species, as in most +American grapes, are hard and fibrous. They may also be few or +numerous, deep or shallow, spreading or restricted, fibrous or +non-fibrous. The structure of the root thus becomes important in +distinguishing species.</p> + +<h6><em>The stem.</em></h6> + +<ul> +<li><em>Stem or trunk</em>: The unbranched main axis of the plant above ground.</li> +<li><em>Branches or arms</em>: Main divisions of the trunk.</li> +<li><em>Head</em>: The region from which branches arise.</li> +<li><em>Old wood</em>: Parts of the vine older than one year.</li> +<li><em>Canes</em>: Wood of the current season.</li> +<li><em>Spurs</em>: Short pieces of the bases of canes; usually one or two nodes with a bud each.</li> +<li><em>Renewal spurs</em>: Spurs left to bear canes the following year.</li> +<li><em>Shoots</em>: Newly developed succulent stems with their leaves.</li> +<li><em>Fruit-shoots</em>: Flower and fruit-bearing shoots.</li> +<li><em>Wood-shoots</em>: Shoots which bear leaves only.</li> +<li><em>Laterals</em>: Secondary shoots arising from main shoots.</li> +<li><em>Water sprouts</em>: Shoots arising from adventitious buds.</li> +<li><em>Suckers</em>: Shoots arising from below ground.</li> +<li><em>Nodes</em>: Joints in the stem from which leaves are or may be borne.</li> +<li><em>Internodes</em>: The part between two nodes.</li> +<li><em>Diaphragm</em>: The woody tissue which interrupts the pith at the node.</li> +<li><em>Bloom</em>: The powdery coating on the cane.</li> +<li><em>Tendril</em>: The coiled, thread-like organ by which the vine grasps an object and clings to it.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>Species of grapes have very characteristic vines. A glance at a vine +enables one to tell the European grape from any of the American +grapes; so, also, one is able to distinguish most of the American +species by the aspect of the vine. Many varieties of any species of +grape are readily told by the size and habits of the plant. Size of +vine is rather more variable than other gross characters because of +the influence of environment, such as food, moisture, light, isolation +and pests; yet, size in a plant or the parts of a plant is a very +reliable character when proper allowances are made for environment.</p> + +<p>The degree of hardiness is a very important diagnostic character in +determining both species and varieties of grapes and very largely +indicates their value for the vineyard. Thus, the varieties of the +European grape are less hardy than the peach, while our American +Labruscas and Vulpinas are as hardy as the apple. The range of +varieties as to hardiness falls within that of the species, and +cultivated varieties hardier than the wild grape are not found. Grapes +are designated in descriptions of varieties and species as hardy, +half-hardy and tender.</p> + +<p>Habit of growth varies but little with changing conditions and is thus +an important means of distinguishing species and varieties and not +infrequently stamps the variety as fit or unfit for the vineyard. +Habit of growth gives aspect to the vine. Thus, a vine may be upright, +drooping, horizontal, stocky, straggling, spreading, dense or open. +The vine may grow rapidly or slowly and may be long-lived or +short-lived; the trunk may be short and stocky or long and slender. +These several characters largely determine whether a vine is +manageable in the vineyard. Productiveness, age of bearing and +regularity of bearing are distinctive characters with cultivated +grapes. The care given the vine influences these characters; yet all +are helpful in identifying species and varieties and all must be +considered by the grape-grower.</p> + +<p>Immunity and susceptibility to diseases and insects are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> most valuable +diagnostic characters of species and varieties of grapes. Thus, +species differ widely in resistance to phylloxera, the grape-louse, to +the grape leaf-hopper, the flea-beetle, berry-moth, root-worm, +powdery-mildew, downy-mildew, anthracnose and other insect and fungous +troubles of this fruit.</p> + +<p>The structure of the bark is an important distinguishing character for +some species, but is of little importance in identifying the variety +and has no economic value to the fruit-grower. In most species of +grapes, the bark has distinct lenticels and on the old wood separates +in long thin strips and fibers; but in two species from southeastern +North America, the bark bears prominent lenticels and never shreds. +Smoothness, color and thickness are other attributes of the bark to be +noted.</p> + +<p>Canes of different species vary greatly in total length and in length +of internodes. They vary also in size, in number and in color, while +the shape in some species is quite distinctive, being in some round, +in others angular and in still others flattened. The direction of +growth in canes, whether sinuous, straight or zigzag, is an important +character. Nodes and internodes are indicative characters in some +species, being more or less prominent, angular or flattened, while the +internodes are long or short.</p> + +<p>The diaphragm distinguishes several species of grapes. The cane +contains a large pith and this in most species is interrupted by woody +tissue, forming a diaphragm at the nodes. In the Rotundifolia grapes +the diaphragm is absent, while in several other American species it is +very thin and in still others quite thick. The character of the +diaphragm is best observed in year-old canes. In studying the +diaphragm, notice should be taken also of the pith, which is very +variable in size.</p> + +<p>Young shoots of the grape offer a ready means of distinguishing +species and varieties through their color and the amount<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> and +character of the pubescence. Shoots may be glabrous, pubescent or +hairy and even spiny.</p> + +<p>The tendril is one of the organs most used in determining species and +varieties of grapes. In some species, as <em>V. Labrusca</em>, there is a +tendril or an inflorescence opposite nearly every leaf, continuous +tendrils. All other species have two leaves with a tendril opposite +each and a third leaf without a tendril, intermittent tendrils. To +study this organ it is necessary to have vigorous, healthy, typical +canes. Tendrils may be long or short, stout or slender; simple, +bifurcated or trifurcated; or smooth, pubescent or warty.</p> + +<p>The number of inflorescences borne by species is an important +character in some cases. All species, excepting <em>V. Labrusca</em>, average +two inflorescences to a cane, but <em>V. Labrusca</em> may bear from three to +six inflorescences, each in the place of a tendril opposite the leaf.</p> + +<h6><em>The bud.</em></h6> + +<ul> +<li><em>Bud</em>: An undeveloped shoot.</li> +<li><em>Fruit-bud</em>: A bud in which a shoot bearing flowers originates.</li> +<li><em>Wood-bud</em>: A bud in which a shoot bearing only leaves originates.</li> +<li><em>Latent bud</em>: A bud which remains dormant for one or more seasons.</li> +<li><em>Adventitious bud</em>: A bud arising elsewhere than the normal position at a node.</li> +<li><em>Eye</em>: A compound bud.</li> +<li><em>Main bud</em>: The central bud of an eye.</li> +<li><em>Secondary bud</em>: The lateral bud of an eye.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Buds of different species of grapes vary greatly in time of opening as +they do somewhat in varieties, so that the time the buds begin to +swell is a fine mark of distinction. The angle at which the bud stands +out from the branch is of some value in determining species. +Differences in color, size, shape, position and amount of pubescence +of buds must all be noted in describing grapes. The scales of the buds +vary more or less in size and in thickness.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span></p> +<h6><em>The flower.</em></h6> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 216px;"> +<a name="Fig_53" id="Fig_53"></a> +<img src="images/fig53.jpg" width="216" height="250" alt="Fig. 53. The grape flower." title="Fig. 53. The grape flower." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 53.</span> The grape flower. I. Opening bud showing the +way in which the cap becomes loosened at the base. II. Diagrammatic +illustration of grape stamens.</span> +</div> + +<ul> +<li><em>Staminate</em>: Having stamens and not pistils; a male flower.</li> +<li><em>Pistillate</em>: Having pistils and not stamens; a female flower.</li> +<li><em>Diœcious</em>: Said when the stamens are on one plant and the pistils on another.</li> +<li><em>Polygamous</em>: Said when flowers on a plant are in part perfect (having both stamens and pistils) while others are staminate or pistillate.</li> +<li><em>Hermaphrodite</em>: Said of a flower having both stamens and pistils.</li> +<li><em>Fertile</em>: Said of a flower capable of bearing seed without pollen from another flower.</li> +<li><em>Sterile</em>: Said of a flower without or with abortive pistils.</li> +<li><em>Perfect</em>: Said of a flower having both stamens and pistils.</li> +<li><em>Imperfect</em>: Said of a flower wanting either stamens or pistils.</li> +<li><em>Peduncle</em>: The stalk of a flower-cluster.</li> +<li><em>Pedicel</em>: The stalk of each particular flower.</li> +</ul> + +<p>The time of bloom is an easy mark of distinction between several +species of grapes and helps to distinguish varieties in a species as +well. Most species of grapes bear fertile flowers on one vine and +sterile flowers on another and are, therefore, polygamous-diœcious. +Sterile vines bear male flowers with abortive pistils so that, while +they never produce fruits themselves, they usually assist in +fertilizing others. Fertile flowers are capable of ripening fruits +without cross-pollination. Vines with female flowers only are seldom +found. In most species of the grape, plants with sterile flowers and +those with complete flowers are found mixed in the wild state, but +usually only the fertile plants have been selected for cultivation. +Plants raised from seeds of any of the species, however, furnish many +sterile vines.</p> + +<p>The degree of fertility of blossoms is also a fine mark of distinction +in species and varieties of the grape. Fertile vines are of two kinds +in most species. The flowers on one kind are per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>fect hermaphrodites, +while in the other kind the stamens are smaller and shorter than the +pistil and eventually bent down and curved under. The two kinds of +stamens are shown in Figs. <a href="#Fig_53">53</a> and <a href="#Fig_54">54</a>. These may be called imperfect +hermaphrodites since they are seldom as fruitful as the perfect +hermaphrodites unless fertilized from another plant. Examined with a +microscope, it is found that self-sterile plants usually bear abortive +pollen and that the percentage of abortive pollen grains varies +greatly in different varieties. The upright or depressed stamen does +not always indicate the condition of the pollen, since there are many +instances in which upright stamens bear impotent pollen and +occasionally the depressed stamens bear perfect pollen.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="Fig_54" id="Fig_54"></a> +<img src="images/fig54.jpg" width="500" height="279" alt="Fig. 54." title="Fig. 54." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 54.</span> Grape flowers. <em>Left</em>, upright stamens of +Delaware; <em>right</em>, depressed stamens of Brighton.</span> +</div> + +<h6><em>The leaf.</em></h6> + +<ul> +<li><em>Blade</em>: The expanded portion of the leaf.</li> +<li><em>Lobe</em>: The more or less rounded division of the leaf.</li> +<li><em>Sinus</em>: The recess or bay between two lobes.</li> +<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span><em>Petiole</em>: The leaf-stalk.</li> +<li><em>Petiolar sinus</em>: The sinus about the petiole.</li> +<li><em>Basal sinuses</em>: The two sinuses toward the base of the blade.</li> +<li><em>Lateral sinuses</em>: The two sinuses toward the apex of the blade.</li> +</ul> + +<p>The size, shape and color of the leaves are quite distinctive of +species and more or less so of varieties, if allowances are made for +variation due to environment. The lobing of leaves is a very uniform +character in most species, some having lobes and others having entire +leaves. The upper surface of the leaf in some species is smooth, +glossy and shiny and in others is rough and dull. The lower surface +shows similar variations and has, besides, varying amounts of +pubescence, down and bloom. In some species the down resembles +cobwebs. The number, size and shape of the lobes are important in +distinguishing both varieties and species, as are also the petiolar, +basal and lateral sinuses. As in most plants, the margins of the +leaves, whether serrate, dentate or crenate, are often distinguishing +characters. The petiole in different species varies from short to long +and from stout to slender. Lastly, the time at which the leaves fall +is often a good distinguishing mark.</p> + +<h6><em>The fruit.</em></h6> + +<ul> +<li><em>Peduncle and pedicel</em>: Defined as in flower.</li> +<li><em>Brush</em>: The end of the pedicel projecting into the fruit.</li> +<li><em>Base</em>: The point of attachment of bunch or berry.</li> +<li><em>Apex</em>: The point opposite the base.</li> +<li><em>Bloom</em>: The powdery coating on the fruit.</li> +<li><em>Pigment</em>: The coloring matter in the skin.</li> +<li><em>Quality</em>: The combination of characters that makes grapes pleasant to the palate, sight, smell and touch.</li> +<li><em>Foxiness</em>: The rancid taste and smell of some grapes which are similar to the effluvium of a fox.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Of all organs the fruit is most responsive to changed conditions and +hence most variable. Yet the fruits furnish most valuable characters +for determining both species and varieties. Size, shape, compactness +and the number of clusters on a shoot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> must be noted. Coming to the +berry, size, shape, color, bloom, adherence of stigma to the apex and +adhesion of fruit to the pedicel are all of value. Difference in +adherence of the skin to the pulp separates European from all American +grapes. The thickness, toughness, flavor and pigment of the skin have +more or less value. The color, firmness, juiciness, aroma and flavor +of the flesh, as well as its adherence to seed and skin, are valuable +marks in describing grapes. All species and varieties are well +distinguished by the time of ripening and by keeping quality. The +color of the juice is a plain and certain dividing line between some +species and many varieties.</p> + +<h6><em>The seed.</em></h6> + +<ul> +<li><em>Beak</em>: The narrow prolonged base of the seed.</li> +<li><em>Hilum</em>: The scar left where the seed was attached to the seed-stalk.</li> +<li><em>Chalaza</em>: The place where the seed-coats and kernel are connected.</li> +<li><em>Raphe</em>: The line or ridge which runs from the hilum to the chalaza.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Seeds are accounted of much value in determining species. The size and +weight of seed differ greatly in different species, as they do also in +varieties of any one species. Thus, of native grapes, Labrusca has the +largest and heaviest seeds and Vulpina has the smallest seed, while +those of Æstivalis are of medium size and weight. The shape and color +of seed offer distinguishing marks, while the size, shape and position +of the raphe and chalaza furnish very certain marks of distinction in +some species.</p> + + +<h4>The Genus Vitis</h4> + +<p>The genus Vitis belongs to the vine family (Vitaceæ) in which most +botanists also put the wood-vines (Ampelopsis), of which Virginia +creeper is the best-known plant. The genus Cissus, to which belong +many southern climbers, is combined with Vitis by some botanists. +Vitis is separated from Ampelopsis and Cissus by marked differences in +several organs, of which,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span> horticulturally at least, those in the +fruit best serve to distinguish the group. Species of Vitis, with +possibly one or two exceptions, bear pulpy edible fruits; species of +Ampelopsis and Cissus bear fruits with pulp so scant that the berries +are inedible. Vitis is further distinguished as follows: The plants +are climbing or trailing, rarely shrubby, with woody stems and mostly +with coiling, naked-tipped tendrils. The leaves are simple, palmately +lobed, round-dentate or heart-shaped-dentate. The stipules are small, +falling early. The flowers are polygamo-diœcious (some plants with +perfect flowers, others staminate with at most a rudimentary ovary), +five-parted. The petals are separated only at the base and fall off +without expanding. The disk is hypogynous with five nectariferous +glands which are alternate with the stamens. The berry is globose or +ovoid, few-seeded and pulpy. The seeds are pyriform and beak-like at +the base.</p> + + +<h4>Species of American Grapes</h4> + +<p>The number of species of grapes in the world depends on the arbitrary +limits set for a species of this fruit, and knowledge of the genus is +yet too meager to set these limits with certainty. Indeed, the men who +have made grape species have seldom been able to outline the habitats +of their groups with much certainty. In habitat, it should be said, +grapes are confined almost wholly to temperate and subtropical +regions. However, the grape-grower is not much concerned with species +of grapes other than those that have horticultural value. Of these, in +America, there are now ten more or less cultivated either for fruit or +for stocks. The following descriptions of these ten species are +adapted from the author's The Grapes of New York, published in 1908 by +the state of New York (Chapter IV, pages 107–156).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p> +<div id="conspectus"> +<p class="table_caption">CONSPECTUS OF CULTIVATED SPECIES OF VITIS</p> + +<p class="indent1"><em>A.</em> Skin of mature berry separating freely from the pulp.</p> + +<p class="indent2"><em>B.</em> Nodes without diaphragms; tendrils simple.</p> + +<p class="species">1. <em>V. rotundifolia.</em><br /> +2. <em>V. Munsoniana.</em></p> + +<p class="indent2"><em>BB.</em> Nodes with diaphragms; tendrils forked.</p> + +<p class="indent3"><em>C.</em> Leaves and shoots glabrous at maturity and without +bloom; tendrils intermittent.</p> + +<p class="indent4"><em>D.</em> Leaves thin, light, bright green, generally glabrous +below at maturity except perhaps in the axils of the veins with a long or at least a prominent +point and usually long and sharp teeth or the edge even-jagged.</p> + +<p class="indent5"><em>E.</em> Leaves broader than long; petiolar sinus usually wide and shallow.</p> + +<p class="species">3. <em>V. rupestris.</em></p> + +<p class="indent5"><em>EE.</em> Leaves ovate in outline; petiolar sinus usually medium to narrow.</p> + +<p class="species">4. <em>V. vulpina.</em></p> + +<p class="indent4"><em>DD.</em> Leaves thick, dull colored or grayish-green, often +holding some close, dull pubescence below at maturity, shoots and leaves nearly always +more or less pubescent when young; the teeth mostly short.</p> + +<p class="species">5. <em>V. cordifolia.</em><br /> +6. <em>V. Berlandieri.</em></p> + +<p class="indent3"><em>CC.</em> Leaves rusty or white tomentose or glaucous blue +below, thick or at least firm.</p> + +<p class="indent4"><em>D.</em> Leaves flocculent or cobwebby or glaucous below when fully grown.</p> + +<p class="species">7. <em>V. æstivalis.</em><br /> +8. <em>V. bicolor.</em></p> + +<p class="indent4"><em>DD.</em> Leaves densely tomentose or felt-like beneath +throughout the season; covering white or rusty white.</p> + +<p class="indent5"><em>E.</em> Tendrils intermittent.</p> + +<p class="species">9. <em>V. candicans.</em></p> + +<p class="indent5"><em>EE.</em> Tendrils mostly continuous.</p> + +<p class="species">10. <em>V. Labrusca.</em></p> + +<p class="indent1"><em>AA.</em> Skin and pulp of mature berry cohering. (Old World.)</p> + +<p class="species">11. <em>V. vinifera.</em></p> +</div> + +<p>1. <em>Vitis rotundifolia</em>, Michx. Muscadine Grape. Bull Grape. Bullet +Grape. Bushy Grape. Bullace Grape. Scuppernong. Southern Fox Grape.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, sometimes, when without support, shrubby and +only three or four feet high; when growing in the shade often +send<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>ing down aërial roots. Wood hard, bark smooth, not scaling, +with prominent warty lenticels; shoots short-jointed, angled, with +fine scurfy pubescence; diaphragms absent; tendrils intermittent, +simple. Leaves small, broadly cordate or roundish; petiolar sinus +wide, shallow; margin with obtuse, wide teeth; not lobed; dense in +texture, light green color, glabrous above, sometimes pubescent +along veins below. Cluster small (6–24 berries), loose; peduncle +short; pedicels short, thick. Berries large, globular or somewhat +oblate, black or greenish-yellow; skin thick, tough and with a +musky odor; pulp tough; ripening unevenly and dropping as soon as +ripe. Seeds flattened, shallowly and broadly notched; beak very +short; chalaza narrow, slightly depressed with radiating ridges +and furrows; raphe a narrow groove. Leafing, flowering and +ripening fruit very late. </p></div> + +<p>The habitat of this species is southern Delaware, west through +Tennessee, southern Illinois, southeastern Missouri, Arkansas (except +the northwestern portions), to Grayson County, Texas, as a northern +and western boundary, to the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf on the east +and south. It becomes rare as one approaches the western limit but is +common in many sections of the great region outlined above, being most +abundant on sandy, well-drained bottom lands and along river banks and +in swampy, thick woodlands and thickets. The climate most suitable for +Rotundifolia is that in which cotton grows, and it thrives best in the +lower portions of the cotton-belt of the United States.</p> + +<p>The fruit of Rotundifolia is very characteristic. The skin is thick, +has a leathery appearance, adheres strongly to the underlying flesh +and is marked with lenticel-like russet dots. The flesh is more or +less tough but the toughness is not localized around the seed as in +the case of Labrusca. The fruit and most of the varieties of the +species are characterized by a strong, musky aroma and are lacking in +sugar and acid. Some varieties yield over four gallons of must to the +bushel. Wine-makers are divided in opinion as to its value for +wine-making, but at present the most promising outlook for +Rotundifolia varieties is as wine, grape-juice and culinary grapes. +Rotundifolia does not produce fruit suitable for shipping as dessert +grapes chiefly because the berries ripen unevenly and when ripe drop +from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> cluster. The common method of gathering the fruit of this +species is to shake the vines at intervals so that the ripe berries +drop on sheets spread below the vines. The juice which exudes from the +point where the stem is broken off causes the berries to become +smeared and gives them an unattractive appearance. Owing, however, to +the tough skin, the berries do not crack as badly as other grapes +would under the same conditions, but nevertheless they are not adapted +to long-distance shipments. Under reasonably favorable conditions, the +vines attain great age and size and when grown on arbors, as they +often are, and without pruning, they cover a large area.</p> + +<p>Rotundifolia is remarkably resistant to the attacks of all insects and +to fungal diseases. The phylloxera do not attack its roots and it is +considered as resistant as any other, if not the most resistant of all +American species. The vines are grown from cuttings only with +difficulty and this prevents the use of this species as a resistant +stock. However, under favorable circumstances, and with skillful +handling, this is a successful method of propagation. Under +unfavorable circumstances, or when only a few vines are desired, it is +better to depend on layers. As a stock upon which to graft other +vines, this species has not been a success. There is great difficulty +in crossing Rotundifolia with other species, but several Rotundifolia +hybrids are now on record.</p> + +<p>2. <em>Vitis Munsoniana</em>, Simpson. Florida Grape. Everbearing grape. Bird +Grape. Mustang Grape of Florida.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine slender, usually running on the ground or over low bushes. +Canes angular; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, simple. +Leaves smaller and thinner than Rotundifolia and rather more +circular in outline; not lobed; teeth open and spreading; petiolar +sinus V-shaped; both surfaces smooth, rather light green. Cluster +with more berries but about the same size as in Rotundifolia. +Berry one-third to one-half the diameter, with thinner and more +tender skin; black, shining; pulp less solid, more acid and +without muskiness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> Seeds about one-half the size of those of +Rotundifolia, similar in other respects. Leafing, flowering and +ripening fruit very late. </p></div> + +<p>The habitat of <em>V. Munsoniana</em> is central and southern Florida and the +Florida Keys. It extends south of the habitat of Rotundifolia and +blends into this species at their point of meeting. Munsoniana appears +to be a variation of Rotundifolia, fitted to subtropical conditions. +It is tender, not enduring a lower temperature than zero. In the +matter of multiplication, it differs from <em>V. rotundifolia</em> in that it +can be propagated readily from cuttings. Like Rotundifolia it is +resistant to phylloxera.</p> + +<p>3. <em>Vitis rupestris</em>, Scheele. Mountain Grape. Rock Grape. Bush Grape. +Sand Grape. Sugar Grape. Beach Grape.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A small, much branched shrub or, under favorable circumstances, +climbing. Diaphragm thin; tendrils few, or if present, weak, +usually deciduous. Leaves small; young leaves frequently folded on +midrib; broadly cordate or reniform, wider than long, scarcely +ever lobed, smooth, glabrous on both surfaces at maturity; +petiolar sinus wide, shallow; margin coarsely toothed, frequently +a sharp, abrupt point at terminal. Cluster small. Berries small, +black or purple-black. Seeds small, not notched; beak short, +blunt; raphe distinct to indistinct, usually showing as a narrow +groove; chalaza pear-shaped, sometimes distinct, but usually a +depression only. Leafing, blossoming and ripening early. </p></div> + +<p>This species is an inhabitant of southwestern Texas, extending +eastward and northward into New Mexico, southern Missouri, Indiana and +Tennessee to southern Pennsylvania and the District of Columbia. Its +favorite places are gravelly banks and bars of mountain streams or the +rocky beds of dry watercourses. This species is rather variable both +in type and growth. It was introduced into France at about the same +time as Vulpina, and the French vineyardists selected the most +vigorous and healthy forms for grafting stock. These pass under the +various names of Rupestris Mission, Rupestris du Lot, Rupestris +Ganzin, Rupestris Martin, Rupestris St. George<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> and others. In France, +these varieties have given particularly good results on bare, rocky +soils with hot, dry exposures. In California, Rupestris does not +flourish in dry locations, and as it suckers profusely and does not +take the graft as readily as Vulpina and Æstivalis, it is not largely +propagated.</p> + +<p>The clusters of fruit are small, with berries about the size of a +currant and varying from sweet to sour. The berry is characterized by +much pigment under the skin. The fruit has a sprightly taste wholly +free from any disagreeable foxiness. Rupestris under cultivation is +said to be very resistant to rot and mildew of the foliage. The vine +is considered hardy in the Southwest. The attention of hybridizers was +attracted to this species over thirty years ago, and various hybrids +have been produced of great promise for grape-breeding. The root +system of Rupestris is peculiar in that the roots penetrate at once +deeply into the ground instead of extending laterally as in other +species. Like those of Vulpina, the roots are slender, hard and +resistant to phylloxera. The species is easily propagated by cuttings. +The vines bench-graft readily but are difficult to handle in field +grafting.</p> + +<p>4. <em>Vitis vulpina</em>, Linn. (<em>V. riparia</em>, Michx.). Winter Grape. River +Grape. Riverside Grape. Riverbank Grape. Sweet-scented Grape.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, climbing. Shoots cylindrical or angled, +usually smooth, slender; diaphragms thin; tendrils intermittent, +slender, usually bifid. Leaves with large stipules; leaf-blade +large, thin, entire, three- or lower ones often five-lobed; +sinuses shallow, angular; petiolar sinus broad, usually shallow; +margin with incised, sharply serrate teeth of variable size; light +green, glabrous above, glabrous but sometimes pubescent on ribs +and veins below. Cluster small, compact, shouldered; peduncle +short. Berries small, black with a heavy blue bloom. Seeds two to +four, small, notched, short, plump, with very short beak; chalaza +narrowly oval, depressed, indistinct; raphe usually a groove, +sometimes distinct. Very variable in flavor and time of ripening. </p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span>Vulpina is the most widely distributed of any American species of +grape. It has been discovered in parts of Canada north of Quebec and +from thence southward to the Gulf of Mexico. It is found from the +Atlantic coast westward, most botanists say, to the Rocky Mountains. +Usually it grows on river banks, on islands or in upland ravines. +Vulpina has always been considered of great promise in the evolution +of American grapes. It can hardly be said that it has fulfilled +expectations, there probably being no pure variety of this species of +more than local importance, and the results of hybridizing it with +other species have not been wholly successful. Attention was early +turned to Vulpina because of the qualities presented by the vine +rather than those of the fruit, particularly its hardiness and vigor. +However, both of these qualities are rather variable, although it is +only reasonable to suppose that in such a widely distributed species, +plants found in a certain region would have adapted themselves to the +conditions there present; thus, it should be expected that the +northern plants would be more hardy than those from the South, and +that the western prairie forms would be more capable of resisting +drouth than those from humid regions. It is, consequently, impossible +to say what conditions best suit this species. It may be said, +however, that Vulpina is adapted to a great variety of soils and +locations; vines have withstood a temperature of 40 to 60 degrees +below zero and they show equal ability in withstanding the injurious +effects of high temperatures in the summer. On account of its habit of +early blooming, the blossoms sometimes suffer from late frosts in the +spring.</p> + +<p>While Vulpina is not a swamp grape and is not found growing under +swampy conditions, it is fond of water. In the semi-arid regions +always, and in humid regions usually, it is found growing along the +banks of streams, in ravines, on the islands of rivers and in wet +places. It is not nearly so capable of withstanding drouth as +Rupestris. Vulpina likes a rather rich soil,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> but in France has been +found to do poorly on limestone land and calcareous marls. The French +tell us, however, that this is a characteristic of all our American +grapes, and that Vulpina is more resistant to the injurious effects of +an excess of lime than either Rupestris or Æstivalis.</p> + +<p>The fruit of Vulpina is usually small, there being occasional +varieties of medium size or above. The clusters are of medium size +and, if judged from the standpoint of number of berries, might +frequently be called large. The flavor is usually sharply acid but +free from foxiness or any disagreeable wild taste. If eaten in +quantity, the acidity is likely to affect the lips and end of the +tongue. When the acidity is somewhat ameliorated, as in the case of +thoroughly ripe or even over-ripe and shriveled fruit, the flavor is +much liked. The flesh is neither pulpy nor solid and dissolves in the +mouth and separates readily from the seed. The must of Vulpina is +characterized by an average amount of sugar, varying considerably in +the fruit from different vines, and by an excess of acid.</p> + +<p>Vulpina is very resistant to phylloxera, the roots are small, hard, +numerous and branch freely. The roots feed close to the surface and do +not seem to be well adapted to forcing their way through heavy clays. +Vulpina grows readily from cuttings and makes a good stock for +grafting, its union with other species being usually permanent. When +Vulpinas were first sent to France to be used as a stock in +reconstituting the French vineyards, it was found that many of the +vines secured from the woods were too weak in growth to support the +stronger-growing Viniferas. On this account the French growers +selected the more vigorous forms of the Vulpinas, to which they gave +varietal names, as Vulpina Gloire, Vulpina Grand Glabre, Vulpina +Schribner, Vulpina Martin and others. With these selected Vulpinas, +the graft does not outgrow the stock. Vulpina is less resistant to +black-rot than Æstivalis but somewhat more resistant than Labrusca. +The foliage is rarely attacked by mildew. One of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> the chief failings +of this species is the susceptibility of the leaves to the attack of +the leaf-hopper. The Vulpinas are generally late in ripening; the +fruit is better in quality in long seasons and should be left on the +vines as late as possible.</p> + +<p>5. <em>Vitis cordifolia</em>, Michx. Winter Grape. Frost Grape. Fox Grape. +Chicken Grape. Heart-leaved Vitis. Possum Grape. Sour Winter Grape.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, climbing. Shoots slender; internodes long, +angular, usually glabrous, sometimes pubescent; diaphragms thick; +tendrils intermittent, long, usually bifid. Leaves with short, +broad stipules; leaf-blade medium to large, cordate, entire or +indistinctly three-lobed; petiolar sinus deep, usually narrow, +acute; margin with coarse angular teeth; point of leaf acuminate; +upper surface light green, glossy, glabrous; glabrous or sparingly +pubescent below. Clusters medium to large, loose, with long +peduncle. Berries numerous and small, black, shining, little or no +bloom. Seeds medium in size, broad, beak short; chalaza oval or +roundish, elevated, very distinct; raphe a distinct, cord-like +ridge. Fruit sour and astringent and frequently consisting of +little besides skins and seeds. Leafing, flowering and ripening +fruit very late. </p></div> + +<p>Owing to the fact that Cordifolia and Vulpina have been badly +confused, the limits of the habitat of this species are difficult to +determine. The best authorities give the northern limit as New York or +the Great Lakes. The eastern limit is the Atlantic Ocean and the +southern limit, the Gulf of Mexico. It extends westward, according to +Engelmann, to the western limits of the wooded portion of the +Mississippi Valley in the North, and, according to Munson, to the +Brazos River, Texas, in the South. It is found along creeks and river +banks sometimes mixed with Vulpina, having about the same soil +adaptations as that species. It is a very common species in the middle +states and frequently grows on limestone soils, but is not indigenous +to such soils.</p> + +<p>Cordifolia makes a good stock for grafting, being vigorous and forming +a good union with most of our cultivated grapes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> It is seldom used +for this purpose, however, on account of the difficulty of propagating +it by means of cuttings. For the same reason vines of it are seldom +found in cultivation.</p> + +<p>6. <em>Vitis Berlandieri</em>, Planch. Mountain-Grape. Spanish Grape. Fall +Grape. Winter Grape. Little Mountain Grape.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, climbing; shoots more or less angled and pubescent; +pubescence remaining only in patches on mature wood; canes mostly +with short internodes; diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent, +long, strong, bifid or trifid. Leaves with small stipules; +leaf-blade large, broadly cordate, notched or shortly three-lobed; +petiolar sinus rather open, V- or U-shaped, margin with broad but +rather shallow teeth, rather dark glossy green above, grayish +pubescence below when young; becoming glabrous and even glossy +except on ribs and veins, when mature. Clusters large, compact, +compound, with long peduncle. Berries small, black, with thin +bloom, juicy, rather tart but pleasant tasting when thoroughly +ripe. Seeds few, small, short, plump, oval or roundish, with short +beak; chalaza oval or roundish, distinct; raphe narrow, slightly +distinct to indistinct. Leafing, flowering and ripening fruit very +late. </p></div> + +<p>Berlandieri is a native of the limestone hills of southwest Texas and +adjacent Mexico. It grows in the same region with <em>V. monticola</em>, but +is less restricted locally, growing from the tops of the hills down +and along the creek bottoms of these regions. Its great virtue is that +it withstands a soil largely composed of lime, being superior to all +other American species in this respect. This and its moderate degree +of vigor have recommended it to the French growers as a stock for +their calcareous soils. The roots are strong, thick, and very +resistant to phylloxera. It is propagated by cuttings with comparative +ease, but its varieties are variable, some not rooting at all easily. +While the fruit of this species shows a large cluster, the berries are +small and sour, and Berlandieri is not regarded as having promise for +culture in America.</p> + +<p>7. <em>Vitis æstivalis</em>, Michx. Blue Grape. Bunch Grape. Summer Grape. +Little Grape. Duck-shot Grape. Swamp Grape. Chicken Grape. Pigeon +Grape.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>Vine very vigorous, shoots pubescent or smooth when young; +diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent, usually bifid. Leaves +with short, broad stipules; leaf-blade large, thin when young but +becoming thick; petiolar sinus deep, usually narrow, frequently +overlapping; margin rarely entire, usually three- to five-lobed; +teeth dentate, shallow, wide; upper surface dark green; lower +surface with more or less reddish or rusty pubescence which, in +mature leaves, usually shows in patches on the ribs and veins; +petioles frequently pubescent. Clusters long, not much branched, +with long peduncle. Berries small, with moderate amount of bloom, +usually astringent. Seeds two to three, of medium size, plump, +smooth, not notched; chalaza oval, distinct; raphe a distinct +cord-like ridge. Leafing and ripening fruit late to very late. </p></div> + +<p>The division of the original species has reduced the habitat +materially, confining it to the southeastern part of the United States +from southern New York to Florida and westward to the Mississippi +River. Æstivalis grows in thickets and openings in the woods and shows +no such fondness for streams as Vulpina, or for thick timber as +Labrusca, but is generally confined to uplands. Under favorable +circumstances, the vines grow to be very large. Æstivalis is +preëminently a wine grape. The fruit usually has a tart, acrid taste, +due to the presence of a high percentage of acid, but there is also a +large amount of sugar, the scale showing that juice from this species +has a much higher percentage of sugar than the sweeter-tasting +Labruscas. The wine made from varieties of Æstivalis is very rich in +coloring matter and is used by some European vintners to mix with the +must of European sorts in order to give the combined product a higher +color. The berries are destitute of pulp, have a comparatively thin, +tough skin and a peculiar spicy flavor. The berries hang to the bunch +after becoming ripe much better than do those of Labrusca.</p> + +<p>This species thrives in a lighter and shallower soil than Labrusca and +appears to endure drought better, although not equaling in this +respect either Vulpina or Rupestris. The French growers report that +Æstivalis is very liable to chlorosis<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> on soils which contain much +lime. The leaves are never injured by the sun and they resist the +attacks of insects, such as leaf-hoppers, better than any other +American species under cultivation. Æstivalis is rarely injured by +black-rot or mildew, according to American experience, but French +growers speak of its being susceptible to both. The hard roots of +Æstivalis enable it to resist phylloxera, and varieties with any great +amount of the blood of this species are seldom seriously injured by +this insect. An objection to Æstivalis, from a horticultural +standpoint, is that it does not root well from cuttings. Many +authorities speak of it as not rooting at all from cuttings, but this +is an over-statement of the facts, as many of the wild and cultivated +varieties are occasionally propagated in this manner, and some +southern nurseries, located in particularly favorable situations, make +a practice of propagating it by this method. Varieties of this species +bear grafting well, especially in the vineyard.</p> + +<p><em>Vitis æstivalis Lincecumii</em>, Munson. Post-oak Grape. Pine-wood Grape. +Turkey Grape.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, sometimes climbing high upon trees, sometimes +forming a bushy clump from two to six feet high; canes +cylindrical, much rusty wool on shoots; tendrils intermittent. +Leaves very large, almost as wide as long; entire or three-, +five-, or rarely seven-lobed; lobes frequently divided; sinuses, +including petiolar sinus, deep; smooth above, and with more or +less rusty pubescence below. (The north-Texas, southwestern +Missouri and northern Arkansas form shows little or no pubescence +but has fine prickly spines at base of shoots and shows much blue +bloom on shoots, canes and the under side of the leaves.) Fruit +small to large, usually larger than typical Æstivalis, usually +black, with heavy bloom. Seeds larger than Æstivalis, pear-shaped; +chalaza roundish. </p></div> + +<p>Lincecumii inhabits the eastern half of Texas, western Louisiana, +Oklahoma, Arkansas and southern Missouri on high sandy land, +frequently climbing post-oak trees, hence the name, post-oak grape, by +which it is locally known.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>Lincecumii has attracted considerable attention through the work of H. +Jaeger and T. V. Munson in domesticating it, both of whom considered +it one of the most, if not the most, promising form from which to +secure cultivated varieties for the Southwest. The qualities which +recommend it are: First, vigor; second, capacity to withstand rot and +mildew; third, hardiness and capacity to endure hot and dry summers +without injury; fourth, the large cluster and berry which were found +on certain of the wild vines. The fruit is characteristic because of +its dense bloom, firm, yet tender texture and peculiar flavor. The +cultivated varieties have given satisfaction in many sections of the +Central Western and Southern states. Like Æstivalis, it is difficult +to propagate from cuttings.</p> + +<p>The north-Texas glaucous form of this variety mentioned in the +technical description above is the <em>V. æstivalis glauca</em> of Bailey. +This is the type of Lincecumii that Munson has used in breeding work.</p> + +<p><em>Vitis æstivalis Bourquiniana</em>, Bailey. Southern Æstivalis.</p> + +<p>Bourquiniana differs chiefly from the type in having thinner leaves; +the shoots and under side of the leaves are only slightly +reddish-brown in color; the pubescence usually disappears at maturity; +the leaves are more deeply lobed than is common in Æstivalis; and the +fruit is larger, sweeter and more juicy. Bourquiniana is known only in +cultivation. The name was given by Munson, who ranks the group as a +species. He includes therein many southern varieties, the most +important of which are: Herbemont, Bertrand, Cunningham and Lenoir, +grouped in the Herbemont section; and Devereaux, Louisiana and Warren, +in the Devereaux section. Munson has traced the history of this +interesting group and states that it was brought from southern France +to America over one hundred fifty years ago by the Bourquin family of +Savannah, Georgia. Many botanists are of the opinion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> that +Bourquiniana is a hybrid. The hybrid supposition is corroborated to a +degree by the characters being more or less intermediate between the +supposed parent species, and also by the fact that up to date no wild +form of Bourquiniana has been found. The only northern variety of any +importance supposed to have Bourquiniana blood is the Delaware, and in +this variety only a fraction of Bourquiniana blood is presumably +present. Bourquiniana can be propagated from cuttings more easily than +the typical Æstivalis but not so readily as Labrusca, Vulpina or +Vinifera. Many of the varieties of Bourquiniana show a marked +susceptibility to mildew and black-rot; in fact, the whole Herbemont +group is much inferior in this respect to the Norton group of +Æstivalis. The roots are somewhat hard, branch rather freely and are +quite resistant to phylloxera.</p> + +<p>8. <em>Vitis bicolor</em>, Le Conte. Blue Grape. Northern Summer Grape. +Northern Æstivalis.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, climbing; shoots cylindrical or angled, with long +internodes, generally glabrous, usually showing much blue bloom, +sometimes spiny at base; diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent, +long, usually bifid. Leaves with short, broad stipules; leaf-blade +large; roundish-cordate, usually three-, sometimes on older growth +shallowly five-lobed, rarely entire; petiolar sinus variable in +depth, usually narrow; margin irregularly dentate; teeth +acuminate; glabrous above, usually glabrous below and showing much +blue bloom which sometimes disappears late in the season; young +leaves sometimes pubescent; petioles very long. Cluster of medium +size, compact, simple; peduncle long. Berries small, black with +much bloom, acid but pleasant tasting when ripe. Seeds small, +plump, broadly oval, very short beak; chalaza oval, raised, +distinct; raphe distinct, showing as a cord-like ridge. </p></div> + +<p>Bicolor is readily distinguished from Æstivalis by the absence of the +reddish pubescence and by blooming slightly later. The habitat of +Bicolor is to the north of that of Æstivalis, occupying the +northeastern, whereas Æstivalis occupies the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> southeastern quarter of +the United States. Like Æstivalis, this species is not confined to +streams and river banks but frequently grows on higher land also. It +is found in north Missouri, Illinois, southwestern Wisconsin, Indiana, +southern Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, New York, +southwestern Ontario, New Jersey and Maryland and by some botanists is +reported as far south as western North Carolina and west Tennessee.</p> + +<p>The horticultural characters of Bicolor are much the same as those of +Æstivalis. About the only points of difference are that it is much +hardier (some of the Wisconsin vines stand a temperature as low as 20 +degrees below zero); it is said to be slightly less resistant to +mildew and more resistant to phylloxera. Like Æstivalis, Bicolor does +not thrive on limy soils and it is difficult to propagate from +cuttings. The horticultural possibilities of Bicolor are probably much +the same as those of Æstivalis, although many think it to be more +promising for the North. It is as yet cultivated but little. Its chief +defect for domestication is the small size of the fruit.</p> + +<p>9. <em>Vitis candicans</em>, Englem. Mustang Grape.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, climbing; shoots and petioles densely wooly, +whitish or rusty; diaphragm thick; tendrils intermittent. Leaves +with large stipules; blade small, broadly cordate to +reniform-ovate, entire or in young shoots and on young vines and +sprouts usually deeply three- to five-, or even seven-lobed; teeth +shallow, sinuate; petiolar sinus shallow, wide, sometimes lacking; +dull, slightly rugose above, dense whitish pubescence below. +Clusters small. Berries medium to large, black, purple, green, or +even whitish, thin blue bloom or bloomless. Seeds usually three or +four, large, short, plump, blunt, notched; chalaza oval, +depressed, indistinct; raphe a broad groove. </p></div> + +<p>The habitat of this grape extends from southern Oklahoma, as a +northern limit, southwesterly into Mexico. The western boundary is the +Pecos River. It is found on dry, alluvial, sandy or limestone bottoms +or on limestone bluff lands and is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> said to be especially abundant +along upland ravines. Candicans grows well on limestone lands, +enduring as much as 60 per cent of carbonate of lime in the soil. The +species blooms shortly before Labrusca and a week later than Vulpina. +It requires the long hot summers of its native country and will stand +extreme drouth but is not hardy to cold, 10 or 15 degrees below zero +killing the vine outright unless protected; and a lesser degree of +cold injuring it severely. The berries, which are large for wild +vines, have thin skins under which there is a pigment which gives +them, when first ripe, a fiery, pungent taste but which partly +disappears with maturity. The berries are very persistent, clinging to +the pedicel long after ripe. Candicans is difficult to propagate from +cuttings. Its roots resist phylloxera fairly well. It makes a good +stock for Vinifera vines in its native country, but owing to the +difficulty of propagation is seldom used for that purpose. In the +early days of Texas, it was much used for the making of wine but as it +is deficient in sugar, and as the must retains the acrid, pungent +flavor, it does not seem to be well adapted for this purpose. It is +not regarded as having great promise for southern horticulture and +certainly has none for the North.</p> + +<p>10. <em>Vitis Labrusca</em>, Linn. Fox-Grape.