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+Project Gutenberg's Manual of American Grape-Growing, by U. P. Hedrick
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Manual of American Grape-Growing
+
+Author: U. P. Hedrick
+
+Release Date: August 10, 2009 [EBook #29659]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Chris Logan and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+The Rural Manuals
+
+EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY
+
+
+MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING
+
+
+
+
+The Rural Manuals
+
+EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY
+
+
+MANUAL OF GARDENING--_Bailey_
+
+MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS--_Harper_
+
+FARM AND GARDEN RULE-BOOK--_Bailey_
+
+MANUAL OF FRUIT INSECTS--_Slingerland and Crosby_
+
+MANUAL OF WEEDS--_Georgia_
+
+THE PRUNING-MANUAL--_Bailey_
+
+MANUAL OF FRUIT DISEASES--_Hesler and Whetzel_
+
+MANUAL OF MILK PRODUCTS--_Stocking_
+
+MANUAL OF VEGETABLE-GARDEN INSECTS--_Crosby
+and Leonard_
+
+MANUAL OF TREE DISEASES--_Rankin_
+
+MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING--_Van Rensselaer, Rose,
+and Canon_
+
+MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING--_Hedrick_
+
+
+
+
+MANUAL OF
+
+AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING
+
+
+BY
+
+U. P. HEDRICK
+
+HORTICULTURIST OF THE NEW YORK AGRICULTURAL
+EXPERIMENT STATION
+
+
+New York
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+1919
+
+_All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1919,
+
+BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+
+Setup and electrotyped. Published June, 1919.
+
+
+Norwood Press
+J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Seventy-nine books on grapes enrich the pomology of North America, not
+counting numerous state and national publications. Pomological writers
+in America have been partial to the grape, for other fruits do not
+fare nearly so well. Twenty-two books are devoted to the strawberry,
+fourteen to the apple, to the peach nine, cranberry eight, plum five,
+pear nine, quince two, loganberry one, while the cherry, raspberry,
+and blackberry are not once separated from other fruits in special
+books. Thus, though a comparative newcomer among the fruits of the
+country, the grape has been singled out for a treatise more times than
+all other fruits of temperate climates combined--seventy-nine books on
+the grape, seventy on all other fruits.
+
+This statement of partiality does not lead to an apology for a new
+book on the grape. There is urgent need for a new book. But three of
+the seventy-nine treatises on this fruit are contemporary, and all but
+one, a handbook on training, are records from vanished minds. Methods
+change so rapidly and varieties multiply so fast, that to keep pace
+there must be new books on fruits every few years. Besides, the types
+of grapes are so diverse, and different soils, climates, and
+treatments produce such widely dissimilar results, that many books are
+required to do justice to this fruit--the vineyard should be seen
+through many eyes.
+
+Commercial grape-growing is now a great industry in America, and
+deserves a treatise or its own. But there are also many demands for
+information on grape-growing by those who grow fruits for pleasure,
+especially by those who are escaping from cities to suburban homes,
+for the grape is a favorite fruit of the amateur. And so, though
+Pleasure and Profit are a hard team to drive together, this manual is
+written for both commercial and amateur grape-growers.
+
+In particular, the needs of the amateur are recognized in the chapter
+on varieties, where many sorts are described which have little or no
+commercial value. No other fruit offers the enchantment of novelty to
+be found in the grape. Alluring flavors, sizes, and colors abound, of
+which the amateur wants samples. The commercial grower who plants but
+one variety often finds himself dissatisfied with the humdrum of the
+business. He should emulate the amateur and plant more kinds, if only
+for pleasure, remembering the adage, "No profit grows where is no
+pleasure ta'en." Greater pleasure in grape-growing, then, is offered
+as the justification of the long chapter on varieties.
+
+At the risk of too broad spreading, the author discusses, in a book
+mainly devoted to native grapes, the culture of European grapes in the
+far West. The chief aim is, of course, to set forth information that
+will be helpful to growers of these grapes in the western states,
+there being no treatises to which western growers can refer, other
+than bulletins from state and national agricultural institutions.
+There is, however, another reason for attempting to cover the whole
+field of grape-growing in America. It is certain that eastern
+grape-growers will sometime grow European grapes. Western vineyards
+might well be enlarged with plantings of native grapes. On the
+supposition, then, that the culture of both European and native grapes
+is to become less and less restricted in America, the author has
+ventured to discuss the culture of all grapes for all parts of North
+America.
+
+In the preparation of this manual, the author's "The Grapes of New
+York," a book long out of print and never widely distributed, has been
+laid under heavy contribution, especially in the description of
+varieties. Acknowledgments are due to F. Z. Hartzell for reading the
+chapter on Grape Pests and their Control and for furnishing most of
+the photographs used in making illustrations of insects and fungi; to
+F. E. Gladwin for similar help in preparing the two chapters on
+pruning and training the grape in eastern America; to Frederic T.
+Bioletti for permission to republish from a bulletin written by him
+from the Agricultural Experiment Station of California almost the
+whole chapter on Grape Pruning on the Pacific Slope; and to O. M.
+Taylor and to R. D. Anthony for very material assistance in reading
+the manuscript and proofs.
+
+                                                        U. P. HEDRICK.
+
+  GENEVA, N. Y.,
+  Jan. 1, 1919.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+    CHAPTER                                                       PAGE
+
+          I  THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE                          1
+
+         II  GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS                   16
+
+        III  PROPAGATION                                            36
+
+         IV  STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES                             61
+
+          V  THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT                        73
+
+         VI  FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES                                 97
+
+        VII  PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA                  108
+
+       VIII  TRAINING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA                 123
+
+         IX  GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC COAST                    150
+
+          X  EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA                    184
+
+         XI  GRAPES UNDER GLASS                                    192
+
+        XII  GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL                         204
+
+       XIII  MARKETING GRAPES                                      230
+
+        XIV  GRAPE PRODUCTS                                        250
+
+         XV  GRAPE BREEDING                                        273
+
+        XVI  MISCELLANIES                                          284
+
+       XVII  GRAPE BOTANY                                          300
+
+      XVIII  VARIETIES OF GRAPES                                   330
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+PLATES
+
+      PLATE                                                       PAGE
+
+         I.  Two views of vineyards in California; a vineyard
+             in the orchard region of central California, and
+             a vineyard in southern California                      14
+
+        II.  Fitting the land for planting                          34
+
+       III.  Cover-crop; cow-horn turnips, and rye                  48
+
+        IV.  A well-tilled vineyard of Concords                     60
+
+         V.  Vinifera grapes grown out of doors in New York;
+             Malvasia and Chasselas Golden                          72
+
+        VI.  Black Hamburg                                          82
+
+       VII.  Barry. Delaware                                        96
+
+      VIII.  Brighton                                              106
+
+        IX.  Campbell Early                                        114
+
+         X.  Clinton                                               122
+
+        XI.  Concord                                               138
+
+       XII.  Diana                                                 148
+
+      XIII.  Dutchess                                              164
+
+       XIV.  Eaton                                                 182
+
+        XV.  Eclipse                                               190
+
+       XVI.  Elvira                                                202
+
+      XVII.  Empire State                                          218
+
+     XVIII.  Herbert                                               228
+
+       XIX.  Iona                                                  248
+
+        XX.  Isabella                                              272
+
+       XXI.  Jefferson                                             282
+
+      XXII.  Lindley. Lucile                                       298
+
+     XXIII.  Lutie. Pocklington                                    328
+
+      XXIV.  Moore Early                                           340
+
+       XXV.  Muscat Hamburg                                        350
+
+      XXVI.  Niagara                                               360
+
+     XXVII.  Salem                                                 370
+
+    XXVIII.  Triumph                                               380
+
+      XXIX.  Vergennes                                             390
+
+       XXX.  Winchell                                              400
+
+      XXXI.  Worden                                                416
+
+     XXXII.  Wyoming                                               432
+
+
+FIGURES IN THE TEXT
+
+     FIGURE
+
+         1.  A shoot of _Vitis vinifera_                             3
+
+         2.  A shoot of _Vitis Labrusca_                             6
+
+         3.  A shoot of _Vitis rotundifolia_                        10
+
+         4.  A shoot of _Vitis aestivalis_                           12
+
+         5.  A shoot of _Vitis vulpina_                             14
+
+         6.  Planting cuttings                                      40
+
+         7.  A cutting beginning growth                             40
+
+         8.  Cutting off the trunk                                  46
+
+         9.  Cutting the cleft                                      47
+
+        10.  Inserting the cion                                     47
+
+        11.  The completed graft                                    47
+
+        12.  Bench-grafted cuttings of grape, showing the
+             cleft-graft and the whip-graft. (Adapted from
+             Husmann)                                               51
+
+        13.  Vine ready for pruning                                113
+
+        14.  A "go-devil" for collecting prunings                  119
+
+        15.  A trellis and a common method of bracing end posts    120
+
+        16.  Chautauqua training; vine ready to prune              127
+
+        17.  Keuka method of training                              130
+
+        18.  Single-stem four-cane Kniffin training                133
+
+        19.  Umbrella method of training                           134
+
+        20.  Two-trunk Kniffin training                            135
+
+        21.  Rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead method     144
+
+        22.  A Rotundifolia vine trained by the 6-arm renewal
+             method                                                145
+
+        23.  Forms of head pruning                                 154
+
+        24.  Forms of head pruning                                 155
+
+        25.  Head pruning: fan-shaped head; fruit canes tied
+             to horizontal trellis                                 156
+
+        26.  Single vertical cordon with fruit-spurs               157
+
+        27.  Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit-spurs         158
+
+        28.  Three-year-old vine ready for pruning                 169
+
+        29.  Vine of Fig. 28 after pruning for vase-formed head    169
+
+        30.  Three-year-old vines: A, pruned for a vase-formed,
+             and B, for a fan-shaped head                          170
+
+        31.  Four-year-old vine pruned for vase-formed head        171
+
+        32.  Four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed head   172
+
+        33.  Fan-shaped vines: A, before pruning; B, after
+             pruning                                               173
+
+        34.  Vertical cordon, young vine pruned                    176
+
+        35.  Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long pruning   177
+
+        36.  Leaf-galls of the phylloxera                          205
+
+        37.  The grape root-worm                                   207
+
+        38.  Root-worm beetle                                      207
+
+        39.  Injuries caused by beetles of the grape root-worm     207
+
+        40.  Eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle                        209
+
+        41.  First four stages of the grape leaf-hopper            212
+
+        42.  The fifth and the mature stages of the grape
+             leaf-hopper                                           212
+
+        43.  A bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry moth   214
+
+        44.  Work of black-rot of the grape                        219
+
+        45.  Grapes attacked by downy-mildew                       221
+
+        46.  Packing grapes on a packing-table                     234
+
+        47.  Climax baskets in two sizes                           236
+
+        48.  William Robert Prince                                 274
+
+        49.  E. S. Rogers                                          275
+
+        50.  T. V. Munson                                          277
+
+        51.  Staminate and perfect flower clusters on one vine     285
+
+        52.  Ringing grape-vines; showing tools for ringing and
+             ringed vines                                          292
+
+        53.  A grape flower; showing the opening cap and stamens   305
+
+        54.  Grape flowers; showing upright and depressed stamens  306
+
+
+
+
+MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE
+
+
+The domestication of an animal or a plant is a milestone in the
+advance of agriculture and so becomes of interest to every human
+being. But, more particularly, the materials, the events and the men
+who direct the work of domestication are of interest to those who
+breed and care for animals and plants; the grape-grower should find
+much profit in the story of the domestication of the grape. What was
+the raw material of a fruit known since the beginning of agriculture
+and wherever temperate fruits are grown? How has this material been
+fashioned into use? Who were the originative and who the directive
+agents? These are fundamental questions in the improvement of the
+grape, answers to which will also throw much light on the culture of
+it.
+
+Botanists number from forty to sixty species of grapes in the world.
+These are widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, all but a few
+being found in temperate countries. Thus, more than half of the named
+species come from the United States and Canada, while nearly all of
+the others are from China and Japan, with but one species certainly
+growing wild in southwestern Asia and bordering parts of Europe. All
+true grapes have more or less edible fruits, and of the twenty or more
+species grown in the New World more than half have been or are being
+domesticated. Of the Old World grapes, only one species is cultivated
+for fruit, but this, of all grapes, is of greatest economic importance
+and, therefore, deserves first consideration.
+
+
+THE EUROPEAN GRAPE
+
+The European grape, _Vitis vinifera_ (Fig. 1), is the grape of ancient
+and modern agriculture. It is the vine which Noah planted after the
+Deluge; the vine of Israel and of the Promised Land; the vine of the
+parables in the New Testament. It is the grape and the vine of the
+myths, fables, poetry and prose of all peoples. It is the grape from
+which the wines of the world are made. From it come the raisins of the
+world. It is the chief agricultural crop of southern Europe and
+northern Africa and of vast regions in other parts of the world,
+having followed civilized man from place to place in all temperate
+climates. The European grape has so impressed itself on the human mind
+that when one thinks or speaks of the grape, or of the vine, it is
+this Old World species, the vine of antiquity, that presents itself.
+
+The written records of the cultivation of the European grape go back
+five or six thousand years. The ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks
+and Romans grew the vine and made wine from its fruit. Grape seeds
+have been found in the remains of European peoples of prehistoric
+times, showing that primitive men enlivened their scanty fare with
+wild grapes. Cultivation of the grape in the Old World probably began
+in the region about the Caspian Sea where the vine has always run
+wild. We have proof of the great antiquity of the grape in Egypt, for
+its seeds are found entombed with the oldest mummies. Probably the
+Phoenicians, the earliest navigators on the Mediterranean, carried the
+grape from Egypt and Syria to Greece, Rome and other countries
+bordering on this sea. The domestication of the grape was far advanced
+in Christ's time, for Pliny, writing then, describes ninety-one kinds
+of grapes and fifty kinds of wine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. A shoot of _Vitis vinifera_.]
+
+It can never be known exactly when the European grape came under
+cultivation. There is no word as to what were the methods and
+processes of domestication, and whose the minds and hands that
+remodeled the wild grape of Europe into the grape of the vineyards.
+The Old World grape was domesticated long before the faint traditions
+which have been transmitted to our day could possibly have arisen. For
+knowledge of how wild species of this fruit have been and may be
+brought under cultivation, we must turn to New World records.
+
+
+AMERICAN GRAPES
+
+Few other plants in the New World grow wild under such varied
+conditions and over such extended areas as the grape. Wild grapes are
+found in the warmer parts of New Brunswick; on the shores of the Great
+Lakes; everywhere in the woodlands of the North and Middle Atlantic
+states; on the limestone soils of Kentucky, Tennessee and the
+Virginias; and they thrive in the sandy woods, sea plains and
+reef-keys of the South Atlantic and Gulf states. While not so common
+west of the Mississippi, yet some kind of wild grape is found from
+North Dakota to Texas; grapes grow on the mountains and in the canons
+of all the Rocky Mountain states; and several species thrive on the
+Mexican borders and in the far Southwest.
+
+While it is possible that all American grapes have descended from an
+original species, the types are now as diverse as the regions they
+inhabit. The wild grapes of the forests have long slender trunks and
+branches, whereby their leaves are better exposed to the sunlight. Two
+shrubby species do not attain a greater height than four or five feet;
+these grow in sandy soils, or among rocks exposed to sun and air.
+Another runs on the ground and bears foliage almost evergreen. The
+stem of one species attains a diameter of a foot, bearing its foliage
+in a great canopy. From this giant form the species vary to slender,
+graceful, climbing vines. Wild grapes are as varied in climatic
+adaptations as in structure of vine and grow luxuriantly in every
+condition of heat or cold, wetness or dryness, capable of supporting
+fruit-culture in America. So many of the kinds have horticultural
+possibilities that it seems certain that some grape can be
+domesticated in all of the agricultural regions of the country, their
+natural plasticity indicating, even if it were not known from
+experience, that all can be domesticated.
+
+Leif the Lucky, the first European to visit America, if the Icelandic
+records are true, christened the new land Wineland. It has been
+supposed that this designation was given for the grapes, but recent
+investigations show that the fruits were probably mountain
+cranberries. Captain John Hawkins, who visited the Spanish settlements
+in Florida in 1565, mentions wild grapes among the resources of the
+New World. Amadas and Barlowe, sent out by Raleigh in 1584, describe
+the coasts of the Carolinas as, "so full of grapes that in all the
+world like abundance cannot be found." Captain John Smith, writing in
+1606, describes the grapes of Virginia and recommends the culture of
+the vine as an industry for the newly founded colony. Few, indeed, are
+the explorers of the Atlantic seaboard who do not mention grapes among
+the plants of the country. Yet none saw intrinsic value in these wild
+vines. To the Europeans, the grapes of the Old World alone were worth
+cultivating, and the vines growing everywhere in America only
+suggested that the grape they had known across the sea might be grown
+in the new home.
+
+That American viticulture must depend on the native species for its
+varieties began to be recognized at the beginning of the nineteenth
+century, when several large companies engaged in growing foreign
+grapes failed, and a meritorious native grape made its appearance. The
+vine of promise was a variety known as the Alexander. Thomas
+Jefferson, ever alert for the agricultural welfare of the nation,
+writing in 1809 to John Adlum, one of the first experimenters with an
+American species, voiced the sentiment of grape experimenters in
+speaking of the Alexander: "I think it will be well to push the
+culture of this grape without losing time and efforts in the search
+of foreign vines, which it will take centuries to adapt to our soil
+and climate."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. A shoot of _Vitis Labrusca_.]
+
+Alexander is an offshoot of the common fox-grape, _Vitis Labrusca_
+(Fig. 2), found in the woods on the Atlantic coast from Maine to
+Georgia and occasionally in the Mississippi Valley. The history of the
+variety dates back to before the Revolutionary War, when, according
+to William Bartram, the Quaker botanist, it was found growing in the
+vicinity of Philadelphia, by John Alexander, gardener to Governor Penn
+of Pennsylvania. Curiously enough, it came into general cultivation
+through the deception of a nurseryman. Peter Legaux, a French-American
+grape-grower, in 1801 sold the Kentucky Vineyard Society fifteen
+hundred grape cuttings which he said had been taken from an European
+grape introduced from the Cape of Good Hope, therefore called the
+"Cape" grape. Legaux's grape turned out to be the Alexander. In the
+new home the spurious Cape grew wonderfully well and as the knowledge
+of its fruitfulness in Kentucky, Ohio and Indiana spread, demand for
+it increased, and with remarkable rapidity, considering the time, it
+came into general cultivation in the parts of the United States then
+settled.
+
+_The Labrusca or fox-grapes._
+
+Of the several species of American grapes now under cultivation, the
+Labrusca, first represented by the Alexander, has furnished more
+cultivated varieties than all the other American species together, no
+less than five hundred of its varieties having been grown in the
+vineyards of the country. There are several reasons why it is the most
+generally cultivated species. It is native to the parts of the United
+States in which agriculture soonest advanced to a state where fruits
+were desired. In the wild, the Labruscas are the most attractive,
+being largest and handsomest in color; among all grapes it alone shows
+black-, white- and red-fruited forms on wild vines. There is a
+northern and a southern form of the species, and its varieties are,
+therefore, widely adapted to climates and to soils. The flavor of the
+fruits of this species, all things considered, is rather better than
+that of any other of our wild grapes, though the skins in most of its
+varieties have a peculiar aroma, somewhat pronounced in the well-known
+Concord, Niagara and Worden, which is disagreeable to tastes
+accustomed to the pure flavors of the European grapes. All Labruscas
+submit well to vineyard operations and are vigorous, hardy and
+productive, though they are more subject to the dreaded phylloxera
+than are most of the other cultivated native species. Of the many
+grapes of this type, at least two deserve brief historical mention.
+
+Catawba, probably a pure-bred Labrusca, the first American grape of
+commercial importance, is the most interesting variety of its species.
+The origin of the variety is not certainly known, but all evidence
+points to its having been found about the year 1800 on the banks of
+the Catawba River, North Carolina. It was introduced into general
+cultivation by Major John Adlum, soldier of the Revolution, judge,
+surveyor and author of the first American book on grapes. Adlum
+maintained an experimental vineyard in the District of Columbia,
+whence in 1823 he began the distribution of the Catawba. At that time
+the center of American grape culture was about Cincinnati, and an
+early shipment of Adlum's Catawbas went to Nicholas Longworth of that
+city and was by him distributed throughout the grape-growing centers
+of the country. As one of the first to test new varieties of American
+grapes, to grow them largely and to make wine commercially from them,
+Nicholas Longworth is known as the "father of American grape culture."
+
+Catawba is still one of the four leading varieties in the vineyards of
+eastern America. The characters whereby its high place is maintained
+among grapes are: Great elasticity of constitution, by reason of which
+the vine is adapted to many environments; rich flavor, long-keeping
+quality, and handsome appearance of fruit, qualities which make it a
+very good dessert grape; high sugar-content and a rich flavor of
+juice, so that from its fruit is made a very good wine and a very good
+grape-juice; and vigor, hardiness and productiveness of vine. The
+characters of Catawba are readily transmissible, and it has many
+pure-bred or hybrid offspring which more or less resemble it.
+
+The second commercial grape of importance in American viticulture is
+Concord, which came from the seed of a wild grape planted in the fall
+of 1843 by Ephraim W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts. The new variety
+was disseminated in the spring of 1854, and from the time of its
+introduction the spread of its culture was phenomenal. By 1860 it was
+the leading grape in America and it so remains. Concord furnishes,
+with the varieties that have sprung from it, seventy-five per cent of
+the grapes grown in eastern America. The characters which distinguish
+the vine are: Adaptability to various soils, fruitfulness, hardiness
+and resistance to diseases and insects. The fruits are distinguished
+by certainty of maturity, attractive appearance, good but not high
+flavor, and by the fact that they may be produced so cheaply that no
+other grape can compete with this variety in the markets. Concord is,
+as Horace Greeley well denominated it in awarding the Greeley prize
+for the best American grape, "the grape for the millions."
+
+The histories of these two grapes are typical of those of five hundred
+or more other Labruscas. Out of a prodigious number of native
+seedlings, an occasional one is found greatly to excel its fellows and
+is brought under cultivation.
+
+_The Rotundifolia or Muscadine grapes._
+
+Long before the northern Labruscas had attained prominence in the
+vineyards of the North, a grape had been domesticated partially in the
+South. It is _Vitis rotundifolia_ (Fig. 3), a species which runs riot
+from the Potomac to the Gulf, thriving in many diverse soils, but
+growing only in the southern climate and preferring the seacoast.
+Rotundifolia grapes have been cultivated somewhat for fruit or
+ornament from the earliest colonial times. It is certain that wine was
+made from this species by the English settlers at Jamestown. Vines of
+it are now to be found on arbors, in gardens or half wild on fences
+in nearly every farm in the South Atlantic states. That the
+Rotundifolias have not been more generally brought under cultivation
+is due to the bountifulness of the wild vines, which has obviated the
+necessity of domesticating them. The fruit of its varieties, to a
+palate unaccustomed to them, is not very acceptable, having a musky
+flavor and odor and a sweet, juicy pulp, which is lacking in
+sprightliness. Many, however, acquire a taste for these grapes and
+find them pleasant eating. The great defect of this grape is that the
+berries part from the pedicels as they ripen and perfect bunches
+cannot be secured. In fact, the crop is often harvested by shaking the
+vines so that the berries drop on sheets beneath. Despite these
+defects, a score or more varieties of this species are now under
+general cultivation in the cotton-belt, and interest in their
+domestication is now greater than in any other species, with great
+promise for the future.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. A shoot of _Vitis rotundifolia_.]
+
+_The AEstivalis or summer-grapes._
+
+The South has another grape of remarkable horticultural possibilities.
+This is _Vitis aestivalis_ (Fig. 4), the summer-grape or, to
+distinguish it from the Rotundifolias, the bunch-grape of southern
+forests. There are now a score or more well-known varieties of this
+species, the best known being Norton, which probably originated with
+Dr. D. N. Norton, Richmond, Virginia, in the early part of the
+nineteenth century. The berries of the true AEstivalis grapes are too
+small, too destitute of pulp and too tart to make good dessert fruits,
+but from them are made our best native red wines. Domestication of
+this species has been greatly retarded by a peculiarity of the species
+which hinders its propagation. Grapes are best propagated from
+cuttings, but this species is not easily reproduced by this means and
+the difficulty of securing good young vines has been a serious
+handicap in its culture.
+
+There are two subspecies of _Vitis aestivalis_ which promise much for
+American viticulture. _Vitis aestivalis Bourquiniana_, known only under
+cultivation and of very doubtful botanical standing, furnishes
+American viticulture several valuable varieties. Chief of these is the
+Delaware, the introduction of which sixty years ago from the town of
+Delaware, Ohio, raised the standard in quality of New World grapes to
+that of Old World. No European grape has a richer or more delicate
+flavor, or a more pleasing aroma, than Delaware. While a northern
+grape, it can be grown in the South, and thrives under so many
+different climatic and soil conditions and under all is so fruitful,
+that, next to the Concord, it is the most popular American grape for
+garden and vineyard. Without question, however, Delaware contains a
+trace of European blood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. A shoot of _Vitis aestivalis_.]
+
+Another offshoot of this subspecies is Herbemont, which, in the South,
+holds the same rank that Concord holds in the North. The variety is
+grown only south of the Ohio, and in this great region it is esteemed
+by all for a dessert grape and for its light red wine. It is one of
+the few American varieties which finds favor in France, being
+cultivated in southwest France as a wine-grape. Its history goes back
+to a colony of French Huguenots in Georgia before the Revolutionary
+War. Very similar to Herbemont is Lenoir, also with a history tracing
+back to the French in the Carolinas or Georgia in the eighteenth
+century.
+
+The other subspecies of _Vitis aestivalis_ is _Vitis aestivalis
+Lincecumii_, the post-oak grape of Texas and of the southern part of
+the Mississippi Valley. Recently this wild grape has been brought
+under domestication, and from it has been bred a number of most
+promising varieties for hot and dry regions.
+
+_The Vulpina or river-bank grapes._
+
+The North, too, has a wine-grape from which wines nearly equaling
+those of the southern AEstivalis are made. This is _Vitis vulpina_ (_V.
+riparia_), the river-bank grape, a shoot of which is shown in Fig. 5,
+the most widely distributed of any of the native species. It grows as
+far north as Quebec, south to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlantic
+to the Rocky Mountains. Fully a century ago, a wine-grape of this
+species was cultivated under the name Worthington, but the attention
+of vineyardists was not turned to the Vulpinas until after the middle
+of the last century, when the qualities of its vines attracted the
+attention of French viticulturists. Phylloxera had been introduced
+from America into France and threatened the existence of French
+vineyards. After trying all possible remedies for the scourge, it was
+discovered that the insect could be overcome by grafting European
+grapes on American vines resistant to phylloxera. A trial of the
+promising species of New World grapes showed that vines of this
+species were best suited for the reconstruction of French vineyards,
+the vines being not only resistant to the phylloxera but also vigorous
+and hardy. At present, a large proportion of the vines of Europe,
+California and other grape-growing regions are grafted on the roots of
+this or of other American species, and the viticulture of the world
+is thus largely dependent on these grapes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. A shoot of _Vitis vulpina_.]
+
+The French found that a number of the Vulpina (Riparia) grapes
+introduced for their roots were valuable as direct producers for
+wines. The fruits of this species are too small and too sour for
+dessert, but they are free from the disagreeable tastes and aromas of
+some of our native grapes and, therefore, make very good wines. The
+best known of the varieties of this species is the Clinton, which is
+generally thought to have originated in the yard of Dr. Noyes, of
+Hamilton College, Clinton, New York, about 1820. It is, however,
+probably the Worthington, of which the origin is unknown, renamed.
+There are possibly a hundred or more grapes now under cultivation
+wholly or in part from Vulpina, most of them hybrids with the American
+Labrusca and the European Vinifera, with both of which it hybridizes
+freely.
+
+_Domesticated species of minor importance._
+
+In the preceding paragraphs we have seen that four species of grapes
+constitute the foundation of American viticulture. Nine other species
+furnish pure-bred varieties and many hybrids with the four chief
+species or among themselves. These are _V. rupestris_, _V. Longii_,
+_V. Champinii_, _V. Munsoniana_, _V. cordifolia_, _V. candicans_, _V.
+bicolor_, _V. monticola_ and _V. Berlandieri_. Several of these nine
+species are of value in the vineyard or for stocks upon which to graft
+other grapes. The domestication of all of these is just begun, and
+each year sees them more and more in use in the vineyards of the
+country.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.--Two views of vineyards in California. _Top_,
+a vineyard in the orchard region of central California; _bottom_, a
+vineyard in southern California.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS
+
+
+Happily, the grape in its great diversity of forms accommodates itself
+to many conditions, so that some variety of the several cultivated
+species will produce fruit for home use, if not as a market commodity,
+in every part of America adapted to general agriculture. But
+commercial grape-growing on this continent is confined to a few
+regions, in each of which it is profitable only in ideal situations.
+In fact, few other agricultural industries are more definitely
+determined by environment than the grape-industry. Where are the grape
+regions of America? What determines the suitability of a region for
+grape-growing? Answers to these questions furnish clews to the culture
+of this fruit and help in estimating the potentialities of a new
+region or of a location for grape-growing.
+
+
+THE GRAPE REGIONS OF AMERICA
+
+There are four chief grape-growing regions in North America, with
+possibly twice as many more subsidiary ones. These several regions,
+each of which has its distinct varieties and to less extent distinct
+species, and in each of which grapes are grown for somewhat widely
+different purposes, give a great variety of industrial conditions to
+the grape-growing of the continent. Nevertheless, the regions have
+much in common in their environment. It is from their differences and
+similarities that most can be learned in the brief discussions of the
+regions that follow.
+
+_The Pacific slope._
+
+The Pacific slope takes precedence among the grape regions of the
+continent, exceeding all others combined in the production of grapes
+and grape products. California is the viticultural center of this
+great region, grapes being grown within her bounds from the foot of
+Mount Shasta on the north to Mexico on the south and from the
+foothills of the Sierras on the east to the forest that borders the
+coast on the west. So outlined, California might appear to be one vast
+vineyard, but it is only in favored valleys, plains and low hills in
+the territory bounded that the vine is sufficiently well suited to be
+productive. Outliers of this main region of the Pacific slope run
+north into Oregon, Washington, Idaho and even into British Columbia,
+forced more and more eastward the farther north to escape humidity
+from the ocean which northward passes farther and farther inland.
+Other outliers of the main region are found eastward in Nevada,
+Arizona, New Mexico and even Utah and Colorado, though for the most
+part in these states grape-growing is still insignificant. Plate I
+shows typical vineyards in California.
+
+The grapes grown on the Pacific slope are almost exclusively Vinifera
+varieties, though a few American grapes are planted in the Pacific
+Northwest. This is not because American varieties cannot be grown,
+although they succeed rather less well here than on the eastern
+seaboard, but because the Viniferas are liked better, and climate and
+soil seem exactly to suit them. Viticulture on the Pacific slope is
+divided into three interdependent industries which are almost never
+quite independent of each other--the wine industry, raisin industry
+and table-grape industry. Each of these industries depends on grapes
+more or less specially adapted to the product, the special
+characteristics being secured chiefly through somewhat distinct types
+of grapes but depending partly on soil and climatic conditions. The
+manufacture of unfermented grape-juice is not yet a success in this
+region for the reasons that Vinifera grapes do not make a good
+unfermented juice, and American grapes are not grown in sufficient
+quantities to warrant the establishment of grape-juice plants.
+
+Bioletti gives the extent of the grape-growing industry in California
+as follows:[1]
+
+"The vineyards of California covered in 1912 about 385,000 acres. Of
+this total, about 180,000 acres were producing wine-grapes. Roughly,
+50 per cent of the wine was produced in the great interior valleys,
+including most of the sweet wines; 35 per cent was produced by the
+valleys and hillsides of the Coast ranges, including most of the dry
+wines; the remaining 15 per cent was produced in Southern California
+and included both sweet and dry.
+
+"The raisin-grape vineyards covered about 130,000 acres, of which
+about 90 per cent were in the San Joaquin Valley, 7 per cent in the
+Sacramento, and 3 per cent in Southern California.
+
+"The shipping-grape vineyards are reckoned at 75,000 acres,
+distributed about as follows: 50 per cent in the Sacramento Valley, 40
+per cent in San Joaquin, 6 per cent in Southern California, and 4 per
+cent in the Coast ranges."
+
+_The Chautauqua grape-belt._
+
+The Chautauqua grape-belt, lying along the northeastern shore of Lake
+Erie in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, is the second most important
+grape region in America. The "belt" is a narrow strip of lowland
+averaging about three miles in width, lying between Lake Erie and a
+high escarpment which bounds the belt on the south throughout its
+entire length of a hundred or more miles. Here climate and soil seem
+to be exceptionally favorable for grape-growing. Climate is the chief
+determinant of the boundaries of this belt, since there are several
+types of soil upon which grapes do equally well in the region, and
+when the climate changes at the two extremities of the belt where the
+escarpment becomes low, or when the distance between the lake and the
+escarpment is great, grape-growing ceases to be profitable.
+
+The growers of this region are organized into selling associations so
+that estimates of acreage and yields are obtainable. At present
+writing, 1918, there are in this belt in New York about 35,000 acres
+of grapes; in Pennsylvania and Ohio, about 15,000 acres, much the
+greater part of which is in Pennsylvania. The average yield of grapes
+to the acre for the region is about two tons. The average total
+production for the past five years has been about 100,000 tons, of
+which 65,000 tons are shipped as table-grapes, and 35,000 tons are
+used in the manufacture of wine and grape-juice. Among varieties,
+Concord reigns supreme in the Chautauqua belt. The writer, in 1906,
+made a canvass of the region, vineyard by vineyard, and found that 90
+per cent of the acreage of the belt was set to Concord, 3 per cent to
+Niagara, 2 per cent to Worden and the remaining 5 per cent to a dozen
+or more varieties of which Moore Early and Delaware led.
+
+The manufacture of grape-juice on a commercial scale began in the
+Chautauqua belt and most of this product is still produced in the
+region. Here, only Concord grapes of the best quality are used for
+grape-juice. The growth of this industry is most significant for the
+future of grape-growing in the region. Twenty years ago grape-juice
+was a negligible factor in the grape industry of this region; at
+present, the annual output is in the neighborhood of 4,000,000
+gallons. Grape-juice-makers now determine the price of grapes for the
+region, and while the quantity used is less than that for
+table-grapes, the time is not distant when it will be greater.
+
+_The Niagara region._
+
+Fifty miles due north of the Chautauqua belt, across the end of Lake
+Erie and the narrow isthmus of Niagara, is a smaller belt on the
+southern shore of Lake Ontario so similar in soil, climate and
+topography that in these respects the two regions might be considered
+as identical. This is the Niagara region, Canada's chief
+grape-producing area. It is bounded on the north by Lake Ontario; on
+the south, at a distance of one to three miles by the high Niagara
+escarpment; to the east it crosses the Niagara River into New York;
+and in the west tapers to a point at Hamilton on the westward
+extremity of Lake Ontario. Here, again, is the influence of climate
+distinctly manifested. As this belt passes into New York, it widens
+and the influence of Lake Ontario is less and less felt to the
+eastward, and in consequence grape-growing becomes less and less
+profitable.
+
+There were, according to the Ontario Bureau of Industries, in 1914,
+about 10,850 acres of grapes in the Niagara region in Canada, and
+possibly 4,000 acres more near the Niagara River and along the shore
+of Lake Ontario in New York. The Niagara grape originated on the
+American side of the Niagara region and is here planted more
+extensively than elsewhere. Grape-growing in this region is similar in
+all respects to that of the Chautauqua belt, the same varieties and
+nearly identical methods of pruning, cultivation, spraying and
+harvesting being employed. The crop is chiefly used as table-grapes
+but the grape-juice industry is growing.
+
+_The Central Lakes region of New York._
+
+In the central part of western New York are several remarkable bodies
+of water known as the Central Lakes. Three of these are large and deep
+enough to give ideal climatic conditions for grapes, and about these
+lakes are grouped several important areas of vineyards, making this
+the third most important grape region in America. The region assumes
+further importance because most of the champagne made in America is
+produced here, and it is the chief center of still wines in eastern
+America as well. It is further distinguished by its distinctive types
+of grapes, Catawba and Delaware taking the place of Concord and
+Niagara, the sorts that usually predominate in eastern grape regions.
+
+The main body of this region lies on the steep slopes of the high
+lands surrounding Keuka Lake. On the shores of this lake there are,
+approximately, 15,000 acres of grapes. Adjacent to this main body are
+several smaller bodies about the neighboring lakes. Thus, at the head
+of Canandaigua Lake and on its shores are about 2500 acres; near
+Seneca and between Seneca and Cayuga Lakes there are probably 1500
+acres more. In a few specially favored places on other of these
+Central Lakes, there are possibly 1000 acres, making all told for this
+region, about 20,000 acres. Again it is climate that sets the seal of
+approval on the region for viticulture. In addition to the benefits of
+deep bodies of water, high and sloping lands cause the frosts to cease
+early in the spring and hold them in abeyance in the autumn, giving an
+exceptionally long season.
+
+Champagne-making began here about 1860; at present there are a score
+or more manufacturers of champagne, wine and brandy, the output being
+annually about 3,000,000 gallons of wine and 2,000,000 bottles of
+champagne. Recently the manufacture of grape-juice has begun and the
+industry is now flourishing.
+
+_Minor grape regions._
+
+Viticulture is commercially important in several other regions than
+those outlined. Thus, in the valley of the Hudson River, grapes have
+been grown commercially for nearly a hundred years, the industry
+reaching its height between 1880 and 1890, when there were 13,000
+acres under cultivation. For some years, however, grape-growing along
+the Hudson has been on the decline. Another region in which
+viticulture reaches considerable magnitude is in several islands in
+Lake Erie near Sandusky, Ohio, the product going largely for the
+manufacture of wine. At one time grapes were grown commercially on the
+banks of the Ohio River about Cincinnati and westward into Indiana.
+The industry here, however, is a thing of the past. Another region in
+which grape-growing was once of prime importance but now lags has its
+center at Hermann, Missouri. The newest grape-producing area worthy of
+note is in southwestern Michigan about the towns of Lawton and Paw
+Paw. A small but very prosperous grape-growing region has its center
+at Egg Harbor, New Jersey. Ives is the mainstay among varieties in
+this region. In the southern states, Muscadine grapes are grown in a
+small way in every part of the cotton-belt and varieties of other
+native species are to be found in home vineyards in the upland
+regions, but nowhere in the South can it be said that grape-growing is
+a commercial industry.
+
+
+THE DETERMINANTS OF GRAPE REGIONS
+
+Climate, soil, site, the surface features of the land, insects, fungi
+and commercial geography are the chief factors that determine regions
+for money-making in grape-growing. This has been made plain in the
+foregoing discussion of grape regions, but the several factors must be
+taken up in greater detail. To bound the regions is of less importance
+than to understand why they exist--less needful to remember, more
+needful to understand. From what has been said, the reader has no
+doubt already concluded that successful grape-growing is in largest
+measure due to kindliness in climate.
+
+
+_Climate_
+
+Under the assumption, then, that climate, of all factors, is chief in
+playing providence to the grape, let us examine somewhat critically
+the relations of climate to grape-growing. When analyzed, the
+essentials of climate, as it governs grape-growing, are found to be
+six: first, length of season; second, seasonal sum of heat; third,
+amount of humidity in summer weather; fourth, dates of spring and
+autumn frosts; fifth, winter temperature; sixth, air currents.
+
+_Length of season._
+
+To reach true perfection, each grape variety has a length of season of
+its own. With each, if it is grown in too low a latitude, the vine is
+uninterrupted in growth; its leaves tend to become evergreen; and not
+infrequently it produces at the same time blossoms, green fruits and
+ripe fruits. This is, of course, the extreme to which grapes pass in
+the far South. Again, many northern varieties fail where southern
+grapes succeed because the fruits pass too rapidly from maturity to
+decay. On the other hand, very often southern grapes are hardy in vine
+in the North, but the season is not sufficiently long for the fruit to
+mature and to acquire sufficient sugar to give them good keeping
+quality, properly to pass through vinous fermentation, or even to make
+a good unfermented grape-juice. In the uneven topography of this
+continent, it is not possible to state the range in latitude in which
+grapes can be cultivated to advantage, for latitude is often set aside
+by altitude. Thus, isothermal lines, or lines of equal temperature,
+are much curved in America and do not at all coincide with the
+parallels of latitude.
+
+Other factors, of course, than length of season enter into the
+ripening of grapes. The daily range in temperature, not always
+dependent on latitude, affects ripening. Cool nights may offset warm
+days and delay ripening. Certainly rains, fogs and humid air delay
+maturity. The bottom heat of loose, warm, dry gravelly or stony soils
+hastens maturity. Sunshine secured by a sunny aspect or shelter
+hastens maturity.
+
+_The seasonal sum of heat._
+
+Successful cultivation of the grape depends on a sufficient amount of
+heat during the summer season. The theory is that buds of the grape
+commence to start when the mean daily temperature reaches a certain
+height, and that the sum of the mean daily temperature must reach a
+certain amount before grapes ripen. Manifestly, this sum must vary
+much with different varieties, low for the earliest sorts, high for
+the latest. There have been many observations as to the temperatures
+at which buds of the grape start growth, so that it is now known that
+the temperature varies in accordance with locality and degree of
+maturity. Roughly speaking, grape buds start at temperatures from 50 deg.
+to 60 deg. F. The seasonal sum of heat for ripening is probably 1600 to
+2400 units. A variety ought not to be planted, therefore, in a region
+in which the average seasonal sum of heat is not sufficiently high.
+The seasonal sum of heat can be determined for a locality from data
+published by the United States Weather Bureau; and by comparing with
+the sum of heat units in localities where a variety is known to
+thrive, the grape-grower can determine whether there is sufficient
+heat for any particular variety.
+
+The grape seldom suffers from hot weather in a grape region. The fruit
+is sometimes scalded in the full blaze of a hot sun, but the ample
+foliage of the vine usually furnishes protection against a burning
+sun. At maturing time, the heat of an unclouded sun, if the air
+circulates freely, insures a finely finished product. Deep planting
+helps to offset the harmful influences of warm climates.
+
+_Humidity of summer weather._
+
+The grape is very sensitive to moisture conditions, and grows best in
+regions where the summer rainfall is comparatively light. A damp and
+cloudy summer brings disaster to the vineyard in several ways; as
+small growth of vine, small set of fruit, a crop of poor quality, and
+the development of the several fungous diseases. Although the grape
+stands drought, a superfluity of moisture in the soil may do little
+harm, as is shown in irrigated vineyards, but a humid air is fatal to
+success especially if the air is both warm and wet. Moist weather
+during the time of maturity is particularly disastrous to the grape,
+as are frequent fogs. Cold wet weather in blooming time is the
+grape-grower's vernal bane, since it most effectually prevents the
+setting of fruit. It may be laid down as a rule that the grape lives
+by sunlight, warmth and air--it often thrives on the desert's edge.
+These considerations make it manifest that the monthly and seasonal
+means of precipitation must be considered in selecting a locality to
+grow grapes.
+
+_Spring and autumn frosts._
+
+The average date at which the last killing frost occurs in the spring
+often determines the limit in latitude at which the grape can be
+grown. Even in the most favored grape region of the continent, killing
+frosts occasionally destroy the grape crop, and there are few seasons
+in which frost does not take some toll. Thus on May 7, 1916, frost all
+but ruined the crop of wine- and table-grapes in the great grape
+region of northern California where frosts are seldom expected in May.
+Little or nothing can be done to protect grapes from frost. Windbreaks
+as often favor the frost as the vine, and smudging or heating the
+vineyards is too expensive to be practical. In growing grapes,
+therefore, the commonly recognized precaution of selecting a site
+near water, on slopes or in a warm thermal belt must be exercised.
+
+The limits of grape culture are also determined by early autumn
+frosts. The grape stands two or three degrees of frost, but anything
+lower usually destroys the crop. Here, again, the only precaution is
+to take pains in selecting the site.
+
+_The use of weather data and dates of life events of the grape._
+
+These considerations of length of season, humidity and spring and fall
+frosts make it plain that the grape-grower must synchronize these
+phases of climate with the life events of the grape. In particular, he
+must study weather data in relation to the blooming and ripening of
+grapes. Usually, the necessary weather data may be secured from the
+nearest local weather bureau, while the date of blooming and ripening
+may be obtained from the state experiment stations in the states where
+the grape is an important crop.
+
+_Winter temperature._
+
+Varieties of native grapes are seldom injured in America by
+winter-killing, since they are usually planted in climates in which
+wild grapes withstand winter conditions. Native varieties follow the
+rule that plant and climate are truly congenial in regions in which
+the plant thrives without the aid of man. A few varieties of native
+grapes fare badly in the winter's cold of northern grape regions, and
+the tender Vinifera vine is at the mercy of the winter wherever the
+mercury goes below zero. In cold climates, therefore, care must be
+exercised in selecting hardy varieties and in following careful
+cultural methods with the tender sorts. If other climatic conditions
+are favorable, however, winter-killing is not an unsurmountable
+difficulty, since the grape is easily protected from cold, so easily
+that the tender Viniferas may be grown in the cold North with winter
+protection.
+
+_Air currents._
+
+Currents of air are of but local importance in growing tree-fruits,
+but are of general and vital importance in growing the grape. The
+direction, force and frequency of prevailing winds are often
+controlling factors in the suppression of fungous diseases of the
+grape, and the presence of fungi often means success or failure in
+regions in which the grape is planted. Winds are beneficial, too, when
+they bring warm air or dry air, and when they keep frosty air in
+motion. The air must move in all grape regions, whether from canon,
+mountain, lake or sea. Sunlight, warmth, and air in motion are life to
+the grape. Sometimes winds may be detrimental; as when too cold, too
+blustering, or when they bring hail, the latter being about the most
+disastrous of all natural calamities. Windbreaks are of small value
+and are often worse than useless. Having planted his vineyard, the
+grape-grower must take the winds as they blow.
+
+
+_Soils for grapes_
+
+A prime requisite for a vineyard being earth in which vines will grow,
+successful grape-growing is eminently dependent on the selection of
+soil. Many mistakes are made in the great grape regions in planting on
+unsuitable soils, the planter going on the assumption that any soil in
+a grape region should be good enough for the grape. But the crust of
+the earth in grape regions is not all grape soil. In New York, for
+example, much of the land in the three grape regions is better fitted
+for producing crops for the mason or road-mender than for the
+grape-grower. Other soils in these regions are fit for vineyards only
+when tiled, and tiling does not make all wet land fit for tilling.
+Heavy, clammy clays, light sands, soils parched with thirst, thin or
+hungry soils--on all of these the grower may plant but will seldom
+harvest.
+
+_The ideal soil._
+
+Grapes may be well grown in a wide range of soils if the land is well
+drained, open to air and if it holds heat. But without these
+essentials, whatever the soil, all subsequent treatment fails to
+produce a good vineyard. Generally speaking, the grape grows best in a
+light, free-working, gravelly loam, but there are many good vineyards
+in gravelly or stony clays, gravel or stone to furnish drainage, let
+in the air and to hold heat. Contrary to general belief, the grape
+seldom thrives in very sandy soils unless there is a fair admixture of
+clay, considerable decomposing vegetable matter and a clay subsoil.
+The latter, however, must not come too close to the surface. Some of
+the best vineyard lands in the country are very stony, the stones
+hindering only in making the land difficult to till. Nearly all grapes
+require a friable soil, compactness being a serious defect. Virgil,
+writing in Christ's time, gave good advice as to soil for the vine:
+
+    "A free loose earth is what the vines demand,
+    Where wind and frost have help'd the lab'rer's hand,
+    And sturdy peasants deep have stirr'd the land."
+
+Cold, churlish, sticky or clammy clays are never to the liking of the
+grape.
+
+Great fertility is not necessary in grape lands. Indeed, the grape is
+conspicuous among cultivated plants for ability to nourish itself
+where the food supply is scant. Soils naturally too rich produce an
+overgrowth of vine, the season's wood does not mature, the crop does
+not set, and the grapes lack sugar, size, color and flavor. Good
+physical condition and warmth in a well-watered, well-aired soil
+enable the grape to search far and wide for its food.
+
+_Drainage._
+
+No cultivated grape endures a wet soil; all demand drainage. A few
+sorts may thrive for a time in moist, heavy land, but more often they
+do not live though they may linger. The water-table should be at least
+two feet from the surface. If by chance this comes naturally, so much
+the better, but otherwise the land must be tile-drained. Sloping land
+is by no means always well drained, many hillsides having a subsoil so
+impervious or so retentive of moisture that under-drainage is a
+necessity. The texture of the land is usually improved so greatly by
+good drainage that the grower has little need to rely on the clemency
+of the season in carrying on vineyard cultivation in well-drained
+land.
+
+_Soil adaptations._
+
+In the refinement of viticulture, grape-growers find that particular
+varieties grow best in a particular soil, the likes and dislikes being
+determined only by trial, for the peculiarities which adapt a soil to
+a variety are not analyzable. Some varieties, on the other hand, the
+Concord being a good example, grow fruitfully in a great variety of
+soils. Each of the several species with their varieties has quite
+distinct adaptations to soils. This is taken advantage of in planting
+varieties on uncongenial soils after they have been grafted on a vine
+which finds itself at home in the particular soil. Much has been
+accomplished in growing varieties on uncongenial soils by consorting
+them with other stocks, an operation which has brought forth volumes
+of discussion as to the adaptabilities of cions to stocks and stocks
+to soils, subjects to receive attention on a later page.
+
+
+_Insects and fungi_
+
+The profitable grape regions of the country have all been established
+in regions comparatively free from grape insects and fungi. If pests
+came later in considerable numbers, the industry, in the old days,
+perished. Here and there in the agricultural regions of the country
+may be found a sorry company of halt and maimed vines, remnants of
+once flourishing vineyards, brought to their miserable condition by
+some scourge of insects or fungi. The advent of spraying and of better
+knowledge of the habits of the pests has greatly lessened the
+importance of parasites as a factor in determining the value of a
+region for grape-growing; but even in the light of the new knowledge,
+it is not wise to go against Nature in regions where pests are
+strongly intrenched.
+
+
+_Commercial factors_
+
+The dominant factors that lead to the planting of large areas to any
+one fruit are often economic ones; as transportation, markets, labor,
+facilities for making by-products, and opportunity to join in buying
+and selling organizations. All of these factors play an important part
+in determining the bounds of grape regions, but a lesser part than in
+the establishment of large areas of other fruits, for the reason that
+the grape is so largely grown for raisins, wine, champagne and
+grape-juice, products condensed in form, made with little labor,
+easily transported, which keep long and find ready market at any time.
+Again, where natural conditions are favorable for grape-growing, the
+crop comes almost as a gift from Nature; whereas, if the grower must
+breast the blows of unfavorable natural circumstances, no matter how
+favorable the economic factors may be, the vineyard is seldom
+profitable. Natural factors, therefore, outweigh economic ones in
+grape-growing, but the latter must be considered in seeking a site for
+a vineyard, a task discussed under several heads to follow.
+
+_Accessibility to markets._
+
+Markets ought to be accessible in commercial grape-growing. A location
+in which there is a good local market, and at the same time ample
+facilities for shipping to distant markets, is desirable. If there
+are also opportunities to dispose of any surplus to makers of raisins,
+wine or grape-juice, the grower has well-nigh attained the ideal.
+Further to be desired are good roads, short hauls, quick
+transportation, reasonable freight rates, refrigerator service and
+cooeperative agencies. The more of these advantages a grower has at his
+disposal, the less likely he is to fail in commercial competition.
+
+_General_ versus _local markets._
+
+The grower must be reminded rather than informed that he must decide
+in locating his vineyard whether he will grow for distant markets, for
+manufacturing into grape products, or for local markets. Determination
+to grow grapes once made, subsequent procedure at every step depends
+on the disposition to be made of the product. Summarized, the
+differences in growing grapes for the two markets are: For the general
+market: the acreage should be large; the market may be distant; the
+varieties few; the cost of production low; sales large and prices low;
+the dealings are with middlemen; and extensive culture is practiced.
+For the local market: the acreage may be small; the market must be
+near and prices must be high; the sales are direct to the consumer;
+there must be succession in ripening; and intensive culture is
+practiced. For the general market, the vineyard is the unit; for the
+local market, the variety should be the unit. In this discussion,
+however, "large acreage" and "extensive culture" set against "small
+acreage" and "intensive culture" may mislead. This is a case in which
+a large endeavor may be a small endeavor, and a small endeavor a large
+one; or, in which it may be well to take the advice of Virgil, who
+advised Roman vineyardists, "Praise great estates; farm a small one."
+
+The grape-growing of the times tends more and more to growing for
+general markets. The grower plants to skim a comparatively small
+return from a large area. This division of grape-growing is now well
+developed in America. Intensive grape-growing for local markets is not
+well developed. There are, however, many opportunities in America for
+easy triumphs in fruit-growing in the planting of vineyards for local
+markets. No other fruit responds to fine art in culture so well as the
+grape. Given choicely good varieties and a finely finished product,
+and the grower may have almost what he desires for the produce of his
+skill. With the grape, too, palm of merit goes with skill in culture;
+among all who grow plants, only the florist can rival the
+viticulturist in guiding the development of a plant to a special end.
+In cultivating, fertilizing, training, grafting, pruning, spraying, in
+every cultural operation, the grape-grower has opportunities to sell
+his skill not given in so high degree to the grower of other fruits.
+
+_Labor._
+
+A great advantage in the congregation of vineyardists in grape regions
+is found when labor must be obtained. Skilled labor is required to
+cultivate the vine, and such labor can be freely secured only in
+centers of viticulture. Grape-growing is a specialists' business, and
+it takes more than a day or a season to make a vine-dresser out of a
+farmer, gardener or an orchardist. Expert labor is most easily
+obtained and is of best quality where grapes abound. Common labor must
+be somewhat abundant, also, in good vineyard locations, for such rush
+tasks as tying and picking. In these two operations, women, children
+or other unskilled labor may be employed to advantage. The grape
+harvest must often be hurried, and to keep it in full swing a near-by
+city from which to draw pickers is a great asset.
+
+_Vineyard sites._
+
+Within a grape region, the site is important in determining where to
+plant. The site is the local position of the vineyard. Sites cannot
+be standardized, and therefore no two are alike. The cardinal natural
+factors to be secured in a site are warmth, sun, air and freedom from
+frost. These factors have been discussed in a general way under the
+climate of grape regions, but one needs to particularize a little more
+closely to ascertain how they affect individual vineyards. Warmth,
+sun, air and frostlessness are best secured by proximity to water,
+high land and proper exposure.
+
+_Proximity to water._
+
+The favorable influences of water are well illustrated in the grape
+regions of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Canada. All of the grape
+districts in these regions are bounded on one or more sides by water.
+The equalizing effects of large bodies of water on temperature, warmer
+winter and cooler summer, are so well known as scarcely to need
+comment. Hardly less important than the effects of water on
+temperature are the off-shore breezes of night and the in-shore
+breezes of day which blow on large bodies of water. These keep the air
+of the vineyard in constant motion and so prevent frosts in spring and
+autumn, and also dry foliage and fruit so that spores of fungi have
+difficulty in finding foothold. But if water brings fogs, dews and
+humidity, as does the Pacific, grapes must be planted inland;
+otherwise leaf, bloom and fruit are born in the blight of fungi. The
+benign influences of water are felt in the eastern grape regions at
+distances of one to four miles, seldom farther. These narrow belts
+about the eastern waters are bounded on the landward side by high
+bluffs over which many showers fail to pass and which protect the
+belts below from heavy dews. Where the background of bluffs in these
+regions sinks to level land, vineyards cease.
+
+Vineyards are usually some distance above the water, the range in
+altitude running from fifty to five hundred feet. Where the altitude
+is much higher, immunity to frosts and winter freezing ceases, for
+the reason that the atmosphere is rarer and drier so that heat
+radiates rapidly from the land. As the height increases, also, the
+revels of the wind play havoc with the vines. Yet, one is often
+surprised to find good vineyards at the level of the lakes or, on the
+other hand, crowning high hills. Altitude in grape-growing must,
+therefore, be determined by experiment. We know very little of the
+formation of the thermal belts on high land so favorable to the grape.
+
+_The lay of the land._
+
+We associate the grape with rugged land; as the vines on the banks of
+the Rhine, the rolling lands of Burgundy, the slopes of Vesuvius and
+Olympus, the high hills of Madeira, the cloud-capped mountains of
+Teneriffe, mountain slopes in California and the escarpments of grape
+regions in eastern America. These examples prove how well adapted
+rolling lands, inclined plains and even steep and rocky hillsides are
+to the culture of the vine. Virgil long ago wrote, "Bacchus is partial
+to broad, sunny hills." Yet rolling lands are not essential to the
+culture of the grape, for in Europe and America very good grapes are
+grown on unsheltered plains, provided the land has an elevation on one
+or more boundaries above the surrounding country. If the conditions of
+soil and climate which the grape requires can be found on level land
+or moderate slopes, such situations are much better than steep
+declivities, since on these the cost of all vineyard operations is
+greater and heavy rains erode the soil. The soil on hills, too, is
+often scant and niggardly. Level land, however, must not be shut in on
+all sides by higher land as untimely frost will often lay waste vines
+in such a situation.
+
+_Exposures._
+
+The exposure, or the slope of the land toward a point of the compass,
+is important in choosing a site for the vineyard, although the value
+of particular exposures is often exaggerated. Let it be remembered
+that good grapes may be grown in vineyards exposed to any point of the
+compass, but that slight advantages may sometimes come, depending on
+the particular environment of the plantation, and then solve the
+problem according to conditions. The following are theories as to
+exposure: A southern exposure is warmer and hence earlier than a
+northern, and is, therefore, the best slope for early grapes as well
+as for very late ones liable to be caught by frost. Northward and
+westward slopes retard the leafing and blooming period, thus often
+enabling the grape to escape untimely spring frosts; though to plant
+on such slopes may be robbing Peter to pay Paul, as what is gained in
+retardation in spring may be lost in the fall with the result that the
+vines may be caught by frost and may fail to ripen their crop. Frost
+damage is usually greatest on a bold eastern slope, and vines suffer
+most in winter freezes on this exposure, since the direct rays of the
+rising sun strike the frozen plants so that they are more injured than
+otherwise by rapid thawing. In locations near bodies of water, the
+best slope is toward the water, regardless of direction. The exposure
+may sometimes be selected to advantage with reference to the
+prevailing winds.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.--Fitting the land for planting.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PROPAGATION
+
+
+The grape commends itself to commercial and amateur growers alike by
+its ease of propagation. The vines of all species may be propagated
+from seed, and all but one of the several cultivated species may be
+grown readily from cuttings or layers. All yield to grafting of one
+kind or another. Seeds are planted only to produce new varieties. At
+one time stocks were grown from seed, but this practice has fallen
+into disrepute because of the great variations in the seedlings.
+Varieties on their own roots and stocks are for most part propagated
+from cuttings. In the production of stocks, the viticulturist sets the
+orchardist a good example, for there can be no question that all
+tree-fruits suffer from being grown on seedling stocks. The grape is a
+vigorous, self-assertive plant and once it is started, whether from
+seeds, cuttings or layers, seldom fails to grow.
+
+
+SEEDLINGS
+
+Growing seedling grapes is the simplest of operations. The seeds are
+taken from the grapes at harvest time, after which they must pass
+through a resting period of a few months. At once or in a month or
+two, the seeds should be stratified in moist sand and stored in a cold
+place until spring, when they may be sown in flats or in the open
+ground; or seed may be sown in a well-prepared piece of garden land in
+the autumn. When planted in the open, autumn or spring, the seeds are
+put in at the depth of an inch, an inch or two apart and in rows
+convenient for cultivation. Subsequent care consists of cultivation
+if the seed are sown in garden rows, and in pricking out when true
+leaves appear if planted in flats. In ground that crusts, an expedient
+is to mix grape seed with apple seed; the apple seedlings, being more
+vigorous, break the crust and act as nurse plants to the more tender
+grapes. Sometimes it is helpful to the young plants to mulch the
+ground lightly with lawn clippings or moss. Grape seedlings grow
+rapidly, often making from two to three feet of wood in a season.
+
+The young plants are thinned or set to stand four or five inches apart
+in the nursery row. At the end of the first season, all plants are cut
+back severely and almost entirely covered with earth by plowing up to
+the row on both sides. This earth, of course, is leveled the following
+spring. If the seasons are propitious and all goes well, the seedlings
+are ready for the vineyard at the end of the second season, but if for
+any reason they have fared badly during their first two years, it is
+much better to give them a third season in the nursery. Seedling vines
+are seldom as vigorous as those from cuttings, and unusual care must
+be taken in setting in the vineyard, though the operation is
+essentially the same as that to be described for vines from cuttings.
+The third season the vines are kept to a single shoot and are pinched
+back when the canes reach a length of five or six feet. In the autumn,
+they are pruned back to two or three feet. In the spring of the fourth
+season, the trellis is put up and a few fruits may be allowed to
+ripen.
+
+The vines of promise may now be selected. The plants, however, must
+fruit twice or oftener before it can be told whether hopes are
+consummated or must be deferred. Growing seedlings for new varieties
+is a game full of chances in which, while there may be little
+immediate or individual gain, there is much pleasure. It is hardly too
+much to say that the grape industry of eastern America, with its
+300,000 acres and 1500 varieties, betokens the good that has come from
+growing seedling grapes.
+
+
+DORMANT CUTTINGS
+
+Vines for vineyards, with the exception of varieties of Rotundifolia,
+are propagated from cuttings of hard wood taken from the season's
+canes when the vines are pruned. The inactive buds in these cuttings
+may be brought into active growth, and roots induced to grow from the
+cut surfaces by various means. By this miracle of Nature, an infinite
+number of plants, in an endless procession, may be propagated from the
+product of a single seed, each plant complete in its heredity and
+differing from its fellows only in accordance with environment.
+
+_Time to make cuttings._
+
+A good cutting should have a protective callus over the cut and this
+requires time, so that the sooner cuttings are made after the wood
+becomes thoroughly dormant the better. Besides, the cutting should use
+its stored food material for the formation of adventitious roots
+rather than have it pass into buds, as it quickly does late in the
+dormant season when buds are about to open. If cuttings must be made
+late in the season, transplanting must be delayed as long as possible,
+and the cuttings be set in a northerly aspect to prevent the premature
+development of the buds. However, the grape responds surprisingly well
+to the call of Nature in forming roots, and great importance need not
+be attached to the time at which the cuttings are made.
+
+_Selecting cutting wood._
+
+Cuttings are made from one-year-old wood; that is, canes produced
+during the summer are taken for cuttings in the fall. Immature canes
+and those with soft, spongy wood ought not to be used. Strong vigorous
+canes should be given preference over weak growth, but most nurserymen
+maintain that very large canes do not make as good cuttings as do
+those of medium size, the objection to large size being that the
+cuttings do not root as well. Short-jointed wood is better than
+long-jointed. Cuttings from vines weakened by insects and fungi are
+liable to be weak, soft, immature and poorly stored with food. The
+wood should be smooth and straight.
+
+_Making the cutting._
+
+Grape cuttings vary in length from four inches to two feet, the length
+depending on the climate and the soil of the nursery and the species
+and variety. The hotter and drier the climate and the lighter the
+soil, the longer the cutting needs to be. Six to nine inches, however,
+is the usual length in the climate of eastern America, while on the
+Pacific slope the length varies from eight to fifteen inches. For
+convenience in handling, all cuttings should be approximately of the
+same length, to insure which some kind of simple gauge is needed.
+Various gauges are used, as marks cut in the working table, a stick of
+the required length, or a cutting-box.
+
+In making the cuttings, a slanting cut is made close below the lowest
+bud, while about an inch of wood is left above the upper bud. When
+possible, a heel of old wood is left at the lower end; or, still
+better, a whorl of buds, as roots usually start from each bud. The
+finished cuttings are tied in bundles, all butts one way, and are then
+ready to be heeled-in. This is done by burying in trenches, butts up,
+and covering with a few inches of soil. It is important to invert the
+cuttings in trenching, since otherwise the tops often start to grow
+before the butts are properly calloused, and it is very essential that
+the tops remain dormant until roots appear to support the new growth.
+
+_Planting the cuttings._
+
+Cuttings are planted in the nursery in rows wide enough apart for
+cultivation and two or three inches apart in the row. Trenches are
+made with a plow; perpendicular if the cuttings are shorter, and a
+little slanting if longer than six inches. The cuttings are set at a
+depth which permits the upper buds to project above the ground, as
+shown in Fig. 6. When the cuttings in a row are placed, two inches of
+soil are put in and pressed firmly about the base of the cuttings.
+Then the trench is evenly filled with earth and the cultivator
+follows. Doing duty by the young plants consists in cultivating often
+during the summer to keep the soil moist and mellow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. Planting cuttings.]
+
+The cuttings are planted as soon as the ground is warm and dry enough
+to work. To delay planting too long invites injury from drought, which
+almost annually parches the land in eastern America. Irrigation gives
+more leeway to planting time in the West. When warm sunny weather,
+accompanied by an occasional shower, predominates, the cuttings start
+growth almost at once, as shown in Fig. 7, and by fall, all things
+being propitious, make a growth from four to six feet. With the
+cuttings three inches and the rows three feet apart, 58,080 vines may
+be grown to the acre.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. A cutting beginning growth.]
+
+_Single-eye cuttings._
+
+New and rare varieties are propagated from single-eye cuttings,
+thereby doubling the number of plants from the propagating wood. This
+method gives an opportunity, also, to start the work of propagating
+early in the season, since single-eye cuttings are nearly always
+rooted by artificial heat. But the greatest value of the method is
+that some varieties which cannot be propagated in any other way
+readily grow under artificial heat from single-eyes. Well-grown vines
+so propagated are as good as those grown by any other method, but the
+great disadvantage is that unless much care and skill are used, vines
+from these cuttings are poor and quite worthless. It is also a more
+expensive method than growing from long cuttings out of doors.
+
+There are several ways of making single-eye cuttings. The most common
+form of the cutting is the single bud with an inch of wood above and
+below, the ends being cut with a slant. Some modify this form by
+cutting away the wood on the side opposite the bud, exposing the pith
+the whole length of the cutting. In another form, a square cut is made
+directly under the bud, leaving an inch and a half of wood above. Or
+this last form is modified by making a long sloping cut from the bud
+to the upper end, thereby exposing the maximum amount of cambium.
+Advantages are claimed for each form, but these are mostly imaginary,
+and the cutting may be made to suit the fancy of the propagator if a
+few essentials are observed.
+
+Single-eye cuttings are made in the fall and are stored in sand until
+late winter, about February in New York. At this time the cuttings are
+planted horizontally an inch deep in a sand propagating bench in a
+cool greenhouse. If the cuttings are not well calloused, they remain
+one or two weeks in a temperature of 40 deg. to 50 deg. without bottom heat,
+but well-made cuttings are calloused and ready to strike root so that
+brisk bottom heat can be applied at once. After six weeks or two
+months, the young plants are ready to pot off or to transplant in a
+cold-frame or cool greenhouse. If but a few plants are to be grown,
+they may be started in two- or three-inch pots, shifting into larger
+pots once or twice as growth progresses. In early summer, the young
+plants are set in nursery rows out of doors and by fall the young
+vines should be strong and vigorous.
+
+Single-eyes are also started in hot-beds, cold-frames and even in the
+open air without the aid of artificial heat. In hot-beds and
+cold-frames, the method is only a modification of that described for
+greenhouses. Out of doors the cuttings are given the same conditions
+under which long cuttings are rooted, except that the whole of the
+short cutting is buried an inch deep in the nursery row.
+
+
+HERBACEOUS CUTTINGS
+
+Grapes are easily propagated from herbaceous cuttings, although since
+the vines are weak and the method expensive, they are seldom used.
+Green cuttings are usually taken from plants forced in greenhouses,
+but may be taken in summer from vineyard vines. A green cutting is
+usually cut with two buds with the leaf at the upper one left on. The
+cuttings are set in propagating beds of sand, or pots of sand, in
+close frames under which there is brisk bottom heat. To prevent
+excessive evaporation, the frames are kept closed and the atmosphere
+warm and moist. As growth progresses, or if mildew appears, the frames
+are more and more ventilated. In two to four weeks, the cuttings
+should have rooted sufficiently well to be transplanted to pots.
+Herbaceous cuttings made in the summer must be kept under glass until
+the following spring.
+
+
+LAYERING
+
+The grape is readily propagated from layers of either green or mature
+wood, the method being certain, convenient and producing extra
+vigorous plants. The drawback is that fewer plants can be obtained by
+layering than from cuttings with a given amount of wood. Varieties of
+some species, however, cannot be propagated by cuttings, and with
+these layering becomes of supreme importance to the propagator. Nearly
+all varieties of Rotundifolia and some of AEstivalis are best grown
+from layers. So far as is known, all varieties of cultivated species
+may be grown by layering, and since the method is simple and certain
+and the vines vigorous and easily handled, this method is commended to
+small growers of grapes.
+
+_Dormant wood layering._
+
+The work of layering mature wood usually begins in the spring, but the
+vines from which the layers are to be taken should have received
+preliminary treatment the preceding season. The vines to be layered
+are severely cut back a year or more before the layering is to be done
+to induce a vigorous growth of canes. Strong vigorous canes are laid
+in a shallow trench, two to five inches deep, in which they are
+fastened with wood or wire pegs or staples. The trench is then partly
+filled with fine, moist, mellow earth which is firmly packed about the
+cane. Roots strike and shoots spring from each joint. When the young
+plants are well above ground, the trench is completely filled, and
+then, or a little later, the young plants are staked to keep them out
+of the way of the cultivator. The following fall the young vines are
+ready to transplant.
+
+The essentials of layering have been given, but a number of
+non-essentials may be helpful under some conditions. Thus, dormant
+wood may be layered in the fall, in which case the cane is usually
+notched or ringed at the joint to induce the formation of roots. The
+less the number of joints covered, the stronger the young vines, so
+that while the number is usually five, six or more extra vigorous
+plants may be obtained by covering only one or two joints. In
+propagating Rotundifolia grapes, it is expected that lateral branches
+will make the tops of the new plants. These, at the time of layering,
+are cut back to eight or ten inches, all on the same side of the
+vine, and are not left closer together than twelve inches. In nursery
+practice, Rotundifolia vines are trained along the ground for
+layering. Vines on arbors, in greenhouses, or on sides of buildings
+are easily layered in boxes or pots of soil. Plants grown from layers
+are not as conveniently handled as those from cuttings.
+
+_Green wood layering._
+
+Layered plants from green wood are sometimes grown to multiply quickly
+new or rare varieties. The work is accomplished in midsummer by
+bending down and covering shoots of the present season's growth.
+Strong plants are seldom obtained from summer-layering and it is never
+safe to attempt to grow more than one or two plants from a shoot. The
+most forceful culture possible must be given summer-layered plants
+after the separation from the parent vine. It is very generally agreed
+that plants from summer-layers not only do not give good plants, but
+that the parent vine is injured in taking an offspring from it in this
+way.
+
+_Layering to fill vacancies in the vineyard._
+
+There is sure to be an occasional gap even in the best vineyard. Young
+plants set in vacancies must compete with neighboring full-grown
+vines, and often in a bit of land so unfavorable that it may have been
+the cause of the demise of the original occupant. Under these
+circumstances, the newcomer stands a poor chance for life. A plant
+introduced by layering a strong cane from a near-by vine has little
+difficulty in establishing itself on its own roots, after which it can
+be separated from the parent. Such layering is best done by taking in
+early spring a strong, unpruned cane from an adjoining plant in the
+same row and covering an end joint six inches deep in the vacant
+place, but leaving sufficient wood on the end of the cane to turn up
+perpendicularly out of the soil. This free end becomes the new plant
+and by the following fall or spring may be separated from its parent.
+Not infrequently the young plant bears fruit the second season on its
+own roots. This method is of especial value in small plantations,
+whereby the trouble of ordering one or two plants is avoided and the
+advantage of early fruiting is obtained.
+
+
+GRAFTING
+
+Since grafting grapes is intimately connected with stocks, the growing
+of which is a modern practice, grafting is thought of as a new process
+in growing this fruit. Quite to the contrary, it is an old practice.
+Cato, the sturdy old Roman grape-grower who lived nearly two hundred
+years before Christ, speaks of grafting grapes, although Theophrastus,
+the Greek philosopher, wrote a hundred years before "the vine cannot
+be grafted upon itself." However, until it became necessary to grow
+Vinifera grapes on resistant stocks to avoid the ravages of
+phylloxera, grafting the grape was not at all common among
+vineyardists and is not now except where vines susceptible to
+phylloxera must be grown in consort with roots resistant to this
+insect, or to modify the vigor of the top by a stock more vigorous or
+less vigorous. For these two purposes, grafting is now in some grape
+regions one of the most important vineyard operations.
+
+In grafting the grape, there is a time and a way, not so particular as
+many believe, but rather more particular than in grafting most other
+fruits. If the essentials of grafting are kept in mind, one has
+considerable choice of details. Grafting consists in detaching and
+inserting one or several buds of a mother plant on another plant of
+the same or a similar kind; the bud stock is the cion, the rooted
+plant is the stock. The essentials may be set forth in three
+statements: First, the prime essential is that the cambium layers, the
+healing tissue lying between the bark and wood, meet in the cion and
+stock; second, that method of grafting is best in which the cut
+tissues heal most rapidly and most completely; third, the greater the
+amount of cambium contact, as compared with the whole cut surface, the
+more rapidly and completely the wounds will heal. Out of a great many,
+the following are a few of the simplest methods in use in grafting the
+grape, any one of which may be modified more or less as occasion
+calls.
+
+_Vineyard grafting in eastern America._
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. Cutting off the trunk.]
+
+In eastern America, the growing vine is usually grafted. At the New
+York Agricultural Experiment Station, the operation is very
+successfully performed on old vines as follows: Preparatory to
+grafting, the earth is removed from around the stock to a depth of two
+or three inches. The vines are then decapitated at the surface of the
+ground and at right angles with the axis of the stock. If the grain is
+straight, the cleft can be made by splitting with a chisel, but more
+often it will have to be done with a thin-bladed saw through the
+center of the stock for at least two inches. The cion is cut with two
+buds, the wedge being started at the lower bud. The cleft in the stock
+is then opened, and the cion inserted so that the cambium of stock and
+cion are in intimate contact. If the stock is large, two cions are
+used. The several operations in grafting are shown in Figs. 8, 9, 10
+and 11. Grafting wax is unnecessary, in fact is often worse than
+useless, and if the stock is large the graft is not even tied. Raffia
+is used to tie the graft in young vines. It suffices to mound the
+graft to the top of the cion with earth, for the purposes of
+protection and to keep the graft moist. Two or three times during the
+summer, sprouts coming from the stock or roots from the cion should be
+removed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. Cutting the cleft.]
+
+A method used with fair success at the New York Agricultural
+Experiment Station with young vines is to plant one-year-old stocks in
+the nursery row as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring.
+Just as the vines start in growth, these are cut off at the surface of
+the ground and whip- or cleft-grafted with a two-eye cion. The graft
+is tied with raffia, after which it is all but covered with a mound of
+soil. This is a case in which the work must be done at the accepted
+time, as it is fatal to delay.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. Inserting the cion.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. The completed graft.]
+
+R. D. Anthony describes another method as follows:[2] "A method which
+a Pennsylvania grower of Viniferas has found very satisfactory is to
+root the Vinifera cuttings, and grow them one year on their own roots;
+then the vine which is to be used as a stock is planted in the
+vineyard and the rooted cutting planted beside it so that the shoots
+from the two may be brought in contact with each other. In June when
+the plants are in full growth, two vigorous shoots (one from each
+vine) are brought together and a cut two or three inches long made in
+each parallel to the length of the cane removing from one-third to
+one-half of the thickness of the shoot. These flat surfaces exposed
+by the cuts are then brought into contact with the cambium tissues
+touching and are tied in place. The tops are checked somewhat by
+breaking off some of the growth. The following spring the Vinifera
+roots are cut off below the graft and the top of the stock above the
+graft is removed."
+
+In the subsequent care of these young vines, the grower must take time
+by the forelock and tie the grafts to suitable stakes; otherwise they
+are liable to be broken off at the union by wind or careless workmen.
+Grafted vineyards must have extra good care in all cultural
+operations, and even with the best of care from 5 to 50 per cent of
+the grafts will fail or grow so poorly as to make regrafting
+necessary, this being the most unfavorable circumstance of field
+grafting. Regrafting is done one joint lower than the first operation
+to avoid dead wood; this brings the union below the surface of the
+ground, and the vineyardist must expect many cion roots to try his
+patience.
+
+_Vineyard grafting on the Pacific slope._
+
+Vineyard grafting, according to Bioletti,[3] was formerly the
+commonest method of starting resistant vineyards in California. After
+stating that it is best whenever possible to plant good cuttings
+rather than roots, and that the grafting should usually be done the
+year after planting, Bioletti gives the following directions for
+grafting:[4]
+
+"Wherever possible the vines should be grafted at or above the surface
+of the ground. In many cases, however, it will be necessary to go
+below the surface to find a smooth, suitable part of the stock where
+grafting is possible.
+
+"The kind of graft to use will depend on the size of the stock. For
+stocks up to 2/3 inch in diameter the methods of tongue and wire
+grafting already described are the best. For larger vines up to 3/4
+inch a modification of the ordinary tongue graft is the best. If the
+tongue graft were made in the usual way with stocks of this size, it
+would be necessary to use excessively large scions, which is
+undesirable, or to have the barks unite only on one side. By cutting
+the bevel of the stock only part way through the vines, it is possible
+to make a smaller scion unite on both sides. For still larger vines,
+those over 3/4 inch in diameter, the best graft is the ordinary cleft.
+
+"No wax or clay should be used on the graft. Anything which completely
+excludes the air prevents the knitting of the tissues. A little clay,
+cloth, or a leaf may be placed over the split in the stock when the
+cleft graft is used, simply to keep out the soil. Otherwise there is
+nothing more suitable or more favorable to the formation of a good
+union that can be put around the graft than loose, moist soil. If the
+soil is clayey, stiff or lumpy, it is necessary to surround the union
+with loose soil or sand brought from outside the vineyard.
+
+"It will usually be necessary to tie the grafts. A well-made cleft
+graft often holds the scion with sufficient force to prevent its
+displacement and no tying is necessary. Wherever there is any danger
+of the graft moving, however, it should be tied. There is nothing
+better for this purpose than ordinary raffia. The raffia should not be
+bluestoned, as it will last long enough without and will be sure to
+rot in a few weeks, and the trouble of cutting it will be avoided.
+Cotton string or anything which will keep the graft in place for a few
+weeks may also be used.
+
+"As soon as the graft is made and tied, a stake should be driven and
+the union covered with a little earth. The hilling up of the graft may
+be left for a few hours, except in very hot, dry weather. Finally, the
+whole graft should be covered with a broad hill of loose soil 2 inches
+above the top of the scion.
+
+"Field grafting should not be commenced as a rule, except in the
+hottest and driest localities, before the middle of March. Before
+that there is too much danger that heavy rains may keep the soil
+soaked for several weeks--a condition very unfavorable to the
+formation of good unions. In any case the grafting should not be done
+while the soil is wet. Grafting may continue as long as the cuttings
+can be kept dormant. It is difficult to graft successfully, however,
+when the bark of the stock becomes loose, as it does soon after the
+middle of April in most localities."
+
+As in the East, it is necessary in California to remove suckers from
+the roots and roots from the cions once or twice during the summer.
+Suckers should not be allowed to overshade the graft, though it is
+best not to remove them until danger of disturbing the graft is past.
+The grafts should be staked and the vines looked after as recommended
+for eastern conditions.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.--Cover-crops. _Top_, cow-horn turnips;
+_bottom_, rye.]
+
+_Bench grafting._
+
+The resistant vineyards of France and California are now started
+almost entirely with bench-grafted vines. It has been learned in these
+regions that a grafted vine, to be a permanent success, must have the
+consorting parts perfectly united, and that the sooner the grafting is
+done in the life of stock and cion the better the union. Cions of the
+variety wanted are, therefore, grafted on resistant roots or resistant
+cuttings in the workshop and then planted in the nursery. Bench
+grafting has the advantage over field grafting in time gained and in
+securing a fuller stand of vines.
+
+Bench grafting really begins with the selection of cuttings, since
+success largely depends on good cuttings of both stock and cion.
+Cuttings are taken from strong healthy vines and are of medium size,
+with short to medium joints. The best size is one-third of an inch in
+diameter, that of stock and cion being the same since the two must
+match exactly. The cutting-wood may be taken from the mother vines at
+any time during the dormant season up to two weeks before buds swell
+in the spring, and the cuttings can then be made as convenience
+dictates, though meanwhile the wood must be kept cool and moist, which
+is best done by covering them with moist but not wet soil or sand in a
+cellar or cool shed. In California, the best results are obtained when
+the grafting is done in February or March, though it may be begun
+earlier and continued a month later.
+
+_Preparation of cuttings._
+
+The stocks are cut into lengths of about ten inches, a gauge being
+used to secure uniform length. The cut at the bottom is made through a
+bud in such a way as to leave the diaphragm. The top cut is made as
+near ten inches from the bottom as possible, leaving about one and
+one-half inches above the top bud for convenience in grafting. The
+stock is then disbudded, taking both visible and adventitious buds,
+the latter indicated by woody enlargements, to keep down the number of
+suckers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. Bench-grafted cuttings of grape, showing both
+the cleft-graft and the whip-graft.]
+
+The cion should be made with but one bud, thereby gaining the
+advantage of having every cion the same length so that all unions are
+at the same distance below the surface of the ground in the nursery.
+The cion is made with about two and one-half inches of internode below
+the bud and one-half inch above, a sharp knife being the best tool for
+making the cuts.
+
+Stock and cion cuttings are now graded to exactly the same diameters,
+this being necessary to secure perfection in the unions. Three
+methods of uniting stock and cion are illustrated in Fig. 12. It
+suffices to grade by the eye into three lots--large, small and
+medium--but some nurserymen prefer to secure even greater accuracy by
+the use of any one of several mechanical gauges. The methods of
+uniting stock and cion may be described best by quoting Bioletti, from
+whom most of the details already given have been summarized:[5]
+
+_Tongue grafting._
+
+"When the stocks and scions are prepared and graded the grafter takes
+a box of stocks and a box of the corresponding size of scions and
+unites them. Each is cut at the same angle in such a way that when
+placed together the cut surface of one exactly fits and covers the
+whole of the cut surface of the other. The length of cut surface
+should be from three to four times the diameter of the cutting, the
+shorter cut for the larger sizes and the longer for the thinner. This
+will correspond to an angle of from 14.5 to 19.5 degrees. The cut
+should be made with a sliding movement of the knife. This will make
+the cut more easily and more smoothly.
+
+"The cut should be made with a single quick motion of the knife. If
+the first cut is not satisfactory, a completely new one should be
+made. There should be no paring of the cut, as this will make an
+irregular or wavy surface and prevent the cuttings coming together
+closely in all parts.
+
+"The tongues are made with a slow, sliding motion of the knife. They
+are commenced slightly above one-third of the distance from the sharp
+end of the bevel and cut down until the tongue is just a trifle more
+than one-third the length of the cut surface. The tongue should be
+_cut_, not _split_. The knife should not follow the grain of the wood,
+but should be slanted in such a way that the tongue will be about
+one-half as thick as it would be if made by splitting. Before
+withdrawing the knife it is bent over in order to open out the
+tongue. This very much facilitates the placing together of stock and
+scion.
+
+"The stock and scion are now placed together and, if everything has
+been done properly, there will be no cut surface visible and the
+extremity of neither stock nor scion will project over the cut surface
+of the other. It is much better that the points should not quite reach
+the bottom of the cut surface than that they should overlap, as the
+union will be more complete and the scions will be less liable to
+throw out roots. If the points do overlap, the overlapping portion
+should be cut off, as in the Champin grafts.
+
+"A skillful grafter, by following the above-described method, will
+make grafts most of which will hold together very firmly. Many of them
+would be displaced, however, in subsequent operations, so that it is
+necessary to tie them. This is done with raffia or waxed string. The
+only object of the tying is to keep the stock and scion together until
+they unite by the growth of their own tissues, so that the less
+material used the better, provided this object is attained. For the
+formation of healing tissue air is necessary, so that clay, wax,
+tinfoil or anything that would exclude the air should not be used. The
+tying material is passed twice around the point of the scion to hold
+it down firmly, and then with one or two wide spirals it is carried to
+the point of the stock, which is fastened firmly with two more turns
+and the end of the string passed under the last turn. The less string
+is used the more easily it is removed later in the nursery.
+
+"Untreated raffia should be used for late grafts which are to be
+planted directly out in the nursery, but if the grafts are to be
+placed first in a callusing bed it is best to bluestone the raffia in
+order to prevent rotting before the grafts are planted. This is done
+by steeping the bundles of raffia in a three per cent solution of
+bluestone for a few hours and then hanging them up to dry. Before
+using, the raffia should be washed quickly in a stream of water in
+order to remove the bluestone which has crystallized on the outside
+and which might corrode the graft.
+
+"Some grafters prefer waxed string for grafting. The string should be
+strong enough to hold the graft, but thin enough to be broken by hand.
+No. 18 knitting cotton is a good size. It is waxed by soaking the
+balls in melted grafting wax for several hours. The string will absorb
+the wax, and may then be placed on one side until needed. A good wax
+for this purpose is made by melting together one part of tallow, two
+parts of beeswax, and three parts of rosin."
+
+_Wire grafting._
+
+"The merits claimed for this method are that it is more rapid,
+requires less skill, and does away with the troublesome tying and
+still more troublesome removal of the tying material. Practiced
+grafters can obtain as large a percentage of No. 1 unions by this
+method as by any other, and unpracticed grafters can do almost as well
+as practiced. Another advantage of the method is that the scions have
+less tendency to make roots than with the tongue graft.
+
+"It consists essentially of the use of a short piece of galvanized
+iron wire inserted in the pith of stock and scion for the purpose of
+holding them together, thus replacing both tongues and raffia. It has
+been objected that the iron would have a deleterious effect on the
+tissues of the graft, corroding them, or causing them to decay. There
+seems, however, no reason to expect any such result, and vines grafted
+in this way have been bearing for years without showing any such
+effect.
+
+"The preparation and grading of stocks and scions are exactly the same
+for this method as for the tongue graft.
+
+"Stock and scion are cut at an angle of 45 degrees. A piece of
+galvanized iron wire two inches long is then pushed one inch into the
+firmest pith. This will usually be the pith of the stock, but it will
+depend on the varieties being grafted. The scion is then pushed on to
+the wire and pressed down until it is in contact with the stock. If
+the cuttings have large pith it is better to use two pieces of wire,
+one placed in the stock first and the other in the scion.
+
+"The length of wire to use will vary with the size and firmness of the
+cuttings, but 2 inches will usually be found most satisfactory. Wire
+of No. 17 gauge is the most useful size."
+
+_Making bundles._
+
+"If the grafts are to be planted out directly in the nursery, they may
+be simply laid in boxes or trays, covered with damp sacks, and carried
+out to be planted as soon as made. It is usually better, however, to
+place them for several weeks in a callusing bed before planting. In
+this case it is necessary for convenience of handling to tie them up
+into bundles. No more than twenty grafts should be placed in a bundle,
+and ten is better. If the bundles are too large there is danger of the
+grafts in the middle becoming moldy or dry.
+
+"A stand is very convenient. It consists of a piece of board 12
+inches, on one end of which is nailed a cleat 6 inches by 4 inches and
+under the other end a support of the same size. Two 4-inch wire nails
+are driven through the board from below, 4 inches apart and 5 inches
+from the cleat. Two other 4-inch nails are driven similarly at 1-1/2
+inches from the other end. The grafts are laid on this stand with the
+scions resting against the cleat, and are then tied with the two
+pieces of bluestoned raffia that have previously been placed above
+each pair of nails. This arrangement insures all the scions, and
+therefore the unions, being at the same level, and puts both ties
+below the union where they will not strain the graft. The tying is
+more expeditious and less liable to disturb the unions than if the
+bundles are made without a guide.
+
+"A skillful grafter will make about one hundred tongue grafts on
+cuttings per hour, or from sixty-five to seventy-five per hour if he
+does the tying as well. Wire grafts can be made at the rate of two
+hundred and fifty or more per hour, and by proper division of labor
+where several grafters are employed this number can be easily
+exceeded. These estimates do not include the preparation and grading
+of the cuttings."
+
+_Grafting rooted cuttings._
+
+The cion may be grafted on a stock rooted in the nursery the previous
+season, much the same methods being used as with cuttings. This method
+is employed to utilize cuttings too small to graft, the added sizes
+attained in the nursery making them large enough, and in grafting on
+stocks which root with difficulty, thus saving the making of grafts
+which never grow. The stocks, in this method, are cut so that the
+cions may be inserted as the original cutting and not as the new
+growth. The roots, for convenience in handling, are cut back to an
+inch or thereabouts in length.
+
+_The callusing bed._
+
+If bench grafts are planted at once in the nursery, most of them fail.
+They are, therefore, stratified in a callusing bed where moisture and
+temperature can be controlled. Bioletti describes a callusing bed and
+its use as follows:[6]
+
+"This callusing bed is usually a pile of clean sand placed on the
+south side of a wall or building and surrounded by a board partition
+where there is no possibility of its becoming too wet by the flow of
+water from a higher level or from an overhanging roof. It should be
+protected, if necessary, by a surrounding ditch. It should be
+furnished with a removable cover of canvas or boards to protect it
+from rain and to enable the temperature to be controlled by the
+admission or exclusion of the sun's rays. A water-proof wagon-cover,
+black on one side and white on the other, is excellent for this
+purpose.
+
+"The bottom of the callusing bed is first covered with 2 or 3 inches
+of sand. The bundles of grafts are then placed in a row along one end
+of the bed, and sand well filled in around them. The bundles should be
+placed in a slightly inclined position with the scions uppermost, and
+the sand should be dry enough so that it sifts in between the grafts
+in the bundle. The bundles of grafts are then covered up completely
+with sand, leaving it at least 2 inches deep above the top of the
+scion. Another row is then placed in the same manner until the bed is
+full. Finally a layer of 2 or 3 inches of moss or straw is placed over
+all.
+
+"In the callusing bed we should endeavor to hasten and perfect the
+union of stock and scion as much as possible while delaying the
+starting of the buds and the emission of the roots. The latter
+processes require more moisture than the formation of healing tissue,
+therefore the sand should be kept comparatively dry. Between 5 and 10
+per cent of water in the sand is sufficient. The purer the sand the
+less water is necessary. There should be a little more moisture
+present than in the sand used for keeping the cuttings over winter.
+Too much moisture will stimulate the emission of roots and starting of
+buds without aiding the callus formation.
+
+"All the vital processes progress more rapidly when the cuttings are
+kept warm. To delay them, therefore, we keep the sand cool, and to
+hasten them we make it warm. In the beginning of the season and up to
+the middle of March we keep the sand cool. This is done by keeping the
+bed covered during the day when the sun is shining, and uncovering
+occasionally at night when there is no fear of rain. If the
+black-and-white wagon-cover is used, the white side should be placed
+outward to reflect the heat. The temperature should be kept about 60 deg.
+F. or lower.
+
+"About the middle of March the temperature of the bed should be
+raised. This is done by removing the cover during warm days and
+carefully covering at night. If necessary the layer of moss or straw
+should be removed on sunny days and then replaced. The temperature of
+the sand at the level of the unions should be about 75 deg. F. during this
+period. If the temperature rises higher than this, there will be a
+more abundant production of callus, but it will be soft, easily
+injured, and liable to decay.
+
+"At the end of four weeks after warming the bed, the union should be
+well cemented. The callus should not only have formed copiously around
+the whole circumference of the wound, but it should have acquired a
+certain amount of toughness due to the formation of fibrous tissue. It
+should require a pull of several pounds to break the callus and
+separate stock and scion. When the callus has acquired this quality
+the grafts are in condition to be planted in the nursery, and may be
+handled without danger. If taken from the bed while the callus is
+still soft, many unions will be injured and the grafts will fail, or
+unite only on one side.
+
+"If left as long as this in the callusing bed most of the scion buds
+will have started and formed white shoots. These shoots, however,
+should not be more than 1/2 to 1 inch long. If they are longer the bed
+has been kept too wet or too warm. Roots will also have started from
+the stock, but these also should not be over 1/2 inch long. The grafts
+should be handled as carefully as is practicable, but there is no
+objection to breaking off any scion shoots or stock roots which have
+grown too long. It is almost impossible to save them, and new ones
+will start after the grafts are planted, and make a perfectly
+satisfactory growth."
+
+_Care in the nursery._
+
+The grafts are planted in the nursery, and are given much the same
+care recommended for cuttings. They may be set in trenches made with
+plow or spade; or they may be planted in very shallow trenches with a
+dibble. After planting, the grafts are covered with an inch or two of
+soil, thus forming a wide ridge in the nursery row with the union of
+the grafts at the original level of the soil. Cultivation should begin
+at once and be frequent enough to prevent the formation of a crust, in
+order that the young shoots may not have difficulty in forcing their
+way through the soil. Roots start on the cions sooner than on the
+stock, the soil being warmer at the surface, and help sustain the
+cions until the stocks are well rooted, at which time all roots
+started on the cion are removed, and at the same time the tying
+material is cut if it has not rotted. Suckers are removed as soon as
+they show above ground. The grafts are dug as soon as the leaves fall
+and the young vines become dormant, after which they are sorted in
+three lots, according to size of top and root, and heeled-in in a cool
+moist place until they are to be planted.
+
+_Nursery_ versus _home-grown vines._
+
+The verdict of all vineyardists is that it is better to buy
+nursery-grown vines than to attempt to grow them. The high quality of
+the vines which can be purchased and the reasonable purchase price
+make it hardly worth while to try home-grown vines, especially since
+considerable investment, experience and skill are required to grow
+good vines.
+
+
+"PEDIGREED" GRAPE VINES
+
+Many viticulturists, in common with orchardists, believe that their
+plants should be propagated only from parents which have good
+characters, that is, are vigorous, healthy, productive, and bear fruit
+of large size, perfect form, good color and good quality. They
+believe, in short, that varieties can be improved by bud selection.
+There is, however, but little in either theory or fact to
+substantiate the belief of those who say that varieties once
+established can be improved; or, on the other hand, that they
+degenerate. Present knowledge and experience indicate that heredity is
+all but complete in varieties propagated from parts of plants. The
+multitude of grapes in any variety, all from one seed, are
+morphologically one individual. A few kinds of grapes go back to
+Christ's time, and these seem to agree almost perfectly with the
+descriptions of them made by Roman writers 2000 years ago. How, then,
+can the differences between vines of a variety in every vineyard in
+the land be explained?
+
+Ample explanation is found in "nurture" to account for the variation
+in vines without involving a change in "Nature." Soil, sunlight,
+moisture, insects, disease, plant-food, and the stock in the case of
+grafted vines, give every vine a distinct environment and hence a
+distinct individuality of its own. Peculiarities in a vine appear and
+disappear with the individual. A variety can be changed temporarily by
+its environment, but remove the incidental forces and it snaps back
+into its same old self.
+
+Heredity is not quite complete in the grape, however; for, now and
+then, sports or mutations appear which are permanent and, if
+sufficiently different, become a strain of the parent variety or
+possibly a new variety. There are several such sports of the Concord
+under cultivation. The grape-grower can tell these sports from the
+modifications brought about by environment only by propagation. If a
+variation is transmitted unchanged through successive generations of
+the grape, as occasionally happens, it may be looked on as a new form.
+"Pedigreed" vines, then, should be subject to a test of several
+generations in an experimental vineyard before the grape-grower pays
+the price demanded for the supposed improvement.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.--A well-tilled vineyard of Concords.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES
+
+
+Phylloxera, a tiny root-louse, made its appearance in France in 1861
+and began multiplying with a fury unparalleled in the insect world. By
+1874, the pest had become so widespread in Europe that it threatened
+the very existence of the great vineyard industry of that continent.
+All attempts to bring the pest under control failed, although the
+French government offered a reward of 300,000 francs for a
+satisfactory remedy. Numerous methods of treating the soil to check
+the ravages of the insect were tried, also, but none was efficacious.
+Finally, it dawned on European vineyardists that phylloxera is not a
+scourge in America, its habitat, and that European vineyards might be
+saved by grafting Vinifera vines on the roots of immune American
+grapes. At once the reconstruction of vineyards in Europe was begun by
+grafting the grapes on phylloxera-resistant roots. Meanwhile,
+consternation spread to California when it was discovered that
+phylloxera was running riot in some of the vineyards of the Pacific
+slope; however, with the knowledge derived from viticulturists in
+Europe, they too began reconstructing vineyards on immune roots,
+without the same success as the Europeans, it is true, but with such
+measure of success that it soon became the approved method of growing
+grapes in this great region.
+
+Through the use of resistant stocks, phylloxera is now defied in
+Vinifera regions. Millions of American stocks are annually struck at
+home, in Europe and wherever Vinifera grapes are grown, to be
+top-worked with varieties susceptible to phylloxera. Seldom has
+mastery over a pest been so complete; but, to triumph over the tiny
+insect, the industry has had to be revolutionized. Resistant stocks,
+in their turn, brought innumerable new problems, many of which are
+still unsolved. Investigations and experiences in rehabilitating
+vineyards have been carried on for forty years, the results set forth
+in books and bulletins and yet there are many problems to be solved.
+The grape-grower in regions infested with phylloxera is always under
+the necessity of taking advantage of the latest demonstration of
+practices in the use of resistant stocks. These practices are best
+studied in the experiments of state experiment stations and the United
+States Department of Agriculture, and in the vineyards of leading
+grape-growers, since even those most needing elucidation can be but
+briefly discussed in the following paragraphs.
+
+The wild vines of a species are always seedlings and are hence
+exceedingly variable. The first vineyards of resistant stocks were
+vines grafted on stocks of wild vines, and the results were very
+unsatisfactory; for, naturally, there was divergence in many
+characters and especially in the vigor of the vines. Also, there was
+difficulty in grafting, since some wild vines are stout and others
+slender; some bear grafts well, while others do not. It soon became
+apparent that to succeed, varieties must be selected from the
+different species for vineyard work. The great task of the
+experimenter and grape-grower, therefore, has been to select varieties
+of the several species sufficiently resistant, vigorous and otherwise
+possessed of characters fitting them to become good stocks. Out of
+vast numbers tested, a few are now generally recognized as best for
+the several groups of Vinifera grapes and the several distinct regions
+in which these grapes are grown.
+
+_Resistant species and varieties._
+
+The reconstruction of phylloxera-ridden vineyards by the use of
+resistant stocks is possible only because some species and varieties
+are, as has been said, more resistant to the root-louse than others.
+All degrees of resistance exist, as would be suspected, from immunity
+to great susceptibility. It is obvious that the foundation of the art
+of growing resistant vineyards is exact knowledge of the immunities
+and susceptibilities of the many varieties and species of grapes. From
+the first use of resistant vines, experimenters everywhere have set
+themselves at work to determine not only what the most resistant vines
+are, but what the causes and conditions of immunity. In spite of a
+wealth of empirical discoveries as to what grapes can best resist the
+root-louse, causes and most of the conditions of immunity are still
+little understood. Definite, useful knowledge, so far, goes little
+further than the establishment of lists of species and varieties, the
+latter subject to change, that are most useful in setting resistant
+vineyards.
+
+Phylloxera does little damage to species of Vitis native to the same
+general region in which the pest has its habitat, but nevertheless
+there are some differences in resistance in American grapes. Munson,
+one of the best American authorities on the resistance of species to
+phylloxera, says:[7] "Rotundifolia is entirely immune, then Rupestris,
+Vulpina, Cinerea, Berlandieri, Champini, Candicans, Doaniana,
+AEstivalis and Lincecumii are so high in resistance as to be
+practically uninjured, though they may be attacked, while Labrusca is
+low in resistance and is much weakened in clay soils, if infested, and
+Vinifera is entirely non-resistant." Some of these species are hard to
+propagate and difficult to suit in soil and climate so that but two of
+them are much used for resistant stocks. The two most used are
+Rupestris and Vulpina (Riparia), of both of which there are varieties
+which give satisfaction. Bioletti, a leading authority on resistant
+stocks in California, says:[8]
+
+"Varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability be used
+in California are Rupestris St. George (du Lot), Riparia x Rupestris
+3306, Riparia x Rupestris 3309, Riparia Solonis 1616, Mourvedre x
+Rupestris 1202, Aramon x Rupestris 2, Riparia gloire, and Riparia
+grande glabre. These are all varieties which have given excellent
+varieties for years in Europe, and have all been tested successfully
+in California. Among them are varieties suitable for nearly all the
+vineyard soils of California, with perhaps the exception of some of
+the heavier clays.
+
+"The only one of these varieties which has been planted extensively in
+California is the Rupestris St. George. There can be little doubt,
+however, that it will fail to give satisfaction in many soils, and
+though we may not find something better for all our soils it is
+probable that we will repeat the experience of Southern France and
+find that in most soils there is some other variety that gives better
+results. Without attempting to describe these varieties, but to give
+some idea of their merits and defects and of the soils most suited to
+each, the following indications are given, based principally on the
+opinions of L. Ravaz and Prosper Gervais, and on a still limited
+experience in California:
+
+"The Rupestris St. George is remarkably vigorous and grows very large,
+supporting the graft well even without stakes. It roots easily and
+makes excellent unions with most vinifera varieties. It is well suited
+to deep soils where its roots can penetrate. Its defects are that it
+is very subject to root-rot, especially in moist soils; it suckers
+badly and it suffers from drought in shallow soils. Its great vigor
+produces coulure with some varieties and often necessitates long
+pruning.
+
+"In moist or wet soils 1616 or 3306 had given better results in France
+and gives indications of doing equally well here. In drier soils 3309
+will probably be found preferable.
+
+"Aramon Rupestris No. 2 is suited to the same soils as Rupestris St.
+George, and does particularly well in extremely gravelly soils. It
+has some of the defects of the St. George and is moreover more
+difficult to graft, and its only advantage in California is that it is
+rather less susceptible to root-rot.
+
+"There are no better resistant stocks than Riparia gloire and Riparia
+grande glabre, wherever they are put in soils that suit them. They do
+well, however, only in deep, rich, alluvial soils which are neither
+too wet nor too dry. Their grafts are the most productive of all, and
+ripen their grapes from one to two weeks earlier than the grafts on
+St. George. Their principal defect is that they are very particular as
+to the soil, and they never grow quite as large as the cion. The
+gloire is the most vigorous, and the difference of diameter is less
+with this variety than with any other Riparia.
+
+"The Mourvedre x Rupestris 1202 is extremely vigorous, roots and
+grafts easily, and is well adapted to rich, sandy and moist soils. In
+drier and poorer soils its resistance is perhaps not sufficient.
+
+"The most promising varieties for general use at present seem to be
+the two hybrids of Riparia and Rupestris, 3306 and 3309. They have
+great resistance to the phylloxera, root and graft almost as easily as
+St. George, and are quite sufficiently vigorous to support any variety
+of vinifera. The former is more suited to the moister soils and
+wherever there is danger of root-rot, and the latter to the drier
+soils. In general, they are suited to a larger variety of soils and
+condition than perhaps any other varieties.
+
+"Riparia gloire should be planted only on rich, deep alluvial soil
+containing an abundance of plant food and humus, what would be called
+good garden land, such as river bank soil not liable to overflow.
+
+"In most other soils Riparia x Rupestris 3306 is to be recommended,
+except those that are rather dry, where 3309 is to be preferred, or
+those which are very wet, where Solonis x Riparia 1616 is surer to
+give good results."
+
+The value of a species or variety for a resistant stock may be judged
+somewhat by the visible effect of the phylloxera on the roots of the
+vines. On susceptible species, the punctures of the insects rapidly
+produce swellings which vary in size and number in accordance with
+resistance of the species. Technically, the first swelling on the
+young tender rootlets of the vine is called a nodosity. The presence
+of a few nodosities on the root system does not indicate that a vine
+is not a valuable resistant stock. When the nodosity begins to decay
+and becomes of a cancerous nature, it is called a tuberosity. These
+tuberosities decay more or less rapidly and deeply, and when they rot
+deeply cause enfeeblement or death to the vine. Thus, on Vinifera
+varieties the tuberosities are several times larger and decay sets in
+much more quickly than on American species which show these
+tuberosities. Ratings as to resistance of species are usually made
+from the size and number of the tuberosities, though when these are
+found producing a scab-like wound which scales off, there may be high
+resisting power.
+
+In order to convey with some degree of definiteness the power of
+resistance to phylloxera, an arbitrary scale has been agreed on by
+viticulturists. In this scale, maximum resistance is indicated by 20
+and minimum by 0. Thus, the resisting power of a good Vulpina is put
+as 19.5 and that of a poor Vinifera variety as 0.
+
+
+ADAPTATIONS OF RESISTANT STOCKS TO SOILS AND CLIMATES
+
+Resistance, of course, counts for naught in a stock which comes from a
+species unsuited to the soil and climate or other circumstances of the
+locality in which the vineyard is to be planted. The several species
+used for stocks differ widely in the requirements affecting growth so
+that the grower must make certain that the resistant stock he selects
+will find congenial surroundings. Stocks in congenial circumstances
+are frequently more resistant than others inherently more resistant,
+but which are not otherwise adapted to the particular conditions of
+the vineyard. Species of grapes vary greatly in their root systems,
+some having thick, others slender roots; the roots of some are soft,
+of others hard; some have roots going down deeply, others are almost
+at the surface of the ground. Manifestly these various root-forms are
+but adaptations to loose and heavy, dry and moist, deep and shallow
+soils, or to some circumstance of climate. A vine bruised by adversity
+is in no condition to withstand phylloxera. Therefore, since the
+adaptability of a variety to a soil or climate may be changed by the
+stock, the adaptations of stocks to soils and climates must have
+attention.
+
+_Affinity of stock and cion._
+
+Different varieties of grapes do not behave alike on the same stocks,
+and different stocks may affect varieties differently. Even when the
+kinship is close, some grapes resist all the appliances of art to make
+a successful union; while, on the other hand, quite distinct species
+often seem foreordained to be joined. For example, Rotundifolia, which
+has the highest resistance to phylloxera of any species, is useless as
+a stock because it is impossible to graft any other grape on it, while
+Vulpina and Rupestris unite readily with varieties of Vinifera, the
+slight decrease in the vigor of the grafted vines serving oftentimes
+to increase fruitfulness. Something more is necessary, then, than
+botanical kinship. Just what is necessary, no one knows, beyond: that
+there must be conformity in habit between stock and cion; that the two
+must start in growth at approximately the same time; and that the
+tissues must be sufficiently alike that there be proper contact in the
+union. Yet these facts do not sufficiently explain all of the
+affinities and antipathies which species and varieties of grapes show
+to each other. Unfortunately, the grape-grower has had but little to
+guide him in selecting stocks and has had to learn by making repeated
+trials.
+
+
+PROPER PLANTING OF GRAFTED VINES
+
+Europeans and Californians long ago learned that failures with grafted
+vines often came from setting the vines too deep in the soil, the
+result being that the cions struck root and became independent,
+whereupon the stock dies or becomes so moribund that the beneficial
+effects are lost. There are grape-growers who argue that it is
+beneficial to the vine to have roots from both stock and cion, but
+experience and experiments very generally teach the contrary, it being
+found that in most grafts the cion roots grow more vigorously than
+stock roots and eventually starve out the latter. The disastrous
+effects of cion-rooting are often to be found, also, when grafting has
+been done on old vines in the vineyard; and, again, when the graft is
+too close to the root system.
+
+Another cause of failure is that different stocks require that the
+vineyard soil be treated differently, especially at planting time.
+Vulpina stocks require that the soil be much more deeply plowed than
+for Viniferas on their own roots, since Vulpinas are deep-rooted and
+are exacting in the depth of root-run required. Those who have had
+most experience with resistant stocks maintain that all American
+grapes require rather deeper plowing than European grapes on their own
+roots.
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF THE STOCKS ON THE CION
+
+Up to the present, the growing of grafted grapes has been carried on
+with little thought of the mutual influence of stock and cion; grapes
+have been grafted only to secure vines resistant to phylloxera. Yet
+there can be no doubt that stock and cion react on one another, and
+that any variety of grapes is influenced for better or worse in
+characters of vine and fruit by the stock upon which it is grafted. A
+plant is a delicate mechanism, easily thrown out of gear, and all
+plants, the grape not the least, are more or less changed in the
+adjustments of stock and cion. One could fill a large volume on the
+supposed reciprocal influence of stock and cion in fruits. Space
+suffices, here, however, to mention only those proved and those having
+to do with the influence of the stock on the cion when the grape is
+grafted.
+
+_Influence of stocks on European grapes summarized._
+
+Common experience in Europe and California indicates that varieties of
+Vinifera grapes grafted on resistant stocks which are perfectly
+adapted to soil and climate produce not only larger crops but sweeter
+or sourer grapes; that the crop ripens earlier or later; that the vine
+is often more vigorous; and that there are some minor differences
+depending on the stock used. Wine-makers assert that the character of
+their product may be affected for better or worse by the stock. Often
+vines are so improved by grafting that the extra expense of the
+operation and of the stock is paid for; although, to be sure, about as
+often the effects are deleterious. The successes and failures of
+vineyards on resistant stocks make plain that the vine-grower must
+study the many problems which stocks present and exercise utmost
+intelligence in the selection of the proper stock.
+
+_Influence of stocks on American grapes._
+
+No doubt American species of grapes may be as profoundly modified by
+stocks as the European species, but there is but little evidence on
+this phase of grape-growing to be drawn from the experience of
+vineyardists. One rather conclusive experiment, however, shows that
+American grapes may be improved by growing them on stocks which give
+them better adaptations to their environment. The experiment was tried
+in the Chautauqua grape-belt in western New York by the New York
+Agricultural Experiment Station. The test was carried on for eleven
+years, during which time many interesting possibilities in grafting
+grapes in this region came to light. It was proved that the stock
+materially affects the vigor and productiveness of the vine and the
+quality of the grapes. The following brief account is taken from
+Bulletin No. 355 of the New York Station:
+
+In this experiment a number of varieties were grafted on St. George,
+Riparia Gloire and Clevener stocks, and a fourth group on their own
+roots. The varieties grafted were: Agawam, Barry, Brighton, Brilliant,
+Campbell Early, Catawba, Concord, Delaware, Goff, Herbert, Iona,
+Jefferson, Lindley, Mills, Niagara, Regal, Vergennes, Winchell and
+Worden. The planting plan and all of the vineyard operations were
+those common in commercial vineyards.
+
+Yearly accounts of the vineyard show that the vines passed through
+many vicissitudes. The experiment was started in 1902 when St. George
+and Riparia Gloire stocks from California were set and grafted in the
+field. Many of these died the first year. The winter of 1903-04 was
+unusually severe, and many more vines were either killed or so
+severely injured that they died during the next two years. The vines
+on St. George, a very deep-rooting grape, withstood the cold best.
+Fidia, the grape root-worm, was found in the vineyards early in the
+life of the vines and did much damage in some years. In the years of
+1907 and 1909 the crops were ruined by hail.
+
+But despite these serious setbacks it was evident throughout the
+experiment that the grafted grapes made better vines and were more
+productive than those on their own roots. As an example of the
+differences in yield, a summary of the data for 1911 may be given. In
+this year, an average of all the varieties on own roots yielded at the
+rate of 4.39 tons to the acre; on St. George, 5.36 tons; on Gloire,
+5.32 tons; on Clevener, 5.62 tons. The crops on the grafted vines
+were increased through the setting of more bunches and the development
+of larger bunches and berries.
+
+The grapes on the vines grafted on Gloire and Clevener ripened a few
+days earlier than those on their own roots, while with St. George a
+few varieties were retarded in ripening. Changing the time of maturity
+may be very important in grape regions where there is danger of early
+frost to late-ripening sorts, and where it is often desirable to
+retard the harvest time of early grapes.
+
+In the behavior of the vines, the results correspond closely with
+those given for yields. In the growth ratings of varieties on
+different stocks, the varieties on their own roots were rated in vigor
+at 40; on St. George, at 63.2; on Gloire, at 65.2; on Clevener, at
+67.9. There is no way of deciding how much the thrift of the vines
+depends on adaptability to soil, and how much on other factors. Since
+all of the varieties were more productive and vigorous on grafted
+vines than on their own roots it may be said that a high degree of
+congeniality exists between the stocks and varieties under test.
+
+The experiment suggests that it would be profitable to grow fancy
+grapes of American species on grafted vines, and that it is well
+within the bounds of possibility that main-crop grapes can be grafted
+profitably. In the general tuning-up of agriculture now in progress,
+it may be expected that soon American as well as European varieties of
+grapes will be grown under some conditions and for some purposes on
+roots other than their own.
+
+
+DIRECT PRODUCERS
+
+Attempts innumerable have been and are still being made to secure, by
+hybridizing _V. vinifera_ and American species of grapes, varieties
+that will resist phylloxera, the mildew and black-rot. The grapes of
+this continent are relatively immune to all of these troubles, and if
+hybrids could be obtained to produce directly, without grafting,
+grapes with the good qualities of the Viniferas--in short, European
+grapes on American vines--the cultivated grape flora of the whole
+world might be changed. So far, a "direct producer" that is wholly
+satisfactory in either Europe or California has not been found for the
+wine or raisin industries, although a number of varieties are rated as
+very good table grapes, and a few are used in wine-making. The best of
+the direct producers are Lenoir, Taylor, Noah, Norton's Virginia,
+Autuchon, Othello, Catawba, and Delaware.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE V.--Vinifera grapes grown out of doors in New
+York. _Top_, Malvasia; _bottom_, Chasselas Golden.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT
+
+
+A vineyard is more artificial than other plantations of fruits, since
+the vine requires greater discipline under cultivation than tree or
+bush. Yet greater art is required only when the attempt is made to
+grow the grape to perfection, for the vine bears fruit if left to
+indulge in riotous growth wheresoever it can strike root. Vineyard
+management, therefore, may represent the consummate art of three
+thousand or more years of cultural subserviency; or it may be so
+primeval in simplicity as to approach neglect. The grape is so
+wonderfully responsive to good care, however, that no true lover of
+fruit will profane it with neglect, but will seek, rather, to give it
+a favorable situation, its choice of soils and such generous care as
+will insure strong, vigorous, productive vineyards of choicely good
+fruit.
+
+Grape-growing is a specialists' business, for the culture of the grape
+is unlike that of any other fruit. The essentials of vineyard
+management, however, are easily learned. Indeed, care of the vine
+comes almost instinctively; for the grape has been cultivated since
+prehistoric times and the races of the world are so familiar with it
+through sacred literatures, myths, fables, stories and poetry, that
+its care is prompted by natural impulse. The grape has followed
+civilized man so closely from place to place through the temperate
+climates of the world, that rules and methods of culture have been
+developed for almost every condition under which it will grow, so that
+every grape-grower may profit by the successes and failures of the
+generations that preceded him. Grape-growing is not, however, an art
+wholly governed by rules of the past to be carried on by common
+laborers who use hands only, but is one in which its followers may
+make use of science and may put thought, skill and taste into their
+work.
+
+
+LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD
+
+Vineyards are laid out for the most part after accepted patterns for
+each of the great grape regions of America. The vines are always
+planted in rectangles, usually at a less distance apart in the rows
+than the rows are from each other, but sometimes in squares. Pride in
+appearance and convenience in vineyard operations make perfect
+alignment imperative. Many varieties of grapes, especially of American
+species, are partially self-sterile, so that some varieties must have
+others interplanted with them for cross-pollination. This is usually
+done by setting alternate rows of the variety to be pollinated and the
+cross-pollinator. All self-fertile varieties are set in solid blocks
+because of convenience in harvesting.
+
+_Direction of rows._
+
+Some grape-growers attach considerable importance to the direction in
+which rows run, holding either that the full blaze of the sun at
+mid-day is desirable for vine, soil and fruit, or that it is
+detrimental. Those who desire to provide fullest exposure to the sun
+plant rows east and west when the distance between vines is less than
+the distance between rows; north and south when vines are farther
+apart in the row than the rows are from each other. When shade seems
+more desirable, these directions are reversed. Most often, however,
+the rows are laid out in accordance with the shape of the vineyard;
+or, if the land is hilly, the rows follow the contour of the
+declivities to prevent soil erosion by heavy rains.
+
+_Alleys._
+
+For convenience in vineyard operations, especially spraying and
+harvesting, there should always be alleys through a vineyard. On hilly
+lands, the alleys are located to secure ease in hauling; on level
+lands they are usually arranged to cut the vineyards into blocks twice
+as long as wide. An alley is usually made by leaving out a row of
+vines. Many vineyards are laid out with rows far enough apart so that
+alleys are not needed.
+
+_Distances between rows and plants._
+
+There are great variations in the distances between rows and plants in
+different regions, and distances vary somewhat in any one region.
+Distances are influenced by the following considerations: Rich soils
+and large vigorous varieties require greater distances than poor soils
+and less vigorous varieties; sometimes, however, it is necessary to
+crowd a variety in the vineyard so that by reducing its vigor
+fruitfulness may be promoted. Usually the warmer the climate, or the
+exposure, the greater should be the distance between vines. Very often
+the topography of the land dictates planting distances. But while
+taking in account the preceding considerations, which rightly suggest
+the distances between plants in the row, convenience in vineyard
+operations is the factor that most often fixes the distance between
+rows. The rows must be far enough apart in commercial vineyards to
+permit the use of two horses in plowing, spraying and harvesting.
+
+Planted in squares, the distance varies from seven feet in garden
+culture to nine feet in commercial vineyards for eastern America. More
+often, however, the rows are eight or nine feet apart, with the vines
+six, seven or eight and in the South ten or twelve feet apart in the
+rows. Planting distances are less, as a rule, on the Pacific slope
+than in eastern regions; that is, the distances between the rows are
+the same, to permit work with teams, but the distance between plants
+in the rows is less, sometimes being no greater than three and a half
+or four feet. The rank-growing Rotundifolias of the southern states
+need much room, nine by sixteen feet being none too much. Sunshine
+must govern the distance apart somewhat. Grapes picked in the pleached
+alleys of closely set vineyards of the North and East are few, small
+and poor; farther south, shade from the vines may be a requisite for a
+good crop.
+
+The number of vines to the acre must be determined before growing or
+buying plants. This is done by multiplying the distance in feet
+between the rows by the distance the plants are apart in the row, and
+dividing 43,560, the number of square feet in an acre, by the product.
+
+
+PREPARATION FOR PLANTING
+
+It is impossible to put too much emphasis on the necessity of thorough
+preparation of the land before planting the grape. Extra expenditure
+to secure good tilth is amply repaid by increased growth in the grape,
+and all subsequent care may fail to start the vines in vigorous growth
+if the land is not in good tilth preparatory to planting. The vineyard
+is to stand a generation or more, and its soil is virtually immortal,
+two facts to suggest perfect preparation. The land should be
+thoroughly well plowed, harrowed, mixed and smoothed. The better this
+work is done, the greater the potentialities of the vineyard. Here,
+indeed, is a time to be mindful of the adage which comes from Cato, a
+sturdy old Roman grape-grower of 2000 years ago: "The face of the
+master is good for the land."
+
+Preparation is a series of operations in which it is wise to take
+advantage of time and begin a year before the vines are to be set. The
+land must be put in training to fit it for the long service it is to
+render. The two great essentials of preparation are provision for
+drainage and thorough cultivation. Both, to be performed as the
+well-being of the grape require, take time, and a year is none too
+short a period in which to do the work. Moreover, newly drained and
+deeply plowed land requires time for frost, air, sunshine and rain to
+sweeten and enliven the soil after the mixture by these operations of
+live topsoil with inert subsoil.
+
+_Drainage._
+
+The ideal soil, as we are often told, resembles a sponge, and is
+capable of retaining the greatest possible amount of plant-food
+dissolved in water, and at the same time is permeable for air. This
+ideal, sponge-like condition is particularly desirable for the grape,
+especially native species, because the vines of all are exceedingly
+deep-rooted. Moreover, grapes thrive best in a warm soil. While,
+therefore, the roots may make good use of nutritious solutions, if not
+too diluted, in an undrained soil, they suffocate and do not receive
+sufficient bottom heat. It must be made emphatic that the grape will
+not thrive in water-logged land.
+
+Unless the land is naturally well drained, under-drainage must be
+provided as the first step in the preparation of land for the
+vineyard. Tile-draining is usually best done by those who make
+land-draining their business, but information as to every requirement
+of land and detail of work may be secured from many texts, so that
+grape-growers may perform the work for themselves. In concluding the
+topic, the reader must be reminded that high and hill lands are not
+necessarily well drained, and low lands are not necessarily wet even
+if the surface is level. Often hilltops and hillsides need artificial
+draining; much less often valley lands and level lands may not need
+it. To assume, too, that gravelly and shaley soils are always well
+drained often leads directly contrary to the truth. Sandy and gravelly
+soils need drainage nearly as often as loamy and clayey ones.
+
+Following tiling, if the land has had to be under-drained, the
+vineyard should be graded to fill depressions and to make the surface
+uniform. Usually this can be done with cutaway, tooth or some other
+harrow, but sometimes the grader or road-scraper must be put in use.
+
+_Fitting the land._
+
+Preparatory cultivation should begin the spring preceding planting by
+deep plowing. If the land has been used long for general farming so
+that a hard plow-sole has been formed by years of shallow plowing, a
+subsoil-plow should follow in the furrow of the surface plow, although
+it is seldom advisable to go deeply into the true hardpan. Fitting the
+land must not stop here but should continue through the summer with
+harrow and cultivator to pulverize the soil almost to its ultimate
+particles. Such cultivation can be sufficiently thorough, and be made
+at the same time profitable, by growing some hoed crop which requires
+intensive culture. If the soil lacks humus, a cover-crop of clover or
+other legume might well be sown in early summer to be plowed under in
+late fall. Or, if stable manure is available, this generally should be
+applied the fall before planting. Stable manure applied at this time
+to a soil inclined to be niggardly puts an atmosphere in the
+forthcoming vineyard wholly denied the grower who must rely on
+commercial fertilizers.
+
+The land should be plowed again, deeply and as early in the fall as
+possible, harrowed thoroughly, or possibly cross-plowed and then
+harrowed. The land must go into the winter ready for early spring
+planting and the fall work must be done promptly and with a sturdy
+team and sharp, bright tools. The grower must keep in mind that no
+opportunity will offer during the life of the vineyard to even up for
+slackness in the start and that a vineyard of dingy, unhappy vines may
+be the result of neglect at this critical time. Good tilth should
+proceed until the earth is fairly animated with growth when the vines
+are planted. Plate II shows a piece of land well fitted for planting.
+
+_Marking for planting._
+
+Given level land, a well-made marker, a gentle team and a careful
+driver with a surveyor's eye, and a vineyard may be marked for
+planting with a sled-marker, a modified corn-marker or even a plow.
+Some such marker method is commonest in use in laying out vineyard
+rows, but it is patent to the eye of every passer-by in grape regions
+that the commonest method is not the best to secure perfect alignment
+of row and vine. The combination named for good work with any of the
+marker methods is found too seldom. If the marker method is used, it
+is put in practice as follows: The rows being marked at the distance
+decided on, a deep furrow is plowed along the row by going both ways
+with the plow; this done, small stakes are set in the furrow at the
+proper distances for the vines, taking care to line them both ways.
+Planting holes are thus dug in the furrow with the stakes as a center.
+
+Marking by means of a measuring wire or chain is the best method of
+locating vines accurately in a vineyard. The measuring wire varies
+according to the wishes of the user from two to three hundred feet or
+may be even longer. The best wires are made of annealed steel wire
+about an eighth of an inch in diameter. At each end of the wire is a
+strong iron ring to be slipped over stakes. The wire is marked
+throughout its length by patches of solder at the distances desired
+between rows of vines; to make these places more easily seen, pieces
+of red cloth are fastened to them. Sometimes this measuring wire is
+made of several strands of small wire, giving more flexibility and
+making marking easier, since by separating the strands at the desired
+points, pieces of cloth may be tied to mark distances.
+
+In using the wire, the side of the vineyard which is to serve as the
+base of the square is selected and the wire is stretched, leaving at
+least one rod from road or fence for a headland. With the wire thus
+stretched, a stake is placed at each of the distance tags to represent
+the first row of vines. Beginning at the starting point, sixty feet
+are measured off in the base line and a temporary stake is set; eighty
+feet at a right angle with the first line are then measured off at the
+corner stake, judging the angle with the eye; then run diagonally from
+the eighty-foot stake to the sixty-foot stake. If the distance between
+the two stakes is one hundred feet, the corner is a right angle. With
+the base lines thus started at right angles to each other, one can
+measure off with the measuring wire as large an area as he desires by
+taking care to have the line each time drawn parallel with the last,
+and the stakes accurately placed at the marking points on the wire.
+
+Still another method which may be put to good use in laying out a
+vineyard, especially if the vineyard is small, is to combine measure
+and sight. The distances about the vineyard are measured and stakes
+set to mark the ends of the rows around the area. Good stakes can be
+made from laths pointed at one end and whitewashed at the other. A
+line of stakes is then set across the field each way through the
+center, in places, of course, which the two central rows of vines will
+fill. When these are in place, if the area is not too large or too
+hilly, all measurements can be dispensed with and the vines can be set
+by sighting. A man at the end of the row has three laths to sight by
+in each row and a second man should drive stakes as directed by the
+sighter. Accurate work can be done by this method, but it requires
+time, a good eye and much patience in the man who is sighting.
+
+
+SELECTING AND PREPARING THE VINES
+
+Young grape vines covet life, for they are usually vigorous and not
+easily injured. Hence, the plants may be brought from a distance
+without fear of loss. The local nurseryman is, however, a good adviser
+as to varieties if he is honest and intelligent, and, other things
+equal, he should be patronized. But if the grower's needs cannot be
+met at home, he should not hesitate to seek a nurseryman at a
+distance. This is more necessary with the grape than other fruits
+because young grapes are well and cheaply grown in certain localities
+only. With the grape, as with all fruit plants, it is much better to
+buy from the grower than from tree peddlers.
+
+_Selecting vines._
+
+Unless the buyer knows what he wants, selecting vines is gambling pure
+and simple. Fortunately, there are several marks of good vines very
+helpful to those who know them. One should first make sure that the
+roots and tops are alive to the remotest parts. The vines should have
+a good clean, healthy look with trunk diameter large enough to
+indicate vigorous growth, and an ample spread of roots. Large size is
+not as desirable as firm, well-matured wood and an abundance of roots.
+Vines with internodes of medium length for the variety are better than
+those with great length or very short internodes. Such precautions as
+are possible should be taken to insure varieties true to name,
+although here the reputation of the nurseryman must be depended on
+except for the few varieties which may be known at sight in the
+nursery.
+
+First-grade one-year-old vines are usually better than two-year-olds.
+Stunted vines are not worth planting and two-year-old vines are often
+stunted one-year-olds. A few weak-growing varieties gain in vigor if
+allowed to remain in the nursery two years--three years, never.
+
+_Handling and preparing the vines._
+
+The better vines are packed, transported and cared for in the field,
+the quicker will the roots take hold and the vines make the vigorous
+start on which so much depends. The nurseryman should be requested not
+to prune much before packing and to pack the vines well for shipping.
+The vines should be heeled-in as soon as they reach their destination.
+If the vines are dry on arrival, they should be drenched well before
+heeling-in. It sometimes happens that the vines are shriveled and
+shrunken from excessive drying, in which case the plants often may be
+brought back to plumpness by burying them root and branch in damp
+earth, to remain a week or possibly two. To heel-in, a trench should
+be double furrowed in light, moist soil, the vines spread out in the
+trench two or three deep, and then earth shoveled over the roots and
+half the tops, sifting it in the roots, after which the soil is
+firmed. The vines may thus be kept in good condition for several weeks
+if need arises.
+
+The vines are prepared for planting by cutting away all dead or
+injured roots and shortening-in the healthy roots. Grape roots can be
+cut severely if healthy stubs remain, the removal of small roots and
+fibers doing no harm, since fibers are of value only as indicating
+that the vine is strong and vigorous. Fresh fibers come quickly from
+stout, healthy roots. Most of the fibers of a transplanted vine die,
+and laying them out in the hole to preserve them, as is so often
+recommended, is but a useless burial rite. On good healthy vines, the
+stubs of the roots, when cut back, will be four to eight inches in
+length. The root system having been considerably pruned, the
+reciprocity between roots and tops must be taken into account and the
+top pruned accordingly. To reduce the work of the leaves to harmonize
+with the activities of the roots, the top should be pruned to a single
+cane and two, never more than three, buds. The vine is now ready for
+planting and, the soil being in readiness, planting should proceed
+apace.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.--Black Hamburg (x1/2).]
+
+
+PLANTING
+
+The dangers and difficulties of planting hardwooded plants are greatly
+exaggerated. The tyro, in particular, is impressed with his
+responsibilities at this time, and often sends a hurry-up call to
+experiment station or nurseryman to "send him a man to plant." If the
+land is properly prepared and the plants in good condition, the
+operation of planting is easily, quickly and safely accomplished.
+There is no need, in planting the vine, of such puttering overniceties
+as laying out the roots to preserve the fibers, watering each vine as
+it is set, inserting the vine in a gingerly fashion to make sure that
+it stands in its new abode as it stood in the old, or puddling the
+roots in pail or tub of water. On the other hand, the slap-dash method
+of a Stringfellow who cuts off all small roots and uses a crowbar in
+place of a spade is not doing duty by the plant, and burying the roots
+deep in the earth or covering them close to the surface is courting
+failure.
+
+_Digging the holes._
+
+This is a simple task in land in good tilth. The holes need only be
+large and deep enough to hold the roots without undue cramping. Herein
+is again manifested the wisdom of thoroughly preparing the land; for,
+in well-prepared land, the hole is really as large as the vineyard.
+Even in the condition of poor tilth, deep holes are often a menace to
+the life of the plant, especially if drainage is not provided, for the
+deep hole becomes a tub into which water pours and stands to soak the
+roots of dying vines. An extra spurt in digging holes cannot take the
+place of perfect fitting of the land.
+
+There is nothing to commend the practice of digging holes in a leisure
+time that all may be ready when the time to plant arrives. The vines
+will strike root best in the freshly turned, moist soil of newly dug
+earth, which can be firmly set about the roots when the vine is
+planted. Neither is time saved in digging beforehand, for the
+sun-baked and rain-washed sides of holes long dug would surely have to
+be pared afresh. It is, however, quite worth while to throw the
+surface soil to one side and that lower to the other, that a spadeful
+of moist, virile, surface soil may be put next to the roots.
+
+There are, no doubt, some soils in which the holes might be blasted
+out with dynamite, as, for instance, in a shallow soil with the
+hardpan near the surface and good subsoil beneath. It is very
+questionable, however, whether these defective soils should be used
+for commercial plantings as long as there still remain unplanted many
+acres in all grape regions of good deep land for the grape. To such as
+are attracted by "dynamite farming," minute descriptions of methods of
+use of dynamite and even demonstrations may be secured from
+manufacturers of the explosive.
+
+_Time to plant._
+
+The best time to plant the vine in cold climates is early spring, when
+sun and showers arouse the spirit of growth in plants, and nutritive
+solutions proceed quickly and unerringly to their preappointed places.
+At this time, the much mutilated vine can undertake best the double
+task of making fresh roots and opening the dormant leaves. Fall
+planting puts forward the work, thus diminishing the rush of early
+spring when vineyard operations crowd, and, no doubt, when all is
+favorable, enables the vines to start a little more quickly. However,
+there are frequently serious losses from planting in the fall. In cold
+winters the grip of frost is sufficient to wrench the young vine from
+its place and sometimes all but heaves it out of the soil. There is,
+also, great liability of winter-killing in vines transplanted in the
+autumn, not because of greater tenderness of the plant, but because of
+greater porosity of the loosened soil which enables the cold to strike
+to a greater depth. These two objections to fall planting can be
+overcome largely by mounding up the earth so as practically to cover
+the vines, leveling the mound in early spring; but this extra work
+more than offsets the labor saving in fall planting.
+
+In climates in which the soil does not freeze in the winter, the vines
+may be set in the autumn if all is favorable. Often, however,
+conditions are not favorable to fall planting in warm climates, since
+autumn rains frequently soak the soil so that it cannot be placed
+properly about the roots; and, moreover, in a cold, water-logged soil
+the inactive roots begin to decay; or the soil may be too dry for fall
+planting. Under such conditions, it is often better to delay planting
+in warm climates until spring when better soil conditions can be
+secured. Fall or spring, the soil should be reasonably dry, warm and
+mellow when the work is done. The best time to plant must necessarily
+vary from year to year, and the vineyardist must decide exactly when
+to undertake planting in accordance with the conditions of soil and
+weather, mindful that the Psalmist's injunction that there is "a time
+to plant, and a time to pluck up that which is planted" is subject to
+several conditions requiring judgment. The grape puts out its leaves
+late in the spring, making the temptation great to delay planting;
+late-set plants, however, need special care lest they suffer from the
+summer droughts which annually parch the lands of this continent.
+
+_The operation of planting._
+
+All being in readiness, planting proceeds rapidly. A gang of four men
+work to advantage. Two dig holes, a third holds the vines and tramps
+the earth as the remaining man shovels in earth. Except in large
+vineyards, four men are seldom available, and gangs of two or three
+must divide the work among its members as best suits conditions. A
+tree-setting board is not needed in planting grapes, although some
+growers use it. The man who holds the vines in the hole and tramps as
+the shoveler fills, must align the plant after the stake is removed
+and see that it stands perpendicularly in the hole. The stake, a lath,
+is set in its old place in the hole to serve as a support for the
+growing vine and to mark it so that the cultivator does not pull up
+the young plant. The soil must be set firm about the roots of the
+plant, but zeal in tramping should diminish as the hole is filled,
+leaving the topsoil untramped, smooth, loose and pulverized, a dust
+mulch--the best of all mulches--to prevent evaporation.
+
+The depth to which vines should be set is a matter of controversy.
+This should be governed by the soil more than by any other factor,
+although some varieties need a deeper root-run than others. The rule
+to plant to the depth the vine stood in the nursery row is safe under
+most conditions, although in light, hungry or thirsty soils the roots
+should go deeper; and, on the other hand, in heavy soils, not so deep.
+Deep planting is a more common mistake than shallow planting, for
+roots under most conditions stand exposure better than internment,
+going down being more natural than coming up for a root seeking a
+place to its liking.
+
+Watering at planting is necessary only when the land is parched with
+drought or in regions in which irrigation is practiced. When
+necessary, water should be used liberally, at least a gallon or two to
+a vine. After the earth has been firmed about the roots and the hole
+is nearly filled, the water should be poured in and the hole filled
+without more firming. Under dry weather conditions, some prefer to
+puddle the roots; that is, to dip them in thin mud and plant with the
+mud adhering. In making the puddle, loose loam and not sticky clay is
+used, as clay may bake so hard as to injure the roots. With puddling,
+as with watering, the surface soil should be left loose and soft
+without traces of the puddling below.
+
+Manure or fertilizer about the roots or even in the hole are not
+necessary or even desirable. If the soil is to be enriched at all at
+planting time, the fertilizer should be spread on the surface to be
+cultivated in or to have its food elements leak down as rains fall. In
+land in which the providential design for grapes is plainly
+manifested, the vine at no time responds heartily to fertilizers, the
+good of stable manure probably coming for the most part from its
+effects on the texture and water-holding capacity of the soil. The
+newly set plant is not in need of outside nourishment; to put rank
+manure or strong commercial fertilizers about the roots of a young
+newly set vine is plant infanticide.
+
+
+CARE OF YOUNG VINES
+
+Virgil calls the period in the life of the vine between the setting
+and the first vintage, the "tender nonage," and tells us that at this
+time the vines need careful rearing; so they do, now as then, American
+grapes as well as the grapes of ancient Rome. Fortunately, any
+departure from normal well-being is easily told in the grape, for the
+color of the leaf is as accurate an index to the health and vigor of
+the vine as the color of the tongue or the beat of the pulse in man. A
+change of color from the luxuriant green of thrifty grape foliage,
+especially the yellow hue indicating that the leaf-green is not
+functioning properly, suggests that the vines are sick or need nursing
+in some detail of care. When all goes well, however, the amazing
+energy of Nature is nowhere better seen among plants than in the
+growth of the grape, so that much of the care is in the use of the
+knife; in fact, as we shall see, the grape almost lives by the knife
+the first two years out.
+
+_The first year._
+
+The vines having been pruned and staked at planting, these operations
+need no attention in the first summer. Many varieties send up several
+shoots as growth starts, and, except in the case of grafted plants
+and in the event of the suckers coming from the stock, these should be
+left to feed the vine and help to establish a good root system. Vines
+making a strong growth should be tied to the stake, at least the
+strongest shoot, to keep the wind from whipping it about and to keep
+the plants out of the way of the cultivator. The only knack in tying
+is to keep the vine on the windward side of the stake, thus saving the
+breaking of tying material.
+
+The first year's pruning, though severe, is easily done. All but the
+strongest cane are cut out and this is pruned back to two buds, nearly
+to the ground, so that the vines are much as when set in the vineyard.
+This pruning, and that of the next two years, has as the object the
+establishment of a good root system and the production of a sturdy
+trunk at the height at which the vine is to be headed. It is important
+that the cane from which the trunk is to come be healthy and the wood
+well ripened. Pruning may be done at any time after the leaves fall,
+though most growers give preference to late winter. In cold climates
+it is a good practice to plow up to the young vines for winter
+protection, in which case the pruning should be done before plowing.
+
+Every detail of vineyard management should be performed with care and
+at the accepted time in this critical first year. Cultivation must be
+intensive, insects and fungi must be warded off, mechanical injuries
+avoided, vines that have refused to grow must be marked for discard,
+and the vineyard be put down to a cover-crop in early August if it was
+not earlier planted to some hoed catch-crop.
+
+_The second year._
+
+Work begins in the spring of the second year with the setting of
+trellis posts on which one wire is put up. The vine is not yet ready
+to train but the slender lath of the first season is not sufficient
+support, and the one wire on the future trellis saves the expense of
+staking. Tying requires some care and is usually done with string or
+bast. As the summer proceeds, suckers from the roots are removed and
+some growers thin the shoots on the young vine; some think it
+necessary also to top the growth if it becomes too luxuriant and so
+keep the cane within bounds. Suckers must be cut or broken off at the
+points where they originate, otherwise several new ones may start from
+the base of the old. If the vines are topped, it must be kept in mind
+that summer pruning is weakening, and the tips of shoots should,
+therefore, be taken when small, the object being to direct the growth
+into those parts of the vine which are to become permanent.
+
+Pruning, the second winter the vine is out, depends on the vigor of
+the plant. If a strong, healthy, well-matured cane over-tops the lower
+wire of the trellis, it should be cut back so that the cane may be
+tied to the wire; otherwise the vine should again be cut almost to the
+ground, leaving but three or four buds. If the cane be left, in
+addition to sturdiness and maturity, it should be straight, for it is
+to become the trunk of the mature vine. The training of the young vine
+is now at an end, for the next season the vine must be started toward
+its permanent form, instructions for which are given in the chapter on
+pruning.
+
+The summer care of the vineyard does not differ materially in the
+second year from that of the first. Intensive cultivation continues,
+the vines are treated for pests and the annual cover-crop follows
+cultivation. Many varieties, if vigorous, will set some fruit in this
+second summer, but the crop should not be allowed to mature, the
+sooner removed the better, as fruiting at this stage of growth
+seriously weakens the young vines.
+
+
+CATCH-CROPS AND COVER-CROPS
+
+A catch-crop is one grown between the rows of another crop for profit
+from the produce. A cover-crop is a temporary crop grown, as the term
+was first used, to protect the soil, but the word is now used to
+include green-manuring crops as well. Catch-crops seldom have a place
+in most vineyards, but cover-crops are often grown.
+
+_Catch-crops._
+
+Catch-crops are not, as a rule, profitable in commercial vineyards;
+they may bring temporary profit but in the long run they are usually
+detrimental to the vines. It may pay and the grape may not be injured
+in some localities, if such truck crops as potatoes, beans, tomatoes
+and cabbage are grown between the rows or even in the rows for the
+first year and possibly the second. Land, to do duty by the two crops,
+however, must be excellent and the care of both crops must be of the
+best. Growing gooseberries, currants, any of the brambles, or even
+strawberries, is a poor procedure unless the vineyard is small, the
+land very valuable or other conditions prevail which make intensive
+culture possible or necessary. The objections to catch-crops in the
+vineyard are two: they rob the vines of food and moisture and endanger
+them to injury from tools in caring for the catch-crop.
+
+Sometimes the grape itself is planted as a catch-crop in the vineyard.
+That is, twice the number of vines required in a row for the permanent
+vineyard are set with the expectation of cutting out alternate vines
+when two or three crops have been harvested and the vines begin to
+crowd. This practice is preferable to inter-planting with bush-fruits,
+yet there is not much to commend it if the experience of those who
+have tried it is taken as a guide. Too often the filler vines are left
+a year too long with the result that the permanent vines are checked
+in growth for several years following. The profits from the fillers
+are never large, scarcely pay for the extra work, and if the permanent
+vines are stunted, the filler must be put down as a liability rather
+than as an asset.
+
+_Cover-crops._
+
+In an experiment being conducted by the New York Agricultural
+Experiment Station, grapes do not give a very appreciable response to
+cover-crops in yield of fruit or growth of vine.[9] There seem to be
+no other experiments to confirm the results at the New York Station,
+and grape-growers nowhere have used cover-crops very generally for the
+betterment of their vineyards. There is doubt, therefore, as to
+whether grapes will respond profitably to the annual use of
+cover-crops in yield of fruit, which, of course, is the ultimate test
+of the value of cover-crops, but a test hard to apply unless the
+experiment runs a great number of years.
+
+Leaving out the doubtful value of cover-crops in increasing the supply
+of plant-food and thereby producing an increase in yield, there are at
+least three ways in which cover-crops are valuable in the vineyard.
+Thus, it is patent to all who have tried cover-crops in the vineyard
+that the land is in much better tilth and more easily worked when some
+green crop is turned under in fall or spring; it is not unreasonable
+to assume, though it is impossible to secure reliable experimental
+data to confirm the belief, that cover-crops protect the roots of
+grapes from winter-killing; certainly it may be expected that a
+cover-crop sowed in midsummer will cause grapes to mature their wood
+earlier and more thoroughly so that the vines go into the winter in
+better condition. The only objection to be raised against cover-crops
+in the vineyard is that pickers, mostly women, object to the
+cover-crop when wet with rain or dew and usually choose to pick in
+vineyards having no such crop. This seemingly insignificant factor
+often gives the grape-grower who sows cover-crops much trouble in
+harvest time.
+
+Several cover-crops may be planted in vineyards as clover, vetch,
+oats, barley, cow-horn turnip, rape, rye and buckwheat. Combinations
+of these usually make the seed too costly or the trouble of sowing too
+great. Yet some combinations of a leguminous and non-leguminous crop
+would seem to make the best green crop for the grape. Thus, a bushel
+of oats or barley plus ten pounds of clover or twenty pounds of winter
+vetch, a combination often used in orchards, should prove satisfactory
+in the vineyard. Or, doubling the amount of seed for each, these crops
+could be alternated, with a change in the rotation every four or six
+years, with cow-horn turnip or rape. Turnip and rape require at least
+three pounds of seed to the acre.
+
+The cover-crop is sown in midsummer, about the first of August in
+northern latitudes, and should be plowed under in the fall or early
+spring. Under no circumstances should the green crop be permitted to
+stand in the vineyard late in the spring to rob the vines of food and
+moisture. The weather map must be watched at sowing time to make sure
+of a moist seed-bed. Plate III illustrates two vineyards with
+well-grown cover-crops.
+
+
+TILLAGE
+
+Grape-growers are not in the fog that befuddles growers of tree-fruits
+in regard to tillage. He is a sloven, indeed, who permits his vines to
+stand a season in unbroken ground, and there are no growers who
+recommend sod or any of the modified sod-mulches for the grape.
+Tillage is difficult in hilly regions and the operation is often
+neglected in hillside vineyards, as in the Central Lakes region of New
+York, but even here some sort of tillage is universal. The skip of a
+single season in tilling stunts the vines, and two or three skips in
+successive seasons ruin a vineyard. No one complains that grapes
+suffer from over-tilling as one frequently hears of tree-fruits. There
+is no tonic for the grape that compares with cultivation when the
+leaves lack color and hang limp and the vine has an indefinable air of
+depression; and there is nothing better than cultivation to rouse
+latent vigor in a scorching summer, or when drought lays heavy on the
+land.
+
+_Tillage tools._
+
+The tools to be used in tilling grapes vary with the topography of the
+vineyard, the kind of soil and the preferences of the vineyardist. The
+best tool is the one with which the ground can be well fitted at least
+expense. Good work in the vineyard requires at least two plows, a
+single-horse and a two-horse plow. The latter, except on very hilly
+land, should be a gang-plow. For commercial vineyards of any
+considerable size, several cultivators are necessary for different
+seasons and conditions of the soil. Thus, every vineyard should have a
+spring-tooth and a disc harrow, one of the several types of weeders, a
+one-horse and a sulky cultivator. If weeds abound, it is necessary to
+have some cutting tool, or an attachment to one of the cultivators, to
+slide over the ground and cut off large weeds. Another indispensable
+tool in a large vineyard is a one-horse grape-hoe, to supplement the
+work of which there must be heavy hand-hoes. Very often the surface
+soil must be pulverized, and a clod-crusher, roller or a float becomes
+a necessity. A full complement of bright, sharp tools at the command
+of the grape-grower goes far toward success in his business.
+
+_Tillage methods._
+
+There are several reliable guides indicating when the vineyard needs
+to be tilled. The vineyardist who is but a casual observer of the
+relation of vineyard operations to the life events and the welfare of
+his vines will take the crop of weeds as his guide. It is, of course,
+necessary to keep down the weeds, but the man who waits until weeds
+force him to till will make a poor showing in his vineyard. The
+amount of moisture in the soil is a better guide. The chief function
+of tillage is to save moisture by checking evaporation and to put the
+soil in such condition that its water-holding capacity is increased.
+The physical condition of the land is another guide. Tilling when the
+soil needs pulverizing furnishes a greater feeding surface for the
+roots.
+
+Tillage begins with plowing in early spring. Whether provided with a
+cover-crop to be turned under or hard and bare, the land must be
+broken each spring with the plow. Plowing is best done by running a
+single furrow with a one-horse plow up to or away from the vines as
+occasion calls and then following with a two-horse or a gang-plow.
+Some growers use a disc harrow instead of the plow to break the land
+in the spring, but this is a doubtful procedure in most vineyards and
+is impossible when a heavy green-crop covers the land. Tillage with
+harrow, cultivator, weeder or roller then proceeds at such intervals
+as conditions demand, seldom less than once a fortnight, until time to
+sow the cover-crop in midsummer. About the time grapes blossom, the
+grape-hoe should be used to level down the furrow turned up to the
+vines in the spring plowing. Tillage should always follow a heavy rain
+to prevent the formation of a soil crust, this being a time when he
+who tills quickly tills twice. The number of times a vineyard should
+be tilled depends on the soil and the season. Ten times over with the
+cultivator in one vineyard or season may not be as effective as _five_
+times in another vineyard or another season. In some regions, as in
+New York, the grower is so often at the mercy of wet weather in early
+spring that the plowing is best done in the fall, and spring
+operations must then open with harrowing with some tool that will
+break the land thoroughly.
+
+The depth to till is governed by the nature of the soil and the
+season. Heavy soils need deep tilling; light soils, shallow tilling;
+in wet weather, till deeply; in dry weather, lightly. Grape roots are
+well down in the soil and there is little danger of injuring them in
+deep tillage. The depth of plowing and cultivating should be varied
+somewhat from season to season to avoid the formation of a plow-sole.
+In some regions plowing and cultivating may be made a means of
+combating insects and fungi, and this regulates the depth of tillage.
+Thus, in the Chautauqua grape-belt of western New York, the pupa of
+the root-worm, a scourge of the grape in this region, is thrown out
+and destroyed by the grape-hoe just as it is about ready to emerge as
+an adult to lay its eggs on the vines. In all regions, leaves and
+mummied grapes bearing countless myriads of spores of the mildews,
+black-rot and other fungi are interned by the plow and cannot scatter
+disease.
+
+The time in the season to stop tillage depends on the locality, the
+season and the variety. It is a good rule to cease cultivation a few
+weeks before the grapes attain full size and begin to color, for by
+this time they will have weighted down the vines so that fruit and
+foliage will be in the way of the cultivator. In the North,
+cultivation ceases in the ordinary season about the first of August,
+earlier the farther south. Rank-growing sorts, as Concord or Clinton,
+do not need to be cultivated as late as those of smaller growth and
+scantier foliage, as Delaware or Diamond. The cover-crop seed is
+covered the last time over with the cultivator. Plate IV shows a
+well-tilled vineyard of Concords.
+
+
+IRRIGATION
+
+The grape, as a rule, withstands drought very well, several species
+growing wild on the desert's edge. Even in the semi-arid regions of
+the far West, where other fruits must always be irrigated, the grape
+often grows well without artificial watering. Irrigation is practiced
+in vineyards in the United States only on the Pacific slope and here
+the practice is not as general as with other fruit crops. Whether the
+grape shall be grown under irrigation or not is a local and often an
+individual question answered with regard to several conditions; as the
+local rainfall, the depth and character of the soil, the cost of water
+and ease of irrigation. These conditions are all correlated and make
+about the most complex and difficult problem the growers of grapes in
+semi-arid regions have to solve. As long, however, as the grape-grower
+can grow fairly vigorous vines and harvest a fairly bountiful crop by
+natural rainfall, he should not irrigate; for, even though the crop
+offsets the cost, there are several objections to growing grapes under
+irrigation. The vines are subject to more diseases and physiological
+troubles; the fruit is said to lack aroma and flavor; grapes grown on
+irrigated land do not stand shipment well, the unduly inflated grapes
+often bursting; wine-makers do not like irrigated grapes as well as
+those from non-irrigated lands; and watery grapes from irrigated lands
+make inferior raisins. It is maintained, however, with a show of
+reason, that grapes suffer in irrigated vineyards in the ways set
+forth only when the vines are over-or improperly irrigated.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VII.--Barry (x2/5). Delaware (x2/5).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES
+
+
+As regards fertilizers, the grape-grower has much to learn and in
+learning he must approach the problem with humility of mind. For in
+his experimenting, which is the best way to learn, he will no sooner
+arrive at what seems to be a certain conclusion, than another season's
+results or the yields in an adjoining vineyard will upset the findings
+of past seasons and those obtained in other places. Unfortunately,
+there is little real knowledge to be obtained on the subject, for
+grape-growers have not yet broken away from time-worn dictums in
+regard to fertilizers and still follow recommendations drawn from work
+with truck and field crops. This is excused by the fact that there
+have been almost no comprehensive experiments in the country with
+fertilizers for grapes.
+
+No fallacies die harder than the pronouncements of chemists a
+generation ago that fertilizing consists in putting in the soil
+approximately that which the plants take out; and that the chemical
+composition of the crop affords the necessary guide to fertilizing.
+These two theories are the basis of nearly every recommendation that
+can be found for the use of fertilizers in growing crops. The facts
+applied to the grape, however, are that the average tillable soil
+contains a hundred or a thousand times more of the chemical
+constituents of plants than the grape can possibly take from the soil;
+and many experiments in supplying food to plants show that the
+chemical composition of the plant is not a safe guide to their
+fertilizer requirements. Later teachings in regard to the use of
+fertilizers are: That the quantity of mineral food in a soil may be of
+far less importance than the quantity of water, and that the
+cultivator should make certain that there is sufficient moisture in
+his land so that the mineral salts may be readily dissolved and so
+become available as plant-food; that far too much importance has been
+attached to putting chemicals in the soil and too little to the
+physical condition of the soil, whereby the work of bacteria and the
+solvent action of organic acids may make available plant-food that
+without these agencies is unavailable.
+
+These brief and simple statements introduce to grape-growers some of
+the problems with which they must deal in fertilizing grapes, and show
+what a complex problem of chemistry, physics and biology fertilizing
+the soil is; how difficult experimental work in this field is; and how
+cautious workers must be in interpreting results of either experiment
+or experience. An account of an experiment in fertilizing a vineyard
+may make even more plain the difficulties in carrying on experiments
+in fertilizing fruits and the caution that must be observed in drawing
+conclusions.
+
+
+AN EXPERIMENT IN FERTILIZING GRAPES
+
+The New York Agricultural Experiment Station is experimenting with
+fertilizers for grapes at Fredonia, Chautauqua County, the chief grape
+region in eastern America. The experiment should be of interest to
+every grape-grower from several points of view. It not only shows that
+there are many and difficult problems in fertilizing grapes, but also
+the results of the use of manure, commercial fertilizers and
+cover-crops in a particular vineyard; it suggests the fertilizers to
+be used and the methods of use; and it furnishes a plan for an
+experiment by grape-growers who want to try such an experiment and
+draw their own conclusions. An account of the experiment and the
+results for the first five years follows:[10]
+
+_Tests at Fredonia._
+
+"In the vineyard at Fredonia eleven plats were laid out in a section
+of the vineyard where inequalities of soil and other conditions were
+slight or were neutralized. Each plat included three rows (about
+one-sixth of an acre) and was separated from the adjoining plats by a
+'buffer' row not under test. One plat in the center of the section
+served as a check, and five different fertilizer combinations were
+used on duplicate plats at either side of the check. Plats 1 and 7
+received lime and a complete fertilizer with quick-acting and
+slow-acting nitrogen; Plats 2 and 8 received the complete fertilizer
+but no lime; on Plats 3 and 9 potash was omitted from the complete
+fertilizer combination; Plats 4 and 10 received no phosphorus; Plats 5
+and 11, no nitrogen; and Plat 6 was the check. The materials were
+applied at such rates that they provided for the first year 72 pounds
+of nitrogen per acre, 25 pounds of phosphorus and 59 pounds of
+potassium; and for each of the last four years two-thirds as much
+nitrogen and phosphorus and eight-ninths as much potassium. The lime
+was applied the first and fourth years in quantity to make a ton to
+the acre annually. Cover-crops were sown on all plats alike and were
+plowed under in late April or early May of each year. These differed
+in successive years, but included no legumes. The crops used were rye,
+wheat, barley and cow-horn turnips separately and the last two in
+combination.
+
+"The cultivation differed only in thoroughness from that generally
+used in the Belt, the aim being to maintain a good dust mulch during
+the whole growing season. Pruning by the Chautauqua System was done
+throughout by one man, who pruned solely according to the vigor of the
+individual vines and left four, two or three, or no fruiting canes as
+appeared best. The vineyard was thoroughly sprayed, all plats alike.
+
+"Low winter temperatures, affecting immature wood and buds caused by
+unfavorable weather of the previous season, reduced yields materially
+during two of the five years, and practically neutralized any
+anticipated benefit from fertilizers. Following the first of these
+low-crop years, came a season, 1911, in which favorable conditions,
+acting upon vines left undiminished in vigor by the light crop of the
+previous year resulted in heavy and quite uniform yields on all the
+plats.
+
+"The yields for the five years are shown in Table I; and a summary
+showing the average gains from each treatment is given in Table II,
+with the average financial balance after deducting the cost of
+fertilizer application from the increased returns from the plats
+receiving them.
+
+TABLE I.--YIELD OF GRAPES (TONS PER ACRE) IN FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS
+
+  =========================================================================
+  Plat.|                         |      |      |      |      |      |5-year
+  No.  |                         | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 |avg.
+  -----+-------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------
+       |                         |_Tons_|_Tons_|_Tons_|_Tons_|_Tons_|_Tons_
+     1 |Complete fertilizer; lime| 4.48 | 2.10 | 5.37 | 3.46 | 2.14 | 3.51
+     2 |Complete fertilizer      | 4.76 | 2.21 | 5.71 | 4.30 | 2.83 | 3.96
+     3 |Nitrogen and phosphorus  | 5.17 | 2.14 | 5.61 | 4.00 | 2.25 | 3.83
+     4 |Nitrogen and potash      | 4.25 | 2.55 | 5.64 | 4.10 | 2.85 | 3.87
+     5 |Phosphorus and potash    | 3.41 | 2.00 | 5.44 | 4.35 | 1.78 | 3.39
+     6 |Check                    | 3.38 | 2.10 | 5.32 | 3.60 | 1.24 | 3.12
+     7 |Complete fertilizer; lime| 4.69 | 2.38 | 5.62 | 4.80 | 3.04 | 4.10
+     8 |Complete fertilizer      | 4.66 | 2.07 | 5.71 | 4.98 | 2.72 | 4.02
+     9 |Nitrogen and phosphorus  | 4.99 | 2.04 | 5.35 | 4.89 | 2.61 | 3.97
+    10 |Nitrogen and potash      | 4.79 | 2.26 | 5.91 | 4.89 | 3.07 | 4.18
+    11 |Phosphorus and potash    | 4.99 | 1.87 | 5.03 | 4.21 | 1.97 | 3.61
+  =========================================================================
+
+TABLE II.--AVERAGE INCREASE IN GRAPE YIELDS AND AVERAGE FINANCIAL GAIN
+FROM FERTILIZER APPLICATIONS
+
+    N = nitrogen, P = phosphorus, K = potassium, Ca = lime.
+    Gains in tons per acre.
+
+  ========================================================================
+                        | N, P,   | N, P,   | N, P.   | N, K.   | P, K.
+                        | K, Ca.  | K.      |         |         |
+  ----------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------
+                        |  _Tons_ |  _Tons_ |  _Tons_ |  _Tons_ |  _Tons_
+  First plat of pair    |    3.51 |    3.96 |    3.83 |    3.87 |   3.39
+  Second plat of pair   |    4.10 |    4.02 |    3.97 |    4.18 |   3.61
+                        |---------+---------+---------+---------+---------
+      Average           |    3.80 |    3.97 |    3.90 |    4.02 |   3.50
+  Check plat            |    3.12 |    3.12 |    3.12 |    3.12 |   3.12
+                        |---------+---------+---------+---------+---------
+  Average gain          |     .68 |     .85 |     .78 |     .90 |    .38
+  Average financial gain|   $5.82 |  $13.84 |  $14.05 |  $18.54 |  $6.99
+  ========================================================================
+
+From this last table the benefit from nitrogen appears quite evident
+since every combination in which it appears gives a substantial gain
+over the one from which it is absent. Phosphorus and potassium without
+the nitrogen, lead to only a slight increase over the check; and lime
+appears to be of no benefit. Financially, the complete fertilizer and
+lime combination, the nitrogen and phosphorus combination and the
+phosphorus and potassium combination failed to pay their cost in five
+of the ten comparisons; the complete fertilizer was used at a loss
+four times out of ten; and the nitrogen and potassium combination
+three times out of ten. Lime had no appreciable effect on either vines
+or fruit.
+
+"No effect of the fertilizers on the fruit itself, aside from yield,
+was shown for the first three years; but in 1912, and even more
+markedly in 1913, the fruit from the plats on which nitrogen had been
+used was superior in compactness of cluster, size of cluster and size
+of berry. In 1912 also, when early ripening was a decided advantage,
+the fruit on the nitrogen plats matured earlier than that on the
+check plats. In 1913 the favorable ripening season and the smaller
+crop tended to equalize the time of ripening on all plats. The grapes
+on the phosphorus-potassium plats were better in quality than those in
+the check plats but not as good as those on the plats where nitrogen
+was used.
+
+"Other indexes also show plainly the benefit from nitrogen in this
+vineyard; for size and weight of leaf, weight of wood produced and
+number of fruiting canes left on the vines were all greater where
+fertilizers, and particularly nitrogen, had been used. The three-year
+averages (1911-1913) of the measurements for these characteristics are
+shown in Table III:
+
+TABLE III.--COMPARATIVE PRODUCTION OF LEAVES, WOOD AND FRUITING CANES
+ON GRAPE VINES DIFFERENTLY FERTILIZED
+
+  (Averages for three years.)
+
+  =======================================================================
+     FERTILIZER APPLICATION   | LEAF       | WOOD       | FRUITING
+                              | WEIGHT[11] | PRUNED[12] | CANES LEFT[13]
+  ----------------------------+------------+------------+----------------
+                              |  _Grams._  |   _Lbs._   |
+   Complete fertilizer; lime  |   1,033    |   1,295    |   2,468
+   Complete fertilizer        |   1,010    |   1,367    |   2,609
+   Nitrogen and phosphorus    |   1,047    |   1,272    |   2,585
+   Nitrogen and potassium     |   1,069    |   1,401    |   2,646
+   Phosphorus and potassium   |     964    |   1,086    |   2,326
+   Check                      |     930    |     915    |   2,110
+  =======================================================================
+
+_Cooeperative experiments._
+
+"In order to secure information as to the behavior of fertilizers on
+the different soils of the Grape Belt, cooeperative tests were carried
+on in six vineyards owned, respectively, by S. S. Grandin, Westfield;
+Hon. C. M. Hamilton, State Line; James Lee, Brocton; H. S. Miner,
+Dunkirk; Miss Frances Jennings, Silver Creek; and J. T. Barnes,
+Prospect Station. The soil in these vineyards included gravelly loam,
+shale loam and clay loam, all in the Dunkirk series, and the
+experiments covered from two to two and a half acres in three cases
+and about five acres in each of the other vineyards. The work
+continued four years in all but one of the experiments, which it was
+necessary to end after the second year.
+
+"The general plan of the tests was much like that at Fredonia in most
+of the vineyards, with the additions of plats for stable manure and
+for leguminous and non-leguminous cover crops with and without lime.
+From two to six check plats were left for comparison in each vineyard.
+As already stated the results were often inconsistent in duplicate
+plats in the same vineyard, and if one test appeared to point
+definitely in a certain direction, the indication would be negatived
+by results in other vineyards. In these experiments the yield of fruit
+was the only index to the effect of treatments as it was not possible
+to weigh leaves or pruned wood, or to count the canes left.
+
+"Nitrogen and potassium in combination, which gave the largest gains
+and greatest profit in the Station vineyard at Fredonia, showed a 13
+per ct. increase in yield on one plat in the Jennings vineyard and a 9
+per ct. decrease on the other; in the Miner vineyard this combination
+apparently resulted in a 25 per ct. increase; in the Lee vineyard in a
+2-1/2 per ct. loss; in the Hamilton vineyard a 17 per ct. gain; and in
+the Grandin vineyard neither gain nor loss. In only two of the five
+vineyards in which this combination was tested was the gain great
+enough to pay the cost of the fertilizer applied. Similar
+discrepancies, or absence of profitable gain, mark the use of the
+other fertilizer combinations.
+
+"Even stable manure, the standby of the farmer and fruit-grower, when
+applied at the rate of five tons per acre each spring, and plowed in,
+did not, on the average, pay for itself. Indeed, there were few
+instances among the 60 comparisons possible, in which more than a
+very moderate profit could be credited to manure. The average increase
+in yield following the application of manure alone was less than a
+quarter of a ton of grapes to the acre; while the use of lime with the
+manure increased the gain to one-third of a ton per acre. The ton of
+lime to the acre annually would not be paid for by the gain of 175
+pounds of grapes. Cover-crops were used in five of the six cooeperative
+experiments and proved even less adapted to increasing crop yields
+than did the manure. There was no appreciable gain, on the average,
+from the use of mammoth clover; indeed, a slight loss must be recorded
+for the clover except upon the plats which were also limed, and even
+with the lime the average yields on check plats and mammoth clover
+plats differed by only one one-hundredth of a ton. Wheat or barley
+with cow-horn turnips made a slightly better showing, as the plats on
+which these crops were turned under, without lime, averaged about
+one-twentieth of a ton to the acre better than the checks. With these
+non-legumes, lime was apparently a detriment, as the plants with the
+lime yielded a tenth of a ton less, on the average, than those without
+it."
+
+_Practical lessons from the Fredonia experiment._
+
+From this experiment it becomes clear that the use of fertilizers in a
+vineyard is a local problem. General advice is of little value. It is
+evident also that the fertilization of vineyards is so involved with
+other factors that only carefully planned and long continued work will
+give reliable information as to the needs of vines. Indeed, field
+experiments even in carefully selected vineyards, as the cooeperative
+experiments show, may be so contradictory and misleading as to be
+worse than useless, if deductions are made from the results of a few
+seasons. The experiment, however, has brought forth information about
+fertilizing vineyards that ought to be most helpful to grape-growers.
+Thus, the results suggest:
+
+_Only vineyards in good condition respond to fertilizers._
+
+It is usually waste to make applications of fertilizers in poorly
+drained vineyards, in such as suffer from winter cold or spring
+frosts, where insect pests are epidemic and uncontrolled or where good
+care is lacking. The experiments furnish several examples of
+inertness, ineffectiveness or failure to produce profit when the
+fertilizers were applied under any of the conditions named. They
+emphasize the importance of paying attention to all of the factors on
+which plant growth is dependent. Moisture, soil temperature, aeration,
+the texture of the soil, freedom from pests, cold and frosts, as well
+as the supply of food may limit the yield of grapes.
+
+_A vineyard soil may have a one-sided wear._
+
+It is certain in some of the experiments and strongly indicated in
+others that the soil is having a one-sided wear--that only one or a
+very few of the elements of fertility are lacking. The element most
+frequently lacking is nitrogen. Exception will probably be found in
+very light sands or gravels which are often deficient in potash and
+the phosphates; or on soils so shallow or of such mechanical texture
+that the root range of the vine is limited; or in soils so wet or so
+dry as to limit the root range or prevent biological activities. These
+exceptions mean, as a rule, that the soils possessing the unfavorable
+qualities are unfitted for grape-growing. The grape-grower should try
+to discover which of the fertilizing elements his soil lacks and not
+waste by using elements not needed.
+
+_Grape soils are often uneven._
+
+The marked unevenness of the soil in the seven vineyards in which
+these experiments were carried on, as indicated by the crops and the
+effects of the fertilizers, furnishes food for thought to
+grape-growers. Maximum profits cannot be approached in vineyards in
+which the soil is as uneven as in these, which were in every case
+selected because there was an appearance of uniformity. A problem
+before grape-growers is to make uniform all conditions in their
+vineyards, and the vines must be kept free from pests if fertilizers
+are to be profitably used.
+
+_How a grape-grower may know when his vines need fertilizers._
+
+A grape-grower may assume that his vines do not need fertilizers if
+they are vigorous and making a fair annual growth. When the vineyard
+is found to be failing in vigor, the first step to be taken is to make
+sure that the drainage is good; the second step, to control insect and
+fungous pests; the third, to give tillage and good care; and the
+fourth step is to apply fertilizers if they be found necessary. Few
+vineyards will be found to require a complete fertilizer. What the
+special requirements of a vineyard are can be ascertained only by
+experiment and are probably not ascertainable by analyses of the soil.
+This experiment furnishes suggestions as to how the grape-grower may
+test the value of fertilizers in his own vineyard.
+
+_Applying fertilizers._
+
+When it is certain that vines need fertilization, and what is wanted
+is known, the fertilizers should be put on in the spring and be worked
+in by the spring cultivation. Stable manure should be plowed under.
+Grape roots forage throughout the whole top layer of soil so that the
+land should be covered with the fertilizer, whether chemical or
+barnyard manure. Applications of commercial fertilizers are generally
+spread broadcast, though it is better to drill them in if the foliage
+is out on the vines and thus avoid possible injury to tender foliage.
+Commercial fertilizers should be mixed thoroughly and in a finely
+divided state. In leachy soils, nitrate of soda ought not to be
+applied too early in the season, as it will quickly wash down out of
+reach of the grape roots.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VIII.--Brighton (x2/3).]
+
+_Over-rich soils._
+
+Some soils are too rich for the grape. On these the growth is
+over-luxuriant, the wood does not mature in the autumn, fruit-buds do
+not form and the fruit is poor in quality. Certain varieties can stand
+a richer soil than others. Over-richness is a trouble that may cure
+itself as the vines come in full bearing and make greater demands on
+the soil for food. It is well, however, on a soil that is suspected of
+being too rich or so proved by the behavior of the vines, to provide
+an extra wire on the trellis, to prune little and thus take care of
+the rampant growth. Some soils, however, and this is often the case,
+are so rich that the grape cannot be made to thrive in them; the vines
+waste their substance in riotous living, producing luxuriant foliage
+and lusty wood but little or no fruit.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA
+
+
+The inexperienced look on pruning as a difficult operation in
+grape-growing. But once a few fundamentals are grasped, grape-pruning
+is not difficult. There is much less perplexity in pruning the grape
+than in pruning tree-fruits. Pruning follows accepted patterns in
+every grape region, and when the pattern is learned the difficulties
+are easily overcome. The inexperienced are confused by the array of
+"principles," "types," "methods," "systems" and the many technical
+terms that enter into discussions of grape-pruning. Some of the
+technicalities come from European practices, and others originated in
+the infancy of grape-growing in this country when there was great
+diversity in pruning. Divested of much that is but jargon, an
+inexperienced man can easily learn in a few lessons, from word of
+mouth or printed page, how to prune grapes.
+
+The simplicity of pruning has led to slighting the work in commercial
+vineyards, by too often trusting it to unskilled hands. Then, too, in
+this age of power-propelled tools, pride in hand labor has been left
+behind, and few grape-growers now take time and trouble to become
+expert in pruning. Simple as the work may seem to those long
+accustomed to it, he who wants to put into his pruning painstaking
+intelligence and to taste the joy of a task well done finds in this
+vineyard operation an ample field for pleasure and for the development
+of greater profits. The price to be paid by those who would thus
+attempt perfection in pruning the vine is forward vision, the
+mechanic's eye, the gardener's touch, patience, and pride in
+handicraft.
+
+Simple as pruning is, the pruner soon learns that it is an art in
+which perfection is better known in mind than followed in deed. The
+theory is easy but there are some stumbling blocks to make its
+consummation difficult. It is an art in which rules do not suffice,
+for no two vineyards can be pruned alike in amount or method, and
+every grape-grower finds his vineyard a proper field for the
+gratification of his taste in pruning. Happily, however, enlightened
+theory and sound practice are in perfect accord in grape-pruning, so
+that specific advice is well founded on governing principles.
+
+One cannot, of course, learn to prune unless he understands the habit
+of the grape-vine and is familiar with the terms applied to the
+different parts of the vine. As a preliminary to this chapter,
+therefore, knowledge of Chapter XVII, in which the structure of the
+grape-vine is discussed, is necessary. The next step is to distinguish
+between pruning and training.
+
+
+PRUNING AND TRAINING DISTINGUISHED
+
+The grape is pruned to increase in various ways the economic value of
+the plant by increasing the quantity and value of the crop. This is
+pruning proper. Or grapes are pruned to make well-proportioned plants
+with the parts so disposed that the vines are to the highest degree
+manageable in the vineyard. This is training. To repeat, the
+grape-plant is pruned to regulate the crop; it is trained to regulate
+the vine. Grape-growers usually speak of both operations as "pruning,"
+but it is better to keep in mind the two conceptions. The distinctions
+between pruning and training must be made more apparent by setting
+forth in greater detail the results attained by the two operations.
+
+_Results attained in pruning to regulate the crop._
+
+Proper pruning of vines in their first year in the vineyard, which, as
+we have seen, consists of cutting the young plants back severely,
+brings the vines in productive bearing a year or two years earlier
+than they would have borne had the pruning been neglected. This early
+pruning, since it is done with an eye to the vigor of each vine,
+insures greater uniformity in the growth and productiveness of the
+vineyard. Uniformity thus brought about is important not only for the
+time being, but for the future development of the vines, since weak
+vines, if unpruned, are stunted and may require years to overtake more
+vigorous vines in the vineyard.
+
+The quality of the crop may be regulated by pruning. When vines bear
+too heavily, the grapes are small, and wine-makers have found that
+they seldom develop sugar and flavor as do grapes on vines not
+over-bearing. Grapes on vines too heavily laden seldom ripen or color
+well. Not only are the grapes on poorly pruned and unpruned vines poor
+in quality but the grapes on such vines are usually not well
+distributed and therefore ripen and color unevenly. The results just
+mentioned follow because the bunches in a poorly distributed crop
+receive varying amounts of light and heat depending on the distance
+from the ground, the distance from the trunk and on the amount of
+shade.
+
+Pruning may be used to regulate the quantity of grapes borne in a
+vineyard and so be made somewhat helpful in preventing alternate
+bearing. Abnormally large crops are usually followed by partial crop
+failure and biennial bearing sometimes sets in, but the large crop may
+be reduced by pruning and the evil consequences wholly or partly
+avoided. It follows that pruning must depend much on the vigor of the
+vine; for a weak vine may be so pruned as to cause it to overbear;
+and, on the other hand, a vigorous vine pruned in the same way might
+not bear at all.
+
+_Results attained in pruning to regulate the vine._
+
+It is necessary to regulate the shape of the vine by training so that
+tilling, spraying, pruning and harvesting can be easily performed and
+the crop be kept off the ground. The cost of production is always less
+in a well-pruned vineyard because all vineyard operations are more
+easily carried out.
+
+The life of a vineyard is lengthened when the vines are well trained,
+because when the parts of a vine are properly disposed on trellis or
+stake the plants are less often injured in vineyard operations.
+Moreover, not infrequently vines die from over-production and
+consequent breaking of canes or trunks which might have been prevented
+by pruning to shape the vine. Suckers and water-sprouts are less
+common on well-trained vines. It is necessary, too, by training to
+keep the bunches away from trunk, canes and other bunches and so
+prevent injury to the grapes.
+
+Lastly, fashion, taste or a more or less abnormal use of the grapes,
+may prescribe the form in which a vine is trained. Fashion and taste
+run from very simple or natural styles to exceedingly complex, formal
+ones, depending, often, on the variety, the environment or other
+condition, but just as often on the whim of the grape-grower. The
+grape is a favorite ornamental for fences, arbors and to cover
+buildings; for all of these purposes the vines must be trained as
+occasion calls.
+
+
+SOME PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING
+
+Leaving the shaping of the plant out of consideration and having in
+mind pruning proper, all efforts in pruning are directed toward two
+objects: (1) The production of leafy shoots to increase the vigor of
+the plant. (2) The promotion of the formation of fruit-buds. The
+first, in common parlance, is pruning for wood; the second, pruning
+for fruit.
+
+_Pruning for wood._
+
+Some grapes, in common with varieties of all fruits, produce excessive
+crops of fruit so that the plants exhaust themselves, to their
+permanent injury and to the detriment of the crop. Something must be
+done to restore and increase vegetative vigor. The most natural
+procedure is to lessen the struggle for existence among the parts of
+the plant. The richer and the more abundant the supply of the food
+solution, the greater the vegetative activity, the larger the leaves
+and the larger and stouter the internodes. Obviously, the supply of
+food solution for each bud may be increased by decreasing the number
+of buds. The weaker the plants, therefore, the more the vine should be
+cut. The severe pruning in the first two years of the vine's existence
+is an example of pruning for wood. The vine is pruned for wood in the
+resting period between the fall of leaf and the swelling of buds the
+following spring.
+
+_Pruning for fruit._
+
+Growers of all fruits soon learn that excessive vegetative vigor is
+not usually accompanied by fruitfulness. Too great vigor is indicated
+by long, leafy, unbranching shoots. Some fruit-growers go so far as to
+say that fruitfulness is inversely proportionate to vegetative vigor.
+There are several methods of diminishing the vigor of the vine; as,
+withholding water and fertilizers, stopping tillage, the method of
+training and by pruning. Pruning is used to decrease the vigor of the
+vine, in theory at least, for the practice is not always so
+successful, by pruning the roots or by summer-pruning the shoots.
+
+Root-pruning the grape at intervals of several years is a regular
+practice with some varieties in warm countries, Europe more
+especially, but is seldom or never practiced in America except when
+planting and when roots arise from the cion above the union of stock
+and cion.
+
+Summer-pruning to induce fruitfulness consists in removing new shoots
+with newly developed leaves. These young shoots have been developed
+from reserve material stored up the preceding season, and until they
+are so far developed that they can perform the functions of leaves
+they are to be counted as parasites. When, therefore, these shoots are
+pruned or pinched away, the plant is robbed of the material used by
+the lusty shoot which up to this time has given nothing in return. The
+vigor of the plant is thus checked and fruitfulness increased.
+Summer-pruning may become harmful if delayed too long. The time to
+prune is past with the grape when the leaves have passed from the
+light green color of new growth to the dark green of mature leaves.
+
+Fruit-bearing may be augmented by bending, twisting or ringing the
+canes, since all of these operations diminish vegetative vigor.
+Ringing is the only one of these methods in general use, and this only
+for some special variety or special purpose, and usually with the
+result that the vigor of the vine is diminished too much for the good
+of the plant. Ringing is discussed more fully in Chapter XVI.
+
+_The manner of fruit-bearing in the grape._
+
+Before attempting to prune, the pruner must understand precisely how
+the grape bears its crop. The fruit is borne near the base of the
+shoots of the current season, and the shoots are borne on the wood of
+the previous year's growth coming from a dormant bud. Here is
+manifested one of Nature's energy-saving devices, shoot, leaves,
+flowers and fruit spring in a short season from a single bud. In the
+light of this fact, pruning should be looked on as a simple problem to
+be solved mathematically and not as a puzzle to be untangled, as so
+many regard it. For an example, a problem in pruning is here stated
+and solved.
+
+A thrifty grape-vine should yield, let us say, fifteen pounds of
+grapes, a fair average for the mainstay varieties. Each bunch will
+weigh from a quarter to a half pound. To produce fifteen pounds on a
+vine, therefore, will require from thirty to sixty bunches. As each
+shoot will bear two or three bunches, from fifteen to thirty buds must
+be left on the canes of the preceding year. These buds are selected in
+pruning on one or more canes distributed on one or two main stems in
+such manner as the pruner may choose, but usually in accordance with
+one or another of several well-developed methods of training. Pruning,
+then, consists in calculating the number of bunches and buds necessary
+and removing the remainder. In essence pruning is thinning.
+
+_Horizontal_ versus _perpendicular canes._
+
+An old dictum of viticulture is that the nearer the growing parts of
+the vine approach the perpendicular, the more vigorous the parts. The
+terminal buds, as every grape-grower knows, grow very rapidly and
+probably absorb, unless checked, more than their share of the energy
+of the vine. This tendency can be checked somewhat by removing the
+terminal buds, which also helps to keep the plants within manageable
+limits, but is better controlled by training the canes to horizontal
+positions. Grape canes are tied horizontally to wires to make the
+vines more manageable and to reduce their vigor and so induce
+fruitfulness; they are trained vertically to increase the vigor of the
+vine.
+
+_Winter-pruning._
+
+Winter-pruning of the vineyard may be done at any time from the
+dropping of the leaves in the autumn to the swelling of the buds in
+the spring. The sap begins to circulate actively in the grape early in
+the spring, even to the extremities of the vine, and most
+grape-growers believe this sap to be a "vital stream" and that, if the
+vine is pruned during its flow, the plant will bleed to death. The
+vine, however, is at this season of so dropsical a constitution that
+the loss of sap is better denominated "weeping" than "bleeding." It is
+doubtful whether serious injury results from pruning after the sap
+begins to flow, but it is a safe practice to prune earlier and the
+work is certainly pleasanter. The vine should not be pruned when the
+wood is frozen, since at this time the canes are brittle and easily
+broken in handling. On the other hand, it is well to delay pruning in
+northern climates until after a heavy freeze in the autumn, to
+winterkill and wither immature wood so that it can be removed in
+pruning.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IX.--Campbell Early (x2/3).]
+
+_Summer-pruning._
+
+There are three kinds of summer-pruning, the removal of superfluous
+shoots, heading-in canes to keep the vines in manageable limits and
+the pruning to induce fruitfulness discussed on a foregoing page,
+which need not have further consideration. It is very essential that
+the grower keep these three purposes in mind, especially as there is
+much dispute as to the necessity of two of these operations.
+
+All agree that the vine usually bears superfluous shoots that should
+be removed. These are such as spring from small, weak buds or from
+buds on the arms and trunk of the vine. These shoots are useless,
+devitalize the vine, and hinder vineyard operations. A good practice
+is to rub off the buds from which these shoots grow as they are
+detected, but in most vineyards the vines must be gone over from time
+to time as the shoots appear. Still another kind of superfluous
+shoots, which ought to be removed as they appear, are those which grow
+from the base of the season's shoots, the so-called secondary or
+axillary shoots. These are usually "broken out" at the time the shoots
+from weak buds are removed.
+
+While there is doubt as to the value of heading-back the vine in the
+summer for the sole purpose of inducing fruitfulness, there can be no
+doubt that it is desirable for the purpose of keeping some varieties
+within bounds. Heading-back is not now the major operation it once
+was, the need of severe cutting being obviated by putting the vines
+farther apart, by training high on three or even four wires and by
+adopting one of the drooping systems of training. The objections to
+heading-back in the summer are that it often unduly weakens the vines,
+that it may induce a growth of laterals which thicken the vines too
+much, and that it delays the maturing of the wood. These bad effects,
+however, can be overcome by pruning lightly and doing the work so late
+in the season that lateral growths will not start. Most vineyardists
+who keep their plantations up find it necessary to head back more or
+less, depending on the season and the variety. The work is usually
+done when the over-luxuriant shoots begin to touch the ground. The
+shoots are then topped off with a sickle, corn-cutter or similar tool.
+
+
+RENEWING FRUITING WOOD
+
+There are two ways of renewing the fruiting wood on a grape-vine, by
+canes and from spurs. The manner of renewing refers to pruning and not
+to training, for either can be used in any method of training.
+
+_Cane renewals._
+
+Renewal by canes is made each year by taking one or more canes, cut to
+the desired number of buds, to supply bearing shoots. By this method
+the most of the bearing wood is removed each year, new canes taking
+the place of the old. These renewal canes may be taken either from the
+head of the vine or from the ground, though the latter is little used
+except where vines must be laid down for winter protection. Canes may
+be renewed indefinitely, if care is exercised in keeping the stubs
+short, without enlarging the head from which the canes are taken out
+of proportion to the size of the trunk. Renewing by canes is a more
+common method than renewal by spurs, as will be found in the
+discussion of methods of training.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. Vine ready for pruning; _i_, the stem; _g_,
+arms; _d_, canes; _s_, shoots; _b_, spurs. The faint lines near the
+bases of the canes indicate the points where they should be pruned off
+in the winter, leaving spurs for the production of shoots the
+following season.]
+
+_Spur renewal._
+
+In renewing by spurs, a permanent arm is established to right and left
+on the canes. Shoots on this arm are not permitted to remain as canes
+but are cut back to spurs in the dormant pruning. Two buds are left at
+this pruning, both of which will produce bearing shoots; the lower
+one, however, is not suffered to do so but is kept to furnish the spur
+for the next season. The shoot from the upper bud is cut away
+entirely. When this process is carried on from year to year, the spurs
+become longer and longer until they become unwieldy. Occasionally,
+however, happy chance permits the selection of a shoot on the old wood
+for a new spur. Failing in this, a new arm must be laid down and the
+spurring goes on as before. The objections to renewing by spurs are:
+it is often difficult to replace spurs with new wood, and the bearing
+portion of the vine gets farther and farther from the trunk. For these
+reasons, spur-renewing is generally in disfavor with commercial
+grape-growers, though it is still used in one or two prominent
+methods of training, as will be discovered in this discussion. Figure
+13 shows a vine ready for pruning.