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, stocky, climbing; shoots cylindrical, densely +pubescent; diaphragms medium to thick; tendrils continuous, +strong, bifid or trifid. Leaves with long, cordate stipules; +leaf-blade large, thick, broadly cordate or round; entire or +three-lobed, frequently notched; sinuses rounded; petiolar sinus +variable in depth and width, V-shaped; margin with shallow, +acute-pointed, scalloped teeth; upper surface rugose, dark green, +on young leaves pubescent, becoming glabrous when mature; lower +surface covered with dense pubescence, more or less whitish on +young leaves, becoming dun-colored when mature. Clusters more or +less compound, usually shouldered, compact; pedicels thick; +peduncle short. Berries round; skin thick, covered with bloom, +with strong musky or foxy aroma. Seeds two to four, large, +distinctly notched, beak short; chalaza oval in shape, indistinct, +showing as a depression; raphe, a groove. </p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span>Labrusca is indigenous to the eastern part of North America, including +the region between the Atlantic Ocean and the Alleghany Mountains. It +is sometimes found in the valleys and along the western slopes of the +Alleghanies. Many botanists say it never occurs in the Mississippi +Valley. In the first-named area it ranges from Maine to Georgia. It +has the most restricted habitat of any American species of +horticultural importance, being much exceeded in extent of territory +by <em>V. rotundifolia</em>, <em>V. æstivalis</em> and <em>V. vulpina</em>.</p> + +<p>Labrusca has furnished more cultivated varieties, either pure-breeds +or hybrids, than all other American species together. The reason for +this is partly, no doubt, that it is native to the portion of the +United States first settled and is the most common grape in the region +where agriculture first advanced to the condition at which fruits were +desired. This does not wholly account for its prominence, however, +which must be sought elsewhere. In its wild state, Labrusca is +probably the most attractive to the eye of any of our American grapes +on account of the size of its fruit, and this undoubtedly turned the +attention of those who were early interested in the possibilities of +American grape-growing to this species rather than to any other.</p> + +<p>The southern Labrusca is quite different from the northern form and +demands different conditions for its successful growth; in the North, +at least two types of the species may be distinguished. Vines are +found in the woods of New England which resemble Concord very closely +in both vine and fruit, excepting that the grapes are much smaller in +size and more seedy. There is also the large-fruited, foxy Labrusca, +usually with reddish berries, represented by such cultivated varieties +as Northern Muscadine, Dracut Amber, Lutie and others. Labrusca is +peculiar amongst American grapes in showing black-, white- and +red-fruited forms of wild vines growing in the woods. Because of this +variability, it is im<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>possible to give the exact climatic and soil +conditions best adapted to the species. It is reasonable to suppose, +however, that the ideal conditions for this species under cultivation +are not widely different from those prevailing where the species is +indigenous. In the case of Labrusca, this means that it is best +adapted to humid climates, and that the temperature desired varies +according to whether the variety comes from the southern or northern +form of the species.</p> + +<p>The root system of Labrusca does not penetrate the soil deeply, but +the vine is said to succeed better in deep and clayey soils than +Æstivalis. It endures an excess of water in the soil, and, on the +other hand, requires less water for successful growing than Æstivalis +or Vulpina. In spite of its ability to withstand clayey soils, it +seems to prefer loose, warm, well-drained sandy lands to all others. +The French growers report that all varieties of this species show a +marked antipathy to a limestone soil, the vines soon becoming affected +with chlorosis when planted in soils of this nature. In corroboration +of this, it may be said that Labrusca is not often found wild in +limestone soils. The Labruscas succeed very well in the North and +fairly well in the Middle West as far south as Arkansas, where they +are raised on account of their fruit qualities, for here the vines are +not nearly so vigorous and healthy as are those of other species. In +Alabama, they are reported to be generally unsatisfactory, and in +Texas the vines are short-lived, unhealthy, and generally +unsatisfactory, particularly in the dry regions. There are some +exceptions to this, as for instance, in the Piedmont region of the +Carolinas, where, owing to elevation or other causes, the climate of a +southern region is semi-northern in its character.</p> + +<p>The grapes of Labrusca are large and usually handsomely colored. The +skin is thick, covering a layer of adhering flesh, which gives the +impression of its being thicker than it actually is; the berry is +variable in tenderness, sometimes tough, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> in many cultivated +varieties is so tender that it cracks in transportation. The skin of +this species usually has a peculiar aroma, generally spoken of as +foxy, and a slightly acid, astringent taste. Beneath the skin there is +a layer of juicy pulp, quite sweet and never showing much acidity in +ripe fruit. The center of the berry is occupied by rather dense pulp, +more or less stringy, with considerable acid close to the seeds. Many +object to the foxy aroma of this species, but, nevertheless, the most +popular American varieties are more or less foxy. Analyses show that +the fruit is usually characterized by a low percentage of sugar and +acid, the very sweet-tasting fox-grapes not showing as high a +sugar-content as some of the disagreeably tart Æstivalis and Vulpina +sorts. This, in addition to the foxiness which furnishes an excess of +aroma in the wine, has prevented Labrusca varieties from becoming +favorites with the wine-makers, but most of the grape-juice now +manufactured is made from them.</p> + +<p>In addition to the characters enumerated, it may be said that Labrusca +submits well to vineyard culture, is fairly vigorous and generally +quite productive. It grows readily from cuttings and in hardiness is +intermediate between Vulpina, the hardiest of our American species, +and Æstivalis. The roots are soft and fleshy (for an American grape) +and in some localities subject to attacks of phylloxera. None of the +varieties of Labrusca has ever been popular in France on this account. +In the wild vines, the fruit is inclined to drop when ripe. This +defect is known as "shattering" or "shelling" among grape-growers and +is a serious weakness in some varieties. Labrusca is said to be more +sensitive in its wild state to mildew and black-rot than any other +American species, but the evidence on this point does not seem to be +wholly conclusive. In the South, and in some parts of the Middle West, +the leaves of all varieties of Labrusca sunburn and shrivel in the +latter part of the summer. The vines do not endure drouth as well as +Æstivalis or Vulpina and not nearly so well as Rupestris.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>11. <em>Vitis vinifera</em>, Linn.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine variable in vigor, not so high climbing as most American +species; tendrils intermittent. Leaves round-cordate, thin, +smooth, and when young, shining, frequently more or less deeply +three-, five-, or even seven-lobed; usually glabrous but in some +varieties the leaves and young shoots are hairy and even downy +when young; lobes rounded or pointed; teeth variable; petiolar +sinus deep, narrow, usually overlapping. Berries very variable in +size and color, usually oval though globular. Seeds variable in +size and shape, usually notched at upper end and characterized +always by a bottle-necked, elongated beak; chalaza broad, usually +rough, distinct; raphe indistinct. Roots large, soft and spongy. </p></div> + +<p>The original habitat of the species is not positively known. De +Candolle, as noted in the first part of this work, considered the +region about the Caspian Sea as the probable habitat of the Old World +grape. There is but little doubt that the original home of <em>V. +vinifera</em> is some place in western Asia.</p> + +<p>Neither American nor European writers agree as to the climate desired +by Vinifera, for the reason, probably that all of the varieties in +this variable species do not require the same climatic conditions. +There are certain phases of climate, however, that are well agreed on: +the species requires a warm, dry climate and is more sensitive to +change of temperature than American species. Varieties of this species +can be grown successfully in a wide variety of soils, being much less +particular as to soils than American sorts.</p> + +<p>Certain characters of the fruit of this species are not found in any +American forms: First, the skin, which is attached very closely to the +flesh and which is never astringent or acid, can be eaten with the +fruit; second, the flesh is firm, yet tender, and uniform throughout, +differing in this respect from all American grapes which have a sweet, +watery and tender pulp close to the skin with a tough and more or less +acid core at the center; third, the flavor has a peculiarly sprightly +quality known as vinous; fourth, the berry adheres firmly to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> +pedicel, the fruit seldom "shattering" or "shelling" from the cluster.</p> + +<p>In the various hybrids that have been made between American and +Vinifera varieties, it is usually found that the desirable qualities +of Vinifera are inherited in about the same proportion as the +undesirable ones. The fruit is improved in the hybrid but the vine is +weakened; quality is usually purchased at the expense of hardiness and +disease-resisting power. Vinifera may be grown very readily from +cuttings.</p> + +<table summary="Plate XXIII"> +<tbody> +<tr> +<td class="figcenter" style="width: 227px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXIII" id="Plate_XXIII"></a> +<img src="images/plate23a.jpg" width="227" height="309" alt="Plate XXIII." title="Plate XXIII." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXIII.</span>—Lutie (×<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span>).</span> +</td> + +<td class="figcenter" style="width: 227px;"> +<img src="images/plate23b.jpg" width="227" height="309" alt="Plate XXIII." title="Plate XXIII." /> +<span class="caption">Pocklington (×<span class="frac_top">1</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">2</span>).</span> +</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span></p> +<h3>CHAPTER XVIII</h3> + +<p class="chapter_head">VARIETIES OF GRAPES</p> + + +<p>Nature has expended her bounties in fullest measure for the vineyard. +More than 2000 varieties of grapes are described in American +viticultural literature, and twice as many more find mention in +European treatises on the vine. Few other fruits offer the novelties +given the grape in flavors, aromas, sizes, colors and uses. The +vineyard, then, to fulfill commercial potentialities, should supply +grapes throughout the whole season, and of the several colors and +flavors and for all uses. A prime requisite for a vineyard being +well-selected varieties, an assortment of all kinds and for all places +in America is here described.</p> + + +<h4>Actoni</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Actoni is a table-grape of the Malaga type which ripens at Geneva, New +York, late in October, too late for the average season in the East but +worth trying in favorable locations. It is grown in California but is +not a favorite sort. The following brief description is made from +fruit grown at Geneva:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Clusters large, shouldered, tapering, loose; berries medium to +very large, long-oval to oval, clear green yellow; flesh crisp, +firm; flavor sweet; quality good. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span></p> +<h4>Agawam</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Randall, Rogers No. 15</em></p> + +<p>The qualities commending Agawam are large size and attractive +appearance of bunch and berry; rich, sweet aromatic flavor; vigor of +vine; and capacity for self-fertilization. For a grape having its +proportion of European parentage, the vine is vigorous, hardy and +productive. The chief defects in fruit are a thick and rough skin, +coarse, solid texture of pulp and foxy flavor. The vine is susceptible +to the mildews and in many localities does not yield well. Although +Agawam ripens soon after Concord, it can be kept much longer and even +improves in flavor after picking. The vines prefer heavy soils, doing +better on clay than on sand or gravel. This is one of the grapes grown +by E. S. Rogers, Salem, Massachusetts. It was introduced as No. 15 but +in 1861 was given the name it now bears.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes thick, dark brown; nodes +enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, +bifid to trifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, +smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent, flocculent; lobes +lacking; terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; lateral +sinus very shallow; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers on plan of six, +nearly self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps until midwinter. Clusters medium to large, +short, broad, tapering, loose; pedicel short; brush very short, +pale green. Berries large, oval, dark purplish-red with thin +bloom, very persistent; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; +flesh pale green, translucent, tough, stringy, solid, foxy; good. +Seeds adherent, two to five, large, long, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Almeria</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>This is one of the varieties commonly found in eastern markets from +Almeria and Malaga, Spain, although occasionally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> it may come from +California where the variety, or similar varieties confused with it, +is now grown. This sort is remarkable for its wonderful keeping +qualities; it is adapted only to hot interior regions. The Almeria +cultivated by the California Experiment Station is described as +follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Vine vigorous; leaves of medium size, round and slightly or not +at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse and +alternately large and small; bunches large, loose or compact, +irregular conical; berries from small to large, cylindrical, +flattened on the ends, very hard and tasteless." </p></div> + + +<h4>America</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Lincecumii, Rupestris)</p> + +<p>The notable qualities of America are vigor of growth and health of +foliage in vine, and persistence of berries, which have strongly +colored red juice, high sugar-content and excellent flavor. The grapes +wholly lack the foxy taste and aroma of Labrusca and the variety, +therefore, offers possibilities for breeding sorts lacking the foxy +flavor of Concord and Niagara. America has great resistance to heat +and cold. Also, it is said to be a suitable stock upon which to graft +Vinifera varieties to resist phylloxera. The vigor of the vine and the +luxuriance of the foliage make it an excellent sort for arbors. +America was grown by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed of Jaeger +No. 43 pollinated by a male Rupestris. It was introduced about 1892.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, dark +reddish-brown with heavy bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; +tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves small, thin; upper +surface glossy, smooth; lower surface light green, hairy; lobes +lacking or faint, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep and +wide; teeth of average depth and width. Flowers self-sterile, +usually on plan of six, open late; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season or later, keeps well. Clusters large, long, +broad, tapering, irregular, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel +short, slender with small warts; brush short, thick with red +tinge. Berries small,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> variable in size, round, purplish-black, +glossy with purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh dull white +with faint red tinge, translucent, tender, melting, spicy, vinous, +sweet; good. Seeds free, two to five, long, pointed, +yellowish-brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Aminia</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Aminia is one of the best early grapes, its season being with or a +little after Moore Early. The grapes are of high quality and +attractive appearance, but the bunches are small, variable in size, +not well formed and the berries ripen unevenly. The vine is vigorous +but is neither as hardy nor as productive as a commercial variety +should be. In 1867 Isadora Bush, a Missourian, planted vines of Rogers +No. 39 from several different sources. When these came into bearing, +he distinguished three varieties. Bush selected the best of the three +and, with the consent of Rogers, named it Aminia. In spite of Bush's +care, there are two distinct grapes cultivated under this name.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, lacking in productiveness. +Canes rough, long, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged; internodes +long; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid or bifid, persistent. +Leaves large; upper surface dull, smooth; lower surface light +green, pubescent; lobes three; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus +deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually +lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow, wide. +Flowers open in mid-season, self-sterile; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, irregular, +conical, sometimes with a long shoulder, loose; pedicel long with +few warts; brush short, thick, brownish-red. Berries variable, +round, dull black with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, +tender, adherent with purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh +greenish, translucent, tender, solid, coarse, foxy; good. Seeds +adherent, one to six, very large. </p></div> + + +<h4>August Giant</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>August Giant is a hybrid between Labrusca and Vinifera in which the +fruit characters are those of the latter species. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> appearance and +taste of berry, the variety resembles Black Hamburg. The vine is +usually vigorous and, considering its parentage, is very hardy. The +foliage is thick and luxuriant but subject to mildew. Vigor of vine, +beauty of foliage and the quality of the fruit make the variety +desirable for the amateur. It needs a long-maturing season. August +Giant was grown by N. B. White, Norwood, Massachusetts, in 1861, from +seed of an early, large-berried, red Labrusca pollinated by Black +Hamburg.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy, subject to mildew. Canes long, +numerous, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes +short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, +thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface +pale green or bronzed, pubescent; lobes three, terminal one acute; +petiolar sinus deep, narrow, frequently closed and overlapping; +lateral sinus shallow or a notch; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers +open in mid-season, self-sterile; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters of average size, short, +broad, irregularly tapering, single-shouldered, loose; pedicel +long, thick with large warts; brush short, thick, green or with +brown tinge. Berries large, oval, purplish-red or black, dull with +thick bloom, firm; skin tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green, +translucent, tough, stringy; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, +large, blunt, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Bacchus</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Bacchus is an offspring of Clinton which it resembles in vine and leaf +characters, but surpasses in quality of fruit and in productiveness of +vine. The special points of merit of the variety are: resistance to +cold, resistance to phylloxera, freedom from fungi and insects, +productiveness, ease of multiplication and capacity to bear grafts. +Its limitations are: poor quality for table use, inability to +withstand dry soils or droughts, and nonadaptability to soils +containing much lime. The variety originated with J. H. Ricketts, +Newburgh, New York, and was first exhibited by him in 1879.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>Vine very vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous, +dark brown with bloom at the nodes which are enlarged and +flattened; tendrils bifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green, +glossy, smooth; lower surface dull green, smooth; lobes three, +terminal one acuminate; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, sometimes +overlapping; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow, wide. +Flowers open early, self-sterile; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well, hangs long. Clusters small, slender, +uniform, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, +slender with a few small warts; brush short, wine-colored. Berries +small, round, black, glossy, covered with thin bloom, hang well to +pedicels, firm; skin thin, adherent, contains much wine-colored +pigment, slightly astringent; flesh dark green, translucent, +fine-grained, tough, vinous, spicy; fair quality. Seeds clinging, +one to four, many abortive, large, short and wide, plump, sharply +pointed, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Bakator</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>This is a Hungarian wine grape but its high quality and early season +make it a desirable table-grape in the East. It seems to be grown but +little on the Pacific slope. The following description is made from +fruit grown at Geneva, New York:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine medium in vigor, productive. Young leaves tinged red at +edges, upper surface glossy; mature leaves large, round, upper +surface dull, lower surface downy; lobes five, terminal lobe +acuminate; basal sinus deep, medium to narrow, closed to +overlapping; lower lateral sinus deep, variable in width; upper +lateral sinus deep, usually narrows; margins dentate, teeth +shallow to medium deep. Flowers appear late; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit ripens at Geneva the first or second week in October and +keeps well in storage; clusters above medium in size, medium in +length, broad, frequently double-shouldered, tapering, medium to +loose; berries medium to small, oval, light red becoming dark when +fully ripe, with thick bloom; skin thin, tender, adherent to the +pulp; flesh greenish, juicy, tender, melting, vinous, sweet; +quality very good. </p></div> + + +<h4>Barry</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Barry (<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>) is one of the best American black grapes, resembling +in berry and in flavor and keeping quality of fruit its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> European +parent, Black Hamburg. The appearance of berry and bunch is +attractive. The vine is vigorous, hardy and productive but susceptible +to mildew. The ripening season is just after that of Concord. For the +table, for winter keeping and for the amateur, this variety may be +highly recommended. Barry was dedicated in 1869, by E. S. Rogers, who +originated it, to Patrick Barry, distinguished nurseryman and +pomologist. The variety is grown in gardens throughout the grape +regions of eastern America.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, susceptible to mildew. Canes +long, numerous, thick, dark brown with heavy bloom; nodes +flattened; shoots glabrous; tendrils intermittent, bifid or +trifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; +lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes one to three, terminus +acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and +overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, +narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers open in mid-season, self-sterile; +stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters short, very broad, +tapering, often subdividing into several parts, compact; pedicel +with small warts. Berries large, oval, dark purplish-black, +glossy, covered with heavy bloom, adherent; skin thin, tough, +adherent; flesh pale green, translucent, tender, stringy, vinous, +pleasant-flavored; good. Seeds adherent, one to five, large, +deeply notched, with enlarged neck, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Beacon</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Lincecumii, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Another of T. V. Munson's hybrids is Beacon. It is not well adapted to +northern regions but does very well in the South. The vine is vigorous +and bears a handsome, compact mass of foliage which retains its color +and freshness through drouths and heat. Munson grew Beacon in 1887 +from seed of Big Berry (a variety of Lincecumii) pollinated by +Concord, the vine bearing first in 1889.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, productive. Canes short, +slender, light brown. Leaves healthy, thick, dark green, sometimes +rugose; veins showing indistinctly through the slight pubescence +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> the lower surface. Flowers open in mid-season, on plan of five +or six, self-fertile.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, +cylindrical, usually high-shouldered, compact. Berries variable in +size, round, purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, firm; skin +tough, adherent with a large amount of purplish-red pigment, +astringent; flesh tender, aromatic, spicy, vinous, mildly subacid; +good. Seeds free, large, broad, blunt, notched. </p></div> + + +<h4>Berckmans</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca, Bourquiniana)</p> + +<p>In Berckmans we have the fruit of Delaware on the vine of Clinton. The +berry and bunch resemble Delaware in shape; the fruit is of the same +color; bunch and berry are larger; the grapes keep longer; the flesh +is firmer but the quality is not so good, the flesh lacking tenderness +and richness in comparison with Delaware. The vine of Berckmans is not +only more vigorous, but is less subject to mildew than that of +Delaware. The vine characters are not, however, as good as those of +Clinton. The variety is poorly adapted to some soils, and on these the +grapes do not color well. In spite of many good qualities, Berckmans +is but an amateur's grape. The name commemorates the viticultural +labors of P. J. Berckmans, a contemporary and friend of A. P. Wylie, +of Chester, South Carolina, who originated the variety. Berckmans came +from Delaware seed fertilized by Clinton, the seed having been sown in +1868.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender, +dark brown; nodes prominent, flattened; internodes short; shoots +glabrous; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves small, thin; +upper surface light green, smooth; lower surface pale green, +glabrous; lobes one to three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus +shallow, wide; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow. +Flowers open early, self-fertile; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit ripens with Delaware. Clusters shouldered, compact, slender; +pedicel long, slender with few warts; brush short, light green. +Berries small, oval, Delaware-red, darker when well ripened, +covered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tough, adherent, +astringent; flesh pale yellowish-green, translucent, fine-grained, +tender, melting, vinous, sweet, sprightly; very good. Seeds free, +one to four, small, broad, blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Black Eagle</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>The fruit of Black Eagle is of the best, but the vine lacks in vigor, +hardiness and productiveness and is self-sterile. Bunch and berry are +large and attractive. The season is about with Concord. Black Eagle +has wholly failed as a commercial variety, and its several weaknesses +prevent amateurs from growing it widely. The variety originated with +Stephen W. Underhill, Croton-on-Hudson, New York, from seed of Concord +pollinated by Black Prince. It fruited first in 1866.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, unproductive. Canes rough, +thick, reddish-brown with light bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened +internodes long; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. +Leaves thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth to rugose; +lobes five; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep; lateral +sinus wide, narrowing towards top, deep. Flowers open in +mid-season, self-sterile; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, tapering, +single-or double-shouldered, compact; pedicel long, slender with +few warts; brush short, pale green. Berries variable in size, +oval, black, glossy with thick bloom; skin tender, thin, adherent +with wine-colored pigment; flesh pale green, translucent, tender, +vinous; good. Seeds free, one to four, large. </p></div> + + +<h4>Black Hamburg</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Black Hamburg (<a href="#Plate_VI">Plate VI</a>) is an old European sort, long the mainstay in +forcing-houses in Belgium, England and America and now popular out of +doors in California. It is an excellent table-grape but, while it +keeps well, its tender skin does not permit its being shipped far, +especially when grown out of doors.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> The vine is subject to disease. +The following description of the fruit is made from grapes grown in +the greenhouse:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Bunches very large, often a foot in length and weighing several +pounds; very broad at the shoulder and gradually tapering to a +point; compact, oftentimes too compact; berries very large, round +or slightly round-oval; skin rather thick; dark purple becoming +black at full maturity; flesh firm, juicy, sweet and rich; quality +very good or best. Season early in the forcing-house but rather +late out of doors. </p></div> + + +<h4>Black Malvoise</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>This variety is rather widely grown in California as an early +table-grape and might be worth trying in eastern grape regions. While +the fruit is not of the best quality, it is good. The following +description is compiled:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy and productive; wood long-jointed, rather +slender, light brown. Leaves of medium size, oval, evenly and +deeply five-lobed; basal sinus open, with nearly parallel sides; +upper surface smooth, almost glabrous; lower surface slightly +tomentose on the veins and veinlets. Bunches large, loose, +branching; berries large, oblong, reddish black with faint bloom; +flesh firm, juicy, crisp; flavor lacking in richness and +character; quality not high. Season early, keeping and shipping +but poorly. </p></div> + + +<h4>Black Morocco</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Black Morocco very generally meets the approval of grape-growers on +the Pacific slope without being a prime favorite for either home use +or commerce. The grapes are not high enough in quality for a home +vineyard, and, while they ship well, are hard to handle because of the +large size and rigidity of the bunches. Another fault is that the +vines are subject to root-knot. The chief asset of the variety is +handsome appearance of fruit. This variety is remarkable for the +num<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span>ber of second-crop bunches which it produces on the laterals. The +following description is compiled:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, productive; canes spreading, few. Leaves +medium to small, very deeply five-lobed; the younger leaves +truncate at base, giving them a semi-circular outline, with long, +sharp teeth alternating with very small ones; glabrous, or nearly +so, on both sides. Bunches very large, short, shouldered, compact +and rigid; berries very large, round, often misshapen from +compression; dull purple, lacking color in the center of the +bunch; flesh firm, crisp, neutral in flavor, lacking in richness; +quality rather low. Season late, keeping and shipping well. </p></div> + + +<h4>Brighton</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Brighton (<a href="#Plate_VIII">Plate VIII</a>) is one of the few Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids +which have attained prominence in commercial vineyards. It ranks as +one of the leading amateur grapes in eastern America and is among the +ten or twelve chief commercial sorts of this region. Its good points +are: for the fruit, high quality; for the vine, vigorous growth, +productiveness, adaptability to various soils and ability to withstand +fungi. Brighton has two serious defects which keep it from taking +higher rank as a commercial variety: it deteriorates in quality very +quickly after maturity, so that it cannot be kept for more than a few +days at its best, hence cannot well be shipped to distant markets; and +it is self-sterile to a more marked degree than any other +commonly-grown grape. Brighton is a seedling of Diana Hamburg +pollinated by Concord, raised by Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York. The +original vine fruited first in 1870.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, subject to mildew. Canes long, +numerous, light brown; nodes enlarged, usually flattened; +internodes long; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large, +thick; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale +green, pubescent; lobes three when present, terminal one acute; +petiolar sinus intermediate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> in depth and width; lateral sinus +shallow; teeth narrow. Flowers open late, self-sterile; stamens +reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, heavily +shouldered, loose; pedicel thick; brush pale green with brown +tinge, thick, short. Berries irregular, large, oval, light red, +glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, tender, +adherent, astringent; flesh green, transparent, tender, stringy, +melting, aromatic, vinous, sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to +five, broad, light brown. </p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXIV" id="Plate_XXIV"></a> +<img src="images/plate24.jpg" width="336" height="500" alt="Plate XXIV." title="Plate XXIV." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXIV.</span>—Moore Early (×<span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">5</span>).</span> +</div> + + +<h4>Brilliant</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera, Bourquiniana)</p> + +<p>Brilliant is a cross between Lindley and Delaware. In cluster and size +of berry it resembles Lindley; in color and quality of fruit it is +about the same as Delaware, differing chiefly in having more +astringency in the skin. Its season is about with Delaware. The grapes +do not crack or shell, therefore ship well, and have very good keeping +qualities, especially on the vine where they often hang for weeks. The +vine is vigorous and hardy. The defects which have kept Brilliant from +becoming one of the standard commercial sorts are: marked +susceptibility to fungi, variability in size of cluster, unevenness in +ripening and unproductiveness. In favorable situations this variety +pleases the amateur, and the commercial grower often finds it +profitable. The seed which produced Brilliant was planted by T. V. +Munson, Denison, Texas, in 1883 and the variety was introduced in +1887.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, rather unproductive. Canes long, numerous, +thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; +tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper +surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface gray-green, downy; +obscurely three-lobed with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus +deep, narrow; basal and lateral sinuses obscure and shallow when +present; teeth intermediate in depth and width. Flowers open late, +self-fertile; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters medium, blunt, +cylindrical, usually shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick +with a few small warts; brush short, thick, pale green with +reddish tinge.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> Berries round, dark red, glossy with thin bloom, +strongly adherent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh pale +green, transparent, juicy, stringy, fine-grained, vinous, sweet; +good. Seeds clinging, one to four, large, broad, elongated, plump, +light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Brown</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>In spite of many encomiums in the past quarter century, Brown has not +received favorable recognition from fruit-growers. The quality is not +high, the berries shatter badly, and the vine is lacking in vigor. +Brown is a seedling of Isabella which came up in a yard at Newburgh, +New York, about 1884.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine hardy, productive. Canes short, slender, dark brown; tendrils +continuous. Leaves healthy, light green, glossy; veins well +defined, distinctly showing through the thick bronze of the lower +surface. Flowers open early, self-fertile stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit large, keeps well. Clusters small to medium, slender, +cylindrical or tapering, usually single-shouldered. Berries +intermediate in size, oval, black with thick bloom, drop soon +after ripening; skin adherent; flesh juicy, tough, fine-grained, a +little foxy, mild next the skin but tart at center; good. Seeds +short, blunt, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Campbell Early</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>The meritorious qualities of Campbell Early (<a href="#Plate_IX">Plate IX</a>) are: The grapes +are high in quality when mature; free from foxiness and from acidity +about the seeds; have small seeds which easily part from the flesh; +are early, ripening nearly a fortnight before Concord; bunch and berry +are large and handsome; and the vines are exceptionally hardy. +Campbell Early falls short in not being adapted to many soils; the +variety lacks productiveness; the grapes attain full color before they +are ripe and are, therefore, often marketed in an unripe condition; +the bunch is variable in size; and the color of the berry is not +attractive. George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, grew this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> variety +from a seedling of Moore Early pollinated by a Labrusca-Vinifera +hybrid. It bore first in 1892.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes thick, dark reddish-brown, +surface roughened with small warts; nodes flattened; internodes +short; shoots pubescent; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or +trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface green, glossy; lower +surface bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three, usually entire, +terminal one acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus +pubescent; lateral sinus wide or a notch; teeth shallow, narrow. +Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters usually large, long, +broad, tapering, single-shouldered; pedicel short, slender with +small warts; brush long, light wine color. Berries usually large, +round, oval, dark purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, +persistent, firm; skin tough, thin, adherent with dark red +pigment, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, coarse, +vinous, sweet from skin to center; good. Seeds free, one to four, +light brown, often with yellow tips. </p></div> + + +<h4>Canada</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Canada is considered the most desirable hybrid between Vulpina and +Vinifera. The variety shows Vinifera more than Vulpina parentage; +thus, in susceptibility to fungal diseases, in shape, color and +texture of foliage, in the flavor of the fruit and in the seeds, there +are marked indications of Vinifera; while the vine, especially in the +slenderness of its shoots and in the bunch and berry, shows Vulpina. +Canada has little value as a dessert fruit but makes a very good red +wine or grape-juice. Canada is a seedling of Clinton, a +Labrusca-Vulpina hybrid, fertilized by Black St. Peters, a variety of +Vinifera. Charles Arnold, Paris, Ontario, planted the seed which +produced Canada in 1860.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, +slender, ash-gray, reddish-brown at nodes with heavy bloom; nodes +enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, short, trifid +or bifid. Leaves thin; upper surface light green, smooth; lower +surface pale green, hairy; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus +deep, narrow;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> basal sinus variable in depth and width; lateral +sinus deep and narrow; teeth deep and wide. Flowers self-sterile, +early; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters long, slender, uniform, +cylindrical, compact; pedicel long, slender, smooth; brush short, +light brown. Berries small, round, purplish-black, glossy with +heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh +dark green, very juicy, fine-grained, tender, spicy, pleasant +vinous flavor, agreeably tart; good. Seeds free, one to three, +blunt, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Canandaigua</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Canandaigua is worth attention because of the exceptionally good +keeping qualities of the grapes. The flavor is very good at picking +time but seems, if anything, to improve in storage. The vine +characters are those of Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids, and in these the +variety is the equal of the average cultivated hybrid of these two +species. The characters of the fruit, also, show plainly an admixture +of Vinifera and Labrusca so combined as to make the grapes very +similar to the best of such hybrids. Canandaigua is a chance seedling +found by E. L. Van Wormer, Canandaigua, New York, growing among wild +grapes. It was distributed about 1897.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes long, few, +reddish-brown, faint bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils +semi-continuous, bifid, dehisce early. Leaves large, thin; upper +surface light green; lower surface gray-green. Flowers sterile or +sometimes partly self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens +reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit late mid-season, keeps unusually well. Clusters variable in +size, usually heavily single-shouldered, loose to medium. Berries +large, oval, black, covered with thick bloom, persistent; skin +adherent, thin, tough; flesh firm, sweet and rich; good, improves +as season advances. Seeds long with enlarged neck. </p></div> + + +<h4>Carman</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Lincecumii, Vinifera, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Carman is a grape having the characters of three species and hence is +of interest to grape improvers. It has not become<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span> popular with +growers, chiefly because the grapes ripen very late and are not of +high quality. The most valuable character of the variety is that of +long keeping, whether hanging on the vine or after harvesting. T. V. +Munson, Denison, Texas, raised Carman from seed of a wild post-oak +grape taken from the woods, pollinated with mixed pollen of Triumph +and Herbemont. It was introduced in 1892.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy, rather productive. Canes long, +numerous, thick, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; +internodes long; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid. Leaves +large, thick; upper surface light green, glossy, older leaves +rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent; terminal lobe acute; +petiolar sinus deep; basal sinus absent or shallow; lateral sinus +shallow when present. Flowers self-fertile or nearly so, open very +late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, tapering, +single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush +short, slender, wine-colored. Berries small, round, slightly +oblate, purplish-black, glossy, covered with heavy bloom, +persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, free; flesh yellowish-green, +tender, post-oak flavor, vinous, spicy; good to very good. Seeds +free, one to four, small, blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Catawba</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Arkansas, Catawba Tokay, Cherokee, Fancher, Keller's White, Lebanon, +Lincoln, Mammoth Catawba, Mead's Seedling, Merceron, Michigan, Muncy, +Omega, Rose of Tennessee, Saratoga, Singleton, Tekomah, Tokay, +Virginia Amber.</em></p> + +<p>Catawba has long been the standard red grape in the markets of eastern +America, chiefly because the fruit keeps well and is of high quality. +The vine is vigorous, hardy and productive, but the foliage and fruit +are susceptible to fungi. These two faults account for the decline of +Catawba in grape regions in the United States and for its growing +unpopularity. In botanical characters and in adaptations and +susceptibilities, the variety suggests Vinifera crossed with Labrusca. +The characters of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> Catawba seem readily transmissible to its offspring +and, besides having a number of pure-bred descendants which more or +less resemble it, it is a parent of a still greater number of +cross-breeds. As with Catawba, most of its progeny show Vinifera +characters, as intermittent tendrils, Vinifera color of foliage, a +vinous flavor wholly or nearly free from foxiness, and the +susceptibilities of Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids to certain diseases and +insects. Catawba was introduced by John Adlum, District of Columbia, +about 1823. Adlum secured cuttings from a Mrs. Scholl, Clarksburgh, +Montgomery County, Maryland, in the spring of 1819. Its further +history is not known.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, thick, dark +brown; nodes enlarged; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. +Leaves large; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower +surface grayish-white, heavily pubescent; lobes sometimes three, +terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus often +lacking; lateral sinus narrow; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers +self-fertile, open late, stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, +single-or sometimes double-shouldered, loose; pedicel with a few +inconspicuous warts; brush short, pale green. Berries of medium +size, oval, dull purplish-red with thick bloom, firm; skin thick, +adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, +fine-grained, vinous, sprightly, sweet and rich; very good. Seeds +free, frequently abortive, two, broad-necked, distinctly notched, +blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Champion</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Beaconsfield, Early Champion, Talman's Seedling</em></p> + +<p>Champion is a favorite early grape with some growers, although the +poor quality of the fruit should have driven it from cultivation long +ago. The characters which have kept it in the market are earliness, +good shipping qualities, attractive appearance of fruit, and a +vigorous, productive, hardy vine. The hardiness of the vine and the +short season of fruit develop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span>ment make it a good variety for northern +climates. This grape is best in appearance of fruit, in quality and in +the quantity produced, on light sandy soils. The origin of Champion is +unknown. It was first grown about 1870 in New York.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy and productive. Canes of average size, +dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; shoots +pubescent; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large; upper +surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface dull gray, downy; +lobes usually three, often obscurely five, terminal one acute; +petiolar sinus deep; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, early; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, three weeks before Concord, season short. Clusters +medium in size, blunt, cylindrical, usually not shouldered, +compact; pedicel short with inconspicuous warts; brush white +tinged with bronze. Berries medium in size, round, dull black +covered with heavy bloom, soft; skin thick, tender, adherent, +astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, +tender, foxy; poor in quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, broad, +long, blunt, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Chasselas Golden</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Chasselas Dore, Fontainebleau, Sweetwater</em></p> + +<p>Several qualities have made Chasselas Golden a favorite grape wherever +it can be grown. The variety is adapted to widely differing +environments; the season of ripening is early; while not choicely +high, the quality of the grapes is good and they are beautiful, clear +green tinged with beautiful golden bronze where exposed to the sun. +Chasselas Golden is a popular variety on the Pacific slope and should +be one of the first Viniferas to be tried in the East. The following +description was made from fruit grown at Geneva, New York:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine medium in vigor, very productive; buds open in mid-season. +Young leaves tinged with red on both upper and lower surfaces, +thinly pubescent to glabrous; mature leaves medium to above in +size, slightly cordate; upper surface glabrous, lower surface +slightly pubescent along the veins; lobes five in number, terminal +lobe acuminate;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> basal sinus broad and rather deep; lower lateral +sinus variable, usually broad and sometimes deep; upper lateral +sinus broad and frequently deep; teeth large, obtuse to rounded. +Flowers late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit ripens early and keeps well in storage; clusters large, +long, broad, tapering, sometimes with a single shoulder, +compactness medium; berries medium to above, slightly oval, pale +green to clear yellow, with thin bloom; skin thin, tough, +adherent, slightly astringent; flesh greenish, translucent, firm, +juicy, tender, sweet; good. </p></div> + + +<h4>Chasselas Rose</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Chasselas Rose is very similar to Chasselas Golden, differing chiefly +in smaller bunch and berry and slightly different flavor which is +possibly better. It is a standard sort in California and should be +planted in the East where the culture of Viniferas is attempted. The +description is made from fruit grown at Geneva, New York:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine of medium vigor, productive. Opening leaves tinged with red +on both surfaces, mature leaves small, round; upper surface medium +green, somewhat dull, smooth; lower surface glabrous; lobes three; +basal sinus medium in depth and of variable width; lateral sinus +deep, narrow; teeth shallow, wide, dentate. Flowers appear late; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit ripens the second week in October and is a good keeper +though it loses its flavor in storage; clusters above and below +medium, long, tapering to cylindrical, compact; berries medium in +size, roundish-oval, light red changed to violet-red by the bloom; +skin thin, astringent, juicy, tender, sweet, mild; quality good. </p></div> + + +<h4>Chautauqua</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>In appearance of fruit, Chautauqua is very similar to Concord, its +parent, but the grapes ripen a few days earlier and are of better +quality, although they do not differ in these respects sufficiently to +make the variety much more than an easily recognized strain of +Concord. Chautauqua is a volunteer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> seedling of Concord, found near +Brocton, New York, by H. T. Bashtite about 1890.