+
+
+THE WORK OF PRUNING
+
+The pruner may take his choice between several styles of hand
+pruning-shears with which to do his work. The knife is seldom used
+except in summer-pruning, and here, more often, the shoots are broken
+out or pinched out. In winter-pruning, the cane is cut an inch or
+thereabout beyond the last bud it is desired to leave; otherwise the
+bud may die from the drying out of the cane. The canes are usually
+allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is done, though
+growers who use the Kniffin method of training may cut them loose
+before they prune. Two men working together do the work of pruning
+best. The more skilled of the two severs the wood from the bearing
+vine, leaving just the number of buds desired for the next season's
+crop. The less skilled man cuts tendrils and severs the cut canes from
+each other so that the prunings may be moved from the vineyard without
+trouble by the "stripper."
+
+Not the least of the tasks of pruning is "stripping" the brush and
+getting it out of the vineyard. The prunings cling to the trellis with
+considerable tenacity and must be pulled loose with a peculiar jerk,
+learned by practice, and placed on the ground between the rows.
+Stripping is done, usually by cheap labor, at any time after the
+pruning until spring, but must not be delayed until growth starts or
+the young buds may suffer as the cut wood is torn from the trellis.
+The brush is hauled to the end of the row by hand or by horse-power
+applied to any one of a dozen devices used in the several grape
+regions. One of the best is the device in common use in the Chautauqua
+vineyards of western New York. A pole, twelve feet long, four inches
+in diameter at the butt and two at the top, is bored with an inch
+hole four feet from the butt. A horse is hitched to this pole by a
+rope drawn through the hole, and the pole, butt to the ground, is then
+pulled between rows, the small end being held in the right hand. The
+pole, when skillfully used, collects the brush, which is dumped at the
+end of the row by letting the small end fly over towards the horse.
+The "go-devil," shown in Fig. 14, is another common device for
+collecting prunings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. A "go-devil" for collecting prunings.]
+
+
+THE TRELLIS
+
+The trellis is a considerable item in the grape-grower's budget, since
+it must be renewed every fifteen years or thereabouts. Wires are
+strung in the North at the end of the second season after planting,
+but in the South the growth is often so great that the wires must be
+put up at the end of the first season. Trellises are of the same
+general style for commercial vineyards; namely, two or three wires
+tautly stretched on firmly set posts. Occasionally slat trellises are
+put up in gardens but these are not to be recommended for any but
+ornamental purposes.
+
+_Posts._
+
+Strong, durable posts of chestnut, locust, cedar, oak or reenforced
+cement are placed at such distance apart that two or three vines can
+be set between each two posts. The distance apart depends on the
+distance between vines, although the tendency now is to have three
+vines between two posts. The posts are from six to eight feet in
+length, the heaviest being used as end posts. In hard stony soils it
+may be necessary to set the end posts with a spade, but usually
+sharpened posts can be driven into holes made with a crowbar. In
+driving, the operator stands on a wagon hauled by a horse and uses a
+ten- or twelve-pound maul. The posts are driven to a depth of eighteen
+or twenty-four inches for the end posts. However set, the posts must
+stand firm to hold the load of vines and fruit. The end posts must be
+braced. As good a brace as any is made from a four-by-four timber,
+notched to fit the post halfway up from the ground, and extending
+obliquely to the ground, where it is held by a four-by-four stake. A
+two-wire trellis and a common method of bracing end posts are shown in
+Fig. 15. The posts on hillsides must lean slightly up-hill, otherwise
+they will almost certainly sooner or later tilt down the slope. The
+posts are usually permitted to stand a little higher at first than
+necessary so that they may be driven down should occasion call;
+driving is usually done in the early spring.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. A trellis and a common method of bracing end
+posts.]
+
+_Wire for the trellis._
+
+Four sizes of wire are in common use for vineyard trellises; nos. 9,
+10, 11 and 12. Number 9, the heaviest, is often used for the top wire
+with lighter wires lower. The following figures show the length of
+wire in a ton:
+
+    No.  9, 34,483 ft.
+    No. 10, 41,408 ft.
+    No. 11, 52,352 ft.
+    No. 12, 68,493 ft.
+
+From these figures the number of pounds required to the acre is easily
+calculated. Common annealed wire makes a durable trellis, but many
+growers prefer the more durable galvanized wire, the cost of which is
+slightly greater. The wires are fastened to the end posts by winding
+once around the post, and then each wire is firmly looped about
+itself; they are secured to the intervening posts by ordinary fence
+staples so driven that the wire cannot pull through of its own weight
+but with space enough to permit tightening from season to season. The
+size and length of the staples depend on whether the posts are hard or
+soft wood. The longest and largest staples are used with soft woods,
+as cedar or chestnut. An acre requires from nine to twelve pounds of
+staples. The wires should be placed on the windward sides of posts and
+on the up-hill side in hillside vineyards. The distance between wires
+depends on the method of pruning.
+
+The wires must be stretched taut on the posts, for which purpose any
+one of a half-dozen good wire stretchers may be purchased at hardware
+stores. Some growers loosen the wires after harvest to allow for the
+contraction in cold weather and others use some one of several devices
+to relieve the strain. Most growers, however, find it necessary to go
+over the vineyard each spring to drive down loosened posts and stretch
+sagging wires, and so take no precautions to release wires in the
+fall. All agree that the wires must be kept tight during the growing
+season to protect buds, foliage and fruit from being injured from
+whipping.
+
+_Tying._
+
+The canes are tied to the trellis in early spring, and under most
+systems of pruning the growing shoots are tied in the summer. This
+work is done by cheap men, women, boys and girls. A great variety of
+material is used to make the tie, as raffia, wooltwine, willow, inner
+bark of the linden or basswood, green rye straw, corn husks,
+carpet-rags and wire. The same materials are not usually employed for
+both canes and shoots, since the canes are tied firmly to hold them
+steady and the work is done early before there is danger of breaking
+swelling buds, while the summer shoots are tied to hold for a shorter
+time and more loosely to permit growth in diameter. Tying usually
+follows accepted patterns in one region but varies greatly in
+different regions. There is a knack to be learned in the use of each
+one of the materials named, but with none is it difficult, and an
+ingenious person can easily contrive a tie of his own to suit fancy or
+conditions.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE X.--Clinton (x2/3).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+METHODS OF TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA
+
+
+The grape-grower takes great liberties with Nature in training his
+plants. No other fruit is so completely transformed by the grower's
+art from its natural habit of growth. Happily, the grape endures
+cutting well, and the pruner may rest assured that he may work his
+will in pruning his vines, following to his heart's desire a favorite
+method with little fear of seriously injuring his vines. Because of
+its accommodation to the desires of man in the disposition of the
+vine, there are many methods of training the grape; there being in the
+commercial vineyards of eastern America a dozen or more. However, the
+differences and similarities are so marked that the several methods
+fall into a simple classification which makes conspicuous their chief
+features. Thus, all of the methods fall under two chief heads: (1) The
+disposition of shoots; (2) the disposition of canes.
+
+_The disposition of shoots._
+
+Bearing shoots are disposed of in three ways in training grapes;
+shoots upright, shoots drooping, and shoots horizontal. The terms
+explain themselves, but the three methods need amplification since
+their adoption is not optional with growers but depends on several
+circumstances.
+
+Shoots are trained upright in several methods in which two or more
+arms or canes are laid to right and left, sometimes horizontally,
+sometimes obliquely along or across horizontal wires. As the shoots
+grow upward, they are tied to wires above. The upright methods are
+supposed to distribute the bearing wood more evenly on the vines and
+to insure greater uniformity in the fruit. In the upright methods,
+also, the canes and arms are left nearer the ground, which is thought
+to be an advantage in small, weak or slow-growing varieties. Delaware,
+Catawba, Iona and Diana are examples of varieties thought to grow best
+when trained to one of the upright methods.
+
+In the several methods in which the shoots droop, however the canes
+may be disposed, the shoots are not tied but are allowed to droop at
+will. These methods are comparatively new but are being rapidly
+adopted because of several marked advantages. Usually one less wire
+can be used in a drooping method than in an upright one; since the
+shoots are not tied, much labor is saved in summer tying; the ground
+can be tilled with less danger to the vines; and there is less
+sun-scalding of the fruit, since the pendant foliage protects the
+clusters. Grape-growers generally agree that strong-growing varieties
+like Concord, Niagara, Brighton, Diamond and most of the hybrids
+between European grapes and native species grow best when the shoots
+droop.
+
+Shoots are trained horizontally in but one recognized method, the
+Hudson Horizontal, to be described in detail later. Since this method
+is all but obsolete, there is still less reason for discussing it
+here, the expressive name sufficing for present purposes.
+
+_Disposition of canes._
+
+There are many recognized methods of disposing of the canes in
+training the grape. The chief of these are discussed in the pages that
+follow, their names being set down for the present in the
+classification that follows.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF TRAINING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA
+
+    I. Shoots upright:
+
+      1. Chautauqua Arm.
+      2. Keuka High Renewal.
+      3. Fan.
+
+    II. Shoots drooping:
+
+      1. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin.
+      2. Two-stem, Four-cane Kniffin.
+      3. Umbrella Kniffin.
+      4. Y-stem Kniffin.
+      5. Munson.
+
+    III. Shoots horizontal:
+
+      1. Hudson Horizontal.
+
+
+_I. Shoots upright_
+
+Systematic training of the grape in America began toward the middle of
+the nineteenth century with a method in which the shoots were trained
+upright from two permanent horizontal arms. These arms are laid to
+right and left on a low wire and bear more or less permanent spurs,
+from each of which two shoots are produced each season to bear the
+crop. The number of spurs left on each arm depends on the vigor of the
+vine and the space between vines. As the shoots grow upward, they are
+tied to upper wires, there being three wires on the trellis for this
+method. This method is now known as the Horizontal Arm Spur. It has a
+serious fault in its troublesome spurs and has almost entirely given
+way to a modification called the Chautauqua Arm method, much used in
+the great Chautauqua grape-belt. As one of the chief methods of
+training the grape in eastern America, this must be described in
+detail.
+
+_The Chautauqua Arm method._
+
+The trellis for this method has two wires, although occasionally three
+are used. The lower wire is eighteen or twenty inches above the
+ground and the second thirty-four inches above the lower. If three are
+used, the wires are twenty inches apart. F. E. Gladwin, in charge of
+the vineyard laboratory of the New York Agricultural Experiment
+Station at Fredonia, in the heart of the Chautauqua belt, describes
+this method of training as follows:
+
+"The vines are cut back to two buds at each pruning the first two
+years. If the vines are vigorous two canes are tied up at the
+beginning of the third year; if scant, but one is left and this, if
+the growth is extremely unfavorable, is cut back to two buds. The
+canes are carried up obliquely to the upper wire when the growth
+permits and are there firmly tied either with twine or fine wire, the
+latter being more commonly used. The canes are also loosely tied to
+the lower wire. The pruning for the fourth year consists in cutting
+away all but two or three canes and a number of spurs from the arms
+formed by tying up the two canes the previous year. The vine now
+consists of two arms, arising from near the ground, with two or three
+canes of the previous year, and several two-bud spurs at intervals
+along the arms. As far as possible such canes as have arisen but a
+short distance above the lower wire are selected. All the old wood
+projecting beyond the last cane retained on each of the arms is cut
+away. The arms of the third year are bent down from their oblique
+position and are tied firmly to the lower wire, to the right and left
+of the center of the vine. These are now permanent arms. The vine at
+this time consists of two arms, arising from near the ground, tied to
+the lower wire to the right and left of the center, and on these are
+two or three canes, pruned long enough to reach to the middle wire at
+least, and if possible to the upper. They are tied so that they stand
+in a vertical or oblique position. Along the arms at intervals of a
+few inches are spurs, consisting of two buds. If the vineyardist
+maintains the arms permanently, these spurs furnish the fruiting wood
+for the succeeding year.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16. Chautauqua training; vine ready to prune.]
+
+"At the pruning for the fifth year one of the arms is cut away
+entirely, close to the point of its origin. The remaining arm,
+reaching from the ground to a point a few inches below the level of
+the lower wire, now becomes the permanent stem. The vineyardist must
+now provide for the arm cut away. This is done by the selection of a
+cane, arising from the remaining arm at a point below the lower wire,
+either directly, or from a spur left for the purpose. This is pruned
+to reach the top wire and is tied obliquely to it. This cane at the
+next pruning is tied down to the lower wire and becomes the second
+arm. Then the same selection of canes and spurs is made from it as was
+made at the previous pruning, and the canes are tied up as before.
+However, if the grower desires to retain both arms of the preceding
+year for a few years, canes that have grown from the spurs may be tied
+up and provision made for the following year through further spurring.
+If but a single arm is retained, it is pruned in the same way. Spurs
+may be obtained from canes that have arisen from dormant buds on the
+arm, or by spurring in the basal canes of the fruiting wood of the
+year previous. A combination of both methods of renewal will in the
+long run work out the better, as the repeated spurring in of the basal
+canes will result in greatly lengthened spurs that will require
+frequent cutting out. While the canes that arise directly from dormant
+buds on wood two years and over are not necessarily the best fruiting
+ones, they can, however, be utilized for renewal purposes.
+
+"The ideal vine pruned to this system now consists of a stem reaching
+from sixteen or eighteen inches above the ground level or a few inches
+below the level of the lower wire. Such a vine is shown in Figure 16.
+From the head two arms arise, one extending to the right, the other to
+the left and tied along the lower wire, each arm not extending for
+more than two feet and a half to either side of the head. From the
+arms two canes on each are tied vertically or obliquely to the top
+wire. In addition there are left two or three spurs, growing from the
+upper side of each arm, located at well-spaced intervals starting
+close to the head; these may be used for the renewal of the arms. The
+shoots are not tied.
+
+"One of the chief faults of the Chautauqua Arm method is the tendency
+of the best matured, and most desirable canes to develop at or near
+the upper wire, while those lower down are often too short, or so
+poorly matured as to be unfitted for fruiting purposes. When the wood,
+bearing the well-developed upper canes, is brought down for arms, a
+considerable interval of the arm from the head to the point where the
+canes arise is without fruiting wood. Under such conditions the growth
+will be again thrown to the extremities. If spurring on the arms has
+been practiced, this undesirable condition is eliminated. With either
+type of renewal, spurring should be practiced. The fruit from vines
+trained by this method reaches its highest development at or near the
+level of the upper wire, that on the lower shoots is, as a rule, quite
+inferior. This comes from the fact that the sap flow is more vigorous
+at these upper points, resulting in more and healthier leaves, which,
+in turn, influence the fruit for the better."
+
+_Keuka High Renewal._
+
+Several methods of training pass under the general term "High
+Renewal," the significance of which becomes apparent in the discussion
+of the Keuka High Renewal method which is probably now the most common
+of the several types. In most of these methods the trellis is put up
+with three wires, but occasionally only two wires are used and still
+less often four. The lowest wire on the three-wire trellis is eighteen
+or twenty inches from the ground with twenty-inch intervals between
+wires. Gladwin, who has direct charge of vineyard experimental work
+about Keuka Lake for the New York Agricultural Experiment Station,
+describes current practices in pruning according to this method as
+follows:
+
+"At each pruning for the first two years the vines are cut back to two
+buds. However, with strong-growing varieties like Concord, Niagara and
+Isabella, and under good soil conditions, the stem may be formed the
+second year. With moderate-growing varieties and under average
+conditions, the formation of the stem is left until the third year.
+The straightest and best-matured cane is left for the purpose. This is
+carried to the lower wire and there firmly tied with willow. As soon
+as the shoots have made sufficient growth they are loosely tied to the
+wires that they may be kept away from the tillage tools. The fourth
+year the head of the vine is formed. This should stand a few inches
+below the lower wire. Two canes growing from the stem near this
+position are selected, one being tied to the right and the other to
+the left along the lower wire. In the Keuka Lake District, the canes
+are tied with willows. In addition, at least two spurs of two buds
+each are retained near the head. With Concord, the canes may carry
+about ten buds each, but with Catawba, as grown on the hillsides of
+the Central Lakes Region of New York, the canes should not carry above
+six buds each. As the shoots develop from the horizontal canes, they
+are tied with rye straw to the middle and upper wires. This summer
+tying is almost continuous after the shoots are long enough to reach
+the middle wire.
+
+"The following year all the wood is cut away except two or three canes
+that have developed from the basal buds of the canes put up the
+previous year, or that have grown from the spurs. In the event of a
+third cane being retained, it is tied along the middle wire. Spurs are
+again maintained close to the head for renewal purposes. The other two
+canes are tied along the lower wire as before. If the same spurs are
+used for a few years they become so long that the canes arising from
+them reach above the wire and cannot be well managed in the
+'willowing.' It is desirable to provide new spurs annually, selecting
+those canes for the purpose that arise from the head of the vine or
+near it. It is possible by careful pruning to so cut away the old wood
+that practically all that remains after each pruning is the stem. Thus
+the vine is renewed almost to the ground. When the stem approaches the
+end of its usefulness, a shoot is allowed to grow from the ground, and
+the old one is cut away. Figure 17 shows a vine pruned by the Keuka
+method.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17. Keuka method of training.]
+
+"This method of training is especially well adapted to slow growing
+varieties, or those situated on poor soils, where but little wood
+growth is made. It is ideally adapted for the growing of Catawba on
+the hillsides of Keuka Lake. It is well adapted to late-maturing
+varieties planted out of their zone. Concord, growing under average
+conditions, is too vigorous to be trained by this method. It makes a
+tremendous growth of wood out of all proportion to the quantity of
+fruit, which is inclined to be very inferior. The chief objection to
+this method is the amount of summer tying involved which comes at a
+time when attention to tillage should be given. It might prove
+profitable in the growing of dessert varieties that have been
+discarded because of lack of vigor. On thin hillside soils, Catawba
+requires training modelled after this method but on the heavier upland
+ones, with shorter pruning, it can be grown on the Chautauqua Arm
+plan. Delaware, Iona, Dutchess, Campbell, Eumelan, Jessica, Vergennes
+and Regal are, as a rule, grown to better advantage when trained by
+the High Renewal method."
+
+_Fan-training._
+
+The only other method now in use in which the shoots may be trained
+upright is that in which the canes are disposed of in fan-shape. This
+method was much used a generation ago but is rapidly becoming
+obsolete. In fan-training the renewals are made yearly from spurs near
+the ground, and the fruiting canes are carried up obliquely and so
+form a fan. The great advantage in fan-training is that a trunk is
+almost dispensed with, which greatly facilitates laying down the vine
+in winter where winter-protection is needed. There are several
+objections to this method in commercial plantations. The chief one is
+that the spurs become long, crooked and almost unmanageable so that
+renewals from the root must be made frequently. Another is that the
+fruit is borne close to the ground and becomes soiled with mud in
+dashing rains. The vines, also, are inconvenient in shape for tying.
+There are two or three modifications of fan-training which may be
+described as mongrel methods between this and the High Renewal and
+Horizontal Arm methods, none of which, however, is now in general
+favor.
+
+
+_II. Shoots drooping_
+
+Quite by accident, William Kniffin, a stone mason living at
+Clintondale, New York, in the Hudson River grape region, discovered
+that grapes of large size and handsome appearance could be grown on
+vines in which the canes were trained horizontally with the shoots
+drooping. He put his discovery in practice and from it have come the
+several methods of training grapes which bear his name. Kniffin's
+discovery was made about 1850 and the merits of his methods spread so
+rapidly over eastern America that by the end of the century the
+various Kniffin methods were more generally used than any others.
+Grape-growers now agree that strong-growing vines like Concord,
+Niagara and Clinton are best trained to one or another of the Kniffin
+methods. There are several modifications of Kniffin's method, three of
+which are now in common use, the most popular being the Single-stem,
+Four-cane Kniffin.
+
+The trellis for the three methods carries two wires, the lower placed
+at the height of three to three and a half feet and the upper from two
+to two and a half feet above it. To permit this height of wires, the
+posts must be from eight to eight and a half feet in length, and must
+be firmly set with the end posts well braced.
+
+_Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin._
+
+As practiced at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, the
+vines are trained as follows:
+
+One trunk is carried to the top wire the third year after planting, or
+if the growth is not long enough at this time, it is carried to the
+lower wire and there tied. In this case, the following year a cane is
+extended to the top wire. This trunk is permanent. If the stem reaches
+the upper wire the third year, growers break out many of the
+developing shoots and allow only the strongest to grow, choosing those
+that arise close to the wires. The stem should be tied tightly to the
+top wire and somewhat loosely to the lower. If girdling results at the
+top, it is not objectionable as the head of the vine should be below
+rather than above the wire. When the shoots are sufficiently hardened,
+those growing close to the wires should be loosely tied to prevent
+injury during cultivation. At the beginning of the fourth year, as
+shown in Fig. 18, the vine should consist of a stem extending from the
+ground to a point below the top wire. From this, all but two canes and
+two spurs of two buds each have been cut away below each wire level.
+As growth is most vigorous at the top of the stem, four to six more
+buds are left on the upper than on the lower canes. A vine of which
+the stem reaches the upper wire the third year should support the next
+season canes, aggregating twenty-two buds with eight additional buds
+on the spurs. If the growth is weak, only half this number should be
+left.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin training.]
+
+The tying at this time consists of fastening the stem loosely, with
+ordinary grape twine, to the lower wire, and with the same material
+the canes are tied along the two wires to right and left of the stem.
+The canes should be tied tightly toward the trunk so that they cannot
+slip out of the twine. Ordinarily tying at this time is sufficient for
+the year, but if conditions for growth are unfavorable, the twine may
+rot before the tendrils take hold of the wires, and a partial second
+tying may be necessary.
+
+After the fourth season, the pruner has greater choice of
+fruiting-wood for the following year. It may be chosen from the basal
+canes of the preceding year's wood or the canes that develop from the
+spurs may be used. The choice should depend on the accessibility and
+maturity of the wood. At each pruning, the possibilities for obtaining
+fruiting wood for the following year must receive consideration. It is
+possible to use the same spurs for two or three years, but after this
+they should be cut away and new ones retained. After the first
+spurring, spurs should be selected from wood older than two years. The
+shoots from such wood bear but little fruit and hence make good
+fruiting canes for the next year.
+
+_Umbrella Kniffin._
+
+Since most of the fruit on vines trained by the Four-cane Kniffin
+method is borne on the two upper canes, some growers in the Hudson
+River Valley dispense with the lower canes and cut the upper ones long
+enough to bear the crop. In this method the trunk is brought to the
+top wire and the head formed as in the Four-cane Kniffin. When the
+vines are pruned at the close of the third year, two long canes are
+left at the head of the vine with two renewal spurs. These long canes
+are drooped over the upper wire obliquely down to the lower wire to
+which they are tied just above the last bud, forming an
+umbrella-shaped top as shown in Fig. 19. The renewals are made as in
+the Four-cane Kniffin. This method reduces the amount of leaf surface
+to the minimum, so that care must be taken to insure healthy leaf
+growth. The amount of fruiting-wood put up is also reduced to the
+minimum, so that the yield is low unless good cultivation is provided,
+in which case, with some varieties and on some soils, the yield is up
+to the average and the crop is first-class as regards size of bunch
+and berry, compactness of bunch and maturity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19. Umbrella method of training.]
+
+_The Two-trunk Kniffin._
+
+The Two-trunk Kniffin, illustrated in Fig. 20, is another modification
+with the aim of securing greater fruitfulness. This method also
+provides an equal number of buds on both wires. Two trunks are brought
+from the root, one to the upper, the other to the lower wire. The
+fruiting canes are taken off and are disposed of as in the Four-cane
+Kniffin. The trunks are usually tied together to hold them in place.
+This method is in restricted use in the Hudson River Valley where it
+is known under the name given here and as "Double Kniffin" and
+"Improved Kniffin." In experiments in training grapes at Fredonia, New
+York, under the direction of the New York Experiment Station, this
+method proves to be one of the poorest in growing Concords. The
+grapes fall short in size of bunch and berry and do not mature as well
+as under the other drooping methods of training.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. Two-trunk Kniffin training.]
+
+_The Y-trunk Kniffin._
+
+Still another modification of the Kniffin method is one in which a
+crotch or Y is made in the trunk midway between the ground and the
+lower wire. The theory on which this method is founded is that sap for
+the lower canes is better supplied than in a straight or continuous
+trunk and that the lower canes thus become as productive as those on
+the upper wire. The theory is probably wrong but is accepted by many
+notwithstanding. The methods of pruning, renewing fruiting-wood and
+tying are the same as in the Single-stem Kniffin, except, of course,
+that each stem supports two canes and two spurs. This method was in
+somewhat common use some years ago in parts of western New York but is
+now disappearing.
+
+_The Munson method._
+
+An ingenious modification of the Kniffin principle was devised by
+Elbert Wakeman, Oyster Bay, Long Island, and afterwards improved and
+brought into prominence by the late T. V. Munson of Denison, Texas; it
+is now much used in southern vineyards. The method is described as
+follows by Munson:[14]
+
+"The posts should be of some durable strong wood, such as Bois d'Arc
+(Osage), Cedar, heartwood of Catalpa, Black Locust or White Oak. The
+end posts of every row should be large and strong and be set three and
+one-half or four feet in the ground and well tamped. The intermediate
+posts, which may be much lighter than the end posts, should be six and
+one-half or seven feet long and set two to two and one-half feet in
+the ground, with twenty-four feet spaces between posts, which will
+take three vines, eight feet apart, or two vines twelve feet apart.
+After the posts are set, a three-eighths-inch hole should be bored
+through each post, four feet from the surface of the ground, in the
+direction in which the row runs, leaving six inches or more of post
+above the hole. These holes are for the admittance of the middle,
+lower wire of the trellis.
+
+"For each end post prepare for cross-arm, a piece of two by four hard
+pine or oak, two feet long, and at one inch from either end, and one
+inch from the upper side, bore a three-eighths of an inch bit-hole, or
+saw into upper side half an inch, which will take less time and do as
+well, to pass the lateral wires through, and in the middle of the
+lower side, saw a notch one-half inch deep. For each intermediate
+post, prepare a board of similar wood, two feet long, one inch thick
+by four broad, and likewise bore or notch.
+
+"Through the holes in the posts run a No. 11 galvanized wire, fasten
+at one end, tighten at the other end by a wire stretcher and fasten.
+This will be the middle and lower wire of the trellis, and all that
+will be needed the first year, when the young vines are trained up a
+string, tied from the vine (when set) to the wire, and along it. The
+arms, and the two lateral wires which they bear, need not be put on
+the trellis until after the vines are pruned and tied the next winter.
+To put on the cross-arms, use no bolts or nails, only No. 11
+galvanized wire.
+
+"Each end cross-arm is placed inside the post, and against it on top
+of the wire, already through the posts, notch-side downward,
+straddling the wire, to keep it from sliding. Then take a piece of
+same size wire, about seven feet long, pass one end through the
+bit-hole or saw-notch, in one end of arm and fasten it by looping and
+twisting about six inches of the end back upon itself, then while one
+person holds the cross-arm in place, the operator carries the wire
+down around the post once near the ground, staples it on each side
+and brings the other end up to the opposite end of arm, puts it
+through the bit-hole, or saw-notch, draws it tightly, keeping the arm
+level, and fastens the end of the wire as was done the other. Wire
+nippers and pliers will be needed for this work. Then take another
+piece of wire about two feet long, and put it twice around the
+cross-arm and the post where they come together, above the middle
+wire, and firmly tie them together, crossing the wire as it goes
+around. This will hold the arm in place and not weaken or split the
+arm as do nails and bolts, and will be longer-lasting, quicker and
+cheaper, and more elastic, so that when struck by the hames or collar
+in cultivation, it gives a little, receiving no damage.
+
+"Likewise place the cross-arms on the intermediate posts, leaving the
+ends of the wire projecting about six inches after fastening, for a
+purpose soon to be mentioned. Then draw the two lateral wires through
+the bit-holes in the ends of the arms, or drop into the saw-notches,
+if such are made, throughout the row, tighten with the wire stretcher
+and fasten. Then return along each lateral wire, wrapping ends of wire
+at the ends of the arms very closely and tightly around the
+through-going lateral wires, as telegraph and telephone wires are
+wrapped in splicing. This is quickly done with the proper pliers, and
+prevents the arms from slipping out of proper position. Now the
+trellis is complete, and will need little or no repairs, and looks
+very neat, especially if painted.
+
+"Pruning and training on the Munson trellis is very simple and easy
+with a little instruction for a few minutes with a vine or two pruned
+for example. The vine the first season is allowed to grow up on to the
+middle wire by a string around which it is coiled by hand, by going
+over the vineyard once or twice until the selected shoot of each vine
+is upon the wire, after which it is allowed to ramble at freedom over
+the wires. By getting on to the trellis the first year, one strong
+shoot, and allowing no other to grow, a partial crop can be had the
+second year, without damage, on all but weak growers, like Delaware,
+that should not be allowed to bear until the third year. At the first
+regular pruning (all prunings should be done in November or December,
+after leaf fall, and never so late as to cause the vines to bleed),
+the vine should be cut back to two or three buds that have reached the
+middle wire, if weak growers, if strong, with heavy growth, six or
+eight buds each, to two arms, one going each way along the lower wire
+from where the ascending vine first touches the wire. After the vines
+are thus pruned, the outer end of each arm is firmly tied to the lower
+wire, along which it is gently coiled. These two ties hold the vine
+firmly in place. The buds on the arms push and ascend, passing over
+the lateral wires, clinging thereto with their tendrils, and hang over
+like a beautiful green drapery shading the fruit and body of the vine
+according to its natural habit.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XI.--Concord (x2/3).]
+
+"On the canopy trellis, all the summer pruning required is, to go
+through the vineyard at or a few days before blooming time, and with a
+light sharp butcher knife, clip off the tips of all advanced shoots to
+be left for bearing, leaving two or three leaves beyond the outer
+flower cluster. From the shoots near the crotch, selected for bearing
+arms the next year, pick the flower clusters, and strip off or rub off
+all shoots and buds that start on trunk of vine below crotch. This
+latter is very important, as such shoots, if left, eat up the
+nourishment of the land with no return but added work at pruning time.
+
+"It will be found that the shoots at the ends of the arms usually
+start first and strongest, and if not clipped back, will not allow the
+buds back toward the crotch to start well, but if clipped, all other
+desirable buds then push.
+
+"In about six to ten days after the first clipping, a second one is
+usually necessary, especially if the weather is moist and warm, and
+the land rich. The first clipped shoots, as well as those not clipped
+the first time, will need clipping back this time, the end buds on the
+first clipped having pushed vigorously.
+
+"At a second year's pruning and others following, the old arms with
+all the bearing shoots on them are cut off down to the new arms and
+the new arms cut back to lengths they can fill with fruit and well
+mature. In this, critical judgment and knowledge of capabilities of
+different varieties are more required in the pruner than in any other
+of the training work. Some varieties, such as the Delaware, cannot
+carry more than three to four arms, two feet long, while Herbemont can
+more easily carry four arms each eight feet long, hence such as
+Delaware should be planted eight feet or less apart, while Herbemont
+and most of the Post-Oak grape hybrids, should be twelve to sixteen
+feet apart. In other words, each variety should be set that distance
+apart that it will fill the trellis with fruit from end to end, and
+mature it well, so as to better economize space.
+
+"By the third year, the vine should come to full bearing, and be
+pruned with four bearing arms, two to go each way along the lower wire
+of trellis, gently coiling around the wire, one arm in one direction,
+the other in opposite direction, and should be in about equal lengths,
+so that one firm tie with jute yarn, near the ends, will be all the
+tying the vines will need--that is, two ties to each vine--the least
+required by any trellis system, and the pruning is also simplest and
+the results every way the best.
+
+"Some of the advantages of this trellis are its cheapness, its
+simplicity, bringing the work up breast-high so that pruning, tying,
+harvesting, spraying, can be done in an erect position, saving back
+strain; perfect distribution of light, heat and air to foliage and
+fruit; shielding from sunscald and birds; giving free ventilation and
+easy passage of wind through the vineyard without blowing down the
+trellis or tender shoots from the vines, and allowing ready passage
+from row to row, without going around, thus getting larger and better
+crops at less expense and increasing length of life of vineyard and
+the pleasure of taking care of it."
+
+This method does not seem to be adapted to the needs of grapes in
+northern vineyards, and in the South such weak-growing sorts as
+Delaware do not thrive when so trained. Several "modified Munson
+methods" are in use in the southern states, but those most commonly
+employed do not depart greatly from the method here described.
+
+
+_III. Shoots horizontal_
+
+_Hudson horizontal._
+
+There is now in use but one method of training shoots horizontally. In
+this method the trellis is made by setting posts eight or ten feet
+apart and connecting them by two slats, one at the top of the posts,
+the other about eighteen inches from the ground. Strands of wire are
+stretched perpendicularly between the slats at ten- or twelve-inch
+intervals. One cane is trained from a trunk from one to two feet high
+on the trellis; it rises perpendicularly from the ground and is tied
+to the top slat. The shoots push out right and left and are tied
+horizontally to each wire as they reach it. The cane is usually
+allowed to bear about six shoots on each side. The grapes set at the
+base of the shoots so that the bunches hang one over the other, making
+a pretty sight. This method is too expensive for a commercial vineyard
+but is often used in gardens and for ornamental plantings. Only
+weak-growing sorts, as Delaware, Iona or Diana are adapted for this
+method. Delaware does remarkably well under horizontal training. The
+use of slats and wires in horizontal training are often reversed. The
+alternative from the method just described is to set posts sixteen or
+eighteen feet apart upon which are strung two wires as for the
+ordinary trellis. Perpendicular slats are then fastened to these
+wires to which the shoots are tied. Two slats, fifteen inches apart,
+are provided on each side of a fruiting cane, which, with the slat for
+the support of the cane, give five to a vine. Or the vine may be
+supported by a stake driven in the ground.
+
+In both of these methods, a shoot must be taken out from the head of
+the vine each season for the next season's fruiting-wood. This shoot
+is tied to the central wire or slat and is now allowed to fruit. Thus
+the vine starts each spring with a single cane. Grapes are grown under
+these horizontal methods chiefly, if not only, in the Hudson River
+Valley and even here they are going out of use.
+
+
+TRAINING ON ARBORS, PERGOLAS AND AS ORNAMENTALS
+
+The grape is much used to cover arbors, pergolas, lattices and to
+screen the sides of buildings, few climbing plants being more
+ornamental. Leaf, fruit and vine have been favorite subjects for
+reproduction by ornamentalists of all ages. As yet, however, it is
+seldom seen in cultivated landscapes except to secure shade and
+seclusion.
+
+Grown for aesthetic purposes, the grape is seldom fruitful, for the
+vines can rarely be cultivated or deprived of their luxuriant growth
+as in the vineyard. Nevertheless, grapes grown as ornamentals can be
+trained so as to serve the double purpose of ornamental and
+fruit-bearing plant. Grown on the sides of a building, the grape often
+can be made to bear large crops of choicely fine fruit. The ancients
+had learned this, for the Psalmist says: "Thy wife shall be like the
+fruitful vine by the sides of thine house."
+
+In all ornamental plantings on arbors or pergolas, if fruit is to be
+considered, the permanent trunk is carried to the top of the
+structure. Along this trunk, at intervals of eighteen inches, spurs
+are left from which to renew the wood from year to year. The vines
+should stand six or eight feet apart, depending on the variety, and
+one cane is left, three or four feet long, on each spur when the
+pruning is done. Shoots springing from these cover intermediate spaces
+soon after growth begins. Provision, of course, must be made for a new
+cane each season, and this is done by saving a shoot springing from
+spur or trunk at pruning time.
+
+The same method of training, with modifications to suit the case, may
+be employed on sides of buildings, walls, fences and lattices. If the
+object to be covered is low, however, and especially if fruit as well
+as a covering is wanted, perhaps a better plan is annually to renew
+from a low trunk or even back to the root. In this low renewal, a new
+cane, or two or three if desired, should be brought out each season,
+thus securing greater vigor for the vine, but greatly delaying,
+especially in the case of high walls, the production of a screen of
+foliage.
+
+
+PRUNING AND TRAINING MUSCADINE GRAPES
+
+The Muscadine grapes of the South are so distinct in characters of
+growth and fruit-bearing that their requirements as to pruning and
+training are quite different from the methods so far given. Until
+recent years when these grapes have become of commercial importance,
+it was thought by southern vineyardists that the Muscadines needed
+little or no pruning and some held that pruning injured the vines. Now
+it is found that Muscadines respond quite as readily as other types of
+grapes to pruning and training. Husmann and Dearing[15] give following
+directions for pruning Muscadines:
+
+"Two systems of training are employed with Muscadine grapes: (1) The
+horizontal or overhead system, by which the growth is spread as an
+overhead canopy about 7 feet above the ground and supported by posts;
+and (2) the upright or vertical system, in which the growth is spread
+over a trellis.
+
+"In the overhead system a single trunk is caused to grow erect from
+the ground alongside a permanent post. When the vine has reached the
+top of the post it is pinched in or cut back, so as to make it throw
+out shoots to grow and spread out from the head of the vine as the
+spokes of a wheel radiate from the hub. (The overhead training of
+Muscadines is shown in Fig. 21; upright training, in Fig. 22.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. Rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead
+method.]
+
+"In the upright systems the fruiting arms are either radiated from a
+low vine head, like the ribs of a fan, or they are taken off as
+horizontal arms from a central vertical trunk.
+
+"Where the vineyard is not given close personal attention and pruning
+and other vineyard practices are neglected the best results will be
+obtained with the overhead trellis. Moreover, such a trellis permits
+cross-plowing and cultivation and is better adapted for grazing hogs,
+sheep, or cattle on cover crops grown in the vineyard. On the other
+hand, the careful vineyardist can expect the best and earliest results
+from vines on the upright or vertical supports. The upright trellis
+facilitates pruning, harvesting, spraying, and intercropping
+throughout the life of the vineyard; it is also easier to repair and
+can be erected from $10 to $20 an acre cheaper than the overhead
+trellis. The use of both the upright system and the overhead trellis
+has netted the growers profitable returns. Each has its advantages and
+disadvantages. The prospective grower, knowing his own conditions,
+must determine which training system is best suited to his conditions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. A Rotundifolia vine trained by the 6-arm
+renewal method.]
+
+"During the first year after planting, a strong stake reaching 4 feet
+above the ground at each vine is sufficient support. A trellis should
+be erected the second season, though the upper wires of an upright
+trellis and the secondary wires of an overhead trellis may be added
+later, as the vines need them. In erecting an upright trellis the
+posts should be set midway between the vines, the distances apart
+varying with the distances between the plants. The end posts of the
+rows should be firmly braced. Three wires are generally used, placed
+24, 42, and from 56 to 60 inches from the ground.
+
+"In erecting an overhead trellis, the usual method is to place a
+substantial, durable post reaching 7 feet above the ground at each of
+the permanent vines. Rows of extra heavy, well-braced posts, running
+parallel with and also at the ends of the rows of vines, are set at
+the boundaries of the vineyard. There are a number of different ways
+of arranging the wires. Usually No. 10 galvanized wires are securely
+fastened to the tops of the boundary posts on the four sides of a
+vineyard and then are run along and securely fastened on the tops of
+the inside post down each row in both directions as governor wires. As
+needed, No. 14 wires 2 feet apart are run parallel with the governor
+wires until in this manner the entire area has been covered.
+
+"A cheaper but less durable overhead trellis is made by running No. 9
+governor wires in only one direction and the secondary wires only at
+right angles to the governor wires, the secondary wires being fastened
+to the governor wires wherever they cross.
+
+"Some growers construct arbors entirely of wood, using slats or poles
+instead of wires.
+
+"The pruning of Muscadine grapes during the first three years is
+mainly for the purpose of establishing the permanent parts and
+adjusting the other parts of the vine to the desired training system
+for future usefulness. After that the pruning is primarily a matter of
+renewing the bearing surface and keeping the vines healthy, vigorous,
+and productive.
+
+"During the first season the trunk of the vine should be established.
+From this the main fruiting branches are started the second season.
+These, under favorable circumstances, will bear a small crop of fruit
+the third season. After that the purpose of pruning should be to renew
+growth, to increase or decrease the bearing surface, and to maintain
+the shape of the vine.
+
+"Severe pruning usually removes most of the fruit-bearing wood and
+throws the vine into vigorous wood growth. No pruning, on the other
+hand, causes a growth which is too much distributed, weak, and
+incapable of bearing good crops. Therefore, the grape grower should
+study the vines sufficiently to enable him to judge each year the
+proper severity of pruning for the best results. This will depend on
+the variety, the age of the vines, the fertility of the soil, etc.
+Muscadine grapes bear their fruit in small clusters. It is therefore
+necessary to maintain a large fruiting surface in order to secure a
+proper tonnage of fruit. This is accomplished by developing a series
+of fruiting arms, spurring along these, and lengthening them as the
+vines become stronger. Such fruiting arms can be maintained for a
+number of years, but after a time it is desirable to renew them. This
+is done by cutting out the arm and starting a new one from a cane that
+has been previously grown for such purposes. It is preferable to renew
+systematically only one or, at most, two arms on a vine each year.
+This gradual renewal does not disturb the vigor of the vine, but keeps
+it productive, healthy, and strong. The pruning can be quickly and
+easily done if systematically practiced from the time the vines are
+started."
+
+
+REJUVENATING OLD VINES
+
+When pruning and training are neglected, a vineyard soon becomes a
+sorry company of halt and maimed vines. These neglected vines can
+rarely be reshaped and restored to their pristine vigor. If the old
+vines seem capable of throwing out a strong new growth, it is almost
+always better to grow a new top by taking out canes from the roots and
+so rejuvenate. The energy and activity of Nature are seldom seen to
+better advantage than in these new tops, if the old tops are cut back
+severely and the vineyard given good care. The new canes grow with the
+gusto of the biblical bay tree, making it difficult oftentimes to keep
+them within bounds.
+
+Usually this new top can be treated essentially as if it were a new
+vine. Not infrequently the cane will make sufficient growth and mature
+well enough so that it may be left as a permanent trunk at the end of
+the first season. If, however, the wood is short, weak and soft, it
+should be cut back in the autumn to two or three buds from one of
+which a permanent trunk can be trained the next season from which a
+good top can be formed in another season. The old top is discarded as
+soon as the new trunk is tied to the trellis. Old vineyards are often
+rejuvenated in this way to advantage and return profits to their
+owners for years; but if the soil is poor and the vines weak, attempts
+to renew the tops seldom pay.
+
+Occasionally rejuvenating old vines by pruning is worth while. When
+such an attempt is made, it is best to cut back severely at the
+winter-pruning, leaving two, three or four canes, depending on the
+method of training, of six, eight or ten buds. The amount of wood left
+must depend on the vigor of the plant and the variety. The success of
+such rejuvenation depends much on selecting suitable places on the old
+vine from which to renew the bearing wood. It requires good judgment,
+considerable skill and much experience to rejuvenate successfully an
+old vineyard by remodeling the existing top, and if the vines are far
+gone with neglect it is seldom worth while.
+
+Sometimes old vines or even a whole vineyard can be rejuvenated most
+easily by grafting. This is particularly true when the vines are not
+of the kind wanted, and when the vineyard contains an occasional stray
+vine from the variety to which it is planted. Directions for grafting
+are given on pages 45 to 50. The grafted vine is readily brought into
+shape, under any of the several methods of training, by treating it as
+a young vine.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XII.--Diana (x3/5).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE
+
+
+The methods of pruning and training native grapes, discussed in the
+last two chapters, do not apply to the Vinifera grapes grown in the
+favored valleys of the Rocky Mountains and on the Pacific slope. As we
+have already seen, the Vinifera or Old World grape differs markedly in
+habits of growth from the American species so that it would not be
+expected that pruning which applies to the one would apply to the
+other types. The fundamentals, to be sure, are much the same and the
+different species of grapes are about equally subservient to the
+shears of the pruner, but while pruning to regulate fruit-bearing
+finds many similarities in Old and New World grapes, the training of
+the vines is radically different.
+
+European practices in pruning and training Vinifera grapes are so many
+and so diverse that the first growers of this fruit in America were at
+a loss to know how to prune their vines. But, out of a half century of
+experience, American growers of Old World grapes have adapted from
+European practices and have devised to meet new conditions, methods
+which serve very well in the new home for this old grape. Since the
+culture of the Old World grape is centered in California, almost
+confined to that state, California practice may be taken as a pattern
+in pruning and training the vines of this species.
+
+
+VINE PRUNING IN CALIFORNIA[16]
+
+The systems of pruning in use in California may be divided into two
+classes according to the arrangement of the arms on the trunk of the
+vine. In the commonest systems, there is a definite head to the trunk,
+from which all the arms arise symmetrically at nearly the same level.
+The vines of these systems may be called "headed vines." In the other
+systems, the trunk is elongated four to eight feet and the arms are
+distributed regularly along the whole or the greater portion of its
+length. The vines of these systems, owing to the rope-like form of the
+trunks, are called "cordons."
+
+The headed vines are divided according to the length of the vertical
+trunk into high, 2-3 feet, medium, 1-1-1/2 feet, and low, 0-6 inches.
+The cordons may be vertical or horizontal, according to the direction
+of the trunk, which is from four to eight feet long. The horizontal
+cordons may be single (unilateral) or composed of two branches
+extending in opposite directions (bilateral). Double and even multiple
+vertical cordons occur, but they are very inadvisable and have no
+advantages.
+
+The arrangement of the arms of a headed vine may be symmetrical in all
+directions at an angle of about 45 degrees. Such a vine is said to be
+"vase-formed," though the hollow center which this term implies is not
+essential. This is the form used in the great majority of our
+vineyards whether of wine, raisin, or shipping grapes. It is suitable
+for the "square" system of planting and cross cultivation. Where vines
+are planted in the avenue system, particularly when trellised and
+where cross cultivation is impossible, the arms are given a
+"fan-shaped" arrangement in a vertical plane. This arrangement is
+considered to be essential for the economical and easy working of
+trellised vines.
+
+On the vertical or upright cordon, the arms are arranged at as regular
+intervals as possible on all sides of the trunk from the top to within
+twelve or fifteen inches of the bottom. On the horizontal cordon the
+arms are arranged similarly, but as nearly as possible on the upper
+side of the trunk only.
+
+Each of these systems may again be divided into two subsystems,
+according to the management of the annual growth or canes. In one,
+spurs of one, two, or three eyes are left for fruit production. This
+system is called short or spur pruning. In the other, long canes are
+left for fruit production. This is called long or cane pruning. In
+rare cases an intermediate form is adopted in which long spurs or
+short canes of five or six eyes are left. In cane pruning, each fruit
+cane is accompanied by one or two short renewal spurs. These must also
+accompany half-long pruning. Systems of pruning, when only long canes
+are left without renewal-spurs, are not in use in California. In all
+systems, replacing-spurs are left wherever and whenever needed.
+
+Other modifications are introduced by the manner of disposal of the
+fruit canes. These may be tied up vertically to a stake driven at the
+foot of each vine or bowed in a circle and tied to this same stake, or
+they may be tied laterally to wires stretching along the rows in a
+horizontal, ascending or descending direction.
+
+The different systems differ therefore in: (1) the shape, length, and
+direction of the trunk; (2) the arrangement of the arms; (3) the use
+of fruit spurs or fruit canes with renewal spurs; (4) the disposal of
+the fruit canes.
+
+The principal possibilities of the pruning are shown in the following
+table:
+
+
+A. HEAD PRUNING: VASE-FORM
+
+                      }        { (_a_) Fruit spurs or
+                      }        {
+    1. High trunk:    }        { (_b_) Half-long canes and renewal
+                      }        {       spurs or
+    2. Medium trunk:  }  with  {
+                      }        { (_c_) Fruit canes and renewal
+    3. Low trunk:     }        {       spurs; canes vertical
+                      }        {       or bowed.
+
+
+B. HEAD PRUNING: FAN-SHAPED; TRELLISED
+
+1. High trunk: Fruit canes and renewal spurs; canes descending.
+
+2. Medium trunk: Fruit canes and renewal spurs; canes horizontal or
+ascending.
+
+
+C. CORDON PRUNING
+
+1. Vertical: Spur; half-long; cane.
+
+2. Horizontal-unilateral: Spur; half-long; cane.
+
+3. Horizontal-bilateral: Spur; half-long; cane.
+
+All possible combinations indicated by this table represent 24
+variations. Some of these combinations, however, are not used and some
+are rare. The most common are shown in Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26 and 27.
+
+Figure 23 B represents a headed, vase-formed vine, with a medium trunk
+and short fruit spurs. This is the most common system used in all
+parts of California and is suited for all small growing vines which
+bear on the lower buds, for most wine grapes and for Muscats. The unit
+of pruning in this case is a fruit spur of 1, 2, or 3 internodes,
+according to the vigor of the variety and of the individual cane.
+
+Figure 23 A differs from 23 B only in the higher trunk and longer
+arms. It is commonly used for Tokay and other large growing
+varieties, especially when growing in rich soil and when planted far
+apart.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23. Forms of head pruning: _A_, spur pruning with
+high trunk; _B_, spur pruning with medium trunk; _C_, half-long with
+medium trunk.]
+
+Figure 23 C has the same form of body as A and B, except that the arms
+are somewhat less numerous. The unit of pruning is a short fruit cane
+of four to five internodes, accompanied by a renewal spur of one
+internode. It is suited for vigorous table grapes, which do not bear
+well on short spurs. It is used especially for the Cornichon and
+Malaga in rich soil. This is a difficult system to keep in good shape
+owing to the tendency for all the vigor to go to the growth on the
+ends of the fruit canes. It is difficult to obtain vigorous canes on
+the renewal spurs. Occasional short pruning is usually necessary to
+keep the vines in proper shape.
+
+Figure 24 A is similar to 23 C in form, but the number of arms is
+still further reduced to 2, 3, or at most 4. The unit of pruning is a
+fruit cane of 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 feet with its renewal spur. Owing to the
+length of the fruit canes they require support and are tied to a high
+stake.
+
+This method is used in a large number of vineyards with Sultanina,
+Sultana and certain wine grapes, especially Semillon and Cabernet. It
+is not to be recommended in any case, as it has several very serious
+defects.
+
+The difficulty of obtaining new wood from the renewal spurs is even
+greater than in the system shown in Fig. 23 C. The length and vertical
+position of the fruit canes cause the main growth and vigor of the
+vine to be expended on the highest shoots. The renewal spurs are thus
+so shaded that, even though their buds start, the shoots make but a
+weak growth. The result is that at the following pruning all the good
+new wood is at the top of the fruit canes of the previous year, where
+it cannot be utilized. The pruner has to choose then between reverting
+to spur pruning and getting no crop or using the weak growth from the
+renewal spurs for fruit canes, in which case he may get blossoms but
+little or no fruit of any value.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24. Forms of head pruning: _A_, vertical fruit
+canes and renewal spurs; _B_, bowed fruit canes and renewal spurs.]
+
+Other defects of this method are that the fruiting shoots are
+excessively vigorous and therefore often tend to drop their blossoms
+without setting and the fruit when produced is massed together so that
+it ripens unevenly and is difficult to gather. It also requires a tall
+and expensive stake.
+
+Figure 24 B represents an improvement on the last system. It differs
+only in the method of treating the fruit canes. These are bent over
+in the form of a circle and tied by their middle part to a stake which
+may be smaller and lower than that needed for the vertical canes.
+
+This bowing of the canes has several useful effects. The change of
+direction moderates the tendency of the vigor of the vine to expend
+itself only on the terminal shoots. More shoots therefore are formed
+on the fruit canes and as their vigor is somewhat decreased they tend
+to be more fruitful. The slight mechanical injury caused by the
+bending operates in the same direction.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25. Head pruning: fan-shaped head; fruit canes
+tied to horizontal trellis.]
+
+The excess of vigor thus being diverted from the fruit canes causes
+the renewal spurs to form vigorous shoots, which soon grow above the
+fruit shoots and obtain the light and air they need for their proper
+development. This method is used successfully for certain wine grapes
+such as Riesling, Cabernet, and Semillon. It is unsuited to large
+vigorous varieties or for vines on rich soil planted wide apart. In
+these cases two fruit canes are usually insufficient and, if more are
+used, the grapes and leaves are so massed together that they are
+subject to mildew and do not ripen evenly or well. The bowing and
+tying of the canes requires considerable skill and care on the part of
+the workmen.
+
+The body, arms, and annual pruning of the system shown in Fig. 25 are
+similar to those of Fig. 24, with the exception that the arms are
+given a fan-shaped arrangement in one plane. It differs in the
+disposal of the fruit canes, which are supported by a trellis
+stretching along the row from vine to vine.
+
+This method is largely used for the Sultanina (Thompson's Seedless),
+and is the best system for vigorous vines which require long pruning,
+wherever it is possible to dispense with cross cultivation. It is also
+suitable for any long-pruned varieties when growing in very fertile
+soil.
+
+Figure 26 is a photograph of a four-year-old Emperor vine,
+illustrating the vertical cordon system. It consists of an upright
+trunk 4-1/2 feet high with short arms and fruit spurs scattered evenly
+and symmetrically from the top to within fifteen inches of the bottom.
+This system is used in many Emperor vineyards in the San Joaquin
+Valley.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26. Single vertical cordon with fruit spurs.]
+
+Its advantages are that it allows the large development of the vine
+and the large number of spurs which the vigor of the Emperor demands,
+without, on the one hand, crowding the fruit by the proximity of the
+spurs or, on the other hand, spreading the vine so much that
+cultivation is interfered with. It also permits cross cultivation.
+
+
+One of its defects is that the fruit is subjected to various degrees
+of temperature and shading in different parts of the vine and the
+ripening and coloring are often uneven. A more vital defect is that it
+cannot be maintained permanently. The arms and spurs at the top of
+the trunk tend to absorb the energies of the vine and the lower arms
+and spurs become weaker each year until finally no growth at all is
+obtained below. After several years, most of the vines therefore lose
+their character of cordons and become simply headed-vines with
+abnormally long trunks.
+
+The cordon can be reestablished in this case by allowing a vigorous
+sucker to develop one year from which to form a new trunk the next.
+The following year the old trunk is removed entirely. An objection to
+this method is that it makes very large wounds in the most vital part
+of the vine--the base of the trunk.
+
+Figure 27 is a photograph of a four-year-old Colombar vine,
+illustrating the unilateral, horizontal cordon system. It consists of
+a trunk about seven feet long, supported horizontally by a wire two
+feet from the ground. Arms and spurs are arranged along the whole
+horizontal part of the trunk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27. Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit
+spurs.]
+
+This system accomplishes the same objects as the vertical cordon. It
+allows a large development of the vine and numerous fruit spurs
+without crowding. It is superior to the vertical cordon in the
+distribution of the fruit, which is all exposed to approximately the
+same conditions owing to the uniform distance from the ground of the
+fruit spurs. All parts of the trunk producing an annual growth of wood
+and fruit are equally exposed to light and the tendency of the growth
+to occur principally at the part of the trunk farthest removed from
+the root is counteracted by the horizontal position. There is not the
+same difficulty therefore in maintaining this form of vine permanently
+that there is with the vertical cordon.
+
+This system should not be used for small weak vines, whether the
+weakness is a characteristic of the variety or due to the nature of
+the soil. It is suited only to very vigorous varieties such as
+Emperor, Almeria, and the Persian grapes when growing far apart in
+rich, moist soil.
+
+_Periods of development._
+
+The first year in the life of a vine is devoted to developing a
+vigorous root system; the next two or three years to building up a
+shapely trunk and head, and a like period to forming the full
+complement of arms. At the end of from five to nine years the
+framework of the vine is complete and should undergo no particular
+change of shape except a gradual thickening of trunk and arms.
+
+There are, therefore, several periods in the life of the vine with
+varying objects, and the methods of pruning must vary accordingly.
+These periods do not correspond exactly to periods of time, so it may
+be misleading to speak of pruning a two-year-old or a three-year-old
+vine. One vine under certain conditions will reach the same stage of
+development in two years that another will reach only in three or four
+years under other conditions. The range of time of these periods is
+about as follows:
+
+    First period--Formation of a strong root system   1 to 2 years
+    Second period--Formation of stem or trunk              1 year
+    Third period--Formation of head                   2 to 3 years
+    Fourth period--Complete development of the arms   2 to 3 years
+      Total time of formation of framework            6 to 9 years
+
+Under exceptionally favorable conditions the first and second periods
+may be included in the first year and a completely formed vine may be
+obtained in five years.
+
+_Before planting._
+
+For planting, cuttings, one-year-old rooted vines, or bench grafts are
+used. In all cases, they need some attention from the pruner.
+
+The usual way to prune a good rooted vine of average size having a
+single cane at the top and several good roots at the bottom is to
+shorten the cane to one or two buds and the roots to two or four
+inches, according to their size. Shortening the cane makes the vine
+less liable to dry out before rooting and forces the growth from the
+lower buds which produce more vigorous shoots. The roots are shortened
+so that there will be no danger of the ends being turned upwards when
+planted. If they are to be planted in a large hole, they may be left
+as long as five or six inches; if to be planted with a crowbar or
+dibble, they must be cut back to half an inch.
+
+If the rooted vine has several canes, all but one should be removed
+entirely, and this one shortened to one or two eyes. The one left
+should be that which is strongest, has the best buds, and is the best
+placed. Where a horizontal cane is left, it should be cut back to the
+base bud. Otherwise the main growth may occur at a higher bud and the
+vine will have a crook which will result in a badly formed trunk.
+
+If canes are growing from different joints, it is usually best to
+leave the lower cane if they are equally vigorous. This brings the
+buds from which growth will come nearer to the roots, and leaves less
+of the original cutting, which are advantages. The upper joint between
+the canes is, moreover, often more or less decayed or imperfect.
+
+_First growing season._
+
+The treatment during the first spring and summer will depend on what
+growth the vines are expected to make and on whether the vines are
+staked the first year.
+
+With cuttings and with both rooted vines and grafts where the growth
+will be moderate, staking the first year is unnecessary, though it has
+some slight advantages. In these cases, no pruning of any kind is
+necessary until the winter following the planting, except in the case
+of bench grafts. The pruning in the last case is confined to the
+removal of the suckers from the stock and roots from the cion. If the
+stocks have been well disbudded by the nurseryman, few suckers will
+develop. In moist soil, the cion roots may develop vigorously and must
+be removed before they grow too large, or they may prevent the proper
+development of the resistant roots.
+
+The removal of roots should usually be done some time in July. For
+this purpose the hill of soil is scraped away from the union and after
+the cion roots and suckers are removed it is replaced. In this second
+hilling up, the union should be just barely covered so that the soil
+round the union will be dry and unfavorable to a second growth of
+roots. Later in the season, about September, the soil should be
+removed entirely from around the union and any new roots that may have
+formed removed. The union is then left exposed to harden and mature,
+so that it will pass the winter without injury.
+
+_First winter pruning._
+
+At the end of the first growing season, an average good vine will have
+produced from three to five canes, the longest of which will be from
+two to three feet long.
+
+Soon after the leaves have fallen in December or early in January the
+vines should be pruned. The method is precisely similar to that used
+for rooted vines before planting except that the main roots are not
+touched. All the canes are removed entirely except one. This one
+should be well matured, at least at the base, and should have
+well-formed eyes. It is shortened to two eyes. It is well also to cut
+off all shallow roots within three or four inches of the surface. This
+is necessary in the case of grafted vines if any have escaped the
+summer root-cutting.
+
+Some of the vines may have made an exceptionally large growth. Such
+vines may sometimes possess a cane large enough from which to start
+the trunk in the way described later for the second winter pruning.
+
+_Staking._
+
+If the vines have not been staked before, the stakes should be driven
+soon after pruning and before the starting of the buds.
+
+In order to preserve the alignment of the vineyard, the stakes should
+be driven on the same side of every vine at a uniform distance. The
+best distance is about two inches. If driven closer they may injure
+large roots or even the main underground stem if the vines have not
+been carefully planted vertically or slanting towards the side on
+which the stake is to be placed.
+
+The side on which the stake should be placed depends on the direction
+of the prevailing winds during the growing season. This side is the
+leeward. That is, the stake should be so placed that the wind will
+press the vine towards the stake instead of away from it. This will
+much facilitate the work of keeping the vine upright and attached to
+the stake. If the vine is on the other side the pressure of the wind
+will stretch the string tight and the swaying of the vine will
+gradually wear the string until it breaks, necessitating retying. By
+carefully observing this rule, very few vines will require retying
+even if weak material like binding twine is used.
+
+_Second summer pruning._
+
+Before the starting of the buds, in the spring following the planting,
+most of the vines appear about the same as when they were planted.
+There is, however, a very notable difference, in that they have
+well-developed root systems in the soil where they were formed. The
+result is that they make a much more prompt and early start and will
+produce a much larger growth than they did the first season. For this
+reason they require very careful attention from the pruner during the
+spring and summer of the second season. Vines neglected at this time,
+in this respect, may make as large a growth, but a large part of it
+will be wasted, the vines will be misformed and it will require from
+one to two years longer to develop a suitable framework and to bring
+them into bearing, even though they are properly handled during
+subsequent years. The more vigorous the vines, the more necessary it
+is to handle them properly during this period.
+
+The main object during this second growing season is to develop a
+single, strong, vigorous and well-ripened cane from which to form the
+permanent trunk of the vine.
+
+This is done by concentrating all the energies of the vine into the
+growth of a single shoot. As soon as the buds start, or when the most
+precocious has developed a shoot of a few inches in length, the vines
+should be disbudded. This consists in rubbing off with the hand all
+buds and shoots except the two largest and best placed. The lowest,
+upright shoots are usually the best. Leave only those which will make
+a straight vine. It is better to leave less developed buds than a
+shoot which, when it grows, will make an awkward crook with the
+underground stem.
+
+After this disbudding, the two shoots left will grow rapidly, as they
+receive all the energies of the root system. When the longest have
+grown from ten to fifteen inches, they should be tied to the stake.
+Unless this is done, they are liable to be broken off by any heavy
+wind, owing to their soft, succulent texture. Only the best placed and
+most vigorous of the two shoots should be tied up. If this shoot is
+growing upright and near the stake, this can be done without any
+danger of injuring it. In this case the second shoot should be
+removed. If the shoot has to be bent over in tying it to the stake it
+may be injured. In such a case the second shoot should be allowed to
+grow until it is known whether the first has been injured. In case of
+injury the second shoot can be tied up the next time the vines are
+visited and the injured shoot removed.
+
+At the tying up of the reserved shoots, all new shoots which have
+developed since the first disbudding should be removed. The shoots
+should be tied up loosely, as they are soft and easily injured, and
+they should be brought around carefully to the windward side of the
+stake.
+
+The shoots will require tying once more when they have grown another
+foot or eighteen inches. There will then be two ties, one at two or
+three inches from the top of the stake and the other at about the
+middle. If the vines have a tall stake and are to be headed very high,
+another tying higher up may be needed later.
+
+With vines making only a moderate growth, no other pruning will be
+needed until the winter. Exceptionally vigorous vines, however, may
+make a cane eight, ten or more feet long. Such a cane is heavy and is
+very likely to break the ropes by which it is attached to the stake.
+In this case it may break off at the bottom, or at least will form an
+awkward crook near the ground when it matures. In either case it is
+difficult to form a good trunk the following year. Even when the ties
+do not break, the cane will not be well suited for the commencement of
+a trunk, as the joints will be so long that it will be impossible to
+leave enough well-placed buds at the winter pruning.
+
+Both these difficulties are avoided by timely topping. When such
+vigorously growing canes have grown twelve or eighteen inches above
+the top of the stake they are cut back about level with the stake.
+This is most conveniently done with a long-bladed knife or piece of
+split bamboo. After topping, the cane ceases to grow in length and
+laterals start at most of the joints. It is less exposed to the
+action of the wind, and the laterals supply the buds needed for
+forming the vine at the winter pruning.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XIII.--Dutchess (x2/3).]
+
+The result of the second season's growth, then, has been to produce a
+single vigorous cane with or without laterals. This is the cane which
+is to develop into the final and permanent trunk of the vine. It must
+not only be large and vigorous, but must be properly matured. If the
+vine is allowed to grow too late in the season, an early frost may
+destroy the unmatured cane, and much of the results of the year's
+growth will be wasted. Such a frost may indeed kill the entire vine.
+Grafted vines are particularly liable to injury from this cause, as if
+they are killed down to the union they are completely ruined.
+Ungrafted vines when killed to the ground may be renewed from a sucker
+next year. This sucker, however, is likely to grow with such vigor
+that it is even more liable to injury from an autumn frost than the
+original shoot.
+
+This late growth is much more likely to occur with young vines than
+with old. The old vines stop growing earlier because their energies
+are directed into the crop, and as they produce a larger amount of
+foliage they draw more upon the moisture of the soil, which therefore
+dries out earlier.
+
+Late growth of the young vines must be prevented and the wood matured
+before frost if possible. This is accomplished by means which promote
+the drying of the soil in autumn. Late irrigations should be avoided.
+Cultivation should usually stop by midsummer. In very moist, rich
+soils, it is often an advantage to grow corn, sunflowers or similar
+crops between the rows of vines to take off the surplus moisture. In
+some cases it is good practice to let the summer weeds grow for the
+same purpose.
+
+_Second winter pruning._
+
+With vines which have been treated as described and to which no
+accident has happened, the second winter pruning is very simple. It
+consists simply in cutting back the single cane which has been allowed
+to grow to the height at which it is desired to head the vine.
+
+The vine so pruned consists of a single cane which with the older wood
+at the base reaches nearly to the top of the stake, or fifteen inches.
+This if properly treated will develop into a vine with a trunk of
+about twelve inches, though this length can be modified slightly, as
+will be explained later.
+
+This cane consists of about seven or eight joints or internodes, with
+an equal number of well-formed eyes and an indefinite number of
+dormant buds, principally near the base of the cane or junction of the
+one- and two-year-old wood. Only the buds on the upper half of this
+cane will be allowed to grow. These buds--about four--should give six
+to eight bunches of grapes and four, six, or eight shoots from which
+to form the spurs at the following winter pruning.
+
+With a vine which has been cut back to form a high head, the cane is
+about twenty-four inches long and can be used to form a trunk eighteen
+inches high, though this height can be modified as in the last case.
+As with the shorter cane, only the buds on the upper half will be
+allowed to produce shoots. These--about six--should give ten to twelve
+bunches and the shoots necessary for the formation of spurs.
+
+In all cases a full internode has been left above the top bud. This is
+done by cutting through the first bud above the highest which it is
+desired to have grow. This cut is made in such a way as to destroy the
+bud but to leave the diaphragm intact and part of the swelling of the
+node. This upper internode is left partly to protect the upper bud,
+but principally to facilitate tying. By making a half-hitch around
+this internode, the vine is held very firmly. If the swelling at the
+node of the destroyed bud is not left, many vines will be pulled out
+of the hitch when they become heavy with leaves and supple with the
+flow of sap in the spring.
+
+In tying the vines, no turns or hitches must be made around any part
+except this upper internode. A hitch below the top bud will result in
+a crook-necked vine, as the top will bend over in the summer under the
+weight of the foliage. A hitch lower down is even more harmful, as it
+will girdle and strangle the vine.
+
+A second tie about half way from the upper to the ground is always
+necessary to straighten the cane. Even if the cane is straight when
+pruned, a second tie is needed to keep it from curving under the
+pressure of leaves and wind in the spring. For high-headed vines three
+ties are usually necessary.
+
+For the top tie, wire is particularly suitable. It holds better than
+twine and does not wear. Even though it is not removed, it does no
+harm, as the part around which it is wound does not grow. The lower
+ties should be of softer material, as wire has a tendency to cut into
+the wood. They should be placed so that the cane is able to expand as
+it grows. With thin and especially with round stakes this means that
+the tie must be loose. With large, square stakes there is usually
+sufficient room for expansion, even when the twine is tied tight.
+
+_Third summer pruning._
+
+During the third season, average well-grown vines will produce their
+first considerable crop and develop the canes from which will be
+formed the first arms.
+
+Such a vine, soon after the starting of the buds in spring, will have
+one vigorous shoot about three inches long grown from the old wood and
+five fruit buds started above on the cane. All the buds and shoots
+below the middle of the cane should be removed.
+
+This will leave the four or five fruit buds and will give the vine the
+opportunity to produce eight or ten bunches of grapes. These buds will
+produce also at least four or five shoots. If the vine is very
+vigorous and the season favorable, they may produce eight, ten or
+more.
+
+When the five shoots grow, the height of the head will be determined
+at the next winter pruning by which of the corresponding canes are
+left as spurs. If the highest two canes are cut back to spurs and all
+others removed, the vine will be headed as high as possible, as these
+two spurs form the two first arms which determine the length of the
+trunk. If the lowest two canes are chosen and all of the vine above
+them removed, the trunk will be made as low as possible. Intermediate
+heights can be obtained by using some other two adjacent canes and
+removing the rest. It is often advisable to leave some extra spurs
+lower than it is desired to head the vine and to remove these lower
+spurs the following winter after they have borne a crop. For example,
+the three or four upper canes might be left, if the vine is vigorous
+enough, and the lowest one or two of these removed at the next
+pruning. This, however, is not often necessary with properly handled
+vines and is objectionable because it makes large wounds in the trunk.
+
+_Third winter pruning._
+
+At the end of the third season's growth the vine should have a
+straight, well-developed trunk with a number of vigorous canes near
+the top from which to form the arms.
+
+Figure 28 represents a well-grown vine at this period. No shoots have
+been allowed to grow on the lower part of the trunk and the five buds
+allowed to grow above have produced nine vigorous canes. The pruner
+should leave enough spurs to supply all the fruit buds that the vine
+can utilize. The number, size and thickness of the canes show that the
+vine is very vigorous and can support a large crop. It will depend
+somewhat on the variety how many buds should be left. For a variety
+whose bunches average one pound, and which produces two bunches to the
+shoot, twelve fruit buds should give about twenty-four pounds, or
+about seven tons per acre, if the vines are planted 12 by 6 feet, as
+these were. The number of spurs will depend on their length. Six spurs
+of two buds each will give the required number, but as some of these
+canes are exceptionally vigorous they should be left a little longer,
+in which case a smaller number of spurs will suffice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28. Three-year-old vine ready for pruning.]
+
+When the number and length of the spurs are decided on, the canes
+should be chosen which will leave these spurs in the most suitable
+position for forming arms. This position will depend on whether we
+want a vase-form or fan-shaped vine. In the first case, we choose
+those which will distribute the spurs most evenly and symmetrically on
+all sides, avoiding any which cross or point downwards.
+
+In the second case, we choose only those canes which run in the
+direction of the trellis, avoiding canes which stick out between the
+rows. Downward pointing canes may be used in this case.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29. Vine of Fig. 28 after pruning for vase-formed
+head.]
+
+Figure 29 shows the vine after pruning for a vase-formed head. The
+pruner has used two of the strongest canes to form two three-bud
+spurs and three of medium vigor to form three two-bud spurs. The head
+is of good shape, though some of the spurs are a little too low. One,
+two, or three of these can be removed at the following winter pruning,
+and the permanent arms and head of the vine formed from canes which
+develop on the two highest spurs. If the vine were too high, the head
+could be developed the next year from the three lowest spurs and the
+upper part removed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30. Three-year-old vines: _A_, pruned for a
+vase-formed, and _B_, for a fan-shaped head.]
+
+Figure 30 shows vines of the same age of practically perfect shape.
+Less spurs have been left because the vines were less vigorous. It is
+easier to properly shape vines which make only a moderate growth
+during the first three seasons. On the other hand, very vigorous vines
+can finally be brought into practically perfect shape and the somewhat
+larger and more numerous wounds necessary are more easily healed by a
+vigorous vine.
+
+_Pruning after the third winter._
+
+For the pruner who understands the pruning of young vines and has
+brought them to approximately the form represented in Figs. 29 and 30,
+the subsequent winter pruning is very simple. It involves, however,
+one new idea--the distinction between fruit and sterile wood.
+
+Up to the third winter pruning, this distinction is not necessary;
+first, because practically all the wood is fruit wood, and second,
+because the necessity of forming the vine controls the choice of wood.
+From this time on, however, this distinction must be carefully made.
+At each winter pruning a number of spurs of fruit wood must be left to
+produce the crop to be expected from the size and vigor of the vine.
+Besides these fruit spurs, it may be necessary to leave spurs of
+sterile wood to permit of increasing the number of fruit spurs the
+following year.
+
+This will be made clear by comparing Figs. 30 A and 31. Figure 30 A
+shows a vine at the third winter pruning with two fruit spurs of two
+buds each and one fruit spur of one bud--five fruit buds in all.
+
+If these five fruit buds all produce vigorous shoots during the
+following summer, they will supply five canes of fruit wood which can
+be used to form five fruit spurs at the following winter pruning,
+which will be about the normal increase necessary. Some of these fruit
+buds, however, may produce weak shoots or shoots so badly placed that
+they would spoil the shape of the head if used for spurs. Other
+shoots, however, will be produced from base, secondary and
+adventitious buds which, while less fruitful, can be used to form
+spurs for the starting of new arms.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. Four-year-old vine pruned for vase-formed
+head.]
+
+Figure 31 shows a vine after the fourth winter pruning which had
+developed from a vine similar to that shown in Fig. 30 A. From the
+three fruit spurs left the previous year four canes have been chosen
+for the fruit spurs of this year. The old spur on the left has
+furnished two new spurs and the two old spurs at the right each one
+new spur. The pruner, judging that the vine is sufficiently vigorous
+to stand more wood, has formed two spurs from water sprouts which,
+while not likely to produce much fruit the first season, will supply
+fruit wood for the following year. The result is a very well-shaped
+vine with six almost perfectly balanced spurs. These spurs will
+develop into permanent arms, some of them furnishing finally two or
+three.
+
+Figure 32 shows a high-headed vine of the same age. It has five spurs,
+of which four are fruit spurs and one a spur of sterile wood left to
+shape the vine. The two more or less horizontal spurs on the right
+will bear fruit the following autumn and will be removed entirely at
+the following winter pruning, as they are badly placed. The arms of
+the vine will then be developed from the three upright spurs, which
+are excellently placed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. Four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed
+head.]
+
+Each year thereafter the same process must be followed. First, enough
+fruit spurs, as well placed as possible, must be left to produce the
+crop. Second, on most vines supplementary spurs of sterile wood must
+be left to supply more arms where they are needed, and finally, when
+the full complement of arms has developed, to supply new arms to
+replace those which have become too long or are otherwise defective.
+
+_Fan-shaped vines._
+
+With headed vines, the treatment up to the third winter is the same
+except for the variations in the height of the head. At the third
+winter pruning, however, the formation of the head commences, and the
+pruner determines whether it shall be vase-formed or fan-shaped. The
+production of a vase-formed head has already been described.
+
+At the third winter pruning, the vine should be pruned to two spurs,
+as shown in Fig. 30 B. More vigorous vines should _not_ be given more
+spurs, as in Figs. 29 and 30 A, but the spurs should be made longer,
+with four, five, or even six eyes in some cases. This is in order to
+obtain some fruit, which might not be obtained from long pruning
+varieties by leaving many spurs. With extremely vigorous vines one
+fruit cane may be left at this pruning. The wires of the trellis
+should be put up this year, if this has not already been done.
+
+Fig. 33 A and 33 B illustrates the second step in the production of a
+fan-shaped head. This form of head is used only for trellised vines
+and long-pruned varieties. The formation of the head and the
+management of the fruit canes are therefore conveniently discussed
+together.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33. _A_, before pruning; _B_, after pruning.]
+
+By comparing the pruned vine, Fig. 33 B, with the unpruned, Fig. 33 A,
+the method of pruning will be made clear. The unpruned vine shows two
+arms, the spurs of the previous year, from one of which have grown
+three vigorous canes and from the other two somewhat less vigorous.
+The pruned vine shows a complete unit, that is, a fruit cane with its
+accompanying renewal spur on the vigorous side and a spur for the
+production of fruit wood for the following year on the other side. If
+the vine had been more vigorous two complete units would have been
+left and one or two extra spurs.
+
+As the form of the vine is determined by the renewal spurs, special
+attention should be paid to their position. In this case, the middle
+cane on one arm and the lower cane on the other have been used for
+renewal spurs. This brings them both to the same height above the
+ground and determines the place of the permanent arms. The next year
+each of these spurs will furnish a fruit cane and one or two renewal
+spurs. The arms will thus in two or three years be increased to four,
+or, with very large vines, to six. These spurs should be chosen as
+nearly as possible in the plane of the trellis, that is, they should
+not project out sideways. Figure 25 shows vines of this kind of full
+size and in full bearing.
+
+The fruit canes also should be as nearly as possible in the direction
+of the trellis, though this is not so important, as they can be bent
+over to the wire when tied up, and in any case they are removed the
+next year.
+
+_Double-headed vines._
+
+Some growers attempt to arrange the arms of their vines in two stages,
+one above the other, forming double-headed or two-crowned vines. The
+method is applied to both vase-formed and trellised vines. It is open
+to the same criticisms as the vertical cordon, the chief of which is
+that it cannot be maintained permanently. The lower head or ring of
+arms finally becomes weak and fails to produce wood.
+
+It is easier to maintain in trellised vineyards and has some
+advantages, the chief of which is that it makes it easier to keep the
+vine in the single plane and to prevent arms getting into the
+inter-rows. The double trunk is not necessary and is, in fact, a
+disadvantage, as one trunk has a tendency to grow at the expense of
+the other.
+
+_Vertical and bowed canes._
+
+Figure 24 A shows a long-pruned vine in which the fruit canes have
+been tied vertically to a tall stake. This is a method used commonly
+in many vineyards. The unit of pruning is the same as in the method
+just described, consisting of a fruit cane and a renewal spur. The
+framework of the vine consists of a trunk of medium height, with a
+vase-formed head consisting of three or four arms. The defects of this
+system have been pointed out on page 155.
+
+It is used with fair success with seedless Sultanas and with some wine
+grapes such as Colombar, Semillon, Cabernet, and Riesling, in the
+hands of skillful pruners. The results with Sultanina are very
+unsatisfactory.
+
+By this method, on most of the vines, the fruit canes start from high
+up near the middle of the stake, and are therefore too short for the
+best results. The canes which start from low down are in most cases
+suckers, and therefore of little value for fruit bearing.
+
+Figure 24 B shows a vine with bowed canes. The method of pruning is
+exactly the same as in the method just described. The bowing of the
+canes, however, overcomes some of the defects of that method. It is
+used regularly in many wine grape vineyards of the cooler regions. It
+is unsuited for very vigorous vines in rich soil.
+
+_Vertical cordons._
+
+In head pruning, the treatment of young vines up to the second or
+third winter pruning is identical for all systems. In cordon pruning
+the treatment for the first and second is also the same. That is, the
+vine is cut back to two buds near the level of the ground until a cane
+sufficiently long to serve for the formation of the trunk is obtained.
+
+In the vertical cordon the trunk is three to four feet long instead of
+one to two, as in head pruning. This makes it necessary to have a
+longer and more vigorous cane to start with. It may require a year
+longer to obtain this. That is to say, at the end of the second
+season's growth many vines will not have a single cane sufficiently
+developed to give the necessary three and one-half feet of
+well-ripened wood and properly developed buds. At the second winter
+pruning, therefore, it will often be necessary to cut the vine back to
+two buds, as at the first winter pruning.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34. Vertical cordon, young vine pruned.]
+
+Finally, a cane of the required length will be obtained. The vine is
+then formed as already described for the second winter pruning of
+headed vines, except that the cane is left longer. When such a vine is
+pruned, spurs are left at intervals along the trunk, as shown in Fig.
+34. Each of these spurs is a fruit spur and is also the commencement
+of an arm. The future treatment of these arms is the same as that of
+the arms in head pruning.
+
+_Horizontal cordons._
+
+During the first two or three years, vines which are to be given the
+form of horizontal cordons are treated exactly as for vertical
+cordons, that is, they are pruned back to two buds each winter and the
+growth forced by disbudding into a single cane during the summer.
+
+As soon as a well-ripened cane of the required length is obtained, it
+is tied to a wire stretched horizontally along the row at from fifteen
+to twenty-four inches from the ground.
+
+For this system of pruning, the rows should be twelve to fourteen feet
+apart and the vines six, seven, or eight feet apart in the rows. As
+the cordon or trunk of each vine should reach the next vine, it will
+have to be six to eight feet long. The best shape is obtained when the
+trunk is all formed one year from a single cane. It is necessary,
+however, sometimes to take two years for the formation of the trunk.
+In any case, the cane first tied down should reach at least half way
+to the next vine. The following year a new cane from the end of this
+should be used to complete the full length of the trunk.
+
+In attaching the cane to the wire, it must be bent over in a gentle
+curve and care taken not to break or injure it. The proper form of the
+bend is shown in Figs. 27 and 35. Sharp bends should be avoided.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35. Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long
+pruning.]
+
+The cane should be placed on top of the wire, but should not be
+twisted around it. The end should be tied firmly and the rest of the
+cane supported by strings tied loosely in order to avoid girdling when
+the cane grows.
+
+In the following spring, most of the buds on a good cane will start.
+If the cane is short jointed, some of the shoots should be removed and
+only those shoots allowed to develop which are conveniently situated
+for permanent arms. If the vines are to be short pruned, the arms
+should be developed every eight to twelve inches from a few inches
+beyond the bend to the extreme end. For long pruning, the arms should
+be farther apart, twelve to twenty inches. Shoots starting from the
+top of the cane and growing vertically upwards are to be preferred.
+
+As the shoots develop, the strongest should be pinched repeatedly, if
+necessary. This will tend to force the growth of the weaker shoots and
+to equalize the vigor of all. At the end of the season, there should
+be from five to ten canes growing on each cordon of full length. These
+canes are then pruned back to two or three buds, or a little longer
+for long-pruned varieties.
+
+During the following spring and summer, the vines should be carefully
+suckered and unnecessary water sprouts removed. Any shoots coming from
+the lower side of the cordon should be removed early to strengthen the
+growth in the shoots on the upper side. Such vines are apt to become
+dry or decayed on the upper side. At the end of this year, which
+should be the fourth or fifth from planting at the latest, the cordon
+will be fully formed and the final style of pruning can be applied. A
+short-pruned cordon vine is shown in Fig. 27. The arms and spurs are a
+little too numerous and too close together. If this vine required the
+number of buds shown it would have been better to have left the fruit
+spurs longer and to have left fewer and shorter wood spurs.
+
+The upper vine of Fig. 35 shows a cordon pruned half long. This is an
+excellent system for Malaga, Emperor, and Cornichon when growing in
+very fertile soil. It gives the half-long fruit canes, which these
+varieties need to produce good crops. The fruit canes may be attached
+to a wire twelve or fifteen inches above the cordon or bent down and
+tied to the cordon itself, as in the lower vine of the figure. The
+first method is the more convenient, but the second is necessary where
+there is difficulty in obtaining satisfactory growth from the renewal
+spurs. When the fruit canes are tied down, as indicated in the lower
+vine, renewal spurs may not be needed, as vigorous shoots will
+usually be obtained from the lower buds of the fruit canes.
+
+_Choice of a system._
+
+In choosing a system, we must consider carefully the characteristics
+of the particular variety we are growing. A variety which bears only
+on the upper buds must be pruned "long," that is, must be given fruit
+canes. It should be noted that many varieties, such as Petite Sirah,
+which will bear with short pruning when grafted on resistant roots
+require fruit canes when growing on their own roots. In general,
+grafted vines require shorter pruning than ungrafted. If pruned the
+same, the grafted vines may overbear and quickly exhaust themselves.
+This seems to be the principal reason for the frequent failure of
+Muscat vines grafted on resistant stock. The cultural conditions also
+affect the vine in this respect. Vines made vigorous by rich soil,
+abundant moisture, and thorough cultivation require longer pruning
+than weaker vines of the same variety.
+
+The normal size of the bunch is also of importance. This size will
+vary from one-quarter of a pound to 2 or 3 pounds. It is difficult to
+obtain a full crop from a variety whose bunches are very small without
+the use of fruit canes. Spurs will not furnish enough fruit buds
+without crowding them inconveniently. On the other hand, some shipping
+grapes may bear larger crops when pruned long, but the bunches and
+berries may be too small for the best quality.
+
+The possibilities of development vary much with different varieties. A
+Mission or Flame Tokay may be made to cover a quarter of an acre and
+develop a trunk four or five feet in circumference. A Zinfandel vine
+under the same conditions would not reach a tenth of this size in the
+same time. Vines in a rich valley soil will grow much larger than on a
+poor hillside. The size and shape of the trunk must be modified
+accordingly and adapted to the available room or number of vines to
+the acre.
+
+The shape of the vine must be such as to protect it as much as
+possible from various unfavorable conditions. A variety susceptible to
+oidium, like the Carignane, must be pruned so that the fruit and
+foliage are not unduly massed together. Free exposure to light and air
+are a great protection in this respect. The same is true for varieties
+like the Muscat, which have a tendency to "coulure" if the blossoms
+are too moist or shaded. In frosty locations, a high trunk will be a
+protection, as the air is always colder close to the ground.
+
+The qualities required in the crop also influence our choice of a
+pruning system. With wine grapes, even, perfect ripening and full
+flavor are desirable. These are obtained best by having the grapes at
+a uniform height from the ground and as near to it as possible. The
+same qualities are desirable in raisin grapes, with the addition of
+large size of the berries. With shipping grapes, the size and
+perfection of the berries and bunches are the most essential
+characteristics. The vine, therefore, should be so formed that each
+bunch hangs clear, free from injurious contact with canes or soil and
+equally exposed to light and air.
+
+The maximum returns in crop depend on the early bearing of young
+vines, the regularity of bearing of mature vines and the longevity of
+the vineyard. These are insured by careful attention to all the
+details of pruning, but are possible only when the vines are given a
+suitable form.
+
+The running expenses of a vineyard depend in a great measure on the
+style of pruning adopted. Vines of suitable form are cultivated,
+pruned and the crop gathered easily and cheaply. This depends also
+both on the form of vine adopted and on care in details.
+
+It is impossible, therefore, to state for any particular variety or
+any particular location the best style of pruning to be adopted. All
+that can be done is to give the general characteristics of the variety
+and to indicate how these may be modified by grafting, soil or
+climatic or other conditions.
+
+The most important characteristic of the variety in making a choice of
+a pruning system is whether it normally or usually requires short,
+half-long, or long pruning. With this idea, the principal grapes grown
+in California, together with all those grown at the Experiment Station
+on which data exist, have been divided into five groups in the
+following list:
+
+1. _Varieties which require long pruning under all
+conditions._--Clairette blanche, Corinth white and black, Seedless
+Sultana, Sultanina white (Thompson's Seedless) and rose.
+
+2. _Varieties which usually require long pruning._--Bastardo, Boal de
+Madeira, Chardonay, Chauche gris and noir, Colombar, Crabbe's Black
+Burgundy, Durif, Gamais, Kleinberger, Luglienga, Marsanne, Marzemino,
+Merlot, Meunier, Muscadelle de Bordelais, Nebbiolo, Pagadebito,
+Peverella, Pinots, Rieslings, Robin noir, Rulaender, Sauvignon blanc,
+Semillon, Serine, Petite Sirah, Slancamenca, Steinschiller, Tinta Cao,
+Tinta Madeira, Trousseau, Verdelho, Petit Verdot, Waelcherisling.
+
+3. _Varieties which usually require short pruning._--Aleatico,
+Aligote, Aspiran, Bakator, Bouschets, Blaue Elbe, Beba, Bonarda,
+Barbarossa, Catarattu, Charbono, Chasselas, Freisa, Frontignan,
+Furmint, Grand noir, Grosseblaue, Green Hungarian, Malmsey, Mantuo,
+Monica, Mission, Moscatello fino, Mourisco branco, Mourisco preto,
+Negro amaro, Palomino, Pedro Zumbon, Perruno, Pizzutello di Roma,
+Black Prince, West's White Prolific, Quagliano, Rodites, Rozaki, Tinta
+Amarella, Vernaccia bianca, Vernaccia Sarda.
+
+4. _Varieties which require short pruning under all
+conditions._--Aramon, Burger, Chardonay, Chauche gris and noir,
+Colombar, Crabbe's Black Burgundy, Durif, Black Morocco, Mourastel,
+Muscat of Alexander, Napoleon, Picpoule blanc and noir, Flame Tokay,
+Ugni blanc, Verdal, Zinfandel.
+
+5. _Varieties of table grapes which usually require half-long or
+cordon pruning._--Almeria (Ohanez), Bellino, Bermestia bianca and
+violacea, Cipro nero, Dattier de Beirut, Cornichon, Emperor, Black
+Ferrara, Malaga, Olivette de Cadenet, Pis-de-Chevre blanc,
+Schiradzouli, Zabalkanski.
+
+These lists must not be taken as indicating absolutely for all cases
+how these varieties are to be pruned. They simply indicate their
+natural tendencies. Certain methods and conditions tend to make vines
+more fruitful. Where these occur, shorter pruning than is indicated
+may be advisable. On the other hand, other methods and conditions tend
+to make the vines vigorous at the expense of fruitfulness. Where these
+occur, longer pruning may be advisable.
+
+The more usual factors which tend towards _fruitfulness_ are:
+
+Grafting on resistant vines, especially on certain varieties such as
+those of Riparia and Berlandieri;
+
+Old age of the vines;
+
+Mechanical or other injuries to any part of the vine;
+
+Large development of the trunk, as in the cordon systems.
+
+The more usual factors which tend towards _vigor_ at the expense of
+fruitfulness are:
+
+Rich soil, especially large amounts of humus and nitrogen;
+
+Youth of the vines;
+
+Excessive irrigation or rainfall (within limits).
+
+In deciding what system of pruning to adopt, all these factors,
+together with the nature of the vine and the uses to which the fruit
+is to be put, must be considered. It is best when the vineyard is
+started to err on the side of short pruning. While this may diminish
+slightly the first one or two crops, the vines will gain in vigor and
+the loss will be made up in subsequent crops. If the style of pruning
+adopted results in excessive vigor of the vines, it should be
+gradually changed in the direction of longer pruning with the object
+of utilizing this vigor in the production of crop.
+
+This change should be gradual, or the risk is run of injuring the
+vitality of the vines by one or two excessively heavy crops.
+Finally, each year the condition of the individual vine should
+determine the kind of pruning to be adopted. If the vine appears weak,
+from whatever cause, it should be pruned shorter or given less spurs
+or fruit canes than the year before. On the contrary, if it appears
+unnecessarily vigorous, more or longer spurs or fruit canes should be
+left. Every vine should be judged by itself. It is not possible to
+give more than general directions for the pruning of the whole
+vineyard. It cannot be well pruned unless the men who do the actual
+pruning are capable of using sufficient judgment to properly modify
+their methods for each individual vine.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XIV.--Eaton (x4/5).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA
+
+
+As we have seen, there were many efforts to grow European grapes in
+America during the first two centuries in the settlement of the
+country. The various attempts, some involving individuals, others
+corporations and in early days even colonies, form about the most
+instructive and dramatic episodes in the history of American
+agriculture. All endeavors, it will be remembered, were failures, so
+dismally and pathetically complete that we are wont to think of the
+two hundred years from the first settlements in America to the
+introduction of the Isabella, a native grape, as time wasted in futile
+culture of a foreign fruit. The early efforts were far from wasted,
+however, for out of the tribulations of two centuries of grape-growing
+came the domestication of our native grapes, one of the most
+remarkable achievements of agriculture.
+
+The advent of Isabella and Catawba wholly turned the thoughts of
+vineyardists from Old World to New World grapes. So completely,
+indeed, were viticulturists won by the thousand and more native
+grapes, that for the century which followed no one has planted Old
+World grapes east of the Rockies, while vineyards of native species
+may be found North and South from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
+
+Meanwhile, much new knowledge has come to agriculture, old fallacies
+have received many hard knocks and chains of tradition in which the
+culture of plants was bound, have been broken. In no field of
+agriculture have workers received greater aid from science than in
+viticulture. Particularly is this true of the diseases of the vine.
+The reports of the old experimenters were much the same, "a sickness
+takes hold of the vines and they die." What the sickness was and
+whether there were preventatives or remedies, no one knew a hundred
+years ago. But in the last half century we have learned much about the
+ills of grapes and now know preventatives or remedies for most of
+them. We know also that the early vine-growers failed, in part at
+least, because they followed empirical European practices. Is it not
+possible that with the new knowledge we can now grow European grapes
+in eastern America? The New York Agricultural Experiment Station has
+put this question to test, with results indicating that European
+grapes may now be grown successfully in eastern America. The following
+is an account of the work with this fruit at the New York Station.
+
+
+EUROPEAN GRAPES AT THE NEW YORK EXPERIMENT STATION[17]
+
+In the spring of 1911, the Station obtained cuttings of 101 varieties
+of European grapes from the United States Department of Agriculture
+and the University of California. The cuttings obtained were grafted
+on the roots of a heterogeneous collection of seedlings, five years
+set, representing a half dozen species of Vitis. These stocks had
+little to recommend them except that all were vigorous, well
+established and all were more immune to phylloxera than the Old World
+varieties. From four to six grafts of each of the hundred varieties
+were made and a stand of 380 vines resulted, the percentage of loss
+being exceedingly small. The success in grafting was probably due to
+the method used, the value of which had been proved in previous work
+on the Station grounds. The method of grafting and details of care
+follow:
+
+_Details of care._
+
+In grafting, the earth was removed from the plants to a depth of two
+or three inches. The vines were sawed squarely off below the surface
+of the ground. The stock was then split for a cleft graft. Two cions,
+made as described on page 46, were inserted in each cleft and tied in
+place with waxed string. Wax was not used as it does not stick in
+grafting grapes, because of the bleeding of the stock. After setting
+the cion, the earth was replaced and enough more of it used to cover
+stock and cion to prevent evaporation. This method of grafting is
+available to those who have old vineyards. It is so simple that the
+veriest tyro can thus graft grapes. Were young plants or cuttings used
+as stocks, some method of bench grafting would, of course, be resorted
+to.
+
+The cultivation and spraying were precisely that given native grapes.
+There has been no coddling of vines. The fungous diseases which helped
+to destroy the vineyards and vexed the souls of the old experimenters
+were kept in check by two sprayings with bordeaux mixture; the first
+application was made just after the fruit set, the second when the
+grapes were two-thirds grown. Some years a third spraying with a
+tobacco concoction was used to keep thrips in check. Phylloxera was
+present in the vineyard but none of the varieties seemed to suffer
+from this pest. The stocks used were not those best suited either to
+the vines grafted on them or to resist phylloxera. Unquestionably some
+of the standard sorts used in France and California from _Vitis
+rupestris_ or _Vitis vulpina_, or hybrids of these species, would give
+better results. From theoretical consideration, it would seem that the
+_Vitis vulpina_ stocks should be best suited to the needs of eastern
+America.
+
+It was thought by the old experimenters that European grapes failed in
+New York because of unfavorable climatic conditions. It was said that
+the winters were too cold and the summers too hot and dry for this
+grape. During the years the Station vineyard of Viniferas has been in
+existence, there have been stresses of all kinds of weather to which
+the variable climate of New York is subject. Two winters have been
+exceedingly cold, killing peach and pear trees; one summer gave the
+hottest weather and hottest day in twenty-five years; the vines have
+withstood two severe summer droughts and three cold, wet summers.
+These test seasons have proved that European grapes will stand the
+climate of New York as well as the native varieties except in the
+matter of cold; they must have winter protection.
+
+To growers of American grapes, the extra work of winter protection
+seems to be an insuperable obstacle. The experience of several seasons
+in New York shows that winter protection is a cheap and simple matter.
+Two methods have been used; vines have been covered with earth and
+others have been wrapped with straw. The earth covering is cheaper and
+more efficient. The vines are pruned and placed full length on the
+ground and covered with a few inches of earth. The cost of winter
+protection will run from two to three cents a vine. Since European
+vines are much more productive than those of American grapes, the
+added cost of winter protection is more than offset by the greater
+yield of grapes. Trellising, also, is simpler and less expensive for
+the European grapes, helping further to offset the cost of winter
+protection.
+
+_Pruning._
+
+It is apparent at once that European grapes must have special
+treatment in pruning if they are to be laid on the ground annually.
+Several modifications of European and California practices can be
+employed in the East to bring the plants in condition for winter
+laying-down. All methods of pruning must have this in common; new wood
+must be brought up from the base of the plant every year to permit
+bending the plant. This can be done by leaving a replacing spur at
+the base of the trunk. If two-eye cions are used when the plants are
+grafted and both buds grow, the shoot from the upper can be used to
+form the main trunk, while that from the lower bud will supply the
+replacing spur. Each year all but one of the canes coming from this
+spur are removed and the remaining one is cut back to one or two buds
+until the main trunk begins to be too stiff to bend down readily, then
+one cane from the spur is left for a new trunk and another is pruned
+for a new renewal spur.
+
+The main trunk is carried up only to the lower wire of the trellis. At
+the winter pruning, two one-year canes are selected to be tied along
+this wire, one on each side, and the two renewal spurs chosen for
+tying up and new renewal spurs left. For the best production,
+different varieties require different lengths of fruit canes, but the
+work at Geneva has not progressed far enough so that recommendations
+can be made for particular varieties. It has been found best, however,
+to prune weak vines heavily and vigorous ones lightly. Under normal
+conditions, from four to eight buds are left on each cane, depending
+on the vigor of the vine. With some of the older seedlings used for
+stocks in 1911 which were so large that two cions were used, and in
+many of those where the roots seemed to have sufficient vigor to
+support the larger top, two trunks were formed, one from each graft.
+By spreading these into a V and making the inner arms shorter, very
+satisfactory results were secured.
+
+The type of growth in Vinifera is different from that of native
+grapes. The young shoots which spring from the one-year canes, instead
+of trailing to the ground or running out along the trellis wires, grow
+erect. Advantage must be taken of this in the pruning system adopted
+in the East. The canes and the renewal spurs as described above are
+tied along the lower wire; then the young shoots which come from these
+grow upward to the second wire. When the shoots are four to six
+inches above this wire, they are pinched off just above the wire and
+any which have not already fastened themselves are tied to prevent the
+wind breaking them off. At the same time, if any of the axial buds on
+the shoots have begun to form secondary shoots, they are rubbed off,
+beginning with the node next above the upper cluster and going down to
+the old cane. This gives the cluster more room and better light. Soon
+after the first heading-back, the upper buds of the young shoot start
+lateral growth. The secondary branches usually grow upright and when
+they are several inches high they are topped with a sickle. This
+heading-back results in stockier and more mature canes for the
+following year, and if properly done adds to the fruitfulness of the
+vine and the fruit matures better.
+
+_General considerations._
+
+The grower of European grapes grafted on American vines may be
+prepared to be surprised at the growth the vines make. At the end of
+the first season, the grafts attain the magnitude of full-sized vines;
+the second season they begin to fruit more or less abundantly, and the
+third year they produce approximately the same number of bunches as a
+Concord or Niagara vine; and, as the bunches of most varieties are
+larger than those of the American grapes, the yield, therefore, is
+greater. The European varieties, also, may be set more closely than
+the American sorts, since they are seldom such rampant growers.
+
+It is too early to reason from this short experiment that we are to
+grow varieties of European grapes commonly in the East, but the
+behavior of the vines under discussion seems to indicate that we may
+do so. At the New York Station, the European varieties are as vigorous
+and thrifty as American vines and quite as easily managed. Why may we
+not grow these grapes if we protect them from phylloxera, fungi and
+cold? In Europe, there are varieties of grapes for nearly every soil
+and condition in the southern half of the continent. In eastern
+Europe and western Asia, the vines must be protected just as they must
+be protected here. It seems almost certain that from the many sorts
+selected to meet the various conditions of Europe, we shall be able to
+find kinds to meet the diverse soils and climates of this continent.
+And here we have one of the chief reasons for wishing to grow these
+grapes that American grape-growing may not be so localized as at
+present. Probably we shall find that European grapes can be grown
+under a greater diversity of conditions than native varieties.
+
+The culture of European grapes in the East gives this region
+essentially a new fruit. If any considerable degree of success attends
+their culture, wine-making in eastern America will be revolutionized,
+for the European grapes are far superior to the native sorts for this
+purpose. Varieties of these grapes have a higher sugar- and
+solid-content than do those of the American species and for this
+reason, as a rule, keep longer. We may thus expect that through these
+grapes the season for this fruit will be extended. The European
+varieties are better flavored, possessing a more delicate and a richer
+vinous flavor, a more agreeable aroma, and are lacking in the acidity
+and the obnoxious foxy taste of many American grapes. Many consumers
+of fruit will like them better and the demand for grapes thus will be
+increased.
+
+The advent of the European grape in the vineyards of eastern America
+ought to greatly increase the production of hybrids between this
+species and the American species of grapes. As we have seen, there are
+many such hybrids, but curiously enough scarcely more than a half
+dozen varieties of European grapes have been used in crossing. Most of
+these have been greenhouse grapes and not those that could be expected
+to give best results for vineyard culture. As we come to know the
+varieties best adapted to American conditions, we ought to be able to
+select European parents to better advantage than we have done in the
+past and by using them produce better hybrid sorts.
+
+_Varieties._
+
+From the eighty-five varieties of European grapes now fruiting on the
+grounds of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, the following
+are named as worth trying in the East for table grapes: Actoni,
+Bakator, Chasselas Golden, Chasselas Rose, Feher Szagos, Gray Pinot,
+Lignan Blanc, Malvasia, Muscat Hamburg, Palomino and Rosaki. These and
+other European grapes are described in Chapter XVIII; Chasselas Golden
+and Malvasia are illustrated in Plate V.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XV.--Eclipse (x2/3).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+GRAPES UNDER GLASS
+
+
+Grape-growing under glass is on the decline in America. Forty or fifty
+years ago the industry was a considerable one, grapes being rather
+commonly grown near all large cities for the market, and nearly every
+large estate possessing a range of glass had a grapery. But grapes are
+better and more cheaply grown in Europe than in America, and the
+advent of quick transportation permits English, French and Belgian
+grape-growers to send their wares to American markets more cheaply
+than they can be grown at home. For the present, the world war has
+stopped the importation of luxuries from Europe, and American
+gardeners ought to find the culture of grapes under glass profitable;
+they may expect also to be able to hold the markets for many years to
+come because of the destruction of Belgian houses and the shortage of
+labor in Europe resulting from the war.
+
+Amateur gardeners ought never to let the culture of grapes under glass
+wane, since the hot-house grape is the consummation of the gardener's
+skill. Certainly the forcing of no other fruit yields such generous
+rewards. Grapes grown under glass are handsomer in appearance and
+better in quality than those grown out-of-doors. The clusters often
+attain enormous size, a weight of twenty to thirty pounds being not
+uncommon. The impression prevails that to grow grapes under glass, one
+must have expensive houses; this is not necessary, and "hot-house
+grapes" is a misnomer, the fruit really being grown in cold or
+relatively cool houses which need not be expensive. Grapes are grown
+under glass with greater ease and certainty than is imagined by those
+who form the opinion from buying the fruit at high prices in
+delicatessen stores. A grapery need not be an expensive luxury, and
+the culture of grapes under glass can be recommended to persons of
+moderate means who are looking for a horticultural hobby.
+
+
+THE GRAPERY
+
+Almost any of the various modifications of greenhouses can be adapted
+to growing grapes. Firms constructing greenhouses usually have had
+experience in building graperies, and, as a rule, it will pay to have
+these professional builders put up the house. If the actual work is
+not done by a builder, it is possible to purchase plans and estimates,
+from which, if sufficiently detailed, local builders can work. On
+small places there is no doubt that the lean-to houses are most
+suitable, being inexpensive and furnishing protection from prevailing
+winds. These lean-tos should face the south and may be built against
+the stable, garage or other building; or better, a brick or stone wall
+to the north may be erected. It is possible to build a small grapery
+as a lean-to out of hot-house sash.
+
+In commercial establishments and for large estates, where the grapery
+must be more or less ornamental, a span-roof house is rather better
+adapted to the grapery than a lean-to, especially if the house is not
+to be used for the production of grapes early in the season. On
+account of the exposure of the span-roof house on all sides, however,
+rather more skill must be exercised in growing grapes in them than in
+the better protected lean-to grapery. Whatever the house, it must be
+so constructed as to furnish an abundance of light, a requisite in
+which much is gained by having large-size glasses for the glazing. The
+glass must be of the best quality, otherwise the foliage and fruit
+may be blistered by the sun's rays being focused through defective
+spots.
+
+Light, heat, moisture and good ventilation are all required in the
+grapery. Brick or stone are preferable to woodwork, as heat and
+moisture in the grapery are quickly destructive to wood foundations.
+If wood is used, only the most durable kinds should enter into the
+construction of the house. The under structure of masonry or of wood
+should be low, not higher than 18 inches or 2 feet before the
+superstructure of glass begins. The grapery must be well ventilated.
+There must be large ventilators at the peak of the house and small
+ones just above the foundation walls or in the foundation walls
+themselves. The ventilation should be such that the house can be kept
+free from draughts or sudden changes of temperature, as the grape
+under glass is a sensitive plant, and subject to mildew. Plenty of
+air, therefore, is an absolute necessity to the grapes, especially
+during the ripening of the fruit. The lower ventilators in graperies
+are seldom much used until the grapes begin to color, at which time
+the new growth, foliage and fruit are hardened, but from this time on
+upper and lower ventilators must be so manipulated that the houses are
+always generously aired.
+
+Grapes can be forced in cold houses without the aid of artificial heat
+and formerly these cold graperies were very popular; but in the modern
+houses for growing this fruit, artificial heat is now considered a
+necessity, even though the heating apparatus may seldom be in use. For
+a finely finished product, a little heat to warm the room and dry the
+atmosphere may be absolutely necessary at a critical time, this often
+saving a house of grapes. Of heating apparatus, little need be said.
+Standard boilers for heating greenhouses with either steam or hot
+water are now to be purchased of many designs for almost every style
+and condition of house. Since the grapery seldom requires high heat,
+hot water is rather to be preferred to steam, although there is no
+objection to steam, especially if the grapery is a part of a large
+range of glass.
+
+_The border._
+
+The border in which the vines are to be planted is the most important
+part of the grapery. All subsequent efforts fail if the border lacks
+in two imperatives, good drainage and a soil that is rich but not too
+rich. The grapery must be built on well-drained land or elevated above
+the ground to permit the construction of a properly drained border.
+"Border," in the sense of its being a strip or a narrow bed just
+inside the house, is now a misnomer, though the name undoubtedly comes
+from the fact that narrow beds inside the house were at one time used
+in which to plant vines. The border in a modern grapery now occupies
+all of the ground surface inside the house and may extend several feet
+outside the house.
+
+Much skill is required in building the border. A good formula is: Six
+parts loamy turf from an old pasture; one part of well-rotted cow
+manure; one part of old plaster and one part of ground bone. These
+ingredients are composted and if the work is well done will meet very
+well the soil and food requirements of the grape. This formula can be
+varied according to soil conditions and somewhat in accordance with
+the variety planted. Unless natural drainage is well-nigh perfect, the
+border must be under-drained with tile and in any case a layer of old
+brick or stone is needful to make certain that the drainage is
+perfect. At least two feet, better three feet, of the border compost
+should be placed above the drainage material. In a border made as
+described, the grape finds ample root-run, but not too much, as in a
+surprisingly short time roots are found throughout all parts of this
+extensive border.
+
+The care of the border is a matter of considerable moment and varies,
+of course, with those in charge. The usual procedure is to spade the
+outside border, if the border extends outside, before winter, after
+which it is covered with a coating of well-rotted manure, without any
+particular attempt having been made to keep out the frost, as a
+certain amount of freezing outside of the house is held to be
+beneficial. The inside border must be spaded just before the vines are
+started in the spring, having been covered previously with well-rotted
+manure. The time at which the vines are to be started in growth is
+determined by whether an early or a late crop of grapes is wanted. For
+an early crop, the vines must be started early in February; for a late
+crop, a month or even two months later suffices. So started, the first
+crop of grapes comes on in June or July, the later ones following in
+August or September.
+
+It is related that Napoleon I, to secure saltpetre for making
+gunpowder, composted "filth, dead animals, urine and offal with
+alternate layers of turf and lime mortar," and asserted that "a
+nitre-bed is the very pattern of a vine-border" and that "when the
+materials have been turned over and over again for a year or two they
+are in exactly the proper state to yield either gunpowder or grapes."
+Napoleon's niter-bed is not now considered a good model for a
+grape-border, as the fruit produced in so rich a soil, though
+abundant, is coarse and poorly flavored, and the vines complete their
+own destruction by over-bearing. Gardeners hold that a grape-border
+may be too rich in plant-food, especially too rich in nitrogen.
+
+
+VARIETIES
+
+Out of the 2000 or more Vinifera grapes, probably not more than a
+score are grown under glass, and of these but a half dozen are
+commonly grown. Black varieties have the preference for indoors,
+especially if grown for the market, where they bring the highest
+prices. They are also as a rule more easily handled indoors than the
+white sorts. However, as we shall see, one or two white kinds are
+indispensable in a house of any considerable size.
+
+Of black grapes, Black Hamburg carries the palm of merit because it is
+most easily grown, best stands neglect, is a heavy producer, sets its
+fruit well, the grapes mature early; and, in particular, it meets the
+requirements of the unskilled gardener better than any other grape.
+The clusters are not as large and the flavor not as good as that of
+some other sorts.
+
+Muscat of Alexandria is the best of the white varieties. It is,
+however, a hard grape to handle since it requires a high temperature
+to bring it to perfection, is a little shy in setting fruit and the
+grapes are not very certain in coming to maturity; it also requires a
+long season. A good quality is that it may be kept long after cutting,
+much longer than Black Hamburg.
+
+For an earlier white grape, Buckland Sweetwater has much to recommend
+it; it ripens from two to three weeks earlier than Muscat of
+Alexandria and is much more easily grown. It is good in quality but
+not of high quality. Buckland Sweetwater may be well grown in the
+house with Black Hamburg, whereas it is almost impossible to grow
+Muscat of Alexandria in the same house with Black Hamburg.
+
+Muscat Hamburg is a cross between Black Hamburg and Muscat of
+Alexandria, and is an intermediate in most fruit characters between
+these two standard sorts. It is not, however, very generally grown,
+although it well deserves to be because of its large, beautiful,
+tapering clusters of black grapes of finest quality.
+
+Grizzly Frontignan adds novelty to luxury in the list of indoor
+grapes. The fruits are mottled pink in color, deepening sometimes to a
+dark shade of pink, and are borne in long, slender clusters. The
+grapes ripen early and are unsurpassed in quality but are, all in all,
+rather difficult to grow.
+
+Barbarossa and Gros Colman are the two best late black grapes,
+especially for those who are ambitious to grow clusters of large size
+with large berries. Both are very good in quality. Neither of the two
+is particularly easy to grow, since they require a long time to ripen;
+but, to offset this, both keep longer than any other sorts after
+ripening. Because of the large size of the berries, thinning must
+begin early and must be rather more severe than with other grapes.
+This variety is now largely grown in England for exportation to this
+country in early spring.
+
+White Nice and Syrian are two white sorts which attain largest size in
+clusters, specimens weighing thirty pounds being not infrequent, but
+are coarse and poor in quality and are, therefore, hardly worth
+growing.
+
+Alicante is a black sort often grown for the sake of variety, since it
+departs from the Vinifera type rather markedly in flavor. The grapes
+have very thick skins and may be kept longer than those of any other
+variety.
+
+Lady Downs is another late-keeping black grape of highest quality, but
+difficult to grow. The bunches and berries are small in comparison
+with other standard sorts, characters that do not commend the variety
+to most gardeners.
+
+Perhaps a dozen more sorts might be named worthy of trial in American
+graperies, but the list given covers the needs of commercial
+establishments and will meet the wants of most amateur growers.
+
+
+PLANTING AND TRAINING
+
+Two-year-old vines are most commonly planted. The vines are set inside
+the house at least a foot from the walls and four feet apart. The
+grapery must be built on piers with spaces of at least two feet
+between, and the vines are placed opposite these openings in the
+foundation. When planted, the vines are cut back to two or three buds,
+and when these start the strongest are selected for training, the
+others being rubbed off. The grapery must be strung with wires
+running lengthwise of the house at about fifteen inches from the
+glass. Greenhouse supply merchants furnish at a low price cast iron
+brackets to be fastened to the rafters to hold these wires. As the
+growing vines reach one wire after another, they are tied with raffia
+to hold them in place. Usually, young vines will reach the peak of the
+house by midsummer, and as soon as this goal is attained must be
+pinched so that the cane may thicken up and store food in the lateral
+buds for the coming season. When the wood is well matured, the vine is
+cut back to half or one-third its length, depending on the variety,
+laid on the ground and covered for the winter. An item of no small
+importance in winter care is to keep out mice, this pest being
+inordinately fond of grape buds, and once the buds are destroyed the
+vines are ruined for the coming season.
+
+The second year's work is largely a repetition of that of the first.
+The vines are permitted to reach the peak of the house and are again
+stopped by pinching. A considerable number of laterals spring up on
+each side of the main vine, and these must be thinned as they develop
+to stand at the distance apart of the wires to which they are
+fastened. This is pre-supposing that the gardener has chosen the spur
+method of pruning, the method generally used in America and the one,
+all things considered, which gives best results. The selection of the
+laterals the second year, therefore, is a matter of much importance
+since spurs are to be developed from them. Care should be taken to
+have these spurs regularly distributed over the length of the vine.
+This second year, grapes must not be permitted to develop on the
+terminal shoots, but a few clusters may be taken from the laterals in
+which case the laterals are pinched two buds beyond the cluster, the
+pinching continuing throughout the season if the laterals persist in
+breaking, as they will do in most cases. At the end of the season, the
+terminal is shortened at least one-half, and the laterals are pinched
+back to a bud as close as possible to the main stem. The vines are
+then put down for the winter as at the close of the first season.
+
+The work of the third season is a repetition of that of the second,
+with the exception that the vine is permitted to fruit throughout its
+whole length, although not more than one pound of fruit to a foot of
+main vine is permitted. The plants are now established and the only
+pruning in this and succeeding years is to cut the laterals at the
+close of each season close to the main stem, leaving strong healthy
+buds of which at least one, usually more, will be found close to the
+stem. If more than one bud starts, only the strongest is chosen,
+although often an extra one is needed to fill a vacancy on the
+opposite side. After the third or fourth season, depending somewhat on
+the variety, two pounds of fruit or more to the foot of the main stem
+can be permitted. The novice, however, is likely to permit his vines
+to overbear with the result that the crop is cast, or the berries
+rattle, or the fruit turns sour before ripening. From the beginning to
+the finish of the season, in this method of pruning, much pinching of
+laterals is required. No hard and fast rule can be laid down for this
+pinching, but, roughly speaking, all new growth beyond the second
+joint from the cluster should be pinched out as fast as it shows. With
+most varieties, this means that the lateral is kept about eighteen
+inches from the main stem. After a few years, well-developed spurs
+form at the base of the original laterals, and from these spurs the
+new wood comes year after year.
+
+An alternative method of pruning is to permit the new canes to grow up
+from a bud near the ground each season. When the vine is well
+established, this new cane is fruited throughout its entire length,
+the laterals being pinched as described under the spur method. This
+method of pruning is known as "the long cane method." Gardeners hold
+that they can grow better fruit with this than with the spur method,
+but the difficulties are greater and the crop is not as large.
+
+
+CARE OF THE VINES
+
+With the cultivation of all varieties indoors, more clusters set than
+the vines can carry. This means that a part of the clusters must be
+removed, an operation that depends on the variety and one that
+requires experience and judgment on the part of the gardener. Roughly
+speaking, half the clusters are taken, leaving the other half as
+evenly distributed on each side of the vine as possible. The time to
+take these clusters is also a delicate matter, since some sorts are
+shy in setting and the clusters must not be taken until the berries
+are formed and it can be seen how large the crop will be. As a rule,
+however, this thinning of clusters may be begun as soon as the form of
+the cluster can be seen.
+
+It is very necessary also, especially with all sorts bearing large
+berries, that grapes be thinned in the cluster. The time to thin the
+cluster varies with the variety. Sorts which set fruit freely can be
+thinned sooner than those which are shy in setting. On the one hand,
+the thinning must not be done too soon as it cannot be told until the
+berries are of fair size which have set seed and which have not;
+however, if thinning is neglected too long, the berries become
+over-crowded and the task becomes difficult. The thinning is performed
+with slender scissors, and the bunches must not be touched with the
+hand, as touching impairs the bloom and disfigures the fruit. The
+clusters are turned and steadied by a small piece of pencil-shaped
+wood. Thinning is practiced not only to permit the berries to attain
+their full size but also to permit the bunches to attain as great size
+as possible. If too severely thinned, the clusters flatten out after
+maturity. This is especially the case when too many berries are taken
+from the center of the bunch. A large cluster of grapes is made up of
+several small clusters, making it necessary to tie up the upper
+clusters or shoulders of the bunch to permit the berries to swell
+without being thinned too severely. Grapes intended for long keeping
+require more thinning than those to be used at once after picking,
+since, in keeping, the berries mold or damp-off in the center of the
+bunch if it is too compact.
+
+The vines in the grapery must be watered with considerable care. The
+amount of water to be used depends on the composition of the borders
+and the season of growth. If the border is loose and well-drained, the
+supply of water must be large; if close and retentive, but a small
+amount of moisture is required. Watering must not be done during the
+period of blossoming, since dry air is necessary for proper
+pollination. When the grapes begin to show color, the vines are
+heavily watered, after which little if any water is applied. Some
+gardeners mulch the vines with hay to retain the moisture in the house
+and keep the atmosphere dry.
+
+Ventilating the grapery is another important detail of the season's
+work. Proper ventilation is difficult to secure in the early spring
+months when the dryness of the sun on the one hand, and cold air on
+the other, make it difficult to avoid draughts and regulate the
+temperature. Another troublesome time is when the grapes begin to
+color, as it is then necessary for the grapery to have air at night;
+but when too much air enters, there is danger from mildew. Towards the
+end of the season, all parts of the plant become harder in texture and
+the grapery may then be more generously aired. After the fruit is cut,
+the houses are ventilated in full so that the wood may ripen properly.
+
+
+PESTS
+
+Several pests vex the gardener in growing grapes indoors. Of these,
+mealy-bug, red-spider, thrips and mildew are most troublesome. In a
+well-conducted grapery, there is never an intermission in the warfare
+against these pests.
+
+Mealy-bug is usually a sign of sloth on the part of the gardener. In
+a grapery devoted exclusively to grape-growing, it should never be
+seen, but, since gardeners must often grow other plants in the
+grapery, mealy-bug sooner or later appears and is often hard to
+dislodge. It is best repelled by removing the loose bark on the trunks
+which harbor the pest and then washing with kerosene emulsion. When
+this becomes necessary, not only the vines but the rafters and all
+parts of the house should be sprayed with the emulsion.
+
+Red-spider is another pest usually found in the grapery, but it
+thrives only in a dry atmosphere and is easily gotten rid of by
+syringing. As soon as red-spider appears in a house its appearance is
+usually known by the reddish tinge on the foliage; syringing should be
+kept up until the pest is disposed of, keeping the house damp in all
+except dull weather. Syringing is done only when plenty of air can be
+given and when it can be followed by sunlight so that the water
+remains on the vines as short a time as possible.
+
+Thrips, another small insect, is sometimes troublesome but not often
+and is now easily controlled by applications of nicotine. Much care
+must be taken in the application of nicotine late in the season,
+otherwise the fruit will be injured.
+
+The only fungous disease of the grape troublesome in the greenhouse is
+mildew. Mildew is usually brought on by a sudden change of temperature
+or by draughts in the grapery. Gardeners are of the opinion that east
+winds, in particular, give unfavorable conditions for mildew and
+prefer to open the ventilators to the west. If taken in time, mildew
+is easily kept in check by preventing the conditions which favor it,
+and by dusting the vines in dry sunshine with sulfur.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XVI.--Elvira (x2/3).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL
+
+
+In common with other cultivated fruits, grapes are at the mercy of
+numerous insect and fungous pests unless man intervenes with remedial
+or preventive treatment. Happily for viticulture, knowledge of the
+pests of the vine has made such advancement in recent years that
+practically all are now controlled by remedial or preventive measures.
+Possibly no field of agriculture has had greater need, or received
+greater aid from science in the study and control of insects and
+diseases than grape-growing. A separate treatise would be required to
+treat the pathological troubles of the grape fully; only such details
+of the life histories of the several pests to be discussed as are
+essential to a proper understanding of the control of the parasites
+can be given here.
+
+
+INSECT PESTS
+
+Insects troubling the grapes are numerous, at least 200 having been
+described in America, most of which have their habitat on the wild
+prototypes of the cultivated vines of this continent. For this reason,
+with a few exceptions, the insect pests of the grape in America are
+widely distributed, abundant, and, therefore, often very destructive
+to vineyards unless vigorously combated. The many pestiferous species
+vary greatly in importance, depending on locality, weather and the
+variety. Phylloxera, however, the country over, is most common and
+deserves first attention.
+
+_Phylloxera._
+
+This minute sucking insect (_Phylloxera vastatrix_), injures the grape
+by feeding on its roots. Decay usually follows its work on the roots
+and is often more injurious than the harm done directly by the
+parasite. This decay is always much more serious on European vines
+than on those of our native species. The phylloxera is a native of the
+United States east of the Rocky Mountains, from whence it was
+introduced into France and from France into California, where it
+causes much greater damage than elsewhere in the United States.
+Wherever the pest is found, it is more injurious in heavy than in
+sandy soils. In fact, in very sandy soils the vines are often
+sufficiently resistant to be practically immune.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36. Leaf-galls of the phylloxera.]
+
+The life history of the phylloxera is very complex where the different
+forms of the insect appear and need not be entered into in detail
+here. East of the Rockies, the most evident indication of the presence
+of the pest is great numbers of leaf-galls on the under side of the
+leaves of the grape as shown in Fig. 36. These galls, however, are
+seldom to be seen in California and are not present on Concords and
+some other varieties in the East. The winter egg may be taken as the
+beginning of the life cycle of the phylloxera. From a single winter
+egg a colony may arise, the first insect after hatching making its
+way to the leaves where it becomes a gall-maker and gives rise to a
+new generation of egg-laying root-feeders. On varieties and in regions
+where the gall form is not found, the insect probably goes directly
+from the winter egg to the roots. Once the pest is established on the
+roots, generation follows generation throughout the growing period of
+the vines, as many as seven or eight occurring in one season.
+
+From midsummer until the close of the growing season, some of the eggs
+deposited by the root-feeders develop into nymphs which acquire wings
+and emerge from the soil to form new colonies from eggs deposited on
+the under side of the leaf. An individual insect deposits from three
+to six eggs of two sizes, from the larger of which come the females
+and these, after fertilization, move to the rough bark of the vine and
+deposit the winter egg for the renewal of the cycle.
+
+Several methods of control have been employed in Europe and
+California, as treatment by carbon bisulfide injected in the soil;
+flooding in vineyards that can be irrigated; confining the vines to
+sandy soils; and, most important, planting vines grafted on resistant
+stocks, there being great variation in immunity of species of American
+grapes to phylloxera. The subject of stocks resistant to this pest has
+been discussed in Chapter IV and need not be taken up again. East of
+the Rockies, treatment is not necessary with American grapes.
+
+_The grape root-worm._
+
+The grape root-worm is the most harmful of the insect pests of grapes
+in the grape-belt along the shores of Lake Erie in Ohio, Pennsylvania
+and New York. This root-worm (Fig. 37) is the larva of a grayish-brown
+beetle (_Fidia viticida_), shown in Fig. 38. The worms feed at first
+on the rootlets and later on the bark of the larger roots of the vines
+so that the injured plants show roots devoid of rootlets and bark
+channeled by the pest. So plain is the work of the root-worm that the
+grower never need be at a loss as to the cause of vines injured by
+this pest. The worms feed during the latter part of the growing
+season, reaching full growth at this time. The next June they
+transform into pupae and in late June or early July emerge as adult
+beetles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37. The grape root-worm.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38. Root-worm beetle.]
+
+The presence of the adult beetles is more easily detected on the
+foliage than is that of the larvae on the roots, for the feeding
+beetles ravenously devour the upper sides of the leaves, leaving
+chain-like markings, shown in Fig. 39, their destructiveness
+decreasing somewhat after a few days from their first appearance. A
+fortnight after the beetles begin their attack on the foliage the
+female begins laying her eggs, to the number of 200, placing them
+under the rough bark of trunk and cane. These hatch in late July or
+August and the young grubs at once seek the roots.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. Injuries caused by beetles of the grape
+root-worm.]
+
+Two methods of control have been devised: destruction of the beetles
+before they lay their eggs; and destruction of the pupae while in the
+ground. When the beetles are present in large numbers, many of them
+may be destroyed by spraying with a mixture of cheap molasses and
+arsenate of lead, using molasses at the rate of two gallons to a
+hundred gallons of water and the arsenate of lead at the rate of six
+pounds. This should be followed by a second spraying a week later,
+using bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) and three pounds of arsenate of lead.
+This second spray serves to repel migrating beetles from the vines.
+The molasses spray is ineffective unless several days of fair weather
+follow the spraying, as rain washes the material from the foliage.
+Bordeaux mixture is not easily affected by rain. In moderately
+infested vineyards, bordeaux mixture and arsenate are used instead of
+molasses and arsenate of lead, followed in about ten days with a
+second application of the same material.
+
+An effective method of reducing the number of beetles is the
+destruction of the pupae. This is best done by leaving a low ridge of
+earth under the vines at the last seasonal cultivation to remain until
+most of the larvae have pupated, and then be leveled with a horse-hoe
+and later with a harrow. The horse-hoe and harrow crush many of the
+pupae and break the cells of others to the great destruction of the
+pest. This latter method of control is not adequate in itself and in
+bad infestations both should be used. When the infestation is only
+moderate, this latter method is not advised, owing to the lateness of
+the time of horse-hoeing. It is good horticultural practice to
+horse-hoe the latter part of May or early June. To wait for the pupal
+stage of the root-worm delays the work until numerous small roots
+start which would be destroyed by the horse-hoe. Spraying will control
+a moderate infestation.
+
+_The grape-vine flea-beetle._
+
+In the warm days of May and June when the buds of grapes are swelling,
+a shining steel-blue beetle may often be found in the vineyards of
+eastern America feeding on the tender buds of the grape. From its
+color the insect is often called the steely-beetle, and from its
+activity and habit of jumping it is known as the flea-beetle (_Haltica
+chalybea_). The vine is seldom seriously injured by this pest but many
+buds are destroyed, causing the loss of the fruit that should have
+developed from the buds. It is true that new buds often develop after
+the injury, but these, as a rule, produce only foliage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. Eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle.]
+
+The life history of the flea-beetle is such that the pest is not hard
+to control, the chief steps in its development being as follows: The
+beetles deposit small orange-colored eggs, cylindrical in form,
+illustrated in Fig. 40, about the buds and in crevices of the bark of
+the canes in May or June. Most of these eggs are hatched by the middle
+of June. The larvae feed upon the foliage until about July first and
+then crawl to the ground in which they form cells and pupate. The
+latter part of July the adults emerge and seek wild vines upon which
+they feed, entering hibernation rather early in the fall. The beetles
+hibernate under leaves, in rubbish and in the shelter of the bark of
+trees and vines, but emerge in the warm days the following spring to
+seek vineyards.
+
+Two methods of control have been developed to keep this pest under.
+The vines should be sprayed with three pounds of arsenate of lead in
+fifty gallons of water when the larvae are feeding on the foliage; or
+the beetles when feeding may be knocked into a pan containing a
+shallow layer of kerosene. The former is the cheaper and more
+effective method provided the grape-grower has the foresight to
+discover the larvae, since the larvae of this summer produce the beetles
+that will destroy the buds next spring. When the adults migrate from
+wild vines, or the larvae were not destroyed in the vineyard,
+collecting the adults is the only practical method. The destruction of
+wild vines near a vineyard helps to give immunity from this pest.
+
+_The rose-chafer._
+
+The rose-chafer (_Macrodactylus subspinosus_), a long-legged beetle of
+a yellowish-brown color, about a third of an inch in length, often
+appears in vineyards in vast swarms toward the middle of June in
+northern states and about two weeks earlier in southern states east of
+the Rocky Mountains. Often they overrun gardens, orchards, vineyards
+and nurseries, and usually, after having done a vast amount of damage
+in the month of their devastating presence, the beetles disappear as
+suddenly as they came. Vineyards on or near sandy soils are most often
+infested, the larvae of the beetle seeming to live in considerable
+numbers only in these light soils. The chief damage to the grape is
+done to the blossom; in fact the insects, after feeding on the
+blossoms during the blossoming period, usually migrate to blossoms of
+any one of several shrubs. The larvae feed on the roots of grasses,
+having particular liking for the roots of foxtail, timothy and
+blue-grass.
+
+Some knowledge of the life history of these beetles is essential to
+effective control. The beetles emerge as adults in June and after
+feeding a short time begin to mate, although egg-laying does not take
+place until the insects have been out for a fortnight or more. The
+females burrow into the soil and deposit their eggs, seldom more than
+twenty-five in number, which begin to hatch in about ten days. The
+young larvae feed during the remainder of the summer on roots of
+grasses. They are seldom found deeper than six inches while feeding,
+but as cold weather approaches they burrow deeper to avoid sudden
+changes of temperature. The following spring they again come near the
+surface to feed. The grubs form cells from which the pupae emerge, as
+we have seen, about the middle of June, timing their appearance very
+closely to the blossoming of Concord grapes.
+
+The methods of control are three, namely: destruction of the larvae;
+cultivation to kill the pupae; and spraying to kill the beetles. Since
+the larvae feed on the roots of grasses in sandy soils, it is easy to
+locate the feeding ground of the pest and plant it to cultivated crops
+which destroy the grasses and therefore the larvae. The second method
+of destruction is similar, consisting of cultivation to kill the pupae.
+This is accomplished by thorough cultivation during the pupating stage
+to break the cells and crush the pupae, thus preventing the emergence
+of the beetles. The third method, however, is the most effective and
+consists of spraying the vineyard with a sweetened arsenical spray.
+The spraying should be done as soon as the beetles appear, using
+arsenate of lead six pounds, molasses one gallon and water one hundred
+gallons. It is often necessary to make a second application a week
+later. If rain occurs within thirty-six hours after spraying, the
+application should be repeated as soon as the weather clears.
+
+_The grape leaf-hopper._
+
+From Canada to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, wherever
+the grape is grown, the small leaf-hopper (_Typhlocyba comes_) infests
+the grape in greater or less numbers, feeding on the lower surface of
+the leaf. Grape-growers commonly call these insects "thrips," a name,
+however, which really belongs to a very different class of insects.
+The injury done by this pest varies greatly with the season and the
+locality, in some regions it being comparatively harmless and in
+others exceedingly destructive in seasons when it occurs in abundance.
+There is great variation also in individual vineyards, those near
+favorable hibernating places and early spring food plants often being
+injured seriously season after season in succession. These
+leaf-hoppers obtain their food by piercing the epidermis on the under
+side of the leaf surface and sucking the sap, and add further injury
+by inserting their eggs underneath the skin of the leaf. The punctures
+greatly decrease the starch-producing area of the leaf with the result
+that the vigor of the plant is lowered, and the quality of the fruit
+decreased.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41. First four stages of the grape leaf-hopper.
+(Enlarged.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42. The fifth and the mature stages of the grape
+leaf-hopper. (Enlarged.)]
+
+The life history of the leaf-hopper is very well known. The eggs are
+deposited in June or early July, and hatch from June 15 to July 10 in
+New York, the season being earlier or later as one goes south or
+north. The young leaf-hoppers are wingless, the nymph stage, but reach
+the adult stage in late July and August, at which time many of them
+mate, and eggs are laid from which a second brood may develop,
+although usually only one full brood is produced in a season in the
+northern states. Figures 41 and 42 show the several life stages of the
+leaf-hopper. Insects which become adults in the latter part of July
+feed on the foliage until autumn and then seek winter quarters,
+passing the winter in the adult stage under fallen leaves, in dead
+grass or other similar protection. The hibernating place must be dry
+and for this reason sandy knolls are most favored by the insects. The
+adults emerge in the warm days of spring and then seek food first on
+the strawberry, then migrate to red and black raspberries or
+blackberries, if raspberries are not present. They remain upon these
+hosts until the grape leaves expand and then migrate to these to feed,
+lay their eggs and die.
+
+Three methods of control are in use to prevent the ravages of the
+leaf-hopper: avoiding the planting of raspberries near grapes;
+spraying with contact insecticides; and the destruction of hibernating
+places. Since the leaf-hoppers feed especially on the raspberry before
+the leaves of the grape have expanded in the spring, avoiding planting
+these two plants near each other is a very effective method of
+control. The contact spray must touch the body of the insect and must,
+therefore, be applied before the nymphs develop wings. The best spray
+is a half pint of Black Leaf 40 to a hundred gallons of water or
+bordeaux mixture. It is applied to the under side of the foliage by a
+trailing hose or by an automatic grape leaf-hopper spray devised by F.
+Z. Hartzell and described in bulletin 344 of the New York Experiment
+Station. The destruction of hibernating places is almost as effective
+a method of control as spraying. All weeds and strong-stalked grasses
+which die in the fall and all rubbish in the vineyard should be
+destroyed. It is quite worth while, also, to burn leaves and rubbish
+in fence rows and waste places near infested vineyards in the autumn
+or early winter. Cover-crops which remain green during the winter do
+not harbor the leaf-hoppers.
+
+_The grape-berry moth._
+
+This pest is widely distributed, attacking the grape wherever grown in
+North America. The insect feeds on all varieties but is especially
+destructive to grapes with tender skins and such as grow in compact
+bunches. Its work is detected usually in compact grape clusters where
+a number of berries are injured by a "worm." The "worm" is a
+dark-colored caterpillar, the larva of the grape-berry moth
+(_Polychrosis viteana_.) There are two broods of this caterpillar, the
+first of which feeds on the stems and external portions of the young
+berries, while the second attacks the berries. The loss to the
+fruit-grower is of two kinds, the loss of the fruit and the marring of
+clusters which entails the cost of picking out worthless berries.
+Figure 43 shows the work of the grape-berry moth. The damage is
+usually greatest near woodlands since the trees cause more snow to
+lodge in the adjoining vineyards, this protection permitting a greater
+percentage of pupae to survive.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43. A bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry
+moth.]
+
+The moth passes the winter in the pupal state on leaves underneath the
+vine, emerging about the time grapes are blossoming. The sexes then
+mate and the eggs are laid on the stems, blossom clusters and newly
+set fruit. After reaching full growth, the caterpillars cut out a
+portion of the leaf from which they make a pupal case by means of
+silken threads, and here pupate for the second brood which emerges in
+late July and August. Eggs are laid at once and from these come the
+caterpillars which live entirely in the berry. The larvae leave the
+berries about the time the fruit is ripe, form cocoons on the leaves
+and hibernate. The moths are small, brown in color, mottled with gray
+and so much the color of the grape cane that they can hardly be
+detected when resting on the wood.
+
+The grape-berry moth is difficult to control but much can be done to
+curtail its ravages. Spraying after the fruit sets is the most
+effective preventive. Bordeaux mixture should be used (4-4-50) to
+which has been added one and one-half pounds of resin-fish-oil soap
+and three pounds arsenate of lead. A second application of the same
+spray is advisable in early August. In a small vineyard or with a
+slight infestation, it often pays to pick and destroy the berries
+infested by the spring brood. Plowing infested vineyards in late fall
+or early spring to bury all leaves prevents the emergence of many of
+the moths. To be effective, this practice must cover the leaves deeply
+directly under the vines and this earth must remain until after the
+time for the adults to emerge. Plowing under leaves is not as
+effective on sandy as on heavy soils, since sandy soils do not become
+sufficiently compact to prevent the escape of moths.
+
+_Insect pests of minor importance._
+
+Of the 200 species of insects that feed more or less on the grape,
+entomologists mention several others than those described that in
+occasional years or localities become abundant and cause serious
+injury. Thus, there are several species of cut-worms which sometimes
+feed on the expanding buds of the young leaves of grapes. The damage
+of these cut-worms to the grape is greater in California than in other
+parts of the United States, but nevertheless they occasionally feed on
+the vines in eastern regions to the detriment of the crop. The most
+satisfactory control measure for cut-worms is the application of
+poisoned bait placed on the ground at the base of the vines.
+
+In California there is a grape root-worm (_Adoxus obscurus_) quite
+distinct from the grape root-worm of eastern America which injures
+both the roots and the parts of the vine above ground. As in the
+eastern species, the best evidence of infestation of this pest is the
+narrow chain-like strips eaten out of the leaves, though the insect
+also gouges out part of the petioles, pedicels, berries and shoots and
+works under ground, eating the rootlets and bark of the larger roots.
+Infested vines show a stunted condition, the canes fail to attain a
+normal growth and often the vines are killed outright. As in the case
+of the eastern species, this root-worm is the larva of a beetle, the
+life history of the insect not being greatly different from that of
+the eastern beetle. Two methods of control are fairly effective: the
+adult beetles may be jarred from the vine and captured on a screen
+when the infestation is restricted to small areas; or the beetles may
+be poisoned with the arsenical spray recommended for the eastern
+species. Both jarring and spraying often have to be repeated as new
+infestations appear.
+
+The grape leaf-folder (_Desmia funeralis_) is another insect pest of
+vineyards in California, and occasionally in the East, which works,
+however, only in restricted localities and in occasional years. In
+California, the insects are detected in a vineyard by the
+characteristic rolling of the leaves in which a tube rather less than
+the diameter of a lead pencil is formed for the home of the larvae. The
+larvae feed on the free edge of the leaf in the interior of the roll
+and are thus protected by the outer layers. In the East the
+caterpillar merely folds the edges of the leaves together. This
+leaf-folder hibernates as a chrysalis, coming forth in early spring to
+lay eggs on the vine shortly after the foliage has appeared. There are
+two broods in California and the northern states and three broods in
+the southern states. The leaf-folder is easily disposed of by spraying
+with an arsenical spray just after the eggs hatch and before the larva
+is protected by its roll of leaves.
+
+Still another pest found throughout the United States and especially
+destructive in California is the hawk-moth (_Pholus achemon_), the
+larvae of which occasionally do serious damage to small areas of vines.
+These larvae are very similar to the large worms, familiar to all,
+which attack the tomato and tobacco. The insect hibernates in the
+pupal state in the ground where it may be distinguished as a large
+cylindrical object of dark brown color. The moths emerge about the
+middle of May and deposit their eggs on the leaves of the grape, upon
+which the larvae when hatched immediately begin to feed. There are
+several species of these hawk-moths, all of which have essentially the
+same life history. It is not a difficult pest to control since the
+larvae are easily killed with arsenical sprays; or if there are but
+occasional specimens they may be picked by hand. There are several
+species of the hawk-moth which attack the grape but this is the common
+one.
+
+In eastern grape-growing regions, there are two other destructive
+grape insects widely distributed, but each noteworthy as pests only in
+the Appalachian region of West Virginia and neighboring states. One is
+the grape-curculio (_Craponius inaequalis_), not essentially different
+from the familiar curculio of the plum and cherry. This snout-beetle
+feeds freely on the upper surface of the leaves and the bark of fruit
+stems, and the female in laying eggs devours the tissues of the grapes
+in excavating her egg chamber. The grape-curculio is effectively
+destroyed by spraying with an arsenical spray in the spring as the
+beetles appear on the vines and before egg-laying begins.
+
+Another insect pest of this region is the grape-vine root-borer
+(_Memythrus polistiformis_) closely allied to the peach-borer, known
+by all fruit-growers and the squash-vine borer known to the growers of
+vegetables. This borer is the larva of a moth and is a whitish grub
+with a brown head which, when fully grown, is about one and
+three-quarters inches in length. The body is slender, distinctly
+segmented and has a sparse covering of short, stiff hairs. These
+larvae burrow into the grape-root, at first confining themselves to the
+softer portions of the bark, often encircling the root several times,
+but later bore with the grain of the wood and by the end of the season
+so destroy the roots as to leave only the thin membrane of the outer
+bark intact. This pest is difficult to deal with. The borers cannot be
+removed by "worming" as in the peach, and neither can the roots be
+protected by sprays or washes. No one variety of the grape seems more
+immune than another. Thorough cultivation in the months of June and
+July to destroy the insects while in their cocoons at the surface of
+the ground seems to be the only method of stopping their ravages, and
+this is not always effective.
+
+
+FUNGOUS DISEASES OF THE GRAPE
+
+The grape is ravaged by four or five fungous diseases in America,
+unless the utmost vigilance is exercised to keep the parasites in
+check. Happily for commercial viticulture, there are regions, as we
+have seen in the description of grape regions in Chapter I, so
+fortunate in their freedom from fungous diseases that there is little
+uncertainty in grape-growing and but small expense in controlling
+diseases. Also modern science has discovered the life history of all
+the important diseases and devised fairly effective means of combating
+them.
+
+All of the fungous parasites of the grape in America are indigenous,
+having long subsisted on wild vines. They are, therefore, all widely
+distributed, and as cultivation has presented to them great numbers of
+grape plants in continuous areas, the diseases have increased rapidly
+in intensity, at times have swept like wildfire through grape regions
+devastating and utterly ruining great areas of vines. Means, however,
+are now at hand in remedial and preventive treatment, which, while
+because of cost may not permit the grapes to be grown profitably in
+all parts of America, do permit their culture for home use in
+practically all agricultural districts in the country.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XVII.--Empire State (x2/3).]
+
+_Black-rot._
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44. Work of black-rot of the grape.]
+
+This is the most widely distributed and the most destructive fungous
+disease of the grape in the region east of the Rocky Mountains.
+Fortunately, it is unknown on the Pacific coast. The disease is caused
+by a parasitic fungus (_Guignardia Bidwellii_) which gains entrance to
+the grape plant by means of minute spores distributed chiefly by wind
+and rain. Black-rot passes the winter in mummied grapes, on dead
+tendrils or on small, dead areas on the canes. In the spring, the
+fungus spreads from these spots to the leaves and forms brown leaf
+spots about a fourth of an inch in diameter, or oblong, black spots on
+the shoots, leaves, petioles and tendrils. Later the disease spreads
+to the fruits, not usually attracting attention until the berries are
+at least half grown. Soon after the ravages of the fungus become
+apparent on the berries, the fruits turn black, shrivel and become
+covered with minute black pustules which contain the summer-spores.
+Figure 44 shows the work of black-rot. In the winter and spring,
+another form called the winter- or resting-spore is produced upon
+these old, shriveled, mummied berries, and these carry the disease
+over from one season to another.
+
+Since the disease is carried through the winter in mummied fruits and
+diseased wood, the desirability of destroying these mummied grapes and
+the leaves and prunings of infected vines as soon as possible is
+apparent. This treatment, however, is not sufficient, and the disease
+can be effectually controlled only by thorough spraying with bordeaux
+mixture (4-4-50). The first application should be made just before the
+grape blossoms; the second, shortly after blossoming. The amount of
+material applied matters less than evenness in distribution and
+fineness of the spray as applied. In rainy seasons, perhaps a third or
+a fourth application should be made in regions where the disease is
+serious; the third is made when the berries are the size of a pea; the
+fourth, as the berries become large enough to touch each other.
+
+_Downy-mildew._
+
+Downy-mildew (_Plasmopara viticola_) rivals black-rot for first place
+among fungous diseases of the grape. It is found in all grape regions
+east of the Rocky Mountains but does most harm in northern localities.
+Like black-rot, downy-mildew attacks all the tender growing parts of
+the vine, but is chiefly found on the foliage and is usually less
+destructive than black-rot. As first seen on the foliage, the work of
+the fungus appears as greenish-yellow, irregular spots upon the upper
+surface which later become reddish-brown. At the same time on the
+under surface of the leaf, a thin, white downy growth puts forth. The
+spores of the fungus are produced on this downy growth, and under
+favorable conditions are distributed by wind and water to all tender
+parts of the vine, where they germinate and begin their work of
+destruction. The fruit is attacked when partly grown, as shown in Fig.
+45, becoming covered with the gray down of the fungus, the "gray-rot"
+of the grape-grower. If the berries escape the disease until half
+grown, the fungus causes a brownish-purple spot that soon covers the
+whole grape, giving the disease at this stage the name of "brown-rot."
+Besides the summer-spores, another form of reproductive bodies is
+produced in the winter to carry the fungus through the resting period.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45. Grapes attacked by downy-mildew.]
+
+Downy-mildew, like black-rot, spreads most rapidly and does most
+injury in hot, wet weather. As with practically all diseases of the
+grape, much can be accomplished in the way of control of the disease
+by destroying infested leaves, shoots and berries which contain the
+winter spores, but these sanitary measures are not sufficiently
+effective and vineyards must be sprayed as recommended for black-rot,
+except that the first application should be made before the
+blossom-buds appear.
+
+_Powdery-mildew._
+
+Less troublesome than downy-mildew in the East, powdery-mildew
+(_Uncinula necator_), unless checked, is capable of destroying the
+entire crop of European grapes on the Pacific slope. In the East it
+sometimes causes great loss on the several varieties known as "Rogers
+hybrids" and, curiously enough, is often a rather serious disease of
+the Concord. The disease is caused by a superficial fungus which
+passes the winter on fallen leaves and also on the canes. The spores
+begin to germinate a few weeks after the grape blossoms, but the
+disease is not often found until the grapes are nearly half grown. The
+fine white filaments of the fungus, which constitute the vegetative
+portion of the parasite, then attack the leaves, shoots and fruit,
+sending up short irregular branches on which great numbers of spores
+are borne. These give the upper surface of the leaf a gray, powdery
+appearance, hence the name. Eventually the diseased leaves become
+light brown and if the disease is severe, soon fall. Infected berries
+take on a gray, scurfy appearance, speckled with brown, are checked in
+growth and often burst on one side, exposing the seeds. The berries,
+however, do not become soft and shrunken as when attacked by the
+downy-mildew. The disease passes the winter in resting-spores produced
+late in the growing season. Powdery-mildew differs from other fungous
+diseases of the grape in being more prevalent in hot, dry seasons than
+in cold, wet ones.
+
+In eastern America powdery-mildew is controlled by the treatment
+recommended for black-rot. When black-rot is not prevalent, two sprays
+with bordeaux mixture are recommended; the first in early July and the
+second about two weeks later. On the Pacific coast, however,
+powdery-mildew or "oidium" as it is often called there, the name
+coming from Europe, is more cheaply and more successfully combated by
+dusting with flowers of sulfur. Dusting is often done by hand or with
+perforated cans but this is wasteful and uncertain, and any one of
+several sulfur-sprayers may be used which does the work better.
+
+_Anthracnose._
+
+Another widespread disease is anthracnose (_Sphaceloma ampelinum_),
+called "birds-eye-rot" because of the peculiar spots produced on the
+affected fruits, which attacks leaves, shoots and fruits of the vine.
+It first appears on the leaves in small, irregular, dark brown sunken
+spots with a dark margin. Later it appears on the fruits, having much
+the same appearance though the spots are usually larger and more
+sunken, the disease being most characteristic on the fruit, however.
+Frequently two or more spots unite and so cover the greater part of
+the berry. The fruits become hard, more or less wrinkled, and the
+diseased area often ruptures, exposing the seed, much as with
+powdery-mildew. The spores of the fungus are produced in great numbers
+on diseased areas during the growing season and are borne on
+thread-like filaments which live throughout the winter in the tissues
+of the vine and are ready for new growth in the spring. Winter-spores
+have not yet been discovered.
+
+Anthracnose is widely distributed in eastern America but seldom causes
+great or general loss, most of the commercial grapes being relatively
+immune to the disease. A few sorts rather commonly grown in home
+vineyards, as Diamond, Brighton and Agawam, suffer most from
+anthracnose. Spraying with bordeaux mixture, as recommended for
+black-rot, is usually sufficient to keep the disease in check.
+
+_Dead-arm disease._
+
+A troublesome disease of recent appearance is now doing considerable
+damage in the Chautauqua grape-belt along the shores of Lake Erie,
+being most common on the Concord. From the fact that it is usually
+found on one arm of the vine it is called "dead-arm disease"
+(_Cryptosporella viticola_.) The disease is caused by a fungus which
+passes the winter in small, black fruiting bodies in the dead parts of
+the vine. Early in the spring the fungus spreads by means of spores to
+the young shoots and later in the season attacks mature berries,
+producing small, black, oblong spots of black-rot. Sooner or later, if
+the diseased shoot is not cut off, the fungus spreads to the arms or
+trunk of the vine, producing a slow, dry rot which eventually kills
+the affected part. Fortunately, the presence of the disease is quickly
+detected by small yellowish leaves, much crimped about the margin.
+
+The fungus is easily controlled by marking the diseased arms when the
+first symptoms appear and cutting these off at pruning time. If the
+vine is much mutilated by such pruning, usually suckers can be brought
+up from beneath the surface of the ground to renew the vine. The
+applications of bordeaux mixture recommended for black-rot are
+valuable in preventing the dead-arm disease. The disease is largely
+prevented by renewing the old wood of the vine as soon as the trunk
+begins to show a gnarled appearance.
+
+_Shelling._
+
+In eastern America, especially in the Chautauqua grape-belt,
+grape-growers not infrequently lose a large part of the crop by the
+premature falling of the grapes from the stems. The trouble is an
+ancient one and is designated as "shelling" or "rattling." This
+premature dropping usually begins at the end of a cluster, and
+clusters farthest from the trunk are earliest affected. When vineyards
+suffer badly from this shelling, the vines often take on a sickly
+appearance, the foliage falling off in color and the outer margins of
+the leaves drying up more or less. The fallen fruit has an insipid
+taste and is, of course, worthless even if it could be harvested.
+
+The cause of the trouble is not known. Grapes may "rattle" on high
+land or low land, on poor soil or rich soil, on heavy or light soil. A
+vineyard may be affected one year and not the next. Grape-growers
+usually attribute the trouble to faulty nutrition, but applications of
+fertilizers have not proved a preventive. Old and well-established
+vineyards seem freer from the trouble than new and poorly established
+plantings. The most reasonable theory as to the cause of shelling is
+that it comes from faulty nutrition of the vine, but the conditions so
+affecting the nutrition are not yet satisfactorily determined.
+
+_Diseases of minor importance._
+
+Ripe-rot or bitter-rot (_Glomerella rufomaculans_) is a disease due to
+the same fungus causing the bitter-rot of the apple. As the name
+indicates, the disease usually appears on the fruit at ripening time
+and under favorable conditions continues after the grapes are picked.
+It may also attack the leaves and stems. The first indication of the
+fungus is the appearance of reddish-brown spots which spread and
+eventually cover the whole fruit. The berries do not shrivel, but the
+rotted surface becomes dotted with pustules in which the spores are
+borne. It is hard to tell how much damage this disease does, but it is
+not usually great and the late applications of bordeaux mixture for
+black-rot or powdery-mildew are very effective in controlling it.
+
+Crown-gall, now known to be a bacterial disease which causes knots or
+galls on the roots of various wild and cultivated plants, sometimes
+attacks grape roots or even the vines above ground. Occasionally, the
+disease is rather serious, but it is not often to be reckoned with in
+the vineyard regions of America. Fungicides are useless in combating
+the disease and all that can be done is to exercise great care in
+planting infected stock. It is doubtful whether crown-gall ever
+seriously injures vines in northern regions, although it may
+occasionally do so in the South.
+
+In California there is a somewhat mysterious disease known as "Anaheim
+disease," because of its having first made its appearance in the
+vicinity of Anaheim. As near as can be learned, the disease first
+appeared in 1884 and then spread rapidly from forty to fifty miles
+from the point where it began its ravages, causing direct and indirect
+loss of many millions of dollars, and leading to the abandonment of
+grape-growing in some parts of southern California. Fortunately, in
+recent years the Anaheim disease is less aggressive but still does
+more or less damage. The nature and the treatment of this disease are
+not as yet fully determined, although several experimenters are
+studying the trouble. Californians whose vineyards suffer from this
+disease should apply to the experiment station at Berkeley for the
+latest information in regard to it.
+
+Coulure is another trouble of the vine in California of which little
+is yet known, either as to cause or treatment. The term signifies the
+failure of the fruit to set or to remain on the clusters. The trouble
+occurs in varying degrees from the loss of a few berries to the
+complete shelling of the fruit from the stem. It is worse in some
+localities than others and in some varieties than others. Various
+causes have been assigned to the disease, chief of which, and most
+probable, are unfavorable climatic conditions.
+
+
+CONTROL OF INSECTS AND DISEASES
+
+From the number of insects and diseases found on the grape, it would
+seem that, literally, "pestilence walketh in darkness and destruction
+wasteth at noonday" in the vineyards of the country. But not many of
+the ills that grape-flesh is heir to are ever found in one region, and
+the vineyard is seldom attacked by many diseases or insects in a
+single season. There was a time, as we have said before, when
+grape-growers were so beset by pests which they could not control,
+that viticulture was one of the most uncertain fields in agriculture.
+But one brilliant discovery after another has brought the pests of the
+grape under the hand of man until now there are but few that need
+cause much expense in treatment or worry as to the outcome.
+
+Plants cannot be attacked by diseases unless infection is permitted.
+It follows that by proper sanitation most of the insect pests of the
+vine can be kept out of the vineyard.
+
+_Vineyard sanitation._
+
+By changing or modifying environment, immunity can be secured from
+many of the pests of the grape and damage may be reduced with most if
+not all. Cultivation, as has been noted under several insect pests and
+one or two of the diseases of the grape, is an effective method of
+eliminating grape pests. In the case of insects, it destroys the
+insects themselves and the hibernating places as well. The vineyard
+should never be kept in sod, but always under thorough and frequent
+cultivation. Vineyard sanitation is greatly improved, also, if
+cover-crops which remain green during the winter are planted after the
+last cultivation. Cultivation should usually be preceded by deep
+plowing in the fall or spring to turn under fallen leaves and weeds or
+grass in which hibernating insects may pass the winter.
+
+The surroundings of the vineyard should be looked after. Fence-rows
+and waste lands which cannot be cultivated may often be burned over to
+destroy the hibernating places of grape insects. As a rule, it is
+unwise to plant the bramble berries or even strawberries in
+vineyards, or adjoining vineyards, since these plants afford
+hibernating places and food plants for some of the grape insects,
+especially the destructive leaf-hopper. Lastly, precaution should be
+taken by destroying all wild grape-vines near vineyards, as these
+frequently harbor insects and diseases, the flea-beetle finding the
+wild grape-vine almost a necessity to its existence.
+
+_Spraying._
+
+Definite rules cannot be laid down for spraying vineyards the country
+over. The literature on this subject is plentiful in any state in
+which grapes are largely grown, within the reach of the grape-grower,
+and is not difficult to understand once it is in hand. Every
+grape-grower should secure and study the publications of the state
+experiment stations having to do with the control of insects and
+diseases.
+
+The number of applications and the sprays to be used vary greatly in
+different parts of America. On the Pacific slope the only application
+yearly required in most vineyard regions is dusting with flowers of
+sulfur for powdery-mildew. Several other pests may, however, from year
+to year, or in one locality or another, require special treatment. In
+the grape regions of New York, many grape-growers do not spray at all,
+but these are usually slovens or procrastinators whose profits are
+small and uncertain. In the grape regions of the northeastern states,
+orderly vineyardists spray at least once with bordeaux mixture
+(4-4-50) in which is put three pounds of arsenate of lead, no matter
+how few insects and fungi are present. This treatment is given soon
+after the blossoms fall. In more southern regions it may be necessary
+to make a similar treatment soon after the first leaves appear, again
+after the blossoms fall and every two weeks thereafter until the
+grapes begin to turn in color, making as many as four, five or even
+six applications in all. To these regular applications of bordeaux
+mixture and arsenate of lead, contact insecticides, as some of the
+nicotine preparations, may have to be added; or, for special purposes
+as specified in discussing the several pests, cheap molasses is added.
+It is doubtful, however, whether the grape can be grown with
+commercial success where insects and fungi prevail and are so
+pestiferous as to require annually more than two or three applications
+of spraying mixtures.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XVIII.--Herbert (x2/3).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+MARKETING THE CROPS AND VINEYARD RETURNS
+
+
+Viticulture, as all divisions of agriculture, is made up of two quite
+distinct phases of activity: growing the crop and marketing the crop.
+The subjects to be treated in this and the next chapter belong rather
+more to marketing than to cultural activities. Treated in detail,
+these operations constitute matter sufficient for a separate treatise,
+and only an outline of present practices is in place in a text such as
+this devoted to the culture of the fruit. The several operations to be
+discussed are picking, packing, storing, shipping and marketing.
+
+
+HARVESTING IN THE EAST AND NORTH
+
+As the consummation of the care of the vine, the in-gathering of the
+crop is celebrated in all European countries with rejoicings in song,
+dance and mirth. In America the vintage is less of an event than in
+Europe, but it is more picturesque and diverting than the harvest of
+most other crops. It is work in which youth and old age, as well as
+those in the prime of life in both sexes, can take part and is reputed
+as a most healthful occupation. For these reasons, the grape harvest
+in America, as in Europe, has somewhat the air of a holiday, so that
+workers are usually readily found for the several operations of
+harvesting. Laborers come as grapes begin to ripen from near-by cities
+and towns and neighboring country-sides in such numbers that the care
+of the crop is speedily accomplished.
+
+_Pickers._
+
+As a rule, pickers are hired by the piece rather than by the day,
+experience having demonstrated that so paid they do more and better
+work. There is usually much diversity in race, age and condition of
+life of pickers so that harmonious and efficient work is scarcely
+possible without a competent foreman in charge who must often be
+assisted by a sub-foreman. Efficient supervision doubles the picking
+capacity of a gang of workers, and, moreover, is necessary to see that
+the fruit is picked and packed with proper care. In hiring pickers, it
+is usually stipulated that a part of the pay is to be reserved until
+the close of the season; otherwise those disposed to have a holiday
+leave when the weather becomes unpleasant or seek greener pastures
+when the grapes become scarce.
+
+_Time to pick._
+
+Unlike some fruits, grapes must not be picked until they are fully
+ripe, as unripe grapes do not mature after picking. Grapes not matured
+lack the necessary percentage of sugar and solids to keep well and
+have not developed their full flavor. Many growers make the mistake of
+sending grapes to the market before fully ripe, a mistake easily made
+with some varieties because they acquire full color before full
+maturity. Color, therefore, is not a good guide as to the time to
+pick. In the northern and eastern states, late varieties of grapes may
+be allowed to hang on the vines for some little time after maturity,
+the late autumn suns giving them a higher degree of sweetness and
+perfection. Some growers run the risks of light frosts to further
+maturity and to secure the added advantage of the removal of many
+leaves from the vines. Ripeness is indicated by a combination of signs
+difficult to describe but easily learned by experience. These signs
+are: first, a characteristic color; second, full development of flavor
+and aroma; third, a softer texture of the pulp and a slight
+thickening of the juice so that it is more or less sticky; fourth, the
+ends of the stems turn from green to brown; fifth, the berries pull
+more readily from their stems; sixth, the seeds are free or more
+nearly free from the pulp and usually turn from green to brown.
+
+_Picking appliances._
+
+But few appliances are needed in picking grapes. Shears are a
+necessity. These are of special make and can be bought from dealers in
+horticultural supplies, costing from 75 cents to $1. Some growers,
+after picking, pack the fruit in the field in the receptacles in which
+it is to go to market. The greater number, however, pick in trays
+which are taken to the packing-house and allowed to stand until the
+fruit is wilted before packing for shipment. Trays may be of several
+sizes and shapes, but are usually shallow flats holding from
+twenty-five to thirty-five pounds. The picked fruit is taken from the
+vineyard to the packing-shed in a wagon with flexible springs to
+prevent jarring and jolting. Large growers usually have specially
+built one-horse platform wagons, the front wheels of which pass under
+the platform.
+
+_Picking accounts._
+
+It is no small matter to keep a picking account with pickers.
+Business-like growers use one of several kinds of tickets or tags in
+keeping accounts. Probably the most common method is to give a ticket
+to the picker when the receptacle of grapes is delivered, the grower
+either keeping half of the original or a duplicate of it. Objections
+to ticket systems are that the pickers often lose the tickets, are
+irregular in returning them, or exchange them with other pickers. To
+obviate the disadvantages of tickets, some growers use tags which bear
+the picker's name and are attached to his person. These tags have
+marginal numbers or divisions which are canceled by a punch as
+pickers deliver the grapes. Still another method is to keep book
+accounts with each picker in which case payment is made by the pound,
+each receptacle being put on the scales as brought in from the field,
+credit being given for the number of pounds. It is the duty of those
+in charge to see that each picker finishes the row or the part of the
+row to which he is assigned, and that he does not wander over the
+vineyard in search of the best picking.
+
+_Packing-houses and their appliances._
+
+The commercial grape-grower must have a house for packing and storing.
+Houses differ in design and fitting for almost every vineyard.
+Sometimes the house is a combination one for packing and storing.
+Often the packing-house is a halfway place between the vineyard and
+the shipping station, in which case it is an open shed or a lightly
+constructed building. In these field packing-houses there are usually
+no provisions for storing. The better types of combined houses are
+provided with a cellar for the storage of grapes, the first floor is
+used for packing, and the attic provides a place for the storage of
+baskets and crates. In all such houses provision must be made for
+thorough ventilation, especially for the storage cellar if the grapes
+are to be kept for any length of time. Properly ventilated, the
+temperature of the grape cellar can be kept as low as 50 deg. F. during
+September and October. The cellar floor in these houses is usually of
+dirt better to regulate the moisture-content of the room. Often the
+first floor is divided into two rooms, one to be used for
+packing and the other as a shipping room. A good combination
+packing-and-storage-house of this type can be built for $1000 to
+$2000. Now that cold storage facilities can be secured in most
+grape-growing regions, and the rates of storage are becoming more
+reasonable, there is less need of storage-houses.
+
+Packing-houses are so simple in construction and may be so different
+in design that it is neither possible nor necessary to describe them
+in detail. A building that protects the workers from the elements and
+affords conveniences in packing serves the purpose. Such a
+packing-house, which is often located in the vineyard, should be well
+lighted, should be connected with the storage-room for baskets and
+should have advantages for delivering the packages from the
+storage-room to the packing-room and from the packing-room to the
+shipping-room. Its size will depend on the quantities of grapes to be
+packed. The house must be built so that it can be kept clean and
+sweet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46. Packing grapes on a packing-table.]
+
+Every packing-house, whatever the design, must be furnished with
+tables for holding the trays while the fruit is being packed. Usually
+these tables are so made that the picking trays are set before the
+packers on an inclined table. The packer transfers the grapes from the
+trays into the baskets in which the fruit is to be sold. The trays of
+grapes as they come from the field are set before the worker, who then
+packs the fruit into the basket from the left. As the baskets are
+filled, they are placed on a flat ledge or shelf in front of the
+packer and are then taken off by an attendant. Empty baskets are
+usually held in store on a higher shelf convenient to the packer and
+from time to time are replenished by the attendant. Figure 46 shows a
+packing-table of the kind just described. Sometimes the packing-table
+is circular and revolves, the packers sitting about the table. The
+baskets are held on the lap and the packer takes the grapes off the
+table which is turned as fresh fruit is brought in. This circular
+table is not in general use; its only advantage is that it permits the
+packer to select from a larger quantity of fruit.
+
+_Grading grapes._
+
+Grapes are more easily graded than most other fruits; for usually
+there are but two grades, firsts and culls. It is difficult to specify
+exactly what firsts are, since a number of factors must be considered
+which bring in play the judgment of the grader. At least, firsts must
+have the following qualities: The bunches must be approximately
+uniform in size; there must be few or no berries missing from the
+stems; the grapes must be fully ripe, of a uniform degree of ripeness
+and uniformly colored; and the fruit must be free from insect and
+fungous injuries. It is easier to give specifications for culls, since
+all grapes not firsts are culls.
+
+In large vineyards, only good fruit or the best fruit is worth
+grading. It is more advisable to sell poor fruit by the ton with
+little or no grading. It follows, also, that the higher the price, the
+more special the market, and the more carefully the crop is picked,
+the more profitable it is to grade. The work of grading is done in the
+packing-shed when the fruit is transferred from the trays into the
+selling receptacles. A pair of slender scissors made for the purpose,
+to be purchased from dealers in horticultural supplies, is used to
+trim out diseased and crushed berries. The fruit must be permitted to
+wilt for a few hours, a half day or overnight, before it can be graded
+to advantage. In this work of grading, the greatest care should be
+taken to keep the fruit clean and fresh, to sort out broken bunches
+and to preserve the bloom. The less handling, the more finely finished
+is the product.
+
+_Grape packages in eastern grape regions._
+
+Packages for grapes are less varied than those for any other fruit,
+selling receptacles in the states east of the Rocky Mountains being
+much the same for all regions. Dessert grapes are universally packed
+in gift packages--that is, packages which are given away when the
+fruit is sold--and this insures a clean dainty package. It seems
+imperative that a uniform style of package should be used the country
+over for the general market, but up until this time, although there
+have been both national and state laws passed, uniformity has not been
+secured. A national law is needed establishing standard commercial
+packages so that the grower may safely ship from one state to another
+without being a law-breaker. Such a package should be based on
+cubic-measure and not on weight as is often advocated; for grapes
+cannot be shipped without some loss from sampling in transit; and
+there are also losses in weight by evaporation so that the grower,
+although trying to comply with the law, may become technically a
+law-breaker if the standard is based on weight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47. Climax baskets in two sizes.]
+
+The most popular package for the grape in eastern grape regions is the
+Climax basket made in various styles and sizes. These are cheap,
+easily packed and handled, nest well in shipment and are durable.
+Three sizes are commonest in use, the five-pound, the ten-pound and
+the twenty-pound basket. The five-pound basket usually holds only a
+little over four pounds; the ten-pound about eight pounds; and the
+twenty-pound rather less than twenty pounds. Two sizes of Climax
+baskets are shown in Fig. 47. It is commonly understood, however, that
+the packages are short in weight, and as grapes are retailed by the
+basket and not by the pound, short weight does not really deceive.
+
+These baskets are made of thin wood veneer with a light wood binding
+at the top and bottom. The cover is of wood and is usually fastened on
+with staples. The handle is either of wood or of wire. When well made,
+the baskets are firm and symmetrical, without splinters and are clean
+and white. Packages carried over from year to year become dingy in
+color, but the wood may be whitened by fumigating in the storage-room
+with sulfur. The baskets also become yellow and discolored if left in
+the sun and must, therefore, be stored in clean, dark, dry rooms.
+
+When grapes are sold by weight to manufacturers of wine or
+grape-juice, they are usually delivered in the picking trays which, if
+the market is near at hand, are always returned. If they are to be
+shipped far, they go to market in twenty-pound baskets or bushel
+baskets, although the latter are not regarded with favor by consumers.
+
+_Packing._
+
+Grapes packed indoors, as has been said, are allowed to stand from a
+few to twenty-four hours after being picked to permit them to wilt.
+When thus wilted they are much more easily packed and do not shrink in
+transportation, so that the basket usually reaches the market well
+filled with fruit. Each bunch of grapes is placed separately in the
+basket after all unmarketable berries have been removed. The bunches
+are arranged in concentric tiers, the top layer being placed with
+special care. When the basket is filled, the grapes rise a little
+above the level of the basket, care being taken not to have the fruit
+project too much so that the grapes will be crushed when putting on
+the cover. In all this work, the berries are handled as little as
+possible, so as not to destroy the bloom. Care is taken, also, that
+the fruit is free from spraying material and is otherwise clean and
+fresh. Much less pains need be taken when the grapes are packed in
+trays to be sold by weight, but even in this there must be method in
+filling the trays, otherwise there will be many open spaces and
+corners between bunches.
+
+Practically all commercial grape-growers now use labels on their
+packages. These not only add to the attractiveness of the packages,
+but are a guarantee of the contents, both as to name of the variety
+and the quality of the fruit. These labels are, also, a sign by which
+a grower's fruit may be distinguished and are, therefore, a valuable
+advertising medium. Some growers have registered their labels in the
+United States Patent Office in order to prevent others from using
+them. Obviously, it is not desirable or worth while to label a poor
+grade of grapes.
+
+_Storing grapes._
+
+The commercial grape-grower now stores his grapes in cold storage
+warehouses if he keeps them any length of time after harvesting. There
+is no question but that keeping a part of the crop in artificially
+cooled houses is a great benefit to the grape-grower, since it
+prolongs the season for selling by some three or four months.
+Formerly, native grapes could be secured in general markets only until
+Thanksgiving time or thereabouts, but now American grapes are very
+generally offered for sale in January and February, while the European
+grapes from California are in the market nearly the year around. The
+grape-grower need make little or no preparation of his product in
+putting it in cold storage except to make sure that the product is
+first class in every respect. It would be a waste of money and effort
+to attempt to store any but clean, sound, well-matured, well-packed
+grapes. The grape-grower, however, seldom need concern himself with
+storing, since the crop is usually stored by the buyers.
+
+Few small growers seem to have learned the art of keeping grapes in
+common storage, There are but few difficulties in keeping European
+grapes for several months after picking if they are stored under
+favorable conditions. Not all, but several of the native grapes may
+also be kept practically throughout the winter if proper precautions
+are taken. Among these varieties Catawba is the standard winter sort,
+but Diana, Iona, Isabella, Rogers' hybrids and Vergennes, all rather
+commonly grown, may be kept by the small grower.
+
+To insure keeping, these native grapes must be handled most carefully.
+The fruit is picked a few days before it is dead ripe and the bunches
+placed in trays holding forty or fifty pounds. It is important that
+the temperature be reduced gradually so that there are no sudden
+changes. If the nights are cool, a valuable aid is to leave the grapes
+out-of-doors in crates the night after they are picked, placing them
+in a cool building or dry cellar early the next morning. The cellar or
+store-room should be well ventilated and should be such that the
+temperature is not variable, care being taken that the air in every
+part of the storage room is changed. Draughts, however, should be
+avoided or stems and berries will shrivel. If a temperature from 40 deg.
+to 50 deg. can be maintained, the varieties named may be kept until March
+or April. An expensive store-room is not necessary and ice to cool the
+room is not only unnecessary but undesirable.
+
+If the storage-room is too dry, the grapes wilt and lose flavor; if,
+on the other hand, the atmosphere is too damp, the grapes mold. It is
+essential, therefore, to strike a medium between an atmosphere too dry
+and one too wet. It is possible that a light fumigation with sulfur or
+formaldehyde might help to keep down molds in these common storage
+grape-rooms, but as to the value of fumigation there seems to be no
+experimental evidence.
+
+Grapes grown on clay lands are said to be firmer and to keep better
+than those grown on gravel or lighter soils. Some years ago there was
+an association in Ohio known as The Clay-Growers Association which
+handled only grapes grown on clay lands. The members of this
+association believed that their grapes were much more desirable for
+storage than grapes from regions where the soil was lighter.
+
+
+HARVESTING AND HANDLING MUSCADINE GRAPES
+
+The Muscadine grapes of the South Atlantic and Gulf states are unique
+in vine and fruit, are used for different purposes and go to different
+markets from the grapes of the North, so that they may be considered
+almost a distinct fruit. Not only are cultural requirements peculiar
+to this fruit, as we have seen, but the methods of harvesting and
+marketing are quite distinct. These are well set forth by Husmann and
+Dearing[18] as follows:
+
+"Rotundifolia vines have been almost entirely grown on overhead arbors
+in the past, the fruit being made into wine, and under such conditions
+the general practice of jarring the grapes from the vines is perhaps
+the most practical method of harvesting. If the vines are trained to
+upright trellises or if the fruit is intended for shipping or table
+use the grapes should be picked by hand in order to be sound and
+clean. On account of the presence of leaves, twigs, etc., mixed with
+the grapes jarred from the vines, wine and grape-juice manufacturers
+will pay 5 to 15 cents a bushel more for hand-picked grapes. The
+growers who make a practice of hand picking claim that the work can be
+done at practically no greater expense than is necessary to shake off
+and clean a crop, and the increased price obtained for the fruit will
+more than pay the difference.
+
+"A description of the harvesting of the Rotundifolia grapes by the
+jarring method will be interesting to those not familiar with it.
+Poles are attached to sheets of canvas measuring 6 by 12 feet and
+having leather handles. A man is placed at each end of the sheets and
+four men with two sheets work together. The wide sides of the two
+sheets are brought close together under each vine, with the trunk of
+the vine in the middle. The vines are then jarred, the berries falling
+into the sheets. Those not caught by the sheets or that have fallen to
+the ground by the shaking of the trellis when the fruit of the
+adjoining vines was harvested, etc., and which are usually of the best
+quality, are picked by hand. The writers are informed that it costs
+approximately 15 cents a bushel to harvest the fruit on the ground and
+12 cents to harvest that which falls on the sheets.
+
+"The fruit is put in boxes or barrels, and if the quantity is not
+large the leaves, sticks, etc., which become mixed with the fruit are
+removed by hand. If there is a considerable quantity of fruit some
+mechanical means, such as ordinary grain fan mills, are used to clean
+it. After cleaning, the fruit is hauled or shipped to the winery. In
+wineries with modern equipment there are blowers which thoroughly
+clean the fruit. These are located near the end of the elevators that
+carry the fruit to the crusher.
+
+"A common and very objectionable practice followed in harvesting
+Rotundifolia grapes, especially by the jarring method, is that of
+gathering the fruit all at once, whereas there should be at least
+three periods of harvesting. When harvested at one time the best
+quality of fruit ripens, falls to the ground, and is lost before the
+harvest is commenced and the last part of the crop is thrashed from
+the vines in a half-ripe condition along with the ripe fruit. In this
+manner not only is the first and best fruit entirely lost, but the
+harvested fruit is inferior in quality, which necessarily results in a
+poor product from the entire yield."
+
+_Returns from Muscadine grapes._
+
+"Great variations occur in the yields from Rotundifolia vines. At
+times there are record-breaking yields and, again, small yields are
+reported, the small yields resulting from black-rot, coulure, wet
+weather, self-sterility, lack of cultivation, fertilization, lack of
+pruning, age of vines, and various other causes. In spite of this,
+Rotundifolia vines are said to be among the safest and most prolific
+of fruit-bearing plants. While in one of the largest Rotundifolia
+vineyards there has been only a partial crop during the last three
+years, owing to various causes, another grower reports a yield of 177
+bushels of grapes from 4-year-old James vines, in addition to a bale
+of cotton to the acre. A Florida grower estimated his crop of white
+Rotundifolia and Thomas grapes for the season of 1911 at 280 bushels
+to the acre. An average yield of 27 bushels an acre from 4-year-old
+vines, 100 bushels from 5-year-old vines, and 150 bushels to the acre
+when the vines are in full bearing should be obtained.
+
+"The prices paid for Rotundifolia grapes depend on the season, the
+quality of fruit, and the market. In years when the crop is short
+better prices are usually paid than when there is a heavy crop. Aside
+from the grapes sold and shipped to wineries, grapes as a rule sell
+for more in the cities and larger towns than in smaller places, the
+local demand being somewhat in proportion to the population. In such
+localities fruit of good quality will bring a much better price than
+inferior fruit. Hand-picked fruit in half-bushel peach baskets or in
+berry boxes usually brings from $1 to $2 per bushel. Grapes harvested
+by jarring are usually sent to the wineries and bring an average of 75
+cents per bushel of 60 pounds. The highest price paid for this quality
+of fruit was reached in 1910, when $2.25 per bushel (f.o.b. shipping
+point) was paid for white Rotundifolia.
+
+"In many localities certain growers have built up quite a reputation
+for themselves in choice, hand-picked fruit, which they ship to
+special customers in distant markets. For this purpose the James
+variety is usually grown because the berries adhere well and are of
+good size and flavor. Several growers ship as far north as New York
+and Boston, getting from $2.00 to $2.50 gross per bushel crate. In
+shipping, three styles of carriers are used--the 24-box strawberry
+crate, the 6-basket peach crate, and the 8-pound basket. More
+attention should be given to this phase of the industry. The varieties
+best suited for shipping are the James, Memory, Flowers, and Mish.
+
+"In the fall of 1910 shipments of the James, Thomas, and Eden
+varieties were sent from the Rotundifolia experiment vineyard at
+Willard, N. C., to Washington D. C., part of the consignment being in
+strawberry boxes and the remainder in bushel baskets. No important
+difference could be noted in the two lots on their arrival in
+Washington. The James variety arrived in perfect condition in both
+packages; of the Eden 30 per cent and of the Thomas 35 per cent had
+shelled. More extensive experiments along this line are contemplated."
+
+
+HANDLING THE GRAPE IN CALIFORNIA
+
+Grapes are grown in California for three purposes, wine, raisins and
+the table. The handling of the crop for raisins and wine is best taken
+up in a discussion of these products in the chapter on by-products of
+the grape, leaving only table grapes to be discussed at this place.
+
+The table-grape industry of the Pacific slope is dependent on the wide
+distribution of the product in eastern markets for a profitable sale
+of the crop, since production is so great that but a small part of the
+crop is consumed in the markets of the Pacific slope. The growers in
+this region, therefore, have special problems, chief of which are
+those of successful shipment over long distances. California annually
+ships in the neighborhood of 10,000 carloads of table grapes, all of
+which must be handled within a period of about two months. As
+competition increases, it becomes more and more necessary to extend
+the area over which the fruit is to be sold; to lengthen the marketing
+season through cold storage; and for both of these purposes to devise
+new or to improve present methods of handling the fruit. The two
+requisites for the successful shipment of this great bulk of grapes
+are: The fruit must reach the markets in sound condition; and it must
+have sufficient market-holding quality to remain sound for a
+considerable length of time after it arrives in the markets.
+Experience has thoroughly demonstrated to grape-growers in California
+that decay in grapes is largely dependent on the presence of injuries
+to the grape berries, to the pedicels or to the stems of the bunches.
+Methods of handling grapes, therefore, and the type of package used,
+must be such that the product is injured as little as possible.
+
+_Careful handling._
+
+In the shipment of European grapes from California, it has been found
+that it pays to go to much extra trouble in handling the crop. The
+bunches are picked with care to avoid bruising or crushing berries,
+and as far as possible they are lifted only by the main stems. They
+are then laid with care in the picking trays which are filled only one
+layer deep. In moving the trays to the packing-house, they are handled
+carefully, the trays being moved only on wagons with springs. In
+sorting, special care is taken to remove all injured and unsound
+berries and not to injure others in the bunch, here again handling the
+clusters by the stems. In packing, the bunches are placed firmly in
+the baskets with care not to crush or bruise the stems or to injure
+the pedicels of the berries. A slight injury of either berry or
+pedicel permits the spores of the fungus causing decay to gain
+entrance into the fruit.
+
+_Shipping packages._
+
+The most common package for table-grapes in California is a square
+basket holding about five pounds. These baskets are placed for
+shipment in fours in crates. The bunches of some varieties may be too
+large for these small baskets, and these extra large-clustered grapes
+are packed in oblong baskets holding in the neighborhood of eight
+pounds, two baskets filling a crate. No good filler seems yet to have
+been devised for packing grapes in California. The cork dust in which
+grapes from the Mediterranean are received is not available and a good
+substitute has not yet been found. Sawdust is sometimes used but has
+not proved satisfactory in holding the decay and the fruit absorbs
+disagreeable flavors from the wood. Occasionally, however, grapes from
+California are sent to eastern markets packed in dry redwood sawdust
+and these seem to come through in good condition and not to have
+absorbed a disagreeable flavor. Reports seem to indicate that this
+specially selected redwood sawdust is proving much better than the
+ordinary sawdust experimented with some years ago.
+
+_Shipping._
+
+Considerable work has been done by the United States Department of
+Agriculture to determine how table-grapes could best be shipped from
+the far West and reach the eastern markets in good condition. The crop
+is, of course, shipped in refrigerator cars and much depends on the
+cooling of these cars and especially on the temperature at which the
+grapes are kept while in transit. To carry well over the 3000 miles of
+mountain and desert, heat and cold, the best type of refrigerator car
+must be used. It does not appear that the pre-cooling so advantageous
+to citrous and other tree-fruits is worth the trouble and expense with
+table-grapes, as it does not seem to prevent decay. Cooling cannot be
+substituted for careful handling, which seems as yet the most
+necessary precaution to be taken in the preparation of these grapes
+for eastern shipment.
+
+
+MARKETING
+
+Table-grapes from both eastern and western grape regions are now
+almost entirely shipped in carload lots. Since few grape-growers are
+prepared to load a car quickly with grapes, some kind of cooeperation
+is required, or the crop must be handled by large buyers. Cooeperative
+methods are becoming more and more popular, although a large part of
+the grape crop, both East and West, is now handled by buyers.
+
+There are several important advantages in selling through a
+cooeperative organization. Thus, in selling cooeperatively, the grapes
+are graded and packed in accordance with one standard; more favorable
+transportation rates can be secured by a cooeperative association; and,
+most important of all, the output can be distributed to the grape
+markets of the country without the disastrous competition that attends
+individual marketing. In some of these organizations, also, supplies
+needed by the grape-grower in producing a crop are purchased more
+economically than by individuals; in particular, grape packages can be
+purchased better by an organization than by an individual.
+
+As the grape industry and competition grow in the different regions of
+the country, the necessity of forming marketing organizations becomes
+greater. Such organizations must be founded on the principles which
+many experiments have shown best govern fruit-marketing associations.
+It is not possible to discuss these principles at length, but the
+following fundamentals will suffice:
+
+An ideal cooeperative association is one in which there are no profits
+nor dividends. Every member of the whole organized association is a
+producer. All of the product grown by a member is sold through the
+association. The association is democratic, all members having an
+equal voice in its management and all sharing alike in its successes
+and failures. When profits arise of necessity, they are distributed to
+the members of the association in proportion to the amount of business
+each has done. The work of the organization is conducted at as near
+cost as possible and profits are declared only after expenses,
+depreciation, interest on capital for future operations are deducted.
+Thus it is seen that the plan of the organization is to give each
+member as nearly as possible the exact price his fruit has brought in
+the markets.
+
+
+VINEYARD RETURNS
+
+Grape-growing as a business is a comparatively new industry in
+America. It is true that the first attempts at growing this fruit were
+made to found an industry, but these were complete and dismal
+failures, and the start in growing grapes in America eventually came
+as a pleasing hobby. In evolving from a hobby into vineyard culture on
+a large scale, the business side of the industry long lagged. At
+present, with increasing competition, manifold uncertainties in
+vineyard conditions, and much unbusinesslike administration, interest
+in cultural operations, with which pioneers in the industry were
+chiefly concerned, is eclipsed by the conception that grape-growing is
+a highly developed commercial enterprise requiring for success careful
+business management.
+
+Unfortunately there is nowhere a substantial body of figures from
+which growers can obtain a fair conception of what the outgo and
+income of average vineyards in grape regions are. The value of such
+data to investors or to those making an effort to keep track of the
+finances of their business is obvious, and an attempt is made here to
+put the reader in possession of figures that ought to be helpful. The
+data given, although scant and fragmentary, show fairly accurately the
+cost of producing grapes, selling prices and profits in the culture
+of this fruit in one of the great grape regions.