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, unproductive. Canes long, thick, +cylindrical; internodes long; tendrils continuous, trifid. Leaves +large, irregularly round, dark green; upper surface dark green; +lower surface tinged with bronze; leaf entire or faintly +three-lobed. Flowers semi-fertile, open in mid-season or earlier; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early in mid-season. Clusters medium to large, broad, +sometimes single-shouldered, compact. Berries large, round or +slightly oval, purplish-black with abundant bloom, shatter badly; +skin thin, very astringent; flesh tough, vinous, sweet at skin, +acid at center; good to very good. Seeds few, free, broad, plump. </p></div> + + +<h4>Clevener</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>This variety has long been grown in New Jersey and New York, and in +both states is highly esteemed as a wine-grape. The fruit is +remarkable in coloring very early and in ripening late. The vine is +hardy, very vigorous, succeeds in various soils, and since it bears +grafts well is an excellent sort upon which to graft varieties not +thriving on their own roots. Clevener is self-sterile and must be +planted with some other variety to set fruit well. In spite of its +good qualities, Clevener is hardly holding its own in commercial +vineyards, and it is not a desirable fruit for the amateur who wants a +table-grape. Clevener has been raised in the vicinity of Egg Harbor, +New Jersey, since about 1870, but its place and time of origin are +unknown.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine a rampant grower, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, +thick, dark reddish-brown with heavy bloom; nodes enlarged; +tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves unusually large, dark green +with well-defined ribs showing through the thin pubescence of the +under surface; lobes wanting or faint; teeth deep, wide. Flowers +self-sterile, open very early; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters do not always fill well, small, +short, slender, irregularly tapering, often with a single +shoulder. Berries small, round or slightly flattened, black, +glossy, covered with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, +thin, inclined to crack, adherent with much purplish-red pigment; +flesh reddish-green, juicy, tender, soft, fine-grained, aromatic, +spicy; good. Seeds free, notched, sharp-pointed, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Clinton</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Worthington</em></p> + +<p>Clinton (<a href="#Plate_X">Plate X</a>) came into prominence because of vigor, hardiness, +fruitfulness and immunity to phylloxera. A serious defect is that the +vines bloom so early that the blossoms are often caught by late frosts +in northern climates. Other defects are: the fruit is small and sour, +and the seeds and skins prominent. The fruit colors early in the +season but does not ripen until late, a slight touch of frost +improving the flavor. Clinton bears grafts well, making a quick and +firm union with Labrusca and Vinifera, and the vines are easily +propagated from cuttings. This variety has been used widely in +grape-breeding, and its blood can be traced in many valuable +varieties. The offspring of Clinton are usually very hardy, and this, +taken with its other desirable characters, makes it an exceptionally +good starting-point for breeding grapes for northern latitudes. +Clinton is an old sort, the Worthington, known as early as 1815, +renamed; it began to attract attention about 1840.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, +slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; shoots smooth; +tendrils intermittent, sometimes continuous, bifid. Leaves hang +until late in the season, small, thin; upper surface dark green, +smooth; lower surface pale green, glabrous; petiolar sinus deep, +narrow, urn-shaped; basal and lateral sinuses shallow; teeth wide. +Flowers self-fertile, open early; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season. Clusters small, slender, cylindrical, uniform, +single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, very slender, smooth; +brush tinged with red. Berries small, round, oval, purplish-black, +glossy, covered with thick bloom, adherent, firm; skin very +thin,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> tough, free from pulp with much wine-colored pigment, +astringent; flesh dark green, juicy, fine-grained, tough, solid, +spicy, sour, vinous. Seeds adherent, two, short, blunt, brownish. </p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 337px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXV" id="Plate_XXV"></a> +<img src="images/plate25.jpg" width="337" height="500" alt="Plate XXV." title="Plate XXV." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXV.</span>—Muscat Hamburg (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + +<h4>Colerain</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>This is one of the numerous white seedlings of Concord and one of the +few with sufficient merit to be kept in cultivation. The vine has the +characteristic foliage and habit of growth of its parent, but the +fruit is earlier by a week, is of much higher quality and lacks the +foxiness of most Labruscas. The grapes are sprightly and vinous, and +neither seeds nor skin are as objectionable as in the parent. The +fruit hangs to the vine and keeps well, but owing to tender pulp does +not ship well. The variety is unproductive in some localities. +Colerain is worthy a place in home vineyards. David Bundy, Colerain, +Ohio, grew this variety from seed of Concord planted in 1880.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes slender, dark +reddish-brown; nodes flattened; internodes short, bifid. Leaves +thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface +bronze, downy; leaf not lobed, terminus acute; petiolar sinus +wide; basal and lateral sinus very shallow when present; teeth +shallow. Flowers self-fertile, opening in mid-season; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early. Clusters medium in size and length, slender, blunt, +tapering, irregular, strongly shouldered, compact; pedicel +slender, smooth; brush green. Berries round, light green, glossy +with thin bloom, persistent; skin unusually thin, tender, +adherent, unpigmented, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, +juicy, fine-grained, tender, soft, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds +free, one to three, small, broad, notched, short, plump, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Columbian Imperial</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vulpina)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Columbian, Jumbo</em></p> + +<p>Columbian Imperial is a Labrusca-Vulpina hybrid chiefly remarkable for +the great size of its reddish-black berries, al<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>though the vine is so +exceptionally healthy and vigorous as to give it prominence for these +characters as well. The variety has remarkably thick leathery leaves +which seem almost proof against either insects or fungi. The quality +of the fruit, however, is inferior, and the small clusters vary in +number of berries and these shell easily. The only value of the +variety is for exhibition purposes and for breeding to secure the +desirable characters named. The parentage of Columbian Imperial is +unknown. It originated with J. S. McKinley, Orient, Ohio, in 1885.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes long, numerous, +thick, dark reddish-brown, heavily pubescent, spiny; nodes +prominent; internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. +Leaves green, very thick; lower surface pale green shading into +bronze on older leaves with little pubescence; lobes three, +indistinct; teeth sharp, shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late. Clusters medium in size, sometimes shouldered; +peduncle slender; pedicel long; brush long, slender, green. +Berries very large, round, slightly oval, dull reddish-black with +faint bloom, firm; skin thick, tough, unpigmented; flesh juicy, +tough, sweet at the skin but acid at center; fair in quality. +Seeds adherent, large, plump, broad, blunt. </p></div> + + +<h4>Concord</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Concord (<a href="#Plate_XI">Plate XI</a>) is the most widely known of the grapes of this +continent, and with its offspring, pure-bred and cross-bred, furnishes +75 per cent of the grapes of eastern America. The preëminently +meritorious character of Concord is that it adapts itself to varying +conditions; thus, Concord is grown with profit in every grape-growing +state in the Union and to an extent not possible with any other +variety. A second character which commends Concord is +fruitfulness—the vine bears large crops year in and year out. Added +to these points of superiority, are: hardiness; ability to withstand +the ravages of diseases and insects; comparative earliness; certainty +of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> maturity in northern regions; and fair size and handsome +appearance of bunch and berry. Concord also blossoms late in the +spring and does not suffer often from spring frosts, nor is the fruit +often injured by late frosts. The crop hangs well on the vine.</p> + +<p>The variety is not, however, without faults: the quality is not high, +the grapes lacking richness, delicacy of flavor and aroma, and having +a foxy taste disagreeable to many; the seeds and skin are +objectionable, the seeds being large and abundant and difficult to +separate from the flesh, and the skin being tough and unpleasantly +astringent; the grapes do not keep nor ship well and rapidly lose +flavor after ripening; the skin cracks and the berries shell from the +stems after picking; and the vine is but slightly resistant to +phylloxera. While Concord is grown in the South, it is essentially a +northern grape, becoming susceptible to fungi in southern climates and +suffering from phylloxera in dry, warm soils.</p> + +<p>The botanical characters of Concord indicate that it is a pure-bred +Labrusca. Seeds of a wild grape were planted in the fall of 1843 by E. +W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts, plants from which fruited in 1849. +One of these seedlings was named Concord.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, thick, dark +reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; shoots +pubescent; tendrils continuous, long, bifid, sometimes trifid. +Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; +lower surface light bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three when +present, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus variable; basal sinus +usually lacking; lateral sinus obscure and frequently notched; +teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps from one to two months. Clusters uniform, +large, wide, broadly tapering, usually single-shouldered, +sometimes double-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick, smooth; brush +pale green. Berries large, round, glossy, black with heavy bloom, +firm; skin tough, adherent with a small amount of wine-colored +pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, +fine-grained, tough, solid, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, one to +four, large, broad, distinctly notched, plump, blunt, brownish. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p> +<h4>Cottage</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>In vine and fruit, Cottage resembles its parent, Concord, having, +however, remarkably large, thick, leathery leaves. It is noted also +for its strong, branching root system and canes so rough as to be +almost spiny. The fruit is better in quality than that of its parent, +having less foxiness and a richer, more delicate flavor. The crop +ripens from one to two weeks earlier than Concord. The good qualities +of the variety are offset by comparative unproductiveness and +unevenness in ripening. Cottage is recommended as an early grape of +the Concord type for the garden. This variety was grown from seed of +Concord by E. W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts. It was introduced in +1869.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy. Canes rough, hairy, long, numerous, +dark brown; nodes enlarged; shoots very pubescent; tendrils +continuous, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, +glossy, smooth or rugose; lower surface tinged with bronze, +pubescent; leaf entire with terminal acute; petiolar sinus deep +and wide; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit does not keep well. Clusters of medium size, broad, +cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, +thick with a few small warts; brush dark red. Berries of medium +size, round, dull black with heavy bloom, drop badly from pedicel, +firm; skin thick, tender, adherent with dark purplish-red pigment, +astringent; flesh juicy, tough, solid, foxy; good. Seeds free, one +to four, large, broad, blunt, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Creveling</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Bloom, Bloomburg, Catawissa, Columbia Bloom</em></p> + +<p>Creveling was long a favorite black grape for the garden, where, if +planted in good soil, it produces fine clusters of large, handsome, +very good grapes. Under any but the best of care, however, the vine is +unproductive and sets loose, straggling<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span> bunches. The variety is +markedly self-sterile. The origin of Creveling is uncertain. It was +introduced about 1857 by F. F. Merceron, Catawissa, Pennsylvania.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, not hardy, often unproductive. Canes long, +numerous, thick, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; +internodes long; shoots glabrous; tendrils continuous, long, +trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, +dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three, or +obscurely five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, closed, +overlapping; basal sinus very shallow; lateral sinus shallow, +narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers on plan of six, self-sterile, open +in mid-season; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters long, broad, irregularly +tapering, single-shouldered, the shoulder often connected to the +cluster by a long stem, loose; brush thick, dark wine-color. +Berries large, oval, dull black, covered with heavy bloom, +persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent with wine-colored +pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, +stringy, tender, coarse, foxy; good. Seeds free, one to five, +broad, notched, blunt, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Croton</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana)</p> + +<p>The fruit of Croton is a feast both to the eye and to the palate. +Unfortunately the vine is difficult to grow, being adapted to but few +soils and proving unfruitful, weak in growth, precariously tender and +subject to mildew and rot in unfavorable situations. The grapes have a +delicate, sweet Vinifera flavor with melting flesh which readily +separates from the few seeds. The crop hangs on the vines until frost +and keeps well into the winter. In spite of high quality of fruit, +Croton has never become widely distributed, wholly failing as a +commercial variety. It originated with S. W. Underhill, Croton Point, +New York, from a seed of Delaware pollinated by a European grape. +Fruits were first exhibited in 1868.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, tender, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, +dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; shoots +glabrous; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves of medium +size, hang late; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower +surface pale<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> green, pubescent; lobes five, terminal one blunt; +basal sinus narrow; lateral sinus deep and narrow; petiolar sinus +narrow, often closed and overlapping; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers +self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters uniform, very large, long, +slender, irregularly tapering with heavy shoulder, very loose; +pedicel long, thick with inconspicuous warts; brush green. Berries +irregular in size, round-elongated, yellowish-green with thin +bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, tough, adherent, unpigmented; +flesh green, transparent, very juicy, melting, vinous, pleasant, +agreeably sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to three, elongated, +notched, sharply pointed. </p></div> + + +<h4>Cunningham</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Bourquiniana)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Long, Prince Edward</em></p> + +<p>Cunningham is cultivated very little in America, but in France, at one +time, was one of the best-known grapes, both as a direct producer and +as a stock for European varieties. It was much sought for by the +French as a stock for large Vinifera cions, the size of the vine +giving an opportunity for making a good graft. In the South, where the +variety originated, Cunningham is not largely grown, as there are +several other varieties of its type superior in fruit and vine. The +vine is a capricious grower and is particular as to soil and climate. +The grapes make a deep yellow wine of a very good quality but have +little value as table-grapes. Cunningham originated with Jacob +Cunningham, Prince Edward County, Virginia, about 1812.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, spreading, productive. Canes large, long with stiff +reddish hairs at base; shoots showing considerable bloom; tendrils +intermittent, usually trifid. Leaves large, thick, round, entire +or lobed; smooth and dark green above, yellowish green below, +pubescent; petiolar sinus narrow, frequently overlapping.</p> + +<p>Clusters of medium size, long, sometimes shouldered, very compact; +pedicel long, slender with small warts; brush short, light brown. +Berries small, purplish-black with thin bloom; skin thin, tough +with much underlying pigment; flesh tender, juicy, sprightly; +quality poor or but fair. Seeds two to five, oval. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span></p> +<h4>Cynthiana</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Æstivalis, Labrusca)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Arkansas, Red River</em></p> + +<p>There is controversy as to whether this variety differs from Norton. +The two ripen at separate times, and the fruits differ a little so +that they must be considered as distinct. Cynthiana is particular as +to soil and location, preferring sandy loams and does not thrive on +clays or limestones. While very resistant to phylloxera, this variety +is not much used as a resistant stock because it is not easily +propagated. The vines are resistant to mildew, black-rot, and +anthracnose and are strong, vigorous growers. The cycle of vegetation +for Cynthiana is long, the buds bursting forth early and the fruit +maturing very late. The variety has no value as a table-grape but in +the South is one of the best grapes for red wine. No doubt it will +prove one of the best southern sorts for grape-juice. Cynthiana was +received about 1850 by Prince, of Flushing, Long Island, from +Arkansas, where it was found growing in the woods.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes medium in length, +numerous, reddish-brown with thick bloom; nodes enlarged; +internodes short; shoots glabrous; tendrils intermittent or +continuous, bifid. Leaves thick, firm; upper surface dark green, +dull, rugose; lower surface tinged with blue, faintly pubescent, +cobwebby; lobes variable in number, terminal one acute; petiolar +sinus deep, narrow, closed, sometimes overlapping; basal sinus +shallow; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit very late, keeps well. Clusters medium to small, long, +tapering, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, +slender, with numerous warts; brush short, thick, wine-colored. +Berries small, round, black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, +firm; skin thin, tough, adherent with purple pigment, astringent; +flesh dark green, translucent, juicy, tough, firm, spicy, tart; +poor in quality. Seeds adherent, one to six, small, short, blunt, +dark brown. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span></p> +<h4>Delaware</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>French Grape, Gray Delaware, Ladies' Choice, Powell, Ruff</em></p> + +<p>Delaware (<a href="#Plate_VII">Plate VII</a>) is used wherever American grapes are grown as the +standard to gauge the quality of other grapes. Added to high quality +in fruit, the variety withstands climatic conditions to which all but +the most hardy varieties succumb, is adapted to many soils and +conditions, and bears under most situations an abundant crop. These +qualities make it, next to Concord, the most popular grape for garden +and vineyard now grown in the United States. Besides the qualities +named, the grapes mature sufficiently early to make the crop certain, +are attractive in appearance, keep and ship well and are more immune +than other commercial varieties to black-rot. Faults of the variety +are: small vine, slow growth, susceptibility to mildew, capriciousness +in certain soils and small berries. The first two faults make it +necessary to plant the vines more closely than those of other +commercial varieties. Delaware succeeds best in deep, rich, +well-drained, warm soils, but even on these it must have good +cultivation, close pruning and the crop must be thinned.</p> + +<p>Delaware is grown North and South, westward to the Rocky Mountains. It +is now proving profitable in many southern locations as an early grape +to ship to northern markets. It is an especially desirable grape to +cultivate in small gardens because of its delicious, handsome fruit, +its compact habit of growth and its ample and lustrous green, +delicately formed leaves which make it one of the most ornamental of +the grapes. Delaware can be traced to the garden of Paul H. Provost, +Frenchtown, New Jersey, where it was growing early in the nineteenth +century, and from whence it was taken to Delaware, Ohio, in 1849 and +from there distributed to fruit-growers.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span>Vine weak, hardy, productive. Canes short, numerous, slender, dark +brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, +short, bifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green, dull, +smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five +in number, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus +narrow and shallow when present; lateral sinus deep, narrow; teeth +shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, slender, blunt, +cylindrical, regular, shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, +smooth; brush light brown. Berries uniform in size and shape, +small, round, light red, covered with thin bloom, persistent, +firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, unpigmented, astringent; flesh +light green, translucent, juicy, tender, aromatic, vinous, +refreshing, sweet; best in quality. Seeds free, one to four, +broad, notched, short, blunt, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Diamond</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Few other grapes surpass Diamond in quality and beauty of fruit. When +to its desirable fruit characters are added hardiness, productiveness +and vigor of vine, the variety is surpassed by no other green grape. +Diamond is a diluted hybrid between Labrusca and Vinifera and the +touch of the exotic grape is just sufficient to give the fruit the +richness in flavor of the Old World grape and not overcome the +refreshing sprightliness of the native fox-grapes. The Vinifera +characters are wholly recessive in vine and foliage, the plant +resembling closely its American parent, Concord. Diamond is well +established North and South and can be grown in as great a range of +latitude as Concord. Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York, grew Diamond +about 1870 from Concord seed fertilized by Iona.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes short, brown with a slight +red tinge; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils +intermittent, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, +dull, smooth; lower surface light bronze, downy; lobes three in +number, indistinct; petiolar sinus very shallow; teeth shallow. +Flowers self-fertile, open early; stamens upright.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters medium to short, broad, blunt, +cylindrical, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, +thick with a few inconspicuous warts; brush slender, pale green. +Berries large, ovate, green with a tinge of yellow, glossy, +covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, +adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy, +tender, melting, fine-grained, aromatic, sprightly; very good. +Seeds free, one to four, broad and long, sharp-pointed, +yellowish-brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Diana</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Diana (<a href="#Plate_XII">Plate XII</a>) is a seedling of Catawba to which its fruit bears +strong resemblance, differing chiefly in having lighter color, in +being less pulpy and more juicy. The flavor resembles that of Catawba +but has less of the wild taste. The chief point of superiority of +Diana over Catawba is in earliness, the crop ripening ten days sooner, +making possible its culture far to the north. The defects of Diana +are: the vine is tender in cold winters; the grapes ripen unevenly; +the berries and foliage are susceptible to fungi; and the vine is a +shy bearer. Diana demands poor, dry, gravelly soil without much humus +or nitrogen. On clays, loams or rich soils, the vines make a rank +growth, and the fruits are few, late and of poor quality. The vine +needs to be long pruned and to have all surplus bunches removed, +leaving a small crop to mature. Diana is a satisfactory grape for the +amateur, and where it does especially well proves profitable for the +local market. Mrs. Diana Crehore, Milton, Massachusetts, grew Diana +from seed of Catawba, planted about 1834.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, often unproductive. Canes +pubescent, long, reddish-brown, covered with thin bloom; nodes +enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, long, +bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green, heavily +pubescent; lobes three to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus +deep, wide, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus shallow; +lateral sinus narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in +mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, +occasionally shouldered, compact; pedicel covered with small +warts; brush slender, pale green. Berries medium in size, slightly +ovate, light red covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin +thick, tough, slightly adherent; flesh pale green, translucent, +juicy, tough, fine-grained, vinous, good. Seeds adherent, one to +three, light brown. </p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 332px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXVI" id="Plate_XXVI"></a> +<img src="images/plate26.jpg" width="332" height="500" alt="Plate XXVI." title="Plate XXVI." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXVI.</span>—Niagara (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + +<h4>Downing</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Æstivalis, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Downing is well worthy a place in the garden because of the high +quality, handsome appearance and good keeping qualities of the grapes. +Added to these qualities of the fruits are fair vigor and health of +vine. When grown as far north as New York, the vine should be laid +down in the winter or receive other protection. In most seasons, +unremitting warfare must be kept up to check mildew. In appearance of +bunch and berry, Downing is distinct, the clusters being large and +well-formed and the berries having the oval shape of a Malaga. The +flesh, also, shows <em>Vitis vinifera</em> in texture and quality, while +neither seeds nor skins are as objectionable as in pure-bred American +varieties. J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, first grew Downing +about 1865.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine tender to cold, unproductive. Canes short, few, slender, dark +green with an ash-gray tinge, surface covered with thin bloom, +often roughened with a few small warts; nodes much enlarged, +strongly flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid +or trifid. Leaves small, round, thick; upper surface dark green, +glossy, rugose; lower surface dark green, glabrous; lobes one to +five, terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus narrow, closed and +overlapping; basal sinus shallow and narrow when present; lateral +sinus shallow, narrow; teeth wide, deep. Flowers open late; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps until spring. Clusters large, long, slender, +cylindrical, sometimes loosely shouldered; pedicel slender, +covered with numerous warts; brush long, slender, green. Berries +large, markedly oval, dark purplish-black, glossy, covered with +light bloom, strongly persistent, firm; skin thick, tender, +adherent; flesh green with a yellow tinge, translucent, very +juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous, mild; very good in quality. +Seeds free, one to three, notched, long, brown. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span></p> +<h4>Dracut Amber</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Dracut Amber is representative of the red type of Labrusca. The fruit +has no particular merit, its thick skin, coarse pulp, seeds and foxy +taste all being objectionable. However, the vine is very hardy, +productive, and ripens its fruit early so that this variety becomes +valuable in locations where a vigorous, hardy, early grape is wanted. +Asa Clement, Dracut, Massachusetts grew Dracut Amber from seed planted +about 1855.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, dark +brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, long, bifid +or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull, +smooth; lower surface pale green, cobwebby; lobes three to five +with terminal one obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus +shallow, wide; teeth shallow. Flowers on plan of six, +semi-fertile, mid-season.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, season short. Clusters short, broad, cylindrical, +irregular, rarely shouldered, compact; pedicel short, covered with +warts; brush long, light yellowish-green. Berries medium to large, +oval, dull pale red or dark amber, covered with thin bloom, soft; +skin very thick, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh green, +translucent, juicy, tough, very foxy; inferior in quality. Seeds +adherent, two to five, large, broad, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Dutchess</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana? Æstivalis?)</p> + +<p>Dutchess (<a href="#Plate_XIII">Plate XIII</a>) is not grown largely in commercial vineyards +because of several faults, as: the vine is tender to cold; the berries +do not ripen evenly; berries and foliage are susceptible to fungi; and +in soils to which it is not adapted, berries and bunches are small. In +spite of these defects, Dutchess should not be discarded by the +grape-lover, for there are few grapes of higher quality. The grapes +are sweet and rich, yet do not cloy the appetite; although of but +medium size, they are attractive, being a beautiful amber color with +distinctive dots; the flesh is translucent, sparkling, fine-grained +and tender; the seeds are small, few and part readily from the pulp; +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span> skin is thin, yet tough enough for good keeping; and the bunches +are large and compact when well grown. The variety is self-fertile +and, therefore, desirable when only a few vines are wanted. The +clusters are especially fine when bagged. A. J. Caywood, Marlboro, New +York, grew Dutchess from seed of a white Concord seedling pollinated +by mixed pollen of Delaware and Walter. The seed was planted in 1868.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, an uncertain bearer. Canes dark brown with light +bloom, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes +short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or trifid. Leaves +irregular in outline; upper surface pale green, pubescent; leaf +entire with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus +shallow when present; lateral sinus medium in depth or a mere +notch. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, long, +slender, tapering with a prominent single shoulder; pedicel +slender, smooth; brush amber-colored. Berries of medium size, +round, pale yellow-green verging on amber, some showing bronze +tinge with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin sprinkled with small +dark dots, thin, tough, adherent; flesh pale green, translucent, +juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet, of pleasant flavor; +quality high. Seeds free, one, two or occasionally three, small, +short, sharp-pointed, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Early Daisy</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>The qualities of Early Daisy render the variety more than commonplace. +Its earliness commends it, the ripening period being eight or ten days +earlier than Champion or Moore Early, making it one of the very +earliest varieties. For a grape maturing at its season, it both keeps +and ships well. Early Daisy would seem to be as desirable as Hartford +or Champion. The variety originated with John Kready, Mount Joy, +Pennsylvania, in 1874, as a seedling of Hartford.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, produces fair crops. Canes of medium length, +numerous, slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; +tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves small, light green; upper +surface rugose; lower surface slightly pubescent, cobwebby; lobes +wanting or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> faintly three; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; teeth +shallow, narrow. Flowers nearly self-sterile.</p> + +<p>Fruit early. Clusters small to medium, often blunt at ends, +cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, +slender, smooth; brush reddish, slender. Berries of medium size, +round, dull black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent; skin +tough, purplish-red pigment; flesh tough, solid, aromatic, tart at +the skin, acid at center; inferior in flavor and quality. Seeds +numerous, adherent, of average size, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Early Ohio</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Early Ohio is remarkable, chiefly, in being one of the earliest +commercial grapes. The fruit resembles that of Concord, of which it is +probably a seedling. Notwithstanding many defects, Early Ohio is grown +somewhat commonly, although its culture is on the wane. The variety +was found in 1882 by R. A. Hunt, Euclid, Ohio, between rows of +Delaware and Concord.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine weak, tender, usually unproductive. Canes short, slender, +brown with a red tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes +short; tendrils continuous, short, bifid. Leaves intermediate in +size; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale +green tinged with bronze, pubescent; lobes wanting or one to +three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal +sinus usually absent; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth +shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit very early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, +tapering; pedicel slender with a few small warts; brush slender, +tinged with red. Berries variable in size, round, purplish-black, +glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin adherent, +astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tough, aromatic; poor +in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, notched, brown with +yellowish-brown tips. </p></div> + + +<h4>Early Victor</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Bourquiniana?)</p> + +<p>Early Victor is highest in quality of early black grapes. It is +especially pleasing to those who object to the foxiness so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> marked in +Hartford and Champion. Were the season but a few days earlier and +bunch and berry a little larger, Early Victor would be the best grape +to start the grape season. The vines are hardy, healthy, vigorous and +productive, with growth and foliage resembling Hartford, which is +probably one of its parents, Delaware being the other. The bunches are +small, compact, variable in shape and the berries are about the size +and shape of those of Delaware. Its season is that of Moore Early or a +little later, although, like many black grapes, the fruit colors +before it is ripe and is often picked too green. Unfortunately the +fruit is susceptible to black-rot and shrivels after ripening. John +Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, first grew Early Victor about 1871.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, +slender, dark brown, surface pubescent; nodes enlarged; internodes +long; tendrils continuous, bifid, sometimes trifid. Leaves thick; +upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface white, heavily +pubescent; lobes three to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus +intermediate in depth and width; basal sinus shallow and wide when +present; lateral sinus narrow. Flowers semi-sterile, open in +mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit very early, does not keep well. Clusters small, variable in +shape, cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel +short, covered with numerous small warts; brush wine-colored or +pinkish-red. Berries small, round, dark purplish-black, dull with +heavy bloom, persistent; skin thin, tough, adherent, contains much +red pigment, astringent; flesh greenish-white, opaque, +fine-grained, aromatic, vinous; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, +broad, notched, blunt, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Eaton</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Eaton (<a href="#Plate_XIV">Plate XIV</a>) is a pure-bred seedling of Concord which it +surpasses in appearance but does not equal in quality of fruit. The +flesh is tough and stringy, and though sweet at the skin, is acid at +the seeds and has the same foxiness that characterizes Concord, but +with more juice and less richness, so that it is well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> described as a +"diluted" Concord. The grape-skin is very similar to that of Concord, +and the fruit packs, ships and keeps about the same, perhaps not quite +as well because of the greater amount of juice. The season is a few +days earlier than Concord. The vine is similar in all characters to +that of its parent. The grapes ripen unevenly, the flowers are +self-sterile, and in some locations the vine is a shy bearer. The +variety has not found favor with either grower or consumer. Eaton +originated with Calvin Eaton, Concord, New Hampshire, about 1868.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes thick, light +brown with blue bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes +short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, +round, thick; upper surface dark green; lower surface tinged with +bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three, terminal one acute; +petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral +sinus shallow, narrow, often notched; teeth shallow. Flowers +semi-sterile, early; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, short, broad, blunt, sometimes +double-shouldered, compact; pedicel long, thick, smooth; brush +slender, pale green. Berries large, round, black with heavy bloom, +persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent, purplish-red pigment, +astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tough, stringy, foxy; +fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, broad, notched, +plump, blunt. </p></div> + + +<h4>Eclipse</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Eclipse (<a href="#Plate_XV">Plate XV</a>) is a seedling of Niagara and, therefore, a +descendant of Concord which it resembles, differing chiefly in earlier +fruit which is of better quality. Unfortunately, the bunches and +berries are small. The vines are hardly surpassed by those of any +other variety, being hardy, healthy and productive, qualities that +should commend it for commercial vineyards. The ripe fruit hangs on +the vines for some time without deterioration, and the grapes do not +crack in wet weather. The crop ripens several days earlier than that +of Concord.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> Eclipse originated with E. A. Riehl, Alton, Illinois, +from seed planted about 1890.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes medium in length, dark +reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. +Leaves large; upper surface dark green; lower surface white with a +bronze tinge, heavily pubescent; lobes wanting or three with +terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus +usually lacking; lateral sinus narrow, often notched; teeth +shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens +reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters of medium size, broad, tapering, +frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick, +covered with small warts; brush long, pale green. Berries, large, +oval, dull black with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin +tender, slightly adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, +translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, foxy, sweet; good. Seeds +free, one to four, short, broad, distinctly notched, blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Eden</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Rotundifolia, Munsoniana?)</p> + +<p>Eden is of value as a general-purpose grape for the South and is +interesting as one of the few supposed hybrids with <em>V. rotundifolia</em>. +It is probably a hybrid between the species named and <em>V. Munsoniana</em>, +another southern wild grape. The vine is exceedingly vigorous and +productive and thrives on clay soils, whereas most other Rotundifolias +can be grown successfully only on sandy lands. Eden was found some +years ago on the premises of Dr. Guild, near Atlanta, Georgia.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, productive, healthy and bearing a dense canopy +of foliage. Canes darker in color than most other Rotundifolias. +Leaves of medium size and thickness, longer than wide; petiolar +sinus wide; marginal teeth rounded; leaf-tip blunt. Flowers +perfect.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, distinct first and second crops, ripens uniformly. +Clusters large, loose, bearing from five to twenty-five berries +which adhere fairly well to the pedicels. Berries round, one-half +inch in diameter, dull black, faintly specked; skin thin, tender; +flesh soft, juicy, pale green, sprightly; good in quality. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span></p> +<h4>Eldorado</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>The fruit of Eldorado is delicately flavored, with a distinct aroma +and taste and ripens about with that of Moore Early—a time when there +are few other good white grapes. The vines inherit most of the good +qualities of Concord, one of its parents, excepting ability to set +large crops. Even with cross-pollination, Eldorado sometimes fails to +bear and is not worth growing unless planted in a mixed vineyard. The +clusters are so often small and straggling under the best conditions +that the variety cannot be recommended highly to the amateur; yet its +delightful flavor and its earliness commend it. J. H. Ricketts, +Newburgh, New York, grew Eldorado about 1870 from seed of Concord +fertilized by Allen's Hybrid.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, an uncertain bearer. Canes long, few, thick, +flattened, bright reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; +tendrils intermittent, rarely continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves +large to medium, irregularly round, dark green; upper surface +rugose on older leaves; lower surface tinged with brown, +pubescent; lobes wanting or faintly three; petiolar sinus deep; +teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open late; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters do not always set perfectly and +are variable in size, frequently single-shouldered; pedicel short, +slender, smooth; brush short, yellow. Berries large, round, +yellowish-green changing to golden yellow, covered with thin +bloom; flesh tender, foxy, sweet, mild, high flavored; good to +very good in quality. Seeds intermediate in size and length, +blunt, yellowish-brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Elvira</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Although it has never attained popularity in the North, Elvira (<a href="#Plate_XVI">Plate +XVI</a>), after its introduction into Missouri about forty years ago, +reached the pinnacle of popularity as a wine-grape in the South. The +qualities which commended it were:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> great productiveness; earliness, +ripening in the North with Concord; exceedingly good health, being +almost free from fungal diseases; great vigor, as shown by a strong, +stocky growth and ample foliage; and almost perfect hardiness even as +far north as Canada. Its good qualities are offset by two defects: +thin skin which bursts easily, thus wholly debarring it from distant +markets; and flavor and appearance not sufficiently good to make it a +table-grape. Elvira originated with Jacob Rommel, Morrison, Missouri, +from seed of Taylor.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous, dark +brown; nodes flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, +trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thin; upper surface light green, +pubescent, hairy; lobes wanting or one to three with terminus +acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and +overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, +often notched; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters short, cylindrical, +usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel smooth; brush short, +greenish-yellow with brown tinge. Berries medium in size, round, +green with yellow tinge, dull with thin bloom, firm; skin very +thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh green, juicy, +fine-grained, tender, foxy, sweet; fair in quality. Seeds free, +one to four, medium to large, blunt, plump, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Emperor</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Emperor is one of the standard shipping grapes of the Pacific slope, +being one of the mainstays of the interior valleys. On the coast and +in southern California, it is irregular in bearing, and on the coast +the fruits often fail to ripen. It is chiefly grown in the San Joaquin +Valley. It could hardly be expected to ripen even in the most favored +grape regions in the East. The following brief description is +compiled:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine strong, healthy and productive. Leaves very large, with five +shallow lobes; teeth short and obtuse; light green in color;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span> +glabrous above, wooly beneath. Bunches very large, loose, +sometimes inclined to be straggling, long-conical. Berries large, +dull purple, oval; flesh firm and crisp; skin thick; flavor and +quality good. Ripens late and keeps and ships well. </p></div> + + +<h4>Empire State</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Empire State (<a href="#Plate_XVII">Plate XVII</a>) competes with Niagara and Diamond for +supremacy among green grapes. The variety is as vigorous in growth, as +free from parasites, and on vines of the same age is as productive, +but is less hardy, and the grapes are not as attractive in appearance +as those of the other varieties named. In particular, the clusters are +small in some localities, a defect which can be overcome only by +severe pruning or by thinning. The quality is very good, approaching +the flavor of the Old World grapes, its slight wild taste suggesting +one of the Muscats. Empire State ripens early, hangs long on the vine +and keeps well after picking without losing flavor. This grape +originated with James H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, bearing fruit +first in 1879.