+
+The New York Agricultural Experiment Station is carrying on
+experiments to determine the outgo and income from vineyards in the
+Chautauqua grape-belt. The work is not yet finished, nor could the
+findings be published in detail before being sent out by the Station,
+but F. E. Gladwin, in charge of the work, has consented to set down
+summaries of costs and returns taken from vineyards at Fredonia, which
+will serve as a guide to planters of grapes in this region at least:
+
+    _First Year_
+
+    Interest on value of land @ $200 per acre                   $12.00
+    Preparation of land                                           8.00
+    Cost of vines per acre                                       12.00
+    Planting                                                      4.00
+    Cultivating                                                   6.00
+                                                                ------
+      Total expenditure for first year                          $42.00
+
+    _Second Year_
+
+    Interest on value of vineyard @ $225 per acre               $13.50
+    Cultivating, hand hoeing, etc.                                9.25
+    Pruning                                                       1.00
+                                                                ------
+      Total expenditure for second year                         $23.75
+
+    _Third Year_
+
+    Interest on value of vineyard @ $250 per acre               $15.00
+    Pruning                                                       2.50
+    Posts (cost of) @ .10 240                                    24.00
+    Setting and driving                                           6.50
+    Wire and wiring, staples, etc.                               11.65
+    Tying and twine                                               1.45
+    Cultivating, plowing, harrowing                               9.25
+    Spraying                                                      4.00
+    No. baskets sold @ .16 per basket 500                $80.00
+    Cost of baskets @ $20 per thousand                           10.00
+    Picking @ .01 per basket                                      5.00
+    Packing @ .01 per basket                                      5.00
+    Hauling .003                                                  1.50
+                                                                ------
+      Outgo for third year                                      $95.85
+                                                         ------
+    Income                                               $80.00
+
+    _Fourth Year_
+
+    Interest on value of vineyard @ $300 per acre               $18.00
+    Pruning                                                       2.50
+    Tying                                                         2.90
+    Spraying and materials                                        4.00
+    Cultivating, plowing, harrowing, hand-hoeing and
+    plowing back one furrow                                       9.25
+    Trellis upkeep, driving posts, tightening wires, etc.         2.50
+    Pulling and poling out brush                                  1.69
+    No. baskets sold @ .16 per basket 1000              $160.00
+    Cost of baskets @ $20 per thousand                           20.00
+    Picking @ .01 per basket                                     10.00
+    Packing @ .01 per basket                                     10.00
+    Hauling .003                                                  3.00
+                                                                ------
+      Outgo for fourth year                                     $83.84
+                                                        -------
+    Income                                              $160.00
+
+    Outgo for four years                                $245.44
+    Income for four years                                240.00
+
+    _Estimates for Succeeding Years_
+
+    Gross income                                       $125-200
+    Outgo                                                75- 85
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XIX.--Iona (x3/5).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+GRAPE PRODUCTS
+
+
+Over-production, with the attendant losses caused by glutted markets,
+is a factor which, like frosts and freezes, is ever in the mind of the
+grape-grower. No season passes but that some of the grape regions of
+the country suffer from over-production. Not uncommonly the grape
+industry in a region is better off in a season when the crop is small
+and prices high, than when the crop is large and prices low. In every
+part of the country where grapes are grown, over-production has been a
+great deterrent to viticulture; this, in spite of the fact that
+grape-growers have availed themselves of the opportunity to
+manufacture products from this fruit. Thus, wine and raisins are made
+from the grape in California, and a large part of the harvest in the
+East goes into wine, champagne and grape-juice. But the growth of
+prohibition now threatens the wine and champagne industries of the
+country, in fact may be said to have driven them to the wall, making
+the need of new outlets in manufactured products a greater necessity.
+
+Under these conditions, grape-growers must seek in every way to
+enlarge the sale of the crop to manufacturers with the hope that thus,
+together with more perfect distribution of his commodities, the
+inroads made by prohibition on the industry may be offset and the
+over-production of table-grapes be better prevented. With this brief
+emphasis on the importance of manufactured products of the grape, we
+approach the discussion of the several possible outlets to
+over-production in this fruit.
+
+
+WINE
+
+The manufacture and use of wine in America, as has been intimated, is
+likely to cease through prohibition. Therefore, whatever may be said
+of this product of the grape is of less and less interest to
+grape-growers. However, a few years of grace probably remain for the
+making of wines in America, and since wine-making yet offers the
+greatest outlet for the grape crop, next to table-grapes, wine must be
+considered as a factor in the grape industry.
+
+Since the demand and price for grapes depend very largely on the kind
+of wine to be made, it is necessary to characterize the wines made in
+America. Wine, it should be said, is the product of alcoholic
+fermentation of the grape. Alcoholic fermentations made from other
+fruits are not, strictly speaking, wines. Natural wines are divided
+into three broad groups; dry, sweet and sparkling wines. Dry wines are
+those in which sugar has been eliminated by fermentation; sweet wines
+those in which sufficient sugar remains to give a sweet taste; and
+sparkling wines are those which contain sufficient carbonic acid gas
+to give a pressure of several atmospheres in the bottle. The carbonic
+acid gas is produced in sparkling wines by fermentation in the bottle
+of a dry wine.
+
+The color in these three classes of wine may be red or white,
+depending on whether or not the color is extracted from the skins in
+the process of fermentation. To make red wine, of course, the grapes
+to be fermented must have red coloring matter in skin or juice or
+both. Each of these groups of wine includes a very large number of
+kinds distinguished by the name of the region, the locality or the
+name of the vineyard in which a wine is made. Wines are still further
+distinguished according to the year of the vintage.
+
+_Wine-making._
+
+There are four distinct stages in the making of wine after the grapes
+are grown. The first is the harvesting of the grapes when they have
+reached the proper stage of maturity, which is known as "wine-making
+ripeness." This stage of ripeness is determined by means of a
+must-scale or saccharometer. The wine-maker squeezes the juice from a
+number of bunches of grapes into a receptacle into which he drops the
+must-scale, whereupon the sugar-content of the juice is indicated on
+the scale, determining whether the proper stage of ripeness has been
+reached. Suitable varieties of grapes having been grown, it is
+necessary that they be permitted to hang on the vine until the proper
+degree of ripeness is developed, after which they are delivered at the
+winery as free as possible from injury or decay.
+
+The second stage is the preparation of the grapes for fermentation.
+The grapes are weighed on arriving at the winery and are then conveyed
+either by hand or more often by a mechanical conveyor to the hopper or
+crusher. The ancient method of crushing, which still prevails in some
+parts of Europe, was to tramp the grapes with bare feet or wooden
+shoes. Tramping has been superseded by mechanical crushers which break
+the skin but do not crush the seeds. The best mechanical crushers
+consist of two-grooved revolving cylinders. As the grapes pass through
+the crusher, they fall into the stemmer, a machine which tears off the
+stems, discharging them at one end, while the seeds, skins, pulp and
+juice pass through the bottom to the presses usually on the floor
+below. There are several types of wine-presses, all of which, however,
+are modifications of screw, hydraulic or knuckle-joint power. In large
+wineries, the hydraulic press has almost driven out the other two
+forms of power and when great quantities of grapes must be handled a
+number of hydraulic presses are usually in operation. The grape
+pomace is built up into a "cheese" by the use of cloths and racks
+variously arranged. The "cheese" is then put under heavy pressure from
+which the juice or "must" is quickly extracted.
+
+The third stage is fermentation. The "must" is carried from the press
+into open tanks or vats which hold from 500 to 5000 gallons or even
+more. The yeast cells which cause fermentation may be introduced
+naturally on the skins of the grapes; or in many modern wineries the
+"must" is sterilized to rid it of undesirable micro-organisms and a
+"starter" of "wine-yeast" is added to start the fermentation. Yeast
+organisms attack the sugar and must, breaking it up into alcohol and
+carbonic acid gas, the latter passing off as it is formed. When active
+fermentation ceases, the new wine is drawn from the pomace and is put
+into closed casks or tanks where it undergoes a secondary
+fermentation, much sediment settling at the bottom of the cask. To rid
+the new wine of this sediment, it must be drawn off into clean casks,
+an operation called "racking." The first racking usually takes place
+within a month or six weeks. A second racking is necessary at the end
+of the winter and a third is desirable in the summer or fall.
+
+The fourth stage is the aging of the wine. Before aging begins,
+however, the wine usually must be rendered perfectly clear and bright
+by "fining." The materials used in fining are isinglass, white of egg
+or gelatine. These, introduced into the wine, cause undissolved
+matters to precipitate. The wine is now ready for bottling or
+consumption. Most wines acquire a more desirable flavor through
+"aging," a slow oxidation in the bottles.
+
+_Champagne._
+
+When champagne wines have gone through their first fermentation, they
+are racked off into casks to age until their quality can be
+ascertained, after which a blend of several different wines is made.
+This blend is called the "cuvee." The cuvee is bottled and a second
+fermentation starts. The bottles are now put in cool cellars, corded
+in horizontal layers with thin strips of wood between each layer of
+bottles. The champagne in this stage is said to be in "tirage." The
+carbonic acid gas generated at this second fermentation is confined in
+the bottles and absorbed by the wine. When the bottle is uncorked, the
+gas, seeking to escape, produces the sparkling effect desirable in
+sparkling wines. After the wine has been in tirage for one or two
+years, the bottles are placed in A-shaped racks, the neck of the
+bottle pointing downward so that the sediment formed during
+fermentation drops to the cork. To further the settling of the
+sediment, workmen turn or shake each bottle daily for a period of one
+to three months. The bottles are then taken to the finishing room,
+cork down and the wine is "disgorged." Disgorging is accomplished by
+freezing a small quantity of wine in the neck of the bottle containing
+the sediment, after which the cork is removed and with it the frozen
+sediment. The bottle is refilled, recorked, wired, capped, and the
+champagne is ready for shipment.
+
+_The vintage._
+
+The wine-making season the world over is known as the "vintage." The
+time at which the vintage begins depends, of course, on the region,
+the variety of grapes, the growing season and the location of the
+vineyard. Its duration, also, depends on these same factors. The
+season is usually lengthened by the fact that wine-makers require for
+their purposes a number of varieties of grapes which ripen at
+different times. Before or during the vintage, representatives of wine
+cellars usually make contracts for the number of tons of grapes
+required at a certain price a ton.
+
+The notion prevails that grapes for wine and grape-juice need not be
+first-class. This is far from the truth. To make good wine the grapes
+must be carefully harvested, transported with as little injury as
+possible and must be protected from dirt, mold and fermentation before
+reaching the winery. European vintagers maintain that grapes picked at
+sunrise produce the lightest and most limped wines and yield more
+juice. They say, also, that the grapes should not be gathered in the
+heat of the day because fermentation sets in at once. These niceties
+are not observed in America.
+
+_Prices paid for wine grapes._
+
+Supply and demand regulate the price paid for wine grapes. There is
+always demand for good wine grapes, although a poor product often goes
+begging for market. In the East, the highest prices are paid for the
+grapes used in making champagne. The champagne region of the East is
+confined to a few localities along Lake Erie and to western New York
+about Keuka Lake, where the industry is most largely developed. The
+varieties used in champagne-making in the East are Delaware, Catawba,
+Elvira, Dutchess, Iona, Diamond and a few other sorts. Prices differ
+with the many conditions affecting the grape and champagne industries,
+perhaps the average price for Catawba, the grape chiefly used in
+making champagne in this region, being from $40 to $50 a ton. Choicer
+grapes, as Delaware, Iona and Dutchess, often sell from $75 to $100 a
+ton. Concords are sometimes utilized in making dry wines in the
+eastern states, $30 or $40 a ton being the average price. Ives and
+Norton are much used for red wines and sell for top prices.
+
+Wine-makers in the East are at a disadvantage in producing wines other
+than champagne, since the price paid on the Pacific slope for wine
+grapes is much lower; Grapes for sweet wine in California often sell
+as low as $6 or $7 a ton, the average price being $10 or $12. Grapes
+for dry wines, such as Zinfandel and Burger, bring on the Pacific
+coast from $10 to $12 a ton. Choice varieties of grapes in this
+region, such as Cabernet, Sauvignon, Petite Sirah and Riesling, bring
+from $22 to $24. The eastern wine-makers, however, have the advantage
+of being close to the largest and best markets in the country. Wines
+made in the East are very different from those made in California and
+supply a different market.
+
+A few years ago most of the Muscadine grapes grown in the South were
+used for wine-making. From these grapes wine has been made since
+colonial times, and for a century there have been some large vineyards
+of Muscadine grapes in the South from which wine was made in a
+commercial way. Since Muscadine grapes do not sell well in the markets
+in competition with the grapes of the North or the Pacific slope, the
+Muscadine grape industry has been dependent on the wine industry of
+the section in which the fruit is produced. The growth of prohibition
+in the South, however, has driven the wine industry to the North and
+West and there is now little wine manufactured from Muscadine grapes
+in the South, although some grapes are shipped North for wine-making.
+The wine made from these grapes is very distinct in flavor and on that
+account a special trade has been developed for it. It is possible that
+this special trade will keep up the demand for Muscadine wine so that
+some part of the crop may be shipped to wine-making states to supply
+this demand.
+
+
+GRAPE-JUICE
+
+When properly made, grape-juice is the undiluted, unsweetened,
+unfermented juice of the grape and contains no preservatives,
+fermentation being prevented by sterilization with heat. The product
+is as ancient as wine, and, therefore, as the cultivation of the vine,
+for all wine-making peoples have used new wine or grape-juice as a
+beverage. For centuries physicians in wine-making countries have
+prescribed grape-juice as it comes from the wine-press for certain
+maladies, the treatment constituting an essential part of the
+grape-cures of European countries. The process of making an
+unfermented grape-juice that will keep from season to season as an
+article of commerce is, however, a modern invention, and is the
+outcome of the discoveries of the last half century regarding the
+control of the agents of fermentation.
+
+The manufacture of commercial grape-juice in America, to which country
+the industry is confined, began as a home practice following the
+fundamental processes of canning fruit. Toward the close of the last
+century, several inventive minds discovered methods of making a
+commercial product and began developing markets for their wares. The
+beginning of the present century found the new industry in full swing,
+since which time its growth has been truly marvelous. In 1900 the
+amount of grape-juice made in the United States was so small as to be
+negligible in the census report of that year. By 1910, the annual
+output had reached for the whole country over 1,500,000 gallons and at
+present writing, 1918, it is well above 3,500,000 gallons per annum.
+The manufacture of grape-juice is no longer a home industry but a
+great commercial enterprise. It is an industry closely associated with
+grape-growing, however, and as such needs further consideration here.
+
+_Grape-juice regions._
+
+The manufacture of grape-juice is centered in the Chautauqua
+grape-belt in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio. So far, the demand
+seems to be almost wholly for juices made from native grapes, the
+juice of European grapes grown on the Pacific slope being so sweet as
+to be insipid. Possibly 80 per cent of the grape-juice now
+manufactured in America comes from a single variety, the Concord.
+There can be no question, however, but that sooner or later
+grape-juices of distinct qualities will be made from many varieties of
+grapes, thus giving wider sale and greater variation for the product.
+A very good sparkling grape-juice is now on the market and its
+reception seems to promise a great increase in the production of an
+article that closely simulates champagne in color and sparkling
+vivacity, but not, of course, in taste, since it contains no alcohol.
+The grape-juice industry has been started and is in a flourishing
+condition in several other grape regions than the Chautauqua belt
+which is now its center. There are factories at Sandusky, Ohio, using
+grapes grown in the Kelly Island district; in southwestern Michigan
+there are several factories; and the industry still survives at
+Vineland, New Jersey, which probably should be called the original
+home of the manufacture of grape-juice. In the South, some grape-juice
+is made from Muscadine grapes, but this product seems not as yet to
+have been well received in the markets.
+
+_Commercial methods of making grape-juice._
+
+There is at present a great diversity of methods and of apparatus
+employed in the grape-juice manufacturing plants throughout the
+country. Since the industry is in its infancy, and the attempt has
+been made to hold some of the methods as trade secrets, the diversity
+of methods and appliances is not to be wondered at. No doubt there
+will be greater uniformity of method and machinery and, therefore,
+greater efficiency, as the industry develops.
+
+Husmann[19] gives the following account of the manufacture of
+grape-juice in the eastern states and in California:
+
+"Sound, ripe, but not over-ripe, grapes are used. These are first
+crushed or, in case the stems are to be removed, are run through a
+combined stemmer and crusher. If the machinery is stationed high
+enough, the crushed fruit can be run through chutes directly into the
+presses or kettles; otherwise, it must be pumped into them by means of
+a pomace or must pump or carried in pomace carts or tubs.
+
+"If a white or light colored juice is desired, the crushed grapes are
+first pressed, the juice which comes from the press being heated to
+about 165 deg. F., skimmed, run through a pasteurizer at a temperature of
+between 175 deg. and 200 deg. F. into well-sterilized containers, and then
+placed in storage.
+
+"If a colored juice is desired, the crushed grapes are heated
+immediately, usually in aluminum kettles having double bottoms, which
+prevent the steam from coming in contact with the contents. These
+kettles usually contain revolving cylinders, the arms of which keep
+the crushed grapes thoroughly stirred while they are being heated to
+about 140 deg. F. The simultaneous heating and stirring help to extract
+the coloring matter from the skins, tear the cells of the berries,
+increase the quantity of juice obtained per ton of fruit, and give to
+the must many ingredients of red wine, with the substitution of grape
+sugar for alcohol of the wine.
+
+"The aluminum kettles are filled and emptied in rotation, thereby
+making continuous manipulation possible. The presses should be
+situated below the kettles, so that the hot juice can be drained
+directly into them. The expressed juice is then reheated to about 165 deg.
+F., skimmed, and run through the pasteurizer in the same manner in
+which the white juice is handled. The juice passes from the
+pasteurizer while still hot (about 160 deg. F.) into the container, which
+should be sealed immediately. The lower the temperature (above the
+freezing point) at which these containers are then stored, the less is
+the danger of fermentation and the more rapidly the juice will clear
+and deposit its sediment.
+
+"The ordinary receptacles in which the juice is stored are 5-gallon
+demijohns, 20-gallon carboys, or clean, new barrels or puncheons, well
+washed and drained. All containers should be thoroughly sterilized
+before they are filled, and the covers, corks, bungs, cloths, etc.,
+used in sealing them should be scrupulously clean and carefully
+sterilized. If barrels or puncheons are used as containers, they are
+placed on skids and firmly wedged to prevent movement. As the juice
+cools, air laden with fermentation germs is apt to be drawn into the
+barrels by the decrease in the volume of the liquid. In order to
+prevent this, tight air-filtering plugs of sterilized cotton are
+sometimes used instead of the ordinary bungs of solid wood.
+
+"The type of pasteurizer differs in almost every establishment. As the
+industry is of comparatively recent development commercially, there
+are few models on the market and each manufacturer has constructed the
+model best suited to his particular ideas or requirements. There are
+two general types, however, (1) open, double-bottomed kettles in which
+the juice is heated to the required temperature and then drawn off,
+and (2) continuous pasteurizers in which the juice is heated to the
+required temperature as it passes through the water bath.
+
+"The presses also show great variation in different establishments,
+either hydraulic, screw or lever power being used, and there is a
+marked difference between the types of pomace containers. Sometimes
+the crushed grapes are heaped on burlap cloths the sides of which are
+folded in, and these burlaps are placed one on top of the other in the
+press; sometimes press baskets take the place of these burlaps.
+
+"The manufacturers in California and those in the grape-growing
+regions of the Rocky Mountains seem to have adopted entirely different
+methods of handling the juice after it is first pasteurized and
+stored. Most of the eastern juices are red and are obtained from the
+Labrusca varieties, generally the Concord. When the juice comes from
+the presses, some manufacturers strain it to remove the coarse
+particles and then pour it directly into well-sterilized bottles;
+others siphon it off the sediment in the containers in which it is
+stored after the first pasteurization and pour it into pasteurized
+bottles. In either case, the bottles are securely corked and then
+repasteurized. The California juices, however, both red and white, are
+made exclusively from Vinifera varieties. They are allowed to settle
+in the original containers and are siphoned out of these and carefully
+filtered to make them clear and bright.
+
+"The clearing of the juice is sometimes facilitated by fining or
+adding a small quantity of a substance which coagulates and when
+settling carries down with it the solid matters causing cloudiness in
+the liquid. Such finings may be applied at the time of the first
+pasteurization or just before the final filtration and bottling. In
+the latter case the juice is drawn off the settlings in containers,
+the finings are added, and the juice again pasteurized into other
+receptacles. When it clears, it is either bottled directly or first
+passed through a filter, drawn into carefully sterilized bottles,
+securely corked, and then repasteurized. Care must be taken that the
+final sterilization is not at a higher temperature than the previous
+one; otherwise, solid matter may be precipitated and the must clouded
+again.
+
+"A simple and efficient form of sterilizer consists of a wooden trough
+provided with a wooden grating which is raised 2 inches from the
+bottom and on which rest the filled bottles in wire baskets. The
+trough contains enough water to submerge the bottles and is kept at a
+temperature of 185 deg. F. by means of a steam coil beneath the grating.
+It requires about 15 minutes for the must at the bottom of the bottles
+to reach that temperature; for packages of other sizes it is necessary
+to make a test with a thermometer in order to determine how long it
+takes for the entire contents to reach 185 deg..
+
+"To prevent the corks from being expelled during sterilization, they
+are either tied down with a strong twine or with some contrivance such
+as the cork holder. In order that mold germs may not enter the must
+through the corks, especially if a poor quality of cork is used, the
+necks of the corked bottles are dipped in heated paraffin before
+putting on the caps, or the corks are sealed down with sealing wax. It
+is also well to keep the bottles on their rider to prevent the corks
+drying out."
+
+_Home methods of making grape-juice._
+
+The principles involved in making grape-juice in the home are the same
+as those used in canning. The grapes may be crushed by hand or in
+mills similar or identical with the small cider-mills owned by many
+farmers. In making a light-colored juice, the crushed grapes are put
+in a cloth sack and hung up to drain, or the filled sack may be
+twisted by two persons until the greater part of the juice is
+expressed. The juice is then sterilized in a double-boiler by heating
+it at a temperature of 180 deg. to 200 deg. F., care being taken that the
+thermometer never goes above 200 deg.. The sterilized juice is now poured
+into a glass or enameled vessel to stand for twenty-four hours, after
+which it is drained from the sediment and strained through several
+thicknesses of clean flannel. The juice is now put in clean bottles
+preparatory to a second sterilization, care being taken that at least
+an inch of space is left at the top for the liquid to expand when
+heated. The second sterilization may be conducted in a wash-boiler or
+similar receptacle. The filled bottles must not rest on the bottom of
+the boiler but should be separated from it with a thin board. The
+boiler is filled with water up to within an inch of the tops of the
+bottles and heated until the water begins to boil. The bottles should
+then be taken out and corked immediately, using only new corks. After
+corking, the bottles are further sealed by dipping the corks in melted
+paraffin. A cheap corking machine is a great convenience in this work,
+and in any case the corks should be soaked for at least a half hour in
+warm but not boiling water.
+
+The process varies somewhat in the making of red grape-juice. The
+crushed grapes are heated to a temperature of 200 deg. F., and are then
+strained through a drip bag without pressure, after which the liquid
+is set away in glass or enamel vessels to settle for twenty-four
+hours. Except for this difference in the preliminary treatment of the
+juice, the methods are the same in making the red or the light-colored
+product. For proper keeping it is not necessary to let the juice
+settle after it is strained, but a clearer and brighter product is
+obtained if the juice is permitted to settle. In either case the
+grape-juice should keep indefinitely if the work has been well done.
+As soon as bottles are opened, fermentation begins with the formation
+of alcohol.
+
+
+RAISINS
+
+The grape is best conserved as a raisin. Canning is seldom practiced
+with this fruit. A raisin is a dried grape. Tree-fruits are evaporated
+as by-products, but the raisin is a primary product. This is a
+difference worth noting; for with tree-fruits the cream of the crop
+goes to the fresh fruit market, while with the grape the entire crop
+of raisin varieties may go into the cured product. The raisin industry
+is dependent on a sunny and rainless climate and hence in America is
+confined to the grape regions of certain parts of California. In this
+state, raisin-making is a rich resource of the grape-grower, the
+annual output now averaging well above 200,000 pounds, grown on
+120,000 acres of land, and having a market value of $10,000,000.
+Fresno County, California, produces nearly 60 per cent of the output
+of the state and the city of Fresno is the center of the industry. The
+raisin industry does not stand alone in California, as some raisin
+grapes, notably Muscat of Alexandria, are good dessert sorts and are
+also much used for wine and brandy. Only the first crop of the variety
+named is used for raisins, while practically all of the second crop
+each season is made into wine and brandy.
+
+Raisins proper are mostly made from the Muscat of Alexandria, although
+other large, white, sweet grapes are sometimes used. Sultana raisins,
+naturally seedless, are made from Sultanina and the Sultana. The dried
+currants of commerce are made from grapes, and of these California
+produces small quantities from White Corinth.
+
+The following account of raisin-making is given by Husmann:[20]
+
+"In the raisin districts grapes are ripe by the middle of August, the
+season often lasting into November. The average time necessary for
+drying and curing a tray of raisins is about three weeks, depending on
+the weather, the earliest picked grapes drying in ten days and the
+later ones often taking four weeks or more.
+
+"The method of drying is very simple. The bunches are cut from the
+vines and placed in shallow trays 2 feet wide, 3 feet long, and 1 inch
+high on which the grapes are allowed to sun-dry, being turned from
+time to time by simply placing an empty tray upside down on the full
+one and then turning both over and taking off the top tray. After the
+raisins are dried they are stored away until they are packed and
+prepared for shipment. Some of the larger growers, in order not to run
+so much risk in drying on account of rain, and also to enable them to
+handle the crop fast enough, have curing houses, where the curing is
+finished after having been partially done outside."
+
+_Dipping and scalding raisins._
+
+"The operation of dipping and scalding is designed to accomplish
+several purposes, namely, to cleanse the fruit, to hasten its drying,
+and to give the dried fruit a lighter color. In dipping and drying,
+the fruit, immediately after being cut from the vines, is either
+dipped in clear water to first rinse it of particles of dust and other
+foreign matter, or it is taken direct to the scalder and immersed in a
+boiling alkaline mixture called 'legia' (lye) until the grapes show an
+almost imperceptible cracking of the skin, the operation consuming
+perhaps from one-fourth to one-half of a minute. This dipping calls
+for skill on the part of the operator, the duration of the emersion
+depending on the strength and temperature of the mixture and the
+condition of the fruit. Desiccation follows the scalding process,
+which is accomplished on trays in the sun, the same as undipped
+raisins cured entirely by solar heat. On account of the scald they
+cure rapidly, and the fruit is also often of lighter color when cured.
+
+"The following formula has been used for Sultana and Sultanina grapes
+at Fresno:
+
+    "Fifteen pounds of 'Greenbank's 98-per cent lye' are boiled in 100
+    gallons of water. This mixture is for grapes containing 25 per
+    cent of sugar. Should their sugar content be less, enough lye is
+    added to remove the bloom and open the pores of the skin of the
+    grapes. After dipping, the grapes are spread on trays and
+    sulphured for 1 to 1-1/2 hours. Observation will show whether it
+    may be necessary to vary this formula a trifle to suit conditions
+    of ripeness and influence of temperature. The length of time
+    required for dipping is ascertained by experience, and differs
+    with the strength of the lye, the heat of the solution, and the
+    thickness of the skins of the grapes."
+
+_Packing raisins._
+
+"The raisins as received at the packing house are weighed and the
+loose raisins and those that are to be shipped as dried grapes are
+immediately run through a stemmer and grader which stems, cleans, and
+assorts the raisins into three or four different grades, after which
+they are packed and shipped to various parts of the country, some also
+being exported. Those producing cluster or layer raisins (if they have
+not already been equalized) are first stored in the equalizing rooms.
+In these rooms the sweat boxes, filled with layers of new raisins, are
+stacked and left usually from 10 to 30 days, or long enough for the
+overdried berries to absorb moisture from the under-dried ones. This
+sweating also properly softens and toughens the stems, which prevents
+their breaking and enables them to hold the berries better. In
+California, where the climate is so dry, no first class pack could be
+made without thus first equalizing the raisins. After having been
+equalized the raisins are taken out, assorted into the different
+grades, and placed in trays holding 5 pounds each. The trays of the
+same grades are then pressed and stacked away in piles ready for
+packing.
+
+"Pressing the raisins so that they look well and so none are burst
+open is work requiring experience and good judgment. It takes four
+pressed trays to fill a 20-pound box. The loose raisins that have
+dropped from the cluster through handling before they were equalized
+are also graded, the largest, of course, making the choicest pack."
+
+_Classes of raisins._
+
+"Previous to the consolidated organization of the packers the three
+best grades of raisins on the stems were known as 'Imperial,'
+'Dehesia,' and 'Fancy Clusters,' respectively. The California Raisin
+Growers Association established classification and grades similar to
+those of the Spanish raisin packers, on which the French trade names
+are also based. The original Spanish, as well as English terms with
+which they correspond, and the different grades in descending order of
+quality are shown in the following table:
+
+  =========================================================================
+  SPANISH TERMS|FRENCH TERMS   |ENGLISH TERMS         |CALIFORNIA TERMS
+  -------------+---------------+----------------------+--------------------
+  Imperial     |Imperiaux Extra|Extra Imperial Cluster|Six-Crown Cluster
+  Imperial Bajo|Imperiaux      |Imperial Cluster      |Five-Crown Cluster
+  Royan Bajo   |Royaux         |Royal Cluster         |Four-Crown Cluster
+  Cuarta (4a)  |Surchoix Extra |Choicest              |Three-Crown Cluster
+  Quinta (5a)  |Choix Extra    |Choice Cluster        |Two-Crown Cluster
+  =========================================================================
+
+"The grading is optical, as a result of experience, there being no
+linear or cubic measurement standard. Thus, a nice cluster with all
+berries of large size, would be a 'Six-Crown Cluster,' such being the
+very finest raisins on the stem. 'Five-Crown Clusters' were formerly
+the 'Dehesia' cluster, and 'Four-Crown Clusters' were formerly 'Fancy
+Clusters.' Grades less than 'Four-Crown' on the stems (the
+'Three-Crown' and 'Two-Crown') are known as 'Layers,' or 'London
+Layers.' These are placed in boxes containing 20 pounds net; in half
+boxes of 10 pounds; and quarter boxes of 5 pounds; and in fancy boxes
+containing 2-1/2 pounds. Loose raisins, or raisins off the stem, are
+graded into Two-Crown, Three-Crown, and Four-Crown raisins by being
+run through screens the meshes of which are thirteen thirty-seconds,
+seventeen thirty-seconds, and twenty-two thirty-seconds of an inch in
+size, respectively. The Sultanina (erroneously called Thompson
+Seedless), and the Sultana are packed in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to the
+case."
+
+_Seeded raisins._
+
+"The invention of a raisin-seeding machine by George E. Pettit in the
+early seventies, and its use, has had a wonderful effect on the
+industry.
+
+"Seeded raisins were first put on the market by the late Col. William
+Forsythe, of Fresno, Cal., who at first found it very difficult to
+dispose of 20 tons. The output in the last 15 years has increased from
+700 tons to 50,000 tons per annum, and their popularity is constantly
+increasing. In 1900 about 14,000 tons were placed on the market, in
+1905 about 21,000 tons, in 1910 about 31,000 tons, and in 1913 about
+49,000 tons. The seeding machines in present use can turn out 300 tons
+per day. Seeded raisins are now the most important branch of the
+raisin industry.
+
+"A brief outline of how seeded raisins are prepared will prove
+interesting. The raisins are first exposed to a dry temperature of
+140 deg. F. for three to five hours, after which they are put through a
+chilling process so that the pedicels can be easily removed, and are
+then thoroughly cleansed by being passed through cleaning machines.
+They are then taken by automatic carriers to another room, spread out
+on trays, and exposed to a moist temperature of 130 deg. F. to bring them
+back to their normal condition. The raisins pass to the seeding
+machine, where they are carried between rubber-faced rollers and the
+impaling device of the seeding machine which catches the seeds and
+removes them from the fruits as they are flattened between the
+surfaces of the rollers. The impaled seeds are removed from the roller
+by a whisking device in such a way as to be caught in a separate
+receptacle. The seeded raisins pass through chutes to the packing
+tables on the floor below.
+
+"The seeded or loose raisins are packed in 50-pound boxes; in 1-pound
+cartons, 36 to the case; in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to the case; and some
+in bulk in 25-pound boxes.
+
+"Information has recently been sent out to the effect that the
+California Associated Raisin Co. is arranging to do away with the
+grades in seeded raisins, so there will only be one grade. This
+contemplates using all of the Three-Crown, the smallest of the
+Four-Crown, and the best of the Two-Crown in one blended grade.
+
+"From the seeds, formerly used as a fuel, a number of by-products are
+now made.
+
+"The seeds and pedicels removed from the raisins in seeding vary from
+10 to 12 per cent of the original weight of the raisins according to
+their conditions and quality.
+
+"The grading, seeding, facing, and packing have become separate
+branches of the industry, and the work is nearly all done by
+especially trained women, who have become experts at it. The
+establishments in which this work is done furnish employment for over
+5000 persons. The aggregate pay roll each month during the season is
+between $200,000 and $350,000."
+
+
+GRAPE-VINEGAR
+
+A very good vinegar can be made from grapes, although as yet this
+outlet for over-production is not largely utilized in America. Grapes
+which are unsuitable for raisins, dessert, wine-making or grape-juice
+can be used for vinegar-making. Under the most favorable conditions,
+grape-vinegar cannot compete in cheapness with vinegar made from
+numerous other products and must, therefore, always sell at a high
+price. Indeed, it is doubtful whether a high-grade grape-vinegar can
+be manufactured at a less price than good wine. The production of
+grape-vinegar requires as much care, but possibly not as much expert
+knowledge, as the making of wine. Unlike the latter, however, the
+vinegar can be produced on a small scale for domestic purposes by any
+one possessing a knowledge of wine-making or vinegar-making.
+
+Grape-vinegar may be manufactured from either white or red grapes,
+although that from white grapes is generally preferred. It may be made
+either directly from grapes or from wine, the acetifying process being
+the same for both. There are, therefore, two distinct stages in the
+manufacture of this product. First, there must be alcoholic
+fermentation by which the sugar in the grape is changed into alcohol
+with the escape of carbonic acid gas. Second, acetic fermentation must
+follow the alcoholic fermentation by which the alcohol is changed into
+acetic acid.
+
+
+BY-PRODUCTS OF GRAPE INDUSTRIES
+
+There are several valuable by-products in the wine-making and
+grape-juice industries, and even raisin-making yields a by-product in
+the seeds taken from the raisins. The utilization of these wastes has
+been rendered profitable in Europe, and there is no reason why
+by-products should not yield considerable profit in America, as a few
+already do. Good authorities state that if all the wastes of the
+grape crop could be utilized the value of the crop would be increased
+over 10 per cent.
+
+_Pomace._
+
+The pomace or marc, the residue left after grape pressing, is the most
+valuable of the by-products of the wine and grape-juice manufacturers.
+If the pomace is permitted to ferment, and afterwards is distilled, a
+product called pomace-brandy is made. Unscrupulous wine-makers often
+add water and sugar to pomace, after which it is refermented and the
+resulting product is sold as wine. Notwithstanding the fact that the
+word "wine" as applied to this product is a misnomer, the total amount
+of such wine made and consumed in America is large. Piquette is
+another product in which the pomace is put into fermenting vats,
+sprinkled with water and the liquid after a time is drawn off,
+carrying with it the wine contained in the pomace. This liquid is
+re-used in other pomace, until it is high enough in alcoholic
+strength, when it is distilled into "piquette" or "wash."
+
+In Europe, the pomace from stemmed grapes is said to make a sheep and
+cattle food of more or less value when salted slightly and stored in
+silos. The pomace is also oftentimes used as a manure, for which it
+has considerable to recommend it, being rich in potash and nitrogen.
+Acetic acid is made from pomace by drying it in vapor-tight rooms,
+during which process 50 to 60 per cent of the weight of the pomace
+becomes vapor, and this, condensed, yields considerable quantities of
+acetic acid.
+
+_Cream-of-tartar._
+
+The lees of wine, the sediment which settles in the casks in which new
+wine or grape-juice is stored, form a grayish or reddish crust on the
+inside of the receptacle. This is the argol or wine-stone of the
+wine-maker, and from it is made cream-of-tartar, an article
+considerably used in medicine, the arts and for culinary purposes.
+From 20 to 70 per cent of the lees consist of either cream-of-tartar,
+or of calcium tartrate, the latter also having commercial value. Red
+wines are much richer in argol than white wines. A ton of grapes
+yields from one to two pounds of argol. This product becomes a source
+of considerable profit in large wineries and in grape-juice
+manufacturing plants.
+
+_Seeds._
+
+In Europe, the seeds are separated from the pomace and used in various
+ways. They are also utilized to a smaller extent in America,
+especially when separated from raisins. The seeds are used as food for
+horses, cattle and poultry, for which they are said to have
+considerable value. If crushed and ground, the seeds yield a clear
+yellow oil which burns without smoke or smell and which may also be
+employed as a substitute for olive oil. A ton of grapes yields from
+forty to one hundred pounds of seeds from which may be made from three
+to sixteen pounds of oil. This oil is also used as a substitute for
+linseed oil and in soap-making. Besides oil, the seeds yield tannin.
+After the oil and tannin have been taken from the seeds, there remains
+a meal which may still be utilized as a stock food or as a fertilizer.
+
+
+DOMESTIC USES FOR GRAPES
+
+At present, when food conservation is being emphasized everywhere,
+mention of the domestic use for grapes is particularly appropriate.
+The country over, no fruit is more generally grown than the grape; yet
+grape products are not as common for home use as those of several
+other fruits, although many attractive and appetizing preserves can be
+made from grapes without the use of large quantities of sugar, spices
+or other ingredients. Few housekeepers realize the high quality and
+the cheapness of the products that can be made from the grape. Thus,
+grape-juice, jelly, jam, marmalade, grape-butter, catsup, spiced
+grapes, canned grapes, conserves in which grapes are used, preserves
+and mince-meat are among the desirable culinary products easily and
+cheaply prepared from home-grown grapes or those bought in the market.
+Only simple domestic utensils are needed in the preparation of any of
+these products.
+
+Grape-sirup is less easily produced, yet can be made in any home
+without the addition of sugar. It is not only a good table sirup, but
+is a most useful sugar substitute for the preparation of other
+culinary products. The Muscadine grapes in the South, to be purchased
+by almost every householder in southeastern United States, in
+particular, are useful for these domestic products. Recipes for all of
+these products can be found in cook books, and one or two bulletins
+and circulars from the United States Department of Agriculture give
+recipes for preparing grapes for domestic purposes. Farmers' Bulletin
+859 entitled _Home Uses for Muscadine Grapes_ is a particularly
+valuable publication on this subject.
+
+It is interesting to note that several large manufacturers of
+grape-juice are putting on the market grape jams, jellies and
+marmalades. It would seem that these delicious and wholesome products
+would find a ready sale in the markets of the country, and that their
+manufacture would prove profitable to the maker and to the
+grape-grower. The greater the use of grapes for their products, the
+better the grower can breast the blows of unfavorable markets and
+over-production.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XX.--Isabella (x2/3).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+GRAPE-BREEDING
+
+
+Chance, pure and simple, has been the greatest factor in the
+production of varieties of American grapes. From the millions of wild
+plants, an occasional grape of pre-eminent merit has caught the eye of
+the cultivator and has been brought into the vineyard to be the
+progenitor of a new variety. Or in the vineyards, more often in
+near-by waste lands, from the prodigious number of seedlings that
+spring up, pure or cross-bred, a plant of merit becomes the foundation
+of a new variety. An interesting fact in the domestication of the four
+chief species of American grapes is that none came under cultivation
+until forms of them, striking in value, had been found. Catawba,
+representing the Labrusca grapes; the Scuppernong, the Rotundifolias;
+Norton, from _Vitis aestivalis_; Delaware and Herbemont from the
+Bourquiniana grapes; and Clinton from _Vitis vulpina_, are, after a
+century, scarcely excelled, although in each species there are now
+many new varieties.
+
+That our best grapes have come from chance is not because of a lack of
+human effort to produce superior varieties. Of all fruits, the grape
+has received most attention in America from the generation of
+plant-breeders just passing. Grape-breeders have produced 2000 or more
+varieties, a medley of the heterogeneous characters of a dozen
+species. That so many of this vast number are worthless is due more to
+a lack of knowledge of plant-breeding than to a lack of effort, for
+the order and system in plant-breeding that now prevail, disclosed by
+recent brilliant discoveries, were unknown to grape-breeders of the
+last century.
+
+
+GRAPE HYBRIDS
+
+As early as 1822, Nuttall, a noted botanist, then at Harvard,
+recommended "hybrids betwixt the European vine and those of the United
+States which would better answer the variable climates of North
+America." In 1830, William Robert Prince, Fig. 48, fourth proprietor
+of the then famous Linnean Botanic Nursery at Flushing, Long Island,
+grew 10,000 seedling grapes "from admixture under every variety of
+circumstance." This was probably the first attempt on a large scale to
+improve the native grapes by hybridizing, although little seems to
+have come of it. Later, a Dr. Valk, also of Flushing, grew hybrids
+from which he obtained Ada, the first named hybrid, the introduction
+of which started hybridizers to work in all parts of the country where
+grapes were grown.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48. William Robert Prince.]
+
+Soon after Valk's hybrid was sent out, E. S. Rogers, Fig. 49, Salem,
+Massachusetts, and J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, began to give
+viticulturists hybrids of the European Vinifera and the American
+species which were so promising that enthusiasm and speculation in
+grape-growing ran riot. Never before nor since has grape-growing
+received the attention in America as given during the introduction of
+Rogers' hybrids. It was the expectation of all that we were to grow in
+America, in these hybrids, grapes but little inferior, if at all, to
+those of Europe.
+
+A statement of the difference between European and American grapes
+shows why American viticulturists have been so eager to grow either
+pure-breds from the foreign grape or hybrids with it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49. E. S. Rogers.]
+
+European grapes have a higher sugar-and-solid content than the
+American species; they, therefore, make better wines and keep much
+longer after harvesting and can be made into raisins. Also, they have
+a greater variety of flavors, which are more delicate, yet richer,
+with a pleasanter aroma, seldom so acid, and are always lacking the
+disagreeable, rancid odor and taste, the "foxiness," of many American
+varieties. There is, however, an unpleasant astringency in some of the
+foreign grapes, and many varieties are without character of flavor.
+American table-grapes, on the other hand, are more refreshing, the
+unfermented juice makes a pleasanter drink, and lacking sweetness and
+richness, they do not cloy the appetite so quickly. The bunches and
+berries of the European grapes are larger, more attractive and are
+borne in greater quantities. The pulp, seeds and skins are somewhat
+objectionable in all of the native species and scarcely so at all in
+the Old World sorts. The berries of the native grapes shell from the
+stem so quickly that the bunches do not ship well. The vines of the
+Old World grapes are more compact in habit and require less pruning
+and training than do those of the native grapes; and, as a species,
+probably through long cultivation, they are adapted to more kinds of
+soil, to greater differences in environment and are more easily
+propagated than the American species.
+
+Because of these points of superiority in the Old World grape, since
+Valk, Allen and Rogers showed the way, American grape-breeders have
+sought to unite by hybridization the good characters of the Old World
+grape with those of the American. Nearly half of the 2000 grapes
+cultivated in eastern America have more or less European blood in
+them. Yet, despite the efforts of the breeders, few of these hybrids
+have commercial value. Whether because they are naturally better
+fixed, or long cultivation has more firmly established them, the vine
+characters of _Vitis vinifera_ more often appear in varieties arising
+as primary hybrids between that and the native species, and the
+weaknesses of the foreign grape, which prevent their cultivation in
+America, crop out. Hybrids in which the vinifera blood is more
+attenuated, as secondary or tertiary crosses, give better results.
+
+Several secondary hybrids now rank among the best of the cultivated
+grapes. Examples are Brighton and Diamond. The first is a cross
+between Diana-Hamburg, a hybrid of a Vinifera and a Labrusca, crossed
+in its turn with Concord, a Labrusca; the second is a cross between
+Iona, also a hybrid between a Vinifera and a Labrusca, crossed with
+Concord. Both were grown from seed planted by Jacob Moore, Brighton,
+New York, in 1870. Brighton was the first secondary hybrid to attract
+the attention of grape-breeders, and its advent marked an important
+step in breeding grapes.
+
+The signal success achieved by hybridizers of the European grape with
+native species quickly led to similar amalgamations among American
+species. Jacob Rommel, of Morrison, Missouri, beginning work about
+1860, hybridized Labrusca and Vulpina grapes so successfully that a
+dozen or more of his varieties are still cultivated. All are
+characterized by great vigor and productiveness; and, although they
+lack the qualities which make good table-grapes, they are among the
+best for wine-making. Rommel has had many followers in hybridizing
+native species, chief of whom was the late T. V. Munson, Fig. 50,
+Denison, Texas, who literally made every combination of grapes
+possible, grew thousands of seedlings and produced many valuable
+varieties.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50. T. V. Munson.]
+
+_Improvement by selection._
+
+Selection, continued through successive generations, so important in
+the improvement of field and garden plants, has played but small part
+in the domestication of the grape. The period between planting and
+fruiting is so long that progress would be slow indeed were this
+method relied on. Moreover, selection, as a method in breeding, is
+possible only when plants are bred pure, and it is the experience of
+grape-breeders that in pure breeding this fruit loses in vigor and
+productiveness and that the variations are exceedingly slight and
+unstable. Many pure-bred grapes have been raised on the grounds of the
+New York Agricultural Experiment Station under the eyes of the writer,
+of which very few have surpassed the parent or have shown promise for
+the practice of selection.
+
+_New varieties from sports._
+
+Bud-sports or mutations now and then arise in grapes. But not more
+than two or three of the 2000 varieties now under cultivation are
+suspected of having arisen in this way. It is true that mutations
+seem to occur rather often in grapes, but they are easily confused
+with variations due to environment and are usually too vague to lay
+hands on. Until the causes of these mutations are known and until they
+can be produced and controlled, but little can be hoped for in the
+amelioration of grapes through mutations.
+
+
+HYBRIDIZING THE GRAPE
+
+Hybridization has been the chief means of improving the grape. At
+present, from what is being accomplished by many workers, it looks as
+if it will long continue to be the best means of improving this fruit.
+Since the grape-grower must depend on new varieties for progress, as
+old varieties cannot be changed, it should be the ambition of growers
+to produce varieties better than those we now have. Many amateur and
+professional grape-growers in the past have found breeding grapes a
+pleasing and profitable hobby, so that much knowledge has accumulated
+in regard to manipulating the plants in hybridization, and the results
+that follow in the offspring of hybridization.
+
+_How to hybridize._
+
+It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the botany of flowers
+and the essential principles in crossing plants. If he is not, he must
+carefully study the structure of flowers, especially those of the
+grape, so as to be able to distinguish the different organs and to
+discover when the pollen and stigma are ready for the work of
+pollination. He should, also, read any one of several current books on
+plant-breeding.
+
+The first task in crossing grapes is to remove the anthers before the
+flower opens, a process known as emasculation. This is necessary to
+prevent self-pollination. This first operation having been performed,
+the cluster of grape-flowers must be tied securely in a bag to protect
+it from foreign pollen which otherwise would surely be carried to the
+stigma by insects. As soon as the stigma is ready to receive the
+pollen, the bag is removed and pollen from the male parent is applied,
+after which the bag is again put on the flower to remain until the
+grapes are well set. By examining the stigmas in the flowers of
+uncovered grapes, the operator can tell approximately whether the
+covered stigma is ready to receive pollen. The time required after
+covering depends, of course, on the age of the bud when emasculation
+takes place. It is, by the way, best to delay emasculation until just
+before the flowers open, but one must be certain that the anthers have
+not discharged their pollen before the flower has been emasculated.
+
+Emasculation is a simple operation. The essential organs of the
+grape-flower are covered by a small cap; this in some grapes must be
+removed before the anthers can be reached. In many native grapes,
+however, the cap and the anthers may be removed at one stroke by the
+operator. The best tool for this is a small pair of forceps. Each of
+the blades of the forceps in working with native grapes should have a
+sharp cutting surface, but with Vinifera sorts, where the cap must be
+removed before the anthers can be reached, forcep blades with a flat
+surface are best. There is, of course, some danger when the buds are
+well developed that the pollen may be squeezed out and so reach the
+stigma or adhere to the instrument and thus contaminate future
+crosses. The first danger must be avoided carefully by the skill of
+the operator, while the second is easily overcome by sterilizing the
+forceps in alcohol. An effort should be made to fertilize as many of
+the flowers in the cluster as possible, but success is not always
+certain; when there is doubt, the uncertain flower should be removed
+from the cluster.
+
+The flower from which the pollen is to be taken must be protected from
+wind and insects; otherwise pollen from another flower may be left on
+it. Protection should be given by tying the flowers in a bag while
+still in bud. There are various ways of obtaining pollen from ripe
+anthers and applying it to the stigma of the flowers to be crossed.
+The simplest is to crush the anthers, thus squeezing out the pollen,
+after which, with a brush, scalpel or other instrument, it may be
+placed upon the stigma. A brush is very wasteful of pollen and often
+becomes a source of contamination to future crosses, so that the
+scalpel is the better implement of the two. When pollen is plentiful,
+as will usually be the case when a man is working with vines in his
+own vineyard, by far the best method is to take the cluster from the
+male vine and apply the pollen directly to the stigma of the flower to
+be crossed, thereby making certain of fresh pollen and an abundance of
+it. The stigma, if pollen suffice, should be covered with pollen.
+
+Grape pollen does not keep well and an effort should be made to have
+it as fresh as possible. The work of pollination is best performed in
+bright, sunny weather when the pollen is very dry. As may be seen from
+the foregoing statements, tools and methods are of less importance
+than care in doing the work. The only tool absolutely necessary is a
+pair of forceps, although a hand-lens is often helpful. Bags for
+covering the flowers should be just large enough and no larger. A bag
+to cover the pollen-producing flower may well be an ordinary manilla
+bag sufficiently large to amply cover the flower-cluster. It is
+helpful, however, to have a light transparent oiled bag through which
+one can see the condition of the anthers. It is desirable that the bag
+for the female flower be permitted to remain until the fruits ripen as
+a protection against birds and fungi. It must, therefore, be of larger
+size. While the bags are still flat, a hole is made near the opening
+through which a string is passed which can be tied when the upper end
+of the bag is squeezed about the cluster.
+
+_Choosing the parents._
+
+Very much depends on the immediate parentage in hybridizing grapes.
+Some varieties when crossed produce much higher averages of worthy
+offspring than others. There is so much difference in varieties in
+this respect that to discover parents so endowed should be the first
+task of the grape-breeder. Fortunately, considerable work has been
+done by several experiment stations in breeding grapes, and their
+accumulated knowledge, together with that from such workers as Rogers,
+Ricketts, Campbell and Munson, furnishes beginners with good starting
+points. There is no way possible of discovering what the best
+progenitors are except by records of performance. Very often varieties
+of high cultural value are worthless in breeding because their
+characters seem not to be transmitted to their progeny and, to the
+contrary, a good-for-nothing variety in the vineyard is often valuable
+in breeding.
+
+From present knowledge it does not appear that new characters are
+introduced in plants by hybridizing. A new variety originating from
+hybridization is but a recombination of the characters of the parents;
+the combination is new but the characters are not. Thus, one parent of
+a hybridized grape may contribute color, size, flavor and practically
+all the characters of the fruit, while the other parent may contribute
+vigor, hardiness, resistance to disease and the characters of the
+vine. Or these and other characters in the make-up of a new grape may
+be intermingled in any mathematical way possible. The grape-breeder
+must make certain that one or the other of the parents possesses the
+particular characters he desires in his new grape.
+
+It is now known that the characters of the grape, in common with those
+of other plants, are inherited in accordance with certain laws
+discovered by Mendel. The early workers in grape-breeding did not know
+of these laws and could not take aim in the work they were doing.
+Consequently, hybridization was a maze in which these breeders often
+lost themselves. Mendel's discoveries, however, assure a regularity of
+averages and give a definiteness and constancy of action which enable
+the grape-breeder to attain with fair certainty what he wants if he
+keeps patiently at his task. The grape-breeder should inform himself
+as to what Mendel's laws are, and on the work that has been done on
+the inheritance of characters of the grape. A technical bulletin
+published by the State Experiment Station at Geneva, New York, and
+another from the North Carolina Station at Raleigh give much
+information on the inheritance of characters in certain grapes, and
+further information can be secured by applying to the United States
+Department of Agriculture at Washington for literature on the subject.
+
+The grape-breeder can hope to progress only by making many
+combinations between different varieties and growing large numbers of
+seedlings. He should extend his work to all varieties which show
+promise in the breeding of grapes for the particular purpose he has in
+mind. The seed may be saved and planted as directed in the chapter on
+propagation. Unless he desires to make scientific interpretations of
+his results, weak seedlings should be discarded the first year, and a
+second discard may be made before the young plants go in the vineyard.
+The breeder will soon discover that he can tell fairly well from the
+character of the seedlings whether they are of sufficient promise to
+keep. Thus, if the number of leaves is small or if the leaves
+themselves are small, the vine is of doubtful value; if the internodes
+are exceedingly long, the prospect is poor; slenderness of cane, if
+accentuated, does not promise well; on the other hand, great stoutness
+and very short internodes are not desirable indications. Through these
+and other signs, the breeder will come quickly to know which vines
+should eventually go to the vineyard.
+
+
+RESULTS OF GRAPE-BREEDING
+
+There are now 2000 or more varieties of grapes of American origin, all
+produced within approximately a century. It is doubtful whether any
+other cultivated plant at any time in the history of the world has
+attained such importance in so short a time from the wild state as
+American grapes. It would seem that almost every possible combination
+between species worth considering has been made. Through
+hybridization, species and varieties have become so mixed that the
+grape-breeder cannot now work intelligently with these gross forms and
+must work with characters rather than with species and varieties which
+are but combinations of characters. Great progress, it is true, has
+been made in the past in breeding grapes in America, but the work has
+been wholly empirical and extremely wasteful. Many varieties have been
+called, but few have been chosen. With the new knowledge of breeding
+and with the experience of past workers, progress should be made with
+greater certainty. From what has been done and from work now under
+way, it is not too much to say that we shall soon be growing grapes
+everywhere in America, and kinds so diverse that they will meet not
+only all purposes to which grapes are now put, but also the demand for
+better grapes made by more critical consumers.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXI.--Jefferson (x3/5).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+MISCELLANIES
+
+
+There yet remain several phases of grape-culture essential to success,
+none of which quite deserves a chapter and none of which properly
+falls into any of the foregoing chapters. The subjects are not closely
+related, are by no means of equal importance, yet all are too
+important to be relegated to the limbo of an appendix and are,
+therefore, thrown into a chapter of miscellanies.
+
+
+CROSS-POLLINATION
+
+The blooming of the vine had little significance to the grape-grower,
+the blooming period being so late that grapes are seldom caught by
+frost, until the discovery was made that many varieties of grapes are
+unable to fertilize themselves, and that failure of crops of these
+varieties was often due to the self-sterility of the variety. Until
+this discovery, the uncertainty attending the setting of the grape in
+these varieties was one of the discouragements of grape-growing.
+Following investigations of the self-sterility of the tree-fruits, an
+investigation of the grape showed that the vines of this fruit are
+often self-sterile. This knowledge has in some degree modified the
+planting of all home collections and has more or less affected the
+plantings of commercial sorts.
+
+Varieties of American grapes show most remarkable differences in the
+degree of self-fertility. Many sorts fruit perfectly without
+cross-pollination. Others set no fruit whatsoever if cross-pollination
+is not provided for. Most varieties, however, are found in groups
+between the two extremes, neither self-fertile nor self-sterile.
+Figure 51 shows staminate and perfect clusters on one vine. Some
+varieties show no variation in the degree of self-sterility or
+self-fertility; others behave differently in regard to these
+characters under different environment. Now and then the widest
+variations are to be found in a variety in respect to self-fertility.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51. Staminate and perfect clusters on one vine;
+_right_, staminate; _left_, perfect.]
+
+Following the lead of Beach at the New York Agricultural Experiment
+Station, several workers have made careful studies of the
+self-fertility of the grape, and now the cultivated varieties of
+native grapes are divided into four groups in accordance with the
+degree of self-fertility. Class I includes self-fertile varieties
+having perfect or nearly perfect clusters; Class II includes
+self-fertile varieties having clusters loose but marketable; Class III
+includes varieties which are so imperfectly self-fertile that the
+clusters are generally too loose to be marketable; Class IV includes
+self-sterile varieties. The following is a list of commonly cultivated
+grapes classified according to the divisions just given:
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPES ACCORDING TO SELF-FERTILITY
+
+CLASS I. Clusters perfect or varying from perfect to somewhat loose.
+
+    Berckmans
+    Bertha
+    Cottage
+    Croton
+    Delaware
+    Diana
+    Etta
+    Janesville
+    Lady Washington
+    Lutie
+    Moore Early
+    Poughkeepsie
+    Pocklington
+    Prentiss
+    Rochester
+    Senasqua
+    Winchell
+
+CLASS II. Clusters marketable; moderately compact or loose.
+
+    Agawam
+    Brilliant
+    Brown
+    Catawba
+    Champion
+    Chautauqua
+    Clinton
+    Colerain
+    Concord
+    Dutchess
+    Early Victor
+    Elvira
+    Empire State
+    Fern Munson
+    Hartford
+    Iona
+    Isabella
+    Isabella Seedling
+    Jefferson
+    Jessica
+    Lady
+    Mills
+    Missouri Riesling
+    Perkins
+    Rommel
+    Triumph
+    Ulster
+
+CLASS III. Clusters unmarketable.
+
+    Brighton
+    Canada
+    Dracut Amber
+    Eumelan
+    Geneva
+    Hayes
+    Lindley
+    Noah
+    Northern Muscadine
+    Vergennes
+
+CLASS IV. Self-sterile. No fruit develops on covered clusters.
+
+    America
+    Aminia
+    Barry
+    Black Eagle
+    Clevener
+    Creveling
+    Eldorado
+    Faith (?)
+    Gaertner
+    Grein Golden
+    Hercules
+    Jewel
+    Massasoit
+    Maxatawney (?)
+    Merrimac
+    Montefiore
+    Requa
+    Salem
+    Wyoming
+
+In the main, the cause of infertility, as with other fruits, is the
+impotency of pollen on the pistils of the same variety. There are a
+few cases in which pollen does not seem to be formed abundantly, but
+these are very few. There are a few cases, also, in which the pistil
+does not become receptive until after the pollen has lost its
+vitality; these, however, are very few. In a greater number of cases
+the pollen is found defective. However, dismissing all of these as the
+exception, the rule is that self-sterility is due, as has been said,
+to the lack of affinity between pollen and pistils produced on the
+vines of some varieties.
+
+Nature is helpful to the grape-grower in giving a guide to
+self-fertility. The length of stamens is a fairly safe indication of
+self-fertility. All grapes which are self-fertile bear flowers with
+long stamens, although the latter are not a sure sign of
+self-fertility, as a few varieties with long stamens are self-sterile.
+On the other hand, short or recurved stamens are always associated
+with complete or nearly complete self-sterility.
+
+The remedy for self-sterility is inter-planting. Only the varieties
+named in Classes I and II in the foregoing classification should be
+planted alone. The sorts named in Classes III and IV must be planted
+near other sorts which bloom at the same time in order that their
+flowers may be cross-pollinated.
+
+It is evident that the grape-grower must have some knowledge of the
+relative time that grapes bloom, if he is to plant intelligently to
+secure cross-pollination. The following table, taken from Bulletin 407
+of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, shows the blooming
+time of grapes at that Station. Variations due to location and season
+must be expected, but within the bounds of the regions in which these
+grapes are grown variations will be slight. When this table is used
+for other regions than New York, it must be borne in mind that the
+farther south, the longer the blooming season; the farther north, the
+shorter the season.
+
+_Blooming dates of grapes._
+
+From three years' records, the average length of blooming season for
+grapes was twenty days, nineteen days in 1912 and 1914 and twenty-two
+days in 1913. The first date in the average year of 1912 was June 14,
+while for 1914, it was June 7:
+
+TABLE IV.--SHOWING BLOOMING TIME OF GRAPES
+
+  =====================================================================
+                     | VERY    |         | MID-    |         | VERY
+                     | EARLY   | EARLY   | SEASON  | LATE    | LATE
+  -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------
+  Agawam             |         |         |    *    |         |
+  America            |         |         |         |    *    |
+  August Giant       |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Bacchus            |    *    |         |         |         |
+  Barry              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Beacon             |         |         |         |    *    |
+  Bell               |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Berckmans          |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Black Eagle        |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Brighton           |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Brilliant          |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Brown              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Campbell Early     |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Canada             |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Canandaigua        |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Carman             |         |         |         |         |    *
+  Catawba            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Champion           |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Chautauqua         |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Clevener           |    *    |         |         |         |
+  Clinton            |    *    |         |         |         |
+  Colerain           |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Columbian Imperial |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Concord            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Cottage            |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Creveling          |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Croton             |         |         |         |    *    |
+  Delago             |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Delaware           |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Diamond            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Diana              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Downing            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Dracut Amber       |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Dutchess           |         |         |         |    *    |
+  Early Victor       |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Eaton              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Eclipse            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Eldorado           |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Elvira             |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Empire State       |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Etta               |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Eumedel            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Eumelan            |         |         |         |    *    |
+  Faith              |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Fern Munson        |         |         |         |    *    |
+  Gaertner           |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Geneva             |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Goethe             |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Gold Coin          |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Grein Golden       |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Hartford           |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Headlight          |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Helen Keller       |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Herbert            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Hercules           |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Hicks              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Hidalgo            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Hosford            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Iona               |         |         |         |    *    |
+  Isabella           |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Janesville         |    *    |         |         |         |
+  Jefferson          |         |         |         |         |    *
+  Jessica            |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Jewel              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Kensington         |         |    *    |         |         |
+  King               |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Lady Washington    |         |         |         |    *    |
+  Lindley            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Lucile             |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Lutie              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  McPike             |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Manito             |         |         |         |    *    |
+  Martha             |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Massasoit          |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Maxatawney         |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Merrimac           |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Mills              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Missouri Riesling  |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Montefiore         |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Moore Early        |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Moyer              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Nectar             |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Niagara            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Noah               |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Northern Muscadine |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Norton             |         |         |         |         |    *
+  Oporto             |    *    |         |         |         |
+  Ozark              |         |         |         |    *    |
+  Peabody            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Perfection         |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Perkins            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Pierce             |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Pocklington        |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Poughkeepsie       |         |         |         |    *    |
+  Prentiss           |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Rebecca            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Regal              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Requa              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Rochester          |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Rommel             |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Salem              |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Secretary          |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Senasqua           |         |         |         |         |    *
+  Stark-Star         |         |         |         |         |    *
+  Triumph            |         |         |         |         |    *
+  Ulster             |         |    *    |         |         |
+  Vergennes          |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Winchell           |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Worden             |         |         |    *    |         |
+  Wyoming            |         |         |    *    |         |
+  =====================================================================
+
+
+RINGING GRAPE VINES
+
+The ringing of woody plants is a well-known horticultural practice.
+Three objects may be attained by ringing: unproductive plants may be
+brought into bearing by ringing; the size of the fruits may be
+increased and thereby the plants be made more productive; and the
+maturity of the fruit may be hastened. In European countries, ringing
+has long been practiced with all tree-fruits and the grape, but in
+America the operation is recommended only for the apple and the grape
+and with neither fruit is ringing widely practiced. Experiments
+carried on at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station by Paddock,
+as reported in Bulletin 151 from this Station, show that ringing may
+well be practiced by grape-growers under some conditions. Since
+Paddock's experiments, and possibly to some extent before, the grape
+has been ringed to produce exhibition fruits or a fancy product for
+the market.
+
+Ringing consists in taking from the vine a layer of bark around the
+vine through the cortex and bast of the plant. The width of the wound
+varies from that of a simple cut made with a knife to a band of bark
+an inch in diameter. The operation is performed during that period of
+growth in which the bark peels most readily from the vine, the period
+of greatest cambial activity. The term "ringing" is preferred to
+"girdling," a word sometimes used, since the latter properly
+designates a wound which extends into and usually kills the plant.
+
+The theory of ringing is simple. Unassimilated sap passes from the
+roots of the plant to the leaves through the outer layer of the woody
+cylinder. In the leaves this raw material is acted on by various
+agents, after which it is distributed to the several organs of the
+plant through vessels in the inner bark. When plants are ringed, the
+upward flow of sap is continued as before the operation, but the newly
+made food compounds cannot pass beyond the injury, and therefore the
+top of the plant is supplied with an extra amount of food at the
+expense of the parts below the ring. The extra food produces the
+results noted.
+
+It turns out in practice that ringing is usually harmful to the plant,
+as one might expect from so unnatural an operation. Injury to the
+plant arises from the fact that parts of the vine are starved at the
+expense of other parts; and because, when the bark is removed, the
+outer layers of the woody cylinder dry out very quickly and thus check
+to some extent the upward flow of sap through evaporation from the
+exposed wood. Thus, not infrequently, the plant's vitality is
+seriously drained. Nevertheless, vineyards may be found in which
+ringing has been extensively practiced many seasons in succession and
+which continue to yield profitable crops, the growers having learned
+to perform the work of ringing so as to injure the vines but little.
+
+Ringing without harm to the plant depends much on the way in which the
+vines have been pruned. For instance, if the vines are pruned to the
+two-arm Kniffin method, the ringing of bark should be done from both
+arms just beyond the fifth bud. Thus, the ten buds left on the vine
+produce enough leaf surface to supply the food necessary to keep the
+vine in vigorous condition. When the four-arm Kniffin method is used,
+the two top arms only are ringed, and even so three or four buds must
+be left on each for renewals. Whatever the method of training, it will
+be seen from these examples that some unringed wood must be left to
+the vine with which to supply leafy shoots to support the vine. Some
+growers ring their vines only every other year, thus giving them an
+opportunity to recover from whatever loss of vigor they may have
+sustained in the season of ringing.
+
+Several other considerations are important in ringing: First, the
+vines must not be permitted to carry too large a crop. Again, the
+amount of fruit on the ringed portion of the vine must depend on the
+amount of leaf surface not only of the plant but of the ringed arms,
+each ringed arm acting somewhat independently so far as its crop is
+concerned. If too many clusters are left on the ringed arms, it always
+follows that the fruit is inferior and often worthless. Lastly, all
+fruit between the rings and the trunk must be removed, for it does not
+mature properly and so adds only to the drain on the plant's vitality.
+
+As to the results, it is certain from the experiments that have been
+conducted and from the experience of grape-growers, that the maturity
+of the fruit is hastened, and berries and bunches are larger when the
+ringing has been done intelligently. Many growers hold that fruit
+produced on ringed vines is never quite up to the mark in quality and
+in firmness of fruit. There seems to be a difference in opinion about
+this falling off in quality, however, although unquestionably, choice
+sorts, as Delaware, Iona and Dutchess, suffer more or less in quality.
+It is commonly agreed, also, that varieties, the fruits of which crack
+badly, as the Worden, suffer more from cracking on ringed than on
+unringed vines.
+
+Experiment and experience prove that the best results of ringing are
+obtained if the work is done when the grapes are about one-third
+grown. Of course the exact time depends on the season and on the
+variety. The operation is variously performed and is easily done with
+a sharp knife, but when large vineyards are to be ringed the grower
+ought to provide himself with some simple tool. Paddock, in the
+bulletin previously mentioned, pictures two of these tools and these
+are reproduced in Fig. 52.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52. Tools used in ringing grape-vines are shown in
+1 and 2; while 3 and 4 show ringed vines at the beginning and the
+close of the season.]
+
+In conclusion it must be said that it is doubtful whether the gains
+attained by ringing offset the losses. The practice is chiefly of
+value only when exhibition clusters of grapes are wanted or when it is
+necessary to hasten the maturity of the crop. Always, however, the
+work must be performed with intelligence and judgment or the losses
+will offset the gains.
+
+
+BAGGING GRAPES
+
+In some localities bagging is considered an essential to profitable
+grape-growing. The bags serve to protect the grapes against birds. In
+some grape regions vineyards suffer more from the depredations of
+robins and other birds than from all other troubles. Grapes bearing
+small berries and having tender pulp and those which shell most
+readily from the stem suffer most. Of standard sorts, Delaware is
+probably more enticing to robins than any other variety. There is only
+one way of preventing damage to grapes from birds and that is by
+bagging the clusters.
+
+Bagging is also an effective means of protecting the grape from
+several fungi and insects. In home plantations or small commercial
+vineyards, bagging the bunches often eliminates the necessity of
+spraying for fungi and for most of the insects that trouble the grape.
+Because of the warmth afforded by the bags, bagged grapes ripen a
+little earlier and are of somewhat higher quality than those not
+bagged. Grapes bagged are protected from early frost, thus prolonging
+the season. Grapes that have been protected from the elements during
+the summer are more attractive than those exposed to the weather,
+since the fruits are free from weather marks and present a fresh,
+bright appearance, which puts them in a grade above unbagged grapes.
+Bagging often enables the grower to sell his crop as a fancy product.
+
+Grapes are bagged as soon as the fruits are well set, the sooner the
+better if protection against fungi is one of the purposes. Under no
+circumstances, however, should the clusters be bagged while in
+blossom. A patent bag made for the purpose may be purchased or,
+serving equally well, the common one and one-half and two-pound manila
+bags used by grocers prove satisfactory. One of the patent bags which
+is known as the Ideal Clasp Bag has a metal clasp attached to the top
+for securing the bag in place over the cluster. In using the grocer's
+bag, before it is put in place the corners of both the top and bottom
+are cut off by placing several bags on a firm level surface and using
+a broad-shaped chisel. Cutting off the corners of the top enables the
+operator to close the bag neatly over the cluster, while cutting off
+the corners of the bottom furnishes a means of escape for any water
+that gets in the bag. In putting the bag in place, the top is pinned
+above the lateral from which the bunch hangs, and must not be fastened
+about the small stem of the cluster, as the wind blowing the bag
+almost invariably breaks the cluster from the vine. The largest pins
+to be purchased in dry-goods stores are used in pinning the bags. The
+bags remain until the grapes are picked. Wet weather does not injure
+bags and seemingly they grow stronger with exposure to sun and wind.
+
+The cost of the bags and the work of putting them on is no small item.
+To secure the best results, the work must be done at the period
+between the dropping of the blossoms and the formation of the seeds,
+when the grapes are about the size of a small pea. This is a busy time
+for the grape-grower, which adds to the cost. When the work is
+conducted on a large scale, the cost is about two dollars a thousand
+bags, this figure covering both the cost of bags and labor. Women do
+the work more expeditiously than men and soon become very skillful in
+putting on the bags. Despite the trouble and cost of bagging, growers
+seeking to produce a fancy product find that the expenditure proves
+profitable.
+
+
+WINTER-PROTECTION OF GRAPES
+
+With a little care as to winter-protection, grapes may be grown
+profitably in northern regions where, without protection, the vines
+are killed or injured by low temperatures. Indeed, it is little short
+of amazing how well grapes can be grown in northern regions where
+nature wears a most austere countenance in winter, if hardy early
+sorts are planted in warm soils and situations, and the vines are
+covered in the winter. Occasionally one finds grapes grown profitably
+in commercial vineyards in the northern states in regions where
+protection must be given to prevent winter-killing, the extra work of
+giving protection being more than offset by the high price received in
+local markets for the fruit.
+
+In all locations in which winter-protection must be given, several
+other precautions are helpful or even necessary. Thus, cultivation
+must cease early in the season, and a cover-crop be sown to help
+harden and mature the vines. The grapes, also, must not be planted in
+soils rich in nitrogen, and nitrogenous fertilizers must be applied
+with care. The pruning should be such as does not induce great growth.
+These simple precautions to hasten maturity often suffice in climates
+where the danger of winter-killing is but slight, but where danger is
+imminent the vines must be covered either by wrapping or by laying
+down. Wrapping with straw may suffice for a few vines, but when many
+vines are to be protected, laying them down is cheaper and much more
+effectual.
+
+By laying down is meant that the vines must be placed on the ground
+and there be protected by earth and snow or other covering. It is
+obvious that to protect thus, the vines must receive special training;
+otherwise the trunks may be too stiff for bending. Some method of
+training must be chosen in which renewals may be made rather
+frequently from the ground so that if the trunks become large, clumsy
+and unpliable, a more manageable trunk can be trained. If the
+provisions for renewal are kept in mind, any one of the several
+methods of training grapes explained in Chapter VIII on training may
+be used.
+
+Laying down must be preceded by pruning, after which the arms and
+trunk are loosened from the wires and bent to the ground. Bending is
+facilitated by removing a spade full of earth from the side of the
+vine in the direction in which the vine is to be bent. The trunk is
+then laid on the earth and sufficient soil placed on it to keep it in
+place on the ground. If the danger of winter-killing is great because
+of the tenderness of the variety or the austerity of the climate, it
+often becomes necessary to cover the whole plant lightly with earth.
+Small growers often make use of coarse manure, straw, corn-stalks or
+similar covering, in which case the vines are held on the ground by
+fence-rails or other timbers; but protecting with material that must
+be brought into the vineyard is expensive and not more satisfactory
+than earth.
+
+The vines can be put down at any time after the leaves drop and before
+the earth begins to freeze. It is more important that the vines be
+taken up at the proper time in the spring. If uncovered too early and
+cold weather follows, injury may result and more harm be done than if
+the vines had not been covered. On the other hand, if the earth is
+permitted to remain too long, foliage and vine are tender both to
+sunshine and frost. A grape-grower in New York who has had much
+experience in laying down vines in a vineyard of some thirty or forty
+acres says that the work may be done at a cost of $6 an acre at the
+average wage paid for farm-labor. It must be expected in a large
+plantation, no matter how well the work of covering is done, that
+occasionally a trunk will be broken, making it necessary to graft the
+vine if a shoot does not spring up from below the break.
+
+
+RIPENING DATES AND LENGTH OF SEASON FOR GRAPES
+
+Every grape-grower should know when his varieties may be expected to
+ripen and the length of season that they will keep. The commercial
+fruit-grower by all means should have this information. It is not
+sufficient that he know only roughly at what season his varieties
+ripen; for, to take the turn of the market, he must know exactly when
+a variety will ripen and how long it will keep. He needs this
+information, also, that he may distribute his labor better throughout
+the picking season.
+
+Unfortunately, the data as to ripening time given by originators
+and introducers of varieties are not always reliable. This
+untrustworthiness of data is readily accounted for in several ways:
+First, growers do not generally agree as to when grapes are ripe nor
+as to how long they are fit to eat. Again, much confusion as to when
+varieties ripen and how long they will keep arises from the fact that
+grapes ripen at different times in different places, and it is
+difficult for the grape-grower in Maine to make allowance in season
+for varieties, the time of ripening of which is given for Maryland.
+There are also other causes than the seasonal differences in grape
+regions for variability in ripening time; thus, some soils are warmer
+and quicker than others, and on these grapes ripen earlier.
+Application of nitrogenous fertilizers may delay the period of
+ripening somewhat. Grapes ripen perceptibly earlier on old plants than
+on young ones. Lastly, every vineyard in a particular region has its
+own particular climate caused by the lay of land, nearness to water,
+air currents and altitude which cause small differences in ripening.
+
+The following table taken from Bulletin No. 408 of the New York
+Agricultural Experiment Station gives the ripening dates of grapes at
+Geneva, New York. It is necessary that the reader know something about
+the conditions affecting the ripening time at Geneva. The latitude is
+42 deg. 50' 46". The altitude is 525 feet above sea level. The vineyard
+lies a mile west of a relatively large body of water. The soil is a
+cold heavy clay which must delay ripening time somewhat. The land is
+level. The data are given as an average for three seasons, 1913-1915.
+
+The figures given for "weeks in common storage" cover a variable
+number of years, but for all varieties three or more years. The
+grapes, after being picked, were at once placed in common storage in a
+room on the second floor of a building. There conditions were not
+ideal, and no doubt the season of storage would have been prolonged
+somewhat had the fruit been kept in a better storage-room.
+
+TABLE V.--SHOWING THE RIPENING TIME OF GRAPES
+
+  =====================================================================
+                     | WEEKS IN |       |       |        |      |
+                     | COMMON   | VERY  |       | MID-   |      | VERY
+                     | STORAGE  | EARLY | EARLY | SEASON | LATE | LATE
+  -------------------+----------+-------+-------+--------+------+------
+  Agawam             |          |       |       |        |   *  |
+  America            |          |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Barry              |    28    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Beacon             |     7    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Bell               |     8    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Berckmans          |    21    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Black Eagle        |    18    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Brighton           |    20    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Brilliant          |    11    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Brown              |     6    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Campbell Early     |    12    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Canada             |    17    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Canandaigua        |    20    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Carman             |    17    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Catawba            |    21    |       |       |        |      |   *
+  Champion           |     6    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Chautauqua         |    10    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Clevener           |    13    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Clinton            |    21    |       |       |        |      |   *
+  Colerain           |     8    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Columbian Imperial |     7    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Concord            |     8    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Cottage            |     5    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Creveling          |    16    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Croton             |    23    |   *   |       |        |      |
+  Delago             |    25    |       |       |        |      |   *
+  Delaware           |    15    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Diamond            |    10    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Diana              |    17    |       |       |        |      |   *
+  Downing            |          |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Dracut Amber       |     9    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Dutchess           |    23    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Early Ohio         |          |   *   |       |        |      |
+  Early Victor       |    11    |   *   |       |        |      |
+  Eaton              |     6    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Eclipse            |     7    |   *   |       |        |      |
+  Eldorado           |    17    |   *   |       |        |      |
+  Elvira             |    18    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Empire State       |    24    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Etta               |    15    |       |       |        |      |   *
+  Eumelan            |    17    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Faith              |    11    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Fern Munson        |    11    |       |       |        |      |   *
+  Gaertner           |    17    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Geneva             |    22    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Goethe             |    18    |       |       |        |      |   *
+  Gold Coin          |    10    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Grein Golden       |    12    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Hartford           |     8    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Headlight          |     8    |   *   |       |        |      |
+  Helen Keller       |    26    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Herbert            |    27    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Hercules           |    13    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Hicks              |    10    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Hidalgo            |    12    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Hosford            |     6    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Iona               |    13    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Isabella           |    11    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Janesville         |    13    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Jefferson          |    18    |       |       |        |      |   *
+  Jessica            |    12    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Jewel              |    12    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Kensington         |    19    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  King               |          |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Lady Washington    |    16    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Lindley            |    27    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Lucile             |     9    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Lutie              |     4    |   *   |       |        |      |
+  McPike             |     7    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Manito             |     7    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Martha             |    10    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Massasoit          |    16    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Maxatawney         |    12    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Merrimac           |    31    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Mills              |    29    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Missouri Riesling  |     6    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Montefiore         |     9    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Moore Early        |     6    |   *   |       |        |      |
+  Moyer              |     9    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Nectar             |    10    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Niagara            |    10    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Noah               |    10    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Northern Muscadine |     9    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Norton             |     7    |       |       |        |      |   *
+  Oporto             |    12    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Ozark              |    11    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Peabody            |          |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Perfection         |     8    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Perkins            |          |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Pierce             |          |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Pocklington        |          |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Poughkeepsie       |    15    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Prentiss           |    16    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Rebecca            |    18    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Regal              |    16    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Requa              |    30    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Rochester          |     7    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Rommel             |    10    |       |       |   *    |      |
+  Salem              |    27    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Secretary          |    25    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Senasqua           |    13    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Stark-Star         |    10    |       |       |        |      |   *
+  Triumph            |    15    |       |       |        |      |   *
+  Ulster             |    21    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Vergennes          |    28    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Wilder             |    11    |       |       |        |   *  |
+  Winchell           |     6    |   *   |       |        |      |
+  Worden             |     6    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  Wyoming            |     9    |       |   *   |        |      |
+  =====================================================================
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXII.--Lindley (x1/2). Lucile (x1/2).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+GRAPE BOTANY
+
+
+The grape-grower must know the gross structure and the habits of
+growth of the plants properly to propagate, transplant, prune and
+otherwise care for the grape. Certainly he must have knowledge of the
+several species from which varieties come if he is to know the kinds
+of grapes, understand their adaptations to soils and climates, their
+relation to insects and fungi, and their value for table, wine,
+grape-juice and other purposes. Fortunately, the botany of the grape
+is comparatively simple. The organs of vine and fruit are distinctive
+and easily discerned and there are no nearly related plants cultivated
+for fruit with which the grape can possibly be confused. Botanists, it
+is true, have dug pitfalls for those who seek exact knowledge as to
+the names and characters of the many species, but, fortunately, each
+of the cultivated species constitutes a natural group so distinct that
+the grape-grower can hardly mistake one for another in either fruit or
+vine.
+
+
+PLANT CHARACTERS AND GROWTH HABITS OF THE GRAPE
+
+A grape plant is a complex organism with its many separate parts
+especially developed to do one or a few kinds of work. The part of a
+plant devoted to one or a group of functions is called an organ. The
+chief organs of the plant are the root, stem, bud, flower, leaf, fruit
+and seed. Flowers and leaves, it is true, develop from buds and the
+seeds are parts of the fruits, but for descriptive purposes the vine
+may well be divided into the parts named. These chief organs are
+further divided as follows:
+
+_The root._
+
+    _Root-crown_: The region of the plant in which root and stem
+                  unite.
+    _Tap-root_: The prolongation of the stem plunging vertically
+                downward.
+    _Rootlets_: The ultimate divisions of the root; usually of one
+                season's growth.
+    _Root-tips_: The extreme ends of the rootlets.
+
+The roots of some species of the grape are soft and succulent as those
+of _V. vinifera_, while the same organs in other species, as in most
+American grapes, are hard and fibrous. They may also be few or
+numerous, deep or shallow, spreading or restricted, fibrous or
+non-fibrous. The structure of the root thus becomes important in
+distinguishing species.
+
+_The stem._
+
+    _Stem or trunk_: The unbranched main axis of the plant above
+                     ground.
+    _Branches or arms_: Main divisions of the trunk.
+    _Head_: The region from which branches arise.
+    _Old wood_: Parts of the vine older than one year.
+    _Canes_: Wood of the current season.
+    _Spurs_: Short pieces of the bases of canes; usually one or two
+             nodes with a bud each.
+    _Renewal spurs_: Spurs left to bear canes the following year.
+    _Shoots_: Newly developed succulent stems with their leaves.
+    _Fruit-shoots_: Flower and fruit-bearing shoots.
+    _Wood-shoots_: Shoots which bear leaves only.
+    _Laterals_: Secondary shoots arising from main shoots.
+    _Water sprouts_: Shoots arising from adventitious buds.
+    _Suckers_: Shoots arising from below ground.
+    _Nodes_: Joints in the stem from which leaves are or may be borne.
+    _Internodes_: The part between two nodes.
+    _Diaphragm_: The woody tissue which interrupts the pith at the
+                 node.
+    _Bloom_: The powdery coating on the cane.
+    _Tendril_: The coiled, thread-like organ by which the vine grasps
+               an object and clings to it.
+
+Species of grapes have very characteristic vines. A glance at a vine
+enables one to tell the European grape from any of the American
+grapes; so, also, one is able to distinguish most of the American
+species by the aspect of the vine. Many varieties of any species of
+grape are readily told by the size and habits of the plant. Size of
+vine is rather more variable than other gross characters because of
+the influence of environment, such as food, moisture, light, isolation
+and pests; yet, size in a plant or the parts of a plant is a very
+reliable character when proper allowances are made for environment.
+
+The degree of hardiness is a very important diagnostic character in
+determining both species and varieties of grapes and very largely
+indicates their value for the vineyard. Thus, the varieties of the
+European grape are less hardy than the peach, while our American
+Labruscas and Vulpinas are as hardy as the apple. The range of
+varieties as to hardiness falls within that of the species, and
+cultivated varieties hardier than the wild grape are not found. Grapes
+are designated in descriptions of varieties and species as hardy,
+half-hardy and tender.
+
+Habit of growth varies but little with changing conditions and is thus
+an important means of distinguishing species and varieties and not
+infrequently stamps the variety as fit or unfit for the vineyard.
+Habit of growth gives aspect to the vine. Thus, a vine may be upright,
+drooping, horizontal, stocky, straggling, spreading, dense or open.
+The vine may grow rapidly or slowly and may be long-lived or
+short-lived; the trunk may be short and stocky or long and slender.
+These several characters largely determine whether a vine is
+manageable in the vineyard. Productiveness, age of bearing and
+regularity of bearing are distinctive characters with cultivated
+grapes. The care given the vine influences these characters; yet all
+are helpful in identifying species and varieties and all must be
+considered by the grape-grower.
+
+Immunity and susceptibility to diseases and insects are most valuable
+diagnostic characters of species and varieties of grapes. Thus,
+species differ widely in resistance to phylloxera, the grape-louse, to
+the grape leaf-hopper, the flea-beetle, berry-moth, root-worm,
+powdery-mildew, downy-mildew, anthracnose and other insect and fungous
+troubles of this fruit.
+
+The structure of the bark is an important distinguishing character for
+some species, but is of little importance in identifying the variety
+and has no economic value to the fruit-grower. In most species of
+grapes, the bark has distinct lenticels and on the old wood separates
+in long thin strips and fibers; but in two species from southeastern
+North America, the bark bears prominent lenticels and never shreds.
+Smoothness, color and thickness are other attributes of the bark to be
+noted.
+
+Canes of different species vary greatly in total length and in length
+of internodes. They vary also in size, in number and in color, while
+the shape in some species is quite distinctive, being in some round,
+in others angular and in still others flattened. The direction of
+growth in canes, whether sinuous, straight or zigzag, is an important
+character. Nodes and internodes are indicative characters in some
+species, being more or less prominent, angular or flattened, while the
+internodes are long or short.
+
+The diaphragm distinguishes several species of grapes. The cane
+contains a large pith and this in most species is interrupted by woody
+tissue, forming a diaphragm at the nodes. In the Rotundifolia grapes
+the diaphragm is absent, while in several other American species it is
+very thin and in still others quite thick. The character of the
+diaphragm is best observed in year-old canes. In studying the
+diaphragm, notice should be taken also of the pith, which is very
+variable in size.
+
+Young shoots of the grape offer a ready means of distinguishing
+species and varieties through their color and the amount and
+character of the pubescence. Shoots may be glabrous, pubescent or
+hairy and even spiny.
+
+The tendril is one of the organs most used in determining species and
+varieties of grapes. In some species, as _V. Labrusca_, there is a
+tendril or an inflorescence opposite nearly every leaf, continuous
+tendrils. All other species have two leaves with a tendril opposite
+each and a third leaf without a tendril, intermittent tendrils. To
+study this organ it is necessary to have vigorous, healthy, typical
+canes. Tendrils may be long or short, stout or slender; simple,
+bifurcated or trifurcated; or smooth, pubescent or warty.
+
+The number of inflorescences borne by species is an important
+character in some cases. All species, excepting _V. Labrusca_, average
+two inflorescences to a cane, but _V. Labrusca_ may bear from three to
+six inflorescences, each in the place of a tendril opposite the leaf.
+
+_The bud._
+
+    _Bud_: An undeveloped shoot.
+    _Fruit-bud_: A bud in which a shoot bearing flowers originates.
+    _Wood-bud_: A bud in which a shoot bearing only leaves originates.
+    _Latent bud_: A bud which remains dormant for one or more seasons.
+    _Adventitious bud_: A bud arising elsewhere than the normal
+                        position at a node.
+    _Eye_: A compound bud.
+    _Main bud_: The central bud of an eye.
+    _Secondary bud_: The lateral bud of an eye.
+
+Buds of different species of grapes vary greatly in time of opening as
+they do somewhat in varieties, so that the time the buds begin to
+swell is a fine mark of distinction. The angle at which the bud stands
+out from the branch is of some value in determining species.
+Differences in color, size, shape, position and amount of pubescence
+of buds must all be noted in describing grapes. The scales of the buds
+vary more or less in size and in thickness.
+
+_The flower._
+
+    _Staminate_: Having stamens and not pistils; a male flower.
+    _Pistillate_: Having pistils and not stamens; a female flower.
+    _Dioecious_: Said when the stamens are on one plant and the
+                 pistils on another.
+    _Polygamous_: Said when flowers on a plant are in part perfect
+                  (having both stamens and pistils) while others are
+                  staminate or pistillate.
+    _Hermaphrodite_: Said of a flower having both stamens and pistils.
+    _Fertile_: Said of a flower capable of bearing seed without pollen
+               from another flower.
+    _Sterile_: Said of a flower without or with abortive pistils.
+    _Perfect_: Said of a flower having both stamens and pistils.
+    _Imperfect_: Said of a flower wanting either stamens or pistils.
+    _Peduncle_: The stalk of a flower-cluster.
+    _Pedicel_: The stalk of each particular flower.
+
+The time of bloom is an easy mark of distinction between several
+species of grapes and helps to distinguish varieties in a species as
+well. Most species of grapes bear fertile flowers on one vine and
+sterile flowers on another and are, therefore, polygamous-dioecious.
+Sterile vines bear male flowers with abortive pistils so that, while
+they never produce fruits themselves, they usually assist in
+fertilizing others. Fertile flowers are capable of ripening fruits
+without cross-pollination. Vines with female flowers only are seldom
+found. In most species of the grape, plants with sterile flowers and
+those with complete flowers are found mixed in the wild state, but
+usually only the fertile plants have been selected for cultivation.
+Plants raised from seeds of any of the species, however, furnish many
+sterile vines.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53. The grape flower. I. Opening bud showing the
+way in which the cap becomes loosened at the base. II. Diagrammatic
+illustration of grape stamens.]
+
+
+The degree of fertility of blossoms is also a fine mark of distinction
+in species and varieties of the grape. Fertile vines are of two kinds
+in most species. The flowers on one kind are perfect hermaphrodites,
+while in the other kind the stamens are smaller and shorter than the
+pistil and eventually bent down and curved under. The two kinds of
+stamens are shown in Figs. 53 and 54. These may be called imperfect
+hermaphrodites since they are seldom as fruitful as the perfect
+hermaphrodites unless fertilized from another plant. Examined with a
+microscope, it is found that self-sterile plants usually bear abortive
+pollen and that the percentage of abortive pollen grains varies
+greatly in different varieties. The upright or depressed stamen does
+not always indicate the condition of the pollen, since there are many
+instances in which upright stamens bear impotent pollen and
+occasionally the depressed stamens bear perfect pollen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54. Grape flowers. _Left_, upright stamens of
+Delaware; _right_, depressed stamens of Brighton.]
+
+_The leaf._
+
+    _Blade_: The expanded portion of the leaf.
+    _Lobe_: The more or less rounded division of the leaf.
+    _Sinus_: The recess or bay between two lobes.
+    _Petiole_: The leaf-stalk.
+    _Petiolar sinus_: The sinus about the petiole.
+    _Basal sinuses_: The two sinuses toward the base of the blade.
+    _Lateral sinuses_: The two sinuses toward the apex of the blade.
+
+The size, shape and color of the leaves are quite distinctive of
+species and more or less so of varieties, if allowances are made for
+variation due to environment. The lobing of leaves is a very uniform
+character in most species, some having lobes and others having entire
+leaves. The upper surface of the leaf in some species is smooth,
+glossy and shiny and in others is rough and dull. The lower surface
+shows similar variations and has, besides, varying amounts of
+pubescence, down and bloom. In some species the down resembles
+cobwebs. The number, size and shape of the lobes are important in
+distinguishing both varieties and species, as are also the petiolar,
+basal and lateral sinuses. As in most plants, the margins of the
+leaves, whether serrate, dentate or crenate, are often distinguishing
+characters. The petiole in different species varies from short to long
+and from stout to slender. Lastly, the time at which the leaves fall
+is often a good distinguishing mark.
+
+_The fruit._
+
+    _Peduncle and pedicel_: Defined as in flower.
+    _Brush_: The end of the pedicel projecting into the fruit.
+    _Base_: The point of attachment of bunch or berry.
+    _Apex_: The point opposite the base.
+    _Bloom_: The powdery coating on the fruit.
+    _Pigment_: The coloring matter in the skin.