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, somewhat tender. Canes short, few, slender, +brownish; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, +bifid. Leaves small; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth or +somewhat rugose; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily +pubescent; lobes three to five when present, terminal one +acuminate; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and +overlapping; basal sinus variable in depth and width; lateral +sinus deep, narrow, often enlarged at base; teeth deep, wide. +Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, +cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel +slender with small warts; brush short, light green. Berries medium +or small, round, pale yellowish-green, covered with thin bloom, +persistent, firm; skin thick, adherent to the pulp, slightly +astringent; flesh pale yellowish-green, translucent, juicy, +fine-grained, tender, agreeably flavored; good to very good. Seeds +adherent, one to four, small, broad, notched, short, blunt, plump, +brown. </p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 334px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXVII" id="Plate_XXVII"></a> +<img src="images/plate27.jpg" width="334" height="500" alt="Plate XXVII." title="Plate XXVII." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXVII.</span>—Salem (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span></p> +<h4>Etta</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>In appearance, taste and texture of fruit, Etta is very similar to +Elvira, of which it is a seedling. The small, yellow clusters which +characterize Elvira are reproduced in Etta, which differs chiefly in +having a shoulder quite as large as the main bunch itself and in +having a better flavor, lacking the slight foxiness of Elvira. The +vine is very vigorous, hardy, and is productive to a fault. The fruit +ripens with that of Catawba. The tendency of Elvira to crack and +overbear influenced the originator of that variety, Jacob Rommel, +Morrison, Missouri, to try for a grape without these faults, and the +result was Etta from seed of Elvira. The fruit was first exhibited in +1879.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, light +to dark brown; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large, thick; +upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale +green, somewhat cobwebby. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters small, short, broad, irregularly +cylindrical, usually with a short, single shoulder but sometimes +so heavily shouldered as to form a double bunch, very compact. +Berries small, round, pale green, dull with thin bloom, shattering +when over-ripe, firm; skin thin, tender; flesh juicy, +fine-grained, tough, stringy, slightly foxy, mild; fair in +quality. Seeds free, long, blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Eumelan</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera, Æstivalis)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Washington</em></p> + +<p>The good qualities of Eumelan are: vines above the average in vigor, +hardiness and productiveness; clusters and berries well formed, of +good size and handsome color; flesh tender, dissolving into wine-like +juice under slight pressure; and pure flavor, rich, sweet, vinous. The +season is early, yet the fruit keeps much better than that of most +other grapes maturing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> with it and becomes, therefore, a mid-season +and late grape. The defects of the variety are susceptibility to +mildew, self-sterile flowers and difficulty in propagation. The latter +character has greatly hindered its culture, as the vines can be +secured only at extra expense and nurserymen are loath to grow the +variety at all. Eumelan may be recommended to amateur growers. It is a +chance seedling which grew from seed, about 1847, in the yard of a Mr. +Thorne, Fishkill Landing, New York.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, covered with +bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, +long, trifid or bifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark green, +glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, smooth; lobes usually +three with terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, variable in +width; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; +teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens +reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps until late winter. Clusters long, slender, +tapering, often with a long, loose, single shoulder; pedicel +short, slender with a few small warts; brush short, stubby, pale +green. Berries of medium size, round, black, glossy with thin +bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent with wine-colored +pigment, astringent; flesh dark green, juicy, fine-grained, +tender, stringy, spicy and aromatic, sweet; good. Seeds adherent, +one to four, large, wide, blunt, plump, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Faith</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Although spoken of as a desirable grape in some regions, Faith is of +little value in most localities. The fruit is unattractive in +appearance, and the quality is not high. If the variety has any +preëminently good character, it is productiveness. The blossoms put +forth so early that they often suffer from spring frosts. Faith is of +the same breeding as Etta and from the same originator, Jacob Rommel, +Morrison, Missouri, both having come from seed of Elvira.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, +thick, cylindrical; nodes prominent; internodes long; tendrils +continuous, bifid. Leaves large, dark green; upper surface dark +green,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span> dull; lower surface grayish-green, thinly pubescent; lobes +wanting or faint; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-sterile to +partly self-fertile, open early; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, variable +in length, usually slender, often heavily single-shouldered, +loose; pedicel short, slender, warty; brush pale green, slender. +Berries small, round, dull green, frequently with a yellow tinge +changing to pale amber, with abundant bloom, persistent, soft; +skin thin, adherent, astringent; flesh juicy, tender, agreeably +flavored; fair to good in quality. Seeds numerous, broad, dark +brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Feher Szagos</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>This variety succeeds rather well at Geneva, New York, bearing fruits +of excellent quality. It has two defects, dull color of the berries +and irregular bunches. It is worth trying in the East. Feher Szagos is +said to make a very good raisin in California and usually appears in +lists of table-grapes for that state.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vines vigorous, somewhat uncertain bearers. Opening leaves +pubescent, red along the edges and a tinge of red on the upper +surface. Flowers have upright stamens. Fruit usually ripens the +first week in October and does not keep well in storage; clusters +large to medium, broad, loose, frequently irregular because of +poor setting of fruit; berries large, oval to elliptical, rather +dull green, with thin bloom; skin thick, tender, neutral; flesh +greenish, translucent, juicy, meaty, tender, sweet; quality of the +best; seeds free. </p></div> + + +<h4>Fern Munson</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Lincecumii, Vinifera, Labrusca)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Admirable, Fern, Hilgarde, Munson's No. 76</em></p> + +<p>Fern Munson is a southern grape not adapted to northern regions, 40° +north latitude being its limit of adaptation. The fruits show some +very good characters, as attractive appearance, agreeable quality and +unobjectionable seeds and skin. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> vines are vigorous and +productive, but the foliage is not healthy although very abundant. +This variety originated with T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed +of Post-oak with mixed pollen. The seed was planted in 1885, and the +variety was introduced by the originator in 1893.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark +brown with a faint red tinge; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves +large, thick; upper surface rugose and heavily wrinkled; lower +surface dull, pale green with a bronze tinge, faintly pubescent. +Flowers semi-fertile, open very late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, irregularly tapering, +usually single-shouldered, often with many abortive fruits. +Berries large, round, slightly flattened, dark purplish-black, +glossy, covered with thin bloom, strongly persistent, firm; skin +thin, tough, astringent; flesh juicy, tough, firm, fine-grained, +vinous, briskly subacid; good. Seeds adherent, broad. </p></div> + + +<h4>Flame Tokay</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>This is the leading shipping grape of the Pacific slope where it is +everywhere grown under the name "Tokay," with several modifying terms, +as "Flame," "Flame-colored" and "Flaming." The fruit is not especially +high in quality nor attractive in appearance, but it ships and keeps +well, qualities making it popular in commercial vineyards. The +description is compiled.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, luxuriant in growth of canes, shoots and +leaves; very productive; wood dark brown, straight with long +joints. Leaves dark green with a brown tinge; lightly lobed. +Bunches very large, sometimes weighing eight or nine pounds, +moderately compact; shouldered. Berries large, oblong, red when +mature, covered with lilac bloom; flesh firm, crisp, sweet; +quality good. Season late, keeps and ships well. </p></div> + + +<h4>Flowers</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Rotundifolia)</p> + +<p>Flowers is a late, dark-colored Rotundifolia very popular in the +Carolinas. The variety is noted for its vigorous and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> productive +vines, its large fruit-clusters and grapes that cling in the cluster +unusually well for a variety of this species. The crop ripens in North +Carolina in October and November. The fruit is valuable only for wine +and grape-juice, having little to recommend it for dessert purposes. +Flowers was found in a swamp near Lamberton, North Carolina, more than +a hundred years ago by William Flowers. Improved Flowers, probably a +seedling of Flowers, was found near Whiteville, North Carolina, about +1869. It differs from its supposed parent in having a more vigorous +and productive vine and larger clusters, the berries of which cling +even more tenaciously.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy, upright, open, very productive. Canes +long, slender, numerous. Leaves variable but average medium in +size, longer than broad, pointed, cordate, thick, dark green, +smooth, leathery; margins sharply serrate; flowers perfect.</p> + +<p>Fruit very late, keeps well. Clusters, large, consisting of ten to +twenty-five berries. Berries large, round-oblong, purple or +purplish-black, clinging well to the cluster-stem; skin thick, +tough, faintly marked with dots; pulp white, lacking in juice, +hard, sweetish, austere in flavor; poor for a table-grape but +excellent for grape-juice. </p></div> + + +<h4>Gaertner</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>The berries and clusters of Gaertner are large and handsomely colored, +making a very showy grape. The plant is vigorous, productive and as +hardy as any of the hybrids between Labrusca and Vinifera. In view of +these qualities, Gaertner has not received the attention it deserves, +probably because it is more capricious as to soils than some others of +its related hybrids. As a market grape, the variety has the faults of +ripening unevenly and of shipping poorly. The fruit keeps well and +this, with the desirable qualities noted, makes it an excellent grape +for the home vineyard. Gaertner is often compared with Massasoit, the +two varieties being very similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> in fruit characters, but Gaertner is +of distinctly better quality than Massasoit. The variety originated +with E. S. Rogers, Salem, Massachusetts. It was first mentioned about +1865.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy except in severe winters, productive. Canes +long, dark reddish-brown, surface covered with thin bloom; +tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size, +round; upper surface dark green; lower surface pale green, +pubescent. Flowers self-sterile, open late; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, matures unevenly, keeps only fairly well. +Clusters medium in size, short, cylindrical, usually with a single +shoulder but sometimes double-shouldered, loose with many abortive +fruits. Berries large, round-oval, light to dark red, glossy, +covered with bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender; flesh pale +green, juicy, fine-grained, tough, stringy, agreeably vinous; good +to very good. Seeds free, large, broad, distinctly notched, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Geneva</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Geneva is surpassed by so many other grapes of its season in quality +that it has never become popular, although it has much to recommend +it. The vine is vigorous and productive, although not quite hardy, and +the berries and clusters are attractive; the fruit is nearly +transparent and there is so little bloom that the grapes are a +lustrous green or iridescent in sunlight; the berries cling well to +the stem and the fruit keeps exceptionally well. Geneva originated +with Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York, from seed planted in 1874 from a +hybrid vine fertilized by Iona.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy, productive. Canes covered with thin bloom; +tendrils intermittent or continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves +medium in size; upper surface light green, dull; lower surface +grayish-white, pubescent; lobes three to five, acute; petiolar +sinus, shallow, wide; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile +or partly fertile, open late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, ships well and keeps into the winter. Clusters +large, blunt at the ends, usually not shouldered, with many +abortive fruits; pedicel long, slender, smooth; brush long, green. +Berries large, oval, dull green changing to a faint yellow with +thin bloom;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> skin thick, tough, unpigmented; flesh pale green, +tender, soft, vinous, sweet at skin but tart at center; fair to +good. Seeds of medium size and length. </p></div> + + +<h4>Goethe</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Of all Rogers' hybrids, Goethe shows Vinifera characters most, +resembling in appearance the White Malaga of Europe, and not falling +far short of the best Old World grapes in quality. But the variety is +difficult to grow, especially where the seasons are not long enough +for full maturity. The vine is vigorous to a fault; it is fairly +immune to mildew, rot and other diseases; and, where it succeeds, the +vines bear so freely that thinning becomes a necessity. Added to high +quality, which makes it an excellent table-grape, Goethe keeps well. +Goethe was first mentioned in 1858 under the name of Rogers' No. 1.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy. Canes short, dark brown; nodes enlarged, +flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous or intermittent, +long, bifid to trifid. Leaves irregularly round, thin; upper +surface light green, glossy; lower surface pale green, pubescent; +leaf usually not lobed, terminus broadly acute; petiolar sinus +narrow, closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; +lateral sinus shallow, often a notch; teeth shallow, narrow. +Flowers partly self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters short, broad, tapering, +frequently single-shouldered, usually two bunches to shoot; +pedicel long, thick with numerous conspicuous warts; brush long, +slender, yellowish-brown. Berries very large, oval, pale red +covered with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender, adherent, +faintly astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, tender with +Vinifera flavor; very good. Seeds adherent, one to three, large, +long, notched, blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Gold Coin</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Æstivalis, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>In the South, where alone it thrives, Gold Coin is a handsome market +variety of very good quality. The vines are productive and are +unusually free from attacks of fungal diseases. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> variety +originated with T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed of Cynthiana +or Norton pollinated by Martha and was introduced by the originator in +1894.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes slender, numerous; +tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, trifid or bifid. +Leaves medium in size; upper surface light green, slightly rugose; +lower surface pale green, tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent. +Flowers self-fertile; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late mid-season, keeps long. Clusters medium to small, +usually single-shouldered. Berries large, round-oval, +yellowish-green with a distinct trace of reddish-amber, with thin +bloom, usually persistent; skin covered with small, scattering +brown dots, thin, tough; flesh faintly aromatic, tart from skin to +center; good. Seeds free, numerous, medium in size. </p></div> + + +<h4>Green Early</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Green Early is a white grape coming in season with Winchell, which +surpasses it in most characters, quality in particular. Green Early +was found in 1885, growing by the side of a ditch near a Concord +vineyard, on land belonging to O. J. Green, Portland, New York.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes variable in length and +thickness, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; +internodes short; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, +bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size, medium green; upper +surface dark green, glossy; lower surface pale green, pubescent; +lobes wanting or faintly five; teeth shallow, narrow; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters variable in size, length +and breadth, sometimes single-shouldered, variable in compactness. +Berries large, oval, light green tinged with yellow, with thin +bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, tender, inclined to crack; +flesh tough and aromatic, sweet at skin but acid at center; fair +in quality. Seeds medium in size, length and breadth, +sharp-pointed. </p></div> + + +<h4>Grein Golden</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Grein Golden is very similar to Riesling, but the vine is much +stronger in growth. For a variety of the Taylor group, both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> cluster +and berry are large and uniform, which, with the attractive color of +the berries, make it a most handsome fruit. The flavor, however, is +not at all pleasing, being an unusual commingling of sweetness and +acidity very disagreeable to most palates. The quality of the fruit +condemns it for table use, although it is said to make a very good +white wine. Nicholas Grein, Hermann, Missouri, first grew Grein Golden +about 1875.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender, +dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; +tendrils intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper +surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, +lightly pubescent; lobes lacking or one to three with terminus +acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus usually lacking; +lateral sinus shallow, wide, obscure; teeth deep. Flowers +self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, +irregular, often heavily single-shouldered, loose; pedicel with a +few inconspicuous warts; brush slender, pale green. Berries +uniform in size, large, round, golden yellow, glossy with thin +bloom, persistent; skin very thin, tender; flesh green, +translucent, very juicy, tender, vinous; good. Seeds free, one to +four, broad, plump, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Gros Colman</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Dodrelabi</em></p> + +<p>Gros Colman has the reputation of being the handsomest black +table-grape grown. It is one of the favorite hot-house grapes in +England and eastern America and is commonly grown out of doors in +California. The variety is remarkable for having the largest berries +of any round grape, borne in immense bunches, and for the long-keeping +qualities, although the tender skins sometimes crack. The following +description is compiled:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy and productive; wood dark brown. Leaves +very large, round, thick, but slightly lobed; teeth short and +blunt;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> glabrous above, wooly below. Bunches very large, short, +well filled but rather loose; berries very large, round, dark +blue; skin thick but tender; flesh firm, crisp, sweet and good; +quality not of the highest. Season late and the fruits keep long. </p></div> + + +<h4>Hartford</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>The vine of Hartford may be well characterized by its good qualities, +but the fruit is best described by its faults, because of which the +variety is passing out of cultivation. The plants are vigorous, +prolific, healthy and the fruit is borne early in the season. The +canes are remarkable for their stoutness and for the crooks at the +joints. The bunches are not unattractive, but the quality of the fruit +is low, the flesh being pulpy and the flavor insipid and foxy. The +berries shell badly on the vine and when packed for shipping, so that +the fruit does not ship, pack or keep well. The grapes color long +before ripe, and the flowers are only partly self-fertile, so that in +seasons when there is bad weather during blooming time the clusters +are loose and straggling. The original vine of Hartford was a chance +seedling in the garden of Paphro Steele, West Hartford, Connecticut. +It fruited first in 1849.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, very productive. Canes long, dark brown, covered +with pubescence; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; +tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper +surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, thinly +pubescent; lobes variable; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal +sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth +shallow. Flowers partly self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early. Clusters medium in size, long, slender, tapering, +irregular, often with a long, large, single shoulder, loose; +pedicel short with a few small warts; brush greenish. Berries +medium in size, round-oval, black, covered with bloom, drop badly; +skin thick, tough, adherent, contains much purplish-red pigment, +astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, firm, stringy, foxy; +poor in quality. Seeds free, one to four, broad, dark brown. </p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 340px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXVIII" id="Plate_XXVIII"></a> +<img src="images/plate28.jpg" width="340" height="500" alt="Plate XXVIII." title="Plate XXVIII." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXVIII.</span>—Triumph (×<span class="frac_top">3</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">5</span>).</span> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span></p> +<h4>Hayes</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>In 1880, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society awarded a certificate +of merit to Hayes for high quality in fruit. This brought it +prominently before grape-growers and for a time it was popular, but +when better known several defects became apparent. The vine is hardy +and vigorous, but the growth is slow and the variety is a shy bearer. +Both bunches and berries are small, and the crop ripens at a time, a +week or ten days earlier than Concord, when there are many other good +green grapes. Excellent though it is in quality, the variety is hardly +worth a place in any vineyard. John B. Moore, Concord, Massachusetts, +is the originator of Hayes. It is a seedling of Concord out of the +same lot of seedlings as Moore Early. It was first fruited in 1872.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine variable in vigor and productiveness, hardy and healthy. +Canes numerous, slender; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes +short; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves uniform in +size; upper surface dark green; lower surface pubescent; lobes one +to three; teeth shallow, small. Flowers almost self-sterile, open +medium late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters variable in size and length, +often single-shouldered; pedicel long, slender; brush small, pale +green. Berries medium in size, round, greenish-yellow, covered +with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender with a few small +reddish-brown dots; flesh fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet at +the skin, agreeably tart at center, mild; good. Seeds few, of +average size, short, plump, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Headlight</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana)</p> + +<p>Headlight is more desirable for southern than for northern vineyards, +yet it is worthy of trial in the North. Its meritorious characters +are: productiveness, outyielding Delaware, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> which it competes; +disease-resistant foliage and vines; more than average vigor of vine; +high quality of fruit, being almost the equal of Delaware in flavor +and having tender, melting pulp which readily parts from the seeds; +and earliness, ripening before Delaware and hanging on the vines or +keeping after being picked for some time without deterioration. The +originator of Headlight, T. V. Munson, states that the variety came +from seed of Moyer fertilized by Brilliant. The seed was planted in +1895 and the grape was introduced in 1901.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes short, few in number, +slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils +continuous, short, bifid, very persistent. Leaves small, thick; +upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, +pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus +intermediate in depth and width; basal sinus usually lacking; +lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers +self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, short, tapering, +frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, +covered with a few small warts; brush yellowish-brown. Berries +small, round, dark red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin +tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, very juicy, +tender, fine-grained, vinous, sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to +three, small, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Herbemont</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Bourquiniana)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Bottsi, Brown French, Dunn, Herbemont's Madeira, Hunt, Kay's +Seedling, McKee, Neal, Warren, Warrenton</em></p> + +<p>In the South, Herbemont holds the same rank as Concord in the North. +The vine is fastidious as to soil, requiring a well-drained warm soil, +and one which is abundantly supplied with humus. Despite these +limitations, this variety is grown in an immense territory, extending +from Virginia and Tennessee to the Gulf and westward through Texas. +The vine is remarkably vigorous, being hardly surpassed in this +character by any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> other of our native grapes. The fruits are +attractive because of the large bunch and the glossy black of the +small berries, and are borne abundantly and with certainty in suitable +localities. The flesh characters of the fruit are good for a small +grape, neither flesh, skin nor seeds being objectionable in eating; +the pulp is tender, juicy, rich, sweet and highly flavored. The ample, +lustrous green foliage makes this variety one of the attractive +ornamental plants of the South. Herbemont is known to have been in +cultivation in Georgia before the Revolutionary War, when it was +generally called Warren and Warrenton. In the early part of the last +century, it came to the hands of Nicholas Herbemont, Columbia, South +Carolina, whose name it eventually took.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous. Canes long, strong, bright green, with more or +less purple and heavy bloom; internodes short; tendrils +intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round, entire, or +three to seven-lobed, nearly glabrous above and below; upper +surface clear green; lower surface lighter green, glaucous. +Flowers self-fertile.</p> + +<p>Fruit very late. Clusters large, long, tapering, prominently +shouldered, compact; pedicels short with a few large warts; brush +pink. Berries round, small, uniform, reddish-black or brown with +abundant bloom; skin thin, tough; flesh tender, juicy; juice +colorless or slightly pink, sweet, sprightly. Seeds two to four, +small, reddish-brown, glossy. </p></div> + + +<h4>Herbert</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>In all that constitutes a fine table-grape, Herbert (<a href="#Plate_XVIII">Plate XVIII</a>) is +as near perfection as any American variety. For a Vinifera-Labrusca +hybrid, the vine is vigorous, hardy and fruitful, ranking in these +respects above many pure-bred Labruscas. While the fruit ripens with +Concord, it keeps much later and packs and ships better. The variety +is self-sterile and must be set near other varieties. Herbert is +deserving attention from commercial growers who supply a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> +discriminating market, and its many good qualities give it high place +as a garden grape. The variety is one of Rogers' hybrids, named +Herbert in 1869.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark +brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils +intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round; upper +surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green with +some pubescence; leaf entire, terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus +deep, narrow, closed, overlapping; basal and lateral sinuses +lacking; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; +stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, two +to three clusters per shoot, heavily single-shouldered, loose; +pedicel thick with small russet warts; brush yellowish-green. +Berries large, round-oval, flattened, dull black, covered with +thick bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent, +astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, tender, +fine-grained; very good. Seeds adherent, three to six, large, +broad, notched, long with swollen neck, blunt, brown with yellow +tips. </p></div> + + +<h4>Hercules</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Hercules is characterized by very large berries, fruit handsomely +colored and cluster large and well-formed. The flavor, while not of +the best, is good. Added to the desirable qualities of the fruit, the +vines are hardy, vigorous and productive. These good characters, +however, cannot make up for the several defects of the variety. The +grapes drop and crack badly and the pulp is tough and adheres too +firmly to the seed for a dessert grape, so that the variety is +worthless except for breeding purposes. Hercules was introduced by G. +A. Ensenberger, Bloomington, Illinois, about 1890; its parentage is +unknown.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes long, dark +reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; +tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large; upper surface light +green, glossy, smooth; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent; +lobes one to three, terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; +basal sinus usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span> absent; lateral sinus shallow; teeth shallow. +Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters very large, broad, +tapering, one to three clusters per shoot, compact; brush pale +green. Berries very large, round, black, glossy with heavy bloom, +firm; skin adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, +very tough, coarse, stringy, foxy; fair in quality. Seeds +adherent, one to five, large, broad, deeply notched, blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Hicks</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Hicks is a remarkably good grape and were it not that the fruit is +almost identical with that of Concord, ripening with it or a little +earlier, it would have a place in the viticulture of the country. +However, since it was introduced some years ago and has not found +great favor with growers, it seems that it cannot make headway against +Concord, with which it must compete. In many localities the vines are +more prolific than those of Concord and of stronger growth. Hicks was +introduced in 1898 by Henry Wallis, Wellston, Missouri, who states +that it is a chance seedling sent from California about 1870 to +Richard Berry, a nurseryman of St. Louis County, Missouri.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes medium to long, +numerous, reddish-brown, covered with thin bloom; tendrils +continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface +dark green, glossy; lower surface white, changing to a heavy +bronze, strongly pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, open early; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, +tapering, often single-shouldered. Berries large, round, +purplish-black with heavy bloom, shatter when over-ripe, firm; +skin tender with dark wine-colored pigment; flesh green, juicy, +tough, fine-grained, faintly foxy; good. Seeds adherent, large, +short, broad, blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Hidalgo</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana)</p> + +<p>The grapes of Hidalgo are rich, sweet, delicately flavored, and with +color, size and form of berry and bunch so well com<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span>bined as to make +the fruits singularly handsome. The skin is thin but firm and the +variety keeps and ships well. The vines, however, are doubtfully +hardy, variable in vigor and not always fruitful. While Hidalgo may +not prove of value for the commercial vineyard, in favorable +situations it may give a supply of choice fruit for the amateur. The +parentage of Hidalgo, as given by its originator, T. V. Munson, is +Delaware, Goethe and Lindley. The variety was introduced by the +originator in 1902.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine variable in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Canes thick, +dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils +intermittent or continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, +irregularly round, thick; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; +lower surface pale green, bronzed, heavily pubescent; lobes three +when present; petiolar sinus narrow, sometimes closed and +overlapping; basal sinus wanting; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; +teeth very shallow, narrow. Flowers semi-fertile, open after +mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, long, +slender, cylindrical, often blunt, not shouldered, one to two +bunches per shoot, compact; pedicel long, slender with small +warts; brush yellowish-green with brown tinge. Berries large, +oval, greenish-yellow, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm; +skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green, transparent, +juicy, tender, melting, aromatic, sweet; very good to best. Seeds +free, two to four, large, plump, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Highland</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Few varieties of black grapes equal Highland in appearance and quality +of fruit. When given good care under favorable conditions, the bunches +are unusually large and handsome in appearance, sometimes attaining a +weight of two pounds, and bear beautiful bluish-black berries with the +fine flavor and tender texture of Jura Muscat, one of its parents. The +flesh is solid, firm and the fruit keeps and ships well. The vine is +vigorous, productive to a fault but is doubtfully hardy. Where the +climate is temperate and the season long enough for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> vine and +fruit of Highland to develop, this is one of the choicest grapes for +the amateur. The variety originated about the close of the Civil War +with J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, from seed of Concord +fertilized by Jura Muscat.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine variable in vigor, productive, healthy. Canes long, numerous, +dark brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes long; +tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper +surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-green, +pubescent; lobes one to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus +deep, variable in width; basal sinus shallow, narrow; lateral +sinus a notch; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open in +mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, +usually single-shouldered, usually two bunches per shoot; pedicel +long, thick, smooth; brush green with yellow tinge. Berries large, +round-oval, purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, persistent, +firm; skin tough, free; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, +vinous; good. Seeds free, one to six, large, long, notched, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Hopkins</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Rotundifolia)</p> + +<p>Hopkins is named by grape-growers in the South Atlantic states as the +best early Rotundifolia grape. Its season in North Carolina begins +early in August, nearly a month before any other. It is, also, one of +the best in quality and for quality and earliness should be in every +home vineyard in the region in which it grows. Hopkins was found near +Wilmington, North Carolina, about 1845, by John Hopkins.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, slender, +upright. Leaves of medium size, variable, cordate, longer than +broad, thick, leathery, smooth, dark green; margins sharply +serrate. Flowers self-fertile.</p> + +<p>Fruit very early. Clusters large, containing from four to ten +berries. Berries large, dark purple or almost black, round-oblong, +shelling badly; skin thick, tough, faintly marked with dots; pulp +white, tender, juicy with a sweet, pleasant flavor; one of the +best of the Rotundifolias in quality. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span></p> +<h4>Hosford</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Hosford is an offspring of Concord, differing from the parent chiefly +in the greater size of bunch and berry and in being less fruitful. The +variety is surpassed by Worden and Eaton, of the same type, and is +probably not worth cultivation. It is claimed by some that Hosford is +identical with Eaton but there are noticeable differences in both vine +and fruit characters. The vine looks very like that of Concord except +that the indentations along the margins of the leaves are deeper. +Hosford originated in the garden of George Hosford, Ionia, Michigan, +about 1876, as a chance seedling growing between two Concord vines.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vines lacking in vigor, hardy, unproductive. Canes short, few in +number, slender; nodes enlarged; internodes very short; tendrils +continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface +light green, rugose; lower surface grayish-white to bronze, +heavily pubescent; lobes faint; petiolar sinus wide; teeth small, +sharp. Flowers shallow, semi-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters large, tapering, +slightly shouldered, compact; pedicel short with small warts; +brush slender, green. Berries large, round-oval, dull black with +abundant bloom, persistent; skin thick, tender; flesh pale green, +juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds few, +large, broad, blunt, plump, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Hybrid Franc</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Rupestris)</p> + +<p>Hybrid Franc is the best-known cross between Rupestris and Vinifera. +It is one of the few varieties used in Europe as a resistant stock now +recommended for a direct producer. The vines are hardy, vigorous and +very productive. The fruit is fit only for wine or grape-juice, being +too acid to eat out of hand. The coloring matter in the fruit is very +intense and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> might be used in giving color to grape products. The +variety is of French origin.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, thick, light +brown with blue bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils +intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small, thin; upper +surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface green, hairy +along ribs and large veins; lobes three to five with terminal one +acute; petiolar sinus narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; +lateral sinus a notch. Flowers semi-fertile, open early; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, +short, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel long, +slender with few small warts; brush short, wine-colored. Berries +small, oblate, black, glossy with thick bloom, persistent, firm; +skin thin, tender with very dark wine-colored pigment; flesh green +with reddish tinge, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, +spicy, tart; fair in quality. Seeds free, one to five, small, +short, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Ideal</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera, Bourquiniana)</p> + +<p>Ideal is a handsome seedling of Delaware, from which it differs +chiefly in being larger in bunch and berry, attaining in both of these +characters nearly the size of Catawba. In Kansas and Missouri, this +variety is highly recommended, not only for the high quality of the +fruit, ranking with Delaware in quality, but because of vigorous, +healthy, productive vines. But farther north the vines are +precariously hardy and not sufficiently fruitful, healthy nor vigorous +to warrant high recommendation. Ideal originated with John Burr, +Leavenworth, Kansas, from seed of Delaware, about 1885.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive; tendrils +intermittent, bifid or trifid. Canes long, numerous, slender, dark +brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long. Leaves large, +variable in color; lobes three to five; petiolar sinus deep, wide; +teeth deep, narrow; upper surface light green, dull; lower surface +pale green, pubescent.</p> + +<p>Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, heavily +shouldered; pedicel thick; brush green. Berries large, round, +dark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> red with thin bloom, usually persistent, firm; skin thick, +tough, adherent; flesh green, tender, aromatic, sweet next the +skin, acid at the center; good to very good. Seeds adherent, +large, plump, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Iona</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>In flavor, the fruit of Iona (<a href="#Plate_XIX">Plate XIX</a>) has a rare combination of +sweetness and acidity, pure, delicate and vinous. The flesh is +transparent, melting, tender, juicy and of uniform consistency quite +to the center. The seeds are few and small and part readily from the +flesh. The color is a peculiar dark-red wine with a tint of amethyst, +variable and not always attractive. The bunch is large but loose, with +berries varying in size and ripening unevenly. The fruit may be kept +until late winter. The vine characters of Iona are not as good as +those of the fruit. To do well, the vine must have a soil exactly +suited to its wants, seemingly thriving best in deep, dry, sandy or +gravelly clays. Iona responds especially well when trained against +walls or buildings, attaining under such conditions rare perfection. +The vines are doubtfully hardy and in many parts of the North must +have winter protection; they are not vigorous and are inclined to +overbear, to remedy which they must have close pruning. In localities +in which mildew and rot thrive, the variety is badly attacked by these +diseases. Iona originated with C. W. Grant, Iona Island, New York, +from seed of Diana planted in 1885.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine weak, doubtfully hardy, unproductive. Canes short, light +brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, +bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; +lower surface grayish-green, heavily pubescent; lobes three to +five with terminal one acute; petiolar sinus of medium depth and +width; basal sinus shallow; lateral sinus shallow, wide; teeth +shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, sometimes +double-shouldered, slender, tapering, loose; brush pale green. +Berries uniform,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span> oval, round, dull, light and dark red with thin +bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent, slightly +astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, +melting, vinous; very good. Seeds free, one to four, small, broad, +plump, brown. </p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXIX" id="Plate_XXIX"></a> +<img src="images/plate29.jpg" width="336" height="500" alt="Plate XXIX." title="Plate XXIX." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXIX.</span>—Vergennes (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + +<h4>Isabella</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Alexander, Black Cape, Christie's Improved Isabella, Conckling's +Wilding, Constantia, Dorchester, Gibb's Grape, Hensell's Long Island, +Payne's Early, Helene, Woodward</em></p> + +<p>Isabella (<a href="#Plate_XX">Plate XX</a>) is now of little more than historical interest, it +having been one of the mainstays of American viticulture. In +appearance, the fruit of Isabella is fully as attractive as that of +any black grape, the clusters being large and well formed and the +berries glossy black with thick bloom. The flavor is good, but the +thick skin and muskiness in taste are objectionable. The grapes keep +and ship well. Isabella is surpassed in vine characters by many other +kinds, notably Concord, which has taken its place. The lustrous green, +ample foliage which remains late in the season, and the vigor of the +vine, make this variety an attractive ornamental, well adapted for +growing on arbors, porches and trellises. The origin of Isabella is +not known. It was obtained by William Prince, Flushing, Long Island, +about 1816 from Mrs. Isabella Gibbs, Brooklyn, New York.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes short, numerous with heavy +pubescence, thick, light brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; +internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. +Leaves thick; upper surface dark green, smooth, glossy; lower +surface whitish-green, heavily pubescent; lobes three when present +with terminal lobe obtuse; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, often +closed, overlapping; basal sinus usually wanting; lateral sinus +shallow, narrow, frequently notched; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers +self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylindrical, +frequently single-shouldered; pedicel slender, smooth; brush +long,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span> yellowish-green. Berries medium to large, oval, black with +heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, tough, adherent, +astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, +tender, meaty, some foxiness, sweet; good. Seeds one to three, +large, broad, distinctly notched, short, brown with yellow tips. </p></div> + + +<h4>Isabella Seedling</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Isabella Seedling is an early, vigorous, productive offspring of +Isabella. In fruit characters it greatly resembles its parent, but +ripens its crop earlier and has a more compact bunch. Like that of its +parent, the fruit is of good quality and keeps remarkably well. This +seedling is now grown more than Isabella and, while not of any +considerable commercial importance, is far more deserving attention as +a market grape than some of the poorly flavored kinds more generally +grown. There are several varieties under this name. Two are mentioned +by Warder; one of Ohio and one of New York origin. The Isabella +Seedling here described originated with G. A. Ensenberger, +Bloomington, Illinois, in 1889.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes long, thick, dark +brown, often with a red tinge, with thin bloom; nodes prominent, +flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent or continuous, +bifid. Leaves healthy, large, thick; upper surface green, dull; +lower surface pale green or grayish-green, occasionally with a +tinge of bronze, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, +cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, loose, compact. Berries +large, oval, often pear-shaped, dull black with thick bloom, +persistent, soft; skin thick with some red pigment; flesh pale +green, juicy, tender, coarse, vinous; good. Seeds numerous, free, +large, broad, notched, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Israella</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Israella came from C. W. Grant contemporaneously with Iona and was +heralded as the earliest good grape in cultivation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span> For several years +after its introduction, it was widely tried but was almost everywhere +discarded because of the poor quality and unattractive appearance of +the fruit and lack of vigor, hardiness and productiveness in the vine. +Grant grew Israella from seed of Isabella planted in 1885.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine lacking in vigor, unproductive. Canes slender, dark brown; +nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, +bifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; +lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes one to five, faint; +petiolar sinus deep, narrow; teeth shallow, sharp; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, of medium length and +breadth, tapering, often single-shouldered, compact, frequently +with many abortive fruits. Berries of medium size, round-oval, +black or purplish-black with thin bloom, inclined to drop, soft; +skin thick, tough with a large amount of purplish-red pigment; +flesh pale green, juicy, stringy, mild, sweet from skin to center; +fair in quality. Seeds free, medium in size, notched, blunt, light +brown, often covered with grayish warts. </p></div> + + +<h4>Ives</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Æstivalis)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Ives' Madeira, Ives' Seedling, Kittredge</em></p> + +<p>Ives has a high reputation as a grape for making red wine, being +surpassed only by Norton for this purpose. The vine is hardy, healthy, +vigorous and fruitful. The fruit is poor in quality, colors long +before ripe, has a foxy odor, and the flesh is tough and pulpy. The +bunches are compact, with well-formed, jet-black grapes, which make +them attractive. The vine is easily propagated and is adapted to any +good grape soil, but is so rampant in growth that it is difficult to +manage. The variety is not widely cultivated. Ives was grown by Henry +Ives from seed planted in 1840 in his garden in Cincinnati, Ohio.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, thick, +reddish-brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; +internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves +large; upper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale +green, pubescent; lobes three to five when present with terminal +one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and +overlapping; basal sinus shallow; lateral sinus narrow; teeth +shallow.</p> + +<p>Fruit late mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, tapering, +frequently single-shouldered, compact, often with numerous +abortive berries; pedicel slender with numerous small warts; brush +short, slender, pale with a reddish-brown tinge. Berries oval, +jet-black with heavy bloom, very persistent, firm; skin tough, +adherent, wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, +translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough, foxy; good. Seeds +adherent, one to four, small, often abortive, broad, short, blunt, +plump, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>James</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Rotundifolia)</p> + +<p>James is one of the largest of the Rotundifolia grapes and probably +the best general-purpose variety of this species. The vine is noted +for vigor and productiveness. It cannot be grown north of Maryland. It +thrives in sandy loam soils with clay subsoil. The variety was found +by B. W. M. James, Pitt County, North Carolina. It was introduced +about 1890 and was placed on the grape list of the American +Pomological Society fruit catalog in 1899.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy, productive. Canes slender, numerous, long, +slightly trailing. Leaves of medium size, thick, smooth, leathery, +cordate, as broad as long, with a serrate margin. Flowers open +late; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit ripens late, hangs on the vine for three weeks, keeps well. +Clusters small, containing from four to twelve berries, irregular, +loose. Berries large, three-fourths to one and one-fourth inches +in diameter, round, blue-black, marked with specks; skin thick, +tough. Pulp juicy, sweet; good in quality. </p></div> + + +<h4>Janesville</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vulpina)</p> + +<p>Endowed with a constitution enabling it to withstand cold to which +most other grapes succumb, Janesville has made a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span> place for itself in +far northern localities. Moreover, the grapes ripen early, being about +the first to color although they are not ripe until some time after +coloring. The vine also is healthy, vigorous and productive. The +fruit, however, is worthless when better sorts can be grown. The +clusters and berries are small, the grapes are pulpy, tough, seedy, +have a thick skin and a disagreeable acid taste. Janesville was grown +by F. W. Loudon, Janesville, Wisconsin, from chance seed planted in +1858.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes spiny, numerous, +dark brown; nodes flattened; internodes long; tendrils +intermittent or continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small, +thin; upper surface glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, +lightly pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; +petiolar sinus narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal and +lateral sinuses lacking; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open +very early; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, short, cylindrical, +usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, +covered with small, scattering warts; brush dark wine color. +Berries round, dull black with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin +thick, tough, adherent with dark wine-colored pigment, astringent; +flesh pale reddish-green, translucent, juicy, tough, coarse, +vinous, acid; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to six, large, +broad, angular, blunt, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Jefferson</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Jefferson (<a href="#Plate_XXI">Plate XXI</a>) is an offspring of Concord crossed with Iona, +and resembles Concord in vigor, productiveness and healthiness of +vine, and Iona in color and quality of fruit. The vine produces its +fruit two weeks later than Concord and is not as hardy, faults that +debar it from taking high rank as a commercial grape. Fortunately the +vines yield readily to laying down for winter protection so that even +in commercial plantations it is not difficult to prevent winter +injury. The bunches of Jefferson are large, well-formed, compact with +berries of uniform size and color. The flesh is firm yet tender, juicy +with a rich, vinous flavor and a delicate aroma which persists even +after the ber<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span>ries have dried into raisins. The fruit ships and keeps +well, the berries adhering to the cluster and the fruit retaining its +freshness into late winter. Jefferson is widely distributed and is +well known by viticulturists in eastern America. It is not particular +as to localities, if the season be long and the climate temperate, and +thrives in all soils. The variety originated with J. H. Ricketts, +Newburgh, New York; it fruited first in 1874.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes short, +numerous, light to dark brown; nodes enlarged, round; internodes +short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or trifid. Leaves +healthy; upper surface light green, older leaves rugose; lower +surface pale green, strongly pubescent; leaf usually not lobed +with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow, sometimes closed and +overlapping; basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus shallow, +often a mere notch; teeth regular, shallow. Flowers self-fertile, +open late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylindrical, +usually single-shouldered, sometimes double-shouldered, compact; +pedicel short, slender with a few inconspicuous warts; brush long, +slender, pale yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, oval, light +and dark red, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, very firm; skin +thick, tough, free, slightly astringent; flesh light green, +translucent, juicy, coarse-grained, tender, vinous; good to best. +Seeds free, one to four, broad, short, blunt, plump, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Jessica</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Jessica is an early, hardy, green grape. The fruit is sweet, rich, +sprightly and almost free from foxiness, but is unattractive and does +not keep well. The clusters and berries are small, and the clusters +are too loose for a good grape. Jessica may be commended for earliness +and hardiness and is, therefore, desirable, if at all, in northern +regions. William H. Read, Port Dalhousie, Ontario, grew Jessica from +seed planted some time between 1870 and 1880.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine medium in vigor, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes long, +thick, dark brown with red tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened; +inter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span>nodes short; tendrils continuous or intermittent, bifid or +trifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green, glossy, often +rugose; lower surface pale green, very pubescent; lobes three; +petiolar sinus narrow; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers +self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit very early. Clusters small, slender, tapering, usually +single-shouldered. Berries small, round, light green, often tinged +with yellow, covered with thin bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, +adherent, faintly astringent; flesh pale green, transparent, +juicy, tender, soft, sprightly, sweet; good. Seeds adherent, +medium to broad, notched, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Jewel</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>The notable characters of Jewel are earliness and high quality in +fruit; although, as compared with Delaware, its parent, the vine is +vigorous, healthy and hardy. In form and size of bunch and berry, +Jewel closely resembles Delaware, but the grapes are deep black in +color. The flesh characters and flavor of the fruit are much like +those of Delaware, the pulp being tender yet firm, and the flavor +having the same rich, sprightly, vinous taste found in the parent. The +seeds are few and small. The skin is thin but tough, and the grapes +ship well, keep long, do not shell, and although early, hang until +frost. Jewel is a most excellent grape, worthy the place among black +grapes that Delaware has among red varieties. In particular, it is +recommended for earliness and for localities in the North where +standard varieties do not ripen. John Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, grew +Jewel from seed of Delaware planted about 1874.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes slender, light +reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; +tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves scant, thick; upper surface +light green, dull, rugose; lower surface tinged with bronze, +heavily pubescent; lobes three when present with terminus acute; +petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus +shallow, wide; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in +mid-season; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early. Clusters small, slender, cylindrical, +single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender; brush short, +wine-colored. Berries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span> medium in size, round, dark purplish-black, +dull with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, +adherent, wine-colored pigment; flesh pale green, translucent, +juicy, fine-grained, tender, sprightly, vinous, sweet; very good. +Seeds adherent, one to four, frequently one-sided, blunt, light +brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Kensington</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Vulpina)</p> + +<p>Kensington has several very meritorious fruit and vine characters. The +vine resembles that of Clinton, its Vulpina parent, in vigor, +hardiness, growth and productiveness, but the fruit has many of the +characters of the European parent, Buckland Sweetwater. The grapes are +yellowish-green, large, oval and borne in loose clusters of medium +size. In quality the fruit of Kensington is not equal to that of +Buckland Sweetwater but is much better than that of Clinton. The flesh +is tender and juicy with a rich, sweet, vinous flavor. The hardiness +of the vine and the high quality of the fruit should make Kensington a +favorite green grape in northern gardens. This variety was grown by +William Saunders, London, Ontario. It was sent out some time between +1870 and 1880.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, slender, light +brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils +persistent, intermittent or continuous, long, bifid or trifid. +Leaves thin; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower +surface pale green, pubescent, hairy; lobes wanting or one to +three with terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus +shallow when present; lateral sinus shallow, usually a notch; +teeth deep and wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early, stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, cylindrical, often heavily +single-shouldered, loose, frequently with many undeveloped +berries; pedicel long and slender with small, inconspicuous warts; +brush short, pale green. Berries variable in size, oval, +yellowish-green, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin +thin, tough, adherent, faintly astringent; flesh green, +transparent, juicy, tender, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds free, two +to four, wrinkled, large, long, broad, sharp-pointed, +yellowish-brown. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span></p> +<h4>King</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>King is similar to Concord, compared with which the vine is more +vigorous and prolific, time of ripening and length of season the same, +the clusters are one-fourth larger, the grapes are more persistent, +the pulp is more tender, the flavor nearly the same but more +sprightly, the seeds fewer in number, the wood harder and of shorter +joints and the pedicels larger. King was found in the Concord vineyard +of W. K. Munson, Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 1892. The vine was set for +Concord and is supposed to be a bud-sport of that variety.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes large, dark +reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, slightly flattened; internodes +short; tendrils continuous or intermittent, trifid or bifid. +Leaves unusually large, thick; upper surface green, dull; lower +surface grayish-white changing to slight bronze, pubescent; lobes +three when present, terminal one acute; teeth shallow, narrow. +Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, +irregularly tapering, usually single-shouldered, compact. Berries +large, round, black with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, +tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, very juicy, tough, +stringy and with some foxiness; good. Seeds adherent, few, large, +short, broad, lightly notched if at all, blunt, plump, light +brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Lady</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>The vine of Lady is much like that of Concord, its parent, although +not quite so vigorous nor productive, but ripens its fruit fully two +weeks earlier. The fruit is much superior to that of Concord in +quality, being richer, sweeter and less foxy. The grapes hang on the +vines well but deteriorate rapidly after picking. The term, +"ironclad," used by grape-growers to express hardiness and freedom +from disease, is probably as applicable to Lady as to any other of the +Labrusca grapes.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> The foliage is dense and of a deep glossy green, +neither scalding under a hot sun nor freezing until heavy frosts, +making it an attractive ornament in the garden. Lady is deservedly +popular as a grape for the amateur and should be planted for near-by +markets. It succeeds wherever Concord is grown, and because of its +early ripening is especially adapted to northern latitudes where +Concord does not always mature. Although the fruit ripens early, the +buds start late, often escaping late spring frosts. When Lady was +first heard of, it was in the hands of a Mr. Imlay, Muskingum County, +Ohio. George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, introduced it in 1874.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, medium in productiveness, healthy. Canes +short, slender, dark reddish-brown; nodes flattened; internodes +short; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in +size; upper surface light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface +pale green, pubescent; lobes one to five with terminal one +acuminate; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; lateral sinus variable in +depth and width; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in +mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters small, short, slender, +cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick, +smooth; brush slender, long, greenish-white. Berries large, round, +light green, often with a tinge of yellow, glossy with thin bloom, +persistent, firm; skin covered with small, scattering, dark dots, +thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh greenish-white, +translucent, juicy, tender, aromatic; very good. Seeds free, few, +broad, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Lady Washington</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Lady Washington is in many respects a most excellent grape but falls +short in quality and does not excel in vine characters. The grapes +make a good appearance, keep and ship well and are tender, juicy and +sweet. The vines are luxuriant, hardy, for a grape with Vinifera +blood, and healthy although slightly susceptible to mildew. As an +exhibition grape, few green varieties show better when grown with care +than Lady Washington. In the West and Southwest, the variety is said<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span> +to succeed better than any other Concord seedling. Lady Washington is +another of J. H. Ricketts' fine seedlings, this variety having come +from seed of Concord fertilized by Allen's Hybrid. It was introduced +in 1878.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, productive. Canes long, few, thick, dark brown; +nodes greatly enlarged, variable in shape; internodes long; +tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; +upper surface dark green, older leaves strongly rugose, glossy; +lower surface pale green, pubescent; leaf entire with terminal +acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, frequently closed and +overlapping; basal sinus usually wanting; lateral sinus shallow; +teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, +broad, irregularly cylindrical, single-shouldered, frequently +double-shouldered, loose; pedicel short with numerous conspicuous +warts; brush very short, greenish. Berries variable in size, +round-oblate, yellow-amber, glossy with thin bloom, persistent; +skin thin, tender, adherent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy +and tender, stringy, aromatic, sweet; very good. Seeds free, one +to four, broad, brown. </p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXX" id="Plate_XXX"></a> +<img src="images/plate30.jpg" width="333" height="500" alt="Plate XXX." title="Plate XXX." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXX.</span>—Winchell (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + +<h4>Lenoir</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Bourquiniana)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Alabama, Black El Paso, Black July, Black Spanish, Blue French, +Burgundy, Cigar Box Grape, Devereaux, Jack, Jacques, July Sherry, +Longworth's Ohio, MacCandless, Ohio, Springstein, Warren</em></p> + +<p>Lenoir is a tender southern grape which has been used largely in +France and California as a resistant stock and a direct producer. The +fruit is highly valued for its dark red wine and is very good for +table use. The vine is very resistant to phylloxera and withstands +drouth well. The origin of Lenoir is unknown. It was in cultivation in +the South as long ago as the early part of the last century. Nicholas +Herbemont states in 1829 that its name was given from a man named +Lenoir who cultivated it near Stateburg, South Carolina.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span>Vine vigorous, thrifty, semi-hardy, productive. Canes numerous, +with some bloom at the nodes; tendrils intermittent. Leaves from +two to seven-lobed, usually five, with characteristic bluish-green +color above and pale green below.</p> + +<p>Clusters variable, medium to very large, tapering, usually +shouldered. Berries small, round, dark bluish-purple, nearly black +with lilac bloom; skin thick, tough; flesh juicy, tender, sweet, +very rich in coloring matter. </p></div> + + +<h4>Lignan Blanc</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>White July, Luglienga, Joannenc</em></p> + +<p>At Geneva, New York, Lignan Blanc ripens first of all grapes, native +or European. It is not of highest quality but is better than any other +early grape and makes a valuable addition to the home vineyard. It is +a favorite grape in Europe and is rather commonly grown in California. +This variety offers excellent material for hybridization with native +grapes.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, medium productive; buds open early; opening leaves +light green, glossy, tinged with red along the edges, thinly +pubescent. Leaves medium in size, roundish, somewhat dull green, +slightly rugose; lower surface glabrous; blade thick; lobes +usually five though sometimes three; petiolar sinus medium in +depth, wide; lower lateral sinus medium in depth, narrow; upper +lateral sinus shallow, narrow; margin dentate; teeth long, narrow. +Flowers appear early for a Vinifera; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit ripens the first of September and is a good keeper; clusters +above medium in size, tapering, medium compact; berries medium to +large, oval, yellowish-green, with thin bloom; skin thin, tender, +neutral; flesh greenish-white, firm, juicy, meaty, sweet; quality +good. </p></div> + + +<h4>Lindley</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>By common consent, Lindley (<a href="#Plate_XXII">Plate XXII</a>) is the best of the red grapes +originated by Rogers in his crosses between Labrusca and Vinifera. The +bunches are of only medium size and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span> are loose, but the berries are +well-formed, of uniform size and an attractive dark red color. The +flesh is firm, fine-grained, juicy, tender with a peculiarly rich +aromatic flavor. The skin is thick and tough but is not objectionable +in fruit fully ripe. The fruit keeps and ships well, and the berries +neither crack nor shatter. The vine is vigorous, hardy for a Vinifera +hybrid, healthy but, as with most of its kind, susceptible to mildew. +The chief defects of Lindley are self-sterility, precariousness in +bearing and lack of adaptation to many soils. Lindley is a general +favorite in the garden. In 1869 Rogers gave this grape its name in +honor of John Lindley, the English botanist.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, usually hardy, susceptible to mildew. Canes very +long, dark reddish-brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, usually +flattened; internodes long, thick; tendrils continuous, long, +bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green, +dull, slightly rugose; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent; +obscurely three-lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, +narrow, often closed and overlapping; teeth shallow. Flowers +self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters long, broad, +cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, the shoulder being +connected to the bunch by a long stem, loose; pedicel short, +slender, smooth; brush short, pale green. Berries large, +round-oval, dark-red with faint bloom; skin tough, adherent, +unpigmented, strongly astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, +juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous; good to best. Seeds adherent, +two to five, notched, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Lucile</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>In vigor, health, hardiness and productiveness, Lucile (<a href="#Plate_XXII">Plate XXII</a>) is +not surpassed by any native grape. Unfortunately, the fruit characters +are not so desirable. The size, form and color of bunches and berries +are good, making a very attractive fruit, but the grapes have an +obnoxious, foxy taste and odor and are pulpy and seedy. Lucile is +earlier than Concord, the crop<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span> ripening with that of Worden or +preceding it a few days. For an early variety, the fruit keeps well +and in spite of thin skin ships well. The vine thrives in all grape +soils. Lucile may be recommended where a hardy grape is desired and +for localities in which the season is short. J. A. Putnam, Fredonia, +New York, grew Lucile. The vine fruited first in 1890. It is a +seedling of Wyoming, which it resembles in fruit and vine and +surpasses in both.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes long, light brown; +nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, +bifid or trifid. Leaves large, firm; upper surface light green, +glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; leaf with +terminus acute; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, sometimes closed +and overlapping; basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus a notch +when present; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open early; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, +cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, very compact; pedicel +short, thick with few, small, inconspicuous warts; brush light +brown. Berries large, round, dark red with thin bloom, persistent, +firm; skin thin, tender, astringent; flesh pale green, +translucent, juicy, tough, stringy, foxy; fair in quality. Seeds +adherent, one to four, small, broad, short, blunt, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Lutie</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Lutie (<a href="#Plate_XXIII">Plate XXIII</a>) is chiefly valuable for its vine characters. The +vines are vigorous, hardy, healthy and fruitful, although scarcely +equaling Lucile in any of these characters. Pomologists differ widely +as to the merits of the fruit, some claiming high quality for it and +others declaring that it is no better than a wild Labrusca. The +difference of opinion is due to a peculiarity of the fruit; if eaten +fresh, the quality, while far from being of the best, is not bad, but +after being picked for several days it develops so much foxiness of +flavor and aroma that it is scarcely edible. Lutie is a seedling found +by L. C. Chisholm, Spring Hill, Tennessee. It was introduced in 1885.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes short, slender, +dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils +continuous, short, bifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface +dark green, rugose; lower surface bronze or whitish-green, +pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar +sinus deep, wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow and +narrow when present; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, +early; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, short, +broad, blunt, cylindrical, usually not shouldered, compact; +pedicel short with small, scattering warts; brush slender, pale +green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull with thin bloom, drop +badly from pedicel, firm; skin tender, adherent, astringent; flesh +pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, foxy; fair in quality. +Seeds adherent, one to four, large, broad, short and blunt, dark +brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Malaga</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Malaga is one of the favorite table-grapes in California and also a +popular grape to ship to eastern markets. In some parts of southern +California, where the Muscats do not thrive, it is much grown, and in +the San Joaquin Valley it is rather largely used in making raisins. It +requires a long season and probably could not be grown in eastern +regions except in the most favored localities. The description is +compiled.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, healthy and productive; wood reddish-brown, +short-jointed. Leaves of medium size, smooth, leathery; light +glossy green above, lighter below; deeply lobed. Bunches very +large, long, loose, shouldered, sometimes scraggly; stem long and +flexible; berries very large, oval, yellowish-green, covered with +light bloom; skin thick; flesh firm, crisp, sweet and rich; +quality good. Season late, keeps and ships well. </p></div> + + +<h4>McPike</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>McPike is noteworthy because of the large size of the berries and +bunches. It is very similar to its parent, Worden, differ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span>ing in +having fewer but larger berries, grapes not as high in flavor and +fewer and smaller seeds. Because of the thin, tender skin, the berries +crack badly. The grapes shell more or less, and the vines are less +productive than those of Worden. The faults named debar it from +becoming a commercial grape and it is not high enough in quality to +make it of value for the amateur. This variety originated with H. G. +McPike, Alton, Illinois, from seed of Worden planted in 1890.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes of medium length, +dull reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes very +short; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; +upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface +grayish-white, heavily pubescent; leaf entire with terminus acute; +petiolar sinus deep; basal and lateral sinuses lacking. Flowers +nearly self-fertile.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, broad, +irregularly tapering, usually not shouldered; pedicel long, thick, +smooth; brush long, slender, green with brown tinge. Berries +unusually large, round, purplish-black with heavy bloom, firm; +skin cracks, adherent to pulp, astringent; flesh pale green, +translucent, juicy, tender, stringy, vinous; fair to good. Seeds +adherent, one to four, short, broad, blunt, plump, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Marion</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Black German, Marion Port</em></p> + +<p>Marion so closely resembles Clinton in botanical and horticultural +characters as to be clearly of the same type. The vine is vigorous and +hardy, but hardly sufficiently productive, and is susceptible to +mildew and leaf-hoppers. The fruit is pleasantly sweet and spicy, +although not high enough in quality for a table-grape, but makes a +very good dark red wine. The fruit colors early but ripens late, hangs +well on the vines and improves with a touch of frost. Marion was +brought to notice by a Mr. Shepherd, Marion, Ohio, about 1850.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes very long, dark +reddish-brown, covered with bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; +internodes very long; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, +long, bifid. Leaves very large; upper surface dark green, glossy; +lower surface pale green, smooth; leaf entire, terminus acuminate; +petiolar sinus very deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; +basal and lateral sinuses usually lacking; teeth shallow, wide. +Flowers self-sterile, open very early; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, short, +slender, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, +slender with a few inconspicuous warts; brush very short, +wine-colored. Berries small, round, black, glossy with heavy +bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent with much +wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh dark green, translucent, +juicy, fine-grained, tough, sprightly, spicy, tart; fair in +quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, medium in size, broad, +short, very plump, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Martha</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Martha was at one time a popular green grape, but the introduction of +superior varieties has reduced its popularity until now it is but +little grown. It is a seedling of Concord and resembles its parent, +differing chiefly as follows: fruit green, a week earlier, bunch and +berry smaller, flavor far better, being sweeter, more delicate and +less foxy. The vine of Martha is a lighter shade of green, is less +robust, and the blossoms open a few days earlier than those of +Concord. One of the defects of Martha, and the chief cause of its +going out of favor, is that it does not keep nor ship well. The +variety is still being planted in the South but is generally abandoned +in the North. Samuel Miller, Calmdale, Pennsylvania, grew Martha from +seed of Concord; it was introduced about 1868.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine hardy, productive, susceptible to attacks of mildew. Canes +long, dark reddish-brown, surface with thin bloom, roughened; +nodes enlarged, slightly flattened; tendrils continuous, or +intermittent, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light +green; lower surface light<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span> bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes +wanting or faint; petiolar sinus shallow, very wide; teeth +irregular. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early mid-season. Clusters medium in size, tapering, +single-shouldered, loose; pedicel short, slender; brush very +short, green. Berries medium in size, round, light green with thin +bloom, persistent; skin thin, very tender, adherent; flesh pale +green, juicy, tough, fine-grained, slightly foxy; very good. Seeds +few in number, adherent, broad, blunt, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Massasoit</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Massasoit is distinguished as the earliest of Rogers' hybrids, +ripening with Delaware. The grapes have the peculiarity of being best +before full maturity, developing, after ripening, a degree of foxiness +which impairs the quality. In shape and size of berry and bunch, there +is a striking resemblance to Isabella, but the color is that of +Catawba. The texture of the fruit is especially good, firm but tender +and juicy, while the flavor is rich and sweet. The vine is vigorous, +hardy and productive but subject to mildew and rot. Massasoit is worth +a place in the home vineyard and as an early grape of fine quality for +local markets.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive, subject to rot and +mildew. Canes long, thick, dark brown with reddish tinge; nodes +enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, long, trifid or bifid. +Leaves variable in size; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; +lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five with +terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus shallow, +narrow, obscure; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open late; +stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, broad, +cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered; pedicel slender with a +few indistinct warts; brush pale green. Berries large, round-oval, +dark brownish-red, dull with thin bloom, very persistent, firm; +skin thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, +translucent, juicy, fine-grained, soft, stringy, foxy; good to +very good. Seeds adherent, one to five, large, broad, distinctly +notched, plump, blunt. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span></p> +<h4>Maxatawney</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>While at one time very popular, grape-growers now seldom hear of +Maxatawney. It is a southern grape, ripening its fruit in the North +only occasionally. The variety is interesting historically as being +the first good green grape and as showing unmistakable Vinifera +characters, another example of the fortuitous hybridization which gave +so many valuable varieties before artificial hybridization of Vinifera +with native grapes had been tried. In 1843, a man living in +Eagleville, Pennsylvania, received several bunches of grapes from +Maxatawney. The seeds of these grapes were planted and one grew, the +resulting plant being the original vine of Maxatawney.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, variable in productiveness. Canes +medium in length, slender, reddish; nodes enlarged, flattened; +internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large, dark +green, thick; lower surface grayish-white with tinge of bronze, +heavily pubescent; lobes three to five; petiolar sinus narrow; +teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters small to medium, short, slender, +cylindrical, occasionally with a small, single shoulder, compact; +pedicel long, slender, warty; brush long, yellow. Berries variable +in size, oval, pale red or dull green with amber tinge, with thin +bloom, persistent; skin tough, astringent; flesh tender, foxy; +good to very good. Seeds free, few, large, very broad, blunt. </p></div> + + +<h4>Memory</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Rotundifolia)</p> + +<p>Memory is one of the best of the Rotundifolia grapes for the garden +and local markets, its fruits being especially good for dessert. As +yet, however, the variety has not been widely distributed even in +North Carolina where it originated. The vine is given credit for being +the most vigorous grower and the most productive of the grapes of its +species. Memory is probably a seedling of Thomas, which it much +resembles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span> having been found in a vineyard of Thomas grapes near +Whiteville, North Carolina, by T. S. Memory, about 1868.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, healthy, productive. Leaves large, longer than +broad, thick, smooth with coarsely serrate margins. Flowers +perfect.</p> + +<p>Fruit ripens in September in North Carolina; clusters large, with +from four to twelve berries which hang unusually well for a +variety of V. Rotundifolia. Berries very large, round-oblong, deep +brownish-black, almost jet black; skin thick; flesh tender, juicy, +sweet; good to best. </p></div> + + +<h4>Merrimac</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Merrimac is often accredited as the best black grape among Rogers' +hybrids, but an analysis of the characters of the several black +varieties grown by Rogers shows that it is surpassed by Wilder, +Herbert and possibly Barry. The vine is strong in growth, productive, +hardy and exempt from fungal diseases; but the grapes are not high in +quality, and flesh, skin and seed characters are such that the fruit +is not as pleasant to eat as the other black varieties named. Merrimac +is worthy a place in collections for the sake of variety. Rogers gave +this variety the name Merrimac in 1869.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, usually hardy, productive. Canes slender, dark +brown, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes +short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid. Leaves large, thin; +upper surface very light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale +green, pubescent and cobwebby; lobes three with terminal one +obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and +overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, +narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; +stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters variable in size, +broad, tapering; pedicel slender, covered with numerous +inconspicuous warts; brush wine-colored. Berries large, round, +black, glossy with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, +tough, adherent, astringent; flesh light green, translucent, +juicy, fine-grained, tender, stringy; good. Seeds adherent, one to +five, broad, long, with enlarged neck, brown. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span></p> +<h4>Mills</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>The bunches and berries of Mills are large and well-formed; the +berries are firm and solid, with the skin adherent as in Viniferas; +the flesh is juicy and parts readily from the seeds; the flavor is +rich, sweet and vinous; and the grapes are hardly surpassed in keeping +quality. But when the fruit characters of Mills have been praised, +nothing further can be said in its favor. The vines are neither +vigorous, hardy nor fruitful and are very subject to mildew; neither +wood nor roots ripen well in the North in average seasons; and the +variety is a most difficult one for nurserymen to grow. Mills is of +doubtful commercial value, but for the garden it is possible that the +grower may be able to graft it to advantage on some variety with +better vine characters. William H. Mills, Hamilton, Ontario, grew +Mills about 1870 from seed of Muscat Hamburg fertilized by Creveling.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine medium in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Canes long, +thick, light brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils +intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface +dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, cobwebby; +lobes three to five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus +intermediate in depth and width; basal and lateral sinuses deep +and wide; teeth deep. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, +cylindrical, often double-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender +with numerous, small warts; brush long, wine-colored. Berries +large, oval, jet-black with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin +thick, tough, adherent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, +rich, tender, sprightly, vinous, sweet; very good to best. Seeds +free, one to three, large, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Mish</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Rotundifolia)</p> + +<p>Mish is a favorite Rotundifolia in North Carolina, being planted +extensively in some parts of that state. Its outstand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span>ing characters +are vigor and productiveness in vine and high quality in the fruit. +Mish is named by many as the best all-round Rotundifolia, being of +value for dessert, wine and grape-juice. The variety was found by W. +M. Mish, about 1846, near Washington, North Carolina.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, productive, healthy, open in growth; canes +somewhat trailing. Leaves large, round, thick, smooth, leathery +with coarsely dentate margin. Flowers perfect.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, does not ripen uniformly, keeps and ships well. +Clusters of medium size with from six to fifteen berries which +cling well to the pedicel. Berries of medium size, round-oval, +deep reddish-black with numerous conspicuous dots; skin thin, +cracking in wet weather; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, exceptionally +well flavored; very good to best. </p></div> + + +<h4>Mission</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Of all grapes, Mission has probably played the most important part in +the vineyards of California. Grown from the earliest times at the old +missions, its source or its name has never been determined. Its +viticultural value for table and wine-press was early appreciated by +California grape-growers, and its culture rapidly spread to every +county in the state adapted to grape-growing. With vines vigorous, +healthy and productive, bearing grapes of delicious quality, Mission +is a mainstay on the Pacific slope, surpassed by few vineyard +varieties for general usefulness. The description is compiled.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy, productive; wood short-jointed, +grayish-brown, dull, dark. Leaf medium to large, slightly oblong, +with large, deeply-cut compound teeth; basal sinus widely opened, +primary sinuses narrow and shallow; smooth on both sides with +scattered tomentum below, bright green above, lighter below. Bunch +divided into many small, distinct lateral clusters, shouldered, +loose, sometimes very loose; berries of medium size, purple or +almost black with heavy bloom; skin thin; flesh firm, crisp, +juicy, sweet, rich and delicious. Seeds rather large and +prominent; season late. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span></p> +<h4>Missouri Riesling</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Missouri Riesling attains perfection only in the South. The vines are +hardy, vigorous, productive and healthy in the North, as a rule, but +the fruit is lacking in quality. In the South, Missouri Riesling is a +beautiful fruit when well grown and has many good qualities of fruit +and vine. It originated with Nicholas Grein, Hermann, Missouri, about +1870, probably from seed of Taylor.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes very long, numerous, +thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged; internodes long; tendrils +continuous, long, trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper +surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, +thinly pubescent; lobes five with terminal one acuminate; petiolar +sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus shallow, wide; lateral sinus deep, +wide; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, does not keep nor ship well. Clusters short, +cylindrical, single-shouldered; pedicel long with few small warts; +brush green. Berries of medium size, round, yellowish-green +changing to light red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin +sprinkled with small brown dots, thin, tough, adherent, +astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender, +fine-grained, lacking in aroma, mild; fair in quality. Seeds +adherent, one to four, surface rough, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Montefiore</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Montefiore is extensively grown in Missouri and the Southwest but is +almost unknown in the North and East. It is reported as succeeding in +the Lake District of Ohio and, with the exception that it is uncertain +in bearing and not always productive, it grows well in sections of New +York. While it is essentially a wine-grape, yet it is pleasing in +taste and texture of fruit and is far better in quality than many of +the coarser Labruscas commonly cultivated. It keeps and ships well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span> +and presents an attractive appearance. Jacob Rommel, Morrison, +Missouri, grew this variety about 1875 from seed of Taylor fertilized +by Ives.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous and hardy. Canes long, thick, dark brown with thin +bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils +continuous, long, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, +dull, smooth; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent; lobes three +when present with terminus acute; petiolar sinus wide; basal sinus +lacking; lateral sinus shallow when present; teeth deep. Flowers +semi-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, short, tapering, +single-shouldered, the shoulder being connected to the bunch by a +long stem, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush red. +Berries small, oval, often compressed, black, glossy with abundant +bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent; +flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, melting, +vinous, sweet; fair to good. Seeds free, one to five, small, +broad, faintly notched, short, plump, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Moore Early</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Moore Early (<a href="#Plate_XXIV">Plate XXIV</a>) is the standard grape of its season. Its +fruit cannot be described better than as an early Concord. The vines +are readily distinguishable from those of Concord, differing chiefly +in being less productive. To grow the variety satisfactorily, the soil +must be rich, well-drained and loose, must be frequently cultivated, +and the vines should be pruned severely. The bunches of Moore Early +are not as large as those of Concord and are less compact; the berries +shell rather more easily, and the skin cracks more readily. The flesh +characters and the flavor are essentially those of Concord, although +the quality is not as high as in the older variety. The quality is, +however, much higher than that of Champion and Hartford, its chief +competitors, and varieties which it should replace. Moore Early is by +no means an ideal grape for its season, but until something better is +introduced it will probably remain the best early commercial sort. +Captain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span> John B. Moore, Concord, Massachusetts, originated this +variety from seed of Concord, planted about 1868.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, unproductive. Canes short, dark +reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; +tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper +surface dark green, dull; lower surface tinged with bronze, +heavily pubescent; leaf usually not lobed, terminus acute; +petiolar sinus wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus a notch +when present; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers fertile, open in +mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, length, +and breadth, cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, loose; +pedicel short, thick, smooth; brush short, pale green. Berries +large, round, purplish-black, firm; skin tender, adherent; flesh +green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough with slight +foxiness; fair to good. Seeds one to four, large, broad, plump, +blunt, brown with yellow tinge at tips. </p></div> + + +<h4>Moscatello</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Moscatello Nero. Black Muscat</em></p> + +<p>Beautiful in appearance and having a delicate Muscat taste and aroma, +this variety is one of the good table-grapes of the Pacific slope. +Unfortunately it ripens so late that it is hardly worth trying in the +East. The variety has the reputation of being very productive. The +description is compiled.