+    _Quality_: The combination of characters that makes grapes
+               pleasant to the palate, sight, smell and touch.
+    _Foxiness_: The rancid taste and smell of some grapes which are
+                similar to the effluvium of a fox.
+
+Of all organs the fruit is most responsive to changed conditions and
+hence most variable. Yet the fruits furnish most valuable characters
+for determining both species and varieties. Size, shape, compactness
+and the number of clusters on a shoot must be noted. Coming to the
+berry, size, shape, color, bloom, adherence of stigma to the apex and
+adhesion of fruit to the pedicel are all of value. Difference in
+adherence of the skin to the pulp separates European from all American
+grapes. The thickness, toughness, flavor and pigment of the skin have
+more or less value. The color, firmness, juiciness, aroma and flavor
+of the flesh, as well as its adherence to seed and skin, are valuable
+marks in describing grapes. All species and varieties are well
+distinguished by the time of ripening and by keeping quality. The
+color of the juice is a plain and certain dividing line between some
+species and many varieties.
+
+_The seed._
+
+    _Beak_: The narrow prolonged base of the seed.
+    _Hilum_: The scar left where the seed was attached to the
+             seed-stalk.
+    _Chalaza_: The place where the seed-coats and kernel are
+               connected.
+    _Raphe_: The line or ridge which runs from the hilum to the
+             chalaza.
+
+Seeds are accounted of much value in determining species. The size and
+weight of seed differ greatly in different species, as they do also in
+varieties of any one species. Thus, of native grapes, Labrusca has the
+largest and heaviest seeds and Vulpina has the smallest seed, while
+those of AEstivalis are of medium size and weight. The shape and color
+of seed offer distinguishing marks, while the size, shape and position
+of the raphe and chalaza furnish very certain marks of distinction in
+some species.
+
+
+THE GENUS VITIS
+
+The genus Vitis belongs to the vine family (Vitaceae) in which most
+botanists also put the wood-vines (Ampelopsis), of which Virginia
+creeper is the best-known plant. The genus Cissus, to which belong
+many southern climbers, is combined with Vitis by some botanists.
+Vitis is separated from Ampelopsis and Cissus by marked differences in
+several organs, of which, horticulturally at least, those in the
+fruit best serve to distinguish the group. Species of Vitis, with
+possibly one or two exceptions, bear pulpy edible fruits; species of
+Ampelopsis and Cissus bear fruits with pulp so scant that the berries
+are inedible. Vitis is further distinguished as follows: The plants
+are climbing or trailing, rarely shrubby, with woody stems and mostly
+with coiling, naked-tipped tendrils. The leaves are simple, palmately
+lobed, round-dentate or heart-shaped-dentate. The stipules are small,
+falling early. The flowers are polygamo-dioecious (some plants with
+perfect flowers, others staminate with at most a rudimentary ovary),
+five-parted. The petals are separated only at the base and fall off
+without expanding. The disk is hypogynous with five nectariferous
+glands which are alternate with the stamens. The berry is globose or
+ovoid, few-seeded and pulpy. The seeds are pyriform and beak-like at
+the base.
+
+
+SPECIES OF AMERICAN GRAPES
+
+The number of species of grapes in the world depends on the arbitrary
+limits set for a species of this fruit, and knowledge of the genus is
+yet too meager to set these limits with certainty. Indeed, the men who
+have made grape species have seldom been able to outline the habitats
+of their groups with much certainty. In habitat, it should be said,
+grapes are confined almost wholly to temperate and subtropical
+regions. However, the grape-grower is not much concerned with species
+of grapes other than those that have horticultural value. Of these, in
+America, there are now ten more or less cultivated either for fruit or
+for stocks. The following descriptions of these ten species are
+adapted from the author's The Grapes of New York, published in 1908 by
+the state of New York (Chapter IV, pages 107-156).
+
+CONSPECTUS OF CULTIVATED SPECIES OF VITIS
+
+    _A._ Skin of mature berry separating freely from the pulp.
+      _B._ Nodes without diaphragms; tendrils simple.
+                                                 1. _V. rotundifolia._
+                                                 2. _V. Munsoniana._
+      _BB._ Nodes with diaphragms; tendrils forked.
+        _C._ Leaves and shoots glabrous at maturity and without
+             bloom; tendrils intermittent.
+          _D._ Leaves thin, light, bright green, generally glabrous
+               below at maturity except perhaps in the axils of the
+               veins with a long or at least a prominent point and
+               usually long and sharp teeth or the edge even-jagged.
+            _E._ Leaves broader than long; petiolar sinus usually wide
+                 and shallow.
+                                                 3. _V. rupestris._
+            _EE._ Leaves ovate in outline; petiolar sinus usually
+                  medium to narrow.
+                                                 4. _V. vulpina._
+          _DD._ Leaves thick, dull colored or grayish-green, often
+                holding some close, dull pubescence below at maturity,
+                shoots and leaves nearly always more or less pubescent
+                when young; the teeth mostly short.
+                                                 5. _V. cordifolia._
+                                                 6. _V. Berlandieri._
+        _CC._ Leaves rusty or white tomentose or glaucous blue below,
+              thick or at least firm.
+          _D._ Leaves flocculent or cobwebby or glaucous below when
+               fully grown.
+                                                 7. _V. aestivalis._
+                                                 8. _V. bicolor._
+          _DD._ Leaves densely tomentose or felt-like beneath
+                throughout the season; covering white or rusty white.
+            _E._ Tendrils intermittent.
+                                                 9. _V. candicans._
+            _EE._ Tendrils mostly continuous.
+                                                10. _V. Labrusca._
+    _AA._ Skin and pulp of mature berry cohering. (Old World.)
+                                                11. _V. vinifera._
+
+1. _Vitis rotundifolia_, Michx. Muscadine Grape. Bull Grape. Bullet
+Grape. Bushy Grape. Bullace Grape. Scuppernong. Southern Fox Grape.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, sometimes, when without support, shrubby and
+    only three or four feet high; when growing in the shade often
+    sending down aerial roots. Wood hard, bark smooth, not scaling,
+    with prominent warty lenticels; shoots short-jointed, angled, with
+    fine scurfy pubescence; diaphragms absent; tendrils intermittent,
+    simple. Leaves small, broadly cordate or roundish; petiolar sinus
+    wide, shallow; margin with obtuse, wide teeth; not lobed; dense in
+    texture, light green color, glabrous above, sometimes pubescent
+    along veins below. Cluster small (6-24 berries), loose; peduncle
+    short; pedicels short, thick. Berries large, globular or somewhat
+    oblate, black or greenish-yellow; skin thick, tough and with a
+    musky odor; pulp tough; ripening unevenly and dropping as soon as
+    ripe. Seeds flattened, shallowly and broadly notched; beak very
+    short; chalaza narrow, slightly depressed with radiating ridges
+    and furrows; raphe a narrow groove. Leafing, flowering and
+    ripening fruit very late.
+
+The habitat of this species is southern Delaware, west through
+Tennessee, southern Illinois, southeastern Missouri, Arkansas (except
+the northwestern portions), to Grayson County, Texas, as a northern
+and western boundary, to the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf on the east
+and south. It becomes rare as one approaches the western limit but is
+common in many sections of the great region outlined above, being most
+abundant on sandy, well-drained bottom lands and along river banks and
+in swampy, thick woodlands and thickets. The climate most suitable for
+Rotundifolia is that in which cotton grows, and it thrives best in the
+lower portions of the cotton-belt of the United States.
+
+The fruit of Rotundifolia is very characteristic. The skin is thick,
+has a leathery appearance, adheres strongly to the underlying flesh
+and is marked with lenticel-like russet dots. The flesh is more or
+less tough but the toughness is not localized around the seed as in
+the case of Labrusca. The fruit and most of the varieties of the
+species are characterized by a strong, musky aroma and are lacking in
+sugar and acid. Some varieties yield over four gallons of must to the
+bushel. Wine-makers are divided in opinion as to its value for
+wine-making, but at present the most promising outlook for
+Rotundifolia varieties is as wine, grape-juice and culinary grapes.
+Rotundifolia does not produce fruit suitable for shipping as dessert
+grapes chiefly because the berries ripen unevenly and when ripe drop
+from the cluster. The common method of gathering the fruit of this
+species is to shake the vines at intervals so that the ripe berries
+drop on sheets spread below the vines. The juice which exudes from the
+point where the stem is broken off causes the berries to become
+smeared and gives them an unattractive appearance. Owing, however, to
+the tough skin, the berries do not crack as badly as other grapes
+would under the same conditions, but nevertheless they are not adapted
+to long-distance shipments. Under reasonably favorable conditions, the
+vines attain great age and size and when grown on arbors, as they
+often are, and without pruning, they cover a large area.
+
+Rotundifolia is remarkably resistant to the attacks of all insects and
+to fungal diseases. The phylloxera do not attack its roots and it is
+considered as resistant as any other, if not the most resistant of all
+American species. The vines are grown from cuttings only with
+difficulty and this prevents the use of this species as a resistant
+stock. However, under favorable circumstances, and with skillful
+handling, this is a successful method of propagation. Under
+unfavorable circumstances, or when only a few vines are desired, it is
+better to depend on layers. As a stock upon which to graft other
+vines, this species has not been a success. There is great difficulty
+in crossing Rotundifolia with other species, but several Rotundifolia
+hybrids are now on record.
+
+2. _Vitis Munsoniana_, Simpson. Florida Grape. Everbearing grape. Bird
+Grape. Mustang Grape of Florida.
+
+    Vine slender, usually running on the ground or over low bushes.
+    Canes angular; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, simple.
+    Leaves smaller and thinner than Rotundifolia and rather more
+    circular in outline; not lobed; teeth open and spreading; petiolar
+    sinus V-shaped; both surfaces smooth, rather light green. Cluster
+    with more berries but about the same size as in Rotundifolia.
+    Berry one-third to one-half the diameter, with thinner and more
+    tender skin; black, shining; pulp less solid, more acid and
+    without muskiness. Seeds about one-half the size of those of
+    Rotundifolia, similar in other respects. Leafing, flowering and
+    ripening fruit very late.
+
+The habitat of _V. Munsoniana_ is central and southern Florida and the
+Florida Keys. It extends south of the habitat of Rotundifolia and
+blends into this species at their point of meeting. Munsoniana appears
+to be a variation of Rotundifolia, fitted to subtropical conditions.
+It is tender, not enduring a lower temperature than zero. In the
+matter of multiplication, it differs from _V. rotundifolia_ in that it
+can be propagated readily from cuttings. Like Rotundifolia it is
+resistant to phylloxera.
+
+3. _Vitis rupestris_, Scheele. Mountain Grape. Rock Grape. Bush Grape.
+Sand Grape. Sugar Grape. Beach Grape.
+
+    A small, much branched shrub or, under favorable circumstances,
+    climbing. Diaphragm thin; tendrils few, or if present, weak,
+    usually deciduous. Leaves small; young leaves frequently folded on
+    midrib; broadly cordate or reniform, wider than long, scarcely
+    ever lobed, smooth, glabrous on both surfaces at maturity;
+    petiolar sinus wide, shallow; margin coarsely toothed, frequently
+    a sharp, abrupt point at terminal. Cluster small. Berries small,
+    black or purple-black. Seeds small, not notched; beak short,
+    blunt; raphe distinct to indistinct, usually showing as a narrow
+    groove; chalaza pear-shaped, sometimes distinct, but usually a
+    depression only. Leafing, blossoming and ripening early.
+
+This species is an inhabitant of southwestern Texas, extending
+eastward and northward into New Mexico, southern Missouri, Indiana and
+Tennessee to southern Pennsylvania and the District of Columbia. Its
+favorite places are gravelly banks and bars of mountain streams or the
+rocky beds of dry watercourses. This species is rather variable both
+in type and growth. It was introduced into France at about the same
+time as Vulpina, and the French vineyardists selected the most
+vigorous and healthy forms for grafting stock. These pass under the
+various names of Rupestris Mission, Rupestris du Lot, Rupestris
+Ganzin, Rupestris Martin, Rupestris St. George and others. In France,
+these varieties have given particularly good results on bare, rocky
+soils with hot, dry exposures. In California, Rupestris does not
+flourish in dry locations, and as it suckers profusely and does not
+take the graft as readily as Vulpina and AEstivalis, it is not largely
+propagated.
+
+The clusters of fruit are small, with berries about the size of a
+currant and varying from sweet to sour. The berry is characterized by
+much pigment under the skin. The fruit has a sprightly taste wholly
+free from any disagreeable foxiness. Rupestris under cultivation is
+said to be very resistant to rot and mildew of the foliage. The vine
+is considered hardy in the Southwest. The attention of hybridizers was
+attracted to this species over thirty years ago, and various hybrids
+have been produced of great promise for grape-breeding. The root
+system of Rupestris is peculiar in that the roots penetrate at once
+deeply into the ground instead of extending laterally as in other
+species. Like those of Vulpina, the roots are slender, hard and
+resistant to phylloxera. The species is easily propagated by cuttings.
+The vines bench-graft readily but are difficult to handle in field
+grafting.
+
+4. _Vitis vulpina_, Linn. (_V. riparia_, Michx.). Winter Grape. River
+Grape. Riverside Grape. Riverbank Grape. Sweet-scented Grape.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, climbing. Shoots cylindrical or angled,
+    usually smooth, slender; diaphragms thin; tendrils intermittent,
+    slender, usually bifid. Leaves with large stipules; leaf-blade
+    large, thin, entire, three- or lower ones often five-lobed;
+    sinuses shallow, angular; petiolar sinus broad, usually shallow;
+    margin with incised, sharply serrate teeth of variable size; light
+    green, glabrous above, glabrous but sometimes pubescent on ribs
+    and veins below. Cluster small, compact, shouldered; peduncle
+    short. Berries small, black with a heavy blue bloom. Seeds two to
+    four, small, notched, short, plump, with very short beak; chalaza
+    narrowly oval, depressed, indistinct; raphe usually a groove,
+    sometimes distinct. Very variable in flavor and time of ripening.
+
+Vulpina is the most widely distributed of any American species of
+grape. It has been discovered in parts of Canada north of Quebec and
+from thence southward to the Gulf of Mexico. It is found from the
+Atlantic coast westward, most botanists say, to the Rocky Mountains.
+Usually it grows on river banks, on islands or in upland ravines.
+Vulpina has always been considered of great promise in the evolution
+of American grapes. It can hardly be said that it has fulfilled
+expectations, there probably being no pure variety of this species of
+more than local importance, and the results of hybridizing it with
+other species have not been wholly successful. Attention was early
+turned to Vulpina because of the qualities presented by the vine
+rather than those of the fruit, particularly its hardiness and vigor.
+However, both of these qualities are rather variable, although it is
+only reasonable to suppose that in such a widely distributed species,
+plants found in a certain region would have adapted themselves to the
+conditions there present; thus, it should be expected that the
+northern plants would be more hardy than those from the South, and
+that the western prairie forms would be more capable of resisting
+drouth than those from humid regions. It is, consequently, impossible
+to say what conditions best suit this species. It may be said,
+however, that Vulpina is adapted to a great variety of soils and
+locations; vines have withstood a temperature of 40 to 60 degrees
+below zero and they show equal ability in withstanding the injurious
+effects of high temperatures in the summer. On account of its habit of
+early blooming, the blossoms sometimes suffer from late frosts in the
+spring.
+
+While Vulpina is not a swamp grape and is not found growing under
+swampy conditions, it is fond of water. In the semi-arid regions
+always, and in humid regions usually, it is found growing along the
+banks of streams, in ravines, on the islands of rivers and in wet
+places. It is not nearly so capable of withstanding drouth as
+Rupestris. Vulpina likes a rather rich soil, but in France has been
+found to do poorly on limestone land and calcareous marls. The French
+tell us, however, that this is a characteristic of all our American
+grapes, and that Vulpina is more resistant to the injurious effects of
+an excess of lime than either Rupestris or AEstivalis.
+
+The fruit of Vulpina is usually small, there being occasional
+varieties of medium size or above. The clusters are of medium size
+and, if judged from the standpoint of number of berries, might
+frequently be called large. The flavor is usually sharply acid but
+free from foxiness or any disagreeable wild taste. If eaten in
+quantity, the acidity is likely to affect the lips and end of the
+tongue. When the acidity is somewhat ameliorated, as in the case of
+thoroughly ripe or even over-ripe and shriveled fruit, the flavor is
+much liked. The flesh is neither pulpy nor solid and dissolves in the
+mouth and separates readily from the seed. The must of Vulpina is
+characterized by an average amount of sugar, varying considerably in
+the fruit from different vines, and by an excess of acid.
+
+Vulpina is very resistant to phylloxera, the roots are small, hard,
+numerous and branch freely. The roots feed close to the surface and do
+not seem to be well adapted to forcing their way through heavy clays.
+Vulpina grows readily from cuttings and makes a good stock for
+grafting, its union with other species being usually permanent. When
+Vulpinas were first sent to France to be used as a stock in
+reconstituting the French vineyards, it was found that many of the
+vines secured from the woods were too weak in growth to support the
+stronger-growing Viniferas. On this account the French growers
+selected the more vigorous forms of the Vulpinas, to which they gave
+varietal names, as Vulpina Gloire, Vulpina Grand Glabre, Vulpina
+Schribner, Vulpina Martin and others. With these selected Vulpinas,
+the graft does not outgrow the stock. Vulpina is less resistant to
+black-rot than AEstivalis but somewhat more resistant than Labrusca.
+The foliage is rarely attacked by mildew. One of the chief failings
+of this species is the susceptibility of the leaves to the attack of
+the leaf-hopper. The Vulpinas are generally late in ripening; the
+fruit is better in quality in long seasons and should be left on the
+vines as late as possible.
+
+5. _Vitis cordifolia_, Michx. Winter Grape. Frost Grape. Fox Grape.
+Chicken Grape. Heart-leaved Vitis. Possum Grape. Sour Winter Grape.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, climbing. Shoots slender; internodes long,
+    angular, usually glabrous, sometimes pubescent; diaphragms thick;
+    tendrils intermittent, long, usually bifid. Leaves with short,
+    broad stipules; leaf-blade medium to large, cordate, entire or
+    indistinctly three-lobed; petiolar sinus deep, usually narrow,
+    acute; margin with coarse angular teeth; point of leaf acuminate;
+    upper surface light green, glossy, glabrous; glabrous or sparingly
+    pubescent below. Clusters medium to large, loose, with long
+    peduncle. Berries numerous and small, black, shining, little or no
+    bloom. Seeds medium in size, broad, beak short; chalaza oval or
+    roundish, elevated, very distinct; raphe a distinct, cord-like
+    ridge. Fruit sour and astringent and frequently consisting of
+    little besides skins and seeds. Leafing, flowering and ripening
+    fruit very late.
+
+Owing to the fact that Cordifolia and Vulpina have been badly
+confused, the limits of the habitat of this species are difficult to
+determine. The best authorities give the northern limit as New York or
+the Great Lakes. The eastern limit is the Atlantic Ocean and the
+southern limit, the Gulf of Mexico. It extends westward, according to
+Engelmann, to the western limits of the wooded portion of the
+Mississippi Valley in the North, and, according to Munson, to the
+Brazos River, Texas, in the South. It is found along creeks and river
+banks sometimes mixed with Vulpina, having about the same soil
+adaptations as that species. It is a very common species in the middle
+states and frequently grows on limestone soils, but is not indigenous
+to such soils.
+
+Cordifolia makes a good stock for grafting, being vigorous and forming
+a good union with most of our cultivated grapes. It is seldom used
+for this purpose, however, on account of the difficulty of propagating
+it by means of cuttings. For the same reason vines of it are seldom
+found in cultivation.
+
+6. _Vitis Berlandieri_, Planch. Mountain-Grape. Spanish Grape. Fall
+Grape. Winter Grape. Little Mountain Grape.
+
+    Vine vigorous, climbing; shoots more or less angled and pubescent;
+    pubescence remaining only in patches on mature wood; canes mostly
+    with short internodes; diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent,
+    long, strong, bifid or trifid. Leaves with small stipules;
+    leaf-blade large, broadly cordate, notched or shortly three-lobed;
+    petiolar sinus rather open, V- or U-shaped, margin with broad but
+    rather shallow teeth, rather dark glossy green above, grayish
+    pubescence below when young; becoming glabrous and even glossy
+    except on ribs and veins, when mature. Clusters large, compact,
+    compound, with long peduncle. Berries small, black, with thin
+    bloom, juicy, rather tart but pleasant tasting when thoroughly
+    ripe. Seeds few, small, short, plump, oval or roundish, with short
+    beak; chalaza oval or roundish, distinct; raphe narrow, slightly
+    distinct to indistinct. Leafing, flowering and ripening fruit very
+    late.
+
+Berlandieri is a native of the limestone hills of southwest Texas and
+adjacent Mexico. It grows in the same region with _V. monticola_, but
+is less restricted locally, growing from the tops of the hills down
+and along the creek bottoms of these regions. Its great virtue is that
+it withstands a soil largely composed of lime, being superior to all
+other American species in this respect. This and its moderate degree
+of vigor have recommended it to the French growers as a stock for
+their calcareous soils. The roots are strong, thick, and very
+resistant to phylloxera. It is propagated by cuttings with comparative
+ease, but its varieties are variable, some not rooting at all easily.
+While the fruit of this species shows a large cluster, the berries are
+small and sour, and Berlandieri is not regarded as having promise for
+culture in America.
+
+7. _Vitis aestivalis_, Michx. Blue Grape. Bunch Grape. Summer Grape.
+Little Grape. Duck-shot Grape. Swamp Grape. Chicken Grape. Pigeon
+Grape.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, shoots pubescent or smooth when young;
+    diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent, usually bifid. Leaves
+    with short, broad stipules; leaf-blade large, thin when young but
+    becoming thick; petiolar sinus deep, usually narrow, frequently
+    overlapping; margin rarely entire, usually three- to five-lobed;
+    teeth dentate, shallow, wide; upper surface dark green; lower
+    surface with more or less reddish or rusty pubescence which, in
+    mature leaves, usually shows in patches on the ribs and veins;
+    petioles frequently pubescent. Clusters long, not much branched,
+    with long peduncle. Berries small, with moderate amount of bloom,
+    usually astringent. Seeds two to three, of medium size, plump,
+    smooth, not notched; chalaza oval, distinct; raphe a distinct
+    cord-like ridge. Leafing and ripening fruit late to very late.
+
+The division of the original species has reduced the habitat
+materially, confining it to the southeastern part of the United States
+from southern New York to Florida and westward to the Mississippi
+River. AEstivalis grows in thickets and openings in the woods and shows
+no such fondness for streams as Vulpina, or for thick timber as
+Labrusca, but is generally confined to uplands. Under favorable
+circumstances, the vines grow to be very large. AEstivalis is
+preeminently a wine grape. The fruit usually has a tart, acrid taste,
+due to the presence of a high percentage of acid, but there is also a
+large amount of sugar, the scale showing that juice from this species
+has a much higher percentage of sugar than the sweeter-tasting
+Labruscas. The wine made from varieties of AEstivalis is very rich in
+coloring matter and is used by some European vintners to mix with the
+must of European sorts in order to give the combined product a higher
+color. The berries are destitute of pulp, have a comparatively thin,
+tough skin and a peculiar spicy flavor. The berries hang to the bunch
+after becoming ripe much better than do those of Labrusca.
+
+This species thrives in a lighter and shallower soil than Labrusca and
+appears to endure drought better, although not equaling in this
+respect either Vulpina or Rupestris. The French growers report that
+AEstivalis is very liable to chlorosis on soils which contain much
+lime. The leaves are never injured by the sun and they resist the
+attacks of insects, such as leaf-hoppers, better than any other
+American species under cultivation. AEstivalis is rarely injured by
+black-rot or mildew, according to American experience, but French
+growers speak of its being susceptible to both. The hard roots of
+AEstivalis enable it to resist phylloxera, and varieties with any great
+amount of the blood of this species are seldom seriously injured by
+this insect. An objection to AEstivalis, from a horticultural
+standpoint, is that it does not root well from cuttings. Many
+authorities speak of it as not rooting at all from cuttings, but this
+is an over-statement of the facts, as many of the wild and cultivated
+varieties are occasionally propagated in this manner, and some
+southern nurseries, located in particularly favorable situations, make
+a practice of propagating it by this method. Varieties of this species
+bear grafting well, especially in the vineyard.
+
+_Vitis aestivalis Lincecumii_, Munson. Post-oak Grape. Pine-wood Grape.
+Turkey Grape.
+
+    Vine vigorous, sometimes climbing high upon trees, sometimes
+    forming a bushy clump from two to six feet high; canes
+    cylindrical, much rusty wool on shoots; tendrils intermittent.
+    Leaves very large, almost as wide as long; entire or three-,
+    five-, or rarely seven-lobed; lobes frequently divided; sinuses,
+    including petiolar sinus, deep; smooth above, and with more or
+    less rusty pubescence below. (The north-Texas, southwestern
+    Missouri and northern Arkansas form shows little or no pubescence
+    but has fine prickly spines at base of shoots and shows much blue
+    bloom on shoots, canes and the under side of the leaves.) Fruit
+    small to large, usually larger than typical AEstivalis, usually
+    black, with heavy bloom. Seeds larger than AEstivalis, pear-shaped;
+    chalaza roundish.
+
+Lincecumii inhabits the eastern half of Texas, western Louisiana,
+Oklahoma, Arkansas and southern Missouri on high sandy land,
+frequently climbing post-oak trees, hence the name, post-oak grape, by
+which it is locally known.
+
+Lincecumii has attracted considerable attention through the work of H.
+Jaeger and T. V. Munson in domesticating it, both of whom considered
+it one of the most, if not the most, promising form from which to
+secure cultivated varieties for the Southwest. The qualities which
+recommend it are: First, vigor; second, capacity to withstand rot and
+mildew; third, hardiness and capacity to endure hot and dry summers
+without injury; fourth, the large cluster and berry which were found
+on certain of the wild vines. The fruit is characteristic because of
+its dense bloom, firm, yet tender texture and peculiar flavor. The
+cultivated varieties have given satisfaction in many sections of the
+Central Western and Southern states. Like AEstivalis, it is difficult
+to propagate from cuttings.
+
+The north-Texas glaucous form of this variety mentioned in the
+technical description above is the _V. aestivalis glauca_ of Bailey.
+This is the type of Lincecumii that Munson has used in breeding work.
+
+_Vitis aestivalis Bourquiniana_, Bailey. Southern AEstivalis.
+
+Bourquiniana differs chiefly from the type in having thinner leaves;
+the shoots and under side of the leaves are only slightly
+reddish-brown in color; the pubescence usually disappears at maturity;
+the leaves are more deeply lobed than is common in AEstivalis; and the
+fruit is larger, sweeter and more juicy. Bourquiniana is known only in
+cultivation. The name was given by Munson, who ranks the group as a
+species. He includes therein many southern varieties, the most
+important of which are: Herbemont, Bertrand, Cunningham and Lenoir,
+grouped in the Herbemont section; and Devereaux, Louisiana and Warren,
+in the Devereaux section. Munson has traced the history of this
+interesting group and states that it was brought from southern France
+to America over one hundred fifty years ago by the Bourquin family of
+Savannah, Georgia. Many botanists are of the opinion that
+Bourquiniana is a hybrid. The hybrid supposition is corroborated to a
+degree by the characters being more or less intermediate between the
+supposed parent species, and also by the fact that up to date no wild
+form of Bourquiniana has been found. The only northern variety of any
+importance supposed to have Bourquiniana blood is the Delaware, and in
+this variety only a fraction of Bourquiniana blood is presumably
+present. Bourquiniana can be propagated from cuttings more easily than
+the typical AEstivalis but not so readily as Labrusca, Vulpina or
+Vinifera. Many of the varieties of Bourquiniana show a marked
+susceptibility to mildew and black-rot; in fact, the whole Herbemont
+group is much inferior in this respect to the Norton group of
+AEstivalis. The roots are somewhat hard, branch rather freely and are
+quite resistant to phylloxera.
+
+8. _Vitis bicolor_, Le Conte. Blue Grape. Northern Summer Grape.
+Northern AEstivalis.
+
+    Vine vigorous, climbing; shoots cylindrical or angled, with long
+    internodes, generally glabrous, usually showing much blue bloom,
+    sometimes spiny at base; diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent,
+    long, usually bifid. Leaves with short, broad stipules; leaf-blade
+    large; roundish-cordate, usually three-, sometimes on older growth
+    shallowly five-lobed, rarely entire; petiolar sinus variable in
+    depth, usually narrow; margin irregularly dentate; teeth
+    acuminate; glabrous above, usually glabrous below and showing much
+    blue bloom which sometimes disappears late in the season; young
+    leaves sometimes pubescent; petioles very long. Cluster of medium
+    size, compact, simple; peduncle long. Berries small, black with
+    much bloom, acid but pleasant tasting when ripe. Seeds small,
+    plump, broadly oval, very short beak; chalaza oval, raised,
+    distinct; raphe distinct, showing as a cord-like ridge.
+
+Bicolor is readily distinguished from AEstivalis by the absence of the
+reddish pubescence and by blooming slightly later. The habitat of
+Bicolor is to the north of that of AEstivalis, occupying the
+northeastern, whereas AEstivalis occupies the southeastern quarter of
+the United States. Like AEstivalis, this species is not confined to
+streams and river banks but frequently grows on higher land also. It
+is found in north Missouri, Illinois, southwestern Wisconsin, Indiana,
+southern Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, New York,
+southwestern Ontario, New Jersey and Maryland and by some botanists is
+reported as far south as western North Carolina and west Tennessee.
+
+The horticultural characters of Bicolor are much the same as those of
+AEstivalis. About the only points of difference are that it is much
+hardier (some of the Wisconsin vines stand a temperature as low as 20
+degrees below zero); it is said to be slightly less resistant to
+mildew and more resistant to phylloxera. Like AEstivalis, Bicolor does
+not thrive on limy soils and it is difficult to propagate from
+cuttings. The horticultural possibilities of Bicolor are probably much
+the same as those of AEstivalis, although many think it to be more
+promising for the North. It is as yet cultivated but little. Its chief
+defect for domestication is the small size of the fruit.
+
+9. _Vitis candicans_, Englem. Mustang Grape.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, climbing; shoots and petioles densely wooly,
+    whitish or rusty; diaphragm thick; tendrils intermittent. Leaves
+    with large stipules; blade small, broadly cordate to
+    reniform-ovate, entire or in young shoots and on young vines and
+    sprouts usually deeply three- to five-, or even seven-lobed; teeth
+    shallow, sinuate; petiolar sinus shallow, wide, sometimes lacking;
+    dull, slightly rugose above, dense whitish pubescence below.
+    Clusters small. Berries medium to large, black, purple, green, or
+    even whitish, thin blue bloom or bloomless. Seeds usually three or
+    four, large, short, plump, blunt, notched; chalaza oval,
+    depressed, indistinct; raphe a broad groove.
+
+The habitat of this grape extends from southern Oklahoma, as a
+northern limit, southwesterly into Mexico. The western boundary is the
+Pecos River. It is found on dry, alluvial, sandy or limestone bottoms
+or on limestone bluff lands and is said to be especially abundant
+along upland ravines. Candicans grows well on limestone lands,
+enduring as much as 60 per cent of carbonate of lime in the soil. The
+species blooms shortly before Labrusca and a week later than Vulpina.
+It requires the long hot summers of its native country and will stand
+extreme drouth but is not hardy to cold, 10 or 15 degrees below zero
+killing the vine outright unless protected; and a lesser degree of
+cold injuring it severely. The berries, which are large for wild
+vines, have thin skins under which there is a pigment which gives
+them, when first ripe, a fiery, pungent taste but which partly
+disappears with maturity. The berries are very persistent, clinging to
+the pedicel long after ripe. Candicans is difficult to propagate from
+cuttings. Its roots resist phylloxera fairly well. It makes a good
+stock for Vinifera vines in its native country, but owing to the
+difficulty of propagation is seldom used for that purpose. In the
+early days of Texas, it was much used for the making of wine but as it
+is deficient in sugar, and as the must retains the acrid, pungent
+flavor, it does not seem to be well adapted for this purpose. It is
+not regarded as having great promise for southern horticulture and
+certainly has none for the North.
+
+10. _Vitis Labrusca_, Linn. Fox-Grape.
+
+    Vine vigorous, stocky, climbing; shoots cylindrical, densely
+    pubescent; diaphragms medium to thick; tendrils continuous,
+    strong, bifid or trifid. Leaves with long, cordate stipules;
+    leaf-blade large, thick, broadly cordate or round; entire or
+    three-lobed, frequently notched; sinuses rounded; petiolar sinus
+    variable in depth and width, V-shaped; margin with shallow,
+    acute-pointed, scalloped teeth; upper surface rugose, dark green,
+    on young leaves pubescent, becoming glabrous when mature; lower
+    surface covered with dense pubescence, more or less whitish on
+    young leaves, becoming dun-colored when mature. Clusters more or
+    less compound, usually shouldered, compact; pedicels thick;
+    peduncle short. Berries round; skin thick, covered with bloom,
+    with strong musky or foxy aroma. Seeds two to four, large,
+    distinctly notched, beak short; chalaza oval in shape, indistinct,
+    showing as a depression; raphe, a groove.
+
+Labrusca is indigenous to the eastern part of North America, including
+the region between the Atlantic Ocean and the Alleghany Mountains. It
+is sometimes found in the valleys and along the western slopes of the
+Alleghanies. Many botanists say it never occurs in the Mississippi
+Valley. In the first-named area it ranges from Maine to Georgia. It
+has the most restricted habitat of any American species of
+horticultural importance, being much exceeded in extent of territory
+by _V. rotundifolia_, _V. aestivalis_ and _V. vulpina_.
+
+Labrusca has furnished more cultivated varieties, either pure-breeds
+or hybrids, than all other American species together. The reason for
+this is partly, no doubt, that it is native to the portion of the
+United States first settled and is the most common grape in the region
+where agriculture first advanced to the condition at which fruits were
+desired. This does not wholly account for its prominence, however,
+which must be sought elsewhere. In its wild state, Labrusca is
+probably the most attractive to the eye of any of our American grapes
+on account of the size of its fruit, and this undoubtedly turned the
+attention of those who were early interested in the possibilities of
+American grape-growing to this species rather than to any other.
+
+The southern Labrusca is quite different from the northern form and
+demands different conditions for its successful growth; in the North,
+at least two types of the species may be distinguished. Vines are
+found in the woods of New England which resemble Concord very closely
+in both vine and fruit, excepting that the grapes are much smaller in
+size and more seedy. There is also the large-fruited, foxy Labrusca,
+usually with reddish berries, represented by such cultivated varieties
+as Northern Muscadine, Dracut Amber, Lutie and others. Labrusca is
+peculiar amongst American grapes in showing black-, white- and
+red-fruited forms of wild vines growing in the woods. Because of this
+variability, it is impossible to give the exact climatic and soil
+conditions best adapted to the species. It is reasonable to suppose,
+however, that the ideal conditions for this species under cultivation
+are not widely different from those prevailing where the species is
+indigenous. In the case of Labrusca, this means that it is best
+adapted to humid climates, and that the temperature desired varies
+according to whether the variety comes from the southern or northern
+form of the species.
+
+The root system of Labrusca does not penetrate the soil deeply, but
+the vine is said to succeed better in deep and clayey soils than
+AEstivalis. It endures an excess of water in the soil, and, on the
+other hand, requires less water for successful growing than AEstivalis
+or Vulpina. In spite of its ability to withstand clayey soils, it
+seems to prefer loose, warm, well-drained sandy lands to all others.
+The French growers report that all varieties of this species show a
+marked antipathy to a limestone soil, the vines soon becoming affected
+with chlorosis when planted in soils of this nature. In corroboration
+of this, it may be said that Labrusca is not often found wild in
+limestone soils. The Labruscas succeed very well in the North and
+fairly well in the Middle West as far south as Arkansas, where they
+are raised on account of their fruit qualities, for here the vines are
+not nearly so vigorous and healthy as are those of other species. In
+Alabama, they are reported to be generally unsatisfactory, and in
+Texas the vines are short-lived, unhealthy, and generally
+unsatisfactory, particularly in the dry regions. There are some
+exceptions to this, as for instance, in the Piedmont region of the
+Carolinas, where, owing to elevation or other causes, the climate of a
+southern region is semi-northern in its character.
+
+The grapes of Labrusca are large and usually handsomely colored. The
+skin is thick, covering a layer of adhering flesh, which gives the
+impression of its being thicker than it actually is; the berry is
+variable in tenderness, sometimes tough, but in many cultivated
+varieties is so tender that it cracks in transportation. The skin of
+this species usually has a peculiar aroma, generally spoken of as
+foxy, and a slightly acid, astringent taste. Beneath the skin there is
+a layer of juicy pulp, quite sweet and never showing much acidity in
+ripe fruit. The center of the berry is occupied by rather dense pulp,
+more or less stringy, with considerable acid close to the seeds. Many
+object to the foxy aroma of this species, but, nevertheless, the most
+popular American varieties are more or less foxy. Analyses show that
+the fruit is usually characterized by a low percentage of sugar and
+acid, the very sweet-tasting fox-grapes not showing as high a
+sugar-content as some of the disagreeably tart AEstivalis and Vulpina
+sorts. This, in addition to the foxiness which furnishes an excess of
+aroma in the wine, has prevented Labrusca varieties from becoming
+favorites with the wine-makers, but most of the grape-juice now
+manufactured is made from them.
+
+In addition to the characters enumerated, it may be said that Labrusca
+submits well to vineyard culture, is fairly vigorous and generally
+quite productive. It grows readily from cuttings and in hardiness is
+intermediate between Vulpina, the hardiest of our American species,
+and AEstivalis. The roots are soft and fleshy (for an American grape)
+and in some localities subject to attacks of phylloxera. None of the
+varieties of Labrusca has ever been popular in France on this account.
+In the wild vines, the fruit is inclined to drop when ripe. This
+defect is known as "shattering" or "shelling" among grape-growers and
+is a serious weakness in some varieties. Labrusca is said to be more
+sensitive in its wild state to mildew and black-rot than any other
+American species, but the evidence on this point does not seem to be
+wholly conclusive. In the South, and in some parts of the Middle West,
+the leaves of all varieties of Labrusca sunburn and shrivel in the
+latter part of the summer. The vines do not endure drouth as well as
+AEstivalis or Vulpina and not nearly so well as Rupestris.
+
+11. _Vitis vinifera_, Linn.
+
+    Vine variable in vigor, not so high climbing as most American
+    species; tendrils intermittent. Leaves round-cordate, thin,
+    smooth, and when young, shining, frequently more or less deeply
+    three-, five-, or even seven-lobed; usually glabrous but in some
+    varieties the leaves and young shoots are hairy and even downy
+    when young; lobes rounded or pointed; teeth variable; petiolar
+    sinus deep, narrow, usually overlapping. Berries very variable in
+    size and color, usually oval though globular. Seeds variable in
+    size and shape, usually notched at upper end and characterized
+    always by a bottle-necked, elongated beak; chalaza broad, usually
+    rough, distinct; raphe indistinct. Roots large, soft and spongy.
+
+The original habitat of the species is not positively known. De
+Candolle, as noted in the first part of this work, considered the
+region about the Caspian Sea as the probable habitat of the Old World
+grape. There is but little doubt that the original home of _V.
+vinifera_ is some place in western Asia.
+
+Neither American nor European writers agree as to the climate desired
+by Vinifera, for the reason, probably that all of the varieties in
+this variable species do not require the same climatic conditions.
+There are certain phases of climate, however, that are well agreed on:
+the species requires a warm, dry climate and is more sensitive to
+change of temperature than American species. Varieties of this species
+can be grown successfully in a wide variety of soils, being much less
+particular as to soils than American sorts.
+
+Certain characters of the fruit of this species are not found in any
+American forms: First, the skin, which is attached very closely to the
+flesh and which is never astringent or acid, can be eaten with the
+fruit; second, the flesh is firm, yet tender, and uniform throughout,
+differing in this respect from all American grapes which have a sweet,
+watery and tender pulp close to the skin with a tough and more or less
+acid core at the center; third, the flavor has a peculiarly sprightly
+quality known as vinous; fourth, the berry adheres firmly to the
+pedicel, the fruit seldom "shattering" or "shelling" from the cluster.
+
+In the various hybrids that have been made between American and
+Vinifera varieties, it is usually found that the desirable qualities
+of Vinifera are inherited in about the same proportion as the
+undesirable ones. The fruit is improved in the hybrid but the vine is
+weakened; quality is usually purchased at the expense of hardiness and
+disease-resisting power. Vinifera may be grown very readily from
+cuttings.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXIII.--Lutie (x1/2). Pocklington (x1/2).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+VARIETIES OF GRAPES
+
+
+Nature has expended her bounties in fullest measure for the vineyard.
+More than 2000 varieties of grapes are described in American
+viticultural literature, and twice as many more find mention in
+European treatises on the vine. Few other fruits offer the novelties
+given the grape in flavors, aromas, sizes, colors and uses. The
+vineyard, then, to fulfill commercial potentialities, should supply
+grapes throughout the whole season, and of the several colors and
+flavors and for all uses. A prime requisite for a vineyard being
+well-selected varieties, an assortment of all kinds and for all places
+in America is here described.
+
+
+ACTONI
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+Actoni is a table-grape of the Malaga type which ripens at Geneva, New
+York, late in October, too late for the average season in the East but
+worth trying in favorable locations. It is grown in California but is
+not a favorite sort. The following brief description is made from
+fruit grown at Geneva:
+
+    Clusters large, shouldered, tapering, loose; berries medium to
+    very large, long-oval to oval, clear green yellow; flesh crisp,
+    firm; flavor sweet; quality good.
+
+
+AGAWAM
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+_Randall, Rogers No. 15_
+
+The qualities commending Agawam are large size and attractive
+appearance of bunch and berry; rich, sweet aromatic flavor; vigor of
+vine; and capacity for self-fertilization. For a grape having its
+proportion of European parentage, the vine is vigorous, hardy and
+productive. The chief defects in fruit are a thick and rough skin,
+coarse, solid texture of pulp and foxy flavor. The vine is susceptible
+to the mildews and in many localities does not yield well. Although
+Agawam ripens soon after Concord, it can be kept much longer and even
+improves in flavor after picking. The vines prefer heavy soils, doing
+better on clay than on sand or gravel. This is one of the grapes grown
+by E. S. Rogers, Salem, Massachusetts. It was introduced as No. 15 but
+in 1861 was given the name it now bears.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes thick, dark brown; nodes
+    enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
+    bifid to trifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull,
+    smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent, flocculent; lobes
+    lacking; terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; lateral
+    sinus very shallow; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers on plan of six,
+    nearly self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps until midwinter. Clusters medium to large,
+    short, broad, tapering, loose; pedicel short; brush very short,
+    pale green. Berries large, oval, dark purplish-red with thin
+    bloom, very persistent; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent;
+    flesh pale green, translucent, tough, stringy, solid, foxy; good.
+    Seeds adherent, two to five, large, long, brown.
+
+
+ALMERIA
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+This is one of the varieties commonly found in eastern markets from
+Almeria and Malaga, Spain, although occasionally it may come from
+California where the variety, or similar varieties confused with it,
+is now grown. This sort is remarkable for its wonderful keeping
+qualities; it is adapted only to hot interior regions. The Almeria
+cultivated by the California Experiment Station is described as
+follows:
+
+    "Vine vigorous; leaves of medium size, round and slightly or not
+    at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse and
+    alternately large and small; bunches large, loose or compact,
+    irregular conical; berries from small to large, cylindrical,
+    flattened on the ends, very hard and tasteless."
+
+
+AMERICA
+
+(Lincecumii, Rupestris)
+
+The notable qualities of America are vigor of growth and health of
+foliage in vine, and persistence of berries, which have strongly
+colored red juice, high sugar-content and excellent flavor. The grapes
+wholly lack the foxy taste and aroma of Labrusca and the variety,
+therefore, offers possibilities for breeding sorts lacking the foxy
+flavor of Concord and Niagara. America has great resistance to heat
+and cold. Also, it is said to be a suitable stock upon which to graft
+Vinifera varieties to resist phylloxera. The vigor of the vine and the
+luxuriance of the foliage make it an excellent sort for arbors.
+America was grown by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed of Jaeger
+No. 43 pollinated by a male Rupestris. It was introduced about 1892.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, dark
+    reddish-brown with heavy bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves small, thin; upper
+    surface glossy, smooth; lower surface light green, hairy; lobes
+    lacking or faint, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep and
+    wide; teeth of average depth and width. Flowers self-sterile,
+    usually on plan of six, open late; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season or later, keeps well. Clusters large, long,
+    broad, tapering, irregular, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel
+    short, slender with small warts; brush short, thick with red
+    tinge. Berries small, variable in size, round, purplish-black,
+    glossy with purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh dull white
+    with faint red tinge, translucent, tender, melting, spicy, vinous,
+    sweet; good. Seeds free, two to five, long, pointed,
+    yellowish-brown.
+
+
+AMINIA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Aminia is one of the best early grapes, its season being with or a
+little after Moore Early. The grapes are of high quality and
+attractive appearance, but the bunches are small, variable in size,
+not well formed and the berries ripen unevenly. The vine is vigorous
+but is neither as hardy nor as productive as a commercial variety
+should be. In 1867 Isadora Bush, a Missourian, planted vines of Rogers
+No. 39 from several different sources. When these came into bearing,
+he distinguished three varieties. Bush selected the best of the three
+and, with the consent of Rogers, named it Aminia. In spite of Bush's
+care, there are two distinct grapes cultivated under this name.
+
+    Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, lacking in productiveness.
+    Canes rough, long, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged; internodes
+    long; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid or bifid, persistent.
+    Leaves large; upper surface dull, smooth; lower surface light
+    green, pubescent; lobes three; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus
+    deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually
+    lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow, wide.
+    Flowers open in mid-season, self-sterile; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, irregular,
+    conical, sometimes with a long shoulder, loose; pedicel long with
+    few warts; brush short, thick, brownish-red. Berries variable,
+    round, dull black with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick,
+    tender, adherent with purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh
+    greenish, translucent, tender, solid, coarse, foxy; good. Seeds
+    adherent, one to six, very large.
+
+
+AUGUST GIANT
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+August Giant is a hybrid between Labrusca and Vinifera in which the
+fruit characters are those of the latter species. In appearance and
+taste of berry, the variety resembles Black Hamburg. The vine is
+usually vigorous and, considering its parentage, is very hardy. The
+foliage is thick and luxuriant but subject to mildew. Vigor of vine,
+beauty of foliage and the quality of the fruit make the variety
+desirable for the amateur. It needs a long-maturing season. August
+Giant was grown by N. B. White, Norwood, Massachusetts, in 1861, from
+seed of an early, large-berried, red Labrusca pollinated by Black
+Hamburg.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, subject to mildew. Canes long,
+    numerous, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
+    short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large,
+    thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface
+    pale green or bronzed, pubescent; lobes three, terminal one acute;
+    petiolar sinus deep, narrow, frequently closed and overlapping;
+    lateral sinus shallow or a notch; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers
+    open in mid-season, self-sterile; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters of average size, short,
+    broad, irregularly tapering, single-shouldered, loose; pedicel
+    long, thick with large warts; brush short, thick, green or with
+    brown tinge. Berries large, oval, purplish-red or black, dull with
+    thick bloom, firm; skin tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green,
+    translucent, tough, stringy; good. Seeds adherent, one to four,
+    large, blunt, light brown.
+
+
+BACCHUS
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+Bacchus is an offspring of Clinton which it resembles in vine and leaf
+characters, but surpasses in quality of fruit and in productiveness of
+vine. The special points of merit of the variety are: resistance to
+cold, resistance to phylloxera, freedom from fungi and insects,
+productiveness, ease of multiplication and capacity to bear grafts.
+Its limitations are: poor quality for table use, inability to
+withstand dry soils or droughts, and nonadaptability to soils
+containing much lime. The variety originated with J. H. Ricketts,
+Newburgh, New York, and was first exhibited by him in 1879.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous,
+    dark brown with bloom at the nodes which are enlarged and
+    flattened; tendrils bifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green,
+    glossy, smooth; lower surface dull green, smooth; lobes three,
+    terminal one acuminate; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, sometimes
+    overlapping; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow, wide.
+    Flowers open early, self-sterile; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well, hangs long. Clusters small, slender,
+    uniform, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short,
+    slender with a few small warts; brush short, wine-colored. Berries
+    small, round, black, glossy, covered with thin bloom, hang well to
+    pedicels, firm; skin thin, adherent, contains much wine-colored
+    pigment, slightly astringent; flesh dark green, translucent,
+    fine-grained, tough, vinous, spicy; fair quality. Seeds clinging,
+    one to four, many abortive, large, short and wide, plump, sharply
+    pointed, brown.
+
+
+BAKATOR
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+This is a Hungarian wine grape but its high quality and early season
+make it a desirable table-grape in the East. It seems to be grown but
+little on the Pacific slope. The following description is made from
+fruit grown at Geneva, New York:
+
+    Vine medium in vigor, productive. Young leaves tinged red at
+    edges, upper surface glossy; mature leaves large, round, upper
+    surface dull, lower surface downy; lobes five, terminal lobe
+    acuminate; basal sinus deep, medium to narrow, closed to
+    overlapping; lower lateral sinus deep, variable in width; upper
+    lateral sinus deep, usually narrows; margins dentate, teeth
+    shallow to medium deep. Flowers appear late; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit ripens at Geneva the first or second week in October and
+    keeps well in storage; clusters above medium in size, medium in
+    length, broad, frequently double-shouldered, tapering, medium to
+    loose; berries medium to small, oval, light red becoming dark when
+    fully ripe, with thick bloom; skin thin, tender, adherent to the
+    pulp; flesh greenish, juicy, tender, melting, vinous, sweet;
+    quality very good.
+
+
+BARRY
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Barry (Plate VII) is one of the best American black grapes, resembling
+in berry and in flavor and keeping quality of fruit its European
+parent, Black Hamburg. The appearance of berry and bunch is
+attractive. The vine is vigorous, hardy and productive but susceptible
+to mildew. The ripening season is just after that of Concord. For the
+table, for winter keeping and for the amateur, this variety may be
+highly recommended. Barry was dedicated in 1869, by E. S. Rogers, who
+originated it, to Patrick Barry, distinguished nurseryman and
+pomologist. The variety is grown in gardens throughout the grape
+regions of eastern America.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, susceptible to mildew. Canes
+    long, numerous, thick, dark brown with heavy bloom; nodes
+    flattened; shoots glabrous; tendrils intermittent, bifid or
+    trifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth;
+    lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes one to three, terminus
+    acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and
+    overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow,
+    narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers open in mid-season, self-sterile;
+    stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters short, very broad,
+    tapering, often subdividing into several parts, compact; pedicel
+    with small warts. Berries large, oval, dark purplish-black,
+    glossy, covered with heavy bloom, adherent; skin thin, tough,
+    adherent; flesh pale green, translucent, tender, stringy, vinous,
+    pleasant-flavored; good. Seeds adherent, one to five, large,
+    deeply notched, with enlarged neck, brown.
+
+
+BEACON
+
+(Lincecumii, Labrusca)
+
+Another of T. V. Munson's hybrids is Beacon. It is not well adapted to
+northern regions but does very well in the South. The vine is vigorous
+and bears a handsome, compact mass of foliage which retains its color
+and freshness through drouths and heat. Munson grew Beacon in 1887
+from seed of Big Berry (a variety of Lincecumii) pollinated by
+Concord, the vine bearing first in 1889.
+
+    Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, productive. Canes short,
+    slender, light brown. Leaves healthy, thick, dark green, sometimes
+    rugose; veins showing indistinctly through the slight pubescence
+    of the lower surface. Flowers open in mid-season, on plan of five
+    or six, self-fertile.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender,
+    cylindrical, usually high-shouldered, compact. Berries variable in
+    size, round, purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, firm; skin
+    tough, adherent with a large amount of purplish-red pigment,
+    astringent; flesh tender, aromatic, spicy, vinous, mildly subacid;
+    good. Seeds free, large, broad, blunt, notched.
+
+
+BERCKMANS
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca, Bourquiniana)
+
+In Berckmans we have the fruit of Delaware on the vine of Clinton. The
+berry and bunch resemble Delaware in shape; the fruit is of the same
+color; bunch and berry are larger; the grapes keep longer; the flesh
+is firmer but the quality is not so good, the flesh lacking tenderness
+and richness in comparison with Delaware. The vine of Berckmans is not
+only more vigorous, but is less subject to mildew than that of
+Delaware. The vine characters are not, however, as good as those of
+Clinton. The variety is poorly adapted to some soils, and on these the
+grapes do not color well. In spite of many good qualities, Berckmans
+is but an amateur's grape. The name commemorates the viticultural
+labors of P. J. Berckmans, a contemporary and friend of A. P. Wylie,
+of Chester, South Carolina, who originated the variety. Berckmans came
+from Delaware seed fertilized by Clinton, the seed having been sown in
+1868.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender,
+    dark brown; nodes prominent, flattened; internodes short; shoots
+    glabrous; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves small, thin;
+    upper surface light green, smooth; lower surface pale green,
+    glabrous; lobes one to three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus
+    shallow, wide; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow.
+    Flowers open early, self-fertile; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit ripens with Delaware. Clusters shouldered, compact, slender;
+    pedicel long, slender with few warts; brush short, light green.
+    Berries small, oval, Delaware-red, darker when well ripened,
+    covered with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tough, adherent,
+    astringent; flesh pale yellowish-green, translucent, fine-grained,
+    tender, melting, vinous, sweet, sprightly; very good. Seeds free,
+    one to four, small, broad, blunt, brown.
+
+
+BLACK EAGLE
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+The fruit of Black Eagle is of the best, but the vine lacks in vigor,
+hardiness and productiveness and is self-sterile. Bunch and berry are
+large and attractive. The season is about with Concord. Black Eagle
+has wholly failed as a commercial variety, and its several weaknesses
+prevent amateurs from growing it widely. The variety originated with
+Stephen W. Underhill, Croton-on-Hudson, New York, from seed of Concord
+pollinated by Black Prince. It fruited first in 1866.
+
+    Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, unproductive. Canes rough,
+    thick, reddish-brown with light bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened
+    internodes long; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid.
+    Leaves thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth to rugose;
+    lobes five; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep; lateral
+    sinus wide, narrowing towards top, deep. Flowers open in
+    mid-season, self-sterile; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, tapering,
+    single-or double-shouldered, compact; pedicel long, slender with
+    few warts; brush short, pale green. Berries variable in size,
+    oval, black, glossy with thick bloom; skin tender, thin, adherent
+    with wine-colored pigment; flesh pale green, translucent, tender,
+    vinous; good. Seeds free, one to four, large.
+
+
+BLACK HAMBURG
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+Black Hamburg (Plate VI) is an old European sort, long the mainstay in
+forcing-houses in Belgium, England and America and now popular out of
+doors in California. It is an excellent table-grape but, while it
+keeps well, its tender skin does not permit its being shipped far,
+especially when grown out of doors. The vine is subject to disease.
+The following description of the fruit is made from grapes grown in
+the greenhouse:
+
+    Bunches very large, often a foot in length and weighing several
+    pounds; very broad at the shoulder and gradually tapering to a
+    point; compact, oftentimes too compact; berries very large, round
+    or slightly round-oval; skin rather thick; dark purple becoming
+    black at full maturity; flesh firm, juicy, sweet and rich; quality
+    very good or best. Season early in the forcing-house but rather
+    late out of doors.
+
+
+BLACK MALVOISE
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+This variety is rather widely grown in California as an early
+table-grape and might be worth trying in eastern grape regions. While
+the fruit is not of the best quality, it is good. The following
+description is compiled:
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy and productive; wood long-jointed, rather
+    slender, light brown. Leaves of medium size, oval, evenly and
+    deeply five-lobed; basal sinus open, with nearly parallel sides;
+    upper surface smooth, almost glabrous; lower surface slightly
+    tomentose on the veins and veinlets. Bunches large, loose,
+    branching; berries large, oblong, reddish black with faint bloom;
+    flesh firm, juicy, crisp; flavor lacking in richness and
+    character; quality not high. Season early, keeping and shipping
+    but poorly.
+
+
+BLACK MOROCCO
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+Black Morocco very generally meets the approval of grape-growers on
+the Pacific slope without being a prime favorite for either home use
+or commerce. The grapes are not high enough in quality for a home
+vineyard, and, while they ship well, are hard to handle because of the
+large size and rigidity of the bunches. Another fault is that the
+vines are subject to root-knot. The chief asset of the variety is
+handsome appearance of fruit. This variety is remarkable for the
+number of second-crop bunches which it produces on the laterals. The
+following description is compiled:
+
+    Vine very vigorous, productive; canes spreading, few. Leaves
+    medium to small, very deeply five-lobed; the younger leaves
+    truncate at base, giving them a semi-circular outline, with long,
+    sharp teeth alternating with very small ones; glabrous, or nearly
+    so, on both sides. Bunches very large, short, shouldered, compact
+    and rigid; berries very large, round, often misshapen from
+    compression; dull purple, lacking color in the center of the
+    bunch; flesh firm, crisp, neutral in flavor, lacking in richness;
+    quality rather low. Season late, keeping and shipping well.
+
+
+BRIGHTON
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Brighton (Plate VIII) is one of the few Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids
+which have attained prominence in commercial vineyards. It ranks as
+one of the leading amateur grapes in eastern America and is among the
+ten or twelve chief commercial sorts of this region. Its good points
+are: for the fruit, high quality; for the vine, vigorous growth,
+productiveness, adaptability to various soils and ability to withstand
+fungi. Brighton has two serious defects which keep it from taking
+higher rank as a commercial variety: it deteriorates in quality very
+quickly after maturity, so that it cannot be kept for more than a few
+days at its best, hence cannot well be shipped to distant markets; and
+it is self-sterile to a more marked degree than any other
+commonly-grown grape. Brighton is a seedling of Diana Hamburg
+pollinated by Concord, raised by Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York. The
+original vine fruited first in 1870.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, subject to mildew. Canes long,
+    numerous, light brown; nodes enlarged, usually flattened;
+    internodes long; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large,
+    thick; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale
+    green, pubescent; lobes three when present, terminal one acute;
+    petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width; lateral sinus
+    shallow; teeth narrow. Flowers open late, self-sterile; stamens
+    reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, heavily
+    shouldered, loose; pedicel thick; brush pale green with brown
+    tinge, thick, short. Berries irregular, large, oval, light red,
+    glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, tender,
+    adherent, astringent; flesh green, transparent, tender, stringy,
+    melting, aromatic, vinous, sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to
+    five, broad, light brown.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXIV.--Moore Early (x3/5).]
+
+
+BRILLIANT
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera, Bourquiniana)
+
+Brilliant is a cross between Lindley and Delaware. In cluster and size
+of berry it resembles Lindley; in color and quality of fruit it is
+about the same as Delaware, differing chiefly in having more
+astringency in the skin. Its season is about with Delaware. The grapes
+do not crack or shell, therefore ship well, and have very good keeping
+qualities, especially on the vine where they often hang for weeks. The
+vine is vigorous and hardy. The defects which have kept Brilliant from
+becoming one of the standard commercial sorts are: marked
+susceptibility to fungi, variability in size of cluster, unevenness in
+ripening and unproductiveness. In favorable situations this variety
+pleases the amateur, and the commercial grower often finds it
+profitable. The seed which produced Brilliant was planted by T. V.
+Munson, Denison, Texas, in 1883 and the variety was introduced in
+1887.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, rather unproductive. Canes long, numerous,
+    thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long;
+    tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper
+    surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface gray-green, downy;
+    obscurely three-lobed with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus
+    deep, narrow; basal and lateral sinuses obscure and shallow when
+    present; teeth intermediate in depth and width. Flowers open late,
+    self-fertile; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters medium, blunt,
+    cylindrical, usually shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick
+    with a few small warts; brush short, thick, pale green with
+    reddish tinge. Berries round, dark red, glossy with thin bloom,
+    strongly adherent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh pale
+    green, transparent, juicy, stringy, fine-grained, vinous, sweet;
+    good. Seeds clinging, one to four, large, broad, elongated, plump,
+    light brown.
+
+
+BROWN
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+In spite of many encomiums in the past quarter century, Brown has not
+received favorable recognition from fruit-growers. The quality is not
+high, the berries shatter badly, and the vine is lacking in vigor.
+Brown is a seedling of Isabella which came up in a yard at Newburgh,
+New York, about 1884.
+
+    Vine hardy, productive. Canes short, slender, dark brown; tendrils
+    continuous. Leaves healthy, light green, glossy; veins well
+    defined, distinctly showing through the thick bronze of the lower
+    surface. Flowers open early, self-fertile stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit large, keeps well. Clusters small to medium, slender,
+    cylindrical or tapering, usually single-shouldered. Berries
+    intermediate in size, oval, black with thick bloom, drop soon
+    after ripening; skin adherent; flesh juicy, tough, fine-grained, a
+    little foxy, mild next the skin but tart at center; good. Seeds
+    short, blunt, light brown.
+
+
+CAMPBELL EARLY
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+The meritorious qualities of Campbell Early (Plate IX) are: The grapes
+are high in quality when mature; free from foxiness and from acidity
+about the seeds; have small seeds which easily part from the flesh;
+are early, ripening nearly a fortnight before Concord; bunch and berry
+are large and handsome; and the vines are exceptionally hardy.
+Campbell Early falls short in not being adapted to many soils; the
+variety lacks productiveness; the grapes attain full color before they
+are ripe and are, therefore, often marketed in an unripe condition;
+the bunch is variable in size; and the color of the berry is not
+attractive. George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, grew this variety
+from a seedling of Moore Early pollinated by a Labrusca-Vinifera
+hybrid. It bore first in 1892.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes thick, dark reddish-brown,
+    surface roughened with small warts; nodes flattened; internodes
+    short; shoots pubescent; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or
+    trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface green, glossy; lower
+    surface bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three, usually entire,
+    terminal one acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus
+    pubescent; lateral sinus wide or a notch; teeth shallow, narrow.
+    Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters usually large, long,
+    broad, tapering, single-shouldered; pedicel short, slender with
+    small warts; brush long, light wine color. Berries usually large,
+    round, oval, dark purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom,
+    persistent, firm; skin tough, thin, adherent with dark red
+    pigment, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, coarse,
+    vinous, sweet from skin to center; good. Seeds free, one to four,
+    light brown, often with yellow tips.
+
+
+CANADA
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Canada is considered the most desirable hybrid between Vulpina and
+Vinifera. The variety shows Vinifera more than Vulpina parentage;
+thus, in susceptibility to fungal diseases, in shape, color and
+texture of foliage, in the flavor of the fruit and in the seeds, there
+are marked indications of Vinifera; while the vine, especially in the
+slenderness of its shoots and in the bunch and berry, shows Vulpina.
+Canada has little value as a dessert fruit but makes a very good red
+wine or grape-juice. Canada is a seedling of Clinton, a
+Labrusca-Vulpina hybrid, fertilized by Black St. Peters, a variety of
+Vinifera. Charles Arnold, Paris, Ontario, planted the seed which
+produced Canada in 1860.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
+    slender, ash-gray, reddish-brown at nodes with heavy bloom; nodes
+    enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, short, trifid
+    or bifid. Leaves thin; upper surface light green, smooth; lower
+    surface pale green, hairy; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus
+    deep, narrow; basal sinus variable in depth and width; lateral
+    sinus deep and narrow; teeth deep and wide. Flowers self-sterile,
+    early; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters long, slender, uniform,
+    cylindrical, compact; pedicel long, slender, smooth; brush short,
+    light brown. Berries small, round, purplish-black, glossy with
+    heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh
+    dark green, very juicy, fine-grained, tender, spicy, pleasant
+    vinous flavor, agreeably tart; good. Seeds free, one to three,
+    blunt, light brown.
+
+
+CANANDAIGUA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Canandaigua is worth attention because of the exceptionally good
+keeping qualities of the grapes. The flavor is very good at picking
+time but seems, if anything, to improve in storage. The vine
+characters are those of Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids, and in these the
+variety is the equal of the average cultivated hybrid of these two
+species. The characters of the fruit, also, show plainly an admixture
+of Vinifera and Labrusca so combined as to make the grapes very
+similar to the best of such hybrids. Canandaigua is a chance seedling
+found by E. L. Van Wormer, Canandaigua, New York, growing among wild
+grapes. It was distributed about 1897.
+
+    Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes long, few,
+    reddish-brown, faint bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils
+    semi-continuous, bifid, dehisce early. Leaves large, thin; upper
+    surface light green; lower surface gray-green. Flowers sterile or
+    sometimes partly self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens
+    reflexed.
+
+    Fruit late mid-season, keeps unusually well. Clusters variable in
+    size, usually heavily single-shouldered, loose to medium. Berries
+    large, oval, black, covered with thick bloom, persistent; skin
+    adherent, thin, tough; flesh firm, sweet and rich; good, improves
+    as season advances. Seeds long with enlarged neck.
+
+
+CARMAN
+
+(Lincecumii, Vinifera, Labrusca)
+
+Carman is a grape having the characters of three species and hence is
+of interest to grape improvers. It has not become popular with
+growers, chiefly because the grapes ripen very late and are not of
+high quality. The most valuable character of the variety is that of
+long keeping, whether hanging on the vine or after harvesting. T. V.
+Munson, Denison, Texas, raised Carman from seed of a wild post-oak
+grape taken from the woods, pollinated with mixed pollen of Triumph
+and Herbemont. It was introduced in 1892.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, rather productive. Canes long,
+    numerous, thick, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    internodes long; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid. Leaves
+    large, thick; upper surface light green, glossy, older leaves
+    rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent; terminal lobe acute;
+    petiolar sinus deep; basal sinus absent or shallow; lateral sinus
+    shallow when present. Flowers self-fertile or nearly so, open very
+    late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, tapering,
+    single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush
+    short, slender, wine-colored. Berries small, round, slightly
+    oblate, purplish-black, glossy, covered with heavy bloom,
+    persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, free; flesh yellowish-green,
+    tender, post-oak flavor, vinous, spicy; good to very good. Seeds
+    free, one to four, small, blunt, brown.
+
+
+CATAWBA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+_Arkansas, Catawba Tokay, Cherokee, Fancher, Keller's White, Lebanon,
+Lincoln, Mammoth Catawba, Mead's Seedling, Merceron, Michigan, Muncy,
+Omega, Rose of Tennessee, Saratoga, Singleton, Tekomah, Tokay,
+Virginia Amber._
+
+Catawba has long been the standard red grape in the markets of eastern
+America, chiefly because the fruit keeps well and is of high quality.
+The vine is vigorous, hardy and productive, but the foliage and fruit
+are susceptible to fungi. These two faults account for the decline of
+Catawba in grape regions in the United States and for its growing
+unpopularity. In botanical characters and in adaptations and
+susceptibilities, the variety suggests Vinifera crossed with Labrusca.
+The characters of Catawba seem readily transmissible to its offspring
+and, besides having a number of pure-bred descendants which more or
+less resemble it, it is a parent of a still greater number of
+cross-breeds. As with Catawba, most of its progeny show Vinifera
+characters, as intermittent tendrils, Vinifera color of foliage, a
+vinous flavor wholly or nearly free from foxiness, and the
+susceptibilities of Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids to certain diseases and
+insects. Catawba was introduced by John Adlum, District of Columbia,
+about 1823. Adlum secured cuttings from a Mrs. Scholl, Clarksburgh,
+Montgomery County, Maryland, in the spring of 1819. Its further
+history is not known.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, thick, dark
+    brown; nodes enlarged; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid.
+    Leaves large; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower
+    surface grayish-white, heavily pubescent; lobes sometimes three,
+    terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus often
+    lacking; lateral sinus narrow; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers
+    self-fertile, open late, stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering,
+    single-or sometimes double-shouldered, loose; pedicel with a few
+    inconspicuous warts; brush short, pale green. Berries of medium
+    size, oval, dull purplish-red with thick bloom, firm; skin thick,
+    adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy,
+    fine-grained, vinous, sprightly, sweet and rich; very good. Seeds
+    free, frequently abortive, two, broad-necked, distinctly notched,
+    blunt, brown.
+
+
+CHAMPION
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+_Beaconsfield, Early Champion, Talman's Seedling_
+
+Champion is a favorite early grape with some growers, although the
+poor quality of the fruit should have driven it from cultivation long
+ago. The characters which have kept it in the market are earliness,
+good shipping qualities, attractive appearance of fruit, and a
+vigorous, productive, hardy vine. The hardiness of the vine and the
+short season of fruit development make it a good variety for northern
+climates. This grape is best in appearance of fruit, in quality and in
+the quantity produced, on light sandy soils. The origin of Champion is
+unknown. It was first grown about 1870 in New York.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy and productive. Canes of average size,
+    dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; shoots
+    pubescent; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large; upper
+    surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface dull gray, downy;
+    lobes usually three, often obscurely five, terminal one acute;
+    petiolar sinus deep; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, early;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, three weeks before Concord, season short. Clusters
+    medium in size, blunt, cylindrical, usually not shouldered,
+    compact; pedicel short with inconspicuous warts; brush white
+    tinged with bronze. Berries medium in size, round, dull black
+    covered with heavy bloom, soft; skin thick, tender, adherent,
+    astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained,
+    tender, foxy; poor in quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, broad,
+    long, blunt, light brown.
+
+
+CHASSELAS GOLDEN
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+_Chasselas Dore, Fontainebleau, Sweetwater_
+
+Several qualities have made Chasselas Golden a favorite grape wherever
+it can be grown. The variety is adapted to widely differing
+environments; the season of ripening is early; while not choicely
+high, the quality of the grapes is good and they are beautiful, clear
+green tinged with beautiful golden bronze where exposed to the sun.
+Chasselas Golden is a popular variety on the Pacific slope and should
+be one of the first Viniferas to be tried in the East. The following
+description was made from fruit grown at Geneva, New York:
+
+    Vine medium in vigor, very productive; buds open in mid-season.
+    Young leaves tinged with red on both upper and lower surfaces,
+    thinly pubescent to glabrous; mature leaves medium to above in
+    size, slightly cordate; upper surface glabrous, lower surface
+    slightly pubescent along the veins; lobes five in number, terminal
+    lobe acuminate; basal sinus broad and rather deep; lower lateral
+    sinus variable, usually broad and sometimes deep; upper lateral
+    sinus broad and frequently deep; teeth large, obtuse to rounded.
+    Flowers late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit ripens early and keeps well in storage; clusters large,
+    long, broad, tapering, sometimes with a single shoulder,
+    compactness medium; berries medium to above, slightly oval, pale
+    green to clear yellow, with thin bloom; skin thin, tough,
+    adherent, slightly astringent; flesh greenish, translucent, firm,
+    juicy, tender, sweet; good.
+
+
+CHASSELAS ROSE
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+Chasselas Rose is very similar to Chasselas Golden, differing chiefly
+in smaller bunch and berry and slightly different flavor which is
+possibly better. It is a standard sort in California and should be
+planted in the East where the culture of Viniferas is attempted. The
+description is made from fruit grown at Geneva, New York:
+
+    Vine of medium vigor, productive. Opening leaves tinged with red
+    on both surfaces, mature leaves small, round; upper surface medium
+    green, somewhat dull, smooth; lower surface glabrous; lobes three;
+    basal sinus medium in depth and of variable width; lateral sinus
+    deep, narrow; teeth shallow, wide, dentate. Flowers appear late;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit ripens the second week in October and is a good keeper
+    though it loses its flavor in storage; clusters above and below
+    medium, long, tapering to cylindrical, compact; berries medium in
+    size, roundish-oval, light red changed to violet-red by the bloom;
+    skin thin, astringent, juicy, tender, sweet, mild; quality good.
+
+
+CHAUTAUQUA
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+In appearance of fruit, Chautauqua is very similar to Concord, its
+parent, but the grapes ripen a few days earlier and are of better
+quality, although they do not differ in these respects sufficiently to
+make the variety much more than an easily recognized strain of
+Concord. Chautauqua is a volunteer seedling of Concord, found near
+Brocton, New York, by H. T. Bashtite about 1890.
+
+    Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, unproductive. Canes long, thick,
+    cylindrical; internodes long; tendrils continuous, trifid. Leaves
+    large, irregularly round, dark green; upper surface dark green;
+    lower surface tinged with bronze; leaf entire or faintly
+    three-lobed. Flowers semi-fertile, open in mid-season or earlier;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early in mid-season. Clusters medium to large, broad,
+    sometimes single-shouldered, compact. Berries large, round or
+    slightly oval, purplish-black with abundant bloom, shatter badly;
+    skin thin, very astringent; flesh tough, vinous, sweet at skin,
+    acid at center; good to very good. Seeds few, free, broad, plump.
+
+
+CLEVENER
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+This variety has long been grown in New Jersey and New York, and in
+both states is highly esteemed as a wine-grape. The fruit is
+remarkable in coloring very early and in ripening late. The vine is
+hardy, very vigorous, succeeds in various soils, and since it bears
+grafts well is an excellent sort upon which to graft varieties not
+thriving on their own roots. Clevener is self-sterile and must be
+planted with some other variety to set fruit well. In spite of its
+good qualities, Clevener is hardly holding its own in commercial
+vineyards, and it is not a desirable fruit for the amateur who wants a
+table-grape. Clevener has been raised in the vicinity of Egg Harbor,
+New Jersey, since about 1870, but its place and time of origin are
+unknown.
+
+    Vine a rampant grower, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
+    thick, dark reddish-brown with heavy bloom; nodes enlarged;
+    tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves unusually large, dark green
+    with well-defined ribs showing through the thin pubescence of the
+    under surface; lobes wanting or faint; teeth deep, wide. Flowers
+    self-sterile, open very early; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters do not always fill well, small,
+    short, slender, irregularly tapering, often with a single
+    shoulder. Berries small, round or slightly flattened, black,
+    glossy, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough,
+    thin, inclined to crack, adherent with much purplish-red pigment;
+    flesh reddish-green, juicy, tender, soft, fine-grained, aromatic,
+    spicy; good. Seeds free, notched, sharp-pointed, dark brown.
+
+
+CLINTON
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+_Worthington_
+
+Clinton (Plate X) came into prominence because of vigor, hardiness,
+fruitfulness and immunity to phylloxera. A serious defect is that the
+vines bloom so early that the blossoms are often caught by late frosts
+in northern climates. Other defects are: the fruit is small and sour,
+and the seeds and skins prominent. The fruit colors early in the
+season but does not ripen until late, a slight touch of frost
+improving the flavor. Clinton bears grafts well, making a quick and
+firm union with Labrusca and Vinifera, and the vines are easily
+propagated from cuttings. This variety has been used widely in
+grape-breeding, and its blood can be traced in many valuable
+varieties. The offspring of Clinton are usually very hardy, and this,
+taken with its other desirable characters, makes it an exceptionally
+good starting-point for breeding grapes for northern latitudes.
+Clinton is an old sort, the Worthington, known as early as 1815,
+renamed; it began to attract attention about 1840.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
+    slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; shoots smooth;
+    tendrils intermittent, sometimes continuous, bifid. Leaves hang
+    until late in the season, small, thin; upper surface dark green,
+    smooth; lower surface pale green, glabrous; petiolar sinus deep,
+    narrow, urn-shaped; basal and lateral sinuses shallow; teeth wide.
+    Flowers self-fertile, open early; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season. Clusters small, slender, cylindrical, uniform,
+    single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, very slender, smooth;
+    brush tinged with red. Berries small, round, oval, purplish-black,
+    glossy, covered with thick bloom, adherent, firm; skin very
+    thin, tough, free from pulp with much wine-colored pigment,
+    astringent; flesh dark green, juicy, fine-grained, tough, solid,
+    spicy, sour, vinous. Seeds adherent, two, short, blunt, brownish.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXV.--Muscat Hamburg (x2/3).]
+
+
+COLERAIN
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+This is one of the numerous white seedlings of Concord and one of the
+few with sufficient merit to be kept in cultivation. The vine has the
+characteristic foliage and habit of growth of its parent, but the
+fruit is earlier by a week, is of much higher quality and lacks the
+foxiness of most Labruscas. The grapes are sprightly and vinous, and
+neither seeds nor skin are as objectionable as in the parent. The
+fruit hangs to the vine and keeps well, but owing to tender pulp does
+not ship well. The variety is unproductive in some localities.
+Colerain is worthy a place in home vineyards. David Bundy, Colerain,
+Ohio, grew this variety from seed of Concord planted in 1880.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes slender, dark
+    reddish-brown; nodes flattened; internodes short, bifid. Leaves
+    thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface
+    bronze, downy; leaf not lobed, terminus acute; petiolar sinus
+    wide; basal and lateral sinus very shallow when present; teeth
+    shallow. Flowers self-fertile, opening in mid-season; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit early. Clusters medium in size and length, slender, blunt,
+    tapering, irregular, strongly shouldered, compact; pedicel
+    slender, smooth; brush green. Berries round, light green, glossy
+    with thin bloom, persistent; skin unusually thin, tender,
+    adherent, unpigmented, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent,
+    juicy, fine-grained, tender, soft, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds
+    free, one to three, small, broad, notched, short, plump, brown.
+
+
+COLUMBIAN IMPERIAL
+
+(Labrusca, Vulpina)
+
+_Columbian, Jumbo_
+
+Columbian Imperial is a Labrusca-Vulpina hybrid chiefly remarkable for
+the great size of its reddish-black berries, although the vine is so
+exceptionally healthy and vigorous as to give it prominence for these
+characters as well. The variety has remarkably thick leathery leaves
+which seem almost proof against either insects or fungi. The quality
+of the fruit, however, is inferior, and the small clusters vary in
+number of berries and these shell easily. The only value of the
+variety is for exhibition purposes and for breeding to secure the
+desirable characters named. The parentage of Columbian Imperial is
+unknown. It originated with J. S. McKinley, Orient, Ohio, in 1885.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes long, numerous,
+    thick, dark reddish-brown, heavily pubescent, spiny; nodes
+    prominent; internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid.
+    Leaves green, very thick; lower surface pale green shading into
+    bronze on older leaves with little pubescence; lobes three,
+    indistinct; teeth sharp, shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late. Clusters medium in size, sometimes shouldered;
+    peduncle slender; pedicel long; brush long, slender, green.
+    Berries very large, round, slightly oval, dull reddish-black with
+    faint bloom, firm; skin thick, tough, unpigmented; flesh juicy,
+    tough, sweet at the skin but acid at center; fair in quality.
+    Seeds adherent, large, plump, broad, blunt.
+
+
+CONCORD
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+Concord (Plate XI) is the most widely known of the grapes of this
+continent, and with its offspring, pure-bred and cross-bred, furnishes
+75 per cent of the grapes of eastern America. The preeminently
+meritorious character of Concord is that it adapts itself to varying
+conditions; thus, Concord is grown with profit in every grape-growing
+state in the Union and to an extent not possible with any
+other variety. A second character which commends Concord is
+fruitfulness--the vine bears large crops year in and year out. Added
+to these points of superiority, are: hardiness; ability to withstand
+the ravages of diseases and insects; comparative earliness; certainty
+of maturity in northern regions; and fair size and handsome
+appearance of bunch and berry. Concord also blossoms late in the
+spring and does not suffer often from spring frosts, nor is the fruit
+often injured by late frosts. The crop hangs well on the vine.
+
+The variety is not, however, without faults: the quality is not high,
+the grapes lacking richness, delicacy of flavor and aroma, and having
+a foxy taste disagreeable to many; the seeds and skin are
+objectionable, the seeds being large and abundant and difficult to
+separate from the flesh, and the skin being tough and unpleasantly
+astringent; the grapes do not keep nor ship well and rapidly lose
+flavor after ripening; the skin cracks and the berries shell from the
+stems after picking; and the vine is but slightly resistant to
+phylloxera. While Concord is grown in the South, it is essentially a
+northern grape, becoming susceptible to fungi in southern climates and
+suffering from phylloxera in dry, warm soils.
+
+The botanical characters of Concord indicate that it is a pure-bred
+Labrusca. Seeds of a wild grape were planted in the fall of 1843 by E.
+W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts, plants from which fruited in 1849.
+One of these seedlings was named Concord.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, thick, dark
+    reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; shoots
+    pubescent; tendrils continuous, long, bifid, sometimes trifid.
+    Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth;
+    lower surface light bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three when
+    present, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus variable; basal sinus
+    usually lacking; lateral sinus obscure and frequently notched;
+    teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps from one to two months. Clusters uniform,
+    large, wide, broadly tapering, usually single-shouldered,
+    sometimes double-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick, smooth; brush
+    pale green. Berries large, round, glossy, black with heavy bloom,
+    firm; skin tough, adherent with a small amount of wine-colored
+    pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy,
+    fine-grained, tough, solid, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, one to
+    four, large, broad, distinctly notched, plump, blunt, brownish.
+
+
+COTTAGE
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+In vine and fruit, Cottage resembles its parent, Concord, having,
+however, remarkably large, thick, leathery leaves. It is noted also
+for its strong, branching root system and canes so rough as to be
+almost spiny. The fruit is better in quality than that of its parent,
+having less foxiness and a richer, more delicate flavor. The crop
+ripens from one to two weeks earlier than Concord. The good qualities
+of the variety are offset by comparative unproductiveness and
+unevenness in ripening. Cottage is recommended as an early grape of
+the Concord type for the garden. This variety was grown from seed of
+Concord by E. W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts. It was introduced in
+1869.
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy. Canes rough, hairy, long, numerous,
+    dark brown; nodes enlarged; shoots very pubescent; tendrils
+    continuous, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green,
+    glossy, smooth or rugose; lower surface tinged with bronze,
+    pubescent; leaf entire with terminal acute; petiolar sinus deep
+    and wide; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit does not keep well. Clusters of medium size, broad,
+    cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short,
+    thick with a few small warts; brush dark red. Berries of medium
+    size, round, dull black with heavy bloom, drop badly from pedicel,
+    firm; skin thick, tender, adherent with dark purplish-red pigment,
+    astringent; flesh juicy, tough, solid, foxy; good. Seeds free, one
+    to four, large, broad, blunt, light brown.
+
+
+CREVELING
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+_Bloom, Bloomburg, Catawissa, Columbia Bloom_
+
+Creveling was long a favorite black grape for the garden, where, if
+planted in good soil, it produces fine clusters of large, handsome,
+very good grapes. Under any but the best of care, however, the vine is
+unproductive and sets loose, straggling bunches. The variety is
+markedly self-sterile. The origin of Creveling is uncertain. It was
+introduced about 1857 by F. F. Merceron, Catawissa, Pennsylvania.
+
+    Vine vigorous, not hardy, often unproductive. Canes long,
+    numerous, thick, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    internodes long; shoots glabrous; tendrils continuous, long,
+    trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green,
+    dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three, or
+    obscurely five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, closed,
+    overlapping; basal sinus very shallow; lateral sinus shallow,
+    narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers on plan of six, self-sterile, open
+    in mid-season; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters long, broad, irregularly
+    tapering, single-shouldered, the shoulder often connected to the
+    cluster by a long stem, loose; brush thick, dark wine-color.
+    Berries large, oval, dull black, covered with heavy bloom,
+    persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent with wine-colored
+    pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy,
+    stringy, tender, coarse, foxy; good. Seeds free, one to five,
+    broad, notched, blunt, light brown.
+
+
+CROTON
+
+(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana)
+
+The fruit of Croton is a feast both to the eye and to the palate.
+Unfortunately the vine is difficult to grow, being adapted to but few
+soils and proving unfruitful, weak in growth, precariously tender and
+subject to mildew and rot in unfavorable situations. The grapes have a
+delicate, sweet Vinifera flavor with melting flesh which readily
+separates from the few seeds. The crop hangs on the vines until frost
+and keeps well into the winter. In spite of high quality of fruit,
+Croton has never become widely distributed, wholly failing as a
+commercial variety. It originated with S. W. Underhill, Croton Point,
+New York, from a seed of Delaware pollinated by a European grape.
+Fruits were first exhibited in 1868.
+
+    Vine vigorous, tender, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick,
+    dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; shoots
+    glabrous; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves of medium
+    size, hang late; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower
+    surface pale green, pubescent; lobes five, terminal one blunt;
+    basal sinus narrow; lateral sinus deep and narrow; petiolar sinus
+    narrow, often closed and overlapping; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers
+    self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters uniform, very large, long,
+    slender, irregularly tapering with heavy shoulder, very loose;
+    pedicel long, thick with inconspicuous warts; brush green. Berries
+    irregular in size, round-elongated, yellowish-green with thin
+    bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, tough, adherent, unpigmented;
+    flesh green, transparent, very juicy, melting, vinous, pleasant,
+    agreeably sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to three, elongated,
+    notched, sharply pointed.
+
+
+CUNNINGHAM
+
+(Bourquiniana)
+
+_Long, Prince Edward_
+
+Cunningham is cultivated very little in America, but in France, at one
+time, was one of the best-known grapes, both as a direct producer and
+as a stock for European varieties. It was much sought for by the
+French as a stock for large Vinifera cions, the size of the vine
+giving an opportunity for making a good graft. In the South, where the
+variety originated, Cunningham is not largely grown, as there are
+several other varieties of its type superior in fruit and vine. The
+vine is a capricious grower and is particular as to soil and climate.
+The grapes make a deep yellow wine of a very good quality but have
+little value as table-grapes. Cunningham originated with Jacob
+Cunningham, Prince Edward County, Virginia, about 1812.
+
+    Vine vigorous, spreading, productive. Canes large, long with stiff
+    reddish hairs at base; shoots showing considerable bloom; tendrils
+    intermittent, usually trifid. Leaves large, thick, round, entire
+    or lobed; smooth and dark green above, yellowish green below,
+    pubescent; petiolar sinus narrow, frequently overlapping.
+
+    Clusters of medium size, long, sometimes shouldered, very compact;
+    pedicel long, slender with small warts; brush short, light brown.
+    Berries small, purplish-black with thin bloom; skin thin, tough
+    with much underlying pigment; flesh tender, juicy, sprightly;
+    quality poor or but fair. Seeds two to five, oval.
+
+
+CYNTHIANA
+
+(AEstivalis, Labrusca)
+
+_Arkansas, Red River_
+
+There is controversy as to whether this variety differs from Norton.
+The two ripen at separate times, and the fruits differ a little so
+that they must be considered as distinct. Cynthiana is particular as
+to soil and location, preferring sandy loams and does not thrive on
+clays or limestones. While very resistant to phylloxera, this variety
+is not much used as a resistant stock because it is not easily
+propagated. The vines are resistant to mildew, black-rot, and
+anthracnose and are strong, vigorous growers. The cycle of vegetation
+for Cynthiana is long, the buds bursting forth early and the fruit
+maturing very late. The variety has no value as a table-grape but in
+the South is one of the best grapes for red wine. No doubt it will
+prove one of the best southern sorts for grape-juice. Cynthiana was
+received about 1850 by Prince, of Flushing, Long Island, from
+Arkansas, where it was found growing in the woods.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes medium in length,
+    numerous, reddish-brown with thick bloom; nodes enlarged;
+    internodes short; shoots glabrous; tendrils intermittent or
+    continuous, bifid. Leaves thick, firm; upper surface dark green,
+    dull, rugose; lower surface tinged with blue, faintly pubescent,
+    cobwebby; lobes variable in number, terminal one acute; petiolar
+    sinus deep, narrow, closed, sometimes overlapping; basal sinus
+    shallow; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit very late, keeps well. Clusters medium to small, long,
+    tapering, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short,
+    slender, with numerous warts; brush short, thick, wine-colored.
+    Berries small, round, black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent,
+    firm; skin thin, tough, adherent with purple pigment, astringent;
+    flesh dark green, translucent, juicy, tough, firm, spicy, tart;
+    poor in quality. Seeds adherent, one to six, small, short, blunt,
+    dark brown.
+
+
+DELAWARE
+
+(Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera)
+
+_French Grape, Gray Delaware, Ladies' Choice, Powell, Ruff_
+
+Delaware (Plate VII) is used wherever American grapes are grown as the
+standard to gauge the quality of other grapes. Added to high quality
+in fruit, the variety withstands climatic conditions to which all but
+the most hardy varieties succumb, is adapted to many soils and
+conditions, and bears under most situations an abundant crop. These
+qualities make it, next to Concord, the most popular grape for garden
+and vineyard now grown in the United States. Besides the qualities
+named, the grapes mature sufficiently early to make the crop certain,
+are attractive in appearance, keep and ship well and are more immune
+than other commercial varieties to black-rot. Faults of the variety
+are: small vine, slow growth, susceptibility to mildew, capriciousness
+in certain soils and small berries. The first two faults make it
+necessary to plant the vines more closely than those of other
+commercial varieties. Delaware succeeds best in deep, rich,
+well-drained, warm soils, but even on these it must have good
+cultivation, close pruning and the crop must be thinned.
+
+Delaware is grown North and South, westward to the Rocky Mountains. It
+is now proving profitable in many southern locations as an early grape
+to ship to northern markets. It is an especially desirable grape to
+cultivate in small gardens because of its delicious, handsome fruit,
+its compact habit of growth and its ample and lustrous green,
+delicately formed leaves which make it one of the most ornamental of
+the grapes. Delaware can be traced to the garden of Paul H. Provost,
+Frenchtown, New Jersey, where it was growing early in the nineteenth
+century, and from whence it was taken to Delaware, Ohio, in 1849 and
+from there distributed to fruit-growers.
+
+    Vine weak, hardy, productive. Canes short, numerous, slender, dark
+    brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
+    short, bifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green, dull,
+    smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five
+    in number, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus
+    narrow and shallow when present; lateral sinus deep, narrow; teeth
+    shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, slender, blunt,
+    cylindrical, regular, shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender,
+    smooth; brush light brown. Berries uniform in size and shape,
+    small, round, light red, covered with thin bloom, persistent,
+    firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, unpigmented, astringent; flesh
+    light green, translucent, juicy, tender, aromatic, vinous,
+    refreshing, sweet; best in quality. Seeds free, one to four,
+    broad, notched, short, blunt, light brown.
+
+
+DIAMOND
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Few other grapes surpass Diamond in quality and beauty of fruit. When
+to its desirable fruit characters are added hardiness, productiveness
+and vigor of vine, the variety is surpassed by no other green grape.
+Diamond is a diluted hybrid between Labrusca and Vinifera and the
+touch of the exotic grape is just sufficient to give the fruit the
+richness in flavor of the Old World grape and not overcome the
+refreshing sprightliness of the native fox-grapes. The Vinifera
+characters are wholly recessive in vine and foliage, the plant
+resembling closely its American parent, Concord. Diamond is well
+established North and South and can be grown in as great a range of
+latitude as Concord. Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York, grew Diamond
+about 1870 from Concord seed fertilized by Iona.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes short, brown with a slight
+    red tinge; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils
+    intermittent, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green,
+    dull, smooth; lower surface light bronze, downy; lobes three in
+    number, indistinct; petiolar sinus very shallow; teeth shallow.
+    Flowers self-fertile, open early; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters medium to short, broad, blunt,
+    cylindrical, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short,
+    thick with a few inconspicuous warts; brush slender, pale green.
+    Berries large, ovate, green with a tinge of yellow, glossy,
+    covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough,
+    adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy,
+    tender, melting, fine-grained, aromatic, sprightly; very good.
+    Seeds free, one to four, broad and long, sharp-pointed,
+    yellowish-brown.