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy, very productive. Leaves of medium size, +with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses; glabrous above, +slightly downy below, very hairy on the veins, with long, sharp +teeth. Bunch large to very large, long, loose, conico-cylindrical, +winged; berries very large, borne on long slender pedicels, dark +purple, almost black; skin thin but tough; flesh rather soft, +juicy; flavor sweet, rich, aromatic, musky; quality very good. +Season late, does not keep well. </p></div> + + +<h4>Moyer</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Bourquiniana)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Jordan, Moyer's Early Red</em></p> + +<p>Moyer is almost a counterpart of its parent, Delaware. Were it not +that the variety is from one to two weeks earlier<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span> than Delaware, and +somewhat hardier, hence better adapted for cold regions, it could have +no place in viticulture. Compared with Delaware, the vine is hardly as +vigorous and is less productive, but is freer from rot and mildew. The +bunches are much like those of Delaware but have the fault of setting +fruit imperfectly even when cross-pollination is assured; the berries +are a little larger, of much the same color and of like flavor, rich, +sweet, with pure vinousness and without a trace of foxiness. The fruit +keeps well, ships well and does not crack nor shell. Moyer is well +established in Canada, proving perfectly hardy wherever Concord is +grown, possibly standing even more cold. W. H. Read, Port Dalhousie, +Ontario, raised the original vine of Moyer, about 1880, from seed of +Delaware fertilized by Miller's Burgundy.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes numerous, +slender, dull, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; +internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. +Leaves small; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower +surface pale green or with faint blue tinge, heavily pubescent; +lobes two to five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus shallow; +basal sinus shallow when present; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; +teeth very shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile, open early; +stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well but loses color if kept too long. Clusters +small, short, slender, tapering, sometimes single-shouldered; +pedicel short with small warts; brush yellowish-green. Berries +small, oblate, dark red with faint bloom, persistent, firm; skin +tough, free, astringent; flesh translucent, juicy, tender, +fine-grained, vinous; good to very good. Seeds free, one to four, +broad, short, very blunt, brown with yellow tinge at tips. </p></div> + + +<h4>Muscatel</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>White Frontignan</em></p> + +<p>This old and standard sort is rather commonly grown in some of the +grape regions of California to follow Chasselas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> Golden. It might be +tried with some show of success in favored grape regions in the East. +The description is compiled.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine of medium size, vigorous, healthy; canes strong, spreading, +reddish-brown with short internodes. Leaves of medium size, thin, +five-lobed; glabrous except on the lower sides of the well-marked +ribs where a few hairs show. Bunches long, cylindrical, regular, +compact; berries round, golden-yellow becoming amber; flavor +sweet, rich, aromatic, peculiar; quality very good. Season late +mid-season, keeps and ships well. </p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 335px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXXI" id="Plate_XXXI"></a> +<img src="images/plate31.jpg" width="335" height="500" alt="Plate XXXI." title="Plate XXXI." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXXI.</span>—Worden (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + +<h4>Muscat Hamburg</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Muscat Hamburg (<a href="#Plate_XXV">Plate XXV</a>) is an old European grape well known in some +parts of America in greenhouse graperies, since it is one of the best +for forcing. All who know the beautiful fruits of this variety grown +in forcing-houses will want to test it out of doors, where at the +Geneva, New York, Experiment Station, they have done well, many +clusters attaining a weight of a pound and a half to two pounds. The +accompanying plate, the fruit much less than half natural size, shows +what a fine grape Muscat Hamburg is. One is struck with wondering +admiration at a vine laden with these grapes growing alongside +Concord, Niagara or Delaware. The quality is delectable, the +quintessence of the flavors and aromas which make the grape a favorite +fruit. The grapes keep long and retain their form, size, color and +rich, delicate flavor almost to the end. This variety is a treasure to +the amateur; and the professional who wants another grape for local +markets should try grafting over a few vines of some native to this +sort, following the directions given in <a href="#Page_184">Chapter X</a> in caring for the +vines.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vines vigorous, tender, need protection during the winter; canes +long, numerous, slender to medium, light brown, darker at the +nodes which are enlarged and flattened. Leaves medium to large, +intermediate in thickness; upper surface light green, dull; lower +surface pale green, faintly pubescent, densely hairy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>Fruit ripens in October, ships and keeps well; clusters very +large, long, broad, tapering, single or double-shouldered. Berries +large, firm, oval, very dark purplish-red, covered with lilac +bloom, very persistent; skin thick, adheres strongly to the pulp; +flesh pale green, translucent, meaty, very juicy, tender, vinous, +musky, sweet, rich; very good to best; seeds separating easily +from the pulp, large. </p></div> + + +<h4>Muscat of Alexandria</h4> + +<p>This is possibly the leading table- and raisin-grape of the Pacific +slope. From the literature or from a visit to vineyards, one cannot +make out whether one or several varieties are grown under the name. +Probably there are several strains grown under the distinctive name +"Muscat" which applies to these sweet, light yellow, musky grapes. +This is one of the standard sorts to force indoors but requires too +long a season for out of doors in the East. The following description +is compiled:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine short, straggling, bushy, sometimes forming a bush rather +than a vine, very productive; wood gray with dark spots, +short-jointed. Leaf round, five-lobed; bright green above, lighter +green below. Bunches long and loose, shouldered; berry oblong, +light yellow and transparent when fully mature, covered with white +bloom; flesh firm, crisp; flavor sweet and very musky; quality +good. Season late, the laterals producing a second and sometimes +even a third crop. </p></div> + + +<h4>Niagara</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Niagara (<a href="#Plate_XXVI">Plate XXVI</a>) is the leading American green grape, holding the +rank among grapes of this color that Concord maintains among black +varieties. It is, however, a less valuable grape than Concord, and it +is doubtful whether it should be ranked much higher than several other +green grapes. In vigor and productiveness, when the two grapes are on +equal footing as to adaptability, Niagara and Concord rank the same. +In hardiness of root and vine, Niagara falls short of Concord; it +cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span> be relied on without winter protection where the thermometer +falls below zero. Niagara has much of the foxiness of the wild +Labrusca, distasteful to many palates. Both bunches and berries of +Niagara are larger than those of Concord and are better formed, making +a handsomer fruit if the colors are liked equally well. The fruit +shells as badly as that of Concord and does not keep longer. Both vine +and fruit of Niagara are more susceptible to fungal diseases than +those of Concord, especially to black-rot, which proves a veritable +scourge with this variety in unfavorable seasons. Niagara was produced +by C. L. Hoag and B. W. Clark, Lockport, New York, from seed of +Concord fertilized by Cassady planted in 1868.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, lacking in hardiness, very productive. Canes long, +thick, reddish-brown deepening in color at the nodes which are +enlarged and slightly flattened; internodes long, thick; tendrils +continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper +surface glossy, dark green, smooth; lower surface pale green, +pubescent; lobes three to five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus +of medium depth and width; basal sinus shallow, wide, often +toothed; lateral sinus wide, frequently toothed; teeth shallow, +variable in width. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, +tapering, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick +with a few, small, inconspicuous warts; brush pale green, long. +Berries large, oval, pale yellowish-green with thin bloom, +persistent, firm; skin thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh +light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, foxy; good. +Seeds free, one to six, deeply notched, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Noah</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Noah is little grown at present outside of Missouri, where it is still +planted somewhat. Noah and Elvira are often confused but there are +very marked differences. The clusters of Elvira are smaller, the +berries are more foxy in taste, and the skins are more tender and +crack more readily than do those of Noah. The large, dark, glossy +green leaves make the vines of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span> this variety very handsome. As with +Elvira and other varieties of this group, Noah is of little value in +the North. It originated with Otto Wasserzieher, Nauvoo, Illinois, +from seed of Taylor planted in 1869.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes long, thick, +dark brown, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils +continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark +green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent; +leaf usually not lobed with terminus acuminate; petiolar sinus +deep, wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus very shallow when +present; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers semi-fertile, open early; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late mid-season, does not ship nor keep well. Clusters +variable in size, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel +short with a few small warts; brush short, brown. Berries small, +round, light green tinged with yellow, dull with thin bloom, firm; +skin adherent to pulp; flesh yellowish-green, translucent, juicy, +tough, fine-grained, vinous, sprightly; good. Seeds adherent, one +to four, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Northern Muscadine</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>That this variety, together with Lucile, Lutie and other grapes with +the foxy taste strongly marked, has not become popular, in spite of +good vine characters, is evidence that the American public do not +desire such grapes. In appearance of fruit, Northern Muscadine is much +like Lutie, the two being distinguished from other grapes by an +unmistakable odor. A serious defect of the fruit is that the berries +shatter badly as soon as they reach maturity. Taken as a whole, the +vine characters of this variety are very good and offer possibilities +for the grape-breeder. The variety originated at New Lebanon, New +York, and was brought to notice by D. J. Hawkins and Philemon Stewart +of the Society of Shakers about 1852.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, productive, healthy, hardy. Canes slender, dark +brown, heavily pubescent; tendrils continuous, bifid, dehisce +early. Leaves large, round, thick; upper surface dull, rugose; +lower surface<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span> dark bronze, heavily pubescent. Flowers +self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters medium in +size, short, occasionally single-shouldered, compact. Berries +large, oval, dark amber with thin bloom, drop badly from the +pedicel; skin tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, +juicy, fine-grained, tender, soft, very foxy, sweet; poor in +quality. Seeds free, numerous, large, broad, faintly notched, +long, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Norton</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Æstivalis, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Norton is one of the leading wine-grapes in eastern America, the fruit +having small value for any other purpose than wine or, possibly, +grape-juice. The vine is hardy but requires a long, warm season to +reach maturity so that it is seldom grown successfully north of the +Potomac. Norton thrives in rich alluvial clays, gravels or sands, the +only requisite seemingly being a fair amount of fertility and soil +warmth. The vines are robust; very productive, especially on fertile +soils; as free, or more so, from fungal diseases as any other of our +native grapes; and are very resistant to phylloxera. The bunches are +of but medium size and the berries are small. The grapes are pleasant +eating when fully ripe, rich, spicy and pure-flavored but tart if not +quite ripe. The variety is difficult to propagate from cuttings and to +transplant, and the vines do not bear grafts well. The origin of +Norton is uncertain, but it has been under cultivation since before +1830, when it was first described.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, healthy, half-hardy, productive. Canes long, +thick, dark brown with abundant bloom; nodes much enlarged; +internodes long; tendrils intermittent, occasionally continuous, +long, bifid, sometimes trifid. Leaves large, irregularly round; +upper surface pale green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, +pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar +sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus +usually absent; lateral sinus shallow or a mere notch when +present. Flowers self-fertile, late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, short, broad, +tapering, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with a few +warts; brush dull, wine-colored. Berries small, round-oblate, +black, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, free +with much dark red pigment; flesh green, translucent, juicy, +tender, spicy, tart. Seeds free, two to six, small, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Oporto</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Oporto was at one time in demand as a wine grape because its wine +resembled in color and flavor that from Oporto. The variety is now +scarcely known, being inferior in most of its horticultural characters +to others of its species, but might be valuable in breeding for some +of its characters. The vine is very hardy, unusually free from fungal +diseases, is very resistant to phylloxera and has been used in France +as a phylloxera-resistant grafting-stock. The juice is very thick and +dark, a deep purple, hence suitable for adding color to wine or +grape-juice. The origin of Oporto is unknown. It was brought into +cultivation about 1860 by E. W. Sylvester, Lyons, New York.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy, healthy, variable in productiveness. +Canes long, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes +long, diaphragm thin; tendrils continuous, bifid. Stamens +reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters small, +cylindrical, often single-shouldered. Berries medium in size, +round, black, glossy with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin +very thin, tender, with much dark wine-colored pigment; flesh +white, sometimes with purple tinge, juicy, fine-grained, solid, +sweet, spicy; fair quality. Seeds free, numerous, small, broad, +faintly notched, sharply pointed, plump, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Othello</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Arnold's Hybrid, Canadian Hamburg, Canadian Hybrid</em></p> + +<p>In France, Othello does remarkably well as a direct producer and is +used also for a resistant stock. While most of its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span> characters are +spoken of in the superlative by the French, in America the variety is +not so highly esteemed because of susceptibility to fungi. Moreover, +the fruit matures so late that it could never become a valuable +variety for the North. It is in no sense a table-grape but makes a +well-colored, pleasant wine. Charles Arnold, Paris, Ontario, grew +Othello from seed of Clinton fertilized by Black Hamburg and planted +in 1859.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, brown; nodes +enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, +bifid or trifid. Leaves of average size; upper surface light +green, dull and smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes +three to five with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep, very +narrow, frequently closed and overlapping; basal sinus shallow, +narrow; lateral sinus deep; teeth deep, wide; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps fairly well. Clusters large, long, broad, +tapering, frequently with a loose single shoulder, compact; +pedicel long, slender with numerous small warts; brush short, +wine-colored. Berries large, oval, black, glossy with abundant +bloom, very persistent; skin thin, tough, adherent with red +pigment; flesh dark green, very juicy, fine-grained, tough, +sprightly; low in quality. Seeds free, one to three, neck +sometimes swollen, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Ozark</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Æstivalis, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Ozark belongs to the South and to Missouri in particular. Its merits +and demerits have been threshed out by the Missouri grape-growers with +the result that its culture is somewhat increasing. It is a grape of +low quality, partly, perhaps, from over-bearing, which it habitually +does unless the fruit is thinned. The vine is healthy and a very +strong grower, but is self-sterile, which is against it as a market +sort. In spite of self-sterility and low quality, Ozark is a promising +variety for the country south of Pennsylvania. Ozark originated with +J. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kansas, from seed of unknown source. The +variety was introduced about 1890.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, thick with thin +bloom, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes +long; tendrils intermittent, usually bifid. Leaves dense, large; +upper surface light green; lower surface pale green, thinly +pubescent, cobwebby; lobes three to five; petiolar sinus deep, +narrow; serrations shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile or nearly +so, open late; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, usually with a long, +loose shoulder, very compact; pedicel short, thick, smooth; brush +long, red. Berries variable in size, dull black with abundant +bloom, persistent; skin tough with much wine-colored pigment; +flesh tender, mild; fair in quality. Seeds free, small. </p></div> + + +<h4>Palomino</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Golden Chasselas, Listan</em></p> + +<p>This variety seems to be grown in California under the three names +given—while in France Palomino is described as a bluish-black grape. +Palomino seems to be grown commonly in California as a table-grape and +is worth trying in eastern America. The variety received under the +name Palomino from California at the New York Experiment Station has +the following characters, agreeing closely with those set down by +Californian viticulturists:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Fruit ripens about the 20th of October, keeping qualities good; +clusters medium to large, long, single-shouldered, tapering, +loose; berries medium to small, roundish, pale greenish-yellow, +thin bloom; skin and the adhering flesh medium tender and crisp, +flesh surrounding seeds melting; flavor sweet, vinous; quality +good. </p></div> + + +<h4>Peabody</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Peabody is as yet a comparatively unimportant offspring of Clinton. +The grapes are of excellent quality. It appears to do better in the +northern tier of states or in Canada, than<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> farther south. This +variety was grown by J. H. Ricketts about 1870.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, +light brown with ash-gray tinge, darker at nodes, covered with +thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils +intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper +surface dark green, thin; lower surface pale green, nearly +glabrous; lobes three, acuminate; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; +serration deep, narrow. Flowers semi-fertile, mid-season; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, usually with a +shoulder connected to the bunch by a long stem, compact; pedicel +short, slender, warty; brush short, green. Berries oval, black, +glossy, covered with thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough; +flesh very juicy, tender, vinous, spicy, agreeably sweet at the +skin, tart at the center; good. Seeds free, broad. </p></div> + + +<h4>Perfection</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Perfection is a seedling of Delaware, which it greatly resembles but +does not equal in fruit; its fruits being hardly as high in quality, +do not keep as well, shrivel more before ripening, and shell more +readily. In its vine characters, it is much more like a Labrusca than +Delaware, suggesting that it is a Delaware cross. In the Southwest, +Perfection is considered a valuable early red grape. J. Stayman, +Leavenworth, Kansas, grew Perfection from seed of Delaware; it was +sent out for testing about 1890.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy, injured in severe winters, productive. +Canes of medium length and number, slender; nodes enlarged, +flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, trifid or +bifid. Leaves healthy, medium in size; upper surface light green; +lower surface grayish-white with a tinge of bronze, heavily +pubescent; lobes wanting or three to five; petiolar sinus shallow, +wide; serration shallow. Flowers self-fertile or nearly so, open +in mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early. Clusters usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel +short, slender, smooth; brush short, yellow. Berries small, round, +red but less brilliant than Delaware with faint bloom, inclined to +drop from pedicel, soft; skin thin, free from astringency; flesh +medium in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span> juiciness and tenderness, vinous, mild, sweet; good in +quality. Seeds adherent, numerous, small, often with an enlarged +neck. </p></div> + + +<h4>Perkins</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>At one time Perkins was grown largely as an early grape but has been +discarded very generally on account of the poor quality of the fruit. +The pulp of the grape is hard and the flavor is that of Wyoming and +Northern Muscadine, grapes characterized by disagreeable foxiness. As +with nearly all Labruscas, Perkins is a poor keeper. Notwithstanding +the faults of its fruit, the variety may have value in regions where +grape-growing is precarious; for in fruiting it is one of the most +reliable grapes cultivated, the vines being hardy, vigorous, +productive and free from fungal diseases. Perkins is an accidental +seedling found about 1830 in the garden of Jacob Perkins, Bridgewater, +Massachusetts.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, +thick, dark brown, deepening in color at the nodes, surface +heavily pubescent; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; +tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size, +thick; upper surface rugose; lower surface heavily pubescent; +veins distinct; lobes three; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; +serration shallow. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, ships well. Clusters of medium size and length, +broad, cylindrical, often with a single shoulder, compact; pedicel +short, thick, warty; brush long, yellow. Berries large, oval, pale +lilac or light red with thin bloom, inclined to drop from the +pedicel, soft; skin thin, tough, without pigment; flesh white, +juicy, stringy, fine-grained, firm, meaty, very foxy; poor in +quality. Seeds adherent, numerous, medium in size, notched. </p></div> + + +<h4>Pocklington</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Before the advent of Niagara, Pocklington (<a href="#Plate_XXII">Plate XXII</a>) was the leading +green grape. The variety has the fatal fault, how<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>ever, of ripening +its crop late, which with some minor defects has caused it to fall +below Niagara for northern grape districts. Pocklington is a seedling +of Concord and resembles its parent in vine characters; the vines are +fully equal to or surpass those of Concord in hardiness, but are of +slower growth and not quite as healthy, vigorous nor productive. In +quality, the grapes are as good if not better than those of Concord or +Niagara, being sweet, rich and pleasantly flavored, although as with +the other grapes named, it has too much foxiness for critical +consumers. Pocklington is not equal to several other grapes of its +season in quality, as Iona, Jefferson, Diana, Dutchess and Catawba, +but it is far above the average and for this reason should be +retained. John Pocklington, Sandy Hill, New York, grew Pocklington +from seed of Concord about 1870.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine medium in vigor, hardy. Canes of medium length, number and +size, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils +continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size, thick; upper +surface light green, glossy; lower surface tinged with bronze, +pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acuminate; petiolar +sinus deep, wide; teeth narrow. Flowers self-fertile, mid-season; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, +cylindrical, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, +thick with a few small warts; brush short, green. Berries large, +oblate, yellowish-green with tinge of amber, with thin bloom, +firm; skin with scattering russet dots, thin, tender, adherent, +faintly astringent; flesh light green with yellow tinge, +translucent, juicy, tough, fine-grained, slightly foxy; good. +Seeds adherent, one to six, of medium length and breadth. </p></div> + + +<h4>Poughkeepsie</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Bourquiniana, Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Poughkeepsie has been known long on the Hudson River, yet it is now +little grown there and has not been disseminated widely elsewhere. In +quality of fruit, it is equal to the best American varieties, but the +vine characters are all poor and the variety is thus effectually +debarred from common cultivation. Both vine and fruit resemble those +of Delaware, but in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span> neither does it quite equal the latter. In +particular, the vine is more easily winter-killed and is less +productive than that of Delaware. The grapes ripen a little earlier +than those of the last named sort and this, with their beauty and fine +quality, is sufficient to recommend it for the garden at least. About +1865, A. J. Caywood, Marlboro, New York, grew Poughkeepsie from seed +of Iona fertilized by mixed pollen of Delaware and Walter.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine of medium vigor. Canes short, thick, dark reddish-brown; +tendrils intermittent, frequently three in line, bifid or trifid. +Leaves small; upper surface green, glossy, older leaves rugose; +lower surface grayish-green, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, +late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters small, tapering, +usually single-shouldered, very compact. Berries small, round, +pale red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tender, +without pigment; flesh pale green, very juicy, tender, melting, +fine-grained, vinous, sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, small, +broad, with enlarged neck, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Prentiss</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Prentiss is a green grape of high quality, once well known and +generally recommended, but now going out of cultivation because the +vine is tender to cold, lacks in vigor, is unproductive, uncertain in +bearing and is subject to rot and mildew. There are vineyards in which +it does very well and in such it is a remarkably attractive green +grape, especially in form of cluster and in color of berry, in these +respects resembling the one-time favorite, Rebecca, although not so +high in quality as that variety. Its season is given as both before +and after Concord. Prentiss always must remain a variety for the +amateur and for special localities. It originated with J. W. Prentiss, +Pulteney, New York, about 1870 from seed of Isabella.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine weak. Canes thick, light to dark brown; tendrils continuous, +bifid. Leaves small, thick; upper surface light green, rugose in +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span> older leaves; lower surface pale green, pubescent. Flowers +self-fertile, mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit variable in season, about with Concord, keeps well. Cluster +medium in size, tapering, sometimes with a single shoulder, +compact. Berries medium in size, oval, light green with a yellow +tinge, thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, without pigment; +flesh pale green, juicy, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, numerous, +notched, short, sharp-pointed, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Purple Cornichon</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Black Cornichon</em></p> + +<p>By virtue of attractive appearance and excellent shipping qualities of +the fruit, this variety takes high place among the commercial grapes +of California. Late ripening is another quality making it desirable, +while its curious, long, curved berries add novelty to its +attractions. The fruit does not take high rank in quality. The +description has been compiled.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, healthy and productive; wood light brown +striped with darker brown, short-jointed. Leaves large, longer +than wide, deeply five-lobed; dark green above, lighter and very +hairy below; coarsely toothed; with short, thick petiole. Bunches +very large, loose or sometimes scraggly, borne on long peduncles; +berries large, long, more or less curved, dark purple, spotted, +thick-skinned, borne on long pedicels; flesh firm, crisp, sweet +but not rich in flavor; quality good but not high. Season late, +keeps and ships well. </p></div> + + +<h4>Rebecca</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>In the middle of the last century, when grape-growing was in the hands +of the connoisseurs, Rebecca was one of the sterling green varieties. +It is wholly unsuited for commercial vineyards and for years has been +disappearing gradually from cultivation. The fruit is exceptionally +fine, consisting of well-formed bunches and berries, the latter +handsome yellowish-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span>white and semi-transparent. In quality, the grapes +are of the best, with a rich, sweet flavor and pleasing aroma. But the +vine characters condemn Rebecca for any but the amateur. The vines +lack in hardiness and vigor, are susceptible to mildew and other fungi +and are productive only under the best conditions. The original vine +was an accidental seedling found in the garden of E. M. Peake, Hudson, +New York, and bore its first fruit in 1852.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine weak, sometimes vigorous, doubtfully hardy. Canes long, +numerous, slender, dull brown, deepening in color at the nodes; +tendrils continuous or intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves +variable in size; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower +surface grayish-green, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters small, +short, cylindrical, rarely with a small, single shoulder, compact. +Berries of medium size, oval, green with yellow tinge verging on +amber, thin gray bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, without +pigment; flesh pale green, very juicy, tender, melting, vinous, a +little foxy, sweet; good to very good. Seeds free, short, narrow, +blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Red Eagle</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Red Eagle is a pure-bred seedling of Black Eagle which it resembles in +all characters except color of fruit. Vine and fruit exhibit the +characters found in Rogers' hybrids. It takes high rank as a grape of +quality and can be recommended for the garden. The variety originated +with T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, and was sent out in 1888.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine medium in vigor and hardiness, productive. Canes few, +slender, dark brown with heavy bloom; nodes prominent, flattened; +tendrils continuous or intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves thick; +upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface +grayish-green, pubescent; lobes three to five with terminus +obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and +overlapping; basal sinus wide; lateral sinus deep, wide; teeth +deep, wide. Flowers semi-fertile, late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span>Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, +tapering, single-shouldered, sometimes double-shouldered, loose +with many abortive berries; pedicel very long, slender; brush +green with brown tinge. Berries variable in size, round, light to +very dark red with heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, +tender, adherent with some red pigment; flesh green, transparent, +juicy, very tender, melting, slightly foxy, tart; very good. Seeds +free, one to five, large, long, blunt, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Regal</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Regal is an offspring of Lindley, which it greatly resembles. The +fruit is attractive in appearance and high in quality. A seemingly +insignificant fault might make Regal undesirable in a commercial +vineyard; the clusters are borne so close to the wood that it is +difficult to harvest the fruit and avoid injury to the berries next to +the wood. The variety is worthy of extensive culture in vineyards and +gardens. Regal originated with W. A. Woodward, Rockford, Illinois, in +1879.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, very productive. Canes intermediate +in length and size, numerous, dark reddish-brown. Tendrils +intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface green, +glossy and rugose; lower surface pale green with a bronze tinge, +strongly pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, mid-season; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, cylindrical, +usually with a short single shoulder, sometimes double-shouldered, +very compact. Berries large, round, purplish-red with faint bloom, +persistent. Skin thin, tough, without pigment. Flesh pale green, +very juicy, fine-grained, tender, musky; good. Seeds free, +numerous, long, narrow, notched, blunt with a short neck, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Requa</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>This is one of Rogers' hybrids which equals other grapes of its color +and season. The grapes are attractive in cluster and berry and are of +very good quality but are subject to rot and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span> ripen too late for +northern regions. The variety was named Requa in 1869, it having been +previously known as No. 28.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy except in severe winters, medium in +productiveness. Canes long, thick; tendrils continuous or +intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves medium in size, dark green, +often thick and rugose; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent. +Flowers semi-fertile, late; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps long. Clusters large, cylindrical, often with a +long, single shoulder, compact. Berries large, oval, dark, dull +red covered with thin bloom, strongly adherent; skin thin, tough, +adherent; flesh pale green, tender, stringy, vinous, foxy, sweet; +good to very good. Seeds adherent, medium in size and length, +broad, blunt. </p></div> + + +<h4>Rochester</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>The fruit of Rochester is a large-clustered red grape, handsome and +very good in quality. The vine is a strong grower, productive and free +from diseases. The variety is difficult to propagate and, therefore, +not in favor with nurserymen. The grapes are sweet, rich and vinous +but should be used as soon as ripe, as they do not keep well and the +berries quickly shatter from the bunch. As an attractive early red +grape, Rochester is worth a place in the garden and in favored +locations for a special market. Ellwanger and Barry, Rochester, New +York, in 1867 grew Rochester from mixed seed of Delaware, Diana, +Concord and Rebecca.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, dark reddish-brown; +nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils +intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface +light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface grayish-green, +pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus +deep; basal sinus absent; lateral sinus shallow; teeth shallow. +Flowers fertile, mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit does not keep well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, usually +single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender with few warts; +brush slender, yellowish-brown. Berries medium, oval, +purplish-red,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> dull with thin, lilac bloom, drop from the +pedicel, soft; skin thick, tough, inclined to crack, free, without +pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy, tender, +fine-grained, vinous, sweet; good to very good. Seeds free, one to +three, large, short, broad, dark brown. </p></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 337px;"> +<a name="Plate_XXXII" id="Plate_XXXII"></a> +<img src="images/plate32.jpg" width="337" height="500" alt="Plate XXXII." title="Plate XXXII." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="fig">Plate XXXII.</span>—Wyoming (×<span class="frac_top">2</span>/<span class="frac_bottom">3</span>).</span> +</div> + + +<h4>Rommel</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vulpina, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Rommel is rarely cultivated in the North, because the vines lack in +robustness, hardiness and productiveness and are susceptible to the +leaf-hopper; and the grapes do not attain high quality and crack as +they ripen. The bunch and berry are attractive in form, size and +color. At its best, Rommel is a good table-grape and makes a fine +white wine. It is worth growing in the South. T. V. Munson, Denison, +Texas, originated Rommel in 1885, from seed of Elvira pollinated by +Triumph, and introduced it in 1889.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous in the South. Canes long, numerous, thick, +reddish-brown, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, often flattened; +internodes short; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. +Leaves medium in size, round, thick; upper surface light green, +dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, free from pubescence but +slightly hairy; leaf not lobed, terminus acute to acuminate; +petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal +sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow when present; teeth deep. +Flowers semi-fertile, late; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters medium to short, +broad, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, +smooth; brush short, pale green. Berries large, roundish, light +green with a yellow tinge, glossy, persistent, firm; skin thin, +cracks badly, tender, adherent, without pigment or astringency; +flesh greenish, translucent, juicy, tender, melting, stringy, +sweet; fair to good. Seeds free, one to four, broad, +sharp-pointed, plump, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Rosaki</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Rosaki is a table-and raisin-grape of southeastern Europe and Asia +Minor. According to some of the California nursery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> companies, it is +grown in that state under the name Dattier de Beyrouth, although it +would seem from French descriptions that there is a separate, very +late variety of the latter name. Rosaki is similar to Malaga and there +is a possibility that in some of the warmer parts of the East, it may +be grown commercially as a substitute for the latter. The variety +seems to be little grown on the Pacific slope.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vines vigorous, usually very productive. Leaves large, roundish, +rugose, usually five-lobed; terminal lobe acuminate; petiolar +sinus moderately deep to deep, medium broad; lower lateral sinus +shallow, broad, occasionally lacking; upper lateral sinus shallow +to medium, broad; margins broadly and bluntly dentate. Fruit +ripens the third week in October, keeping qualities excellent; +clusters large, loose, tapering, shouldered; berries large to very +large, oval to long-oval, pale yellow-green; flesh translucent, +tender, meaty, vinous, sprightly; quality good to very good. </p></div> + + +<h4>Rose of Peru</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>Rose of Peru is a favorite table-grape in California, confused with +and possibly the same as Black Prince. Its chief commendable +characters are handsome appearance and high quality of fruit and very +productive vines. It is not adapted for shipping and does not enter +plentifully into commerce. Its season is so late that the variety is +hardly worth trying in the East, and yet it has matured in favorable +seasons at Geneva, New York. The following description is compiled:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, healthy, productive; wood short-jointed, dark +brown. Leaves of medium size; deep green above, lighter green and +tomentose below. Bunches very large, shouldered, very loose, often +scraggly; berry large, round, black with firm, crackling flesh; +skin rather thin and tender; flavor sweet and rich; quality very +good to best. Season late, keeping rather well but not shipping +well. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span></p> +<h4>Salem</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Rogers' No. 22, Rogers' No. 53</em></p> + +<p>Salem (<a href="#Plate_XXVII">Plate XXVII</a>) is the one of Rogers' hybrids of which the +originator is said to have thought most, and to which he gave the name +of his place of residence. The two chief faults, unproductiveness and +susceptibility to mildew, are not found in all localities, and in +these districts, near good markets, Salem ought to rank high as a +commercial fruit. The vine is hardy, vigorous and productive and bears +handsome fruit of high quality. This variety was christened Salem by +Rogers in 1867, two years earlier than his other hybrids were named.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, variable in productiveness. Canes long, dark +brown; nodes enlarged; tendrils continuous or intermittent, long, +bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size; upper surface dark +green, dull; lower surface pale green with slight bronze tinge, +pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus +deep, narrow, often overlapping; basal sinus lacking; lateral +sinus shallow, narrow, notched. Flowers sterile, mid-season; +stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, short, broad, +tapering, heavily shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick with +small warts, enlarged at point of attachment to berry; brush +short, pale green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull, +persistent, soft; skin thick, adherent, without pigment, +astringent; flesh translucent, juicy, tender, stringy, +fine-grained, vinous, sprightly; good to very good. Seeds one to +six, large, long and broad, blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Scuppernong</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Rotundifolia)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>American Muscadine, Bull, Bullace, Bullet, Fox Grape, Green +Scuppernong, Green Muscadine, Hickman, Muscadine, Roanoke</em></p> + +<p>Scuppernong is preëminently the grape of the South, the chief +representative of the great species, <em>V. rotundifolia</em>, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span> runs +riot in natural luxuriance from Delaware and Maryland to the Gulf and +westward from the Atlantic to Arkansas and Texas. Scuppernong vines +are found on arbors, in gardens, or half wild, on trees and fences on +nearly every farm in the South Atlantic states. As a rule, these vines +receive little cultivation, are unpruned and are given no care of any +kind; but even under neglect they produce large crops. The vines are +almost immune to mildew, rot, phylloxera, or other fungal or insect +pests; they give not only an abundance of fruit but on arbors and +trellises are much prized for their shade and beauty. The fruit, to a +palate accustomed to other grapes, is not very acceptable, having a +musky flavor and a somewhat repugnant odor, which, however, with +familiarity becomes quite agreeable. The pulp is sweet and juicy but +is lacking in sprightliness. The grapes are not suitable for the +market since the berries drop from the bunch in ripening and become +more or less smeared with juice so that their appearance is not +appetizing.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, not hardy in the North, very productive. Canes +long, numerous, slender, ash-gray to grayish-brown; surface +smooth, thickly covered with small, light brown dots; tendrils +intermittent, simple. Leaves small, thin; upper surface light +green, smooth; lower surface very pale green, pubescent along the +ribs; veins inconspicuous. Flowers very late; stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, ripens unevenly, berries drop as they mature. Clusters +small, round, unshouldered, loose. Berries few in a cluster, +large, round, dull green, often with brown tinge, firm; skin +thick, tough with many small russet dots; flesh pale green, juicy, +tender, soft, fine-grained, foxy, sweet to agreeably tart; fair to +good. Seeds adherent, large, short, broad, unnotched, blunt, +plump, surface smooth, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Secretary</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Injured by mildew and rot which attack leaves, fruit and young wood, +the vines of Secretary are able to produce good grapes only in +exceptional seasons and in favored localities.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span> The fruit characters +of Secretary, however, give the grapes exceptionally high quality, the +berries being meaty yet juicy, fine-grained and tender, with a sweet, +spicy, vinous flavor. The bunches are large, well-formed, with +medium-sized, purplish-black berries covered with thick bloom, making +a very handsome cluster. While the vine and foliage somewhat resemble +those of Clinton, one of its parents, the variety is not nearly as +hardy, vigorous nor productive. Moreover, in any but favored +localities in the North, its maturity is somewhat uncertain. These +defects keep Secretary from becoming of commercial importance and make +it of value only to the amateur. Secretary is one of the first +productions of J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, the original vine +coming from seed of Clinton fertilized by Muscat Hamburg, planted in +1867.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, variable in productiveness. Canes +numerous, light brown, conspicuously darker at nodes, surface +covered with thin, blue bloom; tendrils intermittent, bifid. +Leaves small to medium, thin; upper surface light green, dull, +smooth; lower surface pale green, glabrous. Flowers semi-fertile, +early; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit ripens after Concord, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, +long, cylindrical with a large, single shoulder, often loose and +with many abortive fruits. Berries large, round, flattened at +attachment to pedicel, dark purplish-black, glossy, persistent, +firm; skin tough with wine-colored pigment; flesh green, juicy, +fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds free, large, +broad, notched, long, dark brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Senasqua</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>The vine of Senasqua lacks in vigor, hardiness, productiveness and +health. The grapes are of good quality, and when well grown are up to +the average fruits of the Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids. Unfortunately the +berries have a tendency to crack which is aggravated by the bunches +being so compact as to crowd the berries. Senasqua is one of the +latest grapes to open its buds and is, therefore, seldom injured by +late frosts. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span> can be recommended only for the garden for the sake +of variety. Stephen W. Underhill of Crown Point, New York, originated +Senasqua from seed of Concord pollinated by Black Prince.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine weak and tender, often unproductive. Canes short, few, +reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent, +long, trifid or bifid. Leaves light green, glossy, rugose; lower +surface whitish-green, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with +terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal and lateral sinuses +shallow and narrow when present. Flowers fertile, late; stamens +upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit a little later than Concord, keeps well. Clusters large, +broad, irregularly tapering, usually with a small, single +shoulder, very compact; pedicel thick, smooth, enlarged at point +of attachment; brush short, reddish. Berries large, round, +reddish-black, persistent, firm; skin thick, tender, cracks, +adherent, contains some wine-colored pigment; flesh green, +translucent, juicy, tender, meaty, vinous, spicy; good. Seeds +free, one to five, long, narrow, one-sided, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Sultana</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p>This variety was formerly the standard seedless grape in California +for home use and raisins, but it is now outstripped by Sultanina. +Sultana is possibly better flavored than Sultanina but the vines are +hardly as vigorous or productive and the berries often have seeds. The +description is compiled.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vines vigorous, upright, productive. Leaves large, five-lobed, +with large sinuses, light in color, coarsely toothed. Bunches +large, long, cylindrical, heavily shouldered, sometimes not well +filled, often loose and scraggly; berries small, round, firm and +crisp, golden-yellow, sweet with considerable piquancy; quality +good. </p></div> + + +<h4>Sultanina</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Thompson's Seedless</em></p> + +<p>Sultanina is one of the standard seedless grapes of the Pacific slope, +grown both to eat out of hand and for raisins. Probably<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span> it can be +grown in home plantations in favored parts of eastern America where +the season is long and warm. The following description is compiled +from Californian viticulturists:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, very productive; trunk large with very long +canes. Leaves glabrous on both sides, dark yellow-green above, +light below; generally three-lobed, with shallow sinuses; teeth +short and obtuse. Bunch large, conico-cylindrical, well filled, +with herbaceous peduncles; berries oval, beautiful golden-yellow +color; skin moderately thick; flesh of rather neutral flavor; very +good. </p></div> + + +<h4>Taylor</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vulpina, Labrusca)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Bullitt</em></p> + +<p>While it is from the species to which Taylor belongs that we must look +for our hardiest vines, nevertheless this grape and its offspring, +although not tender to cold, do best in southern regions, as they +require a long warm summer to mature properly. The quality of the +fruit of Taylor is fair to good, the flavor being sweet, pure, +delicate and spicy and the flesh tender and juicy; but the bunches are +small and the flowers are infertile so that the berries do not set +well, making very imperfect and unsightly clusters. The skin is such, +also, that it cracks badly, a defect seemingly transmitted to many of +the seedlings of the variety. The vine is strong, healthy, hardy but +not very productive. The original vine of Taylor was a wild seedling +found in the early part of the last century on the Cumberland +Mountains near the Kentucky-Tennessee line by a Mr. Cobb.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous to rank, healthy, hardy, variable in productiveness. +Leaves small, attractive in color, smooth. Flowers bloom early; +stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit ripens about two weeks before Isabella. Clusters small to +medium, shouldered, loose or moderately compact. Berries small to +medium, roundish, pale greenish-white, sometimes tinged with +amber; skin very thin; pulp sweet, spicy; fair to good in quality.</p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span></p> +<h4>Triumph</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>When quality, color, shape and size of bunch and berry are considered, +Triumph (<a href="#Plate_XXVIII">Plate XXVIII</a>) is one of the finest dessert grapes of America. +At its best, it is a magnificent bunch of golden grapes of highest +quality, esteemed even in southern Europe where it must compete with +the best of the Viniferas. In America, however, its commercial +importance is curtailed by the fact that the fruit requires a long +season for proper development. Triumph has, in general, the vine +characters of the Labrusca parent, Concord, especially its habit of +growth, vigor, productiveness and foliage characters, falling short in +hardiness, resistance to fungal diseases and earliness of fruit, the +fruit maturing with or a little later than Catawba. While the vine +characters of Triumph are those of Labrusca, there is scarcely a +suggestion of the coarseness, or of the foxy odor and taste of +Labrusca, and the objectionable seeds, pulp and skin of the native +grape give way to the far less objectionable structures of Vinifera. +The flesh is tender and melting and the flavor rich, sweet, vinous, +pure and delicate. The skins of the berries under unfavorable +conditions crack badly, the variety, therefore, neither shipping nor +keeping well. Triumph was grown soon after the Civil War by George W. +Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, from seed of Concord fertilized by Chasselas +Musque.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous. Canes long, dark brown with much bloom; nodes +enlarged; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid, sometimes bifid. +Leaves large; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower +surface grayish-white, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with +terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and +overlapping; basal sinus absent; lateral sinus shallow and narrow +when present; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, late; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit very late. Clusters very large, long, broad, cylindrical, +sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, smooth; +brush short, yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, oval, golden +yellow, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, +inclined to crack,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span> adherent, without pigment, slightly +astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, +tender, vinous; good to very good. Seeds free, one to five, small, +brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Ulster</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>The vines of Ulster set too much fruit in spite of efforts to control +the crop by pruning; two undesirable results follow, the bunches are +small and the vines, lacking vigor at best, fail to recover from the +overfruitfulness. These defects keep the variety from becoming of +importance commercially or even a favorite as a garden grape. The +quality of the fruit is very good, being much like that of Catawba, +and under favorable conditions it is an attractive green with a red +tinge. The fruit keeps well when the variety is grown under conditions +suited to it. Ulster originated with A. J. Caywood, Marlboro, New +York, and was introduced by him about 1885. Its parents are said to be +Catawba pollinated by a wild Æstivalis. Both vine and fruit show +traces of Labrusca and Vinifera, but the Æstivalis characters, if +present, are not apparent.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine hardy, productive, overbears. Canes short, slender, dark +brown, surface roughened and covered with faint pubescence; nodes +enlarged and flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, +bifid, dehisce early. Leaves small, thick; upper surface light +green, glossy, smooth; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent; +leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus medium +to wide; basal sinus absent; lateral sinus a notch when present; +teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late mid-season. Clusters long, cylindrical, often +single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, with numerous warts; +brush short, yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, round, dark +dull red with thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough, adherent, +astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender, +fine-grained, faintly aromatic, slightly foxy; good to very good. +Seeds free, one to six, medium in size, plump, brown. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span></p> +<h4>Verdal</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Aspiran Blanc</em></p> + +<p>Verdal is one of the standard late grapes of the Pacific slope, +ripening among the last. The grapes are seen seldom in distant markets +and the quality is not quite good enough to make it a very great +favorite for home plantations. Vigor and hardiness of vines commend it +as do the large and handsome fruits, and these qualities, with late +ripening, will probably long keep it on grape lists in the far West. +The description is compiled.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vines vigorous, hardy, healthy and productive; canes rather +slender, half erect. Leaves of medium size, glabrous on both +surfaces, except below near the axis of the main nerve; sinuses +well marked and generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance +of having five holes; teeth long, unequal, acuminate. Bunches +large to very large, irregular, long-conical, usually compact; +shoulders small or lacking; berries large or very large, +yellowish-green; skin thick but tender; flesh crisp, firm; flavor +agreeable but not rich; quality good. Season very late, keeping +and shipping well. </p></div> + + +<h4>Vergennes</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>The most valuable attribute of Vergennes (<a href="#Plate_XXIX">Plate XXIX</a>) is certainty in +bearing. The vine seldom fails to bear although it often overbears, +causing variability in size of fruits and time of ripening. With a +moderate crop, the grapes ripen with Concord, but with a heavy load +from one to two weeks later. Vergennes is somewhat unpopular with +vineyardists because of the sprawling habit of the vines which makes +them untractable for vineyard operations; this fault is obviated by +grafting on other vines. The grapes are attractive, the quality is +good, flavor agreeable, the flesh tender, and seeds and skin are not +objectionable. Vergennes is the standard late-keeping grape<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span> for +northern regions, being very common in the markets as late as January. +The original vine was a chance seedling in the garden of William E. +Greene, Vergennes, Vermont, in 1874.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine variable in vigor, doubtfully hardy, productive, healthy. +Canes long, dark brown; nodes enlarged, strongly flattened; +tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thin; +upper surface light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface pale +green, very pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus +broadly acute; petiolar sinus wide; teeth shallow. Flowers +semi-sterile, mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters of medium size, broad, +cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, loose; pedicel with +numerous small warts; brush slender, short, pale green. Berries +large, oval, light and dark red with thin bloom, persistent; skin +thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, juicy, +fine-grained, somewhat stringy, tender, vinous; good to very good. +Seeds free, one to five, blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Walter</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana)</p> + +<p>Were it not almost impossible to grow healthy vines of Walter, the +variety would rank high among American grapes. But stunted by fungi +which attack leaves, young wood and fruit, it is possible only in +exceptionally favorable seasons satisfactorily to produce crops of +this variety. Besides susceptibility to diseases, the vines are +fastidious to soils, everywhere variable in growth and are injured in +cold winters. As if to atone for the faults of the vine, the fruit of +Walter is almost perfect, lacking only in size of bunch and berry. The +bunch and berry resemble those of Delaware, but the fruit is not as +high in quality as that of its parents. Walter is adapted to +conditions under which Delaware thrives. A. J. Caywood, Modena, New +York, grew this variety about 1850 from seed of Delaware pollinated by +Diana.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous. Canes medium in length and size, dark reddish-brown +with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent, +bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span> +lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes one to +three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus +lacking; lateral sinus a notch if present. Flowers mid-season; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters medium in size, broad, +cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, +with small, scattering warts; brush short, slender, green with +brown tinge. Berries small, ovate, red, glossy with thin bloom, +persistent, firm; skin very tough, adheres slightly, unpigmented; +flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, somewhat foxy, +vinous, aromatic; good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to four, +small, sharp-pointed, light brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Wilder</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera)</p> + +<p>The fruit of Wilder is surpassed in quality and appearance by other of +Rogers' hybrids, but the vine is the most reliable of any of these +hybrid sorts, being vigorous, hardy, productive, and, although +somewhat susceptible to mildew, as healthy as any. Wilder is not as +well known in the markets as it should be, and now that fungal +diseases can be controlled by spraying should be more commonly planted +in commercial vineyards, especially for local markets. Wilder is one +of the forty-five Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids raised by E. S. Rogers, +Salem, Massachusetts, having been described first in 1858.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, susceptible to mildew. Canes +long, numerous, reddish-brown, darker at the nodes; internodes +long; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, +irregularly round; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower +surface pale green, pubescent; usually not lobed with terminus +acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; +basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow, or a mere +notch when present. Flowers self-sterile, mid-season; stamens +reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters variable in +size, short, broad, tapering, heavily single-shouldered, loose; +pedicel long, thick with numerous warts; brush thick, green with +tinge of red. Berries large, oval, purplish-black with heavy +bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, adherent to pulp, with bright +red pigment, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender; +good. Seeds adherent, one to five, long, light brown. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span></p> +<h4>Winchell</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera, Æstivalis)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Green Mountain</em></p> + +<p>The vines of Winchell (<a href="#Plate_XXX">Plate XXX</a>) are vigorous, hardy, healthy, +productive, and the fruit is early, of high quality and ships +well—altogether a most admirable early grape. There are some minor +faults which become drawbacks in the culture of Winchell. The berries, +and under some conditions the bunches, are small and the bunch is +loose with a large shoulder. Sometimes this looseness becomes so +pronounced as to give a straggling, poorly-formed cluster; and the +shoulder, when as large as the cluster itself, which often happens, +makes the cluster unsightly. The grapes shell when fully ripe, a +serious fault. Again, while the crop usually ripens evenly, there are +seasons when two pickings are needed because of the unevenness in +ripening. Lastly, the skin is thin and there is danger in unfavorable +seasons of the berries cracking, although this is seldom a serious +fault. These defects do not offset the several good characters of +Winchell which make it the standard early green grape, deserving to +rank with the best early grapes of any color. The original vine was +raised by James Milton Clough, Stamford, Vermont, about 1850 from seed +of an unknown purple grape.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, very productive. Canes long, +numerous, slender, dark brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, +flattened; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, bifid. +Leaves large; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower +surface dull green, tinged with bronze, faintly pubescent; lobes +three to five with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep; basal +sinus shallow; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers fertile, mid-season; +stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters long, slender, +cylindrical, often with a long shoulder, compact; pedicel short, +slender with few inconspicuous warts; brush greenish-white. +Berries small, round, light green, persistent, soft; skin marked +with small, reddish-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span>brown spots, thin, tender, slightly +astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, +sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, one to four, small, plump, +wide and long, blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Woodruff</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca, Vinifera?)</p> + +<p>Woodruff is a handsome, showy, brick-red grape with large clusters and +berries, but its taste belies its looks, for the flesh is coarse and +the flavor poor. The variety would not be worth attention were it not +for its excellent vine characters; the vines are hardy, productive and +healthy. The grapes ripen a little before Concord and come on the +market at a favorable time, especially for a red grape. Woodruff +originated from C. H. Woodruff, Ann Arbor, Michigan, as a chance +seedling which came up in 1874 and fruited first in 1877.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine very vigorous, hardy. Canes dark brown; nodes enlarged, +flattened; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves round; +upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface +greenish-white, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus +acute; petiolar sinus wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus +shallow and narrow when present; teeth shallow. Flowers +semi-fertile, early; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit ripening before Concord. Clusters broad, widely tapering, +usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick, smooth; +brush long, pale green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull, +firm; skin thin, tender, adherent, slightly astringent; flesh pale +green, translucent, juicy, tough, coarse, very foxy; fair in +quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, broad, short, plump, blunt, +brown. </p></div> + + +<h4>Worden</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p>Of the many offspring of Concord, Worden (<a href="#Plate_XXXI">Plate XXXI</a>) is best known +and most meritorious. The grapes differ chiefly from those of Concord +in having larger berries and bunches, in having better quality and in +being a week to ten days earlier.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span> The vine is equally hardy, healthy, +vigorous and productive but is more fastidious in its adaptations to +soil, although now and then it does even better. The chief fault of +the variety is that the fruit cracks badly, often preventing the +profitable marketing of a crop. Besides this tenderness of skin, the +fruit-pulp of Worden is softer than that of Concord, there is more +juice, and the keeping qualities are not as good, so that the grapes +hardly ship as well as those of the more commonly grown grape. Worden +is very popular in northern grape regions both for commercial +plantations and the garden. It is a more desirable inhabitant of the +garden, because of higher quality of fruit than Concord, and under +conditions well suited to it is better as a commercial variety, as the +fruit is handsomer as well as of better quality. In the markets the +fruit ought to sell for a higher price than Concord if desired for +immediate consumption, and if it can be harvested promptly, as it does +not hang well on the vines. Its earlier season is against it for a +commercial variety and, with the defects mentioned, will prevent its +taking the place of Concord to a great degree. Worden was originated +by Schuyler Worden, Minetto, Oswego County, New York, from seed of +Concord planted about 1863.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes large, thick, +dark brown with reddish tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils +continuous, slender, bifid, sometimes trifid. Young leaves tinged +on the under side and along the margins of upper side with +rose-carmine. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, +glossy, smooth; lower surface light bronze, pubescent; leaf +usually not lobed; petiolar sinus wide, often urn-shaped; teeth +shallow. Flowers fertile, mid-season; stamens upright.</p> + +<p>Fruit early. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, usually +single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with a few small +warts; brush long, light green. Berries large, round, dark +purplish-black, glossy with heavy bloom, firm; skin tender, cracks +badly, adheres slightly, contains dark red pigment, astringent. +Flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough, foxy, sweet, +mild; good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to five, large, +broad, short, blunt, brown. </p></div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span></p> +<h4>Wyoming</h4> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead">(Labrusca)</p> + +<p class="grape_variety_subhead"><em>Hopkins Early Red, Wilmington Red, Wyoming Red</em></p> + +<p>Such value as Wyoming (<a href="#Plate_XXXII">Plate XXXII</a>) possesses lies in the hardiness, +productiveness and healthiness of the vine. The appearance of the +fruit is very good, the bunches are well formed and composed of rich +amber-colored berries of medium size. The quality, however, is poor, +being that of the wild Labrusca in foxiness of flavor and in flesh +characters. It is not nearly as valuable as some other of the red +Labruscas hitherto described and can hardly be recommended either for +the garden or the vineyard. Wyoming was introduced by S. J. Parker of +Ithaca, New York, who states that it came from Pennsylvania in 1861.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous, +slender, dark reddish-brown covered with blue bloom; nodes +enlarged, frequently flattened; tendrils continuous, short, bifid. +Leaves of average size and thickness; upper surface light green, +dull, smooth; lower surface dull green with tinge of bronze, +pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus +shallow, wide; basal sinus usually wanting; lateral sinus shallow +and wide when present; teeth shallow. Flowers sterile, mid-season; +stamens reflexed.</p> + +<p>Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters slender, cylindrical, compact; +pedicel short, slender with small warts; brush slender, pale green +with brown tinge. Berries medium, round, rich amber red with thin +bloom, persistent, firm; skin tender, adherent, astringent; flesh +pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, solid, strongly foxy, +vinous; poor in quality. Seeds adherent, one to three, slightly +notched, light brown. </p></div> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<h2>FOOTNOTES:</h2> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Bioletti, Frederic T. <em>Report of International Congress +of Viticulture</em>, 88. 1915.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Anthony, R. D. <em>N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 632</em>: 88. +1917.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Bioletti, Frederic T. <em>Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180</em>: 135. +1906.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <em>Ibid.</em>, 136–138.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Bioletti, Frederic T. <em>Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180</em>: +108–112.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Bioletti, Frederic T. <em>Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180</em>: +113–118.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Munson, T. V. <em>Foundations of American Grape Culture</em>, +217. 1909.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Bioletti, Frederic T. <em>Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180</em>: +96–97. 1906.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> For an account of this experiment, see Bul. 381 of the N. +Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Geneva.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Quoted from Bul. No. 381, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Each weight is of 300 green leaves, 5 from each of 60 +vines. The first leaf beyond the last cluster was selected.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Amount to the acre of wood pruned in fall.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Number to the acre.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Munson, T. V. <em>Foundations of American Grape Culture</em>: +224–227. 1909.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Husmann, George C., and Dearing, Charles. <em>Muscadine +Grapes. Bul. 709, U. S. Dept. Agr.</em>: 16–19. 1916.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The remainder of this chapter is republished by +permission from <em>Bul. 246, Calif. Exp. Sta., Vine Pruning in +California</em>, published in 1916 by F. T. Bioletti. Not all of the +bulletin is reproduced, but the parts republished are transcribed +verbatim. All of the illustrations in this chapter have been redrawn +from Professor Bioletti's bulletin.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The following account is founded on work carried on by +the author at the N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., accounts of which have been +given before several horticultural societies in 1916, 1917 and 1918.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Husmann, Geo. C., and Dearing, Charles. <em>The Muscadine +Grapes</em>, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 273: 33–36. 1913.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Husmann, George C. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. No. +644.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Husmann, George C. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. No. 349. 1916.</p></div> +</div> + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span></p> +<div id="index"> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<p class="subhead">(Names of species, and synonyms of varietal names, are in italics.)</p> + +<p class="new_letter">Actoni, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</p> + +<p>Adaptations of stocks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p> + +<p>Adlum, John, mentioned, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Admirable</em>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Adoxus obscurus</em>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</p> + +<p>Æstivalis grapes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p> + +<p>Affinity of stock and cion, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</p> + +<p>Agawam, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</p> + +<p>Air currents, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Alabama</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p>Alexander, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Alexander</em>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> + +<p>Alicante, for forcing, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p> + +<p>Alleys, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> + +<p>Almeria, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</p> + +<p>Amadas & Barlowe, mentioned, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p>America, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</p> + +<p><em>American Muscadine</em>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Aminia, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</p> + +<p>Anaheim disease, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</p> + +<p>Anthony, on grafting, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p> + +<p>Anthracnose, control of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">description of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Aramon × Rupestris, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p> + +<p>Arbors, training vines on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Arkansas</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Arnold's Hybrid</em>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Aspiran Blanc</em>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> + +<p>August Giant, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Bacchus, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</p> + +<p>Bagging grapes, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">cost of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Bakator, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</p> + +<p>Barbarossa, for forcing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> + +<p>Bark, structure of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</p> + +<p>Barry, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</p> + +<p>Bartram, on the Alexander, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p>Beach Grape, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</p> + +<p>Beacon, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Beaconsfield</em>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p> + +<p>Beak defined, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p> + +<p>Bench grafting, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">essentials of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">operation of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">preparing cuttings for, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Berckmans, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</p> + +<p>Berry, characters of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p> + +<p>Bioletti, on callusing beds, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">on grafting, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">on pruning in California, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">on resistant stocks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">quoted, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Bird Grape, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</p> + +<p>Bitter-rot, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Black Cape</em>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Black Cornichon</em>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> + +<p>Black Eagle, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Black El Paso</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Black German</em>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p> + +<p>Black Hamburg, for forcing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Black July</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p>Black Malvoise, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</p> + +<p>Black Morocco, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Black Muscat</em>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> + +<p>Black rot, control of, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">description of, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Black Spanish</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p>Bloom defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p>Blooming dates of grapes, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</p> + +<p>Blooming, time of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Blue French</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p>Blue Grape, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> + +<p>Borders in graperies, making, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">care of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Bottsi</em>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span>Bowed canes, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</p> + +<p>Branches defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p>Brighton, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</p> + +<p>Brilliant, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</p> + +<p>Brown, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Brown French</em>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> + +<p>Brush defined, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</p> + +<p>Buckland Sweetwater, for forcing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> + +<p>Buds, characters of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">defined, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Bull</em>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Bull, Ephraim W., mentioned, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p> + +<p>Bull Grape, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Bullace</em>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Bullace Grape, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Bullet</em>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Bullet Grape, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Bullitt</em>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> + +<p>Bunch Grape, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Burgundy</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p>Bush Grape, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</p> + +<p>Bushy Grape, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p> + +<p>By-products of the grape, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Callusing bed, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p> + +<p>Campbell Early, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</p> + +<p>Canada, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Canadian Hamburg</em>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Canadian Hybrid</em>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> + +<p>Canandaigua, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</p> + +<p>Canandaigua Lake grape region, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p> + +<p>Cane-renewal, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> + +<p>Canes, characters of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">disposition of, in pruning, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Care of young vines, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</p> + +<p>Carman, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</p> + +<p>Catawba, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">history of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Catawba Tokay</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Catch crops, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p> + +<p>Cato, on grafting, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">quoted, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Cayuga Lake grape region, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p> + +<p>Central Lake grape region, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</p> + +<p>Chalaza defined, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p> + +<p>Champagne, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</p> + +<p>Champagne industry, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p> + +<p>Champion, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p> + +<p>Chasselas Golden, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Chasselas Dore</em>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p> + +<p>Chasselas Rose, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</p> + +<p>Chautauqua, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</p> + +<p>Chautauqua grape-belt, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</p> + +<p>Chautauqua training, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Cherokee</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Chicken Grape, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Cigar Box Grape</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p>Clevener, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</p> + +<p>Climate and grape-growing, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</p> + +<p>Clinton, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</p> + +<p>Colerain, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</p> + +<p>Columbian Imperial, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Columbian Jumbo</em>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</p> + +<p>Commercial factors, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</p> + +<p>Concord, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">history of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Constantia, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> + +<p>Coöperative fertilizer experiments, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p> + +<p>Cordon pruning, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p> + +<p>Cordons, horizontal, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">vertical, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Cottage, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</p> + +<p>Coulure, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</p> + +<p>Cover-crops, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Craponius inæqualis</em>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</p> + +<p>Cream of tartar, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</p> + +<p>Cross-pollination, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</p> + +<p>Croton, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</p> + +<p>Crown-gall, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Cryptosporella viticola</em>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</p> + +<p>Cunningham, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</p> + +<p>Cuttings, dormant, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">hard-wood, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">herbaceous, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">planting, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">single-eye, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">time to make, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Cutting wood, selecting, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p> + +<p>Cut-worms on grapes, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</p> + +<p>Cynthiana, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Dead-arm disease, control of, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">description of, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Delaware, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</p> + +<p>Depth to plant, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Desmia funeralis</em>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</p> + +<p>Determinants of grape regions, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Devereaux</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p>Diamond, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</p> + +<p>Diana, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span>Diaphragm, characters of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Digging holes, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p> + +<p>Direct producers, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p> + +<p>Direction of rows, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p> + +<p>Distances in planting, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Dodrelabi</em>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Dorchester</em>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> + +<p>Double-headed vines, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</p> + +<p>Double Kniffin, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> + +<p>Downing, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</p> + +<p>Downy mildew, control of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">description of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Dracut Amber, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</p> + +<p>Drainage for grapes, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p> + +<p>Duck-shot Grape, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Dunn</em>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> + +<p>Dutchess, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</p> + +<p>Dynamite in digging holes, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter"><em>Early Champion</em>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p> + +<p>Early Daisy, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</p> + +<p>Early Ohio, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</p> + +<p>Early Victor, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</p> + +<p>Eaton, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</p> + +<p>Eclipse, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</p> + +<p>Eden, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</p> + +<p>Egg Harbor grape region, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p>Eldorado, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</p> + +<p>Elvira, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> + +<p>Emasculating grape-flowers, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p> + +<p>Emperor, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p> + +<p>Empire State, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p> + +<p>Etta, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p> + +<p>Eumelan, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p> + +<p>European grapes, in eastern America, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">grafting, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">varieties for eastern America, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Everbearing Grape, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</p> + +<p>Exposures for grapes, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Factors limiting yield, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p> + +<p>Faith, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p> + +<p>Fall Grape, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Fancher</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Fan-training, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p> + +<p>Feher Szagos, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Fern</em>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p> + +<p>Fern Munson, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p> + +<p>Fertilizers, applying, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">effects on leaves, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">effects on vines, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">effects on yield, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">experiment, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">necessity of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">when needed, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Fidia viticida</em>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</p> + +<p>Fitting land, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> + +<p>Flame Tokay, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p> + +<p>Flesh, characters of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p> + +<p>Florida Grape, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</p> + +<p>Flowers, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p> + +<p>Flower, characters of, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Fontainebleau</em>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p> + +<p>Fox Grape, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Fox Grape</em>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Fox grapes, cultivation of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p>Foxiness defined, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</p> + +<p><em>French Grape</em>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</p> + +<p>Frost Grape, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p> + +<p>Frosts and grape-growing, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> + +<p>Fruit-bearing, manner of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p> + +<p>Fruit, characters of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">parts of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Fungi, determinants of grape regions, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</p> + +<p>Fungous diseases of the grape, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Gaertner, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</p> + +<p>Geneva, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Gibbs Grape</em>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> + +<p>Gladwin, on Chautauqua training, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">on Keuka training, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">on vineyard returns, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Glomerella rufomaculans</em>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</p> + +<p>"Go-devil," <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p> + +<p>Goethe, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> + +<p>Gold Coin, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Golden Chasselas</em>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> + +<p>Grading grapes, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</p> + +<p>Grading land, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p> + +<p>Grafting, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">at New York Station, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">bundling grafts after, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">essentials of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">European grapes, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">rooted cuttings, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Grafted vineyards, care of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> + +<p>Grafting wax, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span>Grafts, care of, in nursery, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">number made per hour, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Grape, botany of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">by-products of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">domestication of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">habitats of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">habits of growth of, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">mutations in the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">number of species of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">organs of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">pests of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">products, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Grape-berry moth, control of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">life history of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Grape-breeding, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">results of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Grape-curculio, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</p> + +<p>Grape hawk-moth, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</p> + +<p>Grape-hybrids, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</p> + +<p>Grape-juice, commercial making, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">development of industry, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">making at home, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">regions in which made, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Grape leaf-folder, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</p> + +<p>Grape leaf-hopper, control of, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">life history of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Grape regions, determinants of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">in California, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Grape root-worm, Californian, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">eastern, control of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">life history of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Grape seedlings, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p> + +<p>Graperies, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">borders in, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">care of vines in, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">construction of, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">essentials of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">heating, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">varieties for, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">ventilating, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">watering, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Grapes, American, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">classified as to self-fertility, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">domestic use of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">European, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">forcing, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">immunity to disease, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">immunity to insects, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">propagation of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">under glass, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Grape-vinegar, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</p> + +<p>Grape-vine