+
+
+DIANA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Diana (Plate XII) is a seedling of Catawba to which its fruit bears
+strong resemblance, differing chiefly in having lighter color, in
+being less pulpy and more juicy. The flavor resembles that of Catawba
+but has less of the wild taste. The chief point of superiority of
+Diana over Catawba is in earliness, the crop ripening ten days sooner,
+making possible its culture far to the north. The defects of Diana
+are: the vine is tender in cold winters; the grapes ripen unevenly;
+the berries and foliage are susceptible to fungi; and the vine is a
+shy bearer. Diana demands poor, dry, gravelly soil without much humus
+or nitrogen. On clays, loams or rich soils, the vines make a rank
+growth, and the fruits are few, late and of poor quality. The vine
+needs to be long pruned and to have all surplus bunches removed,
+leaving a small crop to mature. Diana is a satisfactory grape for the
+amateur, and where it does especially well proves profitable for the
+local market. Mrs. Diana Crehore, Milton, Massachusetts, grew Diana
+from seed of Catawba, planted about 1834.
+
+    Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, often unproductive. Canes
+    pubescent, long, reddish-brown, covered with thin bloom; nodes
+    enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, long,
+    bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green, heavily
+    pubescent; lobes three to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus
+    deep, wide, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus shallow;
+    lateral sinus narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in
+    mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, tapering,
+    occasionally shouldered, compact; pedicel covered with small
+    warts; brush slender, pale green. Berries medium in size, slightly
+    ovate, light red covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin
+    thick, tough, slightly adherent; flesh pale green, translucent,
+    juicy, tough, fine-grained, vinous, good. Seeds adherent, one to
+    three, light brown.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXVI.--Niagara (x2/3).]
+
+
+DOWNING
+
+(Vinifera, AEstivalis, Labrusca)
+
+Downing is well worthy a place in the garden because of the high
+quality, handsome appearance and good keeping qualities of the grapes.
+Added to these qualities of the fruits are fair vigor and health of
+vine. When grown as far north as New York, the vine should be laid
+down in the winter or receive other protection. In most seasons,
+unremitting warfare must be kept up to check mildew. In appearance of
+bunch and berry, Downing is distinct, the clusters being large and
+well-formed and the berries having the oval shape of a Malaga. The
+flesh, also, shows _Vitis vinifera_ in texture and quality, while
+neither seeds nor skins are as objectionable as in pure-bred American
+varieties. J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, first grew Downing
+about 1865.
+
+    Vine tender to cold, unproductive. Canes short, few, slender, dark
+    green with an ash-gray tinge, surface covered with thin bloom,
+    often roughened with a few small warts; nodes much enlarged,
+    strongly flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid
+    or trifid. Leaves small, round, thick; upper surface dark green,
+    glossy, rugose; lower surface dark green, glabrous; lobes one to
+    five, terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus narrow, closed and
+    overlapping; basal sinus shallow and narrow when present; lateral
+    sinus shallow, narrow; teeth wide, deep. Flowers open late;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps until spring. Clusters large, long, slender,
+    cylindrical, sometimes loosely shouldered; pedicel slender,
+    covered with numerous warts; brush long, slender, green. Berries
+    large, markedly oval, dark purplish-black, glossy, covered with
+    light bloom, strongly persistent, firm; skin thick, tender,
+    adherent; flesh green with a yellow tinge, translucent, very
+    juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous, mild; very good in quality.
+    Seeds free, one to three, notched, long, brown.
+
+
+DRACUT AMBER
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+Dracut Amber is representative of the red type of Labrusca. The fruit
+has no particular merit, its thick skin, coarse pulp, seeds and foxy
+taste all being objectionable. However, the vine is very hardy,
+productive, and ripens its fruit early so that this variety becomes
+valuable in locations where a vigorous, hardy, early grape is wanted.
+Asa Clement, Dracut, Massachusetts grew Dracut Amber from seed planted
+about 1855.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, dark
+    brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, long, bifid
+    or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull,
+    smooth; lower surface pale green, cobwebby; lobes three to five
+    with terminal one obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus
+    shallow, wide; teeth shallow. Flowers on plan of six,
+    semi-fertile, mid-season.
+
+    Fruit early, season short. Clusters short, broad, cylindrical,
+    irregular, rarely shouldered, compact; pedicel short, covered with
+    warts; brush long, light yellowish-green. Berries medium to large,
+    oval, dull pale red or dark amber, covered with thin bloom, soft;
+    skin very thick, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh green,
+    translucent, juicy, tough, very foxy; inferior in quality. Seeds
+    adherent, two to five, large, broad, light brown.
+
+
+DUTCHESS
+
+(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana? AEstivalis?)
+
+Dutchess (Plate XIII) is not grown largely in commercial vineyards
+because of several faults, as: the vine is tender to cold; the berries
+do not ripen evenly; berries and foliage are susceptible to fungi; and
+in soils to which it is not adapted, berries and bunches are small. In
+spite of these defects, Dutchess should not be discarded by the
+grape-lover, for there are few grapes of higher quality. The grapes
+are sweet and rich, yet do not cloy the appetite; although of but
+medium size, they are attractive, being a beautiful amber color with
+distinctive dots; the flesh is translucent, sparkling, fine-grained
+and tender; the seeds are small, few and part readily from the pulp;
+the skin is thin, yet tough enough for good keeping; and the bunches
+are large and compact when well grown. The variety is self-fertile
+and, therefore, desirable when only a few vines are wanted. The
+clusters are especially fine when bagged. A. J. Caywood, Marlboro, New
+York, grew Dutchess from seed of a white Concord seedling pollinated
+by mixed pollen of Delaware and Walter. The seed was planted in 1868.
+
+    Vine vigorous, an uncertain bearer. Canes dark brown with light
+    bloom, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
+    short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or trifid. Leaves
+    irregular in outline; upper surface pale green, pubescent; leaf
+    entire with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus
+    shallow when present; lateral sinus medium in depth or a mere
+    notch. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, long,
+    slender, tapering with a prominent single shoulder; pedicel
+    slender, smooth; brush amber-colored. Berries of medium size,
+    round, pale yellow-green verging on amber, some showing bronze
+    tinge with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin sprinkled with small
+    dark dots, thin, tough, adherent; flesh pale green, translucent,
+    juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet, of pleasant flavor;
+    quality high. Seeds free, one, two or occasionally three, small,
+    short, sharp-pointed, brown.
+
+
+EARLY DAISY
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+The qualities of Early Daisy render the variety more than commonplace.
+Its earliness commends it, the ripening period being eight or ten days
+earlier than Champion or Moore Early, making it one of the very
+earliest varieties. For a grape maturing at its season, it both keeps
+and ships well. Early Daisy would seem to be as desirable as Hartford
+or Champion. The variety originated with John Kready, Mount Joy,
+Pennsylvania, in 1874, as a seedling of Hartford.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, produces fair crops. Canes of medium length,
+    numerous, slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves small, light green; upper
+    surface rugose; lower surface slightly pubescent, cobwebby; lobes
+    wanting or faintly three; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; teeth
+    shallow, narrow. Flowers nearly self-sterile.
+
+    Fruit early. Clusters small to medium, often blunt at ends,
+    cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short,
+    slender, smooth; brush reddish, slender. Berries of medium size,
+    round, dull black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent; skin
+    tough, purplish-red pigment; flesh tough, solid, aromatic, tart at
+    the skin, acid at center; inferior in flavor and quality. Seeds
+    numerous, adherent, of average size, dark brown.
+
+
+EARLY OHIO
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+Early Ohio is remarkable, chiefly, in being one of the earliest
+commercial grapes. The fruit resembles that of Concord, of which it is
+probably a seedling. Notwithstanding many defects, Early Ohio is grown
+somewhat commonly, although its culture is on the wane. The variety
+was found in 1882 by R. A. Hunt, Euclid, Ohio, between rows of
+Delaware and Concord.
+
+    Vine weak, tender, usually unproductive. Canes short, slender,
+    brown with a red tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
+    short; tendrils continuous, short, bifid. Leaves intermediate in
+    size; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale
+    green tinged with bronze, pubescent; lobes wanting or one to
+    three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal
+    sinus usually absent; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth
+    shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit very early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size,
+    tapering; pedicel slender with a few small warts; brush slender,
+    tinged with red. Berries variable in size, round, purplish-black,
+    glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin adherent,
+    astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tough, aromatic; poor
+    in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, notched, brown with
+    yellowish-brown tips.
+
+
+EARLY VICTOR
+
+(Labrusca, Bourquiniana?)
+
+Early Victor is highest in quality of early black grapes. It is
+especially pleasing to those who object to the foxiness so marked in
+Hartford and Champion. Were the season but a few days earlier and
+bunch and berry a little larger, Early Victor would be the best grape
+to start the grape season. The vines are hardy, healthy, vigorous and
+productive, with growth and foliage resembling Hartford, which is
+probably one of its parents, Delaware being the other. The bunches are
+small, compact, variable in shape and the berries are about the size
+and shape of those of Delaware. Its season is that of Moore Early or a
+little later, although, like many black grapes, the fruit colors
+before it is ripe and is often picked too green. Unfortunately the
+fruit is susceptible to black-rot and shrivels after ripening. John
+Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, first grew Early Victor about 1871.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
+    slender, dark brown, surface pubescent; nodes enlarged; internodes
+    long; tendrils continuous, bifid, sometimes trifid. Leaves thick;
+    upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface white, heavily
+    pubescent; lobes three to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus
+    intermediate in depth and width; basal sinus shallow and wide when
+    present; lateral sinus narrow. Flowers semi-sterile, open in
+    mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit very early, does not keep well. Clusters small, variable in
+    shape, cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel
+    short, covered with numerous small warts; brush wine-colored or
+    pinkish-red. Berries small, round, dark purplish-black, dull with
+    heavy bloom, persistent; skin thin, tough, adherent, contains much
+    red pigment, astringent; flesh greenish-white, opaque,
+    fine-grained, aromatic, vinous; good. Seeds adherent, one to four,
+    broad, notched, blunt, dark brown.
+
+
+EATON
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+Eaton (Plate XIV) is a pure-bred seedling of Concord which it
+surpasses in appearance but does not equal in quality of fruit. The
+flesh is tough and stringy, and though sweet at the skin, is acid at
+the seeds and has the same foxiness that characterizes Concord, but
+with more juice and less richness, so that it is well described as a
+"diluted" Concord. The grape-skin is very similar to that of Concord,
+and the fruit packs, ships and keeps about the same, perhaps not quite
+as well because of the greater amount of juice. The season is a few
+days earlier than Concord. The vine is similar in all characters to
+that of its parent. The grapes ripen unevenly, the flowers are
+self-sterile, and in some locations the vine is a shy bearer. The
+variety has not found favor with either grower or consumer. Eaton
+originated with Calvin Eaton, Concord, New Hampshire, about 1868.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes thick, light
+    brown with blue bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
+    short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large,
+    round, thick; upper surface dark green; lower surface tinged with
+    bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three, terminal one acute;
+    petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral
+    sinus shallow, narrow, often notched; teeth shallow. Flowers
+    semi-sterile, early; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, short, broad, blunt, sometimes
+    double-shouldered, compact; pedicel long, thick, smooth; brush
+    slender, pale green. Berries large, round, black with heavy bloom,
+    persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent, purplish-red pigment,
+    astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tough, stringy, foxy;
+    fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, broad, notched,
+    plump, blunt.
+
+
+ECLIPSE
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+Eclipse (Plate XV) is a seedling of Niagara and, therefore, a
+descendant of Concord which it resembles, differing chiefly in earlier
+fruit which is of better quality. Unfortunately, the bunches and
+berries are small. The vines are hardly surpassed by those of any
+other variety, being hardy, healthy and productive, qualities that
+should commend it for commercial vineyards. The ripe fruit hangs on
+the vines for some time without deterioration, and the grapes do not
+crack in wet weather. The crop ripens several days earlier than that
+of Concord. Eclipse originated with E. A. Riehl, Alton, Illinois,
+from seed planted about 1890.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes medium in length, dark
+    reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; tendrils continuous, long, bifid.
+    Leaves large; upper surface dark green; lower surface white with a
+    bronze tinge, heavily pubescent; lobes wanting or three with
+    terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus
+    usually lacking; lateral sinus narrow, often notched; teeth
+    shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens
+    reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters of medium size, broad, tapering,
+    frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick,
+    covered with small warts; brush long, pale green. Berries, large,
+    oval, dull black with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin
+    tender, slightly adherent, astringent; flesh pale green,
+    translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, foxy, sweet; good. Seeds
+    free, one to four, short, broad, distinctly notched, blunt, brown.
+
+
+EDEN
+
+(Rotundifolia, Munsoniana?)
+
+Eden is of value as a general-purpose grape for the South and is
+interesting as one of the few supposed hybrids with _V. rotundifolia_.
+It is probably a hybrid between the species named and _V. Munsoniana_,
+another southern wild grape. The vine is exceedingly vigorous and
+productive and thrives on clay soils, whereas most other Rotundifolias
+can be grown successfully only on sandy lands. Eden was found some
+years ago on the premises of Dr. Guild, near Atlanta, Georgia.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, productive, healthy and bearing a dense canopy
+    of foliage. Canes darker in color than most other Rotundifolias.
+    Leaves of medium size and thickness, longer than wide; petiolar
+    sinus wide; marginal teeth rounded; leaf-tip blunt. Flowers
+    perfect.
+
+    Fruit early, distinct first and second crops, ripens uniformly.
+    Clusters large, loose, bearing from five to twenty-five berries
+    which adhere fairly well to the pedicels. Berries round, one-half
+    inch in diameter, dull black, faintly specked; skin thin, tender;
+    flesh soft, juicy, pale green, sprightly; good in quality.
+
+
+ELDORADO
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+The fruit of Eldorado is delicately flavored, with a distinct aroma
+and taste and ripens about with that of Moore Early--a time when there
+are few other good white grapes. The vines inherit most of the good
+qualities of Concord, one of its parents, excepting ability to set
+large crops. Even with cross-pollination, Eldorado sometimes fails to
+bear and is not worth growing unless planted in a mixed vineyard. The
+clusters are so often small and straggling under the best conditions
+that the variety cannot be recommended highly to the amateur; yet its
+delightful flavor and its earliness commend it. J. H. Ricketts,
+Newburgh, New York, grew Eldorado about 1870 from seed of Concord
+fertilized by Allen's Hybrid.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, an uncertain bearer. Canes long, few, thick,
+    flattened, bright reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    tendrils intermittent, rarely continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves
+    large to medium, irregularly round, dark green; upper surface
+    rugose on older leaves; lower surface tinged with brown,
+    pubescent; lobes wanting or faintly three; petiolar sinus deep;
+    teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open late; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters do not always set perfectly and
+    are variable in size, frequently single-shouldered; pedicel short,
+    slender, smooth; brush short, yellow. Berries large, round,
+    yellowish-green changing to golden yellow, covered with thin
+    bloom; flesh tender, foxy, sweet, mild, high flavored; good to
+    very good in quality. Seeds intermediate in size and length,
+    blunt, yellowish-brown.
+
+
+ELVIRA
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+Although it has never attained popularity in the North, Elvira (Plate
+XVI), after its introduction into Missouri about forty years ago,
+reached the pinnacle of popularity as a wine-grape in the South. The
+qualities which commended it were: great productiveness; earliness,
+ripening in the North with Concord; exceedingly good health, being
+almost free from fungal diseases; great vigor, as shown by a strong,
+stocky growth and ample foliage; and almost perfect hardiness even as
+far north as Canada. Its good qualities are offset by two defects:
+thin skin which bursts easily, thus wholly debarring it from distant
+markets; and flavor and appearance not sufficiently good to make it a
+table-grape. Elvira originated with Jacob Rommel, Morrison, Missouri,
+from seed of Taylor.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous, dark
+    brown; nodes flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous,
+    trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thin; upper surface light green,
+    pubescent, hairy; lobes wanting or one to three with terminus
+    acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and
+    overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow,
+    often notched; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters short, cylindrical,
+    usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel smooth; brush short,
+    greenish-yellow with brown tinge. Berries medium in size, round,
+    green with yellow tinge, dull with thin bloom, firm; skin very
+    thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh green, juicy,
+    fine-grained, tender, foxy, sweet; fair in quality. Seeds free,
+    one to four, medium to large, blunt, plump, dark brown.
+
+
+EMPEROR
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+Emperor is one of the standard shipping grapes of the Pacific slope,
+being one of the mainstays of the interior valleys. On the coast and
+in southern California, it is irregular in bearing, and on the coast
+the fruits often fail to ripen. It is chiefly grown in the San Joaquin
+Valley. It could hardly be expected to ripen even in the most favored
+grape regions in the East. The following brief description is
+compiled:
+
+    Vine strong, healthy and productive. Leaves very large, with five
+    shallow lobes; teeth short and obtuse; light green in color;
+    glabrous above, wooly beneath. Bunches very large, loose,
+    sometimes inclined to be straggling, long-conical. Berries large,
+    dull purple, oval; flesh firm and crisp; skin thick; flavor and
+    quality good. Ripens late and keeps and ships well.
+
+
+EMPIRE STATE
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Empire State (Plate XVII) competes with Niagara and Diamond for
+supremacy among green grapes. The variety is as vigorous in growth, as
+free from parasites, and on vines of the same age is as productive,
+but is less hardy, and the grapes are not as attractive in appearance
+as those of the other varieties named. In particular, the clusters are
+small in some localities, a defect which can be overcome only by
+severe pruning or by thinning. The quality is very good, approaching
+the flavor of the Old World grapes, its slight wild taste suggesting
+one of the Muscats. Empire State ripens early, hangs long on the vine
+and keeps well after picking without losing flavor. This grape
+originated with James H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, bearing fruit
+first in 1879.
+
+    Vine vigorous, somewhat tender. Canes short, few, slender,
+    brownish; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
+    bifid. Leaves small; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth or
+    somewhat rugose; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily
+    pubescent; lobes three to five when present, terminal one
+    acuminate; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and
+    overlapping; basal sinus variable in depth and width; lateral
+    sinus deep, narrow, often enlarged at base; teeth deep, wide.
+    Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender,
+    cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel
+    slender with small warts; brush short, light green. Berries medium
+    or small, round, pale yellowish-green, covered with thin bloom,
+    persistent, firm; skin thick, adherent to the pulp, slightly
+    astringent; flesh pale yellowish-green, translucent, juicy,
+    fine-grained, tender, agreeably flavored; good to very good. Seeds
+    adherent, one to four, small, broad, notched, short, blunt, plump,
+    brown.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXVII.--Salem (x2/3).]
+
+
+ETTA
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+In appearance, taste and texture of fruit, Etta is very similar to
+Elvira, of which it is a seedling. The small, yellow clusters which
+characterize Elvira are reproduced in Etta, which differs chiefly in
+having a shoulder quite as large as the main bunch itself and in
+having a better flavor, lacking the slight foxiness of Elvira. The
+vine is very vigorous, hardy, and is productive to a fault. The fruit
+ripens with that of Catawba. The tendency of Elvira to crack and
+overbear influenced the originator of that variety, Jacob Rommel,
+Morrison, Missouri, to try for a grape without these faults, and the
+result was Etta from seed of Elvira. The fruit was first exhibited in
+1879.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, light
+    to dark brown; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large, thick;
+    upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale
+    green, somewhat cobwebby. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters small, short, broad, irregularly
+    cylindrical, usually with a short, single shoulder but sometimes
+    so heavily shouldered as to form a double bunch, very compact.
+    Berries small, round, pale green, dull with thin bloom, shattering
+    when over-ripe, firm; skin thin, tender; flesh juicy,
+    fine-grained, tough, stringy, slightly foxy, mild; fair in
+    quality. Seeds free, long, blunt, brown.
+
+
+EUMELAN
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera, AEstivalis)
+
+_Washington_
+
+The good qualities of Eumelan are: vines above the average in vigor,
+hardiness and productiveness; clusters and berries well formed, of
+good size and handsome color; flesh tender, dissolving into wine-like
+juice under slight pressure; and pure flavor, rich, sweet, vinous. The
+season is early, yet the fruit keeps much better than that of most
+other grapes maturing with it and becomes, therefore, a mid-season
+and late grape. The defects of the variety are susceptibility to
+mildew, self-sterile flowers and difficulty in propagation. The latter
+character has greatly hindered its culture, as the vines can be
+secured only at extra expense and nurserymen are loath to grow the
+variety at all. Eumelan may be recommended to amateur growers. It is a
+chance seedling which grew from seed, about 1847, in the yard of a Mr.
+Thorne, Fishkill Landing, New York.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, covered with
+    bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
+    long, trifid or bifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark green,
+    glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, smooth; lobes usually
+    three with terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, variable in
+    width; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow;
+    teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens
+    reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps until late winter. Clusters long, slender,
+    tapering, often with a long, loose, single shoulder; pedicel
+    short, slender with a few small warts; brush short, stubby, pale
+    green. Berries of medium size, round, black, glossy with thin
+    bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent with wine-colored
+    pigment, astringent; flesh dark green, juicy, fine-grained,
+    tender, stringy, spicy and aromatic, sweet; good. Seeds adherent,
+    one to four, large, wide, blunt, plump, brown.
+
+
+FAITH
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+Although spoken of as a desirable grape in some regions, Faith is of
+little value in most localities. The fruit is unattractive in
+appearance, and the quality is not high. If the variety has any
+preeminently good character, it is productiveness. The blossoms put
+forth so early that they often suffer from spring frosts. Faith is of
+the same breeding as Etta and from the same originator, Jacob Rommel,
+Morrison, Missouri, both having come from seed of Elvira.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
+    thick, cylindrical; nodes prominent; internodes long; tendrils
+    continuous, bifid. Leaves large, dark green; upper surface dark
+    green, dull; lower surface grayish-green, thinly pubescent; lobes
+    wanting or faint; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-sterile to
+    partly self-fertile, open early; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, variable
+    in length, usually slender, often heavily single-shouldered,
+    loose; pedicel short, slender, warty; brush pale green, slender.
+    Berries small, round, dull green, frequently with a yellow tinge
+    changing to pale amber, with abundant bloom, persistent, soft;
+    skin thin, adherent, astringent; flesh juicy, tender, agreeably
+    flavored; fair to good in quality. Seeds numerous, broad, dark
+    brown.
+
+
+FEHER SZAGOS
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+This variety succeeds rather well at Geneva, New York, bearing fruits
+of excellent quality. It has two defects, dull color of the berries
+and irregular bunches. It is worth trying in the East. Feher Szagos is
+said to make a very good raisin in California and usually appears in
+lists of table-grapes for that state.
+
+    Vines vigorous, somewhat uncertain bearers. Opening leaves
+    pubescent, red along the edges and a tinge of red on the upper
+    surface. Flowers have upright stamens. Fruit usually ripens the
+    first week in October and does not keep well in storage; clusters
+    large to medium, broad, loose, frequently irregular because of
+    poor setting of fruit; berries large, oval to elliptical, rather
+    dull green, with thin bloom; skin thick, tender, neutral; flesh
+    greenish, translucent, juicy, meaty, tender, sweet; quality of the
+    best; seeds free.
+
+
+FERN MUNSON
+
+(Lincecumii, Vinifera, Labrusca)
+
+_Admirable, Fern, Hilgarde, Munson's No. 76_
+
+Fern Munson is a southern grape not adapted to northern regions, 40 deg.
+north latitude being its limit of adaptation. The fruits show some
+very good characters, as attractive appearance, agreeable quality and
+unobjectionable seeds and skin. The vines are vigorous and
+productive, but the foliage is not healthy although very abundant.
+This variety originated with T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed
+of Post-oak with mixed pollen. The seed was planted in 1885, and the
+variety was introduced by the originator in 1893.
+
+    Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark
+    brown with a faint red tinge; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves
+    large, thick; upper surface rugose and heavily wrinkled; lower
+    surface dull, pale green with a bronze tinge, faintly pubescent.
+    Flowers semi-fertile, open very late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, irregularly tapering,
+    usually single-shouldered, often with many abortive fruits.
+    Berries large, round, slightly flattened, dark purplish-black,
+    glossy, covered with thin bloom, strongly persistent, firm; skin
+    thin, tough, astringent; flesh juicy, tough, firm, fine-grained,
+    vinous, briskly subacid; good. Seeds adherent, broad.
+
+
+FLAME TOKAY
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+This is the leading shipping grape of the Pacific slope where it is
+everywhere grown under the name "Tokay," with several modifying terms,
+as "Flame," "Flame-colored" and "Flaming." The fruit is not especially
+high in quality nor attractive in appearance, but it ships and keeps
+well, qualities making it popular in commercial vineyards. The
+description is compiled.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, luxuriant in growth of canes, shoots and
+    leaves; very productive; wood dark brown, straight with long
+    joints. Leaves dark green with a brown tinge; lightly lobed.
+    Bunches very large, sometimes weighing eight or nine pounds,
+    moderately compact; shouldered. Berries large, oblong, red when
+    mature, covered with lilac bloom; flesh firm, crisp, sweet;
+    quality good. Season late, keeps and ships well.
+
+
+FLOWERS
+
+(Rotundifolia)
+
+Flowers is a late, dark-colored Rotundifolia very popular in the
+Carolinas. The variety is noted for its vigorous and productive
+vines, its large fruit-clusters and grapes that cling in the cluster
+unusually well for a variety of this species. The crop ripens in North
+Carolina in October and November. The fruit is valuable only for wine
+and grape-juice, having little to recommend it for dessert purposes.
+Flowers was found in a swamp near Lamberton, North Carolina, more than
+a hundred years ago by William Flowers. Improved Flowers, probably a
+seedling of Flowers, was found near Whiteville, North Carolina, about
+1869. It differs from its supposed parent in having a more vigorous
+and productive vine and larger clusters, the berries of which cling
+even more tenaciously.
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy, upright, open, very productive. Canes
+    long, slender, numerous. Leaves variable but average medium in
+    size, longer than broad, pointed, cordate, thick, dark green,
+    smooth, leathery; margins sharply serrate; flowers perfect.
+
+    Fruit very late, keeps well. Clusters, large, consisting of ten to
+    twenty-five berries. Berries large, round-oblong, purple or
+    purplish-black, clinging well to the cluster-stem; skin thick,
+    tough, faintly marked with dots; pulp white, lacking in juice,
+    hard, sweetish, austere in flavor; poor for a table-grape but
+    excellent for grape-juice.
+
+
+GAERTNER
+
+(Vinifera, Labrusca)
+
+The berries and clusters of Gaertner are large and handsomely colored,
+making a very showy grape. The plant is vigorous, productive and as
+hardy as any of the hybrids between Labrusca and Vinifera. In view of
+these qualities, Gaertner has not received the attention it deserves,
+probably because it is more capricious as to soils than some others of
+its related hybrids. As a market grape, the variety has the faults of
+ripening unevenly and of shipping poorly. The fruit keeps well and
+this, with the desirable qualities noted, makes it an excellent grape
+for the home vineyard. Gaertner is often compared with Massasoit, the
+two varieties being very similar in fruit characters, but Gaertner is
+of distinctly better quality than Massasoit. The variety originated
+with E. S. Rogers, Salem, Massachusetts. It was first mentioned about
+1865.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy except in severe winters, productive. Canes
+    long, dark reddish-brown, surface covered with thin bloom;
+    tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size,
+    round; upper surface dark green; lower surface pale green,
+    pubescent. Flowers self-sterile, open late; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, matures unevenly, keeps only fairly well.
+    Clusters medium in size, short, cylindrical, usually with a single
+    shoulder but sometimes double-shouldered, loose with many abortive
+    fruits. Berries large, round-oval, light to dark red, glossy,
+    covered with bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender; flesh pale
+    green, juicy, fine-grained, tough, stringy, agreeably vinous; good
+    to very good. Seeds free, large, broad, distinctly notched, brown.
+
+
+GENEVA
+
+(Vinifera, Labrusca)
+
+Geneva is surpassed by so many other grapes of its season in quality
+that it has never become popular, although it has much to recommend
+it. The vine is vigorous and productive, although not quite hardy, and
+the berries and clusters are attractive; the fruit is nearly
+transparent and there is so little bloom that the grapes are a
+lustrous green or iridescent in sunlight; the berries cling well to
+the stem and the fruit keeps exceptionally well. Geneva originated
+with Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York, from seed planted in 1874 from a
+hybrid vine fertilized by Iona.
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy, productive. Canes covered with thin bloom;
+    tendrils intermittent or continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves
+    medium in size; upper surface light green, dull; lower surface
+    grayish-white, pubescent; lobes three to five, acute; petiolar
+    sinus, shallow, wide; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile
+    or partly fertile, open late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, ships well and keeps into the winter. Clusters
+    large, blunt at the ends, usually not shouldered, with many
+    abortive fruits; pedicel long, slender, smooth; brush long, green.
+    Berries large, oval, dull green changing to a faint yellow with
+    thin bloom; skin thick, tough, unpigmented; flesh pale green,
+    tender, soft, vinous, sweet at skin but tart at center; fair to
+    good. Seeds of medium size and length.
+
+
+GOETHE
+
+(Vinifera, Labrusca)
+
+Of all Rogers' hybrids, Goethe shows Vinifera characters most,
+resembling in appearance the White Malaga of Europe, and not falling
+far short of the best Old World grapes in quality. But the variety is
+difficult to grow, especially where the seasons are not long enough
+for full maturity. The vine is vigorous to a fault; it is fairly
+immune to mildew, rot and other diseases; and, where it succeeds, the
+vines bear so freely that thinning becomes a necessity. Added to high
+quality, which makes it an excellent table-grape, Goethe keeps well.
+Goethe was first mentioned in 1858 under the name of Rogers' No. 1.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy. Canes short, dark brown; nodes enlarged,
+    flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous or intermittent,
+    long, bifid to trifid. Leaves irregularly round, thin; upper
+    surface light green, glossy; lower surface pale green, pubescent;
+    leaf usually not lobed, terminus broadly acute; petiolar sinus
+    narrow, closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking;
+    lateral sinus shallow, often a notch; teeth shallow, narrow.
+    Flowers partly self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters short, broad, tapering,
+    frequently single-shouldered, usually two bunches to shoot;
+    pedicel long, thick with numerous conspicuous warts; brush long,
+    slender, yellowish-brown. Berries very large, oval, pale red
+    covered with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender, adherent,
+    faintly astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, tender with
+    Vinifera flavor; very good. Seeds adherent, one to three, large,
+    long, notched, blunt, brown.
+
+
+GOLD COIN
+
+(AEstivalis, Labrusca)
+
+In the South, where alone it thrives, Gold Coin is a handsome market
+variety of very good quality. The vines are productive and are
+unusually free from attacks of fungal diseases. The variety
+originated with T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed of Cynthiana
+or Norton pollinated by Martha and was introduced by the originator in
+1894.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes slender, numerous;
+    tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, trifid or bifid.
+    Leaves medium in size; upper surface light green, slightly rugose;
+    lower surface pale green, tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent.
+    Flowers self-fertile; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late mid-season, keeps long. Clusters medium to small,
+    usually single-shouldered. Berries large, round-oval,
+    yellowish-green with a distinct trace of reddish-amber, with thin
+    bloom, usually persistent; skin covered with small, scattering
+    brown dots, thin, tough; flesh faintly aromatic, tart from skin to
+    center; good. Seeds free, numerous, medium in size.
+
+
+GREEN EARLY
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Green Early is a white grape coming in season with Winchell, which
+surpasses it in most characters, quality in particular. Green Early
+was found in 1885, growing by the side of a ditch near a Concord
+vineyard, on land belonging to O. J. Green, Portland, New York.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes variable in length and
+    thickness, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    internodes short; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent,
+    bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size, medium green; upper
+    surface dark green, glossy; lower surface pale green, pubescent;
+    lobes wanting or faintly five; teeth shallow, narrow; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters variable in size, length
+    and breadth, sometimes single-shouldered, variable in compactness.
+    Berries large, oval, light green tinged with yellow, with thin
+    bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, tender, inclined to crack;
+    flesh tough and aromatic, sweet at skin but acid at center; fair
+    in quality. Seeds medium in size, length and breadth,
+    sharp-pointed.
+
+
+GREIN GOLDEN
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+Grein Golden is very similar to Riesling, but the vine is much
+stronger in growth. For a variety of the Taylor group, both cluster
+and berry are large and uniform, which, with the attractive color of
+the berries, make it a most handsome fruit. The flavor, however, is
+not at all pleasing, being an unusual commingling of sweetness and
+acidity very disagreeable to most palates. The quality of the fruit
+condemns it for table use, although it is said to make a very good
+white wine. Nicholas Grein, Hermann, Missouri, first grew Grein Golden
+about 1875.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender,
+    dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long;
+    tendrils intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper
+    surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green,
+    lightly pubescent; lobes lacking or one to three with terminus
+    acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus usually lacking;
+    lateral sinus shallow, wide, obscure; teeth deep. Flowers
+    self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering,
+    irregular, often heavily single-shouldered, loose; pedicel with a
+    few inconspicuous warts; brush slender, pale green. Berries
+    uniform in size, large, round, golden yellow, glossy with thin
+    bloom, persistent; skin very thin, tender; flesh green,
+    translucent, very juicy, tender, vinous; good. Seeds free, one to
+    four, broad, plump, light brown.
+
+
+GROS COLMAN
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+_Dodrelabi_
+
+Gros Colman has the reputation of being the handsomest black
+table-grape grown. It is one of the favorite hot-house grapes in
+England and eastern America and is commonly grown out of doors in
+California. The variety is remarkable for having the largest berries
+of any round grape, borne in immense bunches, and for the long-keeping
+qualities, although the tender skins sometimes crack. The following
+description is compiled:
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy and productive; wood dark brown. Leaves
+    very large, round, thick, but slightly lobed; teeth short and
+    blunt; glabrous above, wooly below. Bunches very large, short,
+    well filled but rather loose; berries very large, round, dark
+    blue; skin thick but tender; flesh firm, crisp, sweet and good;
+    quality not of the highest. Season late and the fruits keep long.
+
+
+HARTFORD
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+The vine of Hartford may be well characterized by its good qualities,
+but the fruit is best described by its faults, because of which the
+variety is passing out of cultivation. The plants are vigorous,
+prolific, healthy and the fruit is borne early in the season. The
+canes are remarkable for their stoutness and for the crooks at the
+joints. The bunches are not unattractive, but the quality of the fruit
+is low, the flesh being pulpy and the flavor insipid and foxy. The
+berries shell badly on the vine and when packed for shipping, so that
+the fruit does not ship, pack or keep well. The grapes color long
+before ripe, and the flowers are only partly self-fertile, so that in
+seasons when there is bad weather during blooming time the clusters
+are loose and straggling. The original vine of Hartford was a chance
+seedling in the garden of Paphro Steele, West Hartford, Connecticut.
+It fruited first in 1849.
+
+    Vine vigorous, very productive. Canes long, dark brown, covered
+    with pubescence; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short;
+    tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper
+    surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, thinly
+    pubescent; lobes variable; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal
+    sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth
+    shallow. Flowers partly self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit early. Clusters medium in size, long, slender, tapering,
+    irregular, often with a long, large, single shoulder, loose;
+    pedicel short with a few small warts; brush greenish. Berries
+    medium in size, round-oval, black, covered with bloom, drop badly;
+    skin thick, tough, adherent, contains much purplish-red pigment,
+    astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, firm, stringy, foxy;
+    poor in quality. Seeds free, one to four, broad, dark brown.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXVIII.--Triumph (x3/5).]
+
+
+HAYES
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+In 1880, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society awarded a certificate
+of merit to Hayes for high quality in fruit. This brought it
+prominently before grape-growers and for a time it was popular, but
+when better known several defects became apparent. The vine is hardy
+and vigorous, but the growth is slow and the variety is a shy bearer.
+Both bunches and berries are small, and the crop ripens at a time, a
+week or ten days earlier than Concord, when there are many other good
+green grapes. Excellent though it is in quality, the variety is hardly
+worth a place in any vineyard. John B. Moore, Concord, Massachusetts,
+is the originator of Hayes. It is a seedling of Concord out of the
+same lot of seedlings as Moore Early. It was first fruited in 1872.
+
+    Vine variable in vigor and productiveness, hardy and healthy.
+    Canes numerous, slender; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
+    short; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves uniform in
+    size; upper surface dark green; lower surface pubescent; lobes one
+    to three; teeth shallow, small. Flowers almost self-sterile, open
+    medium late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters variable in size and length,
+    often single-shouldered; pedicel long, slender; brush small, pale
+    green. Berries medium in size, round, greenish-yellow, covered
+    with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender with a few small
+    reddish-brown dots; flesh fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet at
+    the skin, agreeably tart at center, mild; good. Seeds few, of
+    average size, short, plump, brown.
+
+
+HEADLIGHT
+
+(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana)
+
+Headlight is more desirable for southern than for northern vineyards,
+yet it is worthy of trial in the North. Its meritorious characters
+are: productiveness, outyielding Delaware, with which it competes;
+disease-resistant foliage and vines; more than average vigor of vine;
+high quality of fruit, being almost the equal of Delaware in flavor
+and having tender, melting pulp which readily parts from the seeds;
+and earliness, ripening before Delaware and hanging on the vines or
+keeping after being picked for some time without deterioration. The
+originator of Headlight, T. V. Munson, states that the variety came
+from seed of Moyer fertilized by Brilliant. The seed was planted in
+1895 and the grape was introduced in 1901.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes short, few in number,
+    slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils
+    continuous, short, bifid, very persistent. Leaves small, thick;
+    upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green,
+    pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus
+    intermediate in depth and width; basal sinus usually lacking;
+    lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers
+    self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, short, tapering,
+    frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender,
+    covered with a few small warts; brush yellowish-brown. Berries
+    small, round, dark red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin
+    tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, very juicy,
+    tender, fine-grained, vinous, sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to
+    three, small, light brown.
+
+
+HERBEMONT
+
+(Bourquiniana)
+
+_Bottsi, Brown French, Dunn, Herbemont's Madeira, Hunt, Kay's
+Seedling, McKee, Neal, Warren, Warrenton_
+
+In the South, Herbemont holds the same rank as Concord in the North.
+The vine is fastidious as to soil, requiring a well-drained warm soil,
+and one which is abundantly supplied with humus. Despite these
+limitations, this variety is grown in an immense territory, extending
+from Virginia and Tennessee to the Gulf and westward through Texas.
+The vine is remarkably vigorous, being hardly surpassed in this
+character by any other of our native grapes. The fruits are
+attractive because of the large bunch and the glossy black of the
+small berries, and are borne abundantly and with certainty in suitable
+localities. The flesh characters of the fruit are good for a small
+grape, neither flesh, skin nor seeds being objectionable in eating;
+the pulp is tender, juicy, rich, sweet and highly flavored. The ample,
+lustrous green foliage makes this variety one of the attractive
+ornamental plants of the South. Herbemont is known to have been in
+cultivation in Georgia before the Revolutionary War, when it was
+generally called Warren and Warrenton. In the early part of the last
+century, it came to the hands of Nicholas Herbemont, Columbia, South
+Carolina, whose name it eventually took.
+
+    Vine very vigorous. Canes long, strong, bright green, with more or
+    less purple and heavy bloom; internodes short; tendrils
+    intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round, entire, or
+    three to seven-lobed, nearly glabrous above and below; upper
+    surface clear green; lower surface lighter green, glaucous.
+    Flowers self-fertile.
+
+    Fruit very late. Clusters large, long, tapering, prominently
+    shouldered, compact; pedicels short with a few large warts; brush
+    pink. Berries round, small, uniform, reddish-black or brown with
+    abundant bloom; skin thin, tough; flesh tender, juicy; juice
+    colorless or slightly pink, sweet, sprightly. Seeds two to four,
+    small, reddish-brown, glossy.
+
+
+HERBERT
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+In all that constitutes a fine table-grape, Herbert (Plate XVIII) is
+as near perfection as any American variety. For a Vinifera-Labrusca
+hybrid, the vine is vigorous, hardy and fruitful, ranking in these
+respects above many pure-bred Labruscas. While the fruit ripens with
+Concord, it keeps much later and packs and ships better. The variety
+is self-sterile and must be set near other varieties. Herbert is
+deserving attention from commercial growers who supply a
+discriminating market, and its many good qualities give it high place
+as a garden grape. The variety is one of Rogers' hybrids, named
+Herbert in 1869.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark
+    brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils
+    intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round; upper
+    surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green with
+    some pubescence; leaf entire, terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus
+    deep, narrow, closed, overlapping; basal and lateral sinuses
+    lacking; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season;
+    stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, two
+    to three clusters per shoot, heavily single-shouldered, loose;
+    pedicel thick with small russet warts; brush yellowish-green.
+    Berries large, round-oval, flattened, dull black, covered with
+    thick bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent,
+    astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, tender,
+    fine-grained; very good. Seeds adherent, three to six, large,
+    broad, notched, long with swollen neck, blunt, brown with yellow
+    tips.
+
+
+HERCULES
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Hercules is characterized by very large berries, fruit handsomely
+colored and cluster large and well-formed. The flavor, while not of
+the best, is good. Added to the desirable qualities of the fruit, the
+vines are hardy, vigorous and productive. These good characters,
+however, cannot make up for the several defects of the variety. The
+grapes drop and crack badly and the pulp is tough and adheres too
+firmly to the seed for a dessert grape, so that the variety is
+worthless except for breeding purposes. Hercules was introduced by G.
+A. Ensenberger, Bloomington, Illinois, about 1890; its parentage is
+unknown.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes long, dark
+    reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long;
+    tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large; upper surface light
+    green, glossy, smooth; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent;
+    lobes one to three, terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow;
+    basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus shallow; teeth shallow.
+    Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters very large, broad,
+    tapering, one to three clusters per shoot, compact; brush pale
+    green. Berries very large, round, black, glossy with heavy bloom,
+    firm; skin adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy,
+    very tough, coarse, stringy, foxy; fair in quality. Seeds
+    adherent, one to five, large, broad, deeply notched, blunt, brown.
+
+
+HICKS
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+Hicks is a remarkably good grape and were it not that the fruit is
+almost identical with that of Concord, ripening with it or a little
+earlier, it would have a place in the viticulture of the country.
+However, since it was introduced some years ago and has not found
+great favor with growers, it seems that it cannot make headway against
+Concord, with which it must compete. In many localities the vines are
+more prolific than those of Concord and of stronger growth. Hicks was
+introduced in 1898 by Henry Wallis, Wellston, Missouri, who states
+that it is a chance seedling sent from California about 1870 to
+Richard Berry, a nurseryman of St. Louis County, Missouri.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes medium to long,
+    numerous, reddish-brown, covered with thin bloom; tendrils
+    continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface
+    dark green, glossy; lower surface white, changing to a heavy
+    bronze, strongly pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, open early;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad,
+    tapering, often single-shouldered. Berries large, round,
+    purplish-black with heavy bloom, shatter when over-ripe, firm;
+    skin tender with dark wine-colored pigment; flesh green, juicy,
+    tough, fine-grained, faintly foxy; good. Seeds adherent, large,
+    short, broad, blunt, brown.
+
+
+HIDALGO
+
+(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana)
+
+The grapes of Hidalgo are rich, sweet, delicately flavored, and with
+color, size and form of berry and bunch so well combined as to make
+the fruits singularly handsome. The skin is thin but firm and the
+variety keeps and ships well. The vines, however, are doubtfully
+hardy, variable in vigor and not always fruitful. While Hidalgo may
+not prove of value for the commercial vineyard, in favorable
+situations it may give a supply of choice fruit for the amateur. The
+parentage of Hidalgo, as given by its originator, T. V. Munson, is
+Delaware, Goethe and Lindley. The variety was introduced by the
+originator in 1902.
+
+    Vine variable in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Canes thick,
+    dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils
+    intermittent or continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large,
+    irregularly round, thick; upper surface light green, dull, rugose;
+    lower surface pale green, bronzed, heavily pubescent; lobes three
+    when present; petiolar sinus narrow, sometimes closed and
+    overlapping; basal sinus wanting; lateral sinus shallow, narrow;
+    teeth very shallow, narrow. Flowers semi-fertile, open after
+    mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, long,
+    slender, cylindrical, often blunt, not shouldered, one to two
+    bunches per shoot, compact; pedicel long, slender with small
+    warts; brush yellowish-green with brown tinge. Berries large,
+    oval, greenish-yellow, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm;
+    skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green, transparent,
+    juicy, tender, melting, aromatic, sweet; very good to best. Seeds
+    free, two to four, large, plump, light brown.
+
+
+HIGHLAND
+
+(Vinifera, Labrusca)
+
+Few varieties of black grapes equal Highland in appearance and quality
+of fruit. When given good care under favorable conditions, the bunches
+are unusually large and handsome in appearance, sometimes attaining a
+weight of two pounds, and bear beautiful bluish-black berries with the
+fine flavor and tender texture of Jura Muscat, one of its parents. The
+flesh is solid, firm and the fruit keeps and ships well. The vine is
+vigorous, productive to a fault but is doubtfully hardy. Where the
+climate is temperate and the season long enough for the vine and
+fruit of Highland to develop, this is one of the choicest grapes for
+the amateur. The variety originated about the close of the Civil War
+with J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, from seed of Concord
+fertilized by Jura Muscat.
+
+    Vine variable in vigor, productive, healthy. Canes long, numerous,
+    dark brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes long;
+    tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper
+    surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-green,
+    pubescent; lobes one to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus
+    deep, variable in width; basal sinus shallow, narrow; lateral
+    sinus a notch; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open in
+    mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering,
+    usually single-shouldered, usually two bunches per shoot; pedicel
+    long, thick, smooth; brush green with yellow tinge. Berries large,
+    round-oval, purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, persistent,
+    firm; skin tough, free; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender,
+    vinous; good. Seeds free, one to six, large, long, notched, brown.
+
+
+HOPKINS
+
+(Rotundifolia)
+
+Hopkins is named by grape-growers in the South Atlantic states as the
+best early Rotundifolia grape. Its season in North Carolina begins
+early in August, nearly a month before any other. It is, also, one of
+the best in quality and for quality and earliness should be in every
+home vineyard in the region in which it grows. Hopkins was found near
+Wilmington, North Carolina, about 1845, by John Hopkins.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, slender,
+    upright. Leaves of medium size, variable, cordate, longer than
+    broad, thick, leathery, smooth, dark green; margins sharply
+    serrate. Flowers self-fertile.
+
+    Fruit very early. Clusters large, containing from four to ten
+    berries. Berries large, dark purple or almost black, round-oblong,
+    shelling badly; skin thick, tough, faintly marked with dots; pulp
+    white, tender, juicy with a sweet, pleasant flavor; one of the
+    best of the Rotundifolias in quality.
+
+
+HOSFORD
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+Hosford is an offspring of Concord, differing from the parent chiefly
+in the greater size of bunch and berry and in being less fruitful. The
+variety is surpassed by Worden and Eaton, of the same type, and is
+probably not worth cultivation. It is claimed by some that Hosford is
+identical with Eaton but there are noticeable differences in both vine
+and fruit characters. The vine looks very like that of Concord except
+that the indentations along the margins of the leaves are deeper.
+Hosford originated in the garden of George Hosford, Ionia, Michigan,
+about 1876, as a chance seedling growing between two Concord vines.
+
+    Vines lacking in vigor, hardy, unproductive. Canes short, few in
+    number, slender; nodes enlarged; internodes very short; tendrils
+    continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface
+    light green, rugose; lower surface grayish-white to bronze,
+    heavily pubescent; lobes faint; petiolar sinus wide; teeth small,
+    sharp. Flowers shallow, semi-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters large, tapering,
+    slightly shouldered, compact; pedicel short with small warts;
+    brush slender, green. Berries large, round-oval, dull black with
+    abundant bloom, persistent; skin thick, tender; flesh pale green,
+    juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds few,
+    large, broad, blunt, plump, brown.
+
+
+HYBRID FRANC
+
+(Vinifera, Rupestris)
+
+Hybrid Franc is the best-known cross between Rupestris and Vinifera.
+It is one of the few varieties used in Europe as a resistant stock now
+recommended for a direct producer. The vines are hardy, vigorous and
+very productive. The fruit is fit only for wine or grape-juice, being
+too acid to eat out of hand. The coloring matter in the fruit is very
+intense and might be used in giving color to grape products. The
+variety is of French origin.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, thick, light
+    brown with blue bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils
+    intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small, thin; upper
+    surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface green, hairy
+    along ribs and large veins; lobes three to five with terminal one
+    acute; petiolar sinus narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping;
+    lateral sinus a notch. Flowers semi-fertile, open early; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size,
+    short, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel long,
+    slender with few small warts; brush short, wine-colored. Berries
+    small, oblate, black, glossy with thick bloom, persistent, firm;
+    skin thin, tender with very dark wine-colored pigment; flesh green
+    with reddish tinge, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender,
+    spicy, tart; fair in quality. Seeds free, one to five, small,
+    short, light brown.
+
+
+IDEAL
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera, Bourquiniana)
+
+Ideal is a handsome seedling of Delaware, from which it differs
+chiefly in being larger in bunch and berry, attaining in both of these
+characters nearly the size of Catawba. In Kansas and Missouri, this
+variety is highly recommended, not only for the high quality of the
+fruit, ranking with Delaware in quality, but because of vigorous,
+healthy, productive vines. But farther north the vines are
+precariously hardy and not sufficiently fruitful, healthy nor vigorous
+to warrant high recommendation. Ideal originated with John Burr,
+Leavenworth, Kansas, from seed of Delaware, about 1885.
+
+    Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive; tendrils
+    intermittent, bifid or trifid. Canes long, numerous, slender, dark
+    brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long. Leaves large,
+    variable in color; lobes three to five; petiolar sinus deep, wide;
+    teeth deep, narrow; upper surface light green, dull; lower surface
+    pale green, pubescent.
+
+    Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, heavily
+    shouldered; pedicel thick; brush green. Berries large, round,
+    dark red with thin bloom, usually persistent, firm; skin thick,
+    tough, adherent; flesh green, tender, aromatic, sweet next the
+    skin, acid at the center; good to very good. Seeds adherent,
+    large, plump, brown.
+
+
+IONA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+In flavor, the fruit of Iona (Plate XIX) has a rare combination of
+sweetness and acidity, pure, delicate and vinous. The flesh is
+transparent, melting, tender, juicy and of uniform consistency quite
+to the center. The seeds are few and small and part readily from the
+flesh. The color is a peculiar dark-red wine with a tint of amethyst,
+variable and not always attractive. The bunch is large but loose, with
+berries varying in size and ripening unevenly. The fruit may be kept
+until late winter. The vine characters of Iona are not as good as
+those of the fruit. To do well, the vine must have a soil exactly
+suited to its wants, seemingly thriving best in deep, dry, sandy or
+gravelly clays. Iona responds especially well when trained against
+walls or buildings, attaining under such conditions rare perfection.
+The vines are doubtfully hardy and in many parts of the North must
+have winter protection; they are not vigorous and are inclined to
+overbear, to remedy which they must have close pruning. In localities
+in which mildew and rot thrive, the variety is badly attacked by these
+diseases. Iona originated with C. W. Grant, Iona Island, New York,
+from seed of Diana planted in 1885.
+
+    Vine weak, doubtfully hardy, unproductive. Canes short, light
+    brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
+    bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth;
+    lower surface grayish-green, heavily pubescent; lobes three to
+    five with terminal one acute; petiolar sinus of medium depth and
+    width; basal sinus shallow; lateral sinus shallow, wide; teeth
+    shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, sometimes
+    double-shouldered, slender, tapering, loose; brush pale green.
+    Berries uniform, oval, round, dull, light and dark red with thin
+    bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent, slightly
+    astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender,
+    melting, vinous; very good. Seeds free, one to four, small, broad,
+    plump, brown.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXIX.--Vergennes (x2/3).]
+
+
+ISABELLA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+_Alexander, Black Cape, Christie's Improved Isabella, Conckling's
+Wilding, Constantia, Dorchester, Gibb's Grape, Hensell's Long Island,
+Payne's Early, Helene, Woodward_
+
+Isabella (Plate XX) is now of little more than historical interest, it
+having been one of the mainstays of American viticulture. In
+appearance, the fruit of Isabella is fully as attractive as that of
+any black grape, the clusters being large and well formed and the
+berries glossy black with thick bloom. The flavor is good, but the
+thick skin and muskiness in taste are objectionable. The grapes keep
+and ship well. Isabella is surpassed in vine characters by many other
+kinds, notably Concord, which has taken its place. The lustrous green,
+ample foliage which remains late in the season, and the vigor of the
+vine, make this variety an attractive ornamental, well adapted for
+growing on arbors, porches and trellises. The origin of Isabella is
+not known. It was obtained by William Prince, Flushing, Long Island,
+about 1816 from Mrs. Isabella Gibbs, Brooklyn, New York.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes short, numerous with heavy
+    pubescence, thick, light brown; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid.
+    Leaves thick; upper surface dark green, smooth, glossy; lower
+    surface whitish-green, heavily pubescent; lobes three when present
+    with terminal lobe obtuse; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, often
+    closed, overlapping; basal sinus usually wanting; lateral sinus
+    shallow, narrow, frequently notched; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers
+    self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylindrical,
+    frequently single-shouldered; pedicel slender, smooth; brush
+    long, yellowish-green. Berries medium to large, oval, black with
+    heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, tough, adherent,
+    astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained,
+    tender, meaty, some foxiness, sweet; good. Seeds one to three,
+    large, broad, distinctly notched, short, brown with yellow tips.
+
+
+ISABELLA SEEDLING
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Isabella Seedling is an early, vigorous, productive offspring of
+Isabella. In fruit characters it greatly resembles its parent, but
+ripens its crop earlier and has a more compact bunch. Like that of its
+parent, the fruit is of good quality and keeps remarkably well. This
+seedling is now grown more than Isabella and, while not of any
+considerable commercial importance, is far more deserving attention as
+a market grape than some of the poorly flavored kinds more generally
+grown. There are several varieties under this name. Two are mentioned
+by Warder; one of Ohio and one of New York origin. The Isabella
+Seedling here described originated with G. A. Ensenberger,
+Bloomington, Illinois, in 1889.
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes long, thick, dark
+    brown, often with a red tinge, with thin bloom; nodes prominent,
+    flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent or continuous,
+    bifid. Leaves healthy, large, thick; upper surface green, dull;
+    lower surface pale green or grayish-green, occasionally with a
+    tinge of bronze, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender,
+    cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, loose, compact. Berries
+    large, oval, often pear-shaped, dull black with thick bloom,
+    persistent, soft; skin thick with some red pigment; flesh pale
+    green, juicy, tender, coarse, vinous; good. Seeds numerous, free,
+    large, broad, notched, dark brown.
+
+
+ISRAELLA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Israella came from C. W. Grant contemporaneously with Iona and was
+heralded as the earliest good grape in cultivation. For several years
+after its introduction, it was widely tried but was almost everywhere
+discarded because of the poor quality and unattractive appearance of
+the fruit and lack of vigor, hardiness and productiveness in the vine.
+Grant grew Israella from seed of Isabella planted in 1885.
+
+    Vine lacking in vigor, unproductive. Canes slender, dark brown;
+    nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous,
+    bifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, dull, rugose;
+    lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes one to five, faint;
+    petiolar sinus deep, narrow; teeth shallow, sharp; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, of medium length and
+    breadth, tapering, often single-shouldered, compact, frequently
+    with many abortive fruits. Berries of medium size, round-oval,
+    black or purplish-black with thin bloom, inclined to drop, soft;
+    skin thick, tough with a large amount of purplish-red pigment;
+    flesh pale green, juicy, stringy, mild, sweet from skin to center;
+    fair in quality. Seeds free, medium in size, notched, blunt, light
+    brown, often covered with grayish warts.
+
+
+IVES
+
+(Labrusca, AEstivalis)
+
+_Ives' Madeira, Ives' Seedling, Kittredge_
+
+Ives has a high reputation as a grape for making red wine, being
+surpassed only by Norton for this purpose. The vine is hardy, healthy,
+vigorous and fruitful. The fruit is poor in quality, colors long
+before ripe, has a foxy odor, and the flesh is tough and pulpy. The
+bunches are compact, with well-formed, jet-black grapes, which make
+them attractive. The vine is easily propagated and is adapted to any
+good grape soil, but is so rampant in growth that it is difficult to
+manage. The variety is not widely cultivated. Ives was grown by Henry
+Ives from seed planted in 1840 in his garden in Cincinnati, Ohio.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, thick,
+    reddish-brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves
+    large; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale
+    green, pubescent; lobes three to five when present with terminal
+    one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and
+    overlapping; basal sinus shallow; lateral sinus narrow; teeth
+    shallow.
+
+    Fruit late mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, tapering,
+    frequently single-shouldered, compact, often with numerous
+    abortive berries; pedicel slender with numerous small warts; brush
+    short, slender, pale with a reddish-brown tinge. Berries oval,
+    jet-black with heavy bloom, very persistent, firm; skin tough,
+    adherent, wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh pale green,
+    translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough, foxy; good. Seeds
+    adherent, one to four, small, often abortive, broad, short, blunt,
+    plump, brown.
+
+
+JAMES
+
+(Rotundifolia)
+
+James is one of the largest of the Rotundifolia grapes and probably
+the best general-purpose variety of this species. The vine is noted
+for vigor and productiveness. It cannot be grown north of Maryland. It
+thrives in sandy loam soils with clay subsoil. The variety was found
+by B. W. M. James, Pitt County, North Carolina. It was introduced
+about 1890 and was placed on the grape list of the American
+Pomological Society fruit catalog in 1899.
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy, productive. Canes slender, numerous, long,
+    slightly trailing. Leaves of medium size, thick, smooth, leathery,
+    cordate, as broad as long, with a serrate margin. Flowers open
+    late; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit ripens late, hangs on the vine for three weeks, keeps well.
+    Clusters small, containing from four to twelve berries, irregular,
+    loose. Berries large, three-fourths to one and one-fourth inches
+    in diameter, round, blue-black, marked with specks; skin thick,
+    tough. Pulp juicy, sweet; good in quality.
+
+
+JANESVILLE
+
+(Labrusca, Vulpina)
+
+Endowed with a constitution enabling it to withstand cold to which
+most other grapes succumb, Janesville has made a place for itself in
+far northern localities. Moreover, the grapes ripen early, being about
+the first to color although they are not ripe until some time after
+coloring. The vine also is healthy, vigorous and productive. The
+fruit, however, is worthless when better sorts can be grown. The
+clusters and berries are small, the grapes are pulpy, tough, seedy,
+have a thick skin and a disagreeable acid taste. Janesville was grown
+by F. W. Loudon, Janesville, Wisconsin, from chance seed planted in
+1858.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes spiny, numerous,
+    dark brown; nodes flattened; internodes long; tendrils
+    intermittent or continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small,
+    thin; upper surface glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green,
+    lightly pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute;
+    petiolar sinus narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal and
+    lateral sinuses lacking; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open
+    very early; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, short, cylindrical,
+    usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender,
+    covered with small, scattering warts; brush dark wine color.
+    Berries round, dull black with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin
+    thick, tough, adherent with dark wine-colored pigment, astringent;
+    flesh pale reddish-green, translucent, juicy, tough, coarse,
+    vinous, acid; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to six, large,
+    broad, angular, blunt, dark brown.
+
+
+JEFFERSON
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Jefferson (Plate XXI) is an offspring of Concord crossed with Iona,
+and resembles Concord in vigor, productiveness and healthiness of
+vine, and Iona in color and quality of fruit. The vine produces its
+fruit two weeks later than Concord and is not as hardy, faults that
+debar it from taking high rank as a commercial grape. Fortunately the
+vines yield readily to laying down for winter protection so that even
+in commercial plantations it is not difficult to prevent winter
+injury. The bunches of Jefferson are large, well-formed, compact with
+berries of uniform size and color. The flesh is firm yet tender, juicy
+with a rich, vinous flavor and a delicate aroma which persists even
+after the berries have dried into raisins. The fruit ships and keeps
+well, the berries adhering to the cluster and the fruit retaining its
+freshness into late winter. Jefferson is widely distributed and is
+well known by viticulturists in eastern America. It is not particular
+as to localities, if the season be long and the climate temperate, and
+thrives in all soils. The variety originated with J. H. Ricketts,
+Newburgh, New York; it fruited first in 1874.
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes short,
+    numerous, light to dark brown; nodes enlarged, round; internodes
+    short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or trifid. Leaves
+    healthy; upper surface light green, older leaves rugose; lower
+    surface pale green, strongly pubescent; leaf usually not lobed
+    with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow, sometimes closed and
+    overlapping; basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus shallow,
+    often a mere notch; teeth regular, shallow. Flowers self-fertile,
+    open late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylindrical,
+    usually single-shouldered, sometimes double-shouldered, compact;
+    pedicel short, slender with a few inconspicuous warts; brush long,
+    slender, pale yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, oval, light
+    and dark red, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, very firm; skin
+    thick, tough, free, slightly astringent; flesh light green,
+    translucent, juicy, coarse-grained, tender, vinous; good to best.
+    Seeds free, one to four, broad, short, blunt, plump, brown.
+
+
+JESSICA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Jessica is an early, hardy, green grape. The fruit is sweet, rich,
+sprightly and almost free from foxiness, but is unattractive and does
+not keep well. The clusters and berries are small, and the clusters
+are too loose for a good grape. Jessica may be commended for earliness
+and hardiness and is, therefore, desirable, if at all, in northern
+regions. William H. Read, Port Dalhousie, Ontario, grew Jessica from
+seed planted some time between 1870 and 1880.
+
+    Vine medium in vigor, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes long,
+    thick, dark brown with red tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    internodes short; tendrils continuous or intermittent, bifid or
+    trifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green, glossy, often
+    rugose; lower surface pale green, very pubescent; lobes three;
+    petiolar sinus narrow; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers
+    self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit very early. Clusters small, slender, tapering, usually
+    single-shouldered. Berries small, round, light green, often tinged
+    with yellow, covered with thin bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin,
+    adherent, faintly astringent; flesh pale green, transparent,
+    juicy, tender, soft, sprightly, sweet; good. Seeds adherent,
+    medium to broad, notched, brown.
+
+
+JEWEL
+
+(Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera)
+
+The notable characters of Jewel are earliness and high quality in
+fruit; although, as compared with Delaware, its parent, the vine is
+vigorous, healthy and hardy. In form and size of bunch and berry,
+Jewel closely resembles Delaware, but the grapes are deep black in
+color. The flesh characters and flavor of the fruit are much like
+those of Delaware, the pulp being tender yet firm, and the flavor
+having the same rich, sprightly, vinous taste found in the parent. The
+seeds are few and small. The skin is thin but tough, and the grapes
+ship well, keep long, do not shell, and although early, hang until
+frost. Jewel is a most excellent grape, worthy the place among black
+grapes that Delaware has among red varieties. In particular, it is
+recommended for earliness and for localities in the North where
+standard varieties do not ripen. John Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, grew
+Jewel from seed of Delaware planted about 1874.
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes slender, light
+    reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short;
+    tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves scant, thick; upper surface
+    light green, dull, rugose; lower surface tinged with bronze,
+    heavily pubescent; lobes three when present with terminus acute;
+    petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus
+    shallow, wide; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in
+    mid-season; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early. Clusters small, slender, cylindrical,
+    single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender; brush short,
+    wine-colored. Berries medium in size, round, dark purplish-black,
+    dull with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough,
+    adherent, wine-colored pigment; flesh pale green, translucent,
+    juicy, fine-grained, tender, sprightly, vinous, sweet; very good.
+    Seeds adherent, one to four, frequently one-sided, blunt, light
+    brown.
+
+
+KENSINGTON
+
+(Vinifera, Vulpina)
+
+Kensington has several very meritorious fruit and vine characters. The
+vine resembles that of Clinton, its Vulpina parent, in vigor,
+hardiness, growth and productiveness, but the fruit has many of the
+characters of the European parent, Buckland Sweetwater. The grapes are
+yellowish-green, large, oval and borne in loose clusters of medium
+size. In quality the fruit of Kensington is not equal to that of
+Buckland Sweetwater but is much better than that of Clinton. The flesh
+is tender and juicy with a rich, sweet, vinous flavor. The hardiness
+of the vine and the high quality of the fruit should make Kensington a
+favorite green grape in northern gardens. This variety was grown by
+William Saunders, London, Ontario. It was sent out some time between
+1870 and 1880.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, slender, light
+    brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils
+    persistent, intermittent or continuous, long, bifid or trifid.
+    Leaves thin; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower
+    surface pale green, pubescent, hairy; lobes wanting or one to
+    three with terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus
+    shallow when present; lateral sinus shallow, usually a notch;
+    teeth deep and wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early, stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, cylindrical, often heavily
+    single-shouldered, loose, frequently with many undeveloped
+    berries; pedicel long and slender with small, inconspicuous warts;
+    brush short, pale green. Berries variable in size, oval,
+    yellowish-green, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin
+    thin, tough, adherent, faintly astringent; flesh green,
+    transparent, juicy, tender, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds free, two
+    to four, wrinkled, large, long, broad, sharp-pointed,
+    yellowish-brown.
+
+
+KING
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+King is similar to Concord, compared with which the vine is more
+vigorous and prolific, time of ripening and length of season the same,
+the clusters are one-fourth larger, the grapes are more persistent,
+the pulp is more tender, the flavor nearly the same but more
+sprightly, the seeds fewer in number, the wood harder and of shorter
+joints and the pedicels larger. King was found in the Concord vineyard
+of W. K. Munson, Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 1892. The vine was set for
+Concord and is supposed to be a bud-sport of that variety.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes large, dark
+    reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, slightly flattened; internodes
+    short; tendrils continuous or intermittent, trifid or bifid.
+    Leaves unusually large, thick; upper surface green, dull; lower
+    surface grayish-white changing to slight bronze, pubescent; lobes
+    three when present, terminal one acute; teeth shallow, narrow.
+    Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad,
+    irregularly tapering, usually single-shouldered, compact. Berries
+    large, round, black with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick,
+    tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, very juicy, tough,
+    stringy and with some foxiness; good. Seeds adherent, few, large,
+    short, broad, lightly notched if at all, blunt, plump, light
+    brown.
+
+
+LADY
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+The vine of Lady is much like that of Concord, its parent, although
+not quite so vigorous nor productive, but ripens its fruit fully two
+weeks earlier. The fruit is much superior to that of Concord in
+quality, being richer, sweeter and less foxy. The grapes hang on the
+vines well but deteriorate rapidly after picking. The term,
+"ironclad," used by grape-growers to express hardiness and freedom
+from disease, is probably as applicable to Lady as to any other of the
+Labrusca grapes. The foliage is dense and of a deep glossy green,
+neither scalding under a hot sun nor freezing until heavy frosts,
+making it an attractive ornament in the garden. Lady is deservedly
+popular as a grape for the amateur and should be planted for near-by
+markets. It succeeds wherever Concord is grown, and because of its
+early ripening is especially adapted to northern latitudes where
+Concord does not always mature. Although the fruit ripens early, the
+buds start late, often escaping late spring frosts. When Lady was
+first heard of, it was in the hands of a Mr. Imlay, Muskingum County,
+Ohio. George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, introduced it in 1874.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, medium in productiveness, healthy. Canes
+    short, slender, dark reddish-brown; nodes flattened; internodes
+    short; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in
+    size; upper surface light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface
+    pale green, pubescent; lobes one to five with terminal one
+    acuminate; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; lateral sinus variable in
+    depth and width; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in
+    mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters small, short, slender,
+    cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick,
+    smooth; brush slender, long, greenish-white. Berries large, round,
+    light green, often with a tinge of yellow, glossy with thin bloom,
+    persistent, firm; skin covered with small, scattering, dark dots,
+    thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh greenish-white,
+    translucent, juicy, tender, aromatic; very good. Seeds free, few,
+    broad, light brown.
+
+
+LADY WASHINGTON
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Lady Washington is in many respects a most excellent grape but falls
+short in quality and does not excel in vine characters. The grapes
+make a good appearance, keep and ship well and are tender, juicy and
+sweet. The vines are luxuriant, hardy, for a grape with Vinifera
+blood, and healthy although slightly susceptible to mildew. As an
+exhibition grape, few green varieties show better when grown with care
+than Lady Washington. In the West and Southwest, the variety is said
+to succeed better than any other Concord seedling. Lady Washington is
+another of J. H. Ricketts' fine seedlings, this variety having come
+from seed of Concord fertilized by Allen's Hybrid. It was introduced
+in 1878.
+
+    Vine vigorous, productive. Canes long, few, thick, dark brown;
+    nodes greatly enlarged, variable in shape; internodes long;
+    tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick;
+    upper surface dark green, older leaves strongly rugose, glossy;
+    lower surface pale green, pubescent; leaf entire with terminal
+    acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, frequently closed and
+    overlapping; basal sinus usually wanting; lateral sinus shallow;
+    teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large,
+    broad, irregularly cylindrical, single-shouldered, frequently
+    double-shouldered, loose; pedicel short with numerous conspicuous
+    warts; brush very short, greenish. Berries variable in size,
+    round-oblate, yellow-amber, glossy with thin bloom, persistent;
+    skin thin, tender, adherent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy
+    and tender, stringy, aromatic, sweet; very good. Seeds free, one
+    to four, broad, brown.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXX.--Winchell (x2/3).]
+
+
+LENOIR
+
+(Bourquiniana)
+
+_Alabama, Black El Paso, Black July, Black Spanish, Blue French,
+Burgundy, Cigar Box Grape, Devereaux, Jack, Jacques, July Sherry,
+Longworth's Ohio, MacCandless, Ohio, Springstein, Warren_
+
+Lenoir is a tender southern grape which has been used largely in
+France and California as a resistant stock and a direct producer. The
+fruit is highly valued for its dark red wine and is very good for
+table use. The vine is very resistant to phylloxera and withstands
+drouth well. The origin of Lenoir is unknown. It was in cultivation in
+the South as long ago as the early part of the last century. Nicholas
+Herbemont states in 1829 that its name was given from a man named
+Lenoir who cultivated it near Stateburg, South Carolina.
+
+    Vine vigorous, thrifty, semi-hardy, productive. Canes numerous,
+    with some bloom at the nodes; tendrils intermittent. Leaves from
+    two to seven-lobed, usually five, with characteristic bluish-green
+    color above and pale green below.
+
+    Clusters variable, medium to very large, tapering, usually
+    shouldered. Berries small, round, dark bluish-purple, nearly black
+    with lilac bloom; skin thick, tough; flesh juicy, tender, sweet,
+    very rich in coloring matter.
+
+
+LIGNAN BLANC
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+_White July, Luglienga, Joannenc_
+
+At Geneva, New York, Lignan Blanc ripens first of all grapes, native
+or European. It is not of highest quality but is better than any other
+early grape and makes a valuable addition to the home vineyard. It is
+a favorite grape in Europe and is rather commonly grown in California.
+This variety offers excellent material for hybridization with native
+grapes.
+
+    Vine vigorous, medium productive; buds open early; opening leaves
+    light green, glossy, tinged with red along the edges, thinly
+    pubescent. Leaves medium in size, roundish, somewhat dull green,
+    slightly rugose; lower surface glabrous; blade thick; lobes
+    usually five though sometimes three; petiolar sinus medium in
+    depth, wide; lower lateral sinus medium in depth, narrow; upper
+    lateral sinus shallow, narrow; margin dentate; teeth long, narrow.
+    Flowers appear early for a Vinifera; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit ripens the first of September and is a good keeper; clusters
+    above medium in size, tapering, medium compact; berries medium to
+    large, oval, yellowish-green, with thin bloom; skin thin, tender,
+    neutral; flesh greenish-white, firm, juicy, meaty, sweet; quality
+    good.
+
+
+LINDLEY
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+By common consent, Lindley (Plate XXII) is the best of the red grapes
+originated by Rogers in his crosses between Labrusca and Vinifera. The
+bunches are of only medium size and are loose, but the berries are
+well-formed, of uniform size and an attractive dark red color. The
+flesh is firm, fine-grained, juicy, tender with a peculiarly rich
+aromatic flavor. The skin is thick and tough but is not objectionable
+in fruit fully ripe. The fruit keeps and ships well, and the berries
+neither crack nor shatter. The vine is vigorous, hardy for a Vinifera
+hybrid, healthy but, as with most of its kind, susceptible to mildew.
+The chief defects of Lindley are self-sterility, precariousness in
+bearing and lack of adaptation to many soils. Lindley is a general
+favorite in the garden. In 1869 Rogers gave this grape its name in
+honor of John Lindley, the English botanist.
+
+    Vine vigorous, usually hardy, susceptible to mildew. Canes very
+    long, dark reddish-brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, usually
+    flattened; internodes long, thick; tendrils continuous, long,
+    bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green,
+    dull, slightly rugose; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent;
+    obscurely three-lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep,
+    narrow, often closed and overlapping; teeth shallow. Flowers
+    self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters long, broad,
+    cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, the shoulder being
+    connected to the bunch by a long stem, loose; pedicel short,
+    slender, smooth; brush short, pale green. Berries large,
+    round-oval, dark-red with faint bloom; skin tough, adherent,
+    unpigmented, strongly astringent; flesh pale green, translucent,
+    juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous; good to best. Seeds adherent,
+    two to five, notched, brown.
+
+
+LUCILE
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+In vigor, health, hardiness and productiveness, Lucile (Plate XXII) is
+not surpassed by any native grape. Unfortunately, the fruit characters
+are not so desirable. The size, form and color of bunches and berries
+are good, making a very attractive fruit, but the grapes have an
+obnoxious, foxy taste and odor and are pulpy and seedy. Lucile is
+earlier than Concord, the crop ripening with that of Worden or
+preceding it a few days. For an early variety, the fruit keeps well
+and in spite of thin skin ships well. The vine thrives in all grape
+soils. Lucile may be recommended where a hardy grape is desired and
+for localities in which the season is short. J. A. Putnam, Fredonia,
+New York, grew Lucile. The vine fruited first in 1890. It is a
+seedling of Wyoming, which it resembles in fruit and vine and
+surpasses in both.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes long, light brown;
+    nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous,
+    bifid or trifid. Leaves large, firm; upper surface light green,
+    glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; leaf with
+    terminus acute; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, sometimes closed
+    and overlapping; basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus a notch
+    when present; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open early;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender,
+    cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, very compact; pedicel
+    short, thick with few, small, inconspicuous warts; brush light
+    brown. Berries large, round, dark red with thin bloom, persistent,
+    firm; skin thin, tender, astringent; flesh pale green,
+    translucent, juicy, tough, stringy, foxy; fair in quality. Seeds
+    adherent, one to four, small, broad, short, blunt, dark brown.
+
+
+LUTIE
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+Lutie (Plate XXIII) is chiefly valuable for its vine characters. The
+vines are vigorous, hardy, healthy and fruitful, although scarcely
+equaling Lucile in any of these characters. Pomologists differ widely
+as to the merits of the fruit, some claiming high quality for it and
+others declaring that it is no better than a wild Labrusca. The
+difference of opinion is due to a peculiarity of the fruit; if eaten
+fresh, the quality, while far from being of the best, is not bad, but
+after being picked for several days it develops so much foxiness of
+flavor and aroma that it is scarcely edible. Lutie is a seedling found
+by L. C. Chisholm, Spring Hill, Tennessee. It was introduced in 1885.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes short, slender,
+    dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils
+    continuous, short, bifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface
+    dark green, rugose; lower surface bronze or whitish-green,
+    pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar
+    sinus deep, wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow and
+    narrow when present; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile,
+    early; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, short,
+    broad, blunt, cylindrical, usually not shouldered, compact;
+    pedicel short with small, scattering warts; brush slender, pale
+    green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull with thin bloom, drop
+    badly from pedicel, firm; skin tender, adherent, astringent; flesh
+    pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, foxy; fair in quality.
+    Seeds adherent, one to four, large, broad, short and blunt, dark
+    brown.
+
+
+MALAGA
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+Malaga is one of the favorite table-grapes in California and also a
+popular grape to ship to eastern markets. In some parts of southern
+California, where the Muscats do not thrive, it is much grown, and in
+the San Joaquin Valley it is rather largely used in making raisins. It
+requires a long season and probably could not be grown in eastern
+regions except in the most favored localities. The description is
+compiled.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, healthy and productive; wood reddish-brown,
+    short-jointed. Leaves of medium size, smooth, leathery; light
+    glossy green above, lighter below; deeply lobed. Bunches very
+    large, long, loose, shouldered, sometimes scraggly; stem long and
+    flexible; berries very large, oval, yellowish-green, covered with
+    light bloom; skin thick; flesh firm, crisp, sweet and rich;
+    quality good. Season late, keeps and ships well.
+
+
+McPIKE
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+McPike is noteworthy because of the large size of the berries and
+bunches. It is very similar to its parent, Worden, differing in
+having fewer but larger berries, grapes not as high in flavor and
+fewer and smaller seeds. Because of the thin, tender skin, the berries
+crack badly. The grapes shell more or less, and the vines are less
+productive than those of Worden. The faults named debar it from
+becoming a commercial grape and it is not high enough in quality to
+make it of value for the amateur. This variety originated with H. G.
+McPike, Alton, Illinois, from seed of Worden planted in 1890.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes of medium length,
+    dull reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes very
+    short; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick;
+    upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface
+    grayish-white, heavily pubescent; leaf entire with terminus acute;
+    petiolar sinus deep; basal and lateral sinuses lacking. Flowers
+    nearly self-fertile.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, broad,
+    irregularly tapering, usually not shouldered; pedicel long, thick,
+    smooth; brush long, slender, green with brown tinge. Berries
+    unusually large, round, purplish-black with heavy bloom, firm;
+    skin cracks, adherent to pulp, astringent; flesh pale green,
+    translucent, juicy, tender, stringy, vinous; fair to good. Seeds
+    adherent, one to four, short, broad, blunt, plump, light brown.
+
+
+MARION
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+_Black German, Marion Port_
+
+Marion so closely resembles Clinton in botanical and horticultural
+characters as to be clearly of the same type. The vine is vigorous and
+hardy, but hardly sufficiently productive, and is susceptible to
+mildew and leaf-hoppers. The fruit is pleasantly sweet and spicy,
+although not high enough in quality for a table-grape, but makes a
+very good dark red wine. The fruit colors early but ripens late, hangs
+well on the vines and improves with a touch of frost. Marion was
+brought to notice by a Mr. Shepherd, Marion, Ohio, about 1850.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes very long, dark
+    reddish-brown, covered with bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    internodes very long; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent,
+    long, bifid. Leaves very large; upper surface dark green, glossy;
+    lower surface pale green, smooth; leaf entire, terminus acuminate;
+    petiolar sinus very deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping;
+    basal and lateral sinuses usually lacking; teeth shallow, wide.
+    Flowers self-sterile, open very early; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, short,
+    slender, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short,
+    slender with a few inconspicuous warts; brush very short,
+    wine-colored. Berries small, round, black, glossy with heavy
+    bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent with much
+    wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh dark green, translucent,
+    juicy, fine-grained, tough, sprightly, spicy, tart; fair in
+    quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, medium in size, broad,
+    short, very plump, brown.
+
+
+MARTHA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Martha was at one time a popular green grape, but the introduction of
+superior varieties has reduced its popularity until now it is but
+little grown. It is a seedling of Concord and resembles its parent,
+differing chiefly as follows: fruit green, a week earlier, bunch and
+berry smaller, flavor far better, being sweeter, more delicate and
+less foxy. The vine of Martha is a lighter shade of green, is less
+robust, and the blossoms open a few days earlier than those of
+Concord. One of the defects of Martha, and the chief cause of its
+going out of favor, is that it does not keep nor ship well. The
+variety is still being planted in the South but is generally abandoned
+in the North. Samuel Miller, Calmdale, Pennsylvania, grew Martha from
+seed of Concord; it was introduced about 1868.
+
+    Vine hardy, productive, susceptible to attacks of mildew. Canes
+    long, dark reddish-brown, surface with thin bloom, roughened;
+    nodes enlarged, slightly flattened; tendrils continuous, or
+    intermittent, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light
+    green; lower surface light bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes
+    wanting or faint; petiolar sinus shallow, very wide; teeth
+    irregular. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit early mid-season. Clusters medium in size, tapering,
+    single-shouldered, loose; pedicel short, slender; brush very
+    short, green. Berries medium in size, round, light green with thin
+    bloom, persistent; skin thin, very tender, adherent; flesh pale
+    green, juicy, tough, fine-grained, slightly foxy; very good. Seeds
+    few in number, adherent, broad, blunt, dark brown.
+
+
+MASSASOIT
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Massasoit is distinguished as the earliest of Rogers' hybrids,
+ripening with Delaware. The grapes have the peculiarity of being best
+before full maturity, developing, after ripening, a degree of foxiness
+which impairs the quality. In shape and size of berry and bunch, there
+is a striking resemblance to Isabella, but the color is that of
+Catawba. The texture of the fruit is especially good, firm but tender
+and juicy, while the flavor is rich and sweet. The vine is vigorous,
+hardy and productive but subject to mildew and rot. Massasoit is worth
+a place in the home vineyard and as an early grape of fine quality for
+local markets.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive, subject to rot and
+    mildew. Canes long, thick, dark brown with reddish tinge; nodes
+    enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, long, trifid or bifid.
+    Leaves variable in size; upper surface light green, dull, smooth;
+    lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five with
+    terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus shallow,
+    narrow, obscure; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open late;
+    stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, broad,
+    cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered; pedicel slender with a
+    few indistinct warts; brush pale green. Berries large, round-oval,
+    dark brownish-red, dull with thin bloom, very persistent, firm;
+    skin thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green,
+    translucent, juicy, fine-grained, soft, stringy, foxy; good to
+    very good. Seeds adherent, one to five, large, broad, distinctly
+    notched, plump, blunt.
+
+
+MAXATAWNEY
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+While at one time very popular, grape-growers now seldom hear of
+Maxatawney. It is a southern grape, ripening its fruit in the North
+only occasionally. The variety is interesting historically as being
+the first good green grape and as showing unmistakable Vinifera
+characters, another example of the fortuitous hybridization which gave
+so many valuable varieties before artificial hybridization of Vinifera
+with native grapes had been tried. In 1843, a man living in
+Eagleville, Pennsylvania, received several bunches of grapes from
+Maxatawney. The seeds of these grapes were planted and one grew, the
+resulting plant being the original vine of Maxatawney.
+
+    Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, variable in productiveness. Canes
+    medium in length, slender, reddish; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large, dark
+    green, thick; lower surface grayish-white with tinge of bronze,
+    heavily pubescent; lobes three to five; petiolar sinus narrow;
+    teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters small to medium, short, slender,
+    cylindrical, occasionally with a small, single shoulder, compact;
+    pedicel long, slender, warty; brush long, yellow. Berries variable
+    in size, oval, pale red or dull green with amber tinge, with thin
+    bloom, persistent; skin tough, astringent; flesh tender, foxy;
+    good to very good. Seeds free, few, large, very broad, blunt.
+
+
+MEMORY
+
+(Rotundifolia)
+
+Memory is one of the best of the Rotundifolia grapes for the garden
+and local markets, its fruits being especially good for dessert. As
+yet, however, the variety has not been widely distributed even in
+North Carolina where it originated. The vine is given credit for being
+the most vigorous grower and the most productive of the grapes of its
+species. Memory is probably a seedling of Thomas, which it much
+resembles, having been found in a vineyard of Thomas grapes near
+Whiteville, North Carolina, by T. S. Memory, about 1868.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, healthy, productive. Leaves large, longer than
+    broad, thick, smooth with coarsely serrate margins. Flowers
+    perfect.
+
+    Fruit ripens in September in North Carolina; clusters large, with
+    from four to twelve berries which hang unusually well for a
+    variety of V. Rotundifolia. Berries very large, round-oblong, deep
+    brownish-black, almost jet black; skin thick; flesh tender, juicy,
+    sweet; good to best.
+
+
+MERRIMAC
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Merrimac is often accredited as the best black grape among Rogers'
+hybrids, but an analysis of the characters of the several black
+varieties grown by Rogers shows that it is surpassed by Wilder,
+Herbert and possibly Barry. The vine is strong in growth, productive,
+hardy and exempt from fungal diseases; but the grapes are not high in
+quality, and flesh, skin and seed characters are such that the fruit
+is not as pleasant to eat as the other black varieties named. Merrimac
+is worthy a place in collections for the sake of variety. Rogers gave
+this variety the name Merrimac in 1869.
+
+    Vine vigorous, usually hardy, productive. Canes slender, dark
+    brown, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
+    short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid. Leaves large, thin;
+    upper surface very light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale
+    green, pubescent and cobwebby; lobes three with terminal one
+    obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and
+    overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow,
+    narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season;
+    stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters variable in size,
+    broad, tapering; pedicel slender, covered with numerous
+    inconspicuous warts; brush wine-colored. Berries large, round,
+    black, glossy with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick,
+    tough, adherent, astringent; flesh light green, translucent,
+    juicy, fine-grained, tender, stringy; good. Seeds adherent, one to
+    five, broad, long, with enlarged neck, brown.
+
+
+MILLS
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+The bunches and berries of Mills are large and well-formed; the
+berries are firm and solid, with the skin adherent as in Viniferas;
+the flesh is juicy and parts readily from the seeds; the flavor is
+rich, sweet and vinous; and the grapes are hardly surpassed in keeping
+quality. But when the fruit characters of Mills have been praised,
+nothing further can be said in its favor. The vines are neither
+vigorous, hardy nor fruitful and are very subject to mildew; neither
+wood nor roots ripen well in the North in average seasons; and the
+variety is a most difficult one for nurserymen to grow. Mills is of
+doubtful commercial value, but for the garden it is possible that the
+grower may be able to graft it to advantage on some variety with
+better vine characters. William H. Mills, Hamilton, Ontario, grew
+Mills about 1870 from seed of Muscat Hamburg fertilized by Creveling.
+
+    Vine medium in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Canes long,
+    thick, light brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils
+    intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface
+    dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, cobwebby;
+    lobes three to five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus
+    intermediate in depth and width; basal and lateral sinuses deep
+    and wide; teeth deep. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender,
+    cylindrical, often double-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender
+    with numerous, small warts; brush long, wine-colored. Berries
+    large, oval, jet-black with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin
+    thick, tough, adherent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy,
+    rich, tender, sprightly, vinous, sweet; very good to best. Seeds
+    free, one to three, large, brown.
+
+
+MISH
+
+(Rotundifolia)
+
+Mish is a favorite Rotundifolia in North Carolina, being planted
+extensively in some parts of that state. Its outstanding characters
+are vigor and productiveness in vine and high quality in the fruit.
+Mish is named by many as the best all-round Rotundifolia, being of
+value for dessert, wine and grape-juice. The variety was found by W.
+M. Mish, about 1846, near Washington, North Carolina.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, productive, healthy, open in growth; canes
+    somewhat trailing. Leaves large, round, thick, smooth, leathery
+    with coarsely dentate margin. Flowers perfect.
+
+    Fruit late, does not ripen uniformly, keeps and ships well.
+    Clusters of medium size with from six to fifteen berries which
+    cling well to the pedicel. Berries of medium size, round-oval,
+    deep reddish-black with numerous conspicuous dots; skin thin,
+    cracking in wet weather; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, exceptionally
+    well flavored; very good to best.
+
+
+MISSION
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+Of all grapes, Mission has probably played the most important part in
+the vineyards of California. Grown from the earliest times at the old
+missions, its source or its name has never been determined. Its
+viticultural value for table and wine-press was early appreciated by
+California grape-growers, and its culture rapidly spread to every
+county in the state adapted to grape-growing. With vines vigorous,
+healthy and productive, bearing grapes of delicious quality, Mission
+is a mainstay on the Pacific slope, surpassed by few vineyard
+varieties for general usefulness. The description is compiled.
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy, productive; wood short-jointed,
+    grayish-brown, dull, dark. Leaf medium to large, slightly oblong,
+    with large, deeply-cut compound teeth; basal sinus widely opened,
+    primary sinuses narrow and shallow; smooth on both sides with
+    scattered tomentum below, bright green above, lighter below. Bunch
+    divided into many small, distinct lateral clusters, shouldered,
+    loose, sometimes very loose; berries of medium size, purple or
+    almost black with heavy bloom; skin thin; flesh firm, crisp,
+    juicy, sweet, rich and delicious. Seeds rather large and
+    prominent; season late.
+
+
+MISSOURI RIESLING
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+Missouri Riesling attains perfection only in the South. The vines are
+hardy, vigorous, productive and healthy in the North, as a rule, but
+the fruit is lacking in quality. In the South, Missouri Riesling is a
+beautiful fruit when well grown and has many good qualities of fruit
+and vine. It originated with Nicholas Grein, Hermann, Missouri, about
+1870, probably from seed of Taylor.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes very long, numerous,
+    thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged; internodes long; tendrils
+    continuous, long, trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper
+    surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green,
+    thinly pubescent; lobes five with terminal one acuminate; petiolar
+    sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus shallow, wide; lateral sinus deep,
+    wide; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, does not keep nor ship well. Clusters short,
+    cylindrical, single-shouldered; pedicel long with few small warts;
+    brush green. Berries of medium size, round, yellowish-green
+    changing to light red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin
+    sprinkled with small brown dots, thin, tough, adherent,
+    astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender,
+    fine-grained, lacking in aroma, mild; fair in quality. Seeds
+    adherent, one to four, surface rough, dark brown.
+
+
+MONTEFIORE
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+Montefiore is extensively grown in Missouri and the Southwest but is
+almost unknown in the North and East. It is reported as succeeding in
+the Lake District of Ohio and, with the exception that it is uncertain
+in bearing and not always productive, it grows well in sections of New
+York. While it is essentially a wine-grape, yet it is pleasing in
+taste and texture of fruit and is far better in quality than many of
+the coarser Labruscas commonly cultivated. It keeps and ships well
+and presents an attractive appearance. Jacob Rommel, Morrison,
+Missouri, grew this variety about 1875 from seed of Taylor fertilized
+by Ives.
+
+    Vine vigorous and hardy. Canes long, thick, dark brown with thin
+    bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils
+    continuous, long, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green,
+    dull, smooth; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent; lobes three
+    when present with terminus acute; petiolar sinus wide; basal sinus
+    lacking; lateral sinus shallow when present; teeth deep. Flowers
+    semi-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, short, tapering,
+    single-shouldered, the shoulder being connected to the bunch by a
+    long stem, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush red.
+    Berries small, oval, often compressed, black, glossy with abundant
+    bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent;
+    flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, melting,
+    vinous, sweet; fair to good. Seeds free, one to five, small,
+    broad, faintly notched, short, plump, brown.
+
+
+MOORE EARLY
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+Moore Early (Plate XXIV) is the standard grape of its season. Its
+fruit cannot be described better than as an early Concord. The vines
+are readily distinguishable from those of Concord, differing chiefly
+in being less productive. To grow the variety satisfactorily, the soil
+must be rich, well-drained and loose, must be frequently cultivated,
+and the vines should be pruned severely. The bunches of Moore Early
+are not as large as those of Concord and are less compact; the berries
+shell rather more easily, and the skin cracks more readily. The flesh
+characters and the flavor are essentially those of Concord, although
+the quality is not as high as in the older variety. The quality is,
+however, much higher than that of Champion and Hartford, its chief
+competitors, and varieties which it should replace. Moore Early is by
+no means an ideal grape for its season, but until something better is
+introduced it will probably remain the best early commercial sort.
+Captain John B. Moore, Concord, Massachusetts, originated this
+variety from seed of Concord, planted about 1868.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, unproductive. Canes short, dark
+    reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short;
+    tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper
+    surface dark green, dull; lower surface tinged with bronze,
+    heavily pubescent; leaf usually not lobed, terminus acute;
+    petiolar sinus wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus a notch
+    when present; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers fertile, open in
+    mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, length,
+    and breadth, cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, loose;
+    pedicel short, thick, smooth; brush short, pale green. Berries
+    large, round, purplish-black, firm; skin tender, adherent; flesh
+    green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough with slight
+    foxiness; fair to good. Seeds one to four, large, broad, plump,
+    blunt, brown with yellow tinge at tips.
+
+
+MOSCATELLO
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+_Moscatello Nero. Black Muscat_
+
+Beautiful in appearance and having a delicate Muscat taste and aroma,
+this variety is one of the good table-grapes of the Pacific slope.
+Unfortunately it ripens so late that it is hardly worth trying in the
+East. The variety has the reputation of being very productive. The
+description is compiled.
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy, very productive. Leaves of medium size,
+    with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses; glabrous above,
+    slightly downy below, very hairy on the veins, with long, sharp
+    teeth. Bunch large to very large, long, loose, conico-cylindrical,
+    winged; berries very large, borne on long slender pedicels, dark
+    purple, almost black; skin thin but tough; flesh rather soft,
+    juicy; flavor sweet, rich, aromatic, musky; quality very good.
+    Season late, does not keep well.
+
+
+MOYER
+
+(Labrusca, Bourquiniana)
+
+_Jordan, Moyer's Early Red_
+
+Moyer is almost a counterpart of its parent, Delaware. Were it not
+that the variety is from one to two weeks earlier than Delaware, and
+somewhat hardier, hence better adapted for cold regions, it could have
+no place in viticulture. Compared with Delaware, the vine is hardly as
+vigorous and is less productive, but is freer from rot and mildew. The
+bunches are much like those of Delaware but have the fault of setting
+fruit imperfectly even when cross-pollination is assured; the berries
+are a little larger, of much the same color and of like flavor, rich,
+sweet, with pure vinousness and without a trace of foxiness. The fruit
+keeps well, ships well and does not crack nor shell. Moyer is well
+established in Canada, proving perfectly hardy wherever Concord is
+grown, possibly standing even more cold. W. H. Read, Port Dalhousie,
+Ontario, raised the original vine of Moyer, about 1880, from seed of
+Delaware fertilized by Miller's Burgundy.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes numerous,
+    slender, dull, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened;
+    internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid.
+    Leaves small; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower
+    surface pale green or with faint blue tinge, heavily pubescent;
+    lobes two to five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus shallow;
+    basal sinus shallow when present; lateral sinus shallow, narrow;
+    teeth very shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile, open early;
+    stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well but loses color if kept too long. Clusters
+    small, short, slender, tapering, sometimes single-shouldered;
+    pedicel short with small warts; brush yellowish-green. Berries
+    small, oblate, dark red with faint bloom, persistent, firm; skin
+    tough, free, astringent; flesh translucent, juicy, tender,
+    fine-grained, vinous; good to very good. Seeds free, one to four,
+    broad, short, very blunt, brown with yellow tinge at tips.
+
+
+MUSCATEL
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+_White Frontignan_
+
+This old and standard sort is rather commonly grown in some of the
+grape regions of California to follow Chasselas Golden. It might be
+tried with some show of success in favored grape regions in the East.
+The description is compiled.
+
+    Vine of medium size, vigorous, healthy; canes strong, spreading,
+    reddish-brown with short internodes. Leaves of medium size, thin,
+    five-lobed; glabrous except on the lower sides of the well-marked
+    ribs where a few hairs show. Bunches long, cylindrical, regular,
+    compact; berries round, golden-yellow becoming amber; flavor
+    sweet, rich, aromatic, peculiar; quality very good. Season late
+    mid-season, keeps and ships well.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXXI.--Worden (x2/3).]
+
+
+MUSCAT HAMBURG
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+Muscat Hamburg (Plate XXV) is an old European grape well known in some
+parts of America in greenhouse graperies, since it is one of the best
+for forcing. All who know the beautiful fruits of this variety grown
+in forcing-houses will want to test it out of doors, where at the
+Geneva, New York, Experiment Station, they have done well, many
+clusters attaining a weight of a pound and a half to two pounds. The
+accompanying plate, the fruit much less than half natural size, shows
+what a fine grape Muscat Hamburg is. One is struck with wondering
+admiration at a vine laden with these grapes growing alongside
+Concord, Niagara or Delaware. The quality is delectable, the
+quintessence of the flavors and aromas which make the grape a favorite
+fruit. The grapes keep long and retain their form, size, color and
+rich, delicate flavor almost to the end. This variety is a treasure to
+the amateur; and the professional who wants another grape for local
+markets should try grafting over a few vines of some native to this
+sort, following the directions given in Chapter X in caring for the
+vines.
+
+    Vines vigorous, tender, need protection during the winter; canes
+    long, numerous, slender to medium, light brown, darker at the
+    nodes which are enlarged and flattened. Leaves medium to large,
+    intermediate in thickness; upper surface light green, dull; lower
+    surface pale green, faintly pubescent, densely hairy.
+
+    Fruit ripens in October, ships and keeps well; clusters very
+    large, long, broad, tapering, single or double-shouldered. Berries
+    large, firm, oval, very dark purplish-red, covered with lilac
+    bloom, very persistent; skin thick, adheres strongly to the pulp;
+    flesh pale green, translucent, meaty, very juicy, tender, vinous,
+    musky, sweet, rich; very good to best; seeds separating easily
+    from the pulp, large.
+
+
+MUSCAT OF ALEXANDRIA
+
+This is possibly the leading table- and raisin-grape of the Pacific
+slope. From the literature or from a visit to vineyards, one cannot
+make out whether one or several varieties are grown under the name.
+Probably there are several strains grown under the distinctive name
+"Muscat" which applies to these sweet, light yellow, musky grapes.
+This is one of the standard sorts to force indoors but requires too
+long a season for out of doors in the East. The following description
+is compiled:
+
+    Vine short, straggling, bushy, sometimes forming a bush rather
+    than a vine, very productive; wood gray with dark spots,
+    short-jointed. Leaf round, five-lobed; bright green above, lighter
+    green below. Bunches long and loose, shouldered; berry oblong,
+    light yellow and transparent when fully mature, covered with white
+    bloom; flesh firm, crisp; flavor sweet and very musky; quality
+    good. Season late, the laterals producing a second and sometimes
+    even a third crop.
+
+
+NIAGARA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Niagara (Plate XXVI) is the leading American green grape, holding the
+rank among grapes of this color that Concord maintains among black
+varieties. It is, however, a less valuable grape than Concord, and it
+is doubtful whether it should be ranked much higher than several other
+green grapes. In vigor and productiveness, when the two grapes are on
+equal footing as to adaptability, Niagara and Concord rank the same.
+In hardiness of root and vine, Niagara falls short of Concord; it
+cannot be relied on without winter protection where the thermometer
+falls below zero. Niagara has much of the foxiness of the wild
+Labrusca, distasteful to many palates. Both bunches and berries of
+Niagara are larger than those of Concord and are better formed, making
+a handsomer fruit if the colors are liked equally well. The fruit
+shells as badly as that of Concord and does not keep longer. Both vine
+and fruit of Niagara are more susceptible to fungal diseases than
+those of Concord, especially to black-rot, which proves a veritable
+scourge with this variety in unfavorable seasons. Niagara was produced
+by C. L. Hoag and B. W. Clark, Lockport, New York, from seed of
+Concord fertilized by Cassady planted in 1868.
+
+    Vine vigorous, lacking in hardiness, very productive. Canes long,
+    thick, reddish-brown deepening in color at the nodes which are
+    enlarged and slightly flattened; internodes long, thick; tendrils
+    continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper
+    surface glossy, dark green, smooth; lower surface pale green,
+    pubescent; lobes three to five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus
+    of medium depth and width; basal sinus shallow, wide, often
+    toothed; lateral sinus wide, frequently toothed; teeth shallow,
+    variable in width. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad,
+    tapering, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick
+    with a few, small, inconspicuous warts; brush pale green, long.
+    Berries large, oval, pale yellowish-green with thin bloom,
+    persistent, firm; skin thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh
+    light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, foxy; good.
+    Seeds free, one to six, deeply notched, brown.
+
+
+NOAH
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+Noah is little grown at present outside of Missouri, where it is still
+planted somewhat. Noah and Elvira are often confused but there are
+very marked differences. The clusters of Elvira are smaller, the
+berries are more foxy in taste, and the skins are more tender and
+crack more readily than do those of Noah. The large, dark, glossy
+green leaves make the vines of this variety very handsome. As with
+Elvira and other varieties of this group, Noah is of little value in
+the North. It originated with Otto Wasserzieher, Nauvoo, Illinois,
+from seed of Taylor planted in 1869.
+
+    Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes long, thick,
+    dark brown, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils
+    continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark
+    green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent;
+    leaf usually not lobed with terminus acuminate; petiolar sinus
+    deep, wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus very shallow when
+    present; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers semi-fertile, open early;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late mid-season, does not ship nor keep well. Clusters
+    variable in size, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel
+    short with a few small warts; brush short, brown. Berries small,
+    round, light green tinged with yellow, dull with thin bloom, firm;
+    skin adherent to pulp; flesh yellowish-green, translucent, juicy,
+    tough, fine-grained, vinous, sprightly; good. Seeds adherent, one
+    to four, dark brown.
+
+
+NORTHERN MUSCADINE
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+That this variety, together with Lucile, Lutie and other grapes with
+the foxy taste strongly marked, has not become popular, in spite of
+good vine characters, is evidence that the American public do not
+desire such grapes. In appearance of fruit, Northern Muscadine is much
+like Lutie, the two being distinguished from other grapes by an
+unmistakable odor. A serious defect of the fruit is that the berries
+shatter badly as soon as they reach maturity. Taken as a whole, the
+vine characters of this variety are very good and offer possibilities
+for the grape-breeder. The variety originated at New Lebanon, New
+York, and was brought to notice by D. J. Hawkins and Philemon Stewart
+of the Society of Shakers about 1852.
+
+    Vine vigorous, productive, healthy, hardy. Canes slender, dark
+    brown, heavily pubescent; tendrils continuous, bifid, dehisce
+    early. Leaves large, round, thick; upper surface dull, rugose;
+    lower surface dark bronze, heavily pubescent. Flowers
+    self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters medium in
+    size, short, occasionally single-shouldered, compact. Berries
+    large, oval, dark amber with thin bloom, drop badly from the
+    pedicel; skin tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green,
+    juicy, fine-grained, tender, soft, very foxy, sweet; poor in
+    quality. Seeds free, numerous, large, broad, faintly notched,
+    long, brown.
+
+
+NORTON
+
+(AEstivalis, Labrusca)
+
+Norton is one of the leading wine-grapes in eastern America, the fruit
+having small value for any other purpose than wine or, possibly,
+grape-juice. The vine is hardy but requires a long, warm season to
+reach maturity so that it is seldom grown successfully north of the
+Potomac. Norton thrives in rich alluvial clays, gravels or sands, the
+only requisite seemingly being a fair amount of fertility and soil
+warmth. The vines are robust; very productive, especially on fertile
+soils; as free, or more so, from fungal diseases as any other of our
+native grapes; and are very resistant to phylloxera. The bunches are
+of but medium size and the berries are small. The grapes are pleasant
+eating when fully ripe, rich, spicy and pure-flavored but tart if not
+quite ripe. The variety is difficult to propagate from cuttings and to
+transplant, and the vines do not bear grafts well. The origin of
+Norton is uncertain, but it has been under cultivation since before
+1830, when it was first described.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, healthy, half-hardy, productive. Canes long,
+    thick, dark brown with abundant bloom; nodes much enlarged;
+    internodes long; tendrils intermittent, occasionally continuous,
+    long, bifid, sometimes trifid. Leaves large, irregularly round;
+    upper surface pale green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green,
+    pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar
+    sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus
+    usually absent; lateral sinus shallow or a mere notch when
+    present. Flowers self-fertile, late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, short, broad,
+    tapering, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with a few
+    warts; brush dull, wine-colored. Berries small, round-oblate,
+    black, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, free
+    with much dark red pigment; flesh green, translucent, juicy,
+    tender, spicy, tart. Seeds free, two to six, small, brown.
+
+
+OPORTO
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+Oporto was at one time in demand as a wine grape because its wine
+resembled in color and flavor that from Oporto. The variety is now
+scarcely known, being inferior in most of its horticultural characters
+to others of its species, but might be valuable in breeding for some
+of its characters. The vine is very hardy, unusually free from fungal
+diseases, is very resistant to phylloxera and has been used in France
+as a phylloxera-resistant grafting-stock. The juice is very thick and
+dark, a deep purple, hence suitable for adding color to wine or
+grape-juice. The origin of Oporto is unknown. It was brought into
+cultivation about 1860 by E. W. Sylvester, Lyons, New York.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, healthy, variable in productiveness.
+    Canes long, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
+    long, diaphragm thin; tendrils continuous, bifid. Stamens
+    reflexed.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters small,
+    cylindrical, often single-shouldered. Berries medium in size,
+    round, black, glossy with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin
+    very thin, tender, with much dark wine-colored pigment; flesh
+    white, sometimes with purple tinge, juicy, fine-grained, solid,
+    sweet, spicy; fair quality. Seeds free, numerous, small, broad,
+    faintly notched, sharply pointed, plump, dark brown.
+
+
+OTHELLO
+
+(Vinifera, Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+_Arnold's Hybrid, Canadian Hamburg, Canadian Hybrid_
+
+In France, Othello does remarkably well as a direct producer and is
+used also for a resistant stock. While most of its characters are
+spoken of in the superlative by the French, in America the variety is
+not so highly esteemed because of susceptibility to fungi. Moreover,
+the fruit matures so late that it could never become a valuable
+variety for the North. It is in no sense a table-grape but makes a
+well-colored, pleasant wine. Charles Arnold, Paris, Ontario, grew
+Othello from seed of Clinton fertilized by Black Hamburg and planted
+in 1859.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, brown; nodes
+    enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent,
+    bifid or trifid. Leaves of average size; upper surface light
+    green, dull and smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes
+    three to five with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep, very
+    narrow, frequently closed and overlapping; basal sinus shallow,
+    narrow; lateral sinus deep; teeth deep, wide; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps fairly well. Clusters large, long, broad,
+    tapering, frequently with a loose single shoulder, compact;
+    pedicel long, slender with numerous small warts; brush short,
+    wine-colored. Berries large, oval, black, glossy with abundant
+    bloom, very persistent; skin thin, tough, adherent with red
+    pigment; flesh dark green, very juicy, fine-grained, tough,
+    sprightly; low in quality. Seeds free, one to three, neck
+    sometimes swollen, brown.
+
+
+OZARK
+
+(AEstivalis, Labrusca)
+
+Ozark belongs to the South and to Missouri in particular. Its merits
+and demerits have been threshed out by the Missouri grape-growers with
+the result that its culture is somewhat increasing. It is a grape of
+low quality, partly, perhaps, from over-bearing, which it habitually
+does unless the fruit is thinned. The vine is healthy and a very
+strong grower, but is self-sterile, which is against it as a market
+sort. In spite of self-sterility and low quality, Ozark is a promising
+variety for the country south of Pennsylvania. Ozark originated with
+J. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kansas, from seed of unknown source. The
+variety was introduced about 1890.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, thick with thin
+    bloom, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes
+    long; tendrils intermittent, usually bifid. Leaves dense, large;
+    upper surface light green; lower surface pale green, thinly
+    pubescent, cobwebby; lobes three to five; petiolar sinus deep,
+    narrow; serrations shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile or nearly
+    so, open late; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, usually with a long,
+    loose shoulder, very compact; pedicel short, thick, smooth; brush
+    long, red. Berries variable in size, dull black with abundant
+    bloom, persistent; skin tough with much wine-colored pigment;
+    flesh tender, mild; fair in quality. Seeds free, small.
+
+
+PALOMINO
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+_Golden Chasselas, Listan_
+
+This variety seems to be grown in California under the three names
+given--while in France Palomino is described as a bluish-black grape.
+Palomino seems to be grown commonly in California as a table-grape and
+is worth trying in eastern America. The variety received under the
+name Palomino from California at the New York Experiment Station has
+the following characters, agreeing closely with those set down by
+Californian viticulturists:
+
+    Fruit ripens about the 20th of October, keeping qualities good;
+    clusters medium to large, long, single-shouldered, tapering,
+    loose; berries medium to small, roundish, pale greenish-yellow,
+    thin bloom; skin and the adhering flesh medium tender and crisp,
+    flesh surrounding seeds melting; flavor sweet, vinous; quality
+    good.
+
+
+PEABODY
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Peabody is as yet a comparatively unimportant offspring of Clinton.
+The grapes are of excellent quality. It appears to do better in the
+northern tier of states or in Canada, than farther south. This
+variety was grown by J. H. Ricketts about 1870.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick,
+    light brown with ash-gray tinge, darker at nodes, covered with
+    thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils
+    intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper
+    surface dark green, thin; lower surface pale green, nearly
+    glabrous; lobes three, acuminate; petiolar sinus shallow, wide;
+    serration deep, narrow. Flowers semi-fertile, mid-season; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, usually with a
+    shoulder connected to the bunch by a long stem, compact; pedicel
+    short, slender, warty; brush short, green. Berries oval, black,
+    glossy, covered with thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough;
+    flesh very juicy, tender, vinous, spicy, agreeably sweet at the
+    skin, tart at the center; good. Seeds free, broad.
+
+
+PERFECTION
+
+(Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera)
+
+Perfection is a seedling of Delaware, which it greatly resembles but
+does not equal in fruit; its fruits being hardly as high in quality,
+do not keep as well, shrivel more before ripening, and shell more
+readily. In its vine characters, it is much more like a Labrusca than
+Delaware, suggesting that it is a Delaware cross. In the Southwest,
+Perfection is considered a valuable early red grape. J. Stayman,
+Leavenworth, Kansas, grew Perfection from seed of Delaware; it was
+sent out for testing about 1890.
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy, injured in severe winters, productive.
+    Canes of medium length and number, slender; nodes enlarged,
+    flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, trifid or
+    bifid. Leaves healthy, medium in size; upper surface light green;
+    lower surface grayish-white with a tinge of bronze, heavily
+    pubescent; lobes wanting or three to five; petiolar sinus shallow,
+    wide; serration shallow. Flowers self-fertile or nearly so, open
+    in mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early. Clusters usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel
+    short, slender, smooth; brush short, yellow. Berries small, round,
+    red but less brilliant than Delaware with faint bloom, inclined to
+    drop from pedicel, soft; skin thin, free from astringency; flesh
+    medium in juiciness and tenderness, vinous, mild, sweet; good in
+    quality. Seeds adherent, numerous, small, often with an enlarged
+    neck.
+
+
+PERKINS
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+At one time Perkins was grown largely as an early grape but has been
+discarded very generally on account of the poor quality of the fruit.
+The pulp of the grape is hard and the flavor is that of Wyoming and
+Northern Muscadine, grapes characterized by disagreeable foxiness. As
+with nearly all Labruscas, Perkins is a poor keeper. Notwithstanding
+the faults of its fruit, the variety may have value in regions where
+grape-growing is precarious; for in fruiting it is one of the most
+reliable grapes cultivated, the vines being hardy, vigorous,
+productive and free from fungal diseases. Perkins is an accidental
+seedling found about 1830 in the garden of Jacob Perkins, Bridgewater,
+Massachusetts.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous,
+    thick, dark brown, deepening in color at the nodes, surface
+    heavily pubescent; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long;
+    tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size,
+    thick; upper surface rugose; lower surface heavily pubescent;
+    veins distinct; lobes three; petiolar sinus deep, narrow;
+    serration shallow. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, ships well. Clusters of medium size and length,
+    broad, cylindrical, often with a single shoulder, compact; pedicel
+    short, thick, warty; brush long, yellow. Berries large, oval, pale
+    lilac or light red with thin bloom, inclined to drop from the
+    pedicel, soft; skin thin, tough, without pigment; flesh white,
+    juicy, stringy, fine-grained, firm, meaty, very foxy; poor in
+    quality. Seeds adherent, numerous, medium in size, notched.
+
+
+POCKLINGTON
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+Before the advent of Niagara, Pocklington (Plate XXII) was the leading
+green grape. The variety has the fatal fault, however, of ripening
+its crop late, which with some minor defects has caused it to fall
+below Niagara for northern grape districts. Pocklington is a seedling
+of Concord and resembles its parent in vine characters; the vines are
+fully equal to or surpass those of Concord in hardiness, but are of
+slower growth and not quite as healthy, vigorous nor productive. In
+quality, the grapes are as good if not better than those of Concord or
+Niagara, being sweet, rich and pleasantly flavored, although as with
+the other grapes named, it has too much foxiness for critical
+consumers. Pocklington is not equal to several other grapes of its
+season in quality, as Iona, Jefferson, Diana, Dutchess and Catawba,
+but it is far above the average and for this reason should be
+retained. John Pocklington, Sandy Hill, New York, grew Pocklington
+from seed of Concord about 1870.
+
+    Vine medium in vigor, hardy. Canes of medium length, number and
+    size, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils
+    continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size, thick; upper
+    surface light green, glossy; lower surface tinged with bronze,
+    pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acuminate; petiolar
+    sinus deep, wide; teeth narrow. Flowers self-fertile, mid-season;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large,
+    cylindrical, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short,
+    thick with a few small warts; brush short, green. Berries large,
+    oblate, yellowish-green with tinge of amber, with thin bloom,
+    firm; skin with scattering russet dots, thin, tender, adherent,
+    faintly astringent; flesh light green with yellow tinge,
+    translucent, juicy, tough, fine-grained, slightly foxy; good.
+    Seeds adherent, one to six, of medium length and breadth.
+
+
+POUGHKEEPSIE
+
+(Bourquiniana, Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Poughkeepsie has been known long on the Hudson River, yet it is now
+little grown there and has not been disseminated widely elsewhere. In
+quality of fruit, it is equal to the best American varieties, but the
+vine characters are all poor and the variety is thus effectually
+debarred from common cultivation. Both vine and fruit resemble those
+of Delaware, but in neither does it quite equal the latter. In
+particular, the vine is more easily winter-killed and is less
+productive than that of Delaware. The grapes ripen a little earlier
+than those of the last named sort and this, with their beauty and fine
+quality, is sufficient to recommend it for the garden at least. About
+1865, A. J. Caywood, Marlboro, New York, grew Poughkeepsie from seed
+of Iona fertilized by mixed pollen of Delaware and Walter.
+
+    Vine of medium vigor. Canes short, thick, dark reddish-brown;
+    tendrils intermittent, frequently three in line, bifid or trifid.
+    Leaves small; upper surface green, glossy, older leaves rugose;
+    lower surface grayish-green, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile,
+    late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters small, tapering,
+    usually single-shouldered, very compact. Berries small, round,
+    pale red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tender,
+    without pigment; flesh pale green, very juicy, tender, melting,
+    fine-grained, vinous, sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, small,
+    broad, with enlarged neck, brown.
+
+
+PRENTISS
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Prentiss is a green grape of high quality, once well known and
+generally recommended, but now going out of cultivation because the
+vine is tender to cold, lacks in vigor, is unproductive, uncertain in
+bearing and is subject to rot and mildew. There are vineyards in which
+it does very well and in such it is a remarkably attractive green
+grape, especially in form of cluster and in color of berry, in these
+respects resembling the one-time favorite, Rebecca, although not so
+high in quality as that variety. Its season is given as both before
+and after Concord. Prentiss always must remain a variety for the
+amateur and for special localities. It originated with J. W. Prentiss,
+Pulteney, New York, about 1870 from seed of Isabella.
+
+    Vine weak. Canes thick, light to dark brown; tendrils continuous,
+    bifid. Leaves small, thick; upper surface light green, rugose in
+    the older leaves; lower surface pale green, pubescent. Flowers
+    self-fertile, mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit variable in season, about with Concord, keeps well. Cluster
+    medium in size, tapering, sometimes with a single shoulder,
+    compact. Berries medium in size, oval, light green with a yellow
+    tinge, thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, without pigment;
+    flesh pale green, juicy, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, numerous,
+    notched, short, sharp-pointed, dark brown.
+
+
+PURPLE CORNICHON
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+_Black Cornichon_
+
+By virtue of attractive appearance and excellent shipping qualities of
+the fruit, this variety takes high place among the commercial grapes
+of California. Late ripening is another quality making it desirable,
+while its curious, long, curved berries add novelty to its
+attractions. The fruit does not take high rank in quality. The
+description has been compiled.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, healthy and productive; wood light brown
+    striped with darker brown, short-jointed. Leaves large, longer
+    than wide, deeply five-lobed; dark green above, lighter and very
+    hairy below; coarsely toothed; with short, thick petiole. Bunches
+    very large, loose or sometimes scraggly, borne on long peduncles;
+    berries large, long, more or less curved, dark purple, spotted,
+    thick-skinned, borne on long pedicels; flesh firm, crisp, sweet
+    but not rich in flavor; quality good but not high. Season late,
+    keeps and ships well.
+
+
+REBECCA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+In the middle of the last century, when grape-growing was in the hands
+of the connoisseurs, Rebecca was one of the sterling green varieties.
+It is wholly unsuited for commercial vineyards and for years has been
+disappearing gradually from cultivation. The fruit is exceptionally
+fine, consisting of well-formed bunches and berries, the latter
+handsome yellowish-white and semi-transparent. In quality, the grapes
+are of the best, with a rich, sweet flavor and pleasing aroma. But the
+vine characters condemn Rebecca for any but the amateur. The vines
+lack in hardiness and vigor, are susceptible to mildew and other fungi
+and are productive only under the best conditions. The original vine
+was an accidental seedling found in the garden of E. M. Peake, Hudson,
+New York, and bore its first fruit in 1852.
+
+    Vine weak, sometimes vigorous, doubtfully hardy. Canes long,
+    numerous, slender, dull brown, deepening in color at the nodes;
+    tendrils continuous or intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves
+    variable in size; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower
+    surface grayish-green, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit late mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters small,
+    short, cylindrical, rarely with a small, single shoulder, compact.
+    Berries of medium size, oval, green with yellow tinge verging on
+    amber, thin gray bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, without
+    pigment; flesh pale green, very juicy, tender, melting, vinous, a
+    little foxy, sweet; good to very good. Seeds free, short, narrow,
+    blunt, brown.
+
+
+RED EAGLE
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Red Eagle is a pure-bred seedling of Black Eagle which it resembles in
+all characters except color of fruit. Vine and fruit exhibit the
+characters found in Rogers' hybrids. It takes high rank as a grape of
+quality and can be recommended for the garden. The variety originated
+with T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, and was sent out in 1888.
+
+    Vine medium in vigor and hardiness, productive. Canes few,
+    slender, dark brown with heavy bloom; nodes prominent, flattened;
+    tendrils continuous or intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves thick;
+    upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface
+    grayish-green, pubescent; lobes three to five with terminus
+    obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and
+    overlapping; basal sinus wide; lateral sinus deep, wide; teeth
+    deep, wide. Flowers semi-fertile, late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, broad,
+    tapering, single-shouldered, sometimes double-shouldered, loose
+    with many abortive berries; pedicel very long, slender; brush
+    green with brown tinge. Berries variable in size, round, light to
+    very dark red with heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick,
+    tender, adherent with some red pigment; flesh green, transparent,
+    juicy, very tender, melting, slightly foxy, tart; very good. Seeds
+    free, one to five, large, long, blunt, light brown.
+
+
+REGAL
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+Regal is an offspring of Lindley, which it greatly resembles. The
+fruit is attractive in appearance and high in quality. A seemingly
+insignificant fault might make Regal undesirable in a commercial
+vineyard; the clusters are borne so close to the wood that it is
+difficult to harvest the fruit and avoid injury to the berries next to
+the wood. The variety is worthy of extensive culture in vineyards and
+gardens. Regal originated with W. A. Woodward, Rockford, Illinois, in
+1879.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, very productive. Canes intermediate
+    in length and size, numerous, dark reddish-brown. Tendrils
+    intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface green,
+    glossy and rugose; lower surface pale green with a bronze tinge,
+    strongly pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, mid-season; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, cylindrical,
+    usually with a short single shoulder, sometimes double-shouldered,
+    very compact. Berries large, round, purplish-red with faint bloom,
+    persistent. Skin thin, tough, without pigment. Flesh pale green,
+    very juicy, fine-grained, tender, musky; good. Seeds free,
+    numerous, long, narrow, notched, blunt with a short neck, brown.
+
+
+REQUA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+This is one of Rogers' hybrids which equals other grapes of its color
+and season. The grapes are attractive in cluster and berry and are of
+very good quality but are subject to rot and ripen too late for
+northern regions. The variety was named Requa in 1869, it having been
+previously known as No. 28.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy except in severe winters, medium in
+    productiveness. Canes long, thick; tendrils continuous or
+    intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves medium in size, dark green,
+    often thick and rugose; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent.
+    Flowers semi-fertile, late; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps long. Clusters large, cylindrical, often with a
+    long, single shoulder, compact. Berries large, oval, dark, dull
+    red covered with thin bloom, strongly adherent; skin thin, tough,
+    adherent; flesh pale green, tender, stringy, vinous, foxy, sweet;
+    good to very good. Seeds adherent, medium in size and length,
+    broad, blunt.
+
+
+ROCHESTER
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+The fruit of Rochester is a large-clustered red grape, handsome and
+very good in quality. The vine is a strong grower, productive and free
+from diseases. The variety is difficult to propagate and, therefore,
+not in favor with nurserymen. The grapes are sweet, rich and vinous
+but should be used as soon as ripe, as they do not keep well and the
+berries quickly shatter from the bunch. As an attractive early red
+grape, Rochester is worth a place in the garden and in favored
+locations for a special market. Ellwanger and Barry, Rochester, New
+York, in 1867 grew Rochester from mixed seed of Delaware, Diana,
+Concord and Rebecca.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, dark reddish-brown;
+    nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils
+    intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface
+    light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface grayish-green,
+    pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus
+    deep; basal sinus absent; lateral sinus shallow; teeth shallow.
+    Flowers fertile, mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit does not keep well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, usually
+    single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender with few warts;
+    brush slender, yellowish-brown. Berries medium, oval,
+    purplish-red, dull with thin, lilac bloom, drop from the
+    pedicel, soft; skin thick, tough, inclined to crack, free, without
+    pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy, tender,
+    fine-grained, vinous, sweet; good to very good. Seeds free, one to
+    three, large, short, broad, dark brown.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE XXXII.--Wyoming (x2/3).]
+
+
+ROMMEL
+
+(Labrusca, Vulpina, Vinifera)
+
+Rommel is rarely cultivated in the North, because the vines lack in
+robustness, hardiness and productiveness and are susceptible to the
+leaf-hopper; and the grapes do not attain high quality and crack as
+they ripen. The bunch and berry are attractive in form, size and
+color. At its best, Rommel is a good table-grape and makes a fine
+white wine. It is worth growing in the South. T. V. Munson, Denison,
+Texas, originated Rommel in 1885, from seed of Elvira pollinated by
+Triumph, and introduced it in 1889.
+
+    Vine vigorous in the South. Canes long, numerous, thick,
+    reddish-brown, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, often flattened;
+    internodes short; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid or trifid.
+    Leaves medium in size, round, thick; upper surface light green,
+    dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, free from pubescence but
+    slightly hairy; leaf not lobed, terminus acute to acuminate;
+    petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal
+    sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow when present; teeth deep.
+    Flowers semi-fertile, late; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters medium to short,
+    broad, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender,
+    smooth; brush short, pale green. Berries large, roundish, light
+    green with a yellow tinge, glossy, persistent, firm; skin thin,
+    cracks badly, tender, adherent, without pigment or astringency;
+    flesh greenish, translucent, juicy, tender, melting, stringy,
+    sweet; fair to good. Seeds free, one to four, broad,
+    sharp-pointed, plump, brown.
+
+
+ROSAKI
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+Rosaki is a table-and raisin-grape of southeastern Europe and Asia
+Minor. According to some of the California nursery companies, it is
+grown in that state under the name Dattier de Beyrouth, although it
+would seem from French descriptions that there is a separate, very
+late variety of the latter name. Rosaki is similar to Malaga and there
+is a possibility that in some of the warmer parts of the East, it may
+be grown commercially as a substitute for the latter. The variety
+seems to be little grown on the Pacific slope.
+
+    Vines vigorous, usually very productive. Leaves large, roundish,
+    rugose, usually five-lobed; terminal lobe acuminate; petiolar
+    sinus moderately deep to deep, medium broad; lower lateral sinus
+    shallow, broad, occasionally lacking; upper lateral sinus shallow
+    to medium, broad; margins broadly and bluntly dentate. Fruit
+    ripens the third week in October, keeping qualities excellent;
+    clusters large, loose, tapering, shouldered; berries large to very
+    large, oval to long-oval, pale yellow-green; flesh translucent,
+    tender, meaty, vinous, sprightly; quality good to very good.
+
+
+ROSE OF PERU
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+Rose of Peru is a favorite table-grape in California, confused with
+and possibly the same as Black Prince. Its chief commendable
+characters are handsome appearance and high quality of fruit and very
+productive vines. It is not adapted for shipping and does not enter
+plentifully into commerce. Its season is so late that the variety is
+hardly worth trying in the East, and yet it has matured in favorable
+seasons at Geneva, New York. The following description is compiled:
+
+    Vine vigorous, healthy, productive; wood short-jointed, dark
+    brown. Leaves of medium size; deep green above, lighter green and
+    tomentose below. Bunches very large, shouldered, very loose, often
+    scraggly; berry large, round, black with firm, crackling flesh;
+    skin rather thin and tender; flavor sweet and rich; quality very
+    good to best. Season late, keeping rather well but not shipping
+    well.
+
+
+SALEM
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+_Rogers' No. 22, Rogers' No. 53_
+
+Salem (Plate XXVII) is the one of Rogers' hybrids of which the
+originator is said to have thought most, and to which he gave the name
+of his place of residence. The two chief faults, unproductiveness and
+susceptibility to mildew, are not found in all localities, and in
+these districts, near good markets, Salem ought to rank high as a
+commercial fruit. The vine is hardy, vigorous and productive and bears
+handsome fruit of high quality. This variety was christened Salem by
+Rogers in 1867, two years earlier than his other hybrids were named.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, variable in productiveness. Canes long, dark
+    brown; nodes enlarged; tendrils continuous or intermittent, long,
+    bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size; upper surface dark
+    green, dull; lower surface pale green with slight bronze tinge,
+    pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus
+    deep, narrow, often overlapping; basal sinus lacking; lateral
+    sinus shallow, narrow, notched. Flowers sterile, mid-season;
+    stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, short, broad,
+    tapering, heavily shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick with
+    small warts, enlarged at point of attachment to berry; brush
+    short, pale green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull,
+    persistent, soft; skin thick, adherent, without pigment,
+    astringent; flesh translucent, juicy, tender, stringy,
+    fine-grained, vinous, sprightly; good to very good. Seeds one to
+    six, large, long and broad, blunt, brown.
+
+
+SCUPPERNONG
+
+(Rotundifolia)
+
+_American Muscadine, Bull, Bullace, Bullet, Fox Grape, Green
+Scuppernong, Green Muscadine, Hickman, Muscadine, Roanoke_
+
+Scuppernong is preeminently the grape of the South, the chief
+representative of the great species, _V. rotundifolia_, which runs
+riot in natural luxuriance from Delaware and Maryland to the Gulf and
+westward from the Atlantic to Arkansas and Texas. Scuppernong vines
+are found on arbors, in gardens, or half wild, on trees and fences on
+nearly every farm in the South Atlantic states. As a rule, these vines
+receive little cultivation, are unpruned and are given no care of any
+kind; but even under neglect they produce large crops. The vines are
+almost immune to mildew, rot, phylloxera, or other fungal or insect
+pests; they give not only an abundance of fruit but on arbors and
+trellises are much prized for their shade and beauty. The fruit, to a
+palate accustomed to other grapes, is not very acceptable, having a
+musky flavor and a somewhat repugnant odor, which, however, with
+familiarity becomes quite agreeable. The pulp is sweet and juicy but
+is lacking in sprightliness. The grapes are not suitable for the
+market since the berries drop from the bunch in ripening and become
+more or less smeared with juice so that their appearance is not
+appetizing.
+
+    Vine vigorous, not hardy in the North, very productive. Canes
+    long, numerous, slender, ash-gray to grayish-brown; surface
+    smooth, thickly covered with small, light brown dots; tendrils
+    intermittent, simple. Leaves small, thin; upper surface light
+    green, smooth; lower surface very pale green, pubescent along the
+    ribs; veins inconspicuous. Flowers very late; stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit late, ripens unevenly, berries drop as they mature. Clusters
+    small, round, unshouldered, loose. Berries few in a cluster,
+    large, round, dull green, often with brown tinge, firm; skin
+    thick, tough with many small russet dots; flesh pale green, juicy,
+    tender, soft, fine-grained, foxy, sweet to agreeably tart; fair to
+    good. Seeds adherent, large, short, broad, unnotched, blunt,
+    plump, surface smooth, brown.
+
+
+SECRETARY
+
+(Vinifera, Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+Injured by mildew and rot which attack leaves, fruit and young wood,
+the vines of Secretary are able to produce good grapes only in
+exceptional seasons and in favored localities. The fruit characters
+of Secretary, however, give the grapes exceptionally high quality, the
+berries being meaty yet juicy, fine-grained and tender, with a sweet,
+spicy, vinous flavor. The bunches are large, well-formed, with
+medium-sized, purplish-black berries covered with thick bloom, making
+a very handsome cluster. While the vine and foliage somewhat resemble
+those of Clinton, one of its parents, the variety is not nearly as
+hardy, vigorous nor productive. Moreover, in any but favored
+localities in the North, its maturity is somewhat uncertain. These
+defects keep Secretary from becoming of commercial importance and make
+it of value only to the amateur. Secretary is one of the first
+productions of J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, the original vine
+coming from seed of Clinton fertilized by Muscat Hamburg, planted in
+1867.
+
+    Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, variable in productiveness. Canes
+    numerous, light brown, conspicuously darker at nodes, surface
+    covered with thin, blue bloom; tendrils intermittent, bifid.
+    Leaves small to medium, thin; upper surface light green, dull,
+    smooth; lower surface pale green, glabrous. Flowers semi-fertile,
+    early; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit ripens after Concord, keeps and ships well. Clusters large,
+    long, cylindrical with a large, single shoulder, often loose and
+    with many abortive fruits. Berries large, round, flattened at
+    attachment to pedicel, dark purplish-black, glossy, persistent,
+    firm; skin tough with wine-colored pigment; flesh green, juicy,
+    fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds free, large,
+    broad, notched, long, dark brown.
+
+
+SENASQUA
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+The vine of Senasqua lacks in vigor, hardiness, productiveness and
+health. The grapes are of good quality, and when well grown are up to
+the average fruits of the Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids. Unfortunately the
+berries have a tendency to crack which is aggravated by the bunches
+being so compact as to crowd the berries. Senasqua is one of the
+latest grapes to open its buds and is, therefore, seldom injured by
+late frosts. It can be recommended only for the garden for the sake
+of variety. Stephen W. Underhill of Crown Point, New York, originated
+Senasqua from seed of Concord pollinated by Black Prince.
+
+    Vine weak and tender, often unproductive. Canes short, few,
+    reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent,
+    long, trifid or bifid. Leaves light green, glossy, rugose; lower
+    surface whitish-green, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with
+    terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal and lateral sinuses
+    shallow and narrow when present. Flowers fertile, late; stamens
+    upright.
+
+    Fruit a little later than Concord, keeps well. Clusters large,
+    broad, irregularly tapering, usually with a small, single
+    shoulder, very compact; pedicel thick, smooth, enlarged at point
+    of attachment; brush short, reddish. Berries large, round,
+    reddish-black, persistent, firm; skin thick, tender, cracks,
+    adherent, contains some wine-colored pigment; flesh green,
+    translucent, juicy, tender, meaty, vinous, spicy; good. Seeds
+    free, one to five, long, narrow, one-sided, light brown.
+
+
+SULTANA
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+This variety was formerly the standard seedless grape in California
+for home use and raisins, but it is now outstripped by Sultanina.
+Sultana is possibly better flavored than Sultanina but the vines are
+hardly as vigorous or productive and the berries often have seeds. The
+description is compiled.
+
+    Vines vigorous, upright, productive. Leaves large, five-lobed,
+    with large sinuses, light in color, coarsely toothed. Bunches
+    large, long, cylindrical, heavily shouldered, sometimes not well
+    filled, often loose and scraggly; berries small, round, firm and
+    crisp, golden-yellow, sweet with considerable piquancy; quality
+    good.
+
+
+SULTANINA
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+_Thompson's Seedless_
+
+Sultanina is one of the standard seedless grapes of the Pacific slope,
+grown both to eat out of hand and for raisins. Probably it can be
+grown in home plantations in favored parts of eastern America where
+the season is long and warm. The following description is compiled
+from Californian viticulturists:
+
+    Vine very vigorous, very productive; trunk large with very long
+    canes. Leaves glabrous on both sides, dark yellow-green above,
+    light below; generally three-lobed, with shallow sinuses; teeth
+    short and obtuse. Bunch large, conico-cylindrical, well filled,
+    with herbaceous peduncles; berries oval, beautiful golden-yellow
+    color; skin moderately thick; flesh of rather neutral flavor; very
+    good.
+
+
+TAYLOR
+
+(Vulpina, Labrusca)
+
+_Bullitt_
+
+While it is from the species to which Taylor belongs that we must look
+for our hardiest vines, nevertheless this grape and its offspring,
+although not tender to cold, do best in southern regions, as they
+require a long warm summer to mature properly. The quality of the
+fruit of Taylor is fair to good, the flavor being sweet, pure,
+delicate and spicy and the flesh tender and juicy; but the bunches are
+small and the flowers are infertile so that the berries do not set
+well, making very imperfect and unsightly clusters. The skin is such,
+also, that it cracks badly, a defect seemingly transmitted to many of
+the seedlings of the variety. The vine is strong, healthy, hardy but
+not very productive. The original vine of Taylor was a wild seedling
+found in the early part of the last century on the Cumberland
+Mountains near the Kentucky-Tennessee line by a Mr. Cobb.
+
+    Vine vigorous to rank, healthy, hardy, variable in productiveness.
+    Leaves small, attractive in color, smooth. Flowers bloom early;
+    stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit ripens about two weeks before Isabella. Clusters small to
+    medium, shouldered, loose or moderately compact. Berries small to
+    medium, roundish, pale greenish-white, sometimes tinged with
+    amber; skin very thin; pulp sweet, spicy; fair to good in quality.
+
+
+TRIUMPH
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+When quality, color, shape and size of bunch and berry are considered,
+Triumph (Plate XXVIII) is one of the finest dessert grapes of America.
+At its best, it is a magnificent bunch of golden grapes of highest
+quality, esteemed even in southern Europe where it must compete with
+the best of the Viniferas. In America, however, its commercial
+importance is curtailed by the fact that the fruit requires a long
+season for proper development. Triumph has, in general, the vine
+characters of the Labrusca parent, Concord, especially its habit of
+growth, vigor, productiveness and foliage characters, falling short in
+hardiness, resistance to fungal diseases and earliness of fruit, the
+fruit maturing with or a little later than Catawba. While the vine
+characters of Triumph are those of Labrusca, there is scarcely a
+suggestion of the coarseness, or of the foxy odor and taste of
+Labrusca, and the objectionable seeds, pulp and skin of the native
+grape give way to the far less objectionable structures of Vinifera.
+The flesh is tender and melting and the flavor rich, sweet, vinous,
+pure and delicate. The skins of the berries under unfavorable
+conditions crack badly, the variety, therefore, neither shipping nor
+keeping well. Triumph was grown soon after the Civil War by George W.
+Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, from seed of Concord fertilized by Chasselas
+Musque.
+
+    Vine vigorous. Canes long, dark brown with much bloom; nodes
+    enlarged; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid, sometimes bifid.
+    Leaves large; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower
+    surface grayish-white, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with
+    terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and
+    overlapping; basal sinus absent; lateral sinus shallow and narrow
+    when present; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, late;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit very late. Clusters very large, long, broad, cylindrical,
+    sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, smooth;
+    brush short, yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, oval, golden
+    yellow, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin,
+    inclined to crack, adherent, without pigment, slightly
+    astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained,
+    tender, vinous; good to very good. Seeds free, one to five, small,
+    brown.
+
+
+ULSTER
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+The vines of Ulster set too much fruit in spite of efforts to control
+the crop by pruning; two undesirable results follow, the bunches are
+small and the vines, lacking vigor at best, fail to recover from the
+overfruitfulness. These defects keep the variety from becoming of
+importance commercially or even a favorite as a garden grape. The
+quality of the fruit is very good, being much like that of Catawba,
+and under favorable conditions it is an attractive green with a red
+tinge. The fruit keeps well when the variety is grown under conditions
+suited to it. Ulster originated with A. J. Caywood, Marlboro, New
+York, and was introduced by him about 1885. Its parents are said to be
+Catawba pollinated by a wild AEstivalis. Both vine and fruit show
+traces of Labrusca and Vinifera, but the AEstivalis characters, if
+present, are not apparent.
+
+    Vine hardy, productive, overbears. Canes short, slender, dark
+    brown, surface roughened and covered with faint pubescence; nodes
+    enlarged and flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent,
+    bifid, dehisce early. Leaves small, thick; upper surface light
+    green, glossy, smooth; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent;
+    leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus medium
+    to wide; basal sinus absent; lateral sinus a notch when present;
+    teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late mid-season. Clusters long, cylindrical, often
+    single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, with numerous warts;
+    brush short, yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, round, dark
+    dull red with thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough, adherent,
+    astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender,
+    fine-grained, faintly aromatic, slightly foxy; good to very good.
+    Seeds free, one to six, medium in size, plump, brown.
+
+
+VERDAL
+
+(Vinifera)
+
+_Aspiran Blanc_
+
+Verdal is one of the standard late grapes of the Pacific slope,
+ripening among the last. The grapes are seen seldom in distant markets
+and the quality is not quite good enough to make it a very great
+favorite for home plantations. Vigor and hardiness of vines commend it
+as do the large and handsome fruits, and these qualities, with late
+ripening, will probably long keep it on grape lists in the far West.
+The description is compiled.
+
+    Vines vigorous, hardy, healthy and productive; canes rather
+    slender, half erect. Leaves of medium size, glabrous on both
+    surfaces, except below near the axis of the main nerve; sinuses
+    well marked and generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance
+    of having five holes; teeth long, unequal, acuminate. Bunches
+    large to very large, irregular, long-conical, usually compact;
+    shoulders small or lacking; berries large or very large,
+    yellowish-green; skin thick but tender; flesh crisp, firm; flavor
+    agreeable but not rich; quality good. Season very late, keeping
+    and shipping well.
+
+
+VERGENNES
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+The most valuable attribute of Vergennes (Plate XXIX) is certainty in
+bearing. The vine seldom fails to bear although it often overbears,
+causing variability in size of fruits and time of ripening. With a
+moderate crop, the grapes ripen with Concord, but with a heavy load
+from one to two weeks later. Vergennes is somewhat unpopular with
+vineyardists because of the sprawling habit of the vines which makes
+them untractable for vineyard operations; this fault is obviated by
+grafting on other vines. The grapes are attractive, the quality is
+good, flavor agreeable, the flesh tender, and seeds and skin are not
+objectionable. Vergennes is the standard late-keeping grape for
+northern regions, being very common in the markets as late as January.
+The original vine was a chance seedling in the garden of William E.
+Greene, Vergennes, Vermont, in 1874.
+
+    Vine variable in vigor, doubtfully hardy, productive, healthy.
+    Canes long, dark brown; nodes enlarged, strongly flattened;
+    tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thin;
+    upper surface light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface pale
+    green, very pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus
+    broadly acute; petiolar sinus wide; teeth shallow. Flowers
+    semi-sterile, mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters of medium size, broad,
+    cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, loose; pedicel with
+    numerous small warts; brush slender, short, pale green. Berries
+    large, oval, light and dark red with thin bloom, persistent; skin
+    thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, juicy,
+    fine-grained, somewhat stringy, tender, vinous; good to very good.
+    Seeds free, one to five, blunt, brown.
+
+
+WALTER
+
+(Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana)
+
+Were it not almost impossible to grow healthy vines of Walter, the
+variety would rank high among American grapes. But stunted by fungi
+which attack leaves, young wood and fruit, it is possible only in
+exceptionally favorable seasons satisfactorily to produce crops of
+this variety. Besides susceptibility to diseases, the vines are
+fastidious to soils, everywhere variable in growth and are injured in
+cold winters. As if to atone for the faults of the vine, the fruit of
+Walter is almost perfect, lacking only in size of bunch and berry. The
+bunch and berry resemble those of Delaware, but the fruit is not as
+high in quality as that of its parents. Walter is adapted to
+conditions under which Delaware thrives. A. J. Caywood, Modena, New
+York, grew this variety about 1850 from seed of Delaware pollinated by
+Diana.
+
+    Vine vigorous. Canes medium in length and size, dark reddish-brown
+    with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent,
+    bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth;
+    lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes one to
+    three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus
+    lacking; lateral sinus a notch if present. Flowers mid-season;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters medium in size, broad,
+    cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender,
+    with small, scattering warts; brush short, slender, green with
+    brown tinge. Berries small, ovate, red, glossy with thin bloom,
+    persistent, firm; skin very tough, adheres slightly, unpigmented;
+    flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, somewhat foxy,
+    vinous, aromatic; good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to four,
+    small, sharp-pointed, light brown.
+
+
+WILDER
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera)
+
+The fruit of Wilder is surpassed in quality and appearance by other of
+Rogers' hybrids, but the vine is the most reliable of any of these
+hybrid sorts, being vigorous, hardy, productive, and, although
+somewhat susceptible to mildew, as healthy as any. Wilder is not as
+well known in the markets as it should be, and now that fungal
+diseases can be controlled by spraying should be more commonly planted
+in commercial vineyards, especially for local markets. Wilder is one
+of the forty-five Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids raised by E. S. Rogers,
+Salem, Massachusetts, having been described first in 1858.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, susceptible to mildew. Canes
+    long, numerous, reddish-brown, darker at the nodes; internodes
+    long; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large,
+    irregularly round; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower
+    surface pale green, pubescent; usually not lobed with terminus
+    acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping;
+    basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow, or a mere
+    notch when present. Flowers self-sterile, mid-season; stamens
+    reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters variable in
+    size, short, broad, tapering, heavily single-shouldered, loose;
+    pedicel long, thick with numerous warts; brush thick, green with
+    tinge of red. Berries large, oval, purplish-black with heavy
+    bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, adherent to pulp, with bright
+    red pigment, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender;
+    good. Seeds adherent, one to five, long, light brown.
+
+
+WINCHELL
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera, AEstivalis)
+
+_Green Mountain_
+
+The vines of Winchell (Plate XXX) are vigorous, hardy, healthy,
+productive, and the fruit is early, of high quality and ships
+well--altogether a most admirable early grape. There are some minor
+faults which become drawbacks in the culture of Winchell. The berries,
+and under some conditions the bunches, are small and the bunch is
+loose with a large shoulder. Sometimes this looseness becomes so
+pronounced as to give a straggling, poorly-formed cluster; and the
+shoulder, when as large as the cluster itself, which often happens,
+makes the cluster unsightly. The grapes shell when fully ripe, a
+serious fault. Again, while the crop usually ripens evenly, there are
+seasons when two pickings are needed because of the unevenness in
+ripening. Lastly, the skin is thin and there is danger in unfavorable
+seasons of the berries cracking, although this is seldom a serious
+fault. These defects do not offset the several good characters of
+Winchell which make it the standard early green grape, deserving to
+rank with the best early grapes of any color. The original vine was
+raised by James Milton Clough, Stamford, Vermont, about 1850 from seed
+of an unknown purple grape.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, very productive. Canes long,
+    numerous, slender, dark brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged,
+    flattened; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, bifid.
+    Leaves large; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower
+    surface dull green, tinged with bronze, faintly pubescent; lobes
+    three to five with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep; basal
+    sinus shallow; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers fertile, mid-season;
+    stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters long, slender,
+    cylindrical, often with a long shoulder, compact; pedicel short,
+    slender with few inconspicuous warts; brush greenish-white.
+    Berries small, round, light green, persistent, soft; skin marked
+    with small, reddish-brown spots, thin, tender, slightly
+    astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained,
+    sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, one to four, small, plump,
+    wide and long, blunt, brown.
+
+
+WOODRUFF
+
+(Labrusca, Vinifera?)
+
+Woodruff is a handsome, showy, brick-red grape with large clusters and
+berries, but its taste belies its looks, for the flesh is coarse and
+the flavor poor. The variety would not be worth attention were it not
+for its excellent vine characters; the vines are hardy, productive and
+healthy. The grapes ripen a little before Concord and come on the
+market at a favorable time, especially for a red grape. Woodruff
+originated from C. H. Woodruff, Ann Arbor, Michigan, as a chance
+seedling which came up in 1874 and fruited first in 1877.
+
+    Vine very vigorous, hardy. Canes dark brown; nodes enlarged,
+    flattened; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves round;
+    upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface
+    greenish-white, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus
+    acute; petiolar sinus wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus
+    shallow and narrow when present; teeth shallow. Flowers
+    semi-fertile, early; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit ripening before Concord. Clusters broad, widely tapering,
+    usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick, smooth;
+    brush long, pale green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull,
+    firm; skin thin, tender, adherent, slightly astringent; flesh pale
+    green, translucent, juicy, tough, coarse, very foxy; fair in
+    quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, broad, short, plump, blunt,
+    brown.
+
+
+WORDEN
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+Of the many offspring of Concord, Worden (Plate XXXI) is best known
+and most meritorious. The grapes differ chiefly from those of Concord
+in having larger berries and bunches, in having better quality and in
+being a week to ten days earlier. The vine is equally hardy, healthy,
+vigorous and productive but is more fastidious in its adaptations to
+soil, although now and then it does even better. The chief fault of
+the variety is that the fruit cracks badly, often preventing the
+profitable marketing of a crop. Besides this tenderness of skin, the
+fruit-pulp of Worden is softer than that of Concord, there is more
+juice, and the keeping qualities are not as good, so that the grapes
+hardly ship as well as those of the more commonly grown grape. Worden
+is very popular in northern grape regions both for commercial
+plantations and the garden. It is a more desirable inhabitant of the
+garden, because of higher quality of fruit than Concord, and under
+conditions well suited to it is better as a commercial variety, as the
+fruit is handsomer as well as of better quality. In the markets the
+fruit ought to sell for a higher price than Concord if desired for
+immediate consumption, and if it can be harvested promptly, as it does
+not hang well on the vines. Its earlier season is against it for a
+commercial variety and, with the defects mentioned, will prevent its
+taking the place of Concord to a great degree. Worden was originated
+by Schuyler Worden, Minetto, Oswego County, New York, from seed of
+Concord planted about 1863.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes large, thick,
+    dark brown with reddish tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils
+    continuous, slender, bifid, sometimes trifid. Young leaves tinged
+    on the under side and along the margins of upper side with
+    rose-carmine. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green,
+    glossy, smooth; lower surface light bronze, pubescent; leaf
+    usually not lobed; petiolar sinus wide, often urn-shaped; teeth
+    shallow. Flowers fertile, mid-season; stamens upright.
+
+    Fruit early. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, usually
+    single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with a few small
+    warts; brush long, light green. Berries large, round, dark
+    purplish-black, glossy with heavy bloom, firm; skin tender, cracks
+    badly, adheres slightly, contains dark red pigment, astringent.
+    Flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough, foxy, sweet,
+    mild; good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to five, large,
+    broad, short, blunt, brown.
+
+
+WYOMING
+
+(Labrusca)
+
+_Hopkins Early Red, Wilmington Red, Wyoming Red_
+
+Such value as Wyoming (Plate XXXII) possesses lies in the hardiness,
+productiveness and healthiness of the vine. The appearance of the
+fruit is very good, the bunches are well formed and composed of rich
+amber-colored berries of medium size. The quality, however, is poor,
+being that of the wild Labrusca in foxiness of flavor and in flesh
+characters. It is not nearly as valuable as some other of the red
+Labruscas hitherto described and can hardly be recommended either for
+the garden or the vineyard. Wyoming was introduced by S. J. Parker of
+Ithaca, New York, who states that it came from Pennsylvania in 1861.
+
+    Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous,
+    slender, dark reddish-brown covered with blue bloom; nodes
+    enlarged, frequently flattened; tendrils continuous, short, bifid.
+    Leaves of average size and thickness; upper surface light green,
+    dull, smooth; lower surface dull green with tinge of bronze,
+    pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus
+    shallow, wide; basal sinus usually wanting; lateral sinus shallow
+    and wide when present; teeth shallow. Flowers sterile, mid-season;
+    stamens reflexed.
+
+    Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters slender, cylindrical, compact;
+    pedicel short, slender with small warts; brush slender, pale green
+    with brown tinge. Berries medium, round, rich amber red with thin
+    bloom, persistent, firm; skin tender, adherent, astringent; flesh
+    pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, solid, strongly foxy,
+    vinous; poor in quality. Seeds adherent, one to three, slightly
+    notched, light brown.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Bioletti, Frederic T. _Report of International Congress of
+Viticulture_, 88. 1915.
+
+[2] Anthony, R. D. _N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 632_: 88. 1917.
+
+[3] Bioletti, Frederic T. _Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180_: 135. 1906.
+
+[4] _Ibid._, 136-138.
+
+[5] Bioletti, Frederic T. _Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180_: 108-112.
+
+[6] Bioletti, Frederic T. _Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180_: 113-118.
+
+[7] Munson, T. V. _Foundations of American Grape Culture_, 217. 1909.
+
+[8] Bioletti, Frederic T. _Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180_: 96-97. 1906.
+
+[9] For an account of this experiment, see Bul. 381 of the N. Y. Agr.
+Exp. Sta., Geneva.
+
+[10] Quoted from Bul. No. 381, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta.
+
+[11] Each weight is of 300 green leaves, 5 from each of 60 vines. The
+first leaf beyond the last cluster was selected.
+
+[12] Amount to the acre of wood pruned in fall.
+
+[13] Number to the acre.
+
+[14] Munson, T. V. _Foundations of American Grape Culture_: 224-227.
+1909.
+
+[15] Husmann, George C., and Dearing, Charles. _Muscadine Grapes. Bul.
+709, U. S. Dept. Agr._: 16-19. 1916.
+
+[16] The remainder of this chapter is republished by permission from
+_Bul. 246, Calif. Exp. Sta., Vine Pruning in California_, published in
+1916 by F. T. Bioletti. Not all of the bulletin is reproduced, but the
+parts republished are transcribed verbatim. All of the illustrations
+in this chapter have been redrawn from Professor Bioletti's bulletin.
+
+[17] The following account is founded on work carried on by the author
+at the N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., accounts of which have been given before
+several horticultural societies in 1916, 1917 and 1918.
+
+[18] Husmann, Geo. C., and Dearing, Charles. _The Muscadine Grapes_,
+U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 273: 33-36. 1913.
+
+[19] Husmann, George C. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. No. 644.
+
+[20] Husmann, George C. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. No. 349. 1916.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+(Names of species, and synonyms of varietal names, are in italics.)
+
+
+    Actoni, 330.
+
+    Adaptations of stocks, 66.
+
+    Adlum, John, mentioned, 58.
+
+    _Admirable_, 373.
+
+    _Adoxus obscurus_, 216.
+
+    AEstivalis grapes, 11.
+
+    Affinity of stock and cion, 67.
+
+    Agawam, 331.
+
+    Air currents, 27.
+
+    _Alabama_, 401.
+
+    Alexander, 5, 6.
+
+    _Alexander_, 391.
+
+    Alicante, for forcing, 198.
+
+    Alleys, 75.
+
+    Almeria, 331.
+
+    Amadas & Barlowe, mentioned, 5.
+
+    America, 332.
+
+    _American Muscadine_, 435.
+
+    Aminia, 333.
+
+    Anaheim disease, 226.
+
+    Anthony, on grafting, 47.
+
+    Anthracnose, control of, 223.
+      description of, 223.
+
+    Aramon x Rupestris, 2, 64.
+
+    Arbors, training vines on, 142.
+
+    _Arkansas_, 345, 357.
+
+    _Arnold's Hybrid_, 422.
+
+    _Aspiran Blanc_, 442.
+
+    August Giant, 333.
+
+
+    Bacchus, 324.
+
+    Bagging grapes, 293.
+      cost of, 294.
+
+    Bakator, 335.
+
+    Barbarossa, for forcing, 197.
+
+    Bark, structure of, 303.
+
+    Barry, 335.
+
+    Bartram, on the Alexander, 7.
+
+    Beach Grape, 313.
+
+    Beacon, 336.
+
+    _Beaconsfield_, 346.
+
+    Beak defined, 308.
+
+    Bench grafting, 50.
+      essentials of, 50.
+      operation of, 51.
+      preparing cuttings for, 51.
+
+    Berckmans, 337.
+
+    Berry, characters of, 308.
+
+    Bioletti, on callusing beds, 56.
+      on grafting, 48, 52.
+      on pruning in California, 151.
+      on resistant stocks, 63.
+      quoted, 18.
+
+    Bird Grape, 312.
+
+    Bitter-rot, 225.
+
+    _Black Cape_, 391.
+
+    _Black Cornichon_, 429.
+
+    Black Eagle, 338.
+
+    _Black El Paso_, 401.
+
+    _Black German_, 406.
+
+    Black Hamburg, for forcing, 197.
+
+    _Black July_, 401.
+
+    Black Malvoise, 339.
+
+    Black Morocco, 339.
+
+    _Black Muscat_, 415.
+
+    Black rot, control of, 320.
+      description of, 319.
+
+    _Black Spanish_, 401.
+
+    Bloom defined, 301.
+
+    Blooming dates of grapes, 288.
+
+    Blooming, time of, 305.
+
+    _Blue French_, 401.
+
+    Blue Grape, 318, 322.
+
+    Borders in graperies, making, 195.
+      care of, 195.
+
+    _Bottsi_, 382.
+
+    Bowed canes, 174.
+
+    Branches defined, 301.
+
+    Brighton, 340.
+
+    Brilliant, 341.
+
+    Brown, 342.
+
+    _Brown French_, 382.
+
+    Brush defined, 307.
+
+    Buckland Sweetwater, for forcing, 197.
+
+    Buds, characters of, 304.
+      defined, 304.
+
+    _Bull_, 435.
+
+    Bull, Ephraim W., mentioned, 9.
+
+    Bull Grape, 310.
+
+    _Bullace_, 435.
+
+    Bullace Grape, 310.
+
+    _Bullet_, 435.
+
+    Bullet Grape, 310.
+
+    _Bullitt_, 439.
+
+    Bunch Grape, 318.
+
+    _Burgundy_, 401.
+
+    Bush Grape, 312.
+
+    Bushy Grape, 310.
+
+    By-products of the grape, 269.
+
+
+    Callusing bed, 56.
+
+    Campbell Early, 342.
+
+    Canada, 343.
+
+    _Canadian Hamburg_, 422.
+
+    _Canadian Hybrid_, 422.
+
+    Canandaigua, 344.
+
+    Canandaigua Lake grape region, 21.
+
+    Cane-renewal, 116.
+
+    Canes, characters of, 303.
+      defined, 301.
+      disposition of, in pruning, 124.
+
+    Care of young vines, 87.
+
+    Carman, 344.
+
+    Catawba, 345.
+      history of, 8.
+
+    _Catawba Tokay_, 345.
+
+    Catch crops, 89, 90.
+
+    Cato, on grafting, 45.
+      quoted, 76.
+
+    Cayuga Lake grape region, 21.
+
+    Central Lake grape region, 20.
+
+    Chalaza defined, 308.
+
+    Champagne, 253.
+
+    Champagne industry, 21.
+
+    Champion, 346.
+
+    Chasselas Golden, 347.
+
+    _Chasselas Dore_, 347.
+
+    Chasselas Rose, 348.
+
+    Chautauqua, 348.
+
+    Chautauqua grape-belt, 18.
+
+    Chautauqua training, 125.
+
+    _Cherokee_, 345.
+
+    Chicken Grape, 317, 318.
+
+    _Cigar Box Grape_, 401.
+
+    Clevener, 349.
+
+    Climate and grape-growing, 23.
+
+    Clinton, 15, 350.
+
+    Colerain, 351.
+
+    Columbian Imperial, 351.
+
+    _Columbian Jumbo_, 351.
+
+    Commercial factors, 30.
+
+    Concord, 352.
+      history of, 9.
+
+    Constantia, 391.
+
+    Cooeperative fertilizer experiments, 102.
+
+    Cordon pruning, 153.
+
+    Cordons, horizontal, 176.
+      vertical, 175.
+
+    Cottage, 354.
+
+    Coulure, 226.
+
+    Cover-crops, 89, 91.
+
+    _Craponius inaequalis_, 217.
+
+    Cream of tartar, 270.
+
+    Cross-pollination, 284.
+
+    Croton, 355.
+
+    Crown-gall, 225.
+
+    _Cryptosporella viticola_, 224.
+
+    Cunningham, 356.
+
+    Cuttings, dormant, 38.
+      hard-wood, 38.
+      herbaceous, 42.
+      planting, 39.
+      single-eye, 40.
+      time to make, 38.
+
+    Cutting wood, selecting, 38.
+
+    Cut-worms on grapes, 315.
+
+    Cynthiana, 357.
+
+
+    Dead-arm disease, control of, 324.
+      description of, 324.
+
+    Delaware, 11, 358.
+
+    Depth to plant, 86.
+
+    _Desmia funeralis_, 216.
+
+    Determinants of grape regions, 22.
+
+    _Devereaux_, 401.
+
+    Diamond, 359.
+
+    Diana, 360.
+
+    Diaphragm, characters of, 303.
+      defined, 301.
+
+    Digging holes, 83.
+
+    Direct producers, 71.
+
+    Direction of rows, 74.
+
+    Distances in planting, 75.
+
+    _Dodrelabi_, 379.
+
+    _Dorchester_, 391.
+
+    Double-headed vines, 174.
+
+    Double Kniffin, 135.
+
+    Downing, 361.
+
+    Downy mildew, control of, 222.
+      description of, 220.
+
+    Dracut Amber, 362.
+
+    Drainage for grapes, 28, 77.
+
+    Duck-shot Grape, 318.
+
+    _Dunn_, 382.
+
+    Dutchess, 362.
+
+    Dynamite in digging holes, 84.
+
+
+    _Early Champion_, 346.
+
+    Early Daisy, 363.
+
+    Early Ohio, 364.
+
+    Early Victor, 364.
+
+    Eaton, 365.
+
+    Eclipse, 366.
+
+    Eden, 367.
+
+    Egg Harbor grape region, 22.
+
+    Eldorado, 368.
+
+    Elvira, 369.
+
+    Emasculating grape-flowers, 279.
+
+    Emperor, 369.
+
+    Empire State, 370.
+
+    Etta, 371.
+
+    Eumelan, 371.
+
+    European grapes, in eastern America, 184.
+      grafting, 186.
+      varieties for eastern America, 191.
+
+    Everbearing Grape, 312.
+
+    Exposures for grapes, 34.
+
+
+    Factors limiting yield, 105.
+
+    Faith, 372.
+
+    Fall Grape, 318.
+
+    _Fancher_, 345.
+
+    Fan-training, 131.
+
+    Feher Szagos, 373.
+
+    _Fern_, 373.
+
+    Fern Munson, 373.
+
+    Fertilizers, applying, 106.
+      effects on leaves, 102.
+      effects on vines, 102.
+      effects on yield, 101, 102.
+      experiment, 98.
+      necessity of, 97.
+      when needed, 106.
+
+    _Fidia viticida_, 206.
+
+    Fitting land, 78.
+
+    Flame Tokay, 374.
+
+    Flesh, characters of, 308.
+
+    Florida Grape, 312.
+
+    Flowers, 373.
+
+    Flower, characters of, 305.
+
+    _Fontainebleau_, 347.
+
+    Fox Grape, 317, 324.
+
+    _Fox Grape_, 435.
+
+    Fox grapes, cultivation of, 7.
+
+    Foxiness defined, 307.
+
+    _French Grape_, 358.
+
+    Frost Grape, 317.
+
+    Frosts and grape-growing, 25.
+
+    Fruit-bearing, manner of, 113.
+
+    Fruit, characters of, 307.
+      parts of, 307.
+
+    Fungi, determinants of grape regions, 29.
+
+    Fungous diseases of the grape, 218.
+
+
+    Gaertner, 375.
+
+    Geneva, 376.
+
+    _Gibbs Grape_, 391.
+
+    Gladwin, on Chautauqua training, 126.
+      on Keuka training, 129.
+      on vineyard returns, 248.
+
+    _Glomerella rufomaculans_, 225.
+
+    "Go-devil," 119.
+
+    Goethe, 377.
+
+    Gold Coin, 377.
+
+    _Golden Chasselas_, 424.
+
+    Grading grapes, 235.
+
+    Grading land, 78.
+
+    Grafting, 45.
+      at New York Station, 46.
+      bundling grafts after, 55.
+      essentials of, 45.
+      European grapes, 186.
+      rooted cuttings, 56.
+
+    Grafted vineyards, care of, 48.
+
+    Grafting wax, 54.
+
+    Grafts, care of, in nursery, 58.
+      number made per hour, 56.
+
+    Grape, botany of, 300.
+      by-products of, 269.
+      domestication of, 1.
+      habitats of, 4.
+      habits of growth of, 302.
+      mutations in the, 60.
+      number of species of, 1.
+      organs of, 300.
+      pests of, 204.
+      products, 250.
+
+    Grape-berry moth, control of, 215.
+      life history of, 213.
+
+    Grape-breeding, 273.
+      results of, 282.
+
+    Grape-curculio, 217.
+
+    Grape hawk-moth, 217.
+
+    Grape-hybrids, 274.
+
+    Grape-juice, commercial making, 258.
+      development of industry, 257.
+      making at home, 262.
+      regions in which made, 257.
+
+    Grape leaf-folder, 216.
+
+    Grape leaf-hopper, control of, 213.
+      life history of, 211.
+
+    Grape regions, determinants of, 16.
+      in California, 18.
+
+    Grape root-worm, Californian, 216.
+      eastern, control of, 206.
+      life history of, 206.
+
+    Grape seedlings, 37.
+
+    Graperies, 193.
+      borders in, 195.
+      care of vines in, 201.
+      construction of, 193.
+      essentials of, 194.
+      heating, 194.
+      varieties for, 196.
+      ventilating, 194, 202.
+      watering, 202.
+
+    Grapes, American, 4.
+      classified as to self-fertility, 296.
+      domestic use of, 271.
+      European, 2.
+      forcing, 194.
+      immunity to disease, 303.
+      immunity to insects, 303.
+      propagation of, 37.
+      under glass, 192.
+
+    Grape-vinegar, 269.
+
+    Grape-vine root-borer, 217.
+
+    Grape-vine flea-beetle, control of, 209.
+      life history of, 208.
+
+    Greeley, Horace, mentioned, 9.
+
+    Green Early, 378.
+
+    _Green Mountain_, 445.
+
+    _Green Scuppernong_, 435.
+
+    Grein Golden, 378.
+
+    Grizzly Frontignan, for forcing, 197.
+
+    Gros Colman, 379.
+      for forcing, 197.
+
+    _Guignardia Bidwellii_, 220.
+
+
+    _Haltica chalybea_, 209.
+
+    Hardiness of grapes, 302.
+
+    Hartford, 380.
+
+    Hartzell, mentioned, 213.
+
+    Harvesting, in California, 243.
+      in the East, 230.
+      Muscadine grapes, 240.
+
+    Hawkins, Captain John, mentioned, 5.
+
+    Hayes, 381.
+
+    Heading-back canes, 116.
+
+    Headlight, 281.
+
+    Heart-leaved Vitis, 317.
+
+    Heating vineyards, 25.
+
+    Heeling-in vines, 82.
+
+    _Helene_, 391.
+
+    Herbaceous cuttings, 42.
+
+    Herbemont, 12, 382.
+
+    Herbert, 383.
+
+    Hercules, 384.
+
+    Hermann grape region, 22.
+
+    _Hickman_, 435.
+
+    Hicks, 285.
+
+    Hidalgo, 385.
+
+    Highland, 386.
+
+    _Hilgarde_, 373.
+
+    Hilum defined, 308.
+
+    Hopkins, 387.
+
+    _Hopkins Early Red_, 448.
+
+    Horizontal cordons, 176.
+
+    Hosford, 388.
+
+    Hudson horizontal training, 141.
+
+    Hudson River grape region, 21.
+
+    Humidity in grape-growing, 25.
+
+    _Hunt_, 382.
+
+    Husmann, on making grape-juice, 258.
+      on raisin-making, 264.
+
+    Husmann & Dearing, on harvesting Muscadine grapes, 240.
+      on pruning Muscadine grapes, 143.
+
+    Hybrid Franc, 388.
+
+    Hybridizing grapes, 278.
+
+    Hybrids, secondary, 276.
+
+
+    Ideal, 389.
+
+    Improved Kniffin, 135.
+
+    Inflorescences, number of, in species, 304.
+
+    Insect pests, 204.
+
+    Insects as determinants of grape regions, 29.
+
+    Internodes defined, 301.
+
+    Iona, 390.
+
+    Irrigation, 95.
+
+    Isabella, 390.
+
+    _Isabella_, 391.
+
+    Isabella Seedling, 392.
+
+    Israella, 392.
+
+    Ives, 393.
+
+
+    _Jack_, 401.
+
+    James, 394.
+
+    Janesville, 394.
+
+    _Jaques_, 401.
+
+    Jarring Muscadine grapes, 241.
+
+    Jefferson, 395.
+
+    Jefferson, Thomas, on native grapes, 5.
+
+    Jessica, 396.
+
+    Jewel, 397.
+
+    _Joannenc_, 402.
+
+    _Jordan_, 415.
+
+    _July Sherry_, 401.
+
+
+    _Kay's Seedling_, 382.
+
+    _Keller's White_, 345.
+
+    Kensington, 398.
+
+    Kentucky Vineyard Society, 7.
+
+    Keuka Lake grape region, 21.
+
+    King, 399.
+
+    _Kittredge_, 393.
+
+    Kniffin, Wm., mentioned, 132.
+
+
+    Labels for packages, 238.
+
+    Labor, determinant of grape regions, 32.
+
+    _Ladies' Choice_, 358.
+
+    Lady, 399.
+
+    Lady Downs, for forcing, 198.
+
+    Lady Washington, 400.
+
+    Lake Erie grape region, 22.
+
+    Laterals defined, 301.
+
+    Lawton grape region, 22.
+
+    Layering, 42.
+      dormant wood, 43.
+      essentials of, 43.
+      green wood, 44.
+      to fill vacancies, 44.
+
+    Laying down vines, 295.
+
+    Laying out vineyards, 74.
+
+    Leaf-margins, characters of, 307.
+
+    Leaf, characters of, 307.
+      parts of, 306.
+
+    _Lebanon_, 345.
+
+    Legaux, Peter, mentioned, 7.
+
+    Leif the Lucky, mentioned, 5.
+
+    Lenoir, 13, 401.
+
+    _Lignan Blanc_, 403.
+
+    Lime, effects of, 101, 104.
+
+    _Lincoln_, 345.
+
+    Lindley, 402.
+
+    Listan Blanc, 402.
+
+    Little Grape, 318.
+
+    Little Winter Grape, 318.
+
+    _Long_, 356.
+
+    Longworth, Nicholas, mentioned, 8.
+
+    Lucile, 403.
+
+    _Luglienga_, 402.
+
+    Lutie, 404.
+
+
+    _Macrodactylus subspinosus_, 210.
+
+    Malaga, 405.
+
+    _Mammoth Catawba_, 435.
+
+    Marion, 406.
+
+    _Marion Port_, 406.
+
+    Marketing, 230, 246.
+      cooeperative, 246.
+
+    Markets, accessibility, 30.
+      general _versus_ local, 31.
+
+    Marking for planting, 79.
+
+    Martha, 407.
+
+    Massasoit, 408.
+
+    Maxatawney, 409.
+
+    _McKee_, 382.
+
+    McPike, 405.
+
+    _Mead's Seedling_, 345.
+
+    Mealy-bug, 202.
+
+    Memory, 409.
+
+    _Memythrus polistiformis_, 217.
+
+    Mendel's laws, 281.
+
+    _Merceron_, 345.
+
+    Merrimac, 410.
+
+    _Michigan_, 345.
+
+    Mildew in graperies, 203.
+
+    Mills, 411.
+
+    Mish, 411.
+
+    Mission, 412.
+
+    Missouri Riesling, 413.
+
+    Montefiore, 413.
+
+    Moore Early, 414.
+
+    Moore, Jacob, mentioned, 276.
+
+    Moscatello, 415.
+
+    _Moscatello Black_, 415.
+
+    Mountain Grape, 313, 318.
+
+    Moyer, 415.
+
+    _Moyer's Early Red_, 415.
+
+    Muncy, 345.
+
+    Munson, mentioned, 277.
+      on pruning, 136.
+      on resistant species, 63.
+      Munson method of pruning, 136.
+
+    Muscadine Grape, 310.
+
+    _Muscadine_, 435.
+
+    Muscadine grapes for wine, 256.
+
+    Muscatel, 416.
+
+    Muscat Hamburg, 417.
+      for forcing, 197.
+
+    Muscat of Alexandria, 418.
+
+    Mustang Grape, 323.
+      of Florida, 312.
+
+    Mutations in improving grapes, 277.
+
+
+    Napoleon I, mentioned, 196.
+
+    _Neal_, 382.
+
+    Niagara, 418.
+
+    Niagara grape region, 20.
+
+    Nitrogen, benefits from, 101.
+
+    Noah, 419.
+
+    Nodes defined, 301.
+
+    Nodosities, 66.
+
+    Northern AEstivalis, 322.
+
+    Northern Muscadine, 420.
+
+    Northern Summer Grape, 322.
+
+    Norton, 421.
+
+    Norton, Dr. D. N., mentioned, 11.
+
+    Noyes, Dr., mentioned, 15.
+
+    Number of vines to the acre, 76.
+
+
+    _Ohio_, 401.
+
+    Ohio River grape region, 22.
+
+    Oporto, 422.
+
+    Othello, 422.
+
+    Ozark, 423.
+
+
+    Packages for California, 245.
+      for eastern America, 236.
+      for Muscadine grapes, 243.
+
+    Packing houses, 233.
+      construction of, 234.
+      cost of, 233.
+
+    Packing, in the East, 237.
+      Muscadine grapes, 241.
+
+    Packing tables, 234.
+
+    Palomino, 424.
+
+    Paw Paw grape region, 22.
+
+    _Payne's Early_, 391.
+
+    Peabody, 424.
+
+    Pedicel defined, 305.
+
+    Peduncle defined, 305.
+
+    Perfection, 425.
+
+    Pergolas, training vines on, 142.
+
+    Perkins, 426.
+
+    Pests in graperies, 202.
+
+    Petiole, characters of, 307.
+
+    _Pholus achemon_, 217.
+
+    Phosphorus, benefits from, 101.
+
+    Phylloxera, 13, 61, 205.
+      control of, 206.
+
+    _Phylloxera vastatrix_, 205.
+
+    Pickers, 231.
+
+    Picking, accounts for, 232.
+      appliances, 232.
+      time of, 231.
+
+    Pigeon Grape, 318.
+
+    Pine-wood Grape, 320.
+
+    Piquette, making, 270.
+
+    Planting, 83, 85.
+      distances, 75.
+      grafted vines, 68.
+      in graperies, 198.
+
+    _Plasmopara viticola_, 220.
+
+    Pliny, mentioned, 2.
+
+    Plowing the vineyard, 94.
+      to combat pests, 95.
+
+    Pocklington, 426.
+
+    Pollen, characters of, 306.
+
+    Pollinating in hybridizing, 280.
+
+    _Polychrosis viteana_, 214.
+
+    Pomace as a by-product, 270.
+
+    Possum Grape, 317.
+
+    Posts, 119.
+      bracing, 120.
+      material, 119.
+      setting, 120.
+
+    Post-oak Grape, 320.
+
+    Post-oak grapes, 13.
+
+    Potassium, benefits from, 101.
+
+    Poughkeepsie, 427.
+
+    Powdery mildew, control of, 223.
+      description of, 222.
+
+    _Powell_, 358.
+
+    Pre-cooling grapes, 245.
+
+    Prentiss, 428.
+
+    Preparation for planting, 76, 82.
+
+    Preparing vines for planting, 80, 81.
+
+    _Prince Edward_, 356.
+
+    Prince, W. R., mentioned, 274.
+
+    Profits from fertilizers, 101.
+
+    Pruning, before planting, 160.
+      cordon method, 153.
+      European grapes in eastern America, 107.
+      fan-shaped, 153, 172.
+      first summer, 160.
+      first winter, 161.
+      for fruit, 112.
+      for wood, 112.
+      in eastern America, 108.
+      Muscadine grapes, 143.
+      on the Pacific slope, 150.
+      principles of, 111.
+      second summer, 161.
+      second winter, 163.
+      single vertical cordon, 157.
+      summer, 115.
+      third summer, 167.
+      third winter, 168.
+      to regulate the crop, 110.
+      to regulate the vine, 111.
+      unilateral horizontal cordon, 158.
+      vase-form, 153.
+      winter, 114.
+      work of, 118.
+
+    Pruning and training distinguished, 109.
+
+    Prunings, collecting, 118.
+
+    Purple Cornichon, 429.
+
+
+    Quality defined, 307.
+
+
+    Raffia, in grafting, 54.
+
+    Raisin industry, seat of, 263.
+
+    Raisin-making, account of, 264.
+
+    Raisin output, value of, 263.
+
+    Raisins, classes of, 266.
+      dipping and scalding, 264.
+      packing, 265.
+      seeded, 267.
+      varieties for, 263.
+
+    _Randall_, 331.
+
+    Raphe defined, 308.
+
+    Rating as to resistance to phylloxera, 66.
+
+    Rattling, 224.
+
+    Rebecca, 429.
+
+    Reciprocal influence of stock and cion, 68.
+
+    Red Eagle, 430.
+
+    _Red River_, 357.
+
+    Red-spider in graperies, 202.
+
+    Refrigerator cars for grapes, 245.
+
+    Regal, 431.
+
+    Rejuvenating old vines, 147.
+
+    Renewal by canes, 116.
+      by spurs, 117.
+
+    Renewing fruiting wood, 116.
+
+    Requa, 431.
+
+    Returns from Muscadine grapes, 242.
+
+    Ricketts, J. H., mentioned, 274.
+
+    Ringing grape vines, 289.
+      operation of, 290.
+      results of, 291.
+      theory of, 290.
+
+    Riparia Gloire, 64, 65.
+
+    Riparia grande glabre, 64, 65.
+
+    Riparia Solonis, 64.
+
+    Ripening dates for grapes, 296.
+
+    Ripe-rot, control of, 225.
+      description of, 225.
+
+    River Grape, 314.
+
+    Riverbank Grape, 314.
+
+    Riverbank grapes, 13.
+
+    Riverside Grape, 314.
+
+    _Roanoke_, 435.
+
+    Robins, depredations of, 293.
+
+    Rochester, 432.
+
+    Rock Grape, 313.
+
+    Rogers, E. S., mentioned, 274.
+
+    Rommel, 433.
+
+    Rommel, Jacob, mentioned, 276.
+
+    Root, its parts named, 301.
+
+    Root-forms of grapes, 67.
+
+    Rootlets defined, 301.
+
+    Root-tip defined, 301.
+
+    Rosaki, 433.
+
+    Rose chafer, control of, 211.
+      life history of, 210.
+
+    Rose of Peru, 434.
+
+    _Rose of Tennessee_, 345.
+
+    Rotundifolia grapes, 9.
+
+    _Ruff_, 358.
+
+    Rupestris St. George, 64.
+
+
+    Salem, 435.
+
+    Sand Grape, 313.
+
+    Sandusky grape region, 22.
+
+    Sanitation in the vineyard, 227.
+
+    _Saratoga_, 345.
+
+    Scuppernong, 310, 435.
+
+    Seasonal sum of heat, 24.
+
+    Secretary, 436.
+
+    Seedlings, selecting, 37.
+
+    Seeds, as by-products, 271.
+      characters of, 308.
+      parts of, 308.
+
+    Selecting vines, 81.
+
+    Selection in improving grapes, 277.
+
+    Self-sterility in grapes, 285.
+      cause of, 286.
+      remedy for, 287.
+
+    Senasqua, 437.
+
+    Seneca Lake grape region, 21.
+
+    Shelling, 424.
+
+    Shipping from California, 245.
+
+    Shoots, characters of, 303.
+      defined, 301.
+      disposition of, in training, 123.
+      drooping, in training, 132.
+      horizontal, in training, 141.
+      upright, in training, 125.
+
+    Single-eye cuttings, 40.
+      making, 41.
+      planting, 41.
+
+    Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin, 132.
+
+    _Singleton_, 345.
+
+    Single vertical cordon, 157.
+
+    Sites for vineyards, 26, 32.
+
+    Skin, characters of, 308.
+
+    Smith, Captain John, mentioned, 5.
+
+    Smudging vineyards, 25.
+
+    Soil adaptations, 29.
+      fertility, 28.
+
+    Soils for grapes, 27.
+      ideal, 28.
+      over-rich, 107.
+      uneven, 105.
+
+    Sour Winter Grape, 317.
+
+    Southern AEstivalis, 321.
+
+    Southern Fox Grape, 310.
+
+    Spanish Grape, 318.
+
+    Species, conspectus of, 310.
+      resistant to phylloxera, 62.
+
+    _Sphaceloma ampelinum_, 223.
+
+    Sports in improving grapes, 277.
+
+    Spraying suggestions, 228.
+
+    _Springstein_, 401.
+
+    Spurs defined, 301.
+
+    Spur-renewal, 117.
+
+    Staking vines, 162.
+
+    Stamens, characters of, 306.
+
+    Stem defined, 301.
+      its parts named, 301.
+
+    Stocks, resistant to phylloxera, 61.
+      for American grapes, 69.
+      for European grapes, 69.
+
+    Storage-room for grapes, 239.
+
+    Storing grapes, 238.
+
+    Stripping, 118.
+
+    Suckers defined, 301.
+
+    Sugar Grape, 313.
+
+    Sultana, 438.
+
+    Sultanina, 438.
+
+    Summer Grape, 318.
+
+    Summer grapes, 11.
+
+    Summer pruning, 115.
+
+    Swamp Grape, 318.
+
+    Sweet-scented Grape, 314.
+
+    _Sweetwater_, 347.
+
+    Syrian, for forcing, 198.
+
+
+    _Talman's Seedling_, 346.
+
+    Tap-root defined, 301.
+
+    Taylor, 439.
+
+    _Tekomah_, 343.
+
+    Tendrils, characters of, 304.
+      defined, 301.
+
+    Theophrastus, on grafting, 45.
+
+    Thinning in graperies, 201.
+
+    _Thompson's Seedless_, 438.
+
+    Thrips, 211.
+      in graperies, 202.
+
+    Tillage, 92.
+      methods, 93.
+      time to cease, 95.
+      tools for, 93.
+
+    Time to plant, 84.
+
+    _Tokay_, 345.
+
+    Tongue grafting, 52.
+
+    Training, Chautauqua method, 125.
+      classification of methods, 125.
+      in eastern America, 123.
+      fan-method, 131.
+      in graperies, 198.
+      Keuka method, 139.
+
+    Trellises, 119.
+
+    Triumph, 440.
+
+    Tuberosities, caused by phylloxera, 66.
+
+    Turkey Grape, 320.
+
+    Two-trunk Kniffin, 135.
+
+    Tying, 122.
+
+    _Typhlocyba comes_, 211.
+
+
+    Ulster, 441.
+
+    Umbrella Kniffin, 134.
+
+    _Uncinula necator_, 222.
+
+    Unilateral horizontal cordon, 158.
+
+
+    Valk, Dr., mentioned, 274.
+
+    Varieties of European grapes for eastern America, 191.
+
+    Varieties resistant to phylloxera, 62.
+
+    Verdal, 442.
+
+    Vergennes, 442.
+
+    Vertical canes, 174.
+      cordons, 175.
+
+    Vinegar from grapes, 269.
+
+    Vines, nursery _versus_ home grown, 59.
+      "pedigreed," 59.
+      rejuvenating old, 147.
+      resistant to phylloxera, 61.
+      young, care of, 87.
+
+    Vineyard grafting, in eastern America, 45.
+      on Pacific slope, 48.
+
+    Vineyard, management, 73.
+      returns in the East, 247.
+      sanitation, 227.
+      sites, 32.
+
+    Vintage, time of, 254.
+
+    Virgil, on soils, 28.
+      quoted, 31, 34, 37.
+
+    _Virginia Amber_, 345.
+
+    Vitis, genus defined, 308.
+
+    _Vitis aestivalis_, 11, 318.
+        _Bourquiniana_, 11, 321.
+        _glauca_, 321.
+        _Lincecumii_, 13, 320.
+      _Berlandieri_, 318.
+      _bicolor_, 322.
+      _candicans_, 323.
+      _cordifolia_, 317.
+      _Labrusca_, 7, 324.
+      _Munsoniana_, 312.
+      _riparia_, 314. (Syn. of _V. vulpina_.)
+      _rotundifolia_, 9, 310.
+      _rupestris_, 313.
+      _vinifera_, 2, 328.
+      _vulpina_, 314.
+
+    Vulpina grapes, 13.
+      as direct producers, 13.
+
+
+    Wakeman, Elbert, mentioned, 136.
+
+    Walter, 443.
+
+    _Warren_, 382, 401.
+
+    _Warrenton_, 382.
+
+    _Washington_, 371.
+
+    Water, influence of, on climate, 23.
+
+    Watering, at planting, 86.
+      in graperies, 202.
+
+    Water sprouts defined, 301.
+
+    Weather data and grape-growing, 26.
+
+    _White July_, 402.
+
+    White Nice, for forcing, 198.
+
+    White Frontignan, 416.
+
+    Wilder, 444.
+
+    _Wilmington Red_, 448.
+
+    Winchell, 445.
+
+    Windbreaks in grape-growing, 25, 27.
+
+    Wine, aging, 253.
+      crushing grapes for, 252.
+      fermentation of, 253.
+      fining, 253.
+      kinds of, 251.
+      racking, 253.
+      yeasts for, 253.
+
+    Wine-grapes, prices paid for, 255.
+
+    Wine-making, 252.
+
+    Wire for trellises, 121.
+
+    Wire grafting, 54.
+
+    _Winter Grape_, 314, 317, 318.
+
+    Winter-killing, 26.
+      precautions against, 295.
+
+    Winter protection of grapes, 187, 294.
+      cost of, 296.
+
+    Winter-pruning, 114.
+
+    Woodruff, 446.
+
+    _Woodward_, 391.
+
+    Worden, 446.
+
+    _Worthington_, 15, 350.
+
+    Wyoming, 448.
+
+    _Wyoming Red_, 448.
+
+
+    Yields in fertilizer experiments, 100, 101.
+
+    Y-trunk Kniffin training, 136.
+
+
+
+
+Printed in the United States of America.
+
+
+
+
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+                       Manual of Tree Diseases
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+                Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology
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+                  Manual of Vegetable-Garden Insects
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+                       BY CYRUS RICHARD CROSBY
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+ Of the New York State College of Agriculture, at Cornell University
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+The life-history and habits of each insect are given, its injuries
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+                               CONTENTS
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+     VIII. Eggplant Insects.
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+      Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture
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+     VIII. Inter-planted Crops.
+       IX. Fertilizers for Peach Orchards.
+        X. Pruning Peach Trees.
+       XI. Insect and Disease Control.
+      XII. Thinning the Fruit.
+     XIII. Irrigating Peaches.
+      XIV. A Consideration of Adverse Temperatures.
+       XV. Annual Cost Factors in Growing Peaches.
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+End of Project Gutenberg's Manual of American Grape-Growing, by U. P. Hedrick
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