root-borer, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</p> + +<p>Grape-vine flea-beetle, control of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">life history of, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Greeley, Horace, mentioned, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p> + +<p>Green Early, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Green Mountain</em>, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Green Scuppernong</em>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Grein Golden, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</p> + +<p>Grizzly Frontignan, for forcing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p> + +<p>Gros Colman, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">for forcing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Guignardia Bidwellii</em>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter"><em>Haltica chalybea</em>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</p> + +<p>Hardiness of grapes, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</p> + +<p>Hartford, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</p> + +<p>Hartzell, mentioned, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p> + +<p>Harvesting, in California, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">in the East, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">Muscadine grapes, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Hawkins, Captain John, mentioned, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p>Hayes, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p> + +<p>Heading-back canes, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> + +<p>Headlight, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> + +<p>Heart-leaved Vitis, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p> + +<p>Heating vineyards, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> + +<p>Heeling-in vines, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Helene</em>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> + +<p>Herbaceous cuttings, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p> + +<p>Herbemont, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> + +<p>Herbert, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p> + +<p>Hercules, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p> + +<p>Hermann grape region, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Hickman</em>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Hicks, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</p> + +<p>Hidalgo, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</p> + +<p>Highland, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Hilgarde</em>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p> + +<p>Hilum defined, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p> + +<p>Hopkins, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Hopkins Early Red</em>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</p> + +<p>Horizontal cordons, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p> + +<p>Hosford, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> + +<p>Hudson horizontal training, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p> + +<p>Hudson River grape region, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p> + +<p>Humidity in grape-growing, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Hunt</em>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> + +<p>Husmann, on making grape-juice, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">on raisin-making, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</span></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span>Husmann & Dearing, on harvesting Muscadine grapes, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">on pruning Muscadine grapes, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Hybrid Franc, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p> + +<p>Hybridizing grapes, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</p> + +<p>Hybrids, secondary, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Ideal, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p> + +<p>Improved Kniffin, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> + +<p>Inflorescences, number of, in species, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</p> + +<p>Insect pests, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p> + +<p>Insects as determinants of grape regions, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</p> + +<p>Internodes defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p>Iona, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> + +<p>Irrigation, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p> + +<p>Isabella, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Isabella</em>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> + +<p>Isabella Seedling, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> + +<p>Israella, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p> + +<p>Ives, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter"><em>Jack</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p>James, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> + +<p>Janesville, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Jaques</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p>Jarring Muscadine grapes, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</p> + +<p>Jefferson, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p> + +<p>Jefferson, Thomas, on native grapes, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p>Jessica, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p> + +<p>Jewel, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Joannenc</em>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Jordan</em>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> + +<p><em>July Sherry</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter"><em>Kay's Seedling</em>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Keller's White</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Kensington, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p> + +<p>Kentucky Vineyard Society, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p>Keuka Lake grape region, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p> + +<p>King, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Kittredge</em>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p> + +<p>Kniffin, Wm., mentioned, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Labels for packages, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</p> + +<p>Labor, determinant of grape regions, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Ladies' Choice</em>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</p> + +<p>Lady, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p> + +<p>Lady Downs, for forcing, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p> + +<p>Lady Washington, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</p> + +<p>Lake Erie grape region, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p>Laterals defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p>Lawton grape region, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p>Layering, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">dormant wood, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">essentials of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">green wood, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">to fill vacancies, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Laying down vines, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</p> + +<p>Laying out vineyards, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p> + +<p>Leaf-margins, characters of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</p> + +<p>Leaf, characters of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">parts of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Lebanon</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Legaux, Peter, mentioned, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p> + +<p>Leif the Lucky, mentioned, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p>Lenoir, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Lignan Blanc</em>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> + +<p>Lime, effects of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Lincoln</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Lindley, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p> + +<p>Listan Blanc, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p> + +<p>Little Grape, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p>Little Winter Grape, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Long</em>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</p> + +<p>Longworth, Nicholas, mentioned, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p> + +<p>Lucile, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Luglienga</em>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p> + +<p>Lutie, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter"><em>Macrodactylus subspinosus</em>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</p> + +<p>Malaga, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Mammoth Catawba</em>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Marion, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Marion Port</em>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p> + +<p>Marketing, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">coöperative, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Markets, accessibility, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">general <em>versus</em> local, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Marking for planting, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p> + +<p>Martha, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p> + +<p>Massasoit, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p> + +<p>Maxatawney, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> + +<p><em>McKee</em>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> + +<p>McPike, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Mead's Seedling</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Mealy-bug, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</p> + +<p>Memory, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Memythrus polistiformis</em>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</p> + +<p>Mendel's laws, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span><em>Merceron</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Merrimac, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Michigan</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Mildew in graperies, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> + +<p>Mills, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> + +<p>Mish, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p> + +<p>Mission, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p> + +<p>Missouri Riesling, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p> + +<p>Montefiore, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p> + +<p>Moore Early, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p> + +<p>Moore, Jacob, mentioned, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> + +<p>Moscatello, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Moscatello Black</em>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> + +<p>Mountain Grape, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p>Moyer, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Moyer's Early Red</em>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p> + +<p>Muncy, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Munson, mentioned, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">on pruning, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">on resistant species, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">Munson method of pruning, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Muscadine Grape, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Muscadine</em>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Muscadine grapes for wine, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</p> + +<p>Muscatel, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> + +<p>Muscat Hamburg, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">for forcing, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Muscat of Alexandria, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> + +<p>Mustang Grape, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">of Florida, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Mutations in improving grapes, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Napoleon I, mentioned, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Neal</em>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> + +<p>Niagara, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p> + +<p>Niagara grape region, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</p> + +<p>Nitrogen, benefits from, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p> + +<p>Noah, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p> + +<p>Nodes defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p>Nodosities, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p> + +<p>Northern Æstivalis, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> + +<p>Northern Muscadine, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p> + +<p>Northern Summer Grape, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</p> + +<p>Norton, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p> + +<p>Norton, Dr. D. N., mentioned, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p> + +<p>Noyes, Dr., mentioned, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p> + +<p>Number of vines to the acre, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter"><em>Ohio</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p>Ohio River grape region, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p>Oporto, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> + +<p>Othello, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p> + +<p>Ozark, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Packages for California, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">for eastern America, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">for Muscadine grapes, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Packing houses, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">construction of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">cost of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Packing, in the East, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">Muscadine grapes, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Packing tables, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</p> + +<p>Palomino, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> + +<p>Paw Paw grape region, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Payne's Early</em>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> + +<p>Peabody, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> + +<p>Pedicel defined, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</p> + +<p>Peduncle defined, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</p> + +<p>Perfection, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p> + +<p>Pergolas, training vines on, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p> + +<p>Perkins, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> + +<p>Pests in graperies, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</p> + +<p>Petiole, characters of, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Pholus achemon</em>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</p> + +<p>Phosphorus, benefits from, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p> + +<p>Phylloxera, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">control of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Phylloxera vastatrix</em>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</p> + +<p>Pickers, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</p> + +<p>Picking, accounts for, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">appliances, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">time of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Pigeon Grape, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p>Pine-wood Grape, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> + +<p>Piquette, making, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</p> + +<p>Planting, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">distances, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">grafted vines, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">in graperies, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Plasmopara viticola</em>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</p> + +<p>Pliny, mentioned, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</p> + +<p>Plowing the vineyard, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">to combat pests, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Pocklington, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p> + +<p>Pollen, characters of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</p> + +<p>Pollinating in hybridizing, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Polychrosis viteana</em>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</p> + +<p>Pomace as a by-product, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</p> + +<p>Possum Grape, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p> + +<p>Posts, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span>bracing, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">material, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">setting, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Post-oak Grape, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> + +<p>Post-oak grapes, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> + +<p>Potassium, benefits from, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p> + +<p>Poughkeepsie, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p> + +<p>Powdery mildew, control of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">description of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Powell</em>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</p> + +<p>Pre-cooling grapes, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</p> + +<p>Prentiss, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p> + +<p>Preparation for planting, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p> + +<p>Preparing vines for planting, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Prince Edward</em>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</p> + +<p>Prince, W. R., mentioned, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</p> + +<p>Profits from fertilizers, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p> + +<p>Pruning, before planting, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">cordon method, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">European grapes in eastern America, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">fan-shaped, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">first summer, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">first winter, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">for fruit, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">for wood, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">in eastern America, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">Muscadine grapes, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">on the Pacific slope, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">principles of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">second summer, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">second winter, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">single vertical cordon, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">summer, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">third summer, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">third winter, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">to regulate the crop, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">to regulate the vine, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">unilateral horizontal cordon, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">vase-form, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">winter, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">work of, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Pruning and training distinguished, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p> + +<p>Prunings, collecting, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p> + +<p>Purple Cornichon, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Quality defined, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Raffia, in grafting, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p> + +<p>Raisin industry, seat of, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</p> + +<p>Raisin-making, account of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p> + +<p>Raisin output, value of, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</p> + +<p>Raisins, classes of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">dipping and scalding, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">packing, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">seeded, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">varieties for, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Randall</em>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</p> + +<p>Raphe defined, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p> + +<p>Rating as to resistance to phylloxera, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p> + +<p>Rattling, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</p> + +<p>Rebecca, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p> + +<p>Reciprocal influence of stock and cion, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</p> + +<p>Red Eagle, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Red River</em>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p> + +<p>Red-spider in graperies, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</p> + +<p>Refrigerator cars for grapes, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</p> + +<p>Regal, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> + +<p>Rejuvenating old vines, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p> + +<p>Renewal by canes, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">by spurs, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Renewing fruiting wood, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p> + +<p>Requa, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p> + +<p>Returns from Muscadine grapes, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</p> + +<p>Ricketts, J. H., mentioned, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</p> + +<p>Ringing grape vines, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">operation of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">results of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">theory of, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Riparia Gloire, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p> + +<p>Riparia grande glabre, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p> + +<p>Riparia Solonis, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p> + +<p>Ripening dates for grapes, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</p> + +<p>Ripe-rot, control of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">description of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</span></p> + +<p>River Grape, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</p> + +<p>Riverbank Grape, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</p> + +<p>Riverbank grapes, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> + +<p>Riverside Grape, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Roanoke</em>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Robins, depredations of, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</p> + +<p>Rochester, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p> + +<p>Rock Grape, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</p> + +<p>Rogers, E. S., mentioned, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</p> + +<p>Rommel, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</p> + +<p>Rommel, Jacob, mentioned, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p> + +<p>Root, its parts named, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p>Root-forms of grapes, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</p> + +<p>Rootlets defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span>Root-tip defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p>Rosaki, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</p> + +<p>Rose chafer, control of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">life history of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Rose of Peru, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Rose of Tennessee</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Rotundifolia grapes, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Ruff</em>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</p> + +<p>Rupestris St. George, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Salem, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Sand Grape, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</p> + +<p>Sandusky grape region, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</p> + +<p>Sanitation in the vineyard, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Saratoga</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Scuppernong, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p> + +<p>Seasonal sum of heat, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p> + +<p>Secretary, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p> + +<p>Seedlings, selecting, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p> + +<p>Seeds, as by-products, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">characters of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">parts of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Selecting vines, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p> + +<p>Selection in improving grapes, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> + +<p>Self-sterility in grapes, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">cause of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">remedy for, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Senasqua, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p> + +<p>Seneca Lake grape region, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p> + +<p>Shelling, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p> + +<p>Shipping from California, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</p> + +<p>Shoots, characters of, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">disposition of, in training, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">drooping, in training, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">horizontal, in training, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">upright, in training, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Single-eye cuttings, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">making, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">planting, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Singleton</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Single vertical cordon, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</p> + +<p>Sites for vineyards, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p> + +<p>Skin, characters of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p> + +<p>Smith, Captain John, mentioned, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p>Smudging vineyards, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> + +<p>Soil adaptations, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">fertility, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Soils for grapes, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">ideal, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">over-rich, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">uneven, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Sour Winter Grape, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p> + +<p>Southern Æstivalis, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</p> + +<p>Southern Fox Grape, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p> + +<p>Spanish Grape, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p>Species, conspectus of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">resistant to phylloxera, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Sphaceloma ampelinum</em>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p> + +<p>Sports in improving grapes, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p> + +<p>Spraying suggestions, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Springstein</em>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p>Spurs defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p>Spur-renewal, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p> + +<p>Staking vines, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p> + +<p>Stamens, characters of, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</p> + +<p>Stem defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">its parts named, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Stocks, resistant to phylloxera, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">for American grapes, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">for European grapes, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Storage-room for grapes, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</p> + +<p>Storing grapes, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</p> + +<p>Stripping, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p> + +<p>Suckers defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p>Sugar Grape, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</p> + +<p>Sultana, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> + +<p>Sultanina, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> + +<p>Summer Grape, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p>Summer grapes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p> + +<p>Summer pruning, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> + +<p>Swamp Grape, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p>Sweet-scented Grape, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Sweetwater</em>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p> + +<p>Syrian, for forcing, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter"><em>Talman's Seedling</em>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p> + +<p>Tap-root defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p>Taylor, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Tekomah</em>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</p> + +<p>Tendrils, characters of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Theophrastus, on grafting, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p> + +<p>Thinning in graperies, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Thompson's Seedless</em>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p> + +<p>Thrips, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">in graperies, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Tillage, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">methods, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">time to cease, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span>tools for, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Time to plant, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Tokay</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Tongue grafting, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p> + +<p>Training, Chautauqua method, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">classification of methods, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">in eastern America, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">fan-method, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">in graperies, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">Keuka method, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Trellises, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p> + +<p>Triumph, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p> + +<p>Tuberosities, caused by phylloxera, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p> + +<p>Turkey Grape, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p> + +<p>Two-trunk Kniffin, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p> + +<p>Tying, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Typhlocyba comes</em>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Ulster, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</p> + +<p>Umbrella Kniffin, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Uncinula necator</em>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p> + +<p>Unilateral horizontal cordon, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Valk, Dr., mentioned, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</p> + +<p>Varieties of European grapes for eastern America, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</p> + +<p>Varieties resistant to phylloxera, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p> + +<p>Verdal, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> + +<p>Vergennes, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</p> + +<p>Vertical canes, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">cordons, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Vinegar from grapes, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</p> + +<p>Vines, nursery <em>versus</em> home grown, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">"pedigreed," <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">rejuvenating old, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">resistant to phylloxera, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">young, care of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Vineyard grafting, in eastern America, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">on Pacific slope, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Vineyard, management, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">returns in the East, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">sanitation, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">sites, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Vintage, time of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</p> + +<p>Virgil, on soils, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">quoted, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</span></p> + +<p><em>Virginia Amber</em>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p> + +<p>Vitis, genus defined, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Vitis æstivalis</em>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent2"><em>Bourquiniana</em>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent2"><em>glauca</em>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent2"><em>Lincecumii</em>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><em>Berlandieri</em>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><em>bicolor</em>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><em>candicans</em>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><em>cordifolia</em>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><em>Labrusca</em>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><em>Munsoniana</em>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><em>riparia</em>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>. (Syn. of <em>V. vulpina</em>.)</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><em>rotundifolia</em>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><em>rupestris</em>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><em>vinifera</em>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1"><em>vulpina</em>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Vulpina grapes, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">as direct producers, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</span></p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Wakeman, Elbert, mentioned, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> + +<p>Walter, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Warren</em>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Warrenton</em>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Washington</em>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p> + +<p>Water, influence of, on climate, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</p> + +<p>Watering, at planting, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">in graperies, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Water sprouts defined, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p> + +<p>Weather data and grape-growing, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p> + +<p><em>White July</em>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p> + +<p>White Nice, for forcing, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p> + +<p>White Frontignan, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p> + +<p>Wilder, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Wilmington Red</em>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</p> + +<p>Winchell, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</p> + +<p>Windbreaks in grape-growing, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p> + +<p>Wine, aging, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">crushing grapes for, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">fermentation of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">fining, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">kinds of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">racking, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="indent1">yeasts for, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Wine-grapes, prices paid for, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</p> + +<p>Wine-making, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</p> + +<p>Wire for trellises, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p> + +<p>Wire grafting, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Winter Grape</em>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span>Winter-killing, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">precautions against, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Winter protection of grapes, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.<br /> +<span class="indent1">cost of, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</span></p> + +<p>Winter-pruning, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p> + +<p>Woodruff, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Woodward</em>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p> + +<p>Worden, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Worthington</em>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</p> + +<p>Wyoming, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</p> + +<p><em>Wyoming Red</em>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</p> + + +<p class="new_letter">Yields in fertilizer experiments, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p> + +<p>Y-trunk Kniffin training, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p> +</div> + + + +<div class="thought_break"></div> +<p class="printed">Printed in the United States of America.</p> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div id="advertisements"> +<p>The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan +books on kindred subjects.</p> +</div> + + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<div id="advertisement"> +<p class="header">A NEW RURAL MANUAL<br /> +<span class="edited">Edited by L. H. Bailey</span></p> + +<p class="title">Manual of Tree Diseases</p> + +<p class="author">By W. HOWARD RANKIN, A.B., Ph.D.</p> + +<p class="credentials">Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology<br /> +New York State College of Agriculture, at Cornell University</p> + +<p class="illustrated"><em>Illustrated, 12mo, $2.50</em></p> + +<p>The diseases of the more common trees of the United States are treated +in this volume. The discussions of these diseases are grouped into +chapters under the common name of the trees affected, and the chapters +are arranged alphabetically. In a general chapter are included +discussions of the diseases common to all kinds of trees, such as +samping-off of seedlings, temperature injuries to leaves and woody +parts, smoke and gas injuries, wood-rots, and the like. The species of +trees affected, the geographic distribution, destructiveness, and +symptoms of the different diseases are presented in full.</p> + +<p>The aim of the authors has been to furnish a descriptive guide for the +diagnosis of tree diseases and the general methods of their control.</p> + +<p class="contents">CONTENTS</p> + +<p>Seedling Diseases and Injuries; Leaf Diseases and Injuries; Body and +Branch Diseases and Injuries; Root Diseases and Injuries; Diseases of:</p> + +<p>Alder; Arbor-Vitæ; Ash; Bald Cypress; Basswood; Beech; Birch; Buckeye; +Butternut; Catalpa; Cedar; Chestnut; Elm; Fir; Hackberry; Hemlock; +Hickory; Juniper; Larch; Locust; Maple; Oak; Pine; Poplar; Spruce; +Sycamore; Walnut; Willow.</p> + +<p>Tree Surgery; Spraying and Dusting for Leaf Diseases.</p> + +<div class="thought_break"></div> +<table summary="Publisher"> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_center macmillan" colspan="3">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="publisher_address">Publishers</td> + <td class="table_center publisher_address">64–66 Fifth Avenue</td> + <td class="table_right publisher_address">New York</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p class="header">A NEW RURAL MANUAL<br /> +<span class="edited">Edited by L. H. Bailey</span></p> + +<p class="title">Manual of Vegetable-Garden Insects</p> + +<p class="author">By CYRUS RICHARD CROSBY<br /> +<span class="and">AND</span><br /> +MORTIMER DEMAREST LEONARD</p> + +<p class="credentials">Of the New York State College of Agriculture, at Cornell University</p> + +<p class="illustrated"><em>Illustrated, 12mo, $2.50</em></p> + +<p>This is a practical account of the principal insects which attack +truck and vegetable crops, including cabbages, cauliflowers, cucumbers +and melons, asparagus, potatoes, tomatoes, celery and parsnips, +lettuce, peas, beans, beets, spinach, sweet-potatoes, and sweet corn. +The life-history and habits of each insect are given, its injuries +described and the methods of control are discussed. A chapter on +insecticides gives an account of the more important materials now +employed, with directions for their preparation and use.</p> + +<p class="contents">CONTENTS</p> + +<table summary="contents"> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">I.</td> + <td>General Considerations.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">II.</td> + <td>Insects Injurious to Cabbage and Related Crops.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">III.</td> + <td>Pea and Bean Insects.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">IV.</td> + <td>Beet and Spinach Insects.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">V.</td> + <td>Insects Injurious to Cucumber, Squash, and Melon.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VI.</td> + <td>Potato Insects.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VII.</td> + <td>Tomato Insects.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VIII.</td> + <td>Eggplant Insects.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">IX.</td> + <td>Insects Injurious to Carrot, Celery, Parsnip, etc.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">X.</td> + <td>Asparagus Insects.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XI.</td> + <td>Corn Insects.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XII.</td> + <td>Sweet Potato Insects.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XIII.</td> + <td>Onion Insects.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XIV.</td> + <td>Insects Injurious to Minor Vegetable Crop.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XV.</td> + <td>Cut-worms and Army Worms.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVI.</td> + <td>Blister-Beetles.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVII.</td> + <td>Flea-Beetles.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVIII.</td> + <td>Unclassified Pests.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XIX.</td> + <td>Insects and Insecticides.</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + +<div class="thought_break"></div> +<table summary="Publisher"> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_center macmillan" colspan="3">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="publisher_address">Publishers</td> + <td class="table_center publisher_address">64–66 Fifth Avenue</td> + <td class="table_right publisher_address">New York</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p class="header">A NEW VOLUME IN THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES<br /> +<span class="edited">Edited by L. H. Bailey</span></p> + +<p class="title">Peach-Growing</p> + +<p class="author">By H. P. GOULD</p> + +<p class="credentials">Pomologist in charge of Fruit Production Investigations<br /> +Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture</p> + +<p class="illustrated"><em>Illustrated, 12mo, $2.00</em></p> + +<p>Here is a book which covers the general field of growing peaches and +placing them within reach of the consumer.</p> + +<p>It is practical. It is detailed. It is a handbook for peach-growers of +North and East, as well as South and West.</p> + +<p>Peach literature has been notably limited, except for experiment +station bulletins and reports. This book gathers into one compact, +fully illustrated volume the principles and practice of successful +peach production.</p> + +<p class="contents">CONTENTS</p> + +<table summary="contents"> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">I.</td> + <td>Historical Notes.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">II.</td> + <td>Economic Status and Extent of the Peach Industry.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">III.</td> + <td>Location and Site of the Orchard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">IV.</td> + <td>Propagation of Peach Trees.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">V.</td> + <td>Details of Planting an Orchard.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VI.</td> + <td>Orchard Management.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VII.</td> + <td>The Tillage of Peach Orchards.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">VIII.</td> + <td>Inter-planted Crops.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">IX.</td> + <td>Fertilizers for Peach Orchards.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">X.</td> + <td>Pruning Peach Trees.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XI.</td> + <td>Insect and Disease Control.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XII.</td> + <td>Thinning the Fruit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XIII.</td> + <td>Irrigating Peaches.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XIV.</td> + <td>A Consideration of Adverse Temperatures.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XV.</td> + <td>Annual Cost Factors in Growing Peaches.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVI.</td> + <td>Peach Varieties, Botany and Classification.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVII.</td> + <td>Picking and Packing the Fruit.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="table_right">XVIII.</td> + <td>Transportation, Storage, Marketing.</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + +<div class="thought_break"></div> +<table summary="Publisher"> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_center macmillan" colspan="3">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="publisher_address">Publishers</td> + <td class="table_center publisher_address">64–66 Fifth Avenue</td> + <td class="table_right publisher_address">New York</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> + + + +<div class="section_break"></div> +<p class="title_cyclopedia">The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture</p> + +<p class="author">Edited by L. H. BAILEY</p> + +<p class="author"><em>WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF OVER 500 COLLABORATORS</em></p> + +<p class="credentials">New edition, entirely rewritten and enlarged, with many new features; +with 24 plates in color, 96 full-page half tones, and over 4,000 text +illustrations. Complete in six volumes. Sold only in sets.</p> + +<div class="thought_break"></div> +<p class="cloth"><em>Set cloth, $36.00</em> <span class="leather"><em>Leather, $60.00</em></span></p> +<div class="thought_break"></div> + +<p>"The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture," pronounced by experts to be +an absolute necessity for every horticulturist and of tremendous value +to every type of gardener, professional and amateur, is completed. "An +indispensable work of reference to every one interested in the land +and its products, whether commercially or professionally, as a student +or an amateur," is the <em>Boston Transcript's</em> characterization of it, +while <em>Horticulture</em> adds that "it is very live literature for any one +engaged in any department of the horticultural field."</p> + +<p>"This really monumental performance will take rank as a standard in +its class. Illustrations and text are admirable.... Our own conviction +is that while the future may bring forth amplified editions of the +work, it will probably never be superseded. Recognizing its +importance, the publishers have given it faultless form. The +typography leaves nothing to be desired, the paper is calculated to +stand wear and tear, and the work is at once handsomely and +attractively bound."—<em>New York Daily Tribune.</em></p> + + +<div class="thought_break"></div> +<table summary="Publisher"> +<tbody> +<tr> + <td class="table_center macmillan" colspan="3">THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="publisher_address">Publishers</td> + <td class="table_center publisher_address">64–66 Fifth Avenue</td> + <td class="table_right publisher_address">New York</td> +</tr> +</tbody> +</table> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Manual of American Grape-Growing, by U